title: "Franz Josef Glacier" content: is believed that it extended into the sea some 10,000 to 15,000 years ago. This cyclic behaviour is well illustrated by a postage stamp issued in 1946, depicting the view from St James Anglican Church. The church was built in 1931, with a panoramic altar window to take advantage of its location. By 1954, the glacier had disappeared from view from the church, but it reappeared in 1997. This is due to the highly variable conditions on the snowfield, which take around 5–6 years before they result in changes in the terminus location. The glacier was still advancing until 2008,


title: "Franz Josef Glacier" content: but since then it has entered a very rapid phase of retreat. As of 2018 it is again rapidly advancing. As is the case for most other New Zealand glaciers which are mainly found on the eastern side of the southern alps, the shrinking process is attributed to global warming. There have been some incidents of jökulhlaups (outbreak floods from water-filled ice tunnels) at the glacier, with one destroying a bridge on the access route in 1989. Based on past variations, scientists expect that Franz Josef Glacier will retreat 5 km and lose 38% of its mass by 2100 in


title: "Franz Josef Glacier" content: a mid-range scenario of warming. The Waiho Loop is the terminal moraine of the glacier, and indicates the extent of the Franz Josef Glacier, about 12,000 years ago. Too rugged to be cleared for farming it remains covered in native forest. The glacier area is one of the main tourist attractions of the West Coast, with around 250,000 visitors a year, and up to 2,700 per day (2007). Guided and unguided walks up to and onto the glacier are possible. However, since April 2012 all glacier walks require a helicopter flight past the unstable terminal face. Glacier walks also require


title: "Franz Josef Glacier" content: some specialised equipment, namely ice axes and crampons that latch onto a sturdy boot. These are usually provided by tour companies. As the walking part of any tour up to the glacier takes a long time, and ends at the first icefall (a frozen waterfall, draping a natural step in the land underneath), many tourists book helicopter tours from one of the several local airlines, which usually drop their guests between the first and second icefalls, for a guided 1–2 hour walk through the broken ground atop the glacier. Although the glacial landscape changes almost daily, given the glacier's unusually


title: "Franz Josef Glacier" content: fast flow, and some walks including passages through ice tunnels, they are still considered quite safe and only somewhat strenuous. In June 2010, an Australian tourist died of a heart attack during a guided hike of the glacier. At the entrance of the valley lies the village of Franz Josef, which has a permanent population of approximately 330 residents. It is situated 5 km from the glacier on State Highway 6 and has a petrol station, small but busy heliport, numerous tourist accommodation options (with up to 2,000 people staying overnight during the main season) and a number of restaurants


title: "Franz Josef Glacier" content: and shops. Just south of the village, a sealed road leads from the highway into the Franz Josef Glacier valley and to a car park. Several small walks start from the Valley Road and the car park, and it is also possible to comfortably cycle from Franz Josef township to the car park. , the valley walk ends at a lookout about 50 m from the main terminal face of the glacier. Since around 2012 the terminal face has become too dangerous to approach, and signs warn against crossing the safety barriers at the lookout. An alternative option to view


title: "Franz Josef Glacier" content: the glacier is via the 8 hour day hike up the high Alex Knob, overlooking the Franz Josef Glacier and valley below. The path up Alex Knob is of good tramping track standard, but strenuous due to steeply climbing about in height and considered "advanced" due to the duration of the hike. Franz Josef Glacier Franz Josef Glacier / Kā Roimata o Hine Hukatere is a long temperate maritime glacier located in Westland Tai Poutini National Park on the West Coast of New Zealand's South Island. Together with the Fox Glacier to the south, and a third glacier, it descends


title: "Blackness Castle" content: Blackness Castle Blackness Castle is a 15th-century fortress, near the village of Blackness, Scotland, on the south shore of the Firth of Forth. It was built, probably on the site of an earlier fort, by Sir George Crichton in the 1440s. At this time, Blackness was the main port serving the Royal Burgh of Linlithgow, one of the main residences of the Scottish monarch. The castle, together with the Crichton lands, passed to James II of Scotland in 1453, and the castle has been crown property ever since. It served as a state prison, holding such prisoners as Cardinal Beaton


title: "Blackness Castle" content: and the 6th Earl of Angus. Strengthened by Sir James Hamilton of Finnart in the mid-16th century, the castle became one of the most advanced artillery fortifications of its time in Scotland. A century later, these defences were not enough to prevent Blackness falling to Oliver Cromwell's army in 1650. Some years after the siege, the castle was repaired, and again served as a prison and a minor garrison. In 1693, the spur protecting the gate was heightened, and the Stern Tower shortened as a base for three heavy guns. Barracks and officers' quarters were added in the 1870s, when


title: "Blackness Castle" content: the castle was used as an ammunition depot, until 1912. The castle was briefly reused by the army during World War I. It is now a Scheduled Ancient Monument, in the care of Historic Scotland. Because of its site, jutting into the Forth, and its long, narrow shape, the castle has been characterised as "the ship that never sailed". The north and south towers are often named "stem" and "stern", with the central tower called the "main mast". The barony of Blackness was held in the mid-15th century by Sir George Crichton, Lord High Admiral of Scotland, Sheriff of Linlithgow,


title: "Blackness Castle" content: and later Earl of Caithness. The Crichtons were one of the most politically powerful Scottish families at the time, and were close to James II; Sir George was governor of Stirling Castle when the King murdered the 8th Earl of Douglas there in 1452, and George's cousin, William, was Chancellor of Scotland from 1439 to 1453. The castle was probably built in the mid-1440s, during a time of feuding between the Crichtons and the "Black" Douglases, which had resulted in the destruction of Sir George's tower at Barnton in Edinburgh in 1444. Blackness Castle is first mentioned in 1449, and


title: "Blackness Castle" content: was already serving as a state prison as well as Sir George's residence. The original building comprised a curtain wall and the north tower, with the central tower isolated in the central courtyard. A hall range may have stood to the south, while the whole was defended by a rock-cut ditch and accessed by a gate in the east wall. Sir George Crichton handed over the Crichton lands, including Blackness Castle, to James II in 1453. His dispossessed heir, James Crichton, captured the castle and held it briefly against the King, who besieged and recaptured it the same year. Blackness


title: "Blackness Castle" content: became a royal fortress, as well as continuing to serve as a prison, and was put into the care of a keeper, who was often the Sheriff of Linlithgow. In the 17th century, this office became hereditary in the Livingstone family. Between 1534 and 1540, a programme of fortification was carried out under the direction of the King's Master of Works, Sir James Hamilton of Finnart. Finnart, the illegitimate son of the Earl of Arran, was an expert in artillery fortification. Having spent time in Europe studying the subject, he designed his own castle at Craignethan in Lanarkshire as a


title: "Blackness Castle" content: showcase for his ideas. At Blackness, he introduced technological innovations including a complex entrance with a caponier, one of only three surviving in Scotland (the others being at Craignethan and Stirling Castle). The caponier, a passage within the external wall of the entrance, allowed defenders to fire into the entrance area, at the backs of any attackers who had breached the gate. The curtain wall was thickened on the inside to the south and east, from to over in places, and gun ports were opened up. The south wall was also heightened to enclose the new south tower. Work continued


title: "Blackness Castle" content: after Finnart's execution for treason in 1540, under the superintendence of the parson of Dysart, but came to a halt in 1542 on the death of James V, although minor works continued into the 1560s. During the crisis of the Scottish Reformation the castle was surrendered by negotiation to James Hamilton, Duke of Châtellerault as leader of the Lords of the Congregation. Two English captains, Dethick and Wood, then took possession on Easter Day, 15 April 1560. During the Marian civil war which followed the forced abdication of Mary, Queen of Scots in 1567, the garrison of Blackness remained loyal


title: "Blackness Castle" content: to her. However, the Keeper, Alexander Stewart later changed sides to join the Regent Moray's party. In 1572, Lord Claud Hamilton recaptured the castle for Mary, harrying shipping in the Forth until the following year, despite being blockaded. On 27 January 1573, James Kirkcaldy, the brother of William Kirkcaldy of Grange who held Edinburgh Castle for Queen Mary, arrived at Blackness from France with arms and money for the Queen's side. His ship was captured the next day and Regent Morton laid siege. James Kirkcaldy and the castle surrendered within a week. The castle's defences were not tested again until


title: "Blackness Castle" content: 1650, when Oliver Cromwell's New Model Army besieged Blackness during his invasion of Scotland. However, by this time artillery technology had improved beyond anything that Finnart's defences could withstand, and the garrison soon surrendered under bombardment from land and sea. The damaged castle was abandoned. The castle was not repaired until 1667, when it was again used as a prison, holding a number of Covenanters; religious rebels who opposed the King's interference in church affairs. The south tower was rearranged, with a bakehouse installed in the basement, and a new stair tower. Further changes were made in 1693, when the


title: "Blackness Castle" content: spur was heightened with a wall-walk, and the north tower was reduced to provide three gun platforms overlooking the Forth. After the Union of Scotland and England in 1707, the castle ceased to be a prison, instead being one of four Scottish fortresses to be maintained and garrisoned by the British Army, the others being Stirling, Dumbarton and Edinburgh. The garrison at Blackness numbered around fifteen men in the late 18th century. Between 1759 and 1815 Blackness was again pressed into service as a prison, this time to hold French prisoners of war during the series of conflicts of the


title: "Blackness Castle" content: late 18th and early 19th centuries, including the Seven Years' War and the Napoleonic Wars. In 1870, the role of Blackness changed again, and it became the central ammunition depot for Scotland. Numerous works were carried out, including the roofing-over of the entire courtyard, and the levelling of the ground to the east. The defensive ditch was filled in and barracks built to the south. The cast-iron pier was constructed in 1868, with a gate and a drawbridge, one of the last to be built in Britain. The depot closed in 1912, although it was briefly reoccupied during World War


title: "Blackness Castle" content: I, and the castle passed into the care of the Office of Works. A restoration programme was undertaken between 1926 and 1935, which entailed the removal of almost all the 19th-century works, and the rebuilding of medieval-style features, which may not fully reflect the original features of the castle. The castle stands on a rocky spit in the Firth of Forth, and is oriented north-south. The castle comprises a curtain wall, with integrated north and south towers, and a separate central tower in the courtyard. To the south-west, a defensive spur forms the main entrance, while a water gate to


