title: "Fidel Edwards" content: was against Zimbabwe at Harare, taking career-best figures of 6/22 off 7 overs; as of January 2015, he is the only player to have taken 6 wickets on their ODI debut and he is only the second player after Tony Dodemaide to have taken 5 wicket hauls in both his test and ODI debuts. During the tour he picked up an injury to his shins, which Edwards felt badly affected his bowling in South Africa. In four Tests against South Africa, he managed eight wickets while conceding 648 runs. In the June 2009 ICC World Twenty20, Edwards suffered a back


title: "Chalmers Students' Union" content: Kasper Salin Prize that year. In 1955, a student at the university, Rickard Wilson, held a fake disputation on fatilary calculus, witnessed by many of the larger newspapers in Sweden, fooling many of the journalists, who the day after produced a number of serious articles on the disputation. Three years later, in 1958, a committee at the union, Chalmersspexet, donated 64 öre–corresponding to around 4.5 USD of today–to the Swedish state to "even out the national debt to a whole number of kronor". In 1968, when the Stockholm University Student Union occupied their union building, ChS decided to occupy the


title: "Inner Plane" content: Plane and Prime Material Plane were also counted among their number. In "Dragon" #27 (July, 1979), Jeff Swycaffer suggested a far more expansive elemental scheme in which twelve new "elements" were proposed. The elements were envisioned here as a complex polyhedron with 18 square sides and 8 triangular ones; a small rhombicuboctahedron. Four of the square sides represented Fire, Air, Earth, and Water. Between these elements were four qualities: Cold (between Air and Water), Moist (between Water and Earth), Hot (between Earth and Fire), and Dry (between Fire and Air). These elements and qualities formed an "equator" around the polyhedron,


title: "Anzac-class frigate" content: Ship concept, and the need to replace the warships dovetailed with the need to improve relations with Australia. On 6 March 1987, a Memorandum of Understanding was signed by the two nations and RNZN representatives were invited to collaborate on the project. To recognise their involvement, the project was renamed the "Anzac" Ship Project, taking the name from the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps of World War I. The New Zealanders' involvement was structured to allow their involvement in the selection of the design and shipyard and explore options for New Zealand industry involvement: when the time came to


title: "Basking shark" content: Basking shark The basking shark ("Cetorhinus maximus") is the second-largest living shark, after the whale shark, and one of three plankton-eating shark species, along with the whale shark and megamouth shark. Adults typically reach in length. They are usually greyish-brown, with mottled skin. The caudal fin has a strong lateral keel and a crescent shape. The basking shark is a cosmopolitan migratory species, found in all the world's temperate oceans. A slow-moving filter feeder, its common name derives from its habit of feeding at the surface, appearing to be basking in the warmer water there. It has anatomical adaptations for


title: "Basking shark" content: filter-feeding, such as a greatly enlarged mouth and highly developed gill rakers. Its snout is conical and the gill slits extend around the top and bottom of its head. The gill rakers, dark and bristle-like, are used to catch plankton as water filters through the mouth and over the gills. The teeth are numerous and very small, and often number 100 per row. The teeth have a single conical cusp, are curved backwards, and are the same on both the upper and lower jaws. This species has the smallest weight-for-weight brain size of any shark, reflecting its relatively passive lifestyle.


title: "Basking shark" content: Basking sharks have been shown from satellite tracking to overwinter in both continental shelf (less than ) and deeper waters. They may be found in either small shoals or alone. Despite their large size and threatening appearance, basking sharks are not aggressive and are harmless to humans. The basking shark has long been a commercially important fish, as a source of food, shark fin, animal feed, and shark liver oil. Overexploitation has reduced its populations to the point where some have disappeared and others need protection. The basking shark is the only member of the family Cetorhinidae, part of the


title: "Basking shark" content: mackerel shark order Lamniformes. Gunnerus was the first to describe and name the species "Cetorhinus maximus" from a specimen found in Norway. The genus name "Cetorhinus" comes from the Greek "ketos" which means marine monster or whale and "rhinos" meaning nose; the species name "maximus" is from Latin and means "greatest". In the following centuries, more attempts at naming included: "Squalus isodus", in 1819 by Italian Zoologist Saverio Macri (1754–1848); "Squalus elephas", by Lesueur in 1822; "Squalus rashleighanus", by Couch in 1838; "Squalus cetaceus", by Gronow in 1854; "Cetorhinus blainvillei" by the Portuguese Biologist Felix Antonio De Brio Capello (1828–1879)


title: "Basking shark" content: in 1869; "Selachus pennantii", by Cornish in 1885; "Cetorhinus maximus infanuncula", by the Dutch Zoologists Antonius Boudewijn Deinse (1885–1965) and Marcus Jan Adriani (1929–1995) in 1953; and finally "Cetorhinus maximus normani", by Siccardi in 1961. Other names include bone shark, elephant shark, hoe-mother (sometimes contracted to "homer"), sail-fish, and sun-fish. The basking shark is a coastal-pelagic shark found worldwide in boreal to warm-temperate waters around the continental shelves, and entering into brackish waters on occasion. It prefers temperatures, but has been confirmed to cross the much-warmer waters at the equator. It is often seen close to land, including bays with


title: "Basking shark" content: narrow openings. The shark follows plankton concentrations in the water column, so is often visible at the surface. It characteristically migrates with the seasons. The basking shark is found from the surface down to at least . The largest accurately measured specimen was trapped in a herring net in the Bay of Fundy, Canada, in 1851. Its total length was , and it weighed an estimated . Dubious reports from Norway mention three basking sharks over , the largest at , during 1884 to 1905, these are dubious because few anywhere near that size have been caught in the area


title: "Basking shark" content: since. On average, the adult basking shark reaches a length of and weighs about . Some specimens still surpass , but after years of large-scale fishing, specimens of this size have become rare. They possess the typical shark lamniform body plan and have been mistaken for great white sharks. The two species can be easily distinguished by the basking shark's cavernous jaw, up to in width, longer and more obvious gill slits that nearly encircle the head and are accompanied by well-developed gill rakers, smaller eyes, much larger overall size and smaller average girth. Great whites possess large, dagger-like teeth;


title: "Basking shark" content: basking shark teeth are much smaller and hooked; only the first three or four rows of the upper jaw and six or seven rows of the lower jaw function. In behaviour, the great white is an active predator of large animals and not a filter feeder. Other distinctive characteristics include a strongly keeled caudal peduncle, highly textured skin covered in placoid scales and a mucus layer, a pointed snout—distinctly hooked in younger specimens—and a lunate caudal fin. In large individuals, the dorsal fin may flop to one side when above the surface. Colouration is highly variable (and likely dependent on


title: "Basking shark" content: observation conditions and the individual's condition): commonly, the colouring is dark brown to black or blue dorsally, fading to a dull white ventrally. The sharks are often noticeably scarred, possibly through encounters with lampreys or cookiecutter sharks. The basking shark's liver, which may account for 25% of its body weight, runs the entire length of the abdominal cavity and is thought to play a role in buoyancy regulation and long-term energy storage. Basking sharks do not hibernate, and are active year-round. In winter, basking sharks often move to deeper depths, even down to and have been tracked making vertical movements


title: "Basking shark" content: consistent with feeding on overwintering zooplankton. They are slow-moving sharks (feeding at about ) and do not evade approaching boats (unlike great white sharks). They are not attracted to chum. Though the basking shark is large and slow, it can breach, jumping entirely out of the water. This behaviour could be an attempt to dislodge parasites or commensals. Such interpretations are speculative, however, and difficult to verify; breaching in large marine animals such as whales and sharks might equally well be intraspecific threat displays of size and strength. Argos system satellite tagging of 20 basking sharks in 2003 confirmed basking


title: "Basking shark" content: sharks move thousands of kilometres during the summer and winter, seeking the richest zooplankton patches, often along ocean fronts. They shed and renew their gill rakers in an ongoing process, rather than over one short period. A 2009 study tagged 25 sharks off the coast of Cape Cod, Massachusetts, and indicated at least some migrate south in the winter. Remaining at depths between for many weeks, the tagged sharks crossed the equator to reach Brazil. One individual spent a month near the mouth of the Amazon River. They may undertake this journey to aid reproduction. On 23 June 2015, a


title: "Basking shark" content: , basking shark was caught accidentally by a fishing trawler in the Bass strait near Portland, Victoria, in southeast Australia, the first basking shark caught in the region since the 1930s, and only the third reported in the region in 160 years. The whole shark was donated to the Victoria Museum for research, instead of the fins being sold for use in shark fin soup. While basking sharks are not infrequently seen in the Mediterranean Sea and records exist in the Dardanelles Strait, it is unclear whether they historically reached into deeper basins of Sea of Marmara, Black Sea and


title: "Basking shark" content: Azov Sea. Basking sharks are usually solitary but during summer months in particular they aggregate in dense patches of zooplankton where they engage in social behaviour. They can form sex-segregated shoals, usually in small numbers (three or four), but reportedly up to 100 individuals. Small schools in the Bay of Fundy and the Hebrides have been seen swimming nose to tail in circles; their social behavior in summer months has been studied and is thought to represent courtship. Basking sharks have few predators. White sharks have been reported to scavenge on the remains of these sharks. Killer whales have been


title: "Basking shark" content: observed feeding on basking sharks off California and New Zealand. Lampreys are often seen attached to them, although they are unlikely to be able to cut through the shark's thick skin. The basking shark is a ram feeder, filtering zooplankton, very small fish, and invertebrates from the water with its gill rakers by swimming forwards with their mouths open. A basking shark has been calculated to filter up to of water per hour swimming at an observed speed of . Basking sharks are not indiscriminate feeders on zooplankton. Samples taken in the presence of feeding individuals recorded zooplankton densities 75%


title: "Basking shark" content: higher compared to adjacent non-feeding areas. Basking sharks feed preferentially in zooplankton patches dominated by small planktonic crustaceans called calanoid copepods (on average 1,700 individuals per cubic metre of water). Basking sharks sometimes congregate in groups of up to 1,400 spotted along the northeastern U.S. Samples taken near feeding sharks contained 2.5 times as many "Calanus helgolandicus" individuals per cubic metre, which were also found to be 50% longer. Unlike the megamouth shark and whale shark, the basking shark relies only on the water it pushes through its gills by swimming; the megamouth shark and whale shark can suck or


title: "Basking shark" content: pump water through their gills. Basking sharks are ovoviviparous: the developing embryos first rely on a yolk sac, with no placental connection. Their seemingly useless teeth may play a role before birth in helping them feed on the mother's unfertilized ova (a behaviour known as oophagy). In females, only the right ovary appears to function, and it is currently unknown why only one of the organs seems to function. Gestation is thought to span over a year (perhaps two to three years), with a small, though unknown, number of young born fully developed at . Only one pregnant female is


title: "Basking shark" content: known to have been caught; she was carrying six unborn young. Mating is thought to occur in early summer and birthing in late summer, following the female's movement into shallow waters. The age of maturity is thought to be between the ages of six and 13 and at a length of . Breeding frequency is thought to be two to four years. The exact lifespan of the basking shark is unknown, but experts estimate to be about 50 years. Aside from direct catches, by-catches in trawl nets have been one of several threats to basking sharks. In New Zealand, basking


title: "Basking shark" content: sharks had been abundant historically; however, after the mass by-catches recorded in 1990s and 2000s, confirmations of the species became very scarce. Management plans have been declared to promote effective conservations. The eastern north Pacific Ocean population is a U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service species of concern, one of those species about which the U.S. Government's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration has some concerns regarding status and threats, but for which insufficient information is available to indicate a need to list the species under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA). The IUCN Red List indicates this as a vulnerable species.


