title: Megalith content: structures can be found in the northeast of the country, mostly in the province of Drenthe. Knowth is a passage grave of the Brú na Bóinne neolithic complex in Ireland, dating from c. 3500–3000 BC. It contains more than a third of the total number of examples of megalithic art in all Europe, with over 200 decorated stones found during excavations. Nabta Playa at the southwest corner of the western Egyptian desert was once a large lake in the Nubian Desert, located 500 miles south of modern-day Cairo. By the 5th millennium BC, the peoples in Nabta Playa had fashioned


title: Megalith content: an astronomical device that accurately marks the summer solstice. Findings indicate that the region was occupied only seasonally, likely only in the summer when the local lake filled with water for grazing cattle. There are other megalithic stone circles in the southwestern desert. Namoratunga, a group of megaliths dated 300 BC, was used by Cushitic-speaking people as an alignment with star systems tuned to a lunar calendar of 354 days. This discovery was made by B. N. Lynch and L. H. Robins of Michigan State University. Additionally, Tiya in central Ethiopia has a number old megaliths. Some of these ancient


title: Megalith content: structures feature engravings, and the area is a World Heritage Site. Megaliths are also found within the Valley of Marvels in the East Hararghe area. Megalithic burials are found in Northeast and Southeast Asia. They are found mainly in the Korean Peninsula. They are also found in the Liaoning, Shandong, and Zhejiang in China, the East Coast of Taiwan, Kyūshū and Shikoku in Japan, Đồng Nai Province in Vietnam and South Asia. Some living megalithic traditions are found on the island of Sumba and Nias in Indonesia. The greatest concentration of megalithic burials is in Korea. Archaeologists estimate that there


title: Megalith content: are 15,000 to 100,000 southern megaliths in the Korean Peninsula. Typical estimates hover around the 30,000 mark for the entire peninsula, which in itself constitutes some 40% of all dolmens worldwide (see Dolmen). Northeast Asian megalithic traditions originated in northeast China, in particular the Liao River basin. The practice of erecting megalithic burials spread quickly from the Liao River Basin and into the Korean Peninsula, where the structure of megaliths is geographically and chronologically distinct. The earliest megalithic burials are called "northern" or "table-style" because they feature an above-ground burial chamber formed by heavy stone slabs that form a rectangular


title: Megalith content: cist. An oversized capstone is placed over the stone slab burial chamber, giving the appearance of a table-top. These megalithic burials date to the early part of the Mumun pottery period (c. 1500–850 BC) and are distributed, with a few exceptions, north of the Han River. Few northern-style megaliths in northeast China contain grave goods such as Liaoning bronze daggers, prompting some archaeologists to interpret the burials as the graves of chiefs or preeminent individuals. However, whether a result of grave-robbery or intentional mortuary behaviour, most northern megaliths contain no grave goods. Southern-style megalithic burials are distributed in the southern


title: Megalith content: Korean Peninsula. It is thought that most of them date to the latter part of the Early Mumun or to the Middle Mumun Period. Southern-style megaliths are typically smaller in scale than northern megaliths. The interment area of southern megaliths has an underground burial chamber made of earth or lined with thin stone slabs. A massive capstone is placed over the interment area and is supported by smaller propping stones. Most of the megalithic burials on the Korean Peninsula are of the southern type. As with northern megaliths, southern examples contain few, if any, artifacts. However, a small number of


title: Megalith content: megalithic burials contain fine red-burnished pottery, bronze daggers, polished groundstone daggers, and greenstone ornaments. Southern megalithic burials are often found in groups, spread out in lines that are parallel with the direction of streams. Megalithic cemeteries contain burials that are linked together by low stone platforms made from large river cobbles. Broken red-burnished pottery and charred wood found on these platforms has led archaeologists to hypothesize that these platform were sometimes used for ceremonies and rituals. The capstones of many southern megaliths have 'cup-marks' carvings. A small number of capstones have human and dagger representations. These megaliths are distinguished from


title: Megalith content: other types by the presence of a burial shaft, sometimes up to 4 m in depth, which is lined with large cobbles. A large capstone is placed over the burial shaft without propping stones. Capstone-style megaliths are the most monumental type in the Korean Peninsula, and they are primarily distributed near or on the south coast of Korea. It seems that most of these burials date to the latter part of the Middle Mumun (c. 700–550 BC), and they may have been built into the early part of the Late Mumun. An example is found near modern Changwon at Deokcheon-ni,


title: Megalith content: where a small cemetery contained a capstone burial (No. 1) with a massive, rectangularly shaped, stone and earthen platform. Archaeologists were not able to recover the entire feature, but the low platform was at least 56×18 m in size. The Indonesian archipelago is the host of Austronesian megalith cultures both past and present. Living megalith cultures can be found on Nias, an isolated island off the western coast of North Sumatra, the Batak people in the interior of North Sumatra, on Sumba island in East Nusa Tenggara and also Toraja people from the interior of South Sulawesi. These megalith cultures


title: Megalith content: remained preserved, isolated and undisturbed well into the late 19th century. Several megalith sites and structures are also found across Indonesia. Menhirs, dolmens, stone tables, ancestral stone statues, and step pyramid structure called "Punden Berundak" were discovered in various sites in Java, Sumatra, Sulawesi, and the Lesser Sunda Islands. The Punden step pyramid and menhir can be found in Pagguyangan near Cisolok. The Cipari megalith site also in West Java displays monoliths, stone terraces, and sarcophagi. The basic design of later Hindu-Buddhist temples structure in Java after the adoption of Hinduism and Buddhism by the native population has the punden


title: Megalith content: step pyramid concept underlying. The 8th century Borobudur and 15th-century Candi Sukuh, for example, featured the step-pyramid structure. Lore Lindu National Park in Central Sulawesi houses ancient megalith relics such as ancestral stone statues, mostly located in the Bada, Besoa and Napu valleys. Megaliths in South Asia are dated before 3000 BC, with recent findings dated back to 5000 BC in southern India. Megaliths are found in almost all parts of South Asia. There is also a broad time evolution with the megaliths in central India and the upper Indus valley where the oldest megaliths are found, while those in


title: Megalith content: the east are of much later date. A large fraction of these are assumed to be associated with burial or post burial rituals, including memorials for those whose remains may or may not be available. The case-example is that of Brahmagiri, which was excavated by Wheeler (1975) and helped establish the culture sequence in south Indian prehistory. However, there is another distinct class of megaliths that do not seem to be associated with burials. In South Asia, megaliths of all kinds are noted; these vary from Menhirs, Rock-cut burial, chamber tomb, dolmens, stone alignment, stone circles and anthropomorphic figures. These


title: Megalith content: are broadly classified into two (potentially overlapping) classes (after Moorti, 1994, 2008): "Sepulchral" (containing remains of the dead), or memorial stones where mortal remains along with funerary objects are placed; and "Non-sepulchral" including large patterned placement of stones over a wide area. The 'non-sepulchral' type is associated with astronomy and cosmology in South Asia and in other parts of the world (Menon and Vahia, 2010). In the context of prehistoric anthropomorphic figures in India, (Rao 1988/1999, Upinder Singh 2008) note that it is unclear what these giant anthropomorphs symbolize. They usually occur in association with megalithic monuments and are located


title: Megalith content: in megalithic burial grounds, and may have been connected with ancestor worship. Megaliths occur in many parts of Melanesia, mainly in Milne Bay Province, Fiji and Vanuatu. Few excavations has been made and little is known about the structures. The megalith tomb Otuyam at Kiriwina has been dated to be approximately 2,000 years old which indicates that megaliths are an old custom in Melanesia. However very few megaliths have been dated. The constructions have been used for different rituals. For example, tombs, sacrifices and rituals of fecundity. Dance sites exist next to some megaliths. In some places in Melanesia rituals


title: Megalith content: are continued to be held at the sacred megalith sites. The fact that the beliefs are alive is a reason that most excavations have been stopped at the sites. Megalithic structures in Micronesia reach their most developed form on the islands of Pohnpei and Kosrae in the Eastern Caroline Islands. On these two islands there was extensive use of prismatic basalt columns to build upland building complexes such as those at Salapwuk on Pohnpei and Menka on Kosrae. These building sites, remote from the ocean, appear to have been abandoned early. Megalithic building then shifted to constructing networks of artificial


title: Megalith content: islands on the coast that supported a multitude of common, royal and religious structures. Dating of the structures is difficult but the complex at Nan Madol on Pohpei was probably inhabited as early as 800 c.a. probably as an artificial islands with the more elaborate buildings and religious structures added to the site from 1000–1400 AD. Nan Madol almost certainly served as the economic, government and religious site for a centralized monarchy which is historically named the 'Saudeleurs'. By legend the Saudeleurs were from elsewhere, possibly in the south or west but no specific origin has ever been established. Nan


title: Megalith content: Madol lost prominence and was later abandoned after the overthrow of the Saudeleur dynasty. The oral history suggests this overthrow was by a group of warriors from Kosrae. The megalithic site at Lelu on the island of Kosrae, based on dating studies and oral history, rose to prominence about 1400 AD corresponding roughly with the fall of Nan Madol and endured for the next three hundred years or so. It was largely abandoned by the time of European contact. The architecture at these Micronesian sites is characteristic and has little in common with other megalithic sites. Prismatic basalt columns were


title: Megalith content: brought from a great distance to the artificial islands and the rock was stacked in a layers of stretchers and runners filled in the center with coral debris. This structure allowed creation of walls up to 10 meters in height with great durability. The presence of step pyramids in the south western corner of Nan Madol as well as in Lelu suggests some Melanesian influence but other structures such as the royal residence, the religious structures and common areas as well as the elaborate interconnecting system of canals has no parallel elsewhere in the Pacific region. Megaliths were used for


title: Megalith content: a variety of purposes ranging from serving as boundary markers of territory, to a reminder of past events, and to being part of the society's religion. Common motifs including crooks and axes seem to be symbols of political power, much as the crook was a symbol of Egyptian pharaohs. Amongst the indigenous peoples of India, Malaysia, Polynesia, North Africa, North America, and South America, the worship of these stones, or the use of these stones to symbolize a spirit or deity, is a possibility. In the early 20th century, some scholars believed that all megaliths belonged to one global "Megalithic