title: "Blackness Castle" content: the north-west gives access to the 19th-century pier. Outside the walls are 19th-century soldier's barracks and officer's quarters. The castle is said in popular legend to have a ley tunnel linking it with the House of the Binns, which lies about to the south. Originally of three storeys, the small North, or Stem, Tower was reduced to two storeys in 1693. The upper chamber had a fireplace, while the lower chamber was a pit prison. Accessed only from a trap-door above, this chamber has a drain opening to the sea, which washes in at high tide. The South, or Stern,


title: "Blackness Castle" content: Tower dates largely from the mid-16th century, possibly replacing an earlier hall block. On the south wall, the 16th-century stonework was added onto the battlements of the 15th-century curtain wall, leaving the pattern of alternating low and high sections "fossilised" in the wall. The tower is built over the thick-walled artillery positions in the basement, which defend the south and east approaches, and have similarities with the contemporary "blockhouse" at Dunbar Castle, further along the coast. The gunloops in the basement are up to across at the mouth. The South Tower provided the main accommodation in the castle, with chambers


title: "Blackness Castle" content: in the north-west wing, and a large hall on the upper storey. This hall was subdivided during the castle's time as an ammunition depot, although it has since been reinstated. In the 17th century, the large south-facing window was in use as a gun emplacement. The five-storey Central Tower, or "main mast", was built in the 15th century and heightened in the 16th. It measures around , and the walls are thick at the base. Each storey contains a single large room with a fireplace, a garderobe or privy, and numerous chambers within the walls. The storeys were originally linked


title: "Blackness Castle" content: by a narrow spiral stair, until a larger stair tower was constructed at the east corner in the 17th century. The castle's more important prisoners were held here. Men such as Cardinal Beaton, Archbishop of St Andrews and James V's ambassador to France, and Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus, regent of Scotland in the 1520s, would have had a reasonably high standard of living, including their own servants, while in prison. The basement is vaulted, and the roof is also built on a stone vault. The parapet was rebuilt in the 20th century, although the course of projecting corbels


title: "Blackness Castle" content: on which is stands is original. Outside the tower is a well. The 16th-century forework, or "spur", which provides additional protection for the main gate, is largely the work of Sir James Hamilton of Finnart, and contains numerous defensive features. Originally a rock ditch ran in front of the entrance, and was crossed by a drawbridge. The original 1693 yett, a latticed iron gate, is still in place. Once through the entrance, any attacker would have had to negotiate a dog-leg passage, exposing his back to fire from the caponier. Part of this passage was also exposed to attack from


title: "Blackness Castle" content: the parapet walk on the upper storey. In the late 17th century, the spur was heightened, and gun batteries added above. Since the castle's restoration, it has been open to the public as a historic monument. The buildings of the castle stand empty, although there is a small exhibition in the former barracks outside. The castle has been used as a filming location in several productions, including Franco Zeffirelli's "Hamlet" (1990), Bob Carruthers's 1996 film "The Bruce", and the science-fiction film "Doomsday" (2008). On television, Blackness has featured in the BBC/A&E television miniseries of "Ivanhoe" (1997), and the Starz series


title: "Blackness Castle" content: "Outlander". Blackness Castle Blackness Castle is a 15th-century fortress, near the village of Blackness, Scotland, on the south shore of the Firth of Forth. It was built, probably on the site of an earlier fort, by Sir George Crichton in the 1440s. At this time, Blackness was the main port serving the Royal Burgh of Linlithgow, one of the main residences of the Scottish monarch. The castle, together with the Crichton lands, passed to James II of Scotland in 1453, and the castle has been crown property ever since. It served as a state prison, holding such prisoners as Cardinal


title: "Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem" content: valuable properties. The Israeli press reports that senior officials of the Israeli government may have been involved in a fraudulent real estate transaction with the deposed Patriarch Irenaios and are afraid of the consequences of court action. In 2006, Israel refused to renew visas of many of the Greek clergy, which threatened to create to a serious crisis within the Church, as most of the monks are Greek citizens. Patriarch Theophilos applied to the Israeli Supreme Court in an effort to gain civil recognition. The Court was due to give a decision in mid-2006, but delayed giving a decision twice


title: "Jax (Mortal Kombat)" content: led by Cassie Cage, herself the daughter of Sonya and Johnny Cage. Jax did not want Jacqui to join Special Forces due to his past trauma but she did so anyway, and so eventually did Jax after finally recovered. He, Sareena and Kenshi are assigned to capture Quan Chi in Netherrealm to use him to revive their friends. Jax loses most of his men in the battle but soon captures Quan Chi and transport him to Earthrealm. Jax was originally named "Kurtis Stryker," and was to be in the roster of the 1992 first game while possessing the storyline of


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: Ford Ranger (Americas) The Ford Ranger is a compact pickup truck that was manufactured and marketed by Ford Motor Company from 1983 to 2012 model years for North America. From 1997 to 2011, a version was also manufactured and sold in South America. Introduced to replace the Ford Courier produced in Japan by Mazda, the Ranger had two distinct generations. While introduced a year after the Chevrolet S-10, the Ranger would go on to become the best-selling compact truck in the United States from 1987 to 2004. Over its production life, the chassis and suspension of the Ranger would be


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: used for several compact Ford trucks and sport-utility vehicles. During the 1990s and 2000s, Mazda adopted a badge-engineered version of the Ranger, for their B-Series nameplate (the reverse of the Ford Courier produced by Mazda). Over its 29-year production run, Ford produced the Ranger at three different assembly plants in North America. The Ranger was produced at the Louisville Assembly Plant in Louisville, Kentucky from 1982 to 1999. From 1993 to 2004, production also was sourced from Edison Assembly in Edison, New Jersey. For its entire production run, the Ranger was produced at Twin Cities Assembly Plant in St Paul,


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: Minnesota. The final 2012 Ford Ranger produced on December 16, 2011, ended 86 years of production at Twin Cities Assembly as well as the production of all compact pickups in the United States. In 2017, Ford announced the return of the Ford Ranger to North America, commencing with the 2019 model year. Derived from the Ranger T6, the 2019 Ford Ranger will be manufactured in the United States. For the 1972 model year, the Ford Courier was introduced as the first compact pickup truck sold by Ford. Following the rise of the compact truck segment during the 1960s, Ford entered


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: into a partnership with Mazda to market the Mazda B1800 in North America; the Courier would become the first of several jointly manufactured vehicles between the two companies from the 1970s into the 2000s. Along with minimizing the risk for Ford of developing a vehicle in an unfamiliar market segment, the partnership provided Mazda with critically needed funds. While sharing the cab and chassis with its Mazda counterpart, to increase its sales potential in North America, the Courier adapted design elements of the Ford F-Series, with twin round headlamps, silver grille, and "FORD" lettering on the hood above the grille.


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: In 1977, the Courier and B1800 (later B2000) were redesigned with a larger cab, redesigned pickup bed, and tailgate. While closer in appearance to its Mazda counterpart, the Courier was given signal/parking lamps inset in the grille (rather than the bumper); an optional 2.3L Ford engine was not available the Mazda pickups. From 1972 to 1982, the Ford Courier was manufactured alongside the Mazda B-Series in Hiroshima, Japan. To avoid the 25% Chicken tax on imported trucks, both vehicles were imported as cab-chassis trucks (taxed at 4% tariff). Following their importation to United States, pickup-truck beds shipped separately from Japan


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: were installed before shipment to dealers. In 1976, Ford commenced development on "Project Yuma", intended to bring a domestically produced compact truck to production. In addition to develop a successor for the Courier, the $700 million project was driven in an effort to comply with fuel economy standards of the mid-1980s. At the beginning of Yuma, Ford predicted for that the company to properly comply with CAFE by 1985, nearly 50% of pickup trucks sold in the United States would require a 4-cylinder engine, leading from compact truck sales to expand from a 5% market share in 1976 to nearly


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: 50% in 1985, with nearly a million sales per year. Project Yuma was centered around quality and fuel efficiency. At the beginning of the project, Ford researched additional elements that were valued by potential compact truck buyers. Along with the flexibility for both work and personal use, Ford found that buyers desired additional interior room, including three-across seating, comfortable seats, and headroom and legroom for a six-foot tall driver; other minor details were discovered such as five-bolt wheels and a larger ashtray. During design, the body underwent extensive wind tunnel testing, to meet a planned 20 MPG fuel efficiency target


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: (the standard front bumper spoiler added 1MPG on its own). To further improve fuel economy, the Ranger increased the use of high-strength steel other lightweight materials, including a magnesium clutch housing, aluminum transfer case for four-wheel drive versions, and a magnesium clutch/brake pedal bracket. To further save weight, the design of the front suspension was computer-optimized, rendering the front stabilizer bar optional. Though narrower than the F-Series and other full-size competitors, the cargo bed of the Ranger was designed to transport a four-foot wide sheet of material (considered an industry measure of space in pickup truck bed design) through the


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: use of recesses to insert supports across the bed, allowing the Ranger to transport such material above the wheel wells. The 1979 fuel crisis nearly doomed the Yuma/Ranger project, as it occurred between launch of the 1979 Ford LTD and 1980 Ford F-Series. After selling nearly one million F-Series trucks in 1978, in 1980, Ford had yet to gain a profit from its redesign of the F-Series. Ford President Don Petersen kept the compact truck project alive for several reasons. By 1980, General Motors had its own compact truck in development, with the Chevrolet S-10 providing close competition. Peterson also


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: felt the compact truck could be priced similar to the F-100, as he felt buyers would pay as much for a compact truck as a full-size one, if equipped correctly. Around 1980, the Project Yuma truck became known as the Ford Ranger, adopting the name of the mid to upper-level trim used by the Ford F-Series and Bronco since 1965. In anticipation of the compact truck line, 1981 marked the final use of the Ranger trim for the F-Series and Bronco (replaced by XLS for 1982). The first Ranger rolled off the Louisville assembly line on January 18, 1982. While