title: "Basking shark" content: The endangered aspect of this shark was publicised in 2005 with a postage stamp issued by Guernsey Post. Historically, the basking shark has been a staple of fisheries because of its slow swimming speed, placid nature, and previously abundant numbers. Commercially, it was put to many uses: the flesh for food and fishmeal, the hide for leather, and its large liver (which has a high squalene content) for oil. It is currently fished mainly for its fins (for shark fin soup). Parts (such as cartilage) are also used in traditional Chinese medicine and as an aphrodisiac in Japan, further adding


title: "Basking shark" content: to demand. As a result of rapidly declining numbers, the basking shark has been protected in some territorial waters and trade in its products is restricted in many countries under CITES. Among others, it is fully protected in the United Kingdom and the Atlantic and Mexican Gulf regions of the United States. Since 2008, it has been illegal to fish for, or retain if accidentally caught, basking sharks in waters of the European Union. It is partially protected in Norway and New Zealand, as targeted commercial fishing is illegal, but accidental bycatch can be used (in Norway any basking shark


title: "Basking shark" content: caught as bycatch and still alive must be released). As of March 2010, it was also listed under Annex I of the CMS Migratory Sharks Memorandum of Understanding. Once considered a nuisance along the Canadian Pacific coast, basking sharks were the target of a government eradication programme from 1945 to 1970. , efforts were under way to determine whether any sharks still lived in the area and monitor their potential recovery. It is tolerant of boats and divers approaching it, and may even circle divers, making it an important draw for dive tourism in areas where it is common. On


title: "Basking shark" content: several occasions, "globster" corpses initially identified by non-scientists as a sea serpents or plesiosaurs have later been identified as likely to be the decomposing carcasses of basking sharks, as in the Stronsay Beast and the "Zuiyo-maru" cases. Basking shark The basking shark ("Cetorhinus maximus") is the second-largest living shark, after the whale shark, and one of three plankton-eating shark species, along with the whale shark and megamouth shark. Adults typically reach in length. They are usually greyish-brown, with mottled skin. The caudal fin has a strong lateral keel and a crescent shape. The basking shark is a cosmopolitan migratory species,


title: "Culture of Cambodia" content: back of the mokot hair is let loose, cascading down the back. Other mokots have a few accessories such as ear pieces that would sit above the ear and help hold the mokot in place while a comb at the back is just an added accessory. Flowers are also worn on the mokot in the same style, but the hanging garlands of flowers are worn on the left and the bouquet is worn on the right. The best example of these royal clothes is illustrated by Khmer classical dance costumes, which are an adaptation of the beautiful royalty costume. Khmer


title: "Northern fur seal" content: Northern fur seal The northern fur seal ("Callorhinus ursinus") is an eared seal found along the north Pacific Ocean, the Bering Sea, and the Sea of Okhotsk. It is the largest member of the fur seal subfamily (Arctocephalinae) and the only living species in the genus Callorhinus. A single fossil species, "Callorhinus gilmorei", is known from the Pliocene of Japan and western North America. Northern fur seals have extreme sexual dimorphism, with males being 30–40% longer and more than 4.5 times heavier than adult females. The head is foreshortened in both sexes because of the very short, down-curved muzzle, and


title: "Northern fur seal" content: small nose, which extends slightly beyond the mouth in females and moderately in males. The pelage is thick and luxuriant, with a dense underfur in a creamy color. The underfur is obscured by the longer guard hairs, although it is partially visible when the animals are wet. Features of both fore and hind flippers are unique and diagnostic of the species. Fur is absent on the top of the fore flippers and an abrupt "clean line" is seen across the wrist where the fur ends. The hind flippers are proportionately the longest in any otariid because of extremely long, cartilaginous


title: "Northern fur seal" content: extensions on all of the toes. Small claws are on digits 2–4, well back from the flap-like end of each digit. The ear pinnae are long and conspicuous, and naked of dark fur at the tips in older animals. The mystacial vibrissae can be very long, and regularly extend beyond the ears. Adults have all white vibrissae, juveniles and subadults have a mixture of white and black vibrissae, including some that have dark bases and white ends, and pups and yearlings have all black vibrissae. The eyes are proportionately large and conspicuous, especially on females, subadults, and juveniles. Adult males


title: "Northern fur seal" content: are stocky in build, and have enlarged (thick and wide) necks. A mane of coarse, longer guard hairs extends from the lower neck to the shoulders. and covers the nape, neck, chest, and upper back. While the skulls of adult males are large and robust for their overall size, their heads appear short because of the combination of a short muzzle, and the backs of the head behind the ear pinnae being obscured by the enlarged necks. Adult males have abrupt foreheads formed by the elevation of the crown from development of the sagittal crests, and thicker fur of the


title: "Northern fur seal" content: mane on the top of their heads. Canine teeth are much longer and have a greater diameter in adult males than those found on adult females, and this relationship holds to a lesser extent at all ages. Adult females, subadults, and juveniles are moderate in build. Distinguishing the sexes is difficult until about age five. The body is modest in size and the neck, chest, and shoulders are sized in proportion with the torso. Adult females and subadults have more complex and variable coloration than adult males. They are dark silver-gray to charcoal above. The flanks, chest, sides, and underside


title: "Northern fur seal" content: of the neck, often forming a chevron pattern in this area, are cream to tan with rusty tones. Variable cream to rust-colored areas are on the sides and top of the muzzle, chin, and as a "brush stroke" running backwards under the eye. In contrast, adult males are medium gray to black, or reddish to dark brown all over. Their manes can have variable amounts of silver-gray or yellowish tinting on the guard hairs. Pups are blackish at birth, with variable oval areas of buff on the sides, in the axillary area, and on the chin and sides of the


title: "Northern fur seal" content: muzzle. After three to four months, pups molt to the color of adult females and subadults. Males can be as large as 2.1 m and 270 kg. Females can be up to 1.5 m and weigh 50 kg or more. Newborns weigh 5.4–6 kg, and are 60–65 cm long. The teeth are haplodont, i.e. sharp, conical and mostly single-rooted, as is common with carnivorous marine mammals adapted to tearing fish flesh. As with most caniforms, the upper canines are prominent. The dental formula of the adult is Like other otariids, northern fur seals are built for efficient terrestrial locomotion. Their


title: "Northern fur seal" content: hind limbs are in a plantigrade stance and are able to rotate under the body for quadrupedal locomotion and support. When swimming, there are two different types of movement: locomotion and diving. These seals swim primarily with forelimb propulsion due to their physiology. They have flexible joints between vertebrae for better maneuverability in the water as well as “greater muscular leverage” for pectoral strokes. Stroke patterns are different for different dive types and locomotion, and stroke rates vary for individuals since there’s a relationship between maximum stroke rate and body size. The northern fur seal is found in the north


title: "Northern fur seal" content: Pacific – its southernmost reach is a line that runs roughly from the southern tip of Japan to the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula, the Sea of Okhotsk, and the Bering Sea. An estimated 1.1 million northern fur seals occur across the range, of which roughly half breed on the Pribilof Islands in the east Bering Sea. Another 200–250 thousand breed on the Commander Islands in the west Bering Sea, some 100,000 breed on Tyuleniy Island off the coast of Sakhalin in the southwest Sea of Okhotsk, and another 60–70 thousand in the central Kuril Islands in Russia.


title: "Northern fur seal" content: Smaller rookeries (around 5,000 animals) are found on Bogoslof Island in the Aleutian Chain, San Miguel Island in the Channel Island group and South Farallon Island off the coast of California. Recent evidence from stable isotope analysis of Holocene fur seal bone collagen (δC and δN) indicates that before the maritime fur trade, it was more common for these animals to breed at local rookeries in British Columbia, California, and likely along much of the northwest coast of North America. During the winter, northern fur seals display a net movement southward, with animals from Russian rookeries regularly entering Japanese and


title: "Northern fur seal" content: Korean waters in the Sea of Japan and Alaskan animals moving along the central and eastern Pacific to British Columbia, Canada and as far south as Baja California. The northern fur seal's range overlaps almost exactly with that of Steller sea lions; occasional cohabitation occurs at reproductive rookeries, notably in the Kurils, the Commander Islands, and Tyulen'i Islands. The only other fur seal found in the Northern Hemisphere is the Guadalupe fur seal which overlaps slightly with the northern fur seal's range in California. Fur seals are opportunistic feeders, primarily feeding on pelagic fish and squid depending on local availability.


