title: "Helicoverpa zea" content: sweet potato, and watermelon. However, not all of these are good hosts. While corn and lettuce are shown to be great hosts, tomatoes are less beneficial, and broccoli and cantaloupe are poor hosts. Corn and sorghum are most favored by corn earworms. Various signs reveal the presence of these moths. Young maize crops have holes in their leaves, following whorl-feeding on the apical leaf. Eggs can be found on silks on larger plants, and silks display grazing evidence. The soft, milky grains in the top few centimeters of corn cobs are eaten as the corn ears develop. One larva per


title: "Helicoverpa zea" content: cob can be observed. Bore holes are observed in cabbage and lettuce hearts, flower heads, cotton bolls, and tomato fruits. Sorghum heads are grazed, and legume pod seeds are eaten. "Helicoverpa zea" earns its nickname the corn earworm for its widely known destruction of cornfields. The corn earworm feeds on every part of corn, including the kernels. Severe feeding at the tip of kernels allows entry for diseases and mold growth. Larvae begin feeding on the kernels once they have reached third instar. Larvae penetrate 9 to 15 cm into the ear, with deeper penetration occurring as the kernels harden.


title: "Helicoverpa zea" content: Larvae do not eat the hard kernels, but take bites out of many kernels, lowering the quality of the corn for processing. "Helicoverpa zea" is the most common and destructive pest of soybean growth in Virginia. About one-third of Virginia acreage is treated annually with pounds of insecticide, costing farmers around 2 million dollars. The degree of damage varies on the size of the pest infestation, the timing, and the stage of the plant. However, soybean plants are capable of withstanding a large amount of damage without substantial yield loss depending on soil moisture, planting date, and weather. If the


title: "Helicoverpa zea" content: damage is early in the plants life, then damage will mostly be to the leaves. Plants compensate for the damage by processes such as increasing seed size in remaining pods. Most damage happens in August, when the plants are flowering. Attacks that happen after August do much less damage because many pods have developed tougher walls that "H. zea" can't penetrate. Infestations that affect pod formation and seed filling have the potential to reduce yields, and because this happens in the later stages of plants, they have less time to compensate. Female moths are attracted to flowering soybean fields. The


title: "Helicoverpa zea" content: most severe infestations occur between flowering and when pods become fully developed. Large-scale outbreak is associated with time of peak flowering, when most pods are developed, and peak moth flight, for giant. Moths are also attracted to drought stressed soybeans or fields with poor growth. Dry weather leads to quick drying of corn plants, compelling moths to leave and seek other hosts. Heavy rainfall also decreases corn earworm populations because it drowns pupae in their soil chambers, limits moth flight, washes eggs from leaves, and creates favorable conditions for fungal diseases that kill caterpillars. A hormone produced in the brain


title: "Helicoverpa zea" content: of the female moths controls sex pheromones. The hormone is released into the hemolymph to stimulate pheromone production. Pheromone biosynthesis-activating neuropeptide (PBAN) is a peptide that regulates pheromone production in moths. It acts on the pheromone gland cells using calcium and cyclic AMP. Although the photoperiod regulates the release of PBAN to some extent, the chemical signals from the host plant supersede the effect from the time of day. Female "Helicoverpa zea" in corn fields do not produce pheromones during the night until they encounter corn. Several natural corn silk volatiles like the plant hormone ethylene induce "H. zea" pheromone


title: "Helicoverpa zea" content: production. The presence of the silk from an ear of corn is enough to cause pheromone production, and physical contact between females and corn is unnecessary. This evolutionary mechanism enables the moths to coordinate their reproductive behavior with the availability of food. Female moths often become depleted of sex pheromone after mating within 2 hours of separation from the male. The pheromonostatic peptide (PSP), a protein 57 amino acids long found in the male accessory gland, is what causes depletion of the female's sex pheromone. This capability in males has been selected for because it increases the reproductive fitness of