title: Megalith content: culture" (hyperdiffusionism, e. g. ‘the Manchester school’, by Grafton Elliot Smith and William James Perry), but this has long been disproved by modern dating methods. Nor is it believed any longer that there was a pan-European megalithic culture, although regional cultures existed, even within such a small areas as the British Isles. The archaeologist Euan Mackie wrote "Likewise it cannot be doubted that important regional cultures existed in the Neolithic period and can be defined by different kinds of stone circles and local pottery styles (Ruggles & Barclay 2000: figure 1). No-one has ever been rash enough to claim a


title: Megalith content: nationwide unity of all aspects of Neolithic archaeology!" The types of megalithic structure can be divided into two categories, the "polylithic type" and the "monolithic type." Different megalithic structures include: Megalith A megalith is a large stone that has been used to construct a structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. The word megalithic describes structures made of such large stones without the use of mortar or concrete, representing periods of prehistory characterised by such constructions. For later periods, the word "monolith", with an overlapping meaning, is more likely to be used. The word "megalith" comes from


title: "Oriole Park at Camden Yards" content: built on land that once served as the rail yard for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad's Camden Station. The view from much of the park is dominated by the former B&O Warehouse behind the right-field wall. Some seats in the stadium have a good view of the downtown Baltimore skyline. The bullpen area was designed after many write-in designs were submitted by the public. Its unique two-tiered design was a first in major league parks. A picnic area is located above and behind the bullpens. Rows of picnic tables covered by orange umbrellas are available for fans to sit and


title: "Safety pin" content: Safety pin The safety pin is a variation of the regular pin which includes a simple spring mechanism and a clasp. The clasp serves two purposes: to form a closed loop thereby properly fastening the pin to whatever it is applied to, and to cover the end of the pin to protect the user from the sharp point. Safety pins are commonly used to fasten pieces of fabric or clothing together. Safety pins, or more usually a special version with an extra safe cover, called a nappy pin, or loincloth pin, are widely used to fasten cloth diapers (nappies), or


title: "Safety pin" content: modern loincloths, as the safety clasp, while remaining ingestion hazard, prevents the baby or boy from being jabbed. Similarly, they can be used to patch torn or damaged clothing. Safety pins can also be used as an accessory in jewelry, like earrings, chains, and wristbands. Sometimes they are used to attach an embroidered patch. Size 3 is often used in quilting and may be labelled for purchase as a "quilting pin". Size 4 and larger may be called "blanket pins" and deemed acceptable as kilt pins for informal dress, depending upon design and appearance. The fibula, a form of brooch,


title: "Safety pin" content: was invented by the Myceaneans on the Greek Peloponnesus between the 14th and 13th Century BC, and is considered an early precursor to a safety pin since they were used in a similar manner. Fibulae were used by Greek women and men to help secure tunics. American mechanic Walter Hunt is regarded as the inventor of the safety pin that bears resemblance to those used today. The safety pin included a clasp that covered the point and kept it from opening, and a circular twist at the bend to act as a spring and hold it in place. Charles Rowley


title: "Safety pin" content: (Birmingham, England) independently patented a similar safety pin in October 1849, although the company no longer makes these. Hunt made the invention in order to pay off a $15 debt to a friend. He used a piece of brass wire that was about 8 inches long and made a coil in the center of the wire so it would open up when released. The clasp at one end was devised in order to shield the sharp edge from the user. After being issued U.S. patent #6,281 on April 10, 1849, Hunt sold the patent to W. R. Grace and Company


title: "Safety pin" content: for $400 (roughly $,000 in dollars). Using that money, Hunt then paid the $15 owed to a friend and kept the remaining amount of $385 for himself. What Hunt failed to realize is that in the years to follow, W.R. Grace and Company would make millions of dollars in profits from his invention. The sharpened pin, that is attached to a coiled wire is connected with a cap that is hooked at the end of the wire. Pushing the pin into the opening of the cap secures the safety of the pin, and the clasp is the closed. Whilst the


title: "Safety pin" content: cover on the safety pin makes it less likely to hurt someone, a version was invented specially for use with babies' nappies, the nappy pin. This is larger and stronger than the typical safety pin. Modern nappy pins have the sliding cap to lock the pin. While the cover on the safety pin makes it less likely to hurt someone, a version was invented especially for use with babies' diapers, the diaper pin. This is larger and stronger than the typical safety pin. Modern diaper pins have either a sliding cap to lock the pin or a S shaped channel


title: "Safety pin" content: inside the cap. The laryngologist Dr. Chevalier Jackson devised special instruments for removing swallowed safety pins. Because small children often swallowed them and open pins could be lodged dangerously in their throats, Jackson called them "danger pins" and sometimes displayed arrangements of those he had extracted. Safety pin ingestion is still a common problem in some countries, including Turkey, today. During the emergence of punk rock in the late seventies, safety pins became associated with the genre, its followers and fashion. Some claim the look was taken originally from Richard Hell whom the British punks saw in pictures, and whose


title: "Safety pin" content: style they adopted. This is disputed by a number of artists from the first wave of British punks, most notably Johnny Rotten, who insists that safety pins were originally incorporated for more practical reasons, for example, to remedy "the arse of your pants falling out". British punk fans, after seeing the clothing worn by such punk forerunners, then incorporated safety pins into their own wardrobe as clothing decoration or as piercings, shifting the purpose of the pins from practicality to fashion. The safety pin subsequently has become an image associated with punk rock by media and popular culture outlets. Safety


title: "Safety pin" content: pins hold a value in certain cultures and traditions. In India pins are kept over generations and passed down to daughters. Ukrainians use pins as a way to ward off evil spirts when attached to children's clothing. In other countries a safety pin is a form of good luck. Safety pin The safety pin is a variation of the regular pin which includes a simple spring mechanism and a clasp. The clasp serves two purposes: to form a closed loop thereby properly fastening the pin to whatever it is applied to, and to cover the end of the pin to


title: "Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan" content: Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan The Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (, "") was an Islamic state established in September 1996 when the Taliban began their rule of Afghanistan after the fall of Kabul. At its peak, the Taliban established control over approximately 90% of the country, whereas remaining parts of the country in the northeast were held by the Northern Alliance, which became the widely recognized government of Afghanistan. The Taliban provided a safe haven for Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda officials, allowing them to plot major terrorist attacks such as the September 11 attacks (9/11). After 9/11, international opposition to


title: "Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan" content: forbidden to attend schools or universities and were requested to observe purdah and to abstain from obscenities. Those who resisted were punished. Communists were systematically executed and thieves were punished by amputating one of their hands or feet. Meanwhile, the Taliban succeeded in nearly eradicating the majority of the opium production by 2001. Cabinet ministers and deputies were mullahs with a "madrasah education." Several of them, such as the Minister of Health and Governor of the State bank, were primarily military commanders who were ready to leave their administrative posts to fight when needed. Military reverses that trapped them behind


title: "Longevity myths" content: Longevity myths Longevity myths are traditions about long-lived people (generally supercentenarians), either as individuals or groups of people, and practices that have been believed to confer longevity, but for which scientific evidence does not support the ages claimed or the reasons for the claims. While literal interpretations of such myths may appear to indicate extraordinarily long lifespans, many scholars believe such figures may be the result of incorrect translation of numbering systems through various languages coupled by the cultural and/or symbolic significance of certain numbers. The phrase "longevity tradition" may include "purifications, rituals, longevity practices, meditations, and alchemy" that have


title: "Spotted flycatcher" content: Spotted flycatcher The spotted flycatcher ("Muscicapa striata") is a small passerine bird in the Old World flycatcher family. It breeds in most of Europe and western Asia, and is migratory, wintering in Africa and south western Asia. It is declining in parts of its range. This is an undistinguished looking bird with long wings and tail. The adults have grey-brown upperparts and whitish underparts, with a streaked crown and breast, giving rise to the bird's common name. The legs are short and black, and the bill is black and has the broad but pointed shape typical of aerial insectivores. Juveniles


title: "Spotted flycatcher" content: are browner than adults and have spots on the upperparts. The spotted flycatcher was described by the German naturalist Peter Simon Pallas in 1764 and given the binomial name "Motacilla striata". The genus name "Muscicapa" comes from the Latin "musca", a fly and "capere", to catch. The specific epithet "striata" is from the Latin "striatus" meaning striated. There are five recognised subspecies all of which winter in southern Africa. The breeding range is given below. A molecular phylogenetic study published in 2016 found that "M. s. tyrrhenica" and "M. s. balearica" were genetically similar to each other but significantly different


title: "Spotted flycatcher" content: from the other spotted flycatcher subspecies. The authors proposed that these insular subspecies should be considered as a separate species. The IOC has split the species and is known as the Mediterranean flycatcher, while other taxonomic authorities still consider it to be conspecific. The spotted flycatcher is a small slim bird, around in length, with a weight of . It has dull grey-brown upperparts and off-white underparts. The crown, throat and breast are streaked with brown while the wings and tail feathers are edged with paler thin margins. The subspecies "M. s. tyrrhenica" has paler and warmer plumage on the


title: "Spotted flycatcher" content: upperparts, with more diffuse markings on the head and breast. The sexes are alike. Juveniles have ochre-buff spots above and scaly brown spots below. Spotted flycatchers hunt from conspicuous perches, making sallies after passing flying insects, and often returning to the same perch. Their upright posture is characteristic. Most passerines moult their primary flight feathers in sequence beginning near the body and proceeding outwards along the wing. The spotted flycatcher is unusual in replacing the outer flight feathers before those nearer the body. The flycatcher's call is a thin, drawn out soft and high pitched "", slightly descending in pitch.