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: initially slated for a traditional autumn release, to more closely compete with the introduction of the Chevrolet S-10, Ford advanced the launch of the 1983 Ranger several months, with the first vehicles reaching showrooms in March 1982. Initially sold along its Courier predecessor, the first 1983 Ranger was priced at $6,203 ($16,570 in 2018). While far smaller in exterior size than the F-Series, 4x4 Rangers offered a payload of 1,600 pounds, matching or exceeding the F-100 in payload capacity. For 1984, the Ford Bronco II two-door SUV was introduced. Similar in size to the 1966–1977 Bronco, the Bronco II used


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: a shortened version of the Ranger chassis, along with much of its interior components. For the 1989 model year, the Ranger underwent a major mid-cycle revision to improve its exterior aerodynamics and interior ergonomics. For 1991, the Ford Explorer SUV was derived from the facelifted Ranger, sharing its front fascia, chassis, and interior components. The first-generation Ranger uses a body-on-frame chassis design; while using a chassis developed specifically for the model line, the Ranger adopts many chassis design elements from the F-Series. Along with traditional leaf-spring rear suspension, the Ranger is fitted with Twin I-Beam independent front suspension. To minimize


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: unsprung weight, the Twin I-Beams were constructed of stamped high-strength steel (rather than forged steel). Rear-wheel drive was standard, with part-time four-wheel drive as an option (never offered in the Courier). Dependent on configuration, the Ranger was produced in three wheelbases: 107.9 inches (6-foot bed), 113.9 inches (7-foot bed), and 125 inches (SuperCab, introduced in 1986). For 1989, rear-wheel anti-lock brakes became standard. From 1983 to 1992, the first-generation Ranger was powered by 2.0L and 2.3L versions of the Ford "Pinto" inline-4, the 2.8L, 2.9L, and 4.0L Ford "Cologne V6", the 3.0L Ford "Vulcan V6", and four-cylinder diesel engines sourced


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: from Mazda (Perkins) and Mitsubishi. Two long-running engines associated with the Ford light trucks made their debut in the first-generation Ranger; the twin spark-plug version (with distributorless ignition) of the Pinto engine was introduced in 1989, remaining in use through 2001. In 1990, the 4.0L Cologne V6 was introduced; in modified form, the engine was used through the 2012 model-year discontinuation of the Ranger in North America. A four-speed manual transmission was standard on all engines for 1983 and 1984, with a five-speed manual as an option; a three-speed automatic was offered on 2.3L and 2.8L engines. For 1985, the


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: five-speed manual became the standard transmission, with a four-speed automatic offered on non-diesel Rangers. For 1989, the Mazda M5OD-R1 transmission became the standard transmission Slightly larger than the Courier, the first-generation Ranger was approximately 18 inches shorter and 11 inches narrower than an equivalently configured F-100/F-150. While proportioned similar to the Chevrolet S-10 and Japanese-sourced compact trucks, adopted exterior design elements from the F-Series, including its twin headlamps, chrome grille, tailgate lettering, taillamps, and cab proportions. In line with the Courier, the Ranger was offered with two pickup bed sizes; a standard 6-foot length and an extended 7-foot length. In


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: 1986, a third configuration was introduced, as the Ranger SuperCab extended cab was introduced. Stretched 17 inches behind the front doors for additional cab space, the SuperCab was offered with the 6-foot bed length; four-wheel drive SuperCabs were sold only with V6 engines. During its production, the first-generation Ranger was offered with several seating configurations. A three-passenger bench seat was standard, with various types of bucket seats offered (dependent on trim level). As part of the 1989 mid-cycle update, a 40/60 split-bench seat was introduced. The SuperCab was offered with a pair of center-facing jump seats, expanding capacity to five.


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: From 1983 to 1988, the interior saw few major revisions. In 1986, the instrument cluster was revised, allowing the fitment of a tachometer. To streamline production, the Ranger shared interior components with other Ford vehicles, sharing the steering column, door handles, and window controls from the Ford Escort, Ford F-Series, and Ford Bronco; nearly the entire driver's compartment of the Ford Bronco II was directly sourced from the Ranger. For 1989, the Ranger underwent a mid-cycle redesign with new front fenders, a restyled hood and grille, and flush-mounted composite headlamps (with larger marker lamps). To further improve aerodynamics, the front


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: bumper was redesigned and enlarged to fit more closely with the front fenders. The interior was given a redesign, including new door panels, new seats, and an all-new dashboard (introducing a glovebox). To improve ergonomics, the instrument panel was redesigned for improved legibility, with automatic transmission Rangers receiving a column-mounted gearshift; manual-transmission versions saw the removal of the key-release button from the steering column. The first-generation Ranger was marketed in five trim levels: Ranger S, Ranger, Ranger XL, Ranger XLS, and Ranger XLT. Intended largely for fleet sales, the Ranger S (introduced in 1984) was offered with virtually no available


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: options. While still largely a work truck, the Ranger XL offered color-keyed trim, floor mats, and chrome bumpers. The XLS was marketed as the sportiest version of the Ranger, offering bucket seats, blackout trim, and tape stripe packages (essentially the successor to the 1970s ""Free Wheeling"" trims) while the XLT was offered with two-tone exteriors, chrome exterior trim, and upgraded interior trim. The Ranger STX was introduced in 1985 for Ranger 4x4s on the West Coast of the United States, becoming fully available for 1986. Offering a "sport" suspension and larger tires, the STX was denoted by the offering of


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: a bucket-seat interior and model-specific two-tone paint scheme. Following an initial late 1986 introduction in California, Ford marketed the Ranger GT option package from 1987 to 1989. Marketed as a "sport pickup", the Ranger GT was offered only for regular-cab two-wheel drive Rangers. Powered by a 140 hp 2.9L V6 (paired with either a 5-speed manual or 4-speed automatic transmission), the Ranger GT was equipped with front and rear anti-roll bars, a limited-slip differential, and performance tires. Initially offered for short-bed Rangers, the Ranger GT package became available for long-bed two-wheel drive Rangers. The Ranger GT was available in either


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: red, white, or blue paint colors; chrome trim was painted body color. In 1988, the exterior was modified, with a ground effects package, including a redesigned body-color front bumper, allowing for integrated fog lamps. For 1990, the Ranger GT was discontinued; a one-off prototype was constructed in 1989 by the Ford Truck Public Affairs office, using a V6 from a Ford Taurus SHO and a 5-speed transmission from a Mustang GT. The redesign in 1992 for 1993 featured mild restyling, flush-mounted door glass, wider doors, and slight fender flares. The 1989-style dashboard remained, but the seats and door panels were


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: new. A six digit odometer was added for 1994. The 2.9-liter engine was discontinued. The engines offered were offered in displacements of 2.3, 3.0 and 4.0 liters. A new "Splash" model was introduced, which had a flare side bed, unique chrome wheels, lowered rear suspension and a lowered front suspension (on 4x2 models), and special vinyl "Splash" decals on the sides and the tailgate. The 1993 Splash trim level was offered with regular cab in arctic white, gloss black, red orange, and sky blue. The Mazda B-Series became a re-badged Ranger for the 1994 model year, but the Mazda B-Series


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: did not offer an equivalent to the Splash model. While 1993 Rangers used R-12 Freon, 1994 model year saw the transition to CFC-free air-conditioning systems in compliance with the Clean Air Act. For the 1994 model year, the Splash trim had options which all included; a lowered rear suspension and lowered front suspension (on 4x2 models), flare side bed, an extended cab, and unique chrome wheels. The decals also underwent subtle changes. While the 1993–1994 models sported red, yellow and blue stripes, the 1995 to 1996 models had lime green stripes. Additionally, the available colors for the Splash model changed


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: from the 1993–1994 models to the 1995–1997 models. The latter were offered in maroon, gloss black, white, and canary yellow. Fall 1994 production (1995 model year) included a steering wheel modified to include a driver's side airbag and a redesigned dashboard which included a double DIN radio head unit. Also for 1995 (model year), SuperCab trucks could have a power driver's seat. The A4LD transmission was updated. 2.3- and 3.0-liter models got the "4R44E", while 4.0-liter trucks got the "4R55E". The front brakes were changed to use the same two-piston brake calipers as the second-generation Explorer, and four-wheel anti-lock brakes


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: were added as standard on 4x4 and 4.0-liter models. From October 1995 (1996 model year), an optional passenger airbag (the first compact truck to offer one) became available, with a key-operated cutoff switch that allowed the airbag to be turned off for smaller passengers riding in the front seat. In October 1996, the 1997 model year brought in the first ever five-speed automatic transmission to be used by an American manufacturer. The 4.0-liter models were equipped with the "5R55E", while the 3.0-liter was still mated to the "4R44E". In 1997 for the 1998 model year, the Ranger got a major


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: update to the same body design, by giving it a longer wheelbase and a longer cab for the regular cab models (part of which provided more room in the interior). The 1995 to 1997 model year interior look was retained. The Twin I-Beam front suspension was replaced by the wishbone-style system found on the Explorer and the front half of the frame was of "boxed", rather than C-channel construction. Rack and pinion steering was also added. The four-cylinder engine was increased to a 2.5-liter SOHC I4, giving it a 6% increase in power over the old 2.3-liter. It produced and


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: of torque. Also, for the 2000 model year, amber rear turn signals were discontinued. 4x4 models were equipped with a PVH lockout system for the front axles. This system proved to be rather unreliable and was changed to a live axle setup in mid-2000. The 2.5-liter engine was replaced by a new DOHC 2.3-liter Duratec inline-four in mid-2001. 2001 also saw the pushrod 4.0-liter V6 replaced by the SOHC version from the Explorer, bringing with it a more durable "M5OD-R1HD" manual transmission. Also in 2001, the five-speed automatic transmission that was introduced in 1997 for the 4.0-liter V6, was now


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: also available with the 2.3- and 3.0-liter units. The Ranger received a facelift, including a new grille, hood, and front bumper, as well as updated headlights and taillights. SLP produced a version of the Ranger, called "Thunderbolt". This model included different options, such as a unique front and rear bumper, air intake, exhaust and even a spoiler. In 2004, the Ranger received minor updates to the grille, hood, and front bumper. New front bucket seats were also added in 2004 to meet the new U.S. Federal safety requirements. It retained the dashboard lines of the previous years trucks with an