title: "Helicoverpa zea" content: those that carry it, since other males will not be attracted to a female without a sex pheromone; thus, the female will bear only the first male's offspring. The transfer of a spermatophore without accessory gland products does not stop female pheromone production, but does stop the female's calling behavior. Intense selection acting on males to manipulate female reproductive physiology promotes rapid evolution of specific molecules, and male-derived pheromone suppressing factors exhibit positive selection. Sperm competition and chemicals introduced to females through mating have a negative effect on females and their lifespan. In males, production of the spermatophore, sperm, and


title: "Helicoverpa zea" content: secondary chemicals reduces their lifespan. As the number of copulations increase, the rate of mortality also increases in both sexes. Males must first wait to sense a female's pheromones before they can locate her. Before males engage in flight to find a female, they warm-up by shivering the major flight muscles to reach thoracic temperature optimal to sustain flight, around 26 degrees Celsius. The thermoregulatory shivering activities of males were measured as they were exposed to different sex-related olfactory cues. Males are found to heat up more quickly in the presence of a female pheromone and take-off at a lower


title: "Helicoverpa zea" content: thoracic temperature than males who are exposed to other chemical scents. Since heating up to the right temperature leads to better flight performance than flying immediately, there is a trade-off between sub-optimal flight performance and rapid onset of directed flight. "Helicoverpa zea" males exposed to an attractive pheromone blend thus spend less time shivering and increase their heating rate. Thermoregulatory behavior of unrestrained moths is associated with competition for access to females, showing the ecological trade-off. Helicoverpa zea "Helicoverpa zea, "commonly known as the corn earworm, is a species (formerly in the genus "Heliothis") in the family Noctuidae. The larva


title: "Pinus albicaulis" content: Pinus albicaulis Pinus albicaulis, known by the common names whitebark pine, white pine, pitch pine, scrub pine, and creeping pine, is a conifer tree native to the mountains of the western United States and Canada, specifically subalpine areas of the Sierra Nevada, Cascade Range, Pacific Coast Ranges, and Rocky Mountains from Wyoming northwards. It shares the common name "creeping pine" with several other plants. The whitebark pine is typically the highest-elevation pine tree found in these mountain ranges and often marks the tree line. Thus, it is often found as "krummholz", trees growing close to the ground that have been


title: "Pinus albicaulis" content: dwarfed by exposure. In more favorable conditions, the trees may grow to in height. Whitebark pine ("Pinus albicaulis") is a member of the white pine group, the "Pinus" subgenus "Strobus", and the section "Strobus"; like all members of this group, the leaves (needles) are in fascicles (bundles) of five with a deciduous sheath. This distinguishes whitebark pine and its relatives from the lodgepole pine ("Pinus contorta"), with two needles per fascicle, as well as the ponderosa pine ("Pinus ponderosa") and Jeffrey pine ("Pinus jeffreyi"), which both have three needles per fascicle; all three of these species also have a persistent


title: "Pinus albicaulis" content: sheath at the base of each fascicle. Distinguishing whitebark pine ("Pinus albicaulis"), from the related limber pine ("Pinus flexilis"), also a member of the white pine group, is much more difficult, and usually requires seed or pollen cones. In "Pinus albicaulis", the seed-bearing female cones are long, dark purple when immature, and do not open on drying, but the scales easily break when they are removed by the Clark's nutcracker to harvest the seeds; rarely are there intact old cones in the litter beneath the trees. Its pollen cones are scarlet. In "Pinus flexilis", the cones are long, green when


title: "Pinus albicaulis" content: immature, and open to release the seeds; the scales are not fragile. Their pollen cones are yellow, and there are usually intact old cones found beneath them. Whitebark pine ("Pinus albicaulis") can also be hard to distinguish from the western white pine ("Pinus monticola") in the absence of cones. However, whitebark pine needles are entire (smooth when rubbed gently in either direction), whereas western white pine needles are finely serrated (feeling rough when rubbed gently from tip to base). Whitebark pine needles are also usually shorter, long, though still overlapping in size with the larger needles of the western white


title: "Pinus albicaulis" content: pine. The whitebark pine is an important source of food for many granivorous birds and small mammals, including most importantly the Clark's nutcracker ("Nucifraga columbiana"), the major seed disperser of the pine. Clark's nutcrackers each cache about 30,000 to 100,000 seeds each year in small, widely scattered caches, usually under of soil or gravelly substrate. Nutcrackers retrieve these seed caches during times of food scarcity and to feed their young. Cache sites selected by nutcrackers are often favorable for germination of seeds and survival of seedlings. Those caches not retrieved by the time the snow melts contribute to forest regeneration.