title: "Spotted flycatcher" content: They are birds of deciduous woodlands, parks and gardens, with a preference for open areas amongst trees. They build an open nest in a suitable recess, often against a wall, and will readily adapt to an open-fronted nest box. 4-6 eggs are laid. Most European birds cannot discriminate between their own eggs and those of other species. The exception to this are the hosts of the common cuckoo, which have had to evolve this skill as a protection against that nest parasite. The spotted flycatcher shows excellent egg recognition, and it is likely that it was once a host of


title: "Spotted flycatcher" content: the cuckoo, but became so good at recognising the intruder's eggs that it ceased to be victimised. A contrast to this is the dunnock, which appears to be a recent cuckoo host, since it does not show any egg discrimination. A study conducted at two different locations in southern England found that one third of nests were predated. The Eurasian jay ("Garrulus glandarius") was the most common aerial predator, consuming both eggs and chicks. The domestic cat ("Felis catus") predated a small fraction of the nests. Spotted flycatcher The spotted flycatcher ("Muscicapa striata") is a small passerine bird in the


title: "Horned lizard" content: Horned lizard Horned lizards (Phrynosoma), also known as horny toads or horntoads, are a genus of North American lizards and the type genus of the family Phrynosomatidae. The common names refer directly to their flattened, rounded body and blunt snout. The genus name "Phrynosoma" means "toad-bodied". In common with large true frogs and toads, horned lizards tend to move sluggishly, making them easy to catch; this may also avoid triggering attacks by predators. They are adapted to arid or semi-arid areas. The spines on the lizard's back and sides are made from modified reptile scales which prevent the water loss


title: "Horned lizard" content: through the skin, whereas the horns on the head are true horns (i.e. they have a bony core). Of the 22 species of horned lizards, 15 are native to the United States. The largest-bodied and most widely distributed of the US species is the Texas horned lizard. Horned lizards use a wide variety of means to avoid predation. Their coloration generally serves as camouflage. When threatened, their first defense is to remain still to avoid detection. If approached too closely, they generally run in short bursts and stop abruptly to confuse the predator's visual acuity. If this fails, they puff


title: "Horned lizard" content: up their bodies to cause them to appear more horned and larger, so that they are more difficult to swallow. At least eight species ("P. asio", "P. cornutum", "P. coronatum", "P. ditmarsi", "P. hernandesi", "P. orbiculare", "P. solare", and "P. taurus") are also able to squirt an aimed stream of blood from the corners of the eyes for a distance of up to . They do this by restricting the blood flow leaving the head, thereby increasing blood pressure and rupturing tiny vessels around the eyelids. The blood not only confuses predators, but also tastes foul to canine and feline


title: "Horned lizard" content: predators. It appears to have no effect against predatory birds. Only three closely related species ("P. mcallii", "P. modestum", and "P. platyrhinos") are certainly known to be unable to squirt blood. While previous thought held that compounds were added to the blood from glands in the ocular sinus cavity, current research has shown that the chemical compounds that make up the defense are already in the circulating blood. It is possible that their diet of large quantities of venomous harvester ants could be a factor; however, the origin and structure of the chemicals responsible are still unknown. The blood-squirting mechanism


title: "Horned lizard" content: increases survival after contact with canine predators; therefore, it is probable that, while unorthodox, the trait could have provided an evolutionary advantage. Ocular autohemorrhaging has also been documented in other lizards, which suggests blood-squirting could have evolved from a less extreme defense in the ancestral branch of the genus. Recent phylogenic research supports this claim, so it appears as though the species incapable of squirting blood have lost the adaptation for reasons yet unstudied. To avoid being picked up by the head or neck, a horned lizard ducks or elevates its head and orients its cranial horns straight up, or


title: "Horned lizard" content: back. If a predator tries to take it by the body, the lizard drives that side of its body down into the ground so the predator cannot easily get its lower jaw underneath. A University of Texas publication notes that horned lizard populations continue to disappear throughout the southwest despite protective legislation. The Texas horned lizard has disappeared from almost half of its geographic range. Population declines are attributed to loss of habitat, human eradication of the ant populations upon which the lizards prey, displacement of native ant populations by invading fire ants (aided by synergistic effects of native ant


title: "Horned lizard" content: eradication), and predation by domestic dogs and cats. In 2014, the Center for Biological Diversity in Tucson, Arizona petitioned the Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation to have the Texas horned lizard put on the endangered species list due to the massive declines of its population in Oklahoma, where it was once plentiful. The Center said it may later seek protection for the animal on a Federal level; it also said that reptiles in general are dying off at up to 10,000 times their historic extinction rate, greatly due to human influences. The following 22 species are recognized as being valid,


title: "Horned lizard" content: three species of which have recognized subspecies. "Nota bene": In the above list, a binomial authority or trinomial authority in parentheses indicates that the species or subspecies was originally described in a genus other than "Phrynosoma". The genus of horned lizards is the official state reptile of Wyoming. Texas designated the Texas horned lizard ("Phrynosoma cornutum") as the official state reptile in 1993 and the "TCU Horned Frog" is the mascot of Texas Christian University in Fort Worth, Texas. TCU is the only known athletic team with the horned lizard as a mascot. Horned lizard Horned lizards (Phrynosoma), also known


title: Microlophus content: the species was originally described in a genus other than "Microlophus". Microlophus Microlophus is a genus of tropidurid lizards native to South America. There are around twenty recognized species and six of these are endemic to the Galápagos Islands where they are popularly known as lava lizards (they are sometimes placed in "Tropidurus" instead). The remaining, which often are called Pacific iguanas, are found in the Andes and along the Pacific coasts of Chile, Peru, and Ecuador. The distribution of the lava lizards and their variations in shape, colour and behaviour show the phenomenon of adaptive radiation so typical of


title: Dough content: of flours, commonly wheat but also flours made from maize, rice, rye, legumes, almonds, and other cereals and crops used around the world. Doughs vary widely depending on ingredients, the kind of product being produced, the type of leavening agent (particularly whether the dough is based on yeast or not), how the dough is mixed (whether quickly mixed or kneaded and left to rise), and cooking or baking technique. There is no formal definition of what makes dough, though most doughs have viscoelastic properties. Leavened or fermented doughs (generally made from grain cereals or legumes that are ground to produce


title: Metasequoia content: Metasequoia Metasequoia (dawn redwood) is a fast-growing deciduous tree, and the sole living species, "Metasequoia glyptostroboides", is one of three species of conifers known as redwoods. It is native to Lichuan county in Hubei province, China. Although the shortest of the redwoods, it grows to at least 165 feet (50 meters) in height. Local villagers refer to the original tree from which most others derive as "Shui-sa", or "water fir", which is part of a local shrine. Since its rediscovery in 1944, the dawn redwood has become a popular ornamental. Together with "Sequoia sempervirens" (coast redwood) and "Sequoiadendron giganteum" (giant


title: Metasequoia content: sequoia) of California, "Metasequoia" is classified in the Cupressaceae subfamily Sequoioideae. "M. glyptostroboides" is the only living species in its genus, but three fossil species are known. Sequoioideae and several other genera have been transferred from the former Taxodiaceae family to Cupressaceae based on DNA analysis. "Metasequoia" redwood fossils are known from many areas in the Northern Hemisphere; more than 20 fossil species have been named (some were even identified as the genus "Sequoia"), but are considered as just three species, "M. foxii", "M. milleri", and "M. occidentalis". During the Paleocene and Eocene, extensive forests of "Metasequoia" occurred as far


title: Metasequoia content: north as Strathcona Fiord on Ellesmere Island and sites on Axel Heiberg Island (northern Canada) at around 80° N latitude. "Metasequoia" was likely deciduous by this time. Given that the high latitudes in this period were warm and tropical, it is hypothesized that the deciduous habit evolved in response to the unusual light availability patterns, not to major seasonal variations in temperature. During three months in the summer, the sun would shine continuously, while three months of the winter would be complete darkness. It is also hypothesized that the change from evergreen to deciduous habit occurred before colonizing the high


title: Metasequoia content: latitudes and was the reason "Metasequoia" was dominant in the north. Large petrified trunks and stumps of the extinct "Metasequoia occidentalis" (sometimes identified as "Sequoia occidentalis") also make up the major portion of Tertiary fossil plant material in the badlands of western North Dakota. The trees are well known from late Cretaceous to Miocene strata, but no fossils are known after that. Before its discovery, the taxon was believed to have become extinct during the Miocene; when it was discovered extant, it was heralded as a "living fossil". The bark and foliage are similar to "Sequoia", but "Metasequoia" is deciduous


title: Metasequoia content: like "Taxodium distichum" (bald cypress), and, similarly, older specimens form wide buttresses on the lower trunk. It is a fast-growing tree to 130–150 feet (40–45 m) tall and 6 feet (2 m) in trunk diameter in cultivation so far (with the potential to grow even higher). The leaves are opposite, 0.4-1.25 inches (1–3 cm) long, and bright fresh green, turning foxy red-brown in fall. The pollen cones are 0.25 inch (6 mm) long, produced on long spikes in early spring; they are only produced on trees growing in regions with hot summers. The cones are globose to ovoid, 0.6-1.0 inches


title: Metasequoia content: (1.5-2.5 cm) in diameter with 16–28 scales, arranged in opposite pairs in four rows, each pair at right angles to the adjacent pair; they mature in about 8–9 months after pollination. "Metasequoia" has experienced morphological stasis for the past 65 million years: the modern "Metasequoia glyptostroboides" appears identical to its late Cretaceous ancestors. "Metasequoia" was first described as a fossil from the Mesozoic Era by Shigeru Miki in 1941, but in 1944, a small stand of an unidentified tree species was discovered in China in Modaoxi (磨刀溪; presently, Moudao (谋道), in Lichuan County, Hubei) by Zhan Wang. Due to World


title: Metasequoia content: War II, these were not studied further until 1946, and only finally described as a new living species of "Metasequoia" in 1948 by Wan Chun Cheng and Hu Hsen Hsu. In 1948, the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University sent an expedition to collect seeds and, soon after, seedling trees were distributed to various universities and arboreta worldwide for growth trials. Presently, a number of natural "Metasequoia" populations exist in the hills and wetlands of Hubei's Lichuan County. Most of them are small, with fewer than 30 trees each; however, the largest of them, in Xiaohe Valley, is estimated to consist


title: Metasequoia content: of around 5,400 trees. A few trees are also said to exist in neighboring Hunan Province. Dawn redwoods are fast-growing trees. They will grow too large for small gardens, but can be good in a wide range of larger gardens and parks. Although they live in wet sites in their native habitat they will also tolerate dry soils. Unlike most conifers, their deciduous habit means they do not cast too much shade in winter. They are grown as street trees in London and elsewhere. Strawberry Fields is a landscaped section in New York City's Central Park dedicated to Beatle John


title: Metasequoia content: Lennon. At the northern end of the lawns are three dawn redwood trees. The trees drop their needles each fall and regrow them each spring, a symbol of eternal renewal. The trees are expected to reach a height of 36 metres (118 ft), making them visible from great distances. Metasequoia Metasequoia (dawn redwood) is a fast-growing deciduous tree, and the sole living species, "Metasequoia glyptostroboides", is one of three species of conifers known as redwoods. It is native to Lichuan county in Hubei province, China. Although the shortest of the redwoods, it grows to at least 165 feet (50 meters)