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: instrument cluster change. In 2006, the Ranger received more minor updates to the grille, front side markers and taillights, along with a bigger rear Ford logo that was now centered in the tailgate. It also received new larger mirrors similar to those found on other Ford trucks and SUVs. The latest Ranger offered a 2.3-liter inline-four and a 4.0-liter V6. The 3.0-liter Vulcan V6 was discontinued as of the 2009 model year. Ford uses code "R10" through "R19" in the fifth, sixth, and seventh VIN positions for all Rangers; R10, R14, and R18 are all rear-wheel drive; regular cab, two-door


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: SuperCab, and four-door SuperCab respectively. R11, R15, and R19 are four-wheel drive; regular cab, two-door SuperCab, four-door SuperCab respectively. In December 2009, Ford announced that specially designed custom graphics would be applied to the Ranger, beginning with the 2010 models. The feature was exclusive to Ford Dealers and allowed customers to pick a design that they wanted customized for their Ranger trims. For the 2011 and 2012 model year, the level trims were adjusted. The XL trim has the standard level, followed by the XLT and Sport trims. The latter two included Sirius radio as an optional feature. The Ford


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: Ranger was the first small pickup to introduce dual airbags as safety features. It received an "acceptable" frontal crash test rating from the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety when they were first tested in 1998, while many of its competitors received "marginal" or "poor" ratings at that time. The exception was the Toyota Tacoma, which also got an "acceptable" rating. The 2010 model year brought the addition of front seat combination head and torso airbags to improve passenger safety in a side-impact collision and earned "good" rating through the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety's side impact test. Also, electronic stability


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: control was added for the 2010 models as standard equipment. In the Roof Strength Test conducted by Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, the Ford Ranger earned an "Acceptable" rating. The FX4 Level II version comes with a special 31-spline Ford 8.8 rear axle equipped with a Zexel-Torsen limited-slip differential, three skid plates, upgraded tow hooks, 31" BFGoodrich All Terrains, 15-inch forged Alcoa wheels, and Bilstein shocks. Inside, the Level II package added two-tone cloth seats, optional leather and rubber floors along with a six-CD MP3 headunit as standard options. The FX4 level II package was first available in 2003, though,


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: in 2002 the very first "FX4" package, however, not the Level II, was available. The 2002 FX4 off-road package is identical to the 2003+ FX4 Level II package, since there wasn't a FX4 Level II package offered. The FX4 off-road package did differ from the FX4 Level II package after 2002. The 2002 FX4 off-road and 2003 FX4 Level II are often referred to be the "Holy Grail" of Rangers, since there were limited production of these trucks with both a manual transmission and manual 4x4. According to Ford, 17,971 Level IIs were built from 2002 through 2007 (including the


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: 2002), and 45,172 of the Off Roads were built from 2003 to 2009. The FX4 Off Road was available into 2009, but the Level II was stopped after 2007, though many Level II features could be ordered individually. In 2010 the Ranger discontinued the FX4 trim level for the U.S. market, but it remained available in the Canadian market. The above pictures are of a 2006+ FX4 level 1. A Level II has a special "Level II" decal just behind the front wheels in the secondary paint color, as well as chrome "J" tow hooks. In January 2018, one year


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: after announcing the production return of the Ford Ranger to North America, Ford introduced the 2019 Ford Ranger at the 2018 North American International Auto Show, marking the first Ford entry into the mid-size pickup truck segment. The fourth-generation Ranger began production on October 29, 2018, and will go on sale by January 2019. In place of commercial use, Ford seeks to market the Ranger to private buyers using the truck for recreation; creating a vehicle for those who seek a vehicle smaller than a full-size truck, along with F-Series owners seeking a vehicle with a smaller exterior footprint. The


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: 2019 Ford Ranger is derived from the Ford T6 global midsize truck architecture designed by Ford of Australia. While already designed to accommodate left-hand drive use, the T6 chassis underwent further modifications for use in North America. To better accommodate American crash standards and increase its payload, the frame was revised to include fully boxed frame rails. All versions of the Ranger sold in North America have a 127-inch wheelbase, regardless of cab or drivetrain configuration. For North American production, the Ranger T6 is produced with a single powertrain. Shared with the Ford Explorer and Ford Mustang, the Ranger is


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: powered by a 2.3L EcoBoost inline-4. For the Ranger, the engine produces 270 hp and 310 lb-ft of torque (10 fewer horsepower than the Explorer). The engine is paired to a 10-speed 10R80 automatic transmission; shared with the Mustang GT and F-150 with the EcoBoost V6 or V8 engine. For 2019 production, no Duratorq or EcoBlue diesel engines are announced for the North American version of the T6 Ranger nor are any alternative gasoline engines. The 2019 Ford Ranger will be sold in four-door SuperCab and four-door SuperCrew configurations (Ford has no plans to market a two-door Ranger in North


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: America). While externally similar to its global counterpart, the 2019 Ford Ranger features a number of exterior design changes. Most visibly, the front fascia was redesigned with a frame-mounted steel bumper. At the minor expense of frontal aerodynamics, the sturdier front bumper was designed to better comply with American crash standards. To better market the vehicle towards private buyers in North America, the Ranger was given a distinct hood design and grilles related to trim level. Additional trim included color-contrasting fender molding and fender grilles (in line with the F-Series trucks). The "RANGER"-embossed tailgate was modified; in the interest of


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: aerodynamics, adding a spoiler (sharing the locking tailgate handle from the F-150). The interior of the global Ranger was also revised slightly. To comply with American safety mandates, a rearview safety camera is standard along with automatic emergency braking. Several sizes of interior touchscreens are offered, depending on trim packages ordered. To increase interior storage, waterproof storage compartments were added under the rear seats. As the global Ford Ranger was designed before the current F-Series, usage of aluminum in the body is minor, with only an aluminum hood and tailgate. The 2019 Ford Ranger shares the trim levels of the


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: previous American Ford Ranger and the Ford F-Series: base XL, mid-level XLT, and top-trim Lariat. To supplement each trim level, Chrome, Sport, and FX option packages are offered for all three trim levels. Starting in 1998, Ford began to phase out the Ford Courier name on its Mazda-produced compact pickups sold globally in favor of the Ranger nameplate (though the Courier remained in use in Australia). Consequently, exports of the North American-produced Ranger were primarily limited to South America, including Argentina, Brazil, and Chile. In 1995 Ford began exports of the Ranger from the United States to Argentina; initial exports


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: started with two-door SuperCab equipped with the 4.0-liter gasoline "Cologne" V6. As demand increased, Ford made the decision to produce it locally in Buenos Aires, Argentina at the Ford General Pacheco Assembly Plant for the local market, Canada and subsequently for the rest of Latin America. The first Rangers produced at General Pacheco were built in 1996 with a single cab, gasoline engine version. By November 1997, supply was increased with both diesel and gasoline engines, two-wheel and four-wheel drive and different levels of equipment. After two years of local production in Argentina, in 1998, Ford of Argentina introduced a


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: redesigned version of the Ford Ranger. Featuring the same updates as its counterpart in the United States, a new four-door double cab body variant exclusive to South America made its debut. As Ford was developing the functionally similar Ford Explorer Sport Trac at the time, the double-cab Ford Ranger was not produced or marketed in the United States or Canada. To better match the needs of local buyers, Ford of Argentina offered three different turbodiesel powertrain options, including a 2.5-liter turbocharged four-cylinder diesel with 115 hp (85 kW) starting in 1998, a 2.8-liter with 135 hp (99 kW) starting in


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: 2002 and a 3.0-liter with and of torque mated to an Eaton "FSO-2405-A" five-speed manual transmission starting in 2004. The 2001 exterior facelift given to North American Rangers was not carried over to South American versions, with the 1998 front bodywork remaining until the 2003 model year. For 2004, both versions were given the same grille (though Argentine-produced versions were designed with projector-style headlamps). Following a US$156.5 million upgrade to the General Pacheco factory in 2007, several upgrades were made to the South American Ranger; a number of them would diverge the model from its US counterpart. For 2008, the


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: Ranger received a makeover with a grill and headlights similar to the 2006 North American version; bed extenders became available for all boxes. For 2010, the Ranger was given its largest facelift since 1992. To allow for a more aggressive stance, the hood, front fenders, and front bumper were replaced with a more aggressive and rounded design, including large wheel arches; on the doors, the handles were replaced by a pull-out design. For the first time, the Ranger wore the Ford corporate three-bar grille. Inside, the interior design introduced in 2008 remained, with both previous engine configurations. A new option


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: (for Argentina and Brazil) included an engine powered by compressed natural gas, making it the first pickup truck to offer a factory-built natural gas vehicle (NGV) commercially available in those countries. In 2012, Ford of Argentina replaced the US-derived Ranger with the larger Ranger T6. Designed by Ford of Australia, the Ranger T6 consolidated the Ford- and Mazda-based versions of the Ranger onto a single platform sold globally outside the United States and Canada. Engines: In the summer of 2005, alongside the update for the 2006 model-year U.S. Ranger, the first information emerged about its intended replacement. Designed under the


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: P273 codename as a 2010 model-year vehicle, the new Ranger was designed as a global vehicle, intended to replace three versions of the Ranger: the related North American and Latin American versions, along with the rebadged version designed by Mazda sold through much of the rest of the world. In 2007, the Thai market received a Ranger based on the 4Trac concept vehicle. Designed by Ford Australia, the Ford Ranger T6 began production in 2011 in AutoAlliance in Rayong, Thailand. While the Ranger T6 was initially released as a global vehicle, it was not sold in the United States or


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: Canada, leaving the compact Ranger without a successor. In 2008, Ford made its first plans to end production of the Ranger in North America; although its high productivity spared it from The Way Forward, Twin Cities Assembly (built in 1925) was the oldest Ford factory worldwide. Ford later extended the closure date of the factory to 2011, but in June 2011, a final closure date was announced. As Twin Cities was the sole production location of the Ranger in North America (from 1982), its closure brought the production of the Ranger to an end after 29 model years. The 2011


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: model year was the final model year for retail sales, with a shortened 2012 model year for fleet sales; the final North American-market Ranger (a white SuperCab Sport produced for pest-control company Orkin) was produced on December 16, 2011. While the global Ranger T6 underwent development in the late 2000s, it was ultimately rejected for the North American market for several reasons. Although compact pickup trucks had grown in size in the 2000s (notably the Nissan Frontier and Toyota Tacoma) in the early 2000s (in comparison to the Ranger and Chevrolet S10), the global Ranger was seen as dimensionally a


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: mid-size truck. While potentially offering Ford a competitor to the Dodge Dakota for the first time, Ford also felt a mid-size truck of its own would threaten sales of the Ford F-150, the best-selling vehicle in the United States. Another factor in its decision was the overall decline of the compact truck segment, from 8% of total market sales in 1994 to 2% in 2010. According to its market research, toward the end of its production, Ford discovered that most Ford Ranger buyers were not buying the Ranger as a truck, but for its low price as a new vehicle.