title: "Northern fur seal" content: Identified fish prey include hake, herring, lantern fish, capelin, pollock, and mackerel. Their feeding behavior is primarily solitary. Northern fur seals are preyed upon primarily by sharks and killer whales. Occasionally, very young animals are eaten by Steller sea lions. Occasional predation on live pups by Arctic foxes has also been observed. Due to very high densities of pups on reproductive rookeries and the early age at which mothers begin their foraging trips, mortality can be relatively high. Consequently, pup carcasses are important in enriching the diet of many scavengers, in particular gulls and Arctic foxes. Seals enter breeding rookeries


title: "Northern fur seal" content: in May. Generally, older males (10 years and older) return first and compete for prime breeding spots on the rookeries. They remain on the rookery, fasting throughout the duration of the breeding season. The females come somewhat later, and give birth shortly thereafter. Like all other otariids, northern fur seals are polygynous, with some males breeding with up to 50 females in a single breeding season. Unlike Steller sea lions, with which they share habitat and some breeding sites, northern fur seals are possessive of individual females in their harem, often aggressively competing with neighboring males for females. Deaths of


title: "Northern fur seal" content: females as a consequence of these conflicts have been recorded, though the males themselves are rarely seriously injured. Young males unable to acquire and maintain a territory of a harem typically aggregate in neighboring "haulouts", occasionally making incursions into the reproductive sections of the rookery in an attempt to displace an older male. After remaining with their pups for the first eight to ten days of their lives, females begin foraging trips lasting up to a week. These trips last for about four months before weaning, which happens abruptly, typically in October. Most of the animals on a rookery enter


title: "Northern fur seal" content: the water and disperse towards the end of November, typically migrating southward. Breeding site fidelity is generally high for fur seal females, though young males might disperse to other existing rookeries, or occasionally find new haulouts. Peak mating occurs somewhat later than peak birthing from late June to late July. As with many other otariids, the fertilized egg undergoes delayed implantation: after the blastocyst stage occurs, development halts and implantantion occurs four months after fertilization. In total, gestation lasts around a year, such that the pups born in a given summer are the product of the previous year's breeding cycle.


title: "Northern fur seal" content: Recently, concern about the status of fur seal populations has increased, particularly in the Pribilof Islands, where pup production has decreased about 50% since the 1970s, with a continuing drop of about 6–7% per year. This has caused them to be listed as "vulnerable" under the U.S. Endangered Species Act, and has led to an intensified research program into their behavioral and foraging ecology. Possible causes are increased predation by killer whales, competition with fisheries, and climate change effects, but to date, no scientific consensus has been reached. The IUCN (2008) lists the species as globally threatened under the category


title: "Northern fur seal" content: "vulnerable". Northern fur seals have been a staple food of native northeast Asian and Alaska Native peoples for thousands of years. The arrival of Europeans to Kamchatka and Alaska in the 17th and 18th centuries, first from Russia and later from North America, was followed by a highly extractive commercial fur trade. The commercial fur trade was accelerated in 1786, when Gavriil Pribylov discovered St. George Island, a key rookery of the seals. An estimated 2.5 million seals were killed from 1786 to 1867. This trade led to a decline in fur seal numbers. Restrictions were first placed on fur


title: "Northern fur seal" content: seal harvest on the Pribilof Islands by the Russians in 1834. Shortly after the United States purchased Alaska from Russia in 1867, the U.S. Treasury was authorized to lease sealing privileges on the Pribilofs, which were granted somewhat liberally to the Alaska Commercial Company. From 1870 to 1909, pelagic sealing proceeded to take a significant toll on the fur seal population, such that the Pribilof population, historically numbering on the order of millions of individuals, reached a low of 216,000 animals in 1912. Significant harvest was more or less arrested with the signing of the North Pacific Fur Seal Convention


title: "Northern fur seal" content: of 1911 by Great Britain (on behalf of Canada), Japan, Russia, and the United States. The Convention of 1911 remained in force until the onset of hostilities among the signatories during World War II, and is also notable as the first international treaty to address the conservation of wildlife. A successive convention was signed in 1957 and amended by a protocol in 1963. "The international convention was put into effect domestically by the Fur Seal Act of 1966 (Public Law 89-702)", said an Interior Department review of the history. Currently, a subsistence hunt by the residents of St. Paul Island


title: "Northern fur seal" content: and an insignificant harvest in Russia are allowed. Northern fur seal The northern fur seal ("Callorhinus ursinus") is an eared seal found along the north Pacific Ocean, the Bering Sea, and the Sea of Okhotsk. It is the largest member of the fur seal subfamily (Arctocephalinae) and the only living species in the genus Callorhinus. A single fossil species, "Callorhinus gilmorei", is known from the Pliocene of Japan and western North America. Northern fur seals have extreme sexual dimorphism, with males being 30–40% longer and more than 4.5 times heavier than adult females. The head is foreshortened in both sexes


title: "Rose (Doctor Who episode)" content: underwent steam cleaning because there were such high health and safety concerns. They were only permitted to film for three days, which required that some of the sequence be cut: originally, there was to be another Auton Mickey involved. Filming took place at the paper mill from 23 to 25 August. The scene where Rose joins the Doctor is at St David's Market, filmed on 26 August. The production team sought to film the Cardiff scenes in secrecy, but the day before they began the Cardiff Council issued a press release naming the streets where they would be filming. Studio


title: "Riparian water rights" content: a point of navigability; the right to erect structures such as docks, piers, and boat lifts; the right to use the water for domestic purposes; the right to accretions caused by water level fluctuations; the right to exclusive use if the waterbody is non-navigable. Riparian rights also depend upon "reasonable use" as it relates to other riparian owners to ensure that the rights of one riparian owner are weighed fairly and equitably with the rights of adjacent riparian owners. The Environment Agency lists the riparian rights and duties in England and Wales. The rights include ownership of the land up


title: Radicchio content: Radicchio Radicchio ( or ; ) is a perennial cultivated form of leaf chicory ("Cichorium intybus", Asteraceae) sometimes known as Italian chicory because it is commonly used in Italian cuisine. It is grown as a leaf vegetable and usually has white-veined red leaves. Radicchio has a bitter and spicy taste, which mellows if it is grilled or roasted. Pliny the Elder claimed that radicchio was useful as a blood purifier and an aid for insomniacs in "Naturalis Historia". Radicchio contains intybin, a sedative/analgesic, as well as a type of flavonoid called anthocyanin, which is used in making dye-sensitized solar cells.


title: Radicchio content: Modern cultivation of the plant began in the fifteenth century in the Veneto, Friuli Venezia Giulia and Trentino regions of Italy, but the deep-red radicchio of today was engineered in 1860 by Belgian agronomist Francesco Van den Borre, who used a technique called "imbianchimento" (whitening), "preforcing", or blanching to create the dark red, white-veined leaves. The plants are taken from the soil and placed in water in darkened sheds, where lack of light and ensuing inhibition of chlorophyll production cause the plants to lose their green pigmentation. The varieties of radicchio are named after the Italian regions where they originate:


title: Radicchio content: the most widely available variety in the United States is radicchio di Chioggia, which is maroon, round, and about the size of a grapefruit. Radicchio rosso di Treviso resembles a large red Belgian endive. Other varieties include 'Tardivo', and the white-colored radicchio di Castelfranco, both of which resemble flowers and are only available in the winter months, as well as 'Gorizia' (also known as "Rosa di Gorizia"), 'Trieste' (Cicoria zuccherina or Biondissima) and 'Witloof/Bruxelles' (also known as Belgian endive, and "chicon/endive" in French). Radicchio farmers of the Veneto have sought to have Protected Geographical Status applied to the names of


title: Radicchio content: some radicchio varieties including 'Tardivo'. In Italian cuisine, it is usually eaten grilled in olive oil, or mixed into dishes such as risotto. It can also be served with pasta, or be used in strudel, as a poultry stuffing, or as an ingredient for a tapenade. As with all chicories, its roots, after roasting and grinding, can be used as a coffee substitute or coffee additive. According to folklore, long-term use of chicory as a coffee substitute may damage human retinal tissue, with dimming of vision over time and other long-term effects. Modern scientific literature contains little or no evidence


title: Radicchio content: to support or refute this claim. Root chicory contains volatile oils similar to those found in plants in the related genus "Tanacetum" which includes Tansy, and is likewise effective in eliminating intestinal worms. All parts of the plant contain these volatile oils, with most of the toxic components concentrated in the plant's root. Studies indicate that ingestion of chicory by farm animals results in reduction of worm burdens, which has prompted its widespread use as a forage supplement. There are only a few major companies active in research, development and production of chicory varieties and selections. Most are in New


title: Radicchio content: Zealand. Radicchio is easy to grow but performs best in spring (USDA Zone 8 and above) and fall (everywhere) gardens. It prefers more frequent but not deep watering, the amount of water varying based on soil type. Infrequent watering will lead to a more bitter tasting leaf. However, for fall crops the flavor is changed predominantly by the onset of cold weather (the colder, the mellower), which also initiates the heading and reddening process in traditional varieties. There are newer, self-heading varieties whose taste is not yet as good as a traditional variety which has matured through several frosts or


title: Radicchio content: freezes (e.g., Alouette). Radicchio matures in approximately three months. However, it can be made to stand through a UK or West European winter, and the head will regenerate if cut off carefully above ground level, so long as the plant is protected against severe frost. A light-excluding cover, e.g. an inverted pot, may be used during the latter phases of growth to produce leaves with a more pronounced colour contrast, simultaneously protecting against frost and cold winds. Traditionally in the UK, the first cutting of all chicory heads was simply thrown away, and the tender, forced, second head was for


title: Radicchio content: the table. However, improved varieties of radicchio, e.g. Rosso di Verona, and generally milder winters allow the West European cultivator to harvest two or more crops from a single planting. Notes Sources Radicchio Radicchio ( or ; ) is a perennial cultivated form of leaf chicory ("Cichorium intybus", Asteraceae) sometimes known as Italian chicory because it is commonly used in Italian cuisine. It is grown as a leaf vegetable and usually has white-veined red leaves. Radicchio has a bitter and spicy taste, which mellows if it is grilled or roasted. Pliny the Elder claimed that radicchio was useful as a


title: "Liza Weil" content: acted in productions both off-Broadway and in Philadelphia's theatrical community before pursuing her film and television career. A 1995 graduate of North Penn High School, she graduated in the summer rather than the regular term due to her acting commitments. Weil continues to be active in the Los Angeles theatrical community during hiatuses, is a regular performer at the Ojai Playwrights Conference in early August and radio dramas with L.A. Theatre Works, and still occasionally performs in live theater in Philadelphia and New York City. She has acted with every member of her family; in 2004, she headlined with her