title: "Problem of Hell" content: inconvenience to their free will partake of an irresistible grace (which is thus shown possible), even who holds an at least conditional election of every human being (Molinism and, despite notable academic success of Thomist grace theology within the Catholic pale, in practice the stand of Catholics) needs to say that God could have rescued some and did not. Here, again, the discussion shades into that on the problem of evil. Another issue is the problem of harmonizing the existence of Hell with God's infinite mercy or omnibenevolence which is found in scripture. As in the problem of evil, some


title: "Passiflora edulis" content: Passiflora edulis Passiflora edulis is a vine species of passion flower that is native to southern Brazil through Paraguay and northern Argentina. It is cultivated commercially in tropical and subtropical areas for its sweet, seedy fruit, commonly called passion fruit. The fruit is a pepo, a type of berry, round to oval, either yellow or dark purple at maturity, with a soft to firm, juicy interior filled with numerous seeds. The fruit is both eaten or juiced, the juice often added to other fruit juices to enhance aroma. The passion fruit is so called because it is one of the


title: "Passiflora edulis" content: many species of passion flower, the English translation of the Latin genus name, "Passiflora". Around 1700, the name was given by missionaries in Brazil as an educational aid while trying to convert the indigenous inhabitants to Christianity; its name was "flor das cinco chagas" or "flower of the five wounds" to illustrate the crucifixion of Christ, with other plant components also named after an emblem in the Passion of Jesus. The name "maracuyá" or "maracujá" comes from a Guaraní word meaning "nursery for flies". In the Dominican Republic, the fruit is called "chinola", which is probably derived from the word


title: "Passiflora edulis" content: "China" where the orange, a similar-looking fruit, originated. The fruit is known as maracuyá or parcha in Spanish, grenadille or fruit de la passion in French. "P. edulis" is a perennial vine; tendrils are borne in leaf axils, and have a red or purple hue when young. There are two main varieties: a purple-fruited type, "P. edulis" f. "edulis", and the yellow-fruited "P. edulis" f. "flavicarpa". Usually the vine produces a single flower 5–7.5 cm wide at each node. The flower has 5 oblong, green sepals and 5 white petals. The sepals and petals are 4-6mm in length and form


title: "Passiflora edulis" content: a fringe. The base of the flower is a rich purple with 5 stamens, an ovary, and a branched style. The styles bend backward and the anthers, which are located on top of the styles, have a very distinct head. The fruit produced is entirely fleshy (making it botanically a berry), and is spherical to ovoid. The outside color of the berry ranges from dark-purple with fine white specks to light yellow. The fruit is 4—7.5 cm in diameter; purple fruits are smaller, weighing around 35 grams, while yellow fruits are closer to 80 grams. The smooth, leathery rind is


title: "Passiflora edulis" content: 9–13 mm thick, including a thick layer of pith. Within the berry, there are typically 250 black seeds, each 2.4 mm in length. Each seed is surrounded by a membranous sac filled with pulpy juice. The flavor of the juice is slightly acidic and musky. The passion fruit's flavor can be compared to that of the guava fruit. Several distinct varieties of passion fruit with clearly differing exterior appearances exist. The bright yellow "flavicarpa" variety, also known as yellow or golden passionfruit, can grow up to the size of a grapefruit, has a smooth, glossy, light and airy rind, and


title: "Passiflora edulis" content: has been used as a rootstock for purple passionfruit in Australia. The dark purple "edulis" variety is smaller than a lemon, though it is less acidic than yellow passionfruit, and has a richer aroma and flavour. Passion fruit has a variety of uses related to its appealing taste as a whole fruit and juice. Raw passion fruit is 73% water, 22% carbohydrates, 2% protein and 0.7% fat (table). In a 100 gram amount, fresh passion fruit contains 36% of the Daily Value (DV) of vitamin C, 42% dietary fiber, B vitamins riboflavin (11% DV) and niacin (10% DV), 12% iron


title: "Passiflora edulis" content: and 10% phosphorus (right table). No other micronutrients are in significant content. Several varieties of passionfruit are rich in polyphenol content, and yellow varieties of the fruit were found to contain prunasin and other cyanogenic glycosides in the peel and juice. Passion fruit is widely grown in tropical and semitropical regions of the world. Within the United States, it is grown in Florida and California. They generally have to be protected from frost, although certain cultivars have survived light frosts after heavy pruning of affected areas. The flower of the yellow-fruited form of the passion fruit plant is self-sterile, while


title: "Passiflora edulis" content: that of the purple-fruited form is self-compatible. Pollination of flowers is most effective when done by the carpenter bee. There are three types of yellow passion fruit flowers, classified by curvature of style. To help assure the presence of carpenter bees, place decaying logs near the vines, which provide shelter for the bees. Passion fruit woodiness virus is one of the most well known viruses to the passion fruit. It belongs to the "Potyvirus" group and can attack a plant at any age from nursery to mature plants. Some features include yellow leaves that display distortion in the leaf length


title: "Passiflora edulis" content: and shape. As well as affecting the leaf, this virus influences fruit shape and size. Affected fruits become stone-like and much smaller than normal, with many fruits becoming scabbed and cracked. The virus is spread by sap-sucking insects such as aphids and mites. Woodiness can also spread through vegetation propagation such as infected scions or contaminated tools. There is no chemical control for this virus once the plant is infected, but the use of clean planting material can reduce its dissemination. One of the most serious viruses pertaining to vegetation is the Cucumber mosaic virus. In the passion fruit, this


title: "Passiflora edulis" content: virus appears with yellow mottling on leaves starting at random points on the vine and diminishing in intensity towards the tip. Expanding leaves typically become twisted, curl downward, and develop a "shoestring" appearance as a result of a restriction of the leaf surface. It is mobile and can spread easily through interactions with other plants such as brushing between leaves. This virus is naturally transmitted through aphids and can also be transmitted mechanically through seedlings. Varietal resistance is the primary management tool, and eliminating weeds and infected perennial ornamentals that may harbor the virus is critical. Once the plant has


title: "Passiflora edulis" content: been infected, there is no possible management of control for the virus. Overshooting is the term used when "Phytoplasma", a specialized bacterium, attacks the phloem of a plant. "Phytoplasma" infection is characterized by chlorotic small leaves, shortening of internodes, excessive lateral shoots and abnormal flowers. Although there have been reports of this disease within the passion fruit plant, many infected plants are affected without visible signs of disease. Although "Phytoplasma" can be spread through grafting, it can be inhibited by periodic inspection of plant nurseries and areas that have had past infections. Overshooting responds to treatment with tetracycline, a common


title: "Passiflora edulis" content: broad-spectrum antibiotic. Bacterial leaf spot, which causes vein clearing, forms bright yellow colonies causing infection and leaf wilt and, eventually, deterioration of fruit pulp, especially of young fruits. Under favorable conditions for the bacteria, infection occurs through natural openings or wounds from other pathogens that affect leaf inter-cellular spaces. Fertilizers or a copper chloride and mancozeb mixture can control the intensity of the disease, but are not a cure. The bacterial grease-spot of the passion fruit is caused by Pseudomonas syringae. It appears with olive-green to brown greasy-looking spots or brown, sunken circular lesions. On a later stage, a hard


title: "Passiflora edulis" content: crust can cover the lesions showing a chlorotic halo. Affecting mainly the stomata, the grease-spot thrives in high temperatures and high relative humidity. To avoid infection, measures that may be adopted include planting seeds from healthy plants and using existing healthy areas. Fungicide controls can aid in preventing further infection. Collar rot disease is caused from the fungus "Fusarium solani". It is characterized by necrotic lesions at the collar region, browning of the stem at soil level, and dark discoloration of the stem. The rotting stem interferes with food and water transport within the plant, leading to withering of the


title: "Passiflora edulis" content: plant until death. Infection occurs mostly through contaminated soil and infected plants which cause the plants to survive for only a few weeks. There are no chemical controls. Management includes planting seedlings in unaffected areas and using clean tools. The fungus called fusarium wilt commonly occurs in adult plants and is caused by "Fusarium oxysporum". The pathogen has ability to survive for long periods, penetrating roots, invading the xylem and preventing the transport of water and nutrients to other organs of the plant. Once infected, this disease causes leaves to yellow and browning of the vascular system until it wilts


title: "Passiflora edulis" content: and dies. It occurs in any type of soil infecting all plants. Management of crops include planting clean seedlings, uprooting and burning infected plants, and using sterilized tools. The anthracnose, a canker caused by "Colletotrichum gloeosporiodes", is a pathogen of the passion fruit creating dark and sunken lesions of the trunk. By attacking mature passion fruit trees, these lesions cause intense defoliation and fruit rot. Many leaves die due to the foliar lesions and the skin of fruits becomes papery. Under warm and humid conditions, this disease can worsen, causing red and orange spores eventually killing the plant. Infection is


title: "Passiflora edulis" content: carried out through the residues of the passion flower, infected seeds, seedlings, and cuttings. Managing this disease involves a combination of using pathogen-free seedlings, eliminating infected areas, and improving ventilation and light conditions. Copper-based fungicides on injured areas can prevent the spread of disease. Passion fruit flower is the national flower of Paraguay. Passiflora edulis Passiflora edulis is a vine species of passion flower that is native to southern Brazil through Paraguay and northern Argentina. It is cultivated commercially in tropical and subtropical areas for its sweet, seedy fruit, commonly called passion fruit. The fruit is a pepo, a type


title: Passiflora content: Passiflora Passiflora, known also as the passion flowers or passion vines, is a genus of about 550 species of flowering plants, the type genus of the family Passifloraceae. They are mostly tendril-bearing vines, with some being shrubs or trees. They can be woody or herbaceous. Passion flowers produce regular and usually showy flowers with a distinctive corona. The flower is pentamerous and ripens into an indehiscent fruit with numerous seeds. For more information about the fruit of the "Passiflora" plant, see passionfruit. A list of "Passiflora" species is found at List of Passiflora species. "Passiflora" has a largely neotropic distribution,


title: Passiflora content: unlike its family Passifloraceae, which includes more Old World species (such as the genus "Adenia"). The vast majority of "Passiflora" are found in Mexico, Central and South America, although there are additional representatives in the United States, Southeast Asia, and Oceania. New species continue to be identified: for example, "P. xishuangbannaensis" and "P. pardifolia" have only been known to the scientific community since 2005 and 2006, respectively. Some species of "Passiflora" have been naturalized beyond their native ranges. For example, the blue passion flower ("P. caerulea") now grows wild in Spain. The purple passionfruit ("P. edulis") and its yellow relative