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: Along with its plans to increase F-Series fuel economy, Ford sought to retain Ranger buyers with the Ford Fiesta and Ford Transit Connect. In 2015, as part of contract negotiations with the United Auto Workers, leaked reports over the future of the Michigan Assembly Plant included the potential decision of replacing Ford Focus and Ford C-Max production with an American-market version of the global Ford Ranger. Along with the revival of the Ranger nameplate, the UAW negotiations also included a potential revival of the Ford Bronco SUV. At the 2017 North American International Auto Show, Ford confirmed the return of


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: the Ford Ranger and Ford Bronco, with the Ford Ranger as a 2019 model-year vehicle. The production 2019 Ford Ranger was unveiled one year later, at the 2018 North American International Auto Show. The new 2019 Ford Ranger has a single powertrain package under its twin-power-dome hood: Ford's 2.3-litre EcoBoost four-cylinder engine, mated a 10-speed automatic transmission – an exclusive in the segment. The engine features direct fuel injection, a twin-scroll turbocharger and four valves per cylinder, for enhanced efficiency and capability. The first battery electric vehicle produced by Ford in North America, the Ford Ranger EV was produced from


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: 1998 to 2002. Originally fitted with lead-acid batteries, Nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries were introduced for 1999. While using the frame of a 4x4 Ranger, the Ranger EV was rear-wheel drive with a rear-mounted driveline. It is also the only rear-wheel drive American-produced Ford fitted with a de Dion rear suspension. Externally, the Ranger EV is primarly distinguished from a standard Ranger by its grille; the Ranger EV has a grille-mounted charging port on the right third of its grille. During its production, 1,500 Ranger EVs were produced; as with most electric vehicles of the 1990s, it was offered exclusively


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: through lease. While most fleet-leased Ranger EVs were returned to Ford after the end of the lease and dismantled, some Ranger EVs leased by indivduals were purchased and remain in use. For the 2000 model year, Ford introduced the Ford Explorer Sport Trac as its first crew-cab compact pickup in North America. While crew-cab Ford Rangers were sold in South America (and through rebadging, other markets worldwide), the Explorer Sport Trac was developed as a personal-use vehicle rather than a utility vehicle. In its design, the Sport Trac was a combination of several vehicles: the Ranger SuperCab chassis, Explorer Sport


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: front fascia, a cab formed from the five-door Explorer, and an all-new composite pickup bed (sharing the tailgate with the F-150). Two generations of the Sport Trac were produced. From 2000 to 2005, the Sport Trac was based on the 1991-2001 Explorer, powered solely by the 4.0L V6. For 2006, the Sport Trac adopted the chassis of the fourth-generation Explorer (introducing a 4.6L V8 option), ending the production of the Ranger-based Explorer. After 2010, the Sport Trac was discontinued without a successor as part of "The Way Forward"; the 2019 Ranger SuperCrew is sized similar in width and wheelbase to


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: the Sport Trac. For 1994, Mazda North America ended imports of the B-series from Japan, entering into an agreement with Ford to market a rebadged version of the Ranger as the B-series in the United States and Canada. For Mazda, whose 1986-1993 B-series had struggled in North America, the new B-series was a variant of one of the highest-selling compact trucks. In addition, selling a truck produced in the United States allowed Mazda to entirely circumvent the 25% "chicken tax". While Mazda continued sales of the previous-generation B-series for global markets, for the United States and Canada, the B-series adapted


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: the body configurations and powertrains as the Ranger; two-wheel drive and 4x4 versions were offered. As with previous generations, badging was related to engine displacement; versions with the 2.3L inline-four were the B2300, the 3.0L V6 as the B3000, and the 4.0L V6 as the B4000. To distinguish Ford and Mazda trucks from one another, stylists gave the B-series its own front fascia and pickup truck bed; the extended cab (Cab Plus) was styled with blacked-out and chrome window trim. At its launch, Mazda sold the B-series in two trim lines, SE and LE (equivalent to Ranger XL and XLT,


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: respectively). For 1997, the trim levels were revised, as the LE was dropped in favor of SE-5 and SE-5+; for 1998, SX became the base trim, with SE becoming the highest trim. For 2002, the B-series was renamed Mazda Truck, though all fender badging denoting engine size remained. During its production, the B-series/Truck largely followed the development of the Ranger in its body and chassis. For 1997, Mazda dropped the B3000 (separately from Ford); the model returned for 1998. For 1998, the B-series underwent the same body and chassis redesign as the Ranger, with a new front fascia, redesigned pickup


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: bed (with vestigial fenders), and a larger-displacement standard engine (creating the B2500). During 1998, rear-hinged doors were added to Cab Plus models, a first in the pickup truck segment (alongside SuperCabs of the Ford Ranger and F-Series). For 2001, the B2300 returned (with a Ford Duratec DOHC engine) and the B4000 received a SOHC 4.0L V6 engine. As the B-series became the Mazda Truck for 2002, it underwent its final exterior update, introducing a centered Mazda badge to the grille. After 2007, the B3000 was discontinued (as production of the 3.0L Vulcan V6 ended within a year). As Mazda North


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: America began to shift away from pickup truck sales, the Mazda Truck was withdrawn from the United States after the 2009 model year. Sold in Canada for 2010, the final Mazda Truck rolled off the Twin Cities Assembly Plant assembly line on December 11, 2009. For the 1986 model year, the Ford Aerostar was launched as the first minivan from Ford Motor Company. While built using a separate chassis architecture, the Aerostar sourced mechanical components from the Ranger, Bronco II, and Explorer, including engines and transmissions. Other minor interior components were also shared between the Ranger and Aerostar (and other


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: Ford vehicles). The Aerostar was sold through the 1997 model year, replaced by the front-wheel drive Ford Windstar and Mercury Villager (the former deriving components from the Ford Taurus). For the 1978 model year, the Ford Bronco transitioned in size from a compact SUV to a full-size SUV derived from the Ford F-100. To re-enter the segment vacated by the Bronco, Ford developed a compact SUV alongside the Ranger. Introduced for the 1984 model year, the Ford Bronco II was slightly longer and wider than the first-generation Bronco, using a shortened 4x4 Ranger chassis. In sharp contrast to the spartan


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: original, the Bronco II offered all of the convenience features available on the Ranger. Unlike its larger namesake, the Bronco II was not designed with a removable roof, including large side windows which extended into the rear roofline. From the B-pillars forward, the Bronco II shared its interior with the Ranger (with the exception of badging). For 1989, the Bronco II shared the front fascia and interior of the facelifted Ranger. As part of a redesign, the Bronco II was enlarged for the 1991 model year, becoming the Ford Explorer Sport (alongside the four-door Ford Explorer). For the 1991 model


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: year, Ford redesigned the Bronco II, renaming it the Ford Explorer. To increase its utility as a family vehicle, the Explorer was introduced as a five-door SUV. Again based on the Ranger chassis, both versions of the Explorer shared interior components with the Ranger and front bodywork forward of the windshield (though visible parts commonality was reduced over the Bronco II). In 1995, as part of a body revision, the Ranger bodywork was removed from the Explorer; the model line also became the first Ford truck to end the use of Twin I-Beam front suspension. To functionally replace the Bronco


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: II, Ford created a three-door version of the Explorer. To address the stability problems of the Bronco II, Ford lengthened the wheelbase of the three-door Explorer by 8 inches and it was nearly a foot longer in length over its predecessor. In contrast to the glass-panel roofline of the Bronco II, the three-door Explorer wore a similar roofline to the five-door, with a raked "C-pillar" as an identifying feature. For 1998, the three-door adopted the Explorer Sport name (the most commonly produced trim level for three-doors). For 2001, to distinguish the three-door from the five-door, the Explorer Sport was styled