title: "Pukerua Bay" content: and Pukerua in the east) were sold to settlers from Europe for farming in the late 19th century. Charles Gray was the first resident to subdivide and sell residential sections in Pukerua Bay, in the early 20th century. Pukerua Bay's development history is curious because the railway went through it (1886) for years before there was good road access (1940), so it grew at first on the waterfront as a weekend destination. The original railway station was named "Pukerua" until it was changed briefly to Waimapihi in the 1920s and then to "Pukerua "Bay"" to avoid confusion with "Pukerau" in


title: "Northgate, Seattle" content: Northgate, Seattle Northgate is a neighborhood in north Seattle, Washington, named for and surrounding Northgate Mall, the first covered mall in the United States. Its east-west principal arterials are NE Northgate Way and 130th Street, and its north-south principal arterials are Roosevelt Way NE and Aurora Avenue N (SR 99). Minor arterials are College Way-Meridian Avenue N, 1st, 5th, and 15th avenues NE. Interstate 5 runs through the district. Besides the eponymous mall, the most characteristic distinctions of the area are North Seattle College (NSC), the south fork of the Thornton Creek watershed, and the Sheikh Abdul Kadir Idriss Mosque,


title: "Alkaline phosphatase" content: obstructed. Also, ALP increases if there is active bone formation occurring, as ALP is a byproduct of osteoblast activity (such as the case in Paget's disease of bone). Levels are also elevated in people with untreated coeliac disease. Lowered levels of ALP are less common than elevated levels. The source of elevated ALP levels can be deduced by obtaining serum levels of gamma glutamyltransferase (GGT). Concomitant increases of ALP with GGT should raise the suspicion of hepatobiliary disease. Some diseases do not affect the levels of alkaline phosphatase, for example, hepatitis C. A high level of this enzyme does not


title: "Sonatine bureaucratique" content: a few months after the succès de scandale of "Parade", is not so surprising either: Satie was on friendly terms with Stravinsky since 1911, and after this composer had had his own "succès de scandale" with "The Rite of Spring" in 1913 (premiered with the same Ballets Russes), he also moved towards neoclassicism – although for Stravinsky there was no distinct neoclassical composition published before Satie's sonatina. The partition is full of funny remarks, for example, the final movement being called "Vivache", instead of the original Vivace ("vache" being French for "cow"). Satie directs at least part of the fun


title: Shinhwa content: New," Shinhwa embarked on a tour, holding a Korea-China-Japan summer camp called Shinhwa Summer Story 2004. The camp was dedicated entirely for their non-Korean fans. Hundreds of non-Korean fans flew to Korea from all over Asia for the opportunity to spend a few days with the band. They also toured in Japan and held a concert, selling 13,000 tickets within a week. Although, Shinhwa was mostly on hiatus throughout 2005, they released two popular singles, "How Do I Say" and "Hey Dude!" and held the Tropical Summer Story Festival concert. For a majority of 2005, Shinhwa hosted a reality show


title: "U.S. Route 411" content: County. US 411 continues through countryside before entering the city of Madisonville and becomes undivided for a short distance before having an intersection with its former alignment, which travels through downtown (Old US Highway 411), before becoming divided and having a partial cloverleaf interchange with SR 68 (New Highway 68), which provides access to Sweetwater, The Lost Sea, Tellico Plains, Cherohala Skyway and the Cherokee National Forest, before going along a bypass of downtown as a divided highway passing through a major business district. US 411 then has an grade-separated interchange with its former alignment (Warren Street) before becoming undivided


title: "U.S. Route 431" content: is Gunter Avenue. At the northern edge of Guntersville, the split streets combine and the joint route crosses the Tennessee River via the George S. Houston Bridge, before US 431 splits off and again heads in a northwest direction. At Huntsville, US 431 passes over Monte Sano Mountain and through Huntsville's medical district before reaching Memorial Parkway; this portion of the route forms a portion of Governors Drive. At the Parkway, the route joins with U.S. Route 231; the combined routes then travel northward to the Tennessee state line. A few miles north of the state line, in Fayetteville, US


title: "Ernest Cox" content: Ernest Cox Ernest Frank Guelph Cox (1883–1959) was an English engineer, with knowledge in electrical and mechanical engineering, which he notably deployed in marine salvage. Between 1924 and 1931 his Cox & Danks Shipbreaking Co. successfully raised 35 ships of the German Imperial Navy High Seas Fleet that had been scuttled at Gutter Sound, Scapa Flow, in 1919. A tough but caring employer, after a series of fatalities and accidents to his employees, Cox sold his marine salvaging business to the Alloa Shipbreaking Company in 1932. He remained a consultant to the British Admiralty throughout his remaining career, and retired


title: "U.S. Route 150" content: Highlands district of Louisville and past the historic Farmington plantation at the interchange with the Watterson Expressway (I-264). U.S. routes 150 and 31E separate at Bardstown near the Martha Layne Collins Blue Grass Parkway. U.S. 150 then continues southeast, around the city of Danville before terminating at Mount Vernon. U.S. Route 168 was created in 1926 from Louisville to Mount Vernon, Kentucky, overlapping US 68 between Bardstown and Perryville. In 1934, US 150 absorbed US 168. Illinois Route 39 ran from Bloomington to Champaign on the current routing of U.S. 150. U.S. Route 150 Business (US 150 Bus.) is a


title: "Randall Flagg" content: Flagg first appeared in "The Stand" as a demonic figure who wreaks havoc after a plague kills most of the population. He makes his second appearance in "The Eyes of the Dragon" as an evil wizard trying to plunge the fictional medieval city of Delain into chaos. Flagg was a primary antagonist in King's epic series, "The Dark Tower", who tries to keep protagonist Roland Deschain from reaching the Tower—the linchpin of existence—so he can claim it for himself and become a god. "The Dark Tower" expanded on Flagg's background and motivation, linking his previous appearances. Aside from King's novels,


title: "Malatestiana Library" content: Malatestiana Library The Malatestiana Library (), also known as the Malatesta Novello Library, is a public library in the city of Cesena in northern Italy. Purpose-built from 1447 to 1452 and opened in 1454, and named after the local aristocrat Malatesta Novello, it is significant for being the first civic library in Europe, i.e. belonging to the commune rather than the church or a noble family, and open to the general public. The library was inscribed in UNESCO's Memory of the World Register in 2005. The building and creation of the library was commissioned by the Lord of Cesena, Malatesta


title: "Malatestiana Library" content: Novello. Construction was directed by Matteo Nuti from Fano (a pupil of Leon Battista Alberti) and lasted from 1447 to 1452. At Novello's direction, the books were owned by the commune of Cesena, not the monastery or the family. Because of this governing structure, the collection was not dispersed like many monastic libraries. In 2005 UNESCO included the Library in the Memory of the World Programme Register. The Malatestiana Library is the only one in the world of the so-called humanistic-conventual type, which blends humanistic principles with arhictecture otherwise reserved for religious buildings, and has preserved its structure, fittings and


title: "Malatestiana Library" content: codexes since its opening more than 550 years ago. The main doorway was the work of sculptor Agostino di Duccio (1418–1481). The walnut door at the main entrance dates back to 1454 and was carved by the artist Cristoforo from San Giovanni in Persiceto. Inside, the library features geometric design, typical of the early Italian Renaissance style. The aula has the layout of a basilica (reflecting the importance of the library as a "temple of culture"), with three naves divided by ten rows of white columns made from local stone; there are eleven bays in each aisle, which are pole


title: "Malatestiana Library" content: vaulted. The central nave is barrel vaulted and ends with a rose under which is the gravestone of Malatesta Novello. The fittings are composed of 58 desks, with coat of arms at the sides. The light comes in through the 44 Venetian style windows, which were purpose designed to provide ideal lighting for reading. The library has over 400,000 books, including over 340 codices covering various fields such as religion, Greek and Latin classics, sciences and medicine, and about 3,200 manuscripts from the 16th century. The oldest manuscript in the library is a copy of Isidore's "Etymologiae". Malatestiana Library The


title: "Ruby Cabernet" content: Valle De Guadalupe, Baja California (near Ensenada) produces a very nice variety and quality wines. Included is Cabernet Franc - Malbec/Ruby Cabernet. Some Ruby Cabernet is supposedly grown in Chile, but few wines will admit to it on the label. A little Ruby Cabernet is used by the Tishbi winery in Zichron Ya'akov. Some 17 tons were harvested in 2012. For a while Ruby Cabernet was thought to hold a lot of promise for the hotter regions of South Africa, but in practice problems with fruit set have limited its success. It is successfully grown in the Robertson district, and


title: "The Hump" content: Col. Robert D. "Red" Forman as division training officer to oversee both stringent training and a flying safety program led by Capt. Arthur Norden. After 15 March 1945, the program intensified when Major John J. Murdock, Jr., took over the position of division flying safety officer. Tunner also altered the personnel rotation policy of the ICD, which he saw as a major contributor to crew fatigue. Before Tunner took command, pilot tours were set at 650 flight hours over the hump, which many pilots abused by flying daily to rotate back to the United States in as few as four


title: "Antarctic fur seal" content: the intensive whaling of the 20th century left a surplus of krill. Other islands in Antarctic waters may have a few hundred to a thousand such seals. Antarctic fur seals typically feed on krill, squid, penguins and fish. Adult and subadult males may form groups while moulting along the Antarctic Peninsula in late summer and early autumn. Adult females are gregarious but relatively asocial other than the strong bond they establish with their pups, although there are occasional aggressive encounters with nearby females or other pups and brief interactions with adult males to mate. These seals appear to be solitary


title: Ageratum content: Ageratum Ageratum (), (whiteweed in the USA), is a genus of 40 to 60 tropical and warm temperate flowering annuals and perennials from the family Asteraceae, tribe Eupatorieae. Most species are native to Central America and Mexico but four are native to the United States. They form tussocks or small hills. They grow to a height of 30 in. The opposite leaves are cordate or oval, hairy or tomentose. The margins are slightly toothed or serrate. The leaves form compact clusters. The fluffy flowers are lavender-blue, pink, lilac, or white; and spread in small compound umbels. They give small, dry