title: Passiflora content: "flavicarpa" have been introduced in many tropical regions as commercial crops. Passion flowers have unique floral structures, which in most cases require biotic pollination. Pollinators of "Passiflora" include bumblebees, carpenter bees ("Xylocopa varipuncta"), wasps, bats, and hummingbirds (especially hermits such as "Phaethornis"); some others are additionally capable of self-pollination. "Passiflora" often exhibit high levels of pollinator specificity, which has led to frequent coevolution across the genus. The sword-billed hummingbird ("Ensifera ensifera") is a notable example: it, with its immensely elongated bill, is the sole pollinator of 37 species of high Andean "Passiflora" in the supersection "Tacsonia". The leaves are used


title: Passiflora content: for feeding by the larvae of a number of species of Lepidoptera. Famously, they are exclusively targeted by many butterfly species of the tribe Heliconiini. The many defensive adaptations visible on "Passiflora" include diverse leaf shapes (which help disguise their identity), colored nubs (which mimic butterfly eggs and can deter Heliconians from ovipositing on a seemingly crowded leaf), extrafloral nectaries, trichomes, variegation, and chemical defenses. These, combined with adaptations on the part of the butterflies, were important in the foundation of coevolutionary theory. The following lepidoptera larvae are known to feed on "Passiflora": The generally high pollinator and parasite specificity


title: Passiflora content: in "Passiflora" may have led to the tremendous morphological variation in the genus. It is thought to have among the highest foliar diversity among all plant genera, with leaf shapes ranging from unlobed to five-lobed frequently found on the same plant. Coevolution can be a major driver of speciation, and may be responsible for the radiation of certain clades of "Passiflora" such as "Tacsonia". The bracts of the stinking passion flower are covered by hairs which exude a sticky fluid. Many small insects get stuck to this and get digested to nutrient-rich goo by proteases and acid phosphatases. Since the


title: Passiflora content: insects usually killed are rarely major pests, this passion flower seems to be a protocarnivorous plant. Banana passion flower or "banana poka" ("P. tarminiana"), originally from Central Brazil, is an invasive weed, especially on the islands of Hawaii. It is commonly spread by feral pigs eating the fruits. It overgrows and smothers stands of endemic vegetation, mainly on roadsides. Blue passion flower ("P. caerulea") is holding its own in Spain these days, and it probably needs to be watched so that unwanted spreading can be curtailed. On the other hand, some species are endangered due to unsustainable logging and other


title: Passiflora content: forms of habitat destruction. For example, the Chilean passion flower ("P. pinnatistipula") is a rare vine growing in the Andes from Venezuela to Chile between 2,500 and 3,800 meters altitude, and in Coastal Central Chile, where it occurs in woody Chilean Mediterranean forests. "P. pinnatistipula" has a round fruit, unusual in "Tacsonia" group species like banana passion flower and "P. mixta", with their elongated tubes and brightly red to rose-colored petals. Notable and sometimes economically significant pathogens of "Passiflora" are several sac fungi of the genus "Septoria" (including "S. passiflorae"), the undescribed proteobacterium called "Pseudomonas tomato" (pv. "passiflorae"), the "Potyvirus"


title: Passiflora content: "passionfruit woodiness virus", and the "Carlavirus" "Passiflora latent virus". A number of species of "Passiflora" are cultivated outside their natural range for both their flowers and fruit. Hundreds of hybrids have been named; hybridizing is currently being done extensively for flowers, foliage and fruit. The following hybrids and cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit: During the Victorian era the flower (which in all but a few species lasts only one day) was very popular, and many hybrids were created using the winged-stem passion flower ("P. alata"), the blue passion flower ("P. caerulea") and other tropical


title: Passiflora content: species. Many cool-growing "Passiflora" from the Andes Mountains can be grown successfully for their beautiful flowers and fruit in cooler Mediterranean climates, such as the Monterey Bay and San Francisco in California and along the western coast of the U.S. into Canada. One blue passion flower or hybrid even grew to large size at Malmö Central Station in Sweden. Passion flowers have been a subject of studies investigating extranuclear inheritance; paternal inheritance of chloroplast DNA has been documented in this genus. The plastome of the two-flowered passion flower ("P. biflora") has been sequenced. The French name for this plant has


title: Passiflora content: lent itself to "La Famille Passiflore", a highly successful children's book series by Geneviève Huriet, and an animated series based upon it. These have been translated into English as "Beechwood Bunny Tales" and "The Bellflower Bunnies". Most species have round or elongated edible fruit from two to eight inches long and an inch to two inches across, depending upon the species or cultivar. "P. incarnata" (maypop) leaves and roots have a long history of use among Native Americans in North America and were adapted by the European colonists. The fresh or dried leaves of maypop are used to make a


title: Passiflora content: tea that is used for insomnia, hysteria, and epilepsy, and is also valued for its analgesic properties. "P. edulis" (passion fruit) and a few other species are used in Central and South America for similar purposes. Once dried, the leaves can also be smoked. The medical utility of only a few species of "Passiflora" has been scientifically studied. In initial study in 2001 for treatment of generalized anxiety disorder, maypop extract performed as well as oxazepam but with fewer short-term side effects. It was recommended to follow up with long-term studies to confirm these results. A study performed on mice


title: Passiflora content: demonstrated that "Passiflora alata" has a genotoxic effect on cells, and suggested further research was recommended before this one species is considered safe for human consumption. In another study performed with non-smoking patients, it demonstrates that oral administration of "Passifora incarnata" following extubation for patients surgery reduced the patients coughing versus the control group. By administering "Passiflora incarnata" orally with the correct dosage, it can result in antitussive activities without impairing the patient drastically. The results presented show a decrease of post extubation cough after out-patient surgery but it was only recorded early on. With this information, further research can


title: Passiflora content: be applied to create other medications for coughing but the authors note the limitations on the study included short observation period as well as a small sample size. Passionflower herb (Passiflorae herba) from "P. incarnata" is listed in the European Pharmacopoeia. The herbal drug should contain not less than 1.5% total flavonoids expressed as vitexin. Passionflower is reputed to have sedative effects and has been used in sedative products in Europe, but in 1978, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration prohibited its use in over-the-counter sedative preparations because it had not been proven safe and effective. In 2011, the University


title: Passiflora content: of Maryland Medical Center reported that passionflower "... can trigger side effects and can interact with other herbs, supplements, or medications. For these reasons, you should take herbs with care, under the supervision of a health care provider." Passionflower is classified as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) for use in foods in the US, and is “possibly safe when used orally and appropriately for short-term medicinal purposes,” “possibly unsafe when used in excessive amounts,” but unsafe when used orally during pregnancy since “...passionflower constituents show evidence of uterine stimulation.” The database suggests it is possibly effective for adjustment disorder with


title: Passiflora content: anxious mood, anxiety, and opiate withdrawal, but it “can cause dizziness, confusion, sedation, and ataxia” and there are some reports of more severe side effects including vasculitis and altered consciousness. Many species of "Passiflora" have been found to contain beta-carboline harmala alkaloids, some of which are MAO inhibitors. The flower and fruit have only traces of these chemicals, but the leaves and the roots often contain more. The most common of these alkaloids is harman, but harmaline, harmalol, harmine, and harmol are also present. The species known to bear such alkaloids include: "P. actinea", "P. alata" (winged-stem passion flower), "P.


title: Passiflora content: alba", "P. bryonioides" (cupped passion flower), "P. caerulea" (blue passion flower), "P. capsularis", "P. decaisneana", "P. edulis" (passion fruit), "P. eichleriana", "P. foetida" (stinking passion flower), "P. incarnata" (maypop), "P. quadrangularis" (giant granadilla), "P. suberosa", "P. subpeltata" and "P. warmingii". Other compounds found in passion flowers are coumarins (e.g. scopoletin and umbelliferone), maltol, phytosterols (e.g. lutenin) and cyanogenic glycosides (e.g. gynocardin) which render some species, i.e. "P. adenopoda", somewhat poisonous. Many flavonoids and their glycosides have been found in "Passiflora", including apigenin, benzoflavone, homoorientin, 7-isoorientin, isoshaftoside, isovitexin (or saponaretin), kaempferol, lucenin, luteolin, n-orientin, passiflorine (named after the genus), quercetin, rutin,


title: Passiflora content: saponarin, shaftoside, vicenin and vitexin. Maypop, blue passion flower ("P. caerulea"), and perhaps others contain the flavone chrysin. Also documented to occur at least in some "Passiflora" in quantity are the hydrocarbon nonacosane and the anthocyanidin pelargonidin-3-diglycoside. The genus is rich in organic acids including formic, butyric, linoleic, linolenic, malic, myristic, oleic and palmitic acids as well as phenolic compounds, and the amino acid α-alanine. Esters like ethyl butyrate, ethyl caproate, "n"-hexyl butyrate and "n"-hexyl caproate give the fruits their flavor and appetizing smell. Sugars, contained mainly in the fruit, are most significantly d-fructose, d-glucose and raffinose. Among enzymes, "Passiflora"


title: Passiflora content: was found to be rich in catalase, pectin methylesterase and phenolase. The "Passion" in "passion flower" refers to the passion of Jesus in Christian theology. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Spanish Christian missionaries adopted the unique physical structures of this plant, particularly the numbers of its various flower parts, as symbols of the last days of Jesus and especially his crucifixion: The flower has been given names related to this symbolism throughout Europe since that time. In Spain, it is known as "espina de Cristo" ("thorn of Christ'"). Older Germanic names include "Christus-Krone" ("Christ's crown"), "Christus-Strauss" ("Christ's bouquet"), "Dorn-Krone"


title: Passiflora content: ("crown of thorns"), "Jesus-Lijden" ("Jesus' passion"), "Marter" ("passion") or "Muttergottes-Stern" ("Mother of God's star"). Outside the Roman Catholic heartland, the regularly shaped flowers have reminded people of the face of a clock. In Israel they are known as "clock-flower" (שעונית) and in Greece as "clock plant" (ρολογιά); in Japan too, they are known as tokeisō (時計草, "clock plant"). In Hawaiian, they are called lilikoʻi; "lī" is a string used for tying fabric together, such as a shoelace, and "liko" means "to spring forth leaves". In India, blue passionflowers are called Krishnakamala in Karnataka and Maharashtra, while in Uttar Pradesh and