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: with the same front fascia as the Sport Trac pickup truck. As demand for three-door SUVs declined (in comparison to five-door SUVs), the Explorer Sport was discontinued after the 2003 model year. From 1991 to 1994, Mazda marketed the three-door Explorer as the Mazda Navajo. Equipped similar to the Explorer Sport and Explorer XLT three-door, the Navajo differed largely in exterior trim and wheels, with the interior differing only in the instrument panel lettering. Due to the slow sales of three-door SUVs, the Mazda Navajo was discontinued during the 1994 model year. With the exception of steering-wheel badging, the Navajo


title: "Ford Ranger (Americas)" content: used the same dashboard as the 1989-1994 Ranger. From 1997 to 2010, Mercury marketed the five-door Explorer as the Mercury Mountaineer. As part of the development of the 2002 third-generation Ford Explorer, Ford developed a dedicated mid-size SUV chassis for the Explorer and Mountaineer, ending their use of the Ranger chassis after the 2001 model year. Ford Ranger (Americas) The Ford Ranger is a compact pickup truck that was manufactured and marketed by Ford Motor Company from 1983 to 2012 model years for North America. From 1997 to 2011, a version was also manufactured and sold in South America. Introduced


title: "Dairy cattle" content: Dairy cattle Dairy cattle (also called dairy cows) are cattle cows bred for the ability to produce large quantities of milk, from which dairy products are made. Dairy cows generally are of the species "Bos taurus". Historically, there was little distinction between dairy cattle and beef cattle, with the same stock often being used for both meat and milk production. Today, the bovine industry is more specialized and most dairy cattle have been bred to produce large volumes of milk. Dairy cows may be found either in herds or dairy farms where dairy farmers own, manage, care for, and collect


title: "Dairy cattle" content: milk from them, or on commercial farms. Herd sizes vary around the world depending on landholding culture and social structure. The United States has 9 million cows in 75,000 dairy herds, with an average herd size of 120 cows. The number of small herds is falling rapidly with the 3,100 herds with over 500 cows producing 51% of U.S. milk in 2007. The United Kingdom dairy herd overall has nearly 1.5 million cows, with about 100 head reported on an average farm. In New Zealand, the average herd has more than 375 cows, while in Australia, there are approximately 220


title: "Dairy cattle" content: cows in the average herd. The United States dairy herd produced of milk in 2007, up from in 1950, yet there were only about 9 million cows on U.S. dairy farms—about 13 million fewer than there were in 1950. The top breed of dairy cow within Canada's national herd category is Holstein, taking up 93% of the dairy cow population, have an annual production rate of of milk per cow that contains 3.9% butter fat and 3.2% protein. Dairy farming, like many other livestock raring, can be split into intensive and extensive management systems. Intensive systems focus towards maximum production


title: "Dairy cattle" content: per cow in the herd. This involve formulating their diet to provide ideal nutrition and housing the cows in a confinement system such as free stall or tie stall. These cows are housed indoors throughout their lactation and may be put to pasture during their 60-day dry period before ideally calving again. Free stall style barns involve cattle loosely housed where they can have free access to feed, water, and stalls but are moved to another part of the barn to be milked multiple times a day. In a tie stall system, the milking units are brought to the cows


title: "Dairy cattle" content: during each milking. These cattle are tethered within their stalls with free access to water and feed are provided. In extensive systems, cattle are mainly outside on pasture for most of their lives. These cattle are generally lower in milk production and are herded multiple times daily to be milked. The systems used greatly depends on the climate and available land of the region of which the farm is situated. To maintain lactation, a dairy cow must be bred and produce calves. Depending on market conditions, the cow may be bred with a "dairy bull" or a "beef bull." Female


title: "Dairy cattle" content: calves (heifers) with dairy breeding may be kept as replacement cows for the dairy herd. If a replacement cow turns out to be a substandard producer of milk, she then goes to market and can be slaughtered for beef. Male calves can either be used later as a breeding bull or sold and used for veal or beef. Dairy farmers usually begin breeding or artificially inseminating heifers around 13 months of age. A cow's gestation period is approximately nine months. Newborn calves are removed from their mothers quickly, usually within three days, as the mother/calf bond intensifies over time and


title: "Dairy cattle" content: delayed separation can cause extreme stress on both cow and calf. Domestic cows can live to 20 years; however, those raised for dairy rarely live that long, as the average cow is removed from the dairy herd around age four and marketed for beef. In 2014, approximately 9.5% of the cattle slaughtered in the U.S. were culled dairy cows: cows that can no longer be seen as an economic asset to the dairy farm. These animals may be sold due to reproductive problems or common diseases of milk cows such as mastitis and lameness. Most heifers (female calves) are kept


title: "Dairy cattle" content: on farm to be raised as a replacement heifer, a female that will be bred and enter the production cycle. Market calves are generally sold at two weeks of age and bull calves may fetch a premium over heifers due to their size, either current or potential. Calves may be sold for veal, or for one of several types of beef production, depending on available local crops and markets. Such bull calves may be castrated if turnout onto pastures is envisaged, in order to render the animals less aggressive. Purebred bulls from elite cows may be put into progeny testing


title: "Dairy cattle" content: schemes to find out whether they might become superior sires for breeding. Such animals may become extremely valuable. Most dairy farms separate calves from their mothers within a day of birth to reduce transmission of disease and simplify management of milking cows. Studies have been done allowing calves to remain with their mothers for 1, 4, 7 or 14 days after birth. Cows whose calves were removed longer than one day after birth showed increased searching, sniffing and vocalizations. However, calves allowed to remain with their mothers for longer periods showed weight gains at three times the rate of early


title: "Dairy cattle" content: removals as well as more searching behavior and better social relationships with other calves. After separation, some young dairy calves subsist on commercial milk replacer, a feed based on dried milk powder. Milk replacer is an economical alternative to feeding whole milk because it is cheaper, can be bought at varying fat and protein percentages, and is typically less contaminated than whole milk when handled properly. Some farms pasteurize and feed calves milk from the cows in the herd instead of using replacer. A day-old calf consumes around 5 liters of milk per day. Cattle are social animals; their ancestors


title: "Dairy cattle" content: tended to live in matriarchal groups of mothers and offspring. The formation of "friendships" between two cows is common and long lasting. Traditionally individual housing systems were used in calf rearing, to reduce the risk of disease spread and provide specific care. However, due to their social behaviour the grouping of offspring may be better for the calves' overall welfare. Social interaction between the calves can have a positive effect on their growth. It has been seen that calves housed in grouped penning were found to eat more feed than those in single pens, suggesting social facilitation of feeding behaviour


title: "Dairy cattle" content: in the calves. Play behaviour in pre-weaned dairy calves has also been suggested to help build social skills for later in life. It has been seen that those reared in grouped housing are more likely to become the dominant cattle in a new combination of animals. These dominant animals have a priority choice of feed or lying areas and are generally stronger animals. Due to these reasons, it has become common practice to group or pair calves in their housing. It has become common within Canada to see paired or grouped housing in outdoor hutches or within an indoor pack


title: "Dairy cattle" content: penning. A bull calf with high genetic potential may be reared for breeding purposes. It may be kept by a dairy farm as a herd bull, to provide natural breeding for the herd of cows. A bull may service up to 50 or 60 cows during a breeding season. Any more and the sperm count will decline, leading to cows "returning to service" (to be bred again). A herd bull may only stay for one season, as when most bulls reach over two years old their temperament becomes too unpredictable. Bull calves intended for breeding commonly are bred on specialized


title: "Dairy cattle" content: dairy breeding farms, not production farms. These farms are the major source of stocks for artificial insemination. The dairy cow will produce large amounts of milk in its lifetime. Production levels peak at around 40 to 60 days after calving. Production declines steadily afterwards until milking is stopped at about 10 months. The cow is "dried off" for about sixty days before calving again. Within a 12 to 14-month inter-calving cycle, the milking period is about 305 days or 10 months long. Among many variables, certain breeds produce more milk than others within a range of around 6,800 to 17,000


title: "Dairy cattle" content: kg (15,000 to 37,500 lb) of milk per year. The Holstein Friesian is the main breed of dairy cattle in Australia, and said to have the "world's highest" productivity, at 10000 L of milk per year. The average for a single dairy cow in the US in 2007 was per year, excluding milk consumed by her calves, whereas the same average value for a single cow in Israel was reported in the Philippine press to be 12,240 kg in 2009. High production cows are more difficult to breed at a two-year interval. Many farms take the view that 24 or


title: "Dairy cattle" content: even 36 month cycles are more appropriate for this type of cow. Dairy cows may continue to be economically productive for many lactation cycles. In theory a longevity of 10 lactations is possible. The chances of problems arising which may lead to a cow being culled are high, however; the average herd life of US Holstein is today fewer than 3 lactations. This requires more herd replacements to be reared or purchased. Over 90% of all cows are slaughtered for 4 main reasons: Cow longevity is strongly correlated with production levels. Lower production cows live longer than high production cows,


title: "Dairy cattle" content: but may be less profitable. Cows no longer wanted for milk production are sent to slaughter. Their meat is of relatively low value and is generally used for processed meat. Another factor affecting milk production is the stress the cow is faced with. Psychologists at the University of Leicester, UK, analyzed the musical preference of milk cows and found out that music actually influences the dairy cow's lactation. Calming music can improve milk yield, probably because it reduces stress and relaxes the cows in much the same way as it relaxes humans. Certain behaviors such as eating, rumination, and lying


title: "Dairy cattle" content: down can be related to the health of the cow and cow comfort. These behaviors can also be related to the productivity of the cows. Likewise, stress, disease, and discomfort will have a negative effect on the productivity of the dairy cows. Therefore, it can be said that it is in the best interest of the farmer to increase eating, rumination, and lying down and decrease stress, disease, and discomfort to achieve the maximum productivity possible. Also, estrous behaviors such as mounting can be a sign of cow comfort, since if a cow is lame, nutritionally deficient, or are housed


title: "Dairy cattle" content: in an over crowded barn, the performance of estrous behaviors will be altered. Feeding behaviors are obviously important for the dairy cow, as feeding is how the cow will ingest dry matter, however, the cow must ruminate to fully digest the feed and utilize the nutrients in the feed. Dairy cows with good rumen health will likely be more profitable than cows with poor rumen health, as a healthy rumen will aid in the digestion of nutrients. An increase in the time a cow spends ruminating is associated with the increase in health and an increase in milk production. The


title: "Dairy cattle" content: productivity of dairy cattle is most efficient when the cattle have a full rumen . Also, the standing action while feeding after milking has been suggested to enhance udder health. The delivery of fresh feed while the cattle are away for milking stimulates the cattle to fed upon return, potentially reducing the prevalence of mastitis as the sphincters have time to close while standing This makes the pattern of feeding directly after being milked an ideal method of increasing the efficiency of the herd. Cows have a high motivation to lie down so farmers should be conscious of this, not


title: "Dairy cattle" content: only because they have a high motivation to lie down, but also because lying down can increase milk yield. When the lactating dairy cow lies down, blood flow is increased to the mammary gland which in return results in a higher milk yield. To ensure that the dairy cows lie down as much as needed, the stalls must be comfortable. Put very simply, a stall should have a rubber mat, bedding, and be large enough for the cow to lie down and get up comfortably. Signs that the stalls may not be comfortable enough for the cows are the cows


title: "Dairy cattle" content: are standing, either ruminating or not, instead of lying down, or perching, which is when the cow has its front end in the stall and their back end out of the stall. There are two types of housing systems in dairy production, free style housing and tie stall. Free style housing is where the cow is free to walk around and interact with its environment and other members of the herd. Tie stall housing is when the cow is chained to a stantion stall with the milking units and feed coming to them. Pasteurization is the process of heating milk