title: Ageratum content: fruits. Ageratums are grown for their flowers, especially "A. houstonianum". Most common ageratums, "Hawaii" for example, are a short 6-8 inches when full grown. Tall ageratum are also available in seed catalogues. They are about 18 inches in height with blue flowers. There is also a medium height snowcapped variety, white top on blue flowers. The blues are most popular and common, but colors also include violet, pink and white. Their size and color makes ageratums good candidates for rock gardens, bedding, and containers. They grow well in sun or partial shade, from early summer to first frost. They are


title: Ageratum content: quite easy to grow, producing a profusion of fluffy flowers all season long. Several species of "Ageratum" are toxic, containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids. "Ageratum houstonianum" and "Ageratum conyzoides" cause liver lesions and are tumorigenic. "Ageratum" are prone to becoming rampant environmental weeds when grown outside of their natural range. The genus "Paneroa" consists of one species, "Paneroa stachyofolia", native to Oaxaca, which was first described in "Ageratum" but which seems to be more closely related to "Conoclinium" and "Fleischmannia". Ageratum Ageratum (), (whiteweed in the USA), is a genus of 40 to 60 tropical and warm temperate flowering annuals and perennials


title: "ArmaLite AR-15" content: ArmaLite AR-15 The ArmaLite AR-15 is a select-fire, air-cooled, gas-operated, magazine-fed assault rifle manufactured in the United States between 1959 and 1964, and adopted by the United States Armed Forces as the M16 rifle. Designed by American gun manufacturer ArmaLite in 1956, it was based on its AR-10 rifle. The ArmaLite AR-15 was designed to be a lightweight assault rifle and to fire a new high-velocity, lightweight, small-caliber cartridge to allow infantrymen to carry more ammunition. In 1959, ArmaLite sold its rights to the AR-10 and AR-15 to Colt due to financial difficulties, and limitations in terms of manpower and


title: "Treasure Act 1996" content: cup. Non-treasure finds are the remit of the Portable Antiquities Scheme. The act does not apply in Scotland, where treasure finds are a matter of Scots Common Law. Treasure Act 1996 The Treasure Act 1996 is an Act of Parliament designed to deal with finds of treasure in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. It legally obliges finders of objects which constitute treasure (as defined in the Act) to report their find to their local coroner within 14 days. An inquest led by the coroner then determines whether the find constitutes treasure or not. If it is declared to be treasure


title: "Araneus diadematus" content: Araneus diadematus The spider species Araneus diadematus is commonly called the European garden spider, diadem spider, orangie, cross spider and crowned orb weaver. It is sometimes called the pumpkin spider, although this name is also used for a different species, "Araneus marmoreus". It is an orb-weaver spider found in Europe and North America. "A. diadematus" has a holarctic distribution, found throughout Europe and across North America, from southern Canada to Mexico, and from British Columbia to Newfoundland. Individual spiders' colourings can range from extremely light yellow to very dark grey, but all "A. diadematus" have mottled white markings across the


title: "Araneus diadematus" content: dorsal abdomen, with four or more segments forming a cross. The markings are formed in cells filled with guanine, which is a byproduct of protein metabolism. Adult females range in length from , while males range from . Occasionally, the female will eat the male directly after mating. (See video below.) The legs of orb-weaver spiders are specialized for spinning orb webs. The webs are built by the larger females who hang head down in the center of the web or remain hidden in nearby foliage, with one claw hooked to a signal line connected to the main orb waiting


title: "Araneus diadematus" content: for a disturbance to signal the arrival of prey. Prey is then quickly bitten and wrapped in silk before being stored for later consumption. The initial bite serves to paralyze the prey and minimize the danger of the spider herself being stung or bitten, and the enzymes thus injected serve to begin liquefaction of the prey's internal structures. Alongside the use of the web to capture other prey, the spiders are also cannibals and prey on each other. However, this only happens before or after sexual activity. They attack based on their size, sexual experience and hunger levels. "A. diadematus"


title: "Araneus diadematus" content: is a reclusive creature and only bites humans if cornered or otherwise provoked. Some orb-web spiders (e.g., "Neoscona arabesca") routinely recycle the metabolically costly silk by disassembling and eating their webs in the morning or evening, depending on the species' diurnal or nocturnal nature, or in anticipation of a thunderstorm. This complex process can take just a few minutes. Araneus diadematus The spider species Araneus diadematus is commonly called the European garden spider, diadem spider, orangie, cross spider and crowned orb weaver. It is sometimes called the pumpkin spider, although this name is also used for a different species, "Araneus


title: "Transparent ceramics" content: generally opaque as opposed to transparent materials. Recent nanoscale technology, however, has made possible the production of (poly)crystalline transparent ceramics such as alumina AlO, yttria alumina garnet (YAG), and neodymium-doped . Transparent ceramics have recently acquired a high degree of interest and notoriety. Basic applications include lasers and cutting tools, transparent armor windows, night vision devices (NVD), and nose cones for heat seeking missiles. Currently available infrared (IR) transparent materials typically exhibit a trade-off between optical performance and mechanical strength. For example, sapphire (crystalline alumina) is very strong, but lacks full transparency throughout the 3–5 micrometer mid-IR range. Yttria is


title: "Transparent ceramics" content: that uniformly coats the spinel particles with the sintering aid. This allows them to reduce the amount of Lif necessary for densification and to rapidly heat through the temperature of maximum reactivity. These developments have allowed NRL to fabricate MgAlO spinel to high transparency with extremely high reproducibility that should enable military as well as commercial use of spinel. Single-crystal aluminum oxide (sapphire – AlO) is a transparent ceramic. Sapphire's crystal structure is rhombohedral and thus its properties are anisotropic, varying with crystallographic orientation. Transparent alumina is currently one of the most mature transparent ceramics from a production and application


title: "Church of Saint Sava" content: Church of Saint Sava The Church of Saint Sava (, literal translation into English: "The Temple of Saint Sava") is a Serbian Orthodox church located on the Vračar plateau in Belgrade. It is one of the largest Orthodox churches in the world and ranks among the largest church buildings in the world. The church is dedicated to Saint Sava, the founder of the Serbian Orthodox Church and an important figure in medieval Serbia. It is built on the Vračar plateau, on the location where his remains were burned in 1595 by Ottoman Grand Vizier Sinan Pasha. From its location, it


title: "Church of Saint Sava" content: dominates Belgrade's cityscape, and is perhaps the most monumental building in the city. In 1594, Serbs rose up against Ottoman rule in Banat, during the Long War (1591–1606) which was fought at the Austrian-Ottoman border in the Balkans. The Serbian patriarchate and rebels had established relations with foreign states, and had in a short time captured several towns, including Vršac, Bečkerek, Lipova, Titel and Bečej, although the uprising was quickly suppressed. The rebels had, in the character of a holy war, carried war flags with the icon of Saint Sava. The war banners had been consecrated by Patriarch John I


title: "Church of Saint Sava" content: Kantul, whom the Ottoman government later had hanged in Istanbul. Ottoman Grand Vizier Sinan Pasha ordered that the sarcophagus and relics of Saint Sava located in the Mileševa monastery be brought by military convoy to Belgrade. Along the way, the Ottoman convoy had people killed in their path so that the rebels in the woods would hear of it. The relics were publicly incinerated by the Ottomans on a pyre on the Vračar plateau, and the ashes scattered, on 27 April 1595. According to Nikolaj Velimirović the flames were seen over the Danube. In 1895, three hundred years after the


title: "Church of Saint Sava" content: burning of Saint Sava's remains, the "Society for the Construction of the Church of Saint Sava on Vračar" was founded in Belgrade. Its goal was to build a temple on the place of the burning. A small church was built at the future place of the temple, and it was later moved so the construction of the temple could begin. In 1905, a public contest was launched to design the church; all five applications received were rejected as not being good enough. Soon, the breakout of the First Balkan War in 1912, and subsequent Second Balkan War and First World


title: "Church of Saint Sava" content: War stopped all activities on the construction of the church. After the war, in 1919, the Society was re-established. New appeals for designs were made in 1926; this time, it received 22 submissions. Though the first and third prize were not awarded, the second-place submission by architect Aleksandar Deroko was selected. Forty years after the initial idea, construction of the church began on 10 May 1935, 340 years after the burning of Saint Sava's remains. The cornerstone was laid by Metropolitan Gavrilo of Montenegro, (the future Serbian Patriarch Gavrilo V). The project was designed by Aleksandar Deroko and Bogdan Nestorović,


title: "Church of Saint Sava" content: aided by civil engineer Vojislav Zađina. The work lasted until Second World War Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941. The church's foundation had been completed, and the walls erected to the height of 7 and 11 meters. After the 1941 bombing of Belgrade, work ceased altogether. The occupying German army used the unfinished church as Wehrmacht's parking lot, while in 1944 the Red Army, and later the Yugoslav People's Army used it for the same purpose. After that, it was used for storage by various companies. The Society for Building of the Church ceased to exist and has not been


title: "Church of Saint Sava" content: revived. Children who grew up in the vicinity, including the future President of Serbia Boris Tadić, didn't know the intended purpose of the unfinished construction, so they played inside thinking it was a ruin of some old castle. In 1958, Serbian Patriarch German renewed the idea of building the church. After 88 requests for the continuation of the building, of which 82 were sent to the President of Yugoslavia Josip Broz Tito to which Tito never personally replied. Permission for the continuation of building was granted in 1984 when patriarch talked to Dušan Čkrebić, President of Presidency of Serbia. Architect


title: "Church of Saint Sava" content: Branko Pešić was selected as new architect of the church. He remade the original projects to make better use of new materials and building techniques. Construction of the building began again on 12 August 1985. The walls were erected to full height of 40 meters. The greatest achievement of the construction process was lifting of the 4,000 ton central dome, which was built on the ground, together with the copper plate and the cross, and later lifted onto the walls. The lifting, which took forty days with the especially constructed hydraulic machines, was finished on 26 June 1989. After the


title: "Church of Saint Sava" content: NATO bombing of Serbia in 1999, the works were halted again. Patriarch Pavle, known for his asceticism, thought that such an expensive works are inappropriate when people are beaten and impoverished. After becoming a prime minister in 2001, Zoran Đinđić talked with patriarch and convinced him to continue the works. , the exterior of the church is complete. The bells and windows had been installed, and the façade completed. The Russian Academy of Arts under the guidance of Nikolay Mukhin is currently working on the internal decoration. On 22 February 2018, during the presentation of the new internal decoration, the