title: Passiflora content: generally north it is colloquially called "Paanch Paandav" (referring to the five Pandavas in the Hindu epic, the Mahabharata). The five anthers are interpreted as the five Pandavas, the divine Krishna is at the centre, and the radial filaments are opposing hundred. The colour blue is moreover associated with Krishna as the colour of his aura. In northern Peru and Bolivia, the banana passionfruits are known as tumbos. This is one possible source of the name of the Tumbes region of Peru. In Turkey, the shape of the flowers have reminded people of Rota Fortunae, thus it called Çarkıfelek. "Passiflora"


title: Passiflora content: is the most species rich genus of both the family Passifloraceae and the tribe Passifloreae. With over 550 species, an extensive hierarchy of infrageneric ranks is required to represent the relationships of the species. The infrageneric classification of "Passiflora" not only uses the widely used ranks of subgenus, section and series, but also the rank of supersection. The New World species of "Passiflora" were first divided among 22 subgenera by Killip (1938) in the first monograph of the genus. More recent work has reduced these to 4, which are commonly accepted today (in order from most basally to most recently


title: Passiflora content: branching): Some studies have shown that the segregate Old World genera "Hollrungia" and "Tetrapathaea" are nested within "Passiflora", and form a fifth subgenus ("Tetrapathaea"). Other studies support the current 4 subgenus classification. Relationships below the subgenus level are not known with certainty and are an active area of research. The Old World species form two clades - supersection "Disemma" (part of subgenus "Decaloba") and subgenus "Tetrapathaea". The former is composed of 21 species divided into sections "Disemma" (3 Australian species), "Holrungiella" (1 New Guinean species) and "Octandranthus" (17 south and east Asian species). The remaining (New World) species of subgenus


title: Passiflora content: "Decaloba" are divided into 7 supersections. Supersection "Pterosperma" includes 4 species from Central America and southern Mexico. Supersection "Hahniopathanthus" includes 5 species from Central America, Mexico and northernmost South America. Supersection "Cicea" includes 19 species, with apetalous flowers. Supersection "Bryonioides" includes 21 species, with a distribution centered on Mexico. Supersection "Auriculata" includes 8 species from South America, one of which is also found in Central America. Supersection "Multiflora" includes 19 species. Supersection "Decaloba" includes 123 species. Passiflora Passiflora, known also as the passion flowers or passion vines, is a genus of about 550 species of flowering plants, the type genus


title: "Arkansas Razorbacks" content: the championship game while compiling a record of 389–169 (.697) in his 17 years as the head basketball coach. On December 10, 1997, Houston Nutt was hired as head football coach for the Razorbacks (1998 season was his first full season) to replace Danny Ford, who had been head coach since 1993, and the 1998 season was his first full season. Highly sought after as a Little Rock Central quarterback, Nutt had been the last recruit to sign under Broyles, but transferred to Oklahoma State University once when he did not fit Holtz's offensive plans. Soon after Houston Dale Nutt's


title: "M3 Stuart" content: were stranded when they ran out of fuel. On the positive side, crews liked its relatively high speed and mechanical reliability, especially compared to the Crusader tank, which comprised a large portion of the British tank force in Africa up until 1942. The Crusader had similar armament and armor to the Stuart while being slower, less reliable, and several tons heavier. The Stuart also had the advantage of a gun that could deliver high-explosive shells; HE shells were not available for the QF 2 pdr mounted by most Crusaders, severely limiting their use against emplaced anti-tank guns or infantry;. The


title: "Falco Lombardi" content: he could not be properly integrated into the plot in time for the game's release. Near the end of the game, however, Falco arrives to aid Fox with the final boss, and appears in the last cutscene of the game where he rejoins the Star Fox Team. In "" for the GameCube, Falco appears as a main member of Star Fox Team once more, this time labelled an ace pilot. Unlike other characters in the game, Falco never leaves his Arwing to fight on the ground, instead providing air support. "Star Fox Command" has Falco isolating himself from the rest


title: Jackfruit content: Jackfruit The jackfruit ("Artocarpus heterophyllus"), also known as jack tree, is a species of tree in the fig, mulberry, and breadfruit family (Moraceae) native to southwest India. The jackfruit tree is well-suited to tropical lowlands, and its fruit is the largest tree-borne fruit, reaching as much as in weight, in length, and in diameter. A mature jackfruit tree can produce about 100 to 200 fruits in a year. The jackfruit is a multiple fruit, composed of hundreds to thousands of individual flowers, and the fleshy petals are eaten. Jackfruit is commonly used in South and Southeast Asian cuisines. The ripe


title: Jackfruit content: and unripe fruit and seeds are consumed. The jackfruit tree is a widely cultivated throughout tropical regions of the world. It is the national fruit of Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, and the state fruit of the Indian states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The word "jackfruit" comes from Portuguese "jaca", which in turn is derived from the Malayalam language term "chakka" (Malayalam "chakka pazham"). When the Portuguese arrived in India at Kozhikode (Calicut) on the Malabar Coast (Kerala) in 1498, the Malayalam name "chakka" was recorded by Hendrik van Rheede (1678–1703) in the "Hortus Malabaricus", vol. iii in Latin. Henry


title: Jackfruit content: Yule translated the book in Jordanus Catalani's (f. 1321–1330) "Mirabilia descripta: the wonders of the East". The common English name "jackfruit" was used by physician and naturalist Garcia de Orta in his 1563 book "Colóquios dos simples e drogas da India". Centuries later, botanist Ralph Randles Stewart suggested it was named after William Jack (1795–1822), a Scottish botanist who worked for the East India Company in Bengal, Sumatra, and Malaya. "Artocarpus heterophyllus" grows as an evergreen tree that has a relatively short trunk with a dense treetop. It easily reaches heights of 10 to 20 meters and trunk diameters of


title: Jackfruit content: 30 to 80 centimeters. It sometimes forms buttress roots. The bark of the jackfruit tree is reddish-brown and smooth. In the event of injury to the bark, a milky juice is released. The leaves are alternate and spirally arranged. They are gummy and thick and are divided into a petiole and a leaf blade. The petiole is 1 to 3 inches long. The leathery leaf blade is 7 to 15 inches long, and 3 to 7 inches wide and is oblong to ovate in shape. In young trees, the leaf edges are irregularly lobed or split. On older trees, the


title: Jackfruit content: leaves are rounded and dark green, with a smooth leaf margin. The leaf blade has a prominent main nerve and starting on each side six to eight lateral nerves. The stipules are egg-shaped at a length of 1.5 to 8 centimeters. The inflorescences are formed on the trunk, branches or twigs (caulifloria). Jackfruit trees are monoecious, that is there are both female and male flowers on a tree. The inflorescences are pedunculated, cylindrical to ellipsoidal or pear-shaped, to about 10-12 centimeters long and 5-7 centimeters wide. Inflorescences are initially completely enveloped in egg-shaped cover sheets which rapidly slope off. The


title: Jackfruit content: flowers are very small, there are several thousand flowers in an inflorescence, which sit on a fleshy rachis . The male flowers are greenish, some flowers are sterile. The male flowers are hairy and the perianth ends with two 1 to 1.5 millimeters membrane. The individual and prominent stamens are straight with yellow, roundish anthers. After the pollen distribution, the stamens become ash-gray and fall off after a few days. Later all the male inflorescences also fall off. The greenish female flowers, with hairy and tubular perianth, have a fleshy flower-like base. The female flowers contain an ovary with a


title: Jackfruit content: broad, capitate or rarely bilobed scar. The blooming time ranges from December until February or March. The ellipsoidal to roundish fruit is a multiple fruit formed from the fusion of the ovaries of multiple flowers. The fruits grow on a long and thick stem on the trunk. They vary in size and ripen from an initially yellowish-greenish to yellow, and then at maturity to yellowish-brown. They possess a hard, gummy shell with small pimples surrounded with hard, hexagonal tubercles. The very large and variously shaped fruit have a length of 30 to 100 centimeters and a diameter of 15 to


title: Jackfruit content: 50 centimeters and can weigh 10-25 kilograms or more. The fruits consist of a fibrous, whitish core (rachis) about 5-10 centimeters thick. Radiating from this are many 10 centimeter long individual fruits. They are elliptical to egg-shaped, light brownish achenes with a length of about 3 centimeters and a diameter of 1.5 to 2 centimeters. There may be about 100-500 seeds per fruit. The seed coat consists of a thin, waxy, parchment-like and easily removable testa (husk) and a brownish, membranous tegmen. The cotyledons are usually unequal in size, the endosperm is minimally present. The fruit matures during the rainy


title: Jackfruit content: season from July to August. The bean-shaped achenes of the jackfruit are coated with a firm yellowish aril (seed coat, flesh), which has an intense sweet taste at maturity of the fruit. [3] The pulp is enveloped by many narrow strands of fiber (undeveloped perianth), which run between the hard shell and the core of the fruit and are firmly attached to it. When pruned, the inner part (core) secretes a very sticky, milky liquid, which can hardly be removed from the skin, even with soap and water. To clean the hands after "unwinding" the pulp an oil or other


title: Jackfruit content: solvent is used. For example, street vendors in Tanzania, who sell the fruit in small segments, provide small bowls of kerosene for their customers to cleanse their sticky fingers. An average fruit consists of 27% edible seed coat, 15% edible seeds, 20% white pulp (undeveloped perianth, rags) and bark and 10% core. The number of chromosomes is 2n = 56. Ripe jackfruit is naturally sweet, with subtle flavoring. It can be used to make a variety of dishes, including custards, cakes, or mixed with shaved ice as "es teler" in Indonesia or "halo-halo" in the Philippines. For the traditional breakfast


title: Jackfruit content: dish in southern India, "idlis", the fruit is used with rice as an ingredient and jackfruit leaves are used as a wrapping for steaming. Jackfruit "dosas" can be prepared by grinding jackfruit flesh along with the batter. Ripe jackfruit arils are sometimes seeded, fried, or freeze-dried and sold as jackfruit chips. The seeds from ripe fruits are edible, and are said to have a milky, sweet taste often compared to Brazil nuts. They may be boiled, baked, or roasted. When roasted, the flavor of the seeds is comparable to chestnuts. Seeds are used as snacks (either by boiling or fire-roasting)