title: "Pinus albicaulis" content: Consequently, whitebark pine often grows in clumps of several trees, originating from a single cache of two to 15 or more seeds. Other animals also depend upon the whitebark pine. Douglas squirrels cut down and store whitebark pine cones in their middens. Grizzly bears and American black bears often raid squirrel middens for whitebark pine seeds, an important pre-hibernation food. Squirrels, northern flickers, and mountain bluebirds often nest in whitebark pines, and elk and blue grouse use whitebark pine communities as summer habitat. The whitebark pine has been classified as endangered by the IUCN. Severe population decline in whitebark pine


title: "Pinus albicaulis" content: communities is attributed to various causes, most significantly infection with white pine blister rust, recent outbreaks of mountain pine beetles (2000–2014), disturbances in wildland fire ecology (including fire suppression), forest succession, and climate change. A study in the mid-2000s showed that whitebark pine had declined by 41 percent in the western Cascades due to two primary threats: blister rust and pine beetles. Whitebark deaths in North Cascades National Park doubled from 2006 to 2011. Many stands of "Pinus albicaulis" across the species entire natural range are infected with white pine blister rust ("Cronartium ribicola"), a fungal disease introduced from Europe.


title: "Pinus albicaulis" content: In the northern Rocky Mountains of the United States, whitebark pine mortality in some areas exceeds 90 percent, where the disease infests nearly . "Cronartium ribicola" occurs in whitebark pine to the northern limits of the species in the coastal ranges of British Columbia and the Canadian Rocky Mountains. The blister rust has also devastated the commercially valuable western white pine in these areas and made serious inroads in limber pine ("Pinus flexilis") populations as well. Nearly 80 percent of whitebark pines in Mount Rainier National Park are infected with blister rust. There is currently no effective method for controlling


title: "Pinus albicaulis" content: the spread and effects of blister rust. However, a small number of trees (fewer than 5%) in most populations harbor genetic resistance to blister rust. Restoration efforts undertaken by the U.S. Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, and National Park Service in the northern Rocky Mountains involve harvesting cones from potentially and known resistant whitebark pines, growing seedlings, and outplanting seedlings in suitable sites. In California, where the blister rust is far less severe, whitebark pine is still fairly common in the High Sierras. Unusually large outbreaks of mountain pine beetle ("Dendroctonus ponderosae"), a species of bark beetle native to


title: "Pinus albicaulis" content: western North America, have also contributed significantly to the widespread destruction of whitebark pine stands. The beetles both lay their eggs and introduce pathogenic fungi into their host trees, which include many other species of pine, and the combination of larval feeding and fungal colonization is typically sufficient to kill old or unhealthy trees. However, the beetles have recently expanded their attacks to younger, healthier trees as well as older trees, and climate change has been implicated as the primary culprit. Since 2000, the climate at high elevations has warmed enough for the beetles to reproduce within whitebark pine, often


title: "Pinus albicaulis" content: completing their life cycle within one year and enabling their populations to grow exponentially. Entire forest vistas, like that at Avalanche Ridge near Yellowstone National Park’s east gate, have become expanses of dead gray whitebarks. Scientists have attributed the recent warming trend to manmade global warming. In 2007, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimated that beetles had killed whitebark pines across in the West, while in 2009, beetles were estimated to have killed trees on , the most since record-keeping began. The pine beetle upsurge has killed nearly 750,000 whitebark pines in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem alone. Fire suppression