title: "Church of Saint Sava" content: decorated cupola was donated to the Serbian Orthodox Church. The church is centrally planned, having the form of a Greek Cross. It has a large central dome supported on four pendentives and buttressed on each side by a lower semi-dome over an apse. Beneath each semi-dome is a gallery supported on an arcade. The dome is high, while the main gold plated cross is another high, which gives a total of to the height Church of Saint Sava. The peak is above the sea level ( above the Sava river); therefore the church holds a dominant position in Belgrade's cityscape


title: "Church of Saint Sava" content: and is visible from all approaches to the city. The church is long from east to west, and from north to south. It is tall, with the main gold-plated cross extending for more. Its domes have 18 more gold-plated crosses of various sizes, while the bell towers have 49 bells of the Austrian Bell Foundry "Grassmayr". It has a surface area of on the ground floor, with three galleries of on the first level, and a gallery on the second level. The Church can receive 10,000 faithful at any one time. The choir gallery seats 800 singers. The basement contains


title: "Church of Saint Sava" content: a crypt, the treasury of Saint Sava, and the grave church of Saint Lazar the Hieromartyr, with a total surface of . The central dome mosaic depicts the Ascension of Jesus and represents Resurrected Christ, sitting on a rainbow and right hand raised in blessing, surrounded by four angels, Apostles and Theotokos. This composition is inspired by mosaic in main dome of St Mark's Basilica in Venice. The lower sections are influenced by the Gospel of Luke and the first narratives of the Acts of the Apostles. The texts held by the angels are written in the Church Slavonic language,


title: "Church of Saint Sava" content: while the names of the depicted persons are written in Greek. First points to the pan-Slavic sentiment while the latter connects it to the Byzantine traditions. The total painted area of the dome is . It is one of the largest curved area decorated with the mosaic technique and when the work is completely finished, Saint Sava will be the largest church ornamented this way. The mosaic was made for a year in Russia, during 2016 and 2017. It was then cut and transported by special trucks to Belgrade. Total weight of the mosaic is 40 tons and it was


title: "Church of Saint Sava" content: placed on the dome from May 2017 to February 2018. Church of Saint Sava The Church of Saint Sava (, literal translation into English: "The Temple of Saint Sava") is a Serbian Orthodox church located on the Vračar plateau in Belgrade. It is one of the largest Orthodox churches in the world and ranks among the largest church buildings in the world. The church is dedicated to Saint Sava, the founder of the Serbian Orthodox Church and an important figure in medieval Serbia. It is built on the Vračar plateau, on the location where his remains were burned in 1595


title: "Guadalupe fur seal" content: Guadalupe fur seal The Guadalupe fur seal ("Arctocephalus townsendi") is one of six members of the fur seal genus "Arctocephalus". Sealers reduced the population to just a few dozen by the late 19th century, but the species had recovered to 10,000 in number by the late 1990s. Many individuals can be found on Mexico's Guadalupe Island. Guadalupe fur seals are sexually dimorphic in size, with the males being much larger than females, although few specimens have been measured. Individuals of both sexes are dark brown or dusky black, with the guard hairs on the back of the neck being yellowish


title: "Guadalupe fur seal" content: or light tan. Pups are born with a black coat similar to that of adults. The seals are one of the few with visible earflaps, confirming it is not a Phocidaen/true seal. Guadalupe fur seals breed along the eastern coast of Guadalupe Island, approximately 200 km west of Baja California. In addition, individuals have been sighted in the southern California Channel Islands, including two males who established territories on San Nicolas Island. Observations suggest reproductive males are faithful to particular sites over a number of years. Tenure of territorial males lasts from 35–122 days. Births occur from mid-June through July,


title: "Guadalupe fur seal" content: with most births taking place in June. The major cause of the Guadalupe fur seal's decline was commercial hunting in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The species was exterminated in southern California waters by 1825. Commercial sealing continued in Mexican waters through 1894. The species is listed as endangered by the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service under the Endangered Species Act. The principal cause of the decline in Guadalupe fur seals was commercial sealing. The species is now protected from such activity throughout its range, and the magnitude of the threat to the species is considered to be


title: "Guadalupe fur seal" content: low. The portion of the Guadalupe fur seal's range which is under U.S. jurisdiction is at the limit of the species range. No activities in areas under U.S. jurisdiction are known to be adversely affecting recovery of this species now. Therefore, management activities in the U.S. portion of its range are not likely to contribute substantially to recovery. However, Guadalupe fur seals are protected from federal actions that are likely to jeopardize the species through interagency coordination under Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act. No other specific actions necessary for the recovery of the species have been identified, and


title: "Guadalupe fur seal" content: no direct recovery actions are being implemented. Guadalupe fur seal The Guadalupe fur seal ("Arctocephalus townsendi") is one of six members of the fur seal genus "Arctocephalus". Sealers reduced the population to just a few dozen by the late 19th century, but the species had recovered to 10,000 in number by the late 1990s. Many individuals can be found on Mexico's Guadalupe Island. Guadalupe fur seals are sexually dimorphic in size, with the males being much larger than females, although few specimens have been measured. Individuals of both sexes are dark brown or dusky black, with the guard hairs on


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: Etchmiadzin Cathedral Etchmiadzin Cathedral (, "Ēǰmiatsni mayr tačar") is the mother church of the Armenian Apostolic Church, located in the city of Vagharshapat (Etchmiadzin), Armenia. According to scholars it was the first cathedral built in ancient Armenia, and is considered the oldest cathedral in the world. The original church was built in the early fourth century—between 301 and 303 according to tradition—by Armenia's patron saint Gregory the Illuminator, following the adoption of Christianity as a state religion by King Tiridates III. It replaced a preexisting temple, symbolizing the conversion from paganism to Christianity. The core of the current building was


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: built in 483/4 by Vahan Mamikonian after the cathedral was severely damaged in a Persian invasion. From its foundation until the second half of the fifth century, Etchmiadzin was the seat of the Catholicos, the supreme head of the Armenian Church. Although never losing its significance, the cathedral subsequently suffered centuries of virtual neglect. In 1441 it was restored as catholicosate and remains as such to this day. Since then the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin has been the administrative headquarters of the Armenian Church. Etchmiadzin was plundered by the Safavids in 1604, when relics and stones were taken out


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: of the cathedral to New Julfa in an effort to undermine Armenians' attachment to their land. Since then the cathedral has undergone a number of renovations. Belfries were added in the latter half of the seventeenth century and in 1868 a sacristy was constructed at the cathedral's east end. Today, it incorporates styles of different periods of Armenian architecture. Diminished during the early Soviet period, Etchmiadzin revived again in the second half of the twentieth century, and under independent Armenia. As the main shrine of religious Christian Armenians worldwide, Etchmiadzin has been an important location in Armenia not only religiously,


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: but also politically and culturally. A major pilgrimage site, it is one of the most visited places in the country. Along with several important early medieval churches located nearby, the cathedral was listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2000. According to Armenian church tradition, the cathedral was built between 301 and 303 near the royal palace in then Armenian capital city of Vagharshapat, on the location of a pagan temple. The Kingdom of Armenia under Tiridates III became the first country in the world to adopt Christianity as a state religion in 301. According to "History of


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: the Armenians" () by Agathangelos, Armenia's patron saint Gregory the Illuminator had a vision of Jesus Christ descending from heaven and striking the earth with a golden hammer to show where the cathedral should be built. Hence, the patriarch gave the church the name of Etchmiadzin (էջ "ēĵ" "descent" + մի "mi" "only" + -ա- "-a-" (linking element) + ծին "tsin" "begotten"), which translates to "the Descent of the Only-Begotten <nowiki>[</nowiki>Son of God<nowiki>]</nowiki>." However, the name Etchmiadzin did not come into use until the 15th century, while earlier sources call it "Cathedral of Vagharshapat" (Վաղարշապատի Կաթողիկե եկեղեցի "Vağaršapati Kat'oğike ekeghetsi")


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: or simply "Kat'oghike" (Կաթողիկե, literally "Cathedral"). The Feast of the Cathedral of Holy Etchmiadzin (Տոն Կաթողիկե Սբ. Էջմիածնի) is celebrated by the Armenian Church 64 days after Easter, during which "a special hymn is sung, written by the 8th century Catholicos Sahak III of Dzorapor, telling of St. Gregory's vision and the Cathedral's construction." During archaeological excavations at the cathedral in 1955–56 and 1959, led by architectural historian Alexander Sahinian, remains of the original 4th-century building were discovered—including two levels of pillar bases below the current ones and a narrower altar apse under the present one. Based on these findings,


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: Sahinian asserted that the original church had been a three-naved vaulted basilica, similar to the basilicas of Tekor, Ashtarak and Aparan (Kasakh). However, other scholars, have rejected Sahinian's view. Among them, Suren Yeremian and Armen Khatchatrian held that the original church had been in the form of a rectangle with a dome supported by four pillars. Stepan Mnatsakanian suggested that the original building had been a "canopy erected on a cross [plan]," while architecture researcher Vahagn Grigoryan suggests what Mnatsakanian describes as an "extreme view," according to which the cathedral has been essentially in the same form as it is


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: today. According to Faustus of Byzantium, the cathedral and the city of Vagharshapat were almost completely destroyed during the invasion of Persian King Shapur II in the 360s (circa 363). Due to Armenia's bad economic conditions, the cathedral was renovated by Catholicoi Nerses the Great (r. 353–373) and Sahak Parthev (r. 387–439) only urgently and partially. In 387, Armenia was partitioned between the Roman Empire and the Sasanian Empire. The eastern part of Armenia where Etchmiadzin was located remained under the rule of Armenian vassal kings subject to Persia until 428, when the Armenian Kingdom was dissolved. In 450, in


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: an attempt to impose Zoroastrianism on Armenians, Sasanian King Yazdegerd II built a fire temple inside the cathedral. The pyre of the fire temple was unearthed under the altar of the east apse during the excavations in the 1950s. By the last quarter of the 5th century the cathedral was dilapidated. According to Ghazar Parpetsi, it was rebuilt from the foundations by "marzban" (governor) of Persian Armenia Vahan Mamikonian in 483/4, when the country was relatively stable, following the struggle for religious freedom against Persia. Most researchers have concluded that, thus, the church was converted into cruciform church and mostly