title: Jackfruit content: or to make desserts. In Java, the seeds are commonly cooked and seasoned with salt as a snack. They are quite commonly used in curry in India in the form of a traditional lentil and vegetable mix curry. Jackfruit has a distinctive sweet and fruity aroma. In a study of flavour volatiles in five jackfruit cultivars, the main volatile compounds detected were ethyl isovalerate, propyl isovalerate, butyl isovalerate, isobutyl isovalerate, 3-methylbutyl acetate, 1-butanol, and 2-methylbutan-1-ol. A fully ripe and unopened jackfruit is known to "emit a strong aroma", with the inside of the fruit described as smelling of pineapple and


title: Jackfruit content: banana. After roasting, the seeds may be used as a commercial alternative to chocolate aroma. The flesh of the jackfruit is starchy and fibrous and is a source of dietary fiber. The pulp is composed of 74% water, 23% carbohydrates, 2% protein, and 1% fat. In a 100-g portion, raw jackfruit provides and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of vitamin B (25% DV). It contains moderate levels (10-19% DV) of vitamin C and potassium, with no other nutrients in significant content. The jackfruit also provides a potential part of the solution for tropical


title: Jackfruit content: countries facing problems with food security, such as several countries of Africa. The flavor of the ripe fruit is comparable to a combination of apple, pineapple, mango, and banana. Varieties are distinguished according to characteristics of the fruit flesh. In Indochina, the two varieties are the "hard" version (crunchier, drier, and less sweet, but fleshier), and the "soft" version (softer, moister, and much sweeter, with a darker gold-color flesh than the hard variety). Unripe jackfruit has a mild flavor and meat-like texture and is used in curry dishes with spices in many cuisines. The skin of unripe jackfruit must be


title: Jackfruit content: peeled first, then the remaining jackfruit flesh is chopped in a labor-intensive process into edible portions and cooked before serving. The cuisines of many Asian countries use cooked young jackfruit. In many cultures, jackfruit is boiled and used in curries as a staple food. The boiled young jackfruit is used in salads or as a vegetable in spicy curries and side dishes, and as fillings for cutlets and chops. It may be used by vegetarians as a substitute for meat. It may be cooked with coconut milk and eaten alone or with meat, shrimp or smoked pork. In southern India,


title: Jackfruit content: unripe jackfruit slices are deep-fried to make chips. In Bangladesh, the fruit is consumed on its own. The unripe fruit is used in curry, and the seed is often dried and preserved to be later used in curry. In India, two varieties of jackfruit predominate: "muttomvarikka" and "sindoor". "Muttomvarikka" has a slightly hard inner flesh when ripe, while the inner flesh of the ripe "sindoor" fruit is soft. A sweet preparation called "chakkavaratti" (jackfruit jam) is made by seasoning pieces of "muttomvarikka" fruit flesh in jaggery, which can be preserved and used for many months. The fruits are either eaten


title: Jackfruit content: alone or as a side to rice. The juice is extracted and either drunk straight or as a side. The juice is sometimes condensed and eaten as candies. The seeds are either boiled or roasted and eaten with salt and hot chilies. They are also used to make spicy side dishes with rice. Jackfruit may be ground and made into a paste, then spread over a mat and allowed to dry in the sun to create a natural chewy candy. In Indonesia and Malaysia, jackfruit is called "nangka". The ripe fruit is usually sold separately and consumed on its own,


title: Jackfruit content: or sliced and mixed with shaved ice as a sweet concoction dessert such as "es campur" and "es teler". The ripe fruit might be dried and fried as "kripik nangka", or jackfruit cracker. The seeds are boiled and consumed with salt, as it contains edible starchy content; this is called "beton". Young (unripe) jackfruit is made into curry called "gulai nangka" or stewed called "gudeg". In the Philippines, jackfruit is called "langka" in Filipino and "" in Cebuano. The unripe fruit is usually cooked in coconut milk and is eaten with rice. The ripe fruit is often an ingredient in


title: Jackfruit content: local desserts such as "halo-halo" and the Filipino turon. The ripe fruit, besides also being eaten raw as it is, is also preserved by storing in syrup or by drying. The seeds are also boiled before being eaten. Thailand is a major producer of jackfruit, which are often cut, prepared, and canned in a sugary syrup (or frozen in bags or boxes without syrup) and exported overseas, frequently to North America and Europe. In Vietnam, jackfruit is used to make jackfruit "chè", a sweet dessert soup, similar to the Chinese derivative "bubur cha cha". The Vietnamese also use jackfruit purée


title: Jackfruit content: as part of pastry fillings or as a topping on "xôi ngọt" (a sweet version of sticky rice portions). Jackfruits are found primarily in the eastern part of Taiwan. The fresh fruit can be eaten directly or preserved as dried fruit, candied fruit, or jam. It is also stir-fried or stewed with other vegetables and meat. In Brazil, three varieties are recognized: "jaca-dura", or the "hard" variety, which has a firm flesh, and the largest fruits that can weigh between 15 and 40 kg each; "jaca-mole", or the "soft" variety, which bears smaller fruits with a softer and sweeter flesh;


title: Jackfruit content: and "jaca-manteiga", or the "butter" variety, which bears sweet fruits whose flesh has a consistency intermediate between the "hard" and "soft" varieties. From a tree planted for its shade in gardens, it became an ingredient for local recipes using different fruit segments. The seeds are boiled in water or roasted to remove toxic substances, and then roasted for a variety of desserts. The flesh of the unripe jackfruit is used to make a savory salty dish with smoked pork. The jackfruit arils are used to make jams or fruits in syrup, and can also be eaten raw. The golden yellow


title: Jackfruit content: timber with good grain is used for building furniture and house construction in India. It is termite-proof and is superior to teak for building furniture. The wood of the jackfruit tree is important in Sri Lanka and is exported to Europe. Jackfruit wood is widely used in the manufacture of furniture, doors and windows, in roof construction, and fish sauce barrels. The wood of the tree is used for the production of musical instruments. In Indonesia, hardwood from the trunk is carved out to form the barrels of drums used in the "gamelan", and in the Philippines, its soft wood


title: Jackfruit content: is made into the body of the "kutiyapi", a type of boat lute. It is also used to make the body of the Indian string instrument "veena" and the drums "mridangam", "thimila", and "kanjira". The jackfruit has played a significant role in Indian agriculture for centuries. Archeological findings in India have revealed that jackfruit was cultivated in India 3000 to 6000 years ago. It has also been widely cultivated in Southeast Asia. The ornate wooden plank called "avani palaka", made of the wood of the jackfruit tree, is used as the priest's seat during Hindu ceremonies in Kerala. In Vietnam,


title: Jackfruit content: jackfruit wood is prized for the making of Buddhist statues in temples The heartwood is used by Buddhist forest monastics in Southeast Asia as a dye, giving the robes of the monks in those traditions their distinctive light-brown color. Jackfruit is the national fruit of Bangladesh, and the state fruit of the Indian states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. In terms of taking care of the plant, minimal pruning is required; cutting off dead branches from the interior of the tree is only sometimes needed. In addition, twigs bearing fruit must be twisted or cut down to the trunk to


title: Jackfruit content: induce growth for the next season. Branches should be pruned every three to four years to maintain productivity. Some trees carry too many mediocre fruits and these are usually removed to allow the others to develop better to maturity. Stingless bees such as "Tetragonula iridipennis" are jackfruit pollinators, so play an important role in jackfruit cultivation. In 2017, India produced 1.4 million tonnes of jackfruit, followed by Bangladesh, Thailand, and Indonesia. The marketing of jackfruit involves three groups: producers, traders, and middlemen, including wholesalers and retailers. The marketing channels are rather complex. Large farms sell immature fruit to wholesalers, which


title: Jackfruit content: helps cash flow and reduces risk, whereas medium-sized farms sell the fruit directly to local markets or retailers. Outside of its countries of origin, fresh jackfruit can be found at food markets throughout Southeast Asia. It is also extensively cultivated in the Brazilian coastal region, where it is sold in local markets. It is available canned in sugary syrup, or frozen, already prepared and cut. Jackfruit industries are established in Sri Lanka and Vietnam, where the fruit is processed into products such as flour, noodles, "papad", and ice cream. It is also canned and sold as a vegetable for export.


title: Jackfruit content: Outside of countries where it is grown, jackfruit can be obtained year-round, both canned or dried. Dried jackfruit chips are produced by various manufacturers. In Brazil, the jackfruit can become an invasive species as in Brazil's Tijuca Forest National Park in Rio de Janeiro. The Tijuca is mostly an artificial secondary forest, whose planting began during the mid-19th century; jackfruit trees have been a part of the park's flora since it was founded. Recently, the species has expanded excessively, and its fruits, which naturally fall to the ground and open, are eagerly eaten by small mammals, such as the common


title: Jackfruit content: marmoset and coati. The seeds are dispersed by these animals; this allows the jackfruit to compete for space with native tree species. Additionally the supply of jackfruit as a ready source of food has allowed the marmoset and coati populations to expand. Since both prey opportunistically on birds' eggs and nestlings, increases in marmoset or coati population are detrimental for local bird populations. Jackfruit The jackfruit ("Artocarpus heterophyllus"), also known as jack tree, is a species of tree in the fig, mulberry, and breadfruit family (Moraceae) native to southwest India. The jackfruit tree is well-suited to tropical lowlands, and its


title: "M22 Locust" content: tanks it was equipped with, replacing them with Locusts. In March 1945, the 6th Airborne Division was informed that it would be participating in Operation Varsity, an airborne operation in support of 21st Army Group crossing the River Rhine during Operation Plunder. On March 24 the division, in conjunction with the American United States 17th Airborne Division, would be dropped by parachute and glider near the city of Wesel, where it would capture the strategically important village of Hamminkeln, several important bridges over the River IJssel and the southern portion of a major forest, the Diersfordter Wald. Eight Locusts from


title: "Holiday Bowl" content: brand), Culligan, Pacific Life, Bridgepoint Education and National University. One of the more popular (yet unusual) events associated with the Holiday Bowl is the Wiener Nationals, the national championships for the U.S. dachshund racing circuit. The game is also celebrated with the Big Bay Balloon Parade, organized by the Port of San Diego and currently sponsored by San Diego County Credit Union. For the first seven games, Brigham Young University represented the WAC as its champion. In the inaugural game on December 22, The Midshipmen of the United States Naval Academy came in with an 8–3 record and a Commander-in-Chief's