title: "Dairy cattle" content: to a high enough temperature for a short period of time to kill the microbes in the milk and increase keep time and decrease spoilage time. By killing the microbes, decrease the transmission of infection, and elimination of enzymes the quality of the milk and the shelf life increases. Pasteurization is either completed at 63 °C for thirty minutes or a flash pasteurization is completed for 15 seconds at 72 °C. By-products of milk include butterfat, cream, curds, and whey. Butterfat is the main lipid in milk. The cream contains 18–40% butterfat. The industry can be divided into 2 market


title: "Dairy cattle" content: territories; fluid milk and industrialized milk such as yogurt, cheeses, and ice cream. Whey protein makes up about 20% of milk’s protein composition and is separated for the casein (80% of milk’s protein make up) during the process of curdling cheese. This protein is commonly used in protein bars, beverages and concentrated powder, due to its high quality amino acid profile. It contains levels of both essential amino acids as well as branched that are above those of soy, meat, and wheat. "Diafiltered" milk is a process of ultrafiltration of the fluid milk to separate lactose and water from the


title: "Dairy cattle" content: casein and whey proteins. This process allows for more efficiency in cheese making and gives the potential to produce low-carb dairy products. Since the 1950s, artificial insemination (AI) is used at most dairy farms; these farms may keep no bull. Artificial insemination uses estrus synchronization to indicate when the cow is going through ovulation and is susceptible to fertilization. Advantages of using AI include its low cost and ease compared to maintaining a bull, ability to select from a large number of bulls, elimination of diseases in the dairy industry, improved genetics and improved animal welfare Rather than a large


title: "Dairy cattle" content: bull jumping on a smaller heifer or weaker cow, AI allows the farmer to complete the breeding procedure within 5 minutes with minimum stress placed on the individual female's body. Dairy cattle are polyestrous, meaning they cycle continuously throughout the year. They tend to be on a 21 day estrus cycle, however for management purposes, some operations sync their cows or heifers using synthetic hormones in order to have the ideal time for breeding and later calving. These hormones are short term and are only used when necessary. For example, one common protocol for synchronization involves an injection of GnRH


title: "Dairy cattle" content: (gonadotrophin releasing hormone). which increases the levels of follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone in the body. Then, seven days later prostaglandin F2-alpha is injected, followed by another GnRH injection 48 hours later. This protocol causes the animal to ovulate 24 hours later. Estrus is often called standing heat in cattle and refers to the time in their cycle where the female is receptive towards the male. Estrus behaviour can be detected by an experienced stockman. These behaviours can include standing to be mounted, mounting other cows, restlessness, decreased milk production, and decreased feed intake. More recently, embryo transfer has


title: "Dairy cattle" content: been used to enable the multiplication of progeny from elite cows. Such cows are given hormone treatments to produce multiple embryos. These are then 'flushed' from the cow's uterus. 7–12 embryos are consequently removed from these donor cows and transferred into other cows who serve as surrogate mothers. The result will be between 3 and 6 calves instead of the normal single, or rarely, twins. Hormone treatments are sometimes given to dairy cows in some countries to increase reproduction and to increase milk production. About 17% of dairy cows in the United States are injected with Bovine somatotropin, also called


title: "Dairy cattle" content: recombinant bovine somatotropin (rBST), recombinant bovine growth hormone (rBGH), or artificial growth hormone. The use of this hormone increases milk production by 11%–25%. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has ruled that rBST is harmless to people. The use of rBST is banned in Canada, parts of the European Union, as well as Australia and New Zealand. In Canada, Canadian Dairy farmers have high screening procedures they have to go through every time the milk is retrieved from the farm; if the regulations are not met the milk does not get loaded onto the truck for further processing. There


title: "Dairy cattle" content: is to be no medication or hormones in the milk for safety reasons Nutrition plays an important role in keeping cattle healthy and strong. Implementing an adequate nutrition program can also improve milk production and reproductive performance. Nutrient requirements may not be the same depending on the animal's age and stage of production. Forages, which refer especially to hay or straw, are the most common type of feed used. Cereal grains, as the main contributors of starch to diets, are important in meeting the energy needs of dairy cattle. Barley is an excellent source of balanced amounts of protein, energy,


title: "Dairy cattle" content: and fiber. Ensuring adequate body fat reserves is essential for cattle to produce milk and also to keep reproductive efficiency. However, if cattle get excessively fat or too thin, they run the risk of developing metabolic problems and may have problems with calving. Scientists have found that a variety of fat supplements can benefit conception rates of lactating dairy cows. Some of these different fats include oleic acids, found in canola oil, animal tallow, and yellow grease; palmitic acid found in granular fats and dry fats; and linolenic acids which are found in cottonseed, safflower, sunflower, and soybean. Using by-products


title: "Dairy cattle" content: is one way of reducing the normally high feed costs. However, lack of knowledge of their nutritional and economic value limits their use. Although the reduction of costs may be significant, they have to be used carefully because animal may have negative reactions to radical changes in feeds, (e.g. fog fever). Such a change must then be made slowly and with the proper follow up. According to the Purebred Dairy Cattle Association, PDCA, there are 7 major dairy breeds in the United States. These are: Holstein, Brown Swiss, Guernsey, Ayrshire, Jersey, Red and White, and Milking Shorthorn. Holstein cows either


title: "Dairy cattle" content: have distinct white and black markings, or distinct red and white markings. Holstein cows are the biggest of all U.S. dairy breeds. A full mature Holstein cow usually weighs around and is tall at the shoulder. They are known for their outstanding milk production among the main breeds of dairy cattle. An average Holstein cow produces around of milk each lactation. Of the 9 million dairy cows in the U.S., approximately 90% of them are of the Holstein descent. The top breed of dairy cow within Canada's national herd category is Holstein, taking up 93% of the dairy cow population,


title: "Dairy cattle" content: have a production rate of of milk per cow that contains 3.9% butter fat and 3.2% protein Brown Swiss cows are widely accepted as the oldest dairy cattle breed, originally coming from a part of northeastern Switzerland. Some experts think that the modern Brown Swiss skeleton is similar to one found that looks to be from around the year 4000 BC Also, there is evidence that monks started breeding these cows about 1000 years ago. The Ayrshire breed first originated in the County of Ayr in Scotland. It became regarded as a well established breed in 1812. The different breeds


title: "Dairy cattle" content: that were crossed to form the Ayrshire are not exactly known. However, there is evidence that several breeds were crossed with the native cattle to create the breed. Guernsey cows originated just off the coast of France on the small Isle of Guernsey. The breed was first known as a separate breed around 1700. Guernseys are known for their ability to produce very high quality milk from grass. Also, the term "Golden Guernsey" is very common as Guernsey cattle produce rich, yellow milk rather than the standard white milk other cow breeds produce. The Jersey breed of dairy cow originated


title: "Dairy cattle" content: on a small island located off the coast of France called Jersey. Despite being one of the oldest breeds of dairy cattle they now only occupy 4% of the Canadian National Herd. Purebred Jersey cows, according to available data, have been in the UK area since about the year 1741. When they were first bred in this area, they were not known as Jerseys, but rather as the related Alderneys. The period between 1860 and around 1914 was a popular time for Jerseys. In this time span, many countries other than the United States started importing this breed, including Canada,


title: "Dairy cattle" content: South Africa, and New Zealand, among others. Among the smallest of the dairy breeds, the average Jersey cow matures at approximately , with a typical weight range between . According to North Dakota State University, the fat content of the Jersey cow's milk is 4.9 percent. It is also the highest in protein, at 3.8 percent. This high fat content means the milk is often used for making ice cream and cheeses. According to the American Jersey Cattle Association, Jerseys are found on 20 percent of all US dairy farms and are the primary breed in about 4 percent of


title: "Dairy cattle" content: dairies. Amongst the "Bos indicus", the most popular dairy breed in the world is Sahiwal of the Indian subcontinent. It does not give as much milk as the Taurine breeds, but it is by far the most suitable breed for warmer climates. Australian Friesian Sahiwal and Australian Milking Zebu have been developed in Australia using Sahiwal genetics. Gir, another of the "Bos indicus" breeds, has been improved in Brazil for its milk production and is widely used there for dairy. Animal welfare refers to both the physical and mental state of an animal, and how it is coping with its


title: "Dairy cattle" content: situation. An animal is considered in a good state of welfare if it is able to express its innate behaviour, comfortable, healthy, safe, well nourished, and is not suffering from negative states such as distress, fear and pain. Good animal welfare requires disease prevention and veterinary treatment, appropriate shelter, management, nutrition, and humane handling. If the animal is slaughtered then it is no longer "good animal welfare". It is the human responsibility of the animals' wellbeing in all husbandry and management practices including humane euthanasia. Welfare differs greatly compared to animal rights. Welfare approves animal use by humans, wheres animal


title: "Dairy cattle" content: rights do not believe in the use of animals in any circumstance including companion animals. Proper animal handling, or stockmanship, is crucial to dairy animals' welfare as well as the safety of their handlers. Improper handling techniques can stress cattle leading to impaired production and health, such as increased slipping injuries. Additionally, the majority of nonfatal worker injuries on a dairy farm are from interactions with cattle. Dairy animals are handled on a daily basis for a wide variety of purposes including health-related management practices and movement from freestalls to the milking parlor. Due to the prevalence of human-animal interactions


title: "Dairy cattle" content: on dairy farms, researchers, veterinarians, and farmers alike have focused on furthering our understanding of stockmanship and educating agriculture workers. Stockmanship is a complex concept that involves the timing, positioning, speed, direction of movement, and sounds and touch of the handler. A recent survey of Minnesota dairy farms revealed that 42.6% of workers learned stockmanship techniques from a family members, and 29.9% had participated in stockmanship training. However, as the growing U.S. dairy industry increasingly relies on an immigrant workforce, stockmanship training and education resources will become more pertinent. Clearly communicating and managing a large culturally diverse workforce brings new