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: took its current form. The new church was very different from the original one and "consisted of quadric-apsidal hall built of dull, grey stone containing four free-standing cross-shaped pillars disdained to support a stone cupola." The new cathedral was "in the form of a square enclosing a Greek cross and contains two chapels, one on either side of the east apse." According to Robert H. Hewsen, the design of the new church was a mixture of the design of a Zoroastrian fire temple and a mausoleum of classical antiquity. Although the seat of the Catholicos was transferred to Dvin sometime


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: in the 460s–470s or 484, the cathedral never lost its significance and remained "one of the greatest shrines of the Armenian Church." The last known renovations until the 15th century were made by Catholicos Komitas in 618 (according to Sebeos) and Catholicos Nerses III (r. 640–661). In 982 the cross of the cathedral was reportedly removed by an Arab emir. During these centuries of neglect, the cathedral's "condition deteriorated so badly" that it prompted the prominent archbishop Stepanos Orbelian to write one of his most notable poems, "Lament on Behalf of the Cathedral" ("Ողբ ի դիմաց Կաթողիկէին" "Voğb i dimats


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: Katoğikein") in 1300. In the poem, which tells about the consequences of the Mongol and Mamluk invasions of Armenia and Cilicia, Orbelian portrays Etchmiadzin Cathedral "as a woman in mourning, contemplating her former splendor and exhorting her children to return to their homeland [...] and restore its glory." Following the fall of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia in 1375, the See of Sis experienced decline and disarray. The Catholicosate of Aghtamar and the locally influential Syunik bishops enhanced the importance of the region around Etchmiadzin. In 1441 a general council of several hundred religious figures met in Etchmiadzin and voted


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: to reestablish a catholicosate there. The cathedral was restored by Catholicos Kirakos (Cyriacus) between 1441 and 1443. At that time Etchmiadzin was under the control of the Turkic Kara Koyunlu, but in 1502, Safavid Iran gained control of parts of Armenia, including Etchmiadzin, and granted the Armenian Church some privileges. During the 16th and 17th centuries, Armenia suffered from its location between Persia and Ottoman Turkey, and the conflicts between those two empires. Concurrently with the deportation of up to 350,000 Armenians into Persia by Shah Abbas I as part of the scorched earth policy during the war with the


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: Ottoman Empire, Etchmiadzin was plundered in 1604. The Shah wanted to "dispel Armenian hopes of returning to their homeland" by moving the religious center of the Armenians to Iran in order to provide Persia with a strong Armenian presence. He wanted to destroy the cathedral and have its remains brought to Isfahan. In the event, only some important stones—the altar, the stone where Jesus Christ descended according to tradition, and Armenian Church's holiest relic, the Right Arm of Gregory the Illuminator—were moved to New Julfa, Isfahan in central Iran. They were incorporated in the local Armenian St. Georg Church when


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: it was built in 1611. Shah Abbas reportedly offered the cathedral to the Pope. Since 1627, the cathedral underwent major renovation under Catholicos Movses (Moses), when the dome, ceiling, roof, foundations and paving were repaired. At this time, cells for monks, a guesthouse and other structures were built around the cathedral. Additionally, a wall was built around the cathedral, making it a fort-like complex. Eli Smith wrote in 1833: "The whole of the premises are surrounded by a high wall flanked with circular towers, and have externally the appearance of a fortress. Within, is a city in miniature." Douglas Freshfield


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: wrote in 1869 that "convent and cathedral are within a large fortified enclosure" and claimed that it "has in its time resisted many attacks from the infidels." The renovation works were interrupted by the Ottoman-Safavid War of 1635–36, during which the cathedral remained intact. The renovations resumed under Catholicos Pilippos (1632–55), who built new cells for monks and renovated the roof. During this century, belfries were added to many Armenian churches. In 1653-54, he started the construction of the belfry in the western wing of Etchmiadzin Cathedral. It was completed in 1658 by Catholicos Hakob IV Jugayetsi. According to Hewsen


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: the bell is of Tibetian origin with a Buddhist inscription, "probably the long-forgotten gift of some Mongol or Ilkhanid khan." Decades later, in 1682, Catholicos Yeghiazar constructed smaller bell towers with red tufa turrets on the southern, eastern, and northern wings. The renovations of Etchmiadzin continued during the 18th century. In 1720, Catholicos Astvatsatur and then, in 1777–83 Simeon I of Yerevan took actions in preserving the cathedral. In 1770, Simeon I established a publishing house near Etchmiadzin, the first in Armenia. During Simeon's reign, the monastery was completely walled and separated from the city of Vagharshapat. Catholicos Ghukas (Lukas)


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: continued the renovations in 1784–86. The Russian Empire gradually penetrated Transcaucasia by the early 19th century. Persia's Erivan Khanate, in which Etchmiadzin was located, became an important target for the Russians. In June 1804, during the Russo-Persian War (1804–13), the Russian troops led by General Pavel Tsitsianov tried to take Etchmiadzin, but failed. A few days after the attempt, the Russians returned to Etchmiadzin, where they caught a different Persian force by surprise and routed them. Tsitsianov's forces entered Etchmiadzin, which, according to Auguste Bontems-Lefort, a contemporary French military envoy to Persia, they looted, seriously damaging the Armenian religious buildings.


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: Shortly after, the Russians were forced to withdraw from the area as a result of the successful Persian defense of Erivan. According to Bontems-Lefort, the Russian behaviour at Etchmiadzin contrasted with that of the Persian king, who treated the local Christian population with respect. On 13 April 1827, during the Russo-Persian War (1826–28), Etchmiadzin was captured by the Russian General Ivan Paskevich's troops without fight and was formally annexed by Russia, with the Persian-controlled parts of Armenia, roughly corresponding to the territory of the modern Republic of Armenia (also known as Eastern Armenia), according to the 1828 Treaty of Turkmenchay.


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: The cathedral prospered under Russian rule, despite the suspicions that the Imperial Russian government had about Etchmiadzin becoming a "possible center of the Armenian nationalist sentiment." Formally, Etchmiadzin became the religious center of the Armenians living within the Russian Empire by the 1836 statute or constitution ("polozhenie"). In 1868, Catholicos Gevorg (George) IV made the last major alteration to the cathedral by adding a sacristy to its east end. In 1874, he established the Gevorgian Seminary, a theological school-college located on the cathedral's premises. Catholicos Markar I undertook the restoration of the interior of the cathedral in 1888. In 1903,


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: the Russian government issued an edict to confiscate the properties of the Armenian Church, including the treasures of Etchmiadzin. Russian policemen and soldiers entered and occupied the cathedral. Due to popular resistance and the personal defiance of Catholicos Mkrtich Khrimian, the edict was canceled in 1905. During the Armenian Genocide, the cathedral of Etchmiadzin and its surrounding became a major center for the Turkish Armenian refugees. At the end of 1918, there were about 70,000 refugees in the Etchmiadzin district. A hospital and an orphanage within the cathedral's grounds were established and maintained by the U.S.-based Armenian Near East Relief


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: by 1919. In the spring of 1918 the cathedral was in danger of an attack by the Turks. Prior to the May 1918 Battle of Sardarabad, which took place just miles away from the cathedral, the civilian and military leadership of Armenia suggested Catholicos Gevorg (George) V to leave for Byurakan for security purposes, but he refused. The Armenian forces eventually repelled the Turkish offensive and set the foundation of the First Republic of Armenia. After two years of independence, Armenia was Sovietized in December 1920. During the 1921 February Uprising Etchmiadzin was briefly (until April) taken over by the


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: nationalist Armenian Revolutionary Federation, which had dominated the pre-Soviet Armenian government between 1918 and 1920. In December 1923, the southern apse of the cathedral collapsed. It was restored under Toros Toramanian's supervision in what was the first case of restoration of an architectural monument in Soviet Armenia. During the Great Purge and the radical state atheist policies in the late 1930s, the cathedral was a "besieged institution as the campaign was underway to eradicate religion." The repressions climaxed in 1938 when Catholicos Khoren I was murdered in April by the NKVD. In August of that year, the Armenian Communist Party


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: decided to close down the cathedral, but the central Soviet government seemingly did not approve of such a measure. Isolated from the outside world, the cathedral barely continued to function and its administrators were reduced to some twenty people. It was reportedly the only church in Soviet Armenia not to have been seized by the Communist government. The dissident anti-Soviet Armenian diocese in the US wrote that "the great cathedral became a hollow monument." The religious importance of Etchmiadzin slowly recovered during the Second World War. The Holy See's official magazine resumed publication in 1944, while the seminary was reopened


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: in September 1945. In 1945 Catholicos Gevorg VI was elected after the seven-year vacancy of the position. The number of baptisms conducted at Etchmiadzin rose greatly: from 200 in 1949 to around 1,700 in 1951. Nevertheless, the cathedral's role was downplayed by the Communist official circles. "For them the ecclesiastical Echmiadzin belongs irrevocably to the past, and even if the monastery and the cathedral are occasionally the scene of impressive ceremonies including the election of a new catholicos, this has little importance from the communist point of view," wrote Walter Kolarz in 1961. Etchmiadzin revived under Catholicos Vasken I since


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: the period known as the Khrushchev Thaw in the mid-1950s, following Stalin's death. Archaeological excavations were held in 1955–56 and in 1959; the cathedral underwent a major renovation during this period. Wealthy diaspora benefactors, such as Calouste Gulbenkian and Alex Manoogian, financially assisted the renovation of the cathedral. Gulbenkian alone provided $400,000. In 2000 Etchmiadzin underwent a renovation prior to the celebrations of the 1700th anniversary of the Christianization of Armenia in 2001. In 2003 the 1700th anniversary of the consecration of the cathedral was celebrated by the Armenian Church. Catholicos Karekin II issued a pontifical encyclical (kondak) on January


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: 30. On February 3 he declared 2003 the Year of Holy Etchmiadzin. In September of that year an academic conference was held at the Pontifical Residence. The latest renovation of the cathedral began in 2012, with a focus on strengthening and restoring the dome and the roof. Today, Etchmiadzin "has a cruciform plan with a central cupola, four free-standing piers, and four projecting apses which are semicircular on the interior and polygonal on the exterior. The central piers, cruciform in section, divide the interior space into nine equal square compartments." The cathedral's external appearance has been described as austere, ascetic,


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: unostentatious, and as a "massive cube surmounted by a faceted cone on a simple cylinder." Robert H. Hewsen writes that it is "neither the largest nor the most beautiful of Armenian churches", nevertheless, "the overall impression presented by the ensemble is inspiring, and Armenians hold the building in great reverence." James Bryce wrote that the cathedral is "small, that is to say, compared with its fame or importance". Paul Bloomfield, writing for "The Times", expressed a similar view: "[the] cathedral, though diminutive by European standards, is immensely important." Herbert Lottman wrote in a 1976 "New York Times" article: "Like all


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: ancient Armenian churches, the cathedral is characterized by a disarmingly naive, coneshaped steeple. With a minimum of ornament, the building [...] is a solid stone construction, its arches sober romanesque curves." Alexander Sahinian declared that Etchmiadzin holds a unique position in Armenian (and non-Armenian) architecture history because it reproduces features of different periods of Armenian architecture. According to Mack Chahin the cathedral's building is of "immense architectural interest, especially because of the many alterations and additions that have been made to it since its foundation. Thus, at the present day, the cathedral building incorporates more than one styles of architecture."