title: "Milford Sound" content: Milford Sound Milford Sound / Piopiotahi is a fiord in the south west of New Zealand's South Island within Fiordland National Park, Piopiotahi (Milford Sound) Marine Reserve, and the Te Wahipounamu World Heritage site. It has been judged the world's top travel destination in an international survey (the "2008 Travelers' Choice Destinations Awards" by TripAdvisor) and is acclaimed as New Zealand's most famous tourist destination. Rudyard Kipling had previously called it the eighth Wonder of the World. Milford Sound is named after Milford Haven in Wales, while the Cleddau River which flows into the sound is also named for its


title: "Milford Sound" content: Welsh namesake. The Māori named the sound "Piopiotahi" after the thrush-like piopio bird, now extinct. "Piopiotahi" means "a single piopio", harking back to the legend of Māui trying to win immortality for mankind—when Maui died in the attempt, a piopio was said to have flown here in mourning. Milford Sound runs 15 kilometres inland from the Tasman Sea at Dale Point (also named after a location close to Milford Haven in Wales)—the mouth of the fiord—and is surrounded by sheer rock faces that rise or more on either side. Among the peaks are The Elephant at , said to resemble


title: "Milford Sound" content: an elephant's head, and The Lion, , in the shape of a crouching lion. Milford Sound sports two permanent waterfalls, Lady Bowen Falls and Stirling Falls. After heavy rain temporary waterfalls can be seen running down the steep sided rock faces that line the fiord. They are fed by rain water drenched moss and will last a few days at most once the rain stops. With a mean annual rainfall of each year, a high level even for the West Coast, Milford Sound is known as the wettest inhabited place in New Zealand and one of the wettest in the


title: "Milford Sound" content: world. Rainfall can reach during a span of 24 hours. The rainfall creates dozens of temporary waterfalls (as well as a number of major, more permanent ones) cascading down the cliff faces, some reaching a thousand metres in length. Smaller falls from such heights may never reach the bottom of the sound, drifting away in the wind. Accumulated rainwater can, at times, cause portions of the rain forest to lose their grip on the sheer cliff faces, resulting in tree avalanches into the sound. The regrowth of the rain forest after these avalanches can be seen in several locations along


title: "Milford Sound" content: the sound. Seals, penguins, and southernmost population of bottlenose dolphins frequent the waters, and whales especially humpback whales and southern right whales are increasingly observed due to recoveries of each species. The sound has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because it is a breeding site for Fiordland penguins. Milford Sound was initially overlooked by European explorers, because its narrow entry did not appear to lead into such large interior bays. Sailing ship captains such as James Cook, who bypassed Milford Sound on his journeys for just this reason, also feared venturing too close to the


title: "Milford Sound" content: steep mountainsides, afraid that wind conditions would prevent escape. The fiord was a playground for local Maori who had acquired a large amount of local marine knowledge including tidal patterns and fish feeding patterns over generations prior to European arrival. The fiord remained undiscovered by Europeans until Captain John Grono discovered it c.1812 and named it Milford Haven after his homeland in Wales. Captain John Lort Stokes later renamed Milford Haven as Milford Sound. Following the passage of the Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998, the name of the fiord was officially altered to Milford Sound / Piopiotahi. While Fiordland


title: "Milford Sound" content: as such remained one of the least-explored areas of New Zealand up to the 20th century, Milford Sound's natural beauty soon attracted national and international renown, and led to the discovery of the Mackinnon Pass in 1888, soon to become a part of the new Milford Track, an early walking tourism trail. In the same year, the low watershed saddle between the Hollyford River and the Cleddau River was discovered, where the Homer Tunnel was to be developed about sixty years later to provide road access. As of the 2006 census, just 120 people lived in Milford Sound, most of


title: "Milford Sound" content: them working in tourism or conservation. Milford Sound attracts between 550,000 and 1 million visitors per year. This makes the sound one of New Zealand's most-visited tourist spots even with its remote location and long journey times from the nearest population centres. Many tourists take one of the boat tours which usually last one to two hours. They are offered by several companies, departing from the Milford Sound Visitors' Centre. Tramping, canoeing, and some other water sports are possible. A small number of companies also provide overnight boat trips. There is otherwise only limited accommodation at the sound, and only


title: "Milford Sound" content: a very small percentage of tourists stay more than the day. Tourists usually stay in Te Anau or Queenstown. The Milford Discovery Centre & Underwater Observatory is located in Harrisons Cove on the north side of the fiord. Situated within the Piopiotahi Marine Reserve, the underwater observatory allows visitors to view the fiord's unique marine environment at a depth of 10 metres. Due to a natural phenomenon called 'deep water emergence,' deep-water animals such as black coral can be viewed in the shallow waters surrounding the observatory. A dark surface layer of fresh water, stained brown by tannins from the


title: "Milford Sound" content: surrounding forest, along with cold water temperatures allow the black corals to grow close to the surface throughout Milford Sound and Fiordland. On rainy and stormy days tourists can admire the play of the wind with the numerous waterfalls in Milford Sound. When meeting the cliff face the powerful wind often goes upward and waterfalls with a vertical drop get caught by wind, causing the water to go upwards. Milford Sound is also a scenic cruise destination for cruise ships. By road, Milford Sound is from Queenstown and from Invercargill (about four hours' drive), with most of the tour buses


title: "Milford Sound" content: to the sound departing from Queenstown. Some tourists also arrive from the smaller tourism centre of Te Anau, away. There are also scenic flights by light aircraft and helicopter tours to and from Milford Sound Airport. The drive to Milford Sound itself passes through unspoiled mountain landscapes before entering the Homer Tunnel which emerges into rain-forest-carpeted canyons that descend to the sound. The winding mountain road, while of high standards, is very prone to avalanches and closures during the winter half of the year. The long distance to the sound means that tourist operators from Queenstown all depart very early


title: "Milford Sound" content: in the day, arriving back only late in the evening. This ensures that most tourists visit Milford Sound within a few hours around midday, leading to some congestion on the roads and at the tourist facilities during the main season. The peak-time demand is also the reason for the large number of tour boats active in the sound at much the same time. Over the years, various options of shortening the distance to Milford Sound from Queenstown have been mooted, including a gondola route, a new tunnel from Queenstown, or a monorail from near Lake Wakatipu to Te Anau Downs.


title: "Milford Sound" content: All would reduce the current round-trip duration (which has to travel via Te Anau), thus allowing tourism to be spread out over more of the day. While a gondola is considered to be out of the running after the DOC declined approval for environmental reasons, the tunnel and the monorail proposals have applied to the Department of Conservation for concessions for land access. There are a variety of plane charter companies that fly to Milford Sound. Most of the companies fly out of Queenstown International Airport. These companies include: True South Flights, Glenorchy Air, Air Milford, and Milford Sound Scenic


title: "Milford Sound" content: Flights. On 8 February 2004 a spill of 13,000 litres of diesel fuel was discovered, resulting in a 2-kilometre spill which closed the fiord for two days while intensive cleanup activities were completed. Apparently a hose was used to displace the fuel from the tanks of one of the tour vessels, and various government officials claimed it appeared to be an act of ecoterrorism motivated by rising numbers of tourists to the park, though more details did not become known. The spill was removed and wildlife impact appears minimal. Milford Sound Milford Sound / Piopiotahi is a fiord in the


title: "San Francisco Art Institute" content: students of the University of California, Berkeley were able to enroll in classes at the CSD. In 1906 the devastating fire following the San Francisco earthquake destroyed the Mark Hopkins Institute of Art building, and the CSD and SFAA facilities, records and art collection. At the time, the replacement value of the building and its contents was estimated at $2,573,000. However, the combined amount of numerous insurance policies yielded less than $100,000 for rebuilding. Nevertheless, within a year, the SFAA built a new but comparatively modest campus in the same location, and adopted the name San Francisco Institute of Art.


title: "Eddie Condon" content: Eddie Condon Albert Edwin Condon (November 16, 1905 – August 4, 1973) was an American jazz banjoist, guitarist, and bandleader. A leading figure in Chicago jazz, he also played piano and sang. Condon was born in Goodland, Indiana, the son of John and Margaret (née McGraw) Condon. He grew up in Momence, Illinois, and Chicago Heights, Illinois, where he attended St. Agnes and Bloom High School. After playing ukulele, he switched to banjo and was a professional musician by 1921. When he was 15 years old, he received his first union card in Waterloo, Iowa. He was based in Chicago


title: "Crow T. Robot" content: assistants. In episode 814, "Riding with Death", Crow describes himself as being made from molybdenum, and episode 908 Mike piles rocks atop Crow and comments on his "durable molybdenum frame". Crow's middle initial stands for "The". In episode #K19: "Hangar 18", Joel stated that "Crow" was an acronym for "Cybernetic Remotely Operated Woman", giving Crow a brief identity crisis until Joel revealed he built Crow specifically to play this joke on him. Crow is also sometimes called "Art", primarily by late-series antagonist Pearl Forrester. This arose from a gag in episode 203 "Jungle Goddess" following a skit centered on the


title: "Western yellow wagtail" content: Western yellow wagtail The western yellow wagtail ("Motacilla flava") is a small passerine in the wagtail family Motacillidae, which also includes the pipits and longclaws. This species breeds in much of temperate Europe and Asia. It is resident in the milder parts of its range, such as western Europe, but northern and eastern populations migrate to Africa and south Asia. It is a slender 15–16 cm long bird, with the characteristic long, constantly wagging tail of its genus. It is the shortest tailed of the European wagtails. The breeding adult male is basically olive above and yellow below. In other


title: "Western yellow wagtail" content: plumages, the yellow may be diluted by white. The heads of breeding males come in a variety of colours and patterns depending on subspecies. The call is a characteristic high-pitched "jeet". This insectivorous bird inhabits open country near water, such as wet meadows. It nests in tussocks, laying 4-8 speckled eggs. "Motacilla" is the Latin name for the pied wagtail; although actually a diminutive of "motare", " to move about", from medieval times it led to the misunderstanding of "cilla" as "tail". The specific "flava" is Latin for golden-yellow. This species' systematics and phylogeny is extremely confusing. Literally dozens of


title: "Western yellow wagtail" content: subspecies have been described at one time or another, and some 15-20 are currently considered valid depending on which author reviews them. In addition, the citrine wagtail ("M. citreola") forms a cryptic species complex with this bird; both taxa as conventionally delimited are paraphyletic in respect to each other. The populations of the Beringian region are sometimes separated as eastern yellow wagtail ("M. tschutschensis"). Colouration refers to males except when noted. The nominate blue-headed wagtail and yellow wagtail form a narrow hybrid zone in northern France. Birds from this zone vary in appearance, but one type, which resembles nominate blue-headed