title: "Dairy cattle" content: challenges such as language barriers and time limitations. Organizations like the Upper Midwest Agriculture Safety and Health Center (UMASH) offer resources such as bilingual training videos, fact sheets, and informational posters for dairy worker training. Additionally the Beef Quality Assurance Program offer seminars, live demonstrations, and online resources for stockmanship training. In order for the cows to reach high performance in milk yields and reproduction, they must be in great condition and comfortable in the system of which they are reared. Once an individual’s welfare is reduced, so does her efficiency and production. This creates more cost and time on


title: "Dairy cattle" content: the operation, therefore most farmers strive to create a healthy, hygienic, atmosphere for their cattle. As well as provide quality nutrition that will keep the cows yield high. The practice of dairy production in a factory farm environment has been criticized by animal rights activists. Some of the ethical reasons regarding dairy production cited include how often the dairy cattle are impregnated, the separation of calves from their mothers, and the fact that the cows are considered "spent" and culled at a relatively young age, as well as environmental concerns regarding dairy production. The production of milk requires that the


title: "Dairy cattle" content: cow be in lactation, which is a result of the cow having given birth to a calf. The cycle of insemination, pregnancy, parturition, and lactation is followed by a "dry" period of about two months before calving, which allows udder tissue to regenerate. A dry period that falls outside this time frames can result in decreased milk production in subsequent lactation. Dairy operations therefore include both the production of milk and the production of calves. Bull calves are either castrated and raised as steers for beef production or used for veal. Animal rights groups such as Mercy for Animals also


title: "Dairy cattle" content: raise welfare concerns by citing undercover footage showing abusive practices at factory farms. Dairy cattle Dairy cattle (also called dairy cows) are cattle cows bred for the ability to produce large quantities of milk, from which dairy products are made. Dairy cows generally are of the species "Bos taurus". Historically, there was little distinction between dairy cattle and beef cattle, with the same stock often being used for both meat and milk production. Today, the bovine industry is more specialized and most dairy cattle have been bred to produce large volumes of milk. Dairy cows may be found either in


title: Ligretto content: can begin. Play continues until a player scores 100 points and wins the game. "Ligretto" comes in red, green, and blue packs. Each pack, containing cards for four players, has a different set of markings on the card backs. Buying all three packs allows up to 12 players to play at a time. Ligretto Ligretto is a card game for two to twelve players. The aim of the game is to get rid of all your cards faster than all the other players by discarding them in the middle of the table. Instead of taking turns, all players play simultaneously.


title: "Melton Constable" content: Melton Constable Melton Constable is a village and civil parish in the English county of Norfolk. It covers an area of and had a population of 518 in 225 households at the 2001 census. The population had increased to 618 at the 2011 Census. For the purposes of local government, it falls within the district of North Norfolk. The village sits on fairly high ground south-west of Holt. The place-name 'Melton Constable' is first attested in the Domesday Book of 1086, where it appears as 'Maeltuna'. This may mean either 'middle town' or 'mill town'. There is a reference to


title: "Brown Swiss cattle" content: Brown Swiss cattle Brown Swiss is a Swiss breed of dairy cattle. It derives from the Alpine Braunvieh. After the Holstein Friesian, it has the second-highest annual milk yield, over per annum. The milk contains on average 4% butterfat and 3.5% protein, making their milk excellent for production of cheese. The Brown Swiss is known for a long gestation period, immense size, large furry ears, and an extremely docile temperament. Regardless, the Brown Swiss is quite a resilient breed of cattle; they are hardy and capable of subsisting with little care or feed. The Brown Swiss originated on the slopes


title: "Brown Swiss cattle" content: of the Alps in Switzerland; because they were bred in this harsh climate, they are resistant to the heat, cold and many other common cattle problems. In 1949, animal scientist Hilton M. Briggs postulated the original population of cattle in the European Alps were improved with Pinzgauer blood. The hypothesis was based on an incomplete knowledge of cattle color genetics and history. Greater knowledge of the bovine genome has disproved that conjecture. The conventional, American breed known as Brown Swiss is actually quite different from the original Schwyzer Braunvieh cattle bred in Switzerland around the end of the 17th and


title: "Brown Swiss cattle" content: 18th centuries. The first cows and bulls of the breed that became later known as Brown Swiss were imported from Switzerland into the United States by Henry M. Clark in the winter of 1869—William Tell, the bull, and seven cows called Zurich, Lucerne, Gretchen, Brinlie, Lissa, Christine, and Geneva. 25 bulls and 140 cows total were imported from Switzerland to America. While not an uncommon breed to find as the basis of a pure-blooded herd, the Swiss is also commonly encountered as a pet or token example on larger farms with mostly Holstein or Jersey cattle. Brown Swiss cattle are


title: "Brown Swiss cattle" content: normally large with large fuzzy ears. The cow is usually a light brown to grayish fawn in colour. They are also very resistant to heat and cold, and have a docile and kind nature. The milk of the Brown Swiss is unique, having longer-chain fatty acids than other popular dairy breeds and smaller fat globules in the cream; this difference means that cream rises much more slowly in milk from Brown Swiss cows. This difference, and the ratio of protein to fat in the milk, is ideal for cheesemaking. Brown Swiss cattle Brown Swiss is a Swiss breed of dairy


title: Reprobation content: is from the Latin root "probare" ("English": prove, test), and thus derived from the Latin, "reprobatus" (reproved, condemned), the opposite of "approbatus" (commended, approved). Moreover, Holy Scripture most especially highlights this eternal and undeserved grace of our election and brings it out more clearly for us, in that it further bears witness that not all people have been chosen but that some have not been chosen or have been passed by in God's eternal election-- those, that is, concerning whom God, on the basis of his entirely free, most just, irreproachable, and unchangeable good pleasure, made the following decision: to


title: "Schmidt camera" content: Schmidt camera A Schmidt camera, also referred to as the Schmidt telescope, is a catadioptric astrophotographic telescope designed to provide wide fields of view with limited aberrations. The design was invented by Bernhard Schmidt in 1930. Some notable examples are the Samuel Oschin telescope (formerly Palomar Schmidt), the UK Schmidt Telescope and the ESO Schmidt; these provided the major source of all-sky photographic imaging from 1950 until 2000, when electronic detectors took over. A recent example is the Kepler spacecraft exoplanet finder. Other related designs are the Wright Camera and Lurie–Houghton telescope. The Schmidt camera was invented by German-Estonian optician


title: "Schmidt camera" content: Bernhard Schmidt in 1930. Its optical components are an easy-to-make spherical primary mirror, and an aspherical correcting lens, known as a Schmidt corrector plate, located at the center of curvature of the primary mirror. The film or other detector is placed inside the camera, at the prime focus. The design is noted for allowing very fast focal ratios, while controlling coma and astigmatism. Schmidt cameras have very strongly curved focal planes, thus requiring that the film, plate, or other detector be correspondingly curved. In some cases the detector is made curved; in others flat media is mechanically conformed to the


title: "Schmidt camera" content: shape of the focal plane through the use of retaining clips or bolts, or by the application of a vacuum. A field flattener, in its simplest form a planoconvex lens in front of the film plate or detector, is sometimes used. Since the corrector plate is at the center of curvature of the primary mirror in this design the tube length can be very long for a wide-field telescope. There are also the drawbacks of having the obstruction of the film holder or detector mounted at the focus halfway up the tube assembly, a small amount of light is blocked


title: "Schmidt camera" content: and there is a loss in contrast in the image due to diffraction effects of the obstruction and its support structure. Because of its wide field of view, the Schmidt camera is typically used as a survey instrument, for research programs in which a large amount of sky must be covered. These include astronomical surveys, comet and asteroid searches, and nova patrols. In addition, Schmidt cameras and derivative designs are frequently used for tracking artificial earth satellites. The first relatively large Schmidt telescopes were built at Hamburg Observatory and Palomar Observatory shortly before the Second World War. Between 1945 and


title: "Schmidt camera" content: 1980, about 8 more large (1 meter or larger) Schmidt telescopes were built around the world. One particularly famous and productive Schmidt camera is the Oschin Schmidt Telescope at Palomar Observatory, completed in 1948. This instrument was used in the National Geographic Society - Palomar Observatory Sky Survey (POSS, 1958), the POSS-II survey, the Palomar-Leiden (asteroid) Surveys, and other projects. The European Southern Observatory with a 1-meter Schmidt telescope at La Silla and the UK Science Research Council with a 1.2 meter Schmidt telescope at Siding Spring Observatory engaged in a collaborative sky survey to complement the first Palomar Sky


title: "Schmidt camera" content: Survey, but focusing on the southern hemisphere. The technical improvements developed during this survey encouraged the development of the Second Palomar Observatory Sky Survey (POSS II). The telescope used in the Lowell Observatory Near-Earth-Object Search (LONEOS) is also a Schmidt camera. The Schmidt telescope of the Karl Schwarzschild Observatory is the largest Schmidt camera of the world. A Schmidt telescope was at the heart of the Hipparcos satellite from the European Space Agency (1989–1993). This was used in the Hipparcos Survey which mapped the distances of more than a million stars with unprecedented accuracy - this included 99% of all


title: "Schmidt camera" content: stars up to magnitude 11. The spherical mirror used in this telescope was extremely accurate; if scaled up to the size of the Atlantic Ocean, bumps on its surface would be about 10 cm high. The Kepler photometer, mounted on NASA's Kepler probe (2009–2018), is the largest Schmidt camera launched into space. Starting in the early 1970s, Celestron marketed an 8-inch Schmidt Camera. The camera was focused in the factory and was made of materials with low expansion coefficients so it would never need to be focused in the field. Early models required the photographer to cut and develop individual


title: "Schmidt camera" content: frames of 35 mm film as the film holder could only hold one frame of film. About 300 Celestron Schmidt Cameras were produced. The Schmidt system was popular, used in reverse, for television projection systems. Large Schmidt projectors were used in theaters but systems as small as 8-inches were made for home use and other small venues. Schmidt noted in the 1930s that the corrector plate could be replaced with a simple aperture at the mirror's center of curvature for a slow (numerically high f-ratio) camera. Such a design was used to construct a working 1/8-scale model of the Palomar