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: Despite the fact that the cathedral was renovated many times through the centuries and some alterations were made in the 17th and 19th centuries, it retains the form of the building constructed in 483/4. The 5th-century building is the core of the cathedral, while the stone cupola, turrets, belfry, and rear extension are all later additions. Engraved on the exterior of the edifice are decorative geometric and floral patterns as well as blind arcades and medallions depicting saints. Portions of the northern and eastern walls of the original building have survived. The northern wall of the cathedral contains two reliefs


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: which depict Paul the Apostle and Saint Thecla and a cross with all arms of equal length with Greek inscriptions. Paul and Thecla are represented in conversation, Paul is shown seated on cross-legged stool. These reliefs have been dated by various authors between the first and sixth centuries. Shahkhatunian and Ghevont Alishan suggested that these reliefs were created before the invention of the Armenian alphabet in 405. Art historian Sirarpie Der Nersessian believed that they are from the fifth or sixth century. In his 2012 analysis, Grigoryan wrote that "we can insist that the three reliefs of the Echmiadzin Cathedral


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: were created from the very beginning, in 302–325." According to Hasratyan they are the earliest reliefs on the cathedral's walls and among the earliest items of Christian Armenian sculpture art. The early frescoes inside the cathedral were restored in the 18th century. Stepanos Lehatsi (Stephen of Poland) illustrated the belfry in 1664. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Armenian painters created frescoes of scenes from the old testament and Armenian saints. Naghash Hovnatan painted parts of the interior between 1712 and 1721. His paintings on the dome and the painting of the Mother of God under the altar have survived


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: to this day. Other members of the prominent Hovnatanian family (Hakob, Harutyun and Hovnatan) created paintings throughout the 18th century. Their work was continued by the succeeding generations of the same family (Mkrtum and Hakob) in the 19th century. The wooden doors of the cathedral were carved in Tiflis in 1889. The paintings were moved out of the cathedral by the order of Catholicos Mkrtich Khrimian in 1891 and are now kept in various museums in Armenia, including the National Gallery of Armenia. The frescoes inside the cathedral were restored by Lydia Durnovo in 1956 and in 1981–82 under the


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: directorship of Vardges Baghdasaryan. In the 1950s, the stone floor was replaced with one of marble. The design of Etchmiadzin Cathedral—classified as "a four-apsed square with ciborium," and called Էջմիածնատիպ "Ejmiatsnatip" "Etchmiadzin-type" in Armenian architectural historiography—was not common in Armenia in the early medieval period. The now-destroyed St. Theodore Church of Bagaran, dating from 624 to 631, was the only known church with a significantly similar plan and structure from that period. In the 19th century, during an architectural revival that looked back to Armenia's past, the plan of Etchmiadzin Cathedral began to be directly copied in new Armenian churches.


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: Some notable examples from this period include the narthex of the St. Thaddeus Monastery in northern Iran, dating from 1811 or 1819 through 1830, and the Ghazanchetsots Cathedral in Shusha, dating from 1868. Its plan was also replicated in the Armenian diaspora. One example is the Armenian Church of Bucharest, Romania, designed by Dimitrie Maimarolu and built in 1911-12. Art historian Josef Strzygowski, who was the first European to thoroughly study Armenian architecture, and who placed Armenia in the center of European architecture, suggested that several churches and chapels in Western Europe have been influenced by the cathedrals of Etchmiadzin


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: and Bagaran due to similarities found within their plans. According to Strzygowski, some examples of churches influenced by Etchmiadzin and Bagaran are the 9th-century church of Germigny-des-Prés in France (built by Odo of Metz, probably an Armenian) and San Satiro of Milan, Italy. This view was later supported by Alexander Sahinian and Varazdat Harutyunyan. Sahinian suggested that the Armenian church architecture was spread in Western Europe in the 8th–9th centuries by Paulicians, who migrated from Armenia en mase after being suppressed by the Byzantine government during the Iconoclasm period. Sahinian added many other medieval churches in Europe, such as the


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: Palatine Chapel of Aachen in Germany, to the list of churches to have been influenced by the cathedrals of Etchmiadzin and Bagaran and by Byzantine decorative arts. According to Murad Hasratyan, Etchmiadzin's design was spread to Europe via the Byzantine Empire and served as a model—besides Germigny-des-Prés and San Satiro—for the Nea Ekklesia church in Constantinople and the churches of Mount Athos in Greece. For many centuries, Etchmiadzin was the national and political center of the stateless Armenian people. The locus of Etchmiadzin is considered "a sanctified soil" in a way similar to Temple Mount and the Golden Temple, for


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: Jews and Sikhs, respectively. The cathedral complex has been called "Armenian Vatican" or "Armenian Mecca" as it is a major pilgrimage site for religious Armenians worldwide. Because the cathedral has been so important to the development of Armenians' sense of identity, a pilgrimage to Etchmiadzin is "as much as ethnic as a religious experience." American journalist and historian Francis Whiting Halsey described the cathedral as "the most treasured possession of the Armenian nation" and "the source of that strength which has held them together through centuries of persecution, warfare and massacre." Royal Navy Captain James Creagh highlighted its immense role


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: for the Armenian people in his 1880 book, writing that "The monastery and cathedral of Echmiadzin may, without any exaggeration, be described as the heart of the Armenian nation." Before the foundation of the First Republic of Armenia and the official designation of Yerevan as its capital in 1918, Western sources emphasized Etchmiadzin's political significance. A 1920 book prepared by the Historical Section of the British Foreign Office acknowledged that Etchmiadzin "was regarded as the national capital of the Armenians." "Deprived of a political head and even a political capital the [Armenian] people have, for at least five hundred years,


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: looked to Etchmiadzin as the home of their people, the centre to which they looked for guidance, unfailing sympathy, and practical aid," wrote Welsh journalist and politician W. Llewelyn Williams in his 1916 book about Armenia. Italian historian and traveler Luigi Villari wrote about the cathedral in 1906: Mabel Evelyn Elliott, the Medical Director of Near East Relief, wrote about the cathedral's longevity in 1924: Early European visitors to Etchmiadzin who gave descirptions of the cathedral included Jean-Baptiste Tavernier (before 1668), Jean Chardin (1673), Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (c. 1700), James Morier (1810–16), Robert Ker Porter (1817–20), Friedrich Parrot (1829),


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: August von Haxthausen (1843), Moritz Wagner (1843), James Bryce (1876), H. F. B. Lynch (1893). Many prominent individuals have visited Etchmiadzin, including Russian diplomat and playwright Alexander Griboedov (1828), Russian poet Valery Bryusov, Fridtjof Nansen (1925), English composer Benjamin Britten, Russian singer-songwriter Vladimir Vysotsky, Russian-American poet and essayist Joseph Brodsky and many others. In the 21st century major religious figures like Pope John Paul II (2001), Ignatius Zakka I Iwas (2002), Patriarch Kirill of Moscow (2010), Pope Francis (2016) visited Etchmiadzin. Pope Francis gave a prayer at the cathedral on June 24. He called the cathedral "a witness to the


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: history of your people and the centre from which its spirituality radiates." Presidents of several countries, such as Russia (Vladimir Putin in 2005), France (Jacques Chirac in 2006 and Nicolas Sarkozy in 2011), Georgia (Giorgi Margvelashvili in 2014), Lebanon (Michel Aoun, 2018), Germany (Angela Merkel, 2018), and royalty, such as Nicholas I of Russia (1837), Prince Charles (2013) have visited the cathedral as part of their state or private visits to Armenia. In 2000 UNESCO added Etchmiadzin Cathedral, the churches of St. Hripsime, St. Gayane, Shoghakat and the ruined Zvartnots Cathedral to the list of World Heritage Sites. In 2002,


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: the cathedral complex with over 50 monuments, including many "khachkars" (cross-stones) and graves located around the cathedral, was listed by the Government of Armenia in the list of historical and cultural monuments of the Armavir Province. The museum of the cathedral has numerous items on display, including manuscripts and religious objects. Among its notable exhibits are the Holy Lance (Spear), relics belonging to Apostles of Jesus and John the Baptist, and a fragment of Noah's Ark. The "Etchmiadzin" monthly, the official periodical of the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin founded in 1944, features the cathedral on its cover page as


title: "Etchmiadzin Cathedral" content: newspaper logo. In the 1991 film "Mayrig", directed by French-Armenian director Henri Verneuil, actual footage of the cathedral is shown when Azad Zakarian, the main character and a son of Armenian Genocide survivors, is being questioned about his faith in a Catholic school. The Soviet Union and Armenia issued postage stamps depicting the cathedral in 1978 and 2009, respectively. The cathedral is depicted on the obverse side of 50,000-dram banknote (2001). Etchmiadzin Cathedral Etchmiadzin Cathedral (, "Ēǰmiatsni mayr tačar") is the mother church of the Armenian Apostolic Church, located in the city of Vagharshapat (Etchmiadzin), Armenia. According to scholars it


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