title: "Pinus albicaulis" content: has led to slow population declines over the last century by altering the health and composition dynamics of stands without the fire ecology balancing their habitat and suppressing insect-disease threats. In the absence of low-level wildfire cycles, whitebark pines in these stands are replaced by more shade-tolerant, fire-intolerant species such as subalpine fir ("Abies lasiocarpa") and Engelmann spruce ("Picea engelmannii"). In addition, senescent and blister rust-infected pine trees are not destroyed by natural periodic ground fires, further diminishing the whitebark pine forest's vitality and survival. On July 18, 2011, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service reported that the whitebark pine


title: "Pinus albicaulis" content: needed protection and that, without it, the tree would soon be extinct. However, the agency announced it would neither be able to list the tree as endangered nor protect the organism, as it lacked both the necessary staff and funding to do so. In June 2012, the Canadian federal government declared whitebark pine endangered in accordance with the Species at Risk Act. As such, it is the first federally listed endangered tree in western Canada. In response to the ongoing decline of the tree throughout its range, the Whitebark Pine Ecosystem Foundation was formed. Their mission is to raise awareness


title: "Pinus albicaulis" content: and promote conservation by sponsoring restoration projects, publishing a newsletter called "Nutcracker Notes", and hosting an annual science and management workshop for anyone interested in whitebark pine. This U.S. group collaborates closely with the Whitebark Pine Ecosystem Foundation of Canada. Pinus albicaulis Pinus albicaulis, known by the common names whitebark pine, white pine, pitch pine, scrub pine, and creeping pine, is a conifer tree native to the mountains of the western United States and Canada, specifically subalpine areas of the Sierra Nevada, Cascade Range, Pacific Coast Ranges, and Rocky Mountains from Wyoming northwards. It shares the common name "creeping pine"


title: "Marble Arch" content: Marble Arch Marble Arch is a 19th-century white marble-faced triumphal arch in London, England. The structure was designed by John Nash in 1827 to be the state entrance to the cour d'honneur of Buckingham Palace; it stood near the site of what is today the three-bayed, central projection of the palace containing the well known balcony. In 1851 on the initiative of architect and urban planner, Decimus Burton, one time pupil of John Nash, it was relocated and following the widening of Park Lane in the early 1960s is now sited, incongruently isolated, on a large traffic island at the


title: "Marble Arch" content: junction of Oxford Street, Park Lane and Edgware Road. Admiralty Arch, Holyhead in Wales is a similar arch, even more so cut off from public access, at the other end of the A5. Historically, only members of the Royal Family and the King's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery are permitted to pass through the arch; this happens only in ceremonial processions. The arch gives its name to the area surrounding it, particularly the southern portion of Edgware Road and also to the underground station. The arch is not part of the Royal Parks and is local authority maintained. Nash's three arch


title: "Marble Arch" content: design is based on that of the Arch of Constantine in Rome and the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel in Paris. The triumphal arch is faced with Carrara marble with embellishments of marble extracted from quarries near Seravezza. John Flaxman was chosen to make the commemorative sculpture. After his death in 1826 the commission was divided between Sir Richard Westmacott, Edward Hodges Baily and J.C.F. Rossi. In 1829, a bronze equestrian statue of George IV was commissioned from Sir Francis Chantrey, with the intention of placing it on top of the arch. Construction began in 1827, but was cut short


title: "Marble Arch" content: in 1830, following the death of the spendthrift King George IV—the rising costs were unacceptable to the new king, William IV, who later tried to offload the uncompleted palace onto Parliament as a substitute for the recently destroyed Palace of Westminster. Work restarted in 1832, this time under the supervision of Edward Blore, who greatly reduced Nash's planned attic stage and omitted its sculpture, including the statue of George IV. The arch was completed in 1833. Some of the unused sculpture, including parts of Westmacott's frieze of Waterloo and the Nelson panels were used at Buckingham Palace. His victory statues


title: "Marble Arch" content: and Rossi's relief of Europe and Asia were used at the National Gallery. In 1843 the equestrian statue of George IV was installed on one of the pedestals in Trafalgar Square. The white marble soon lost its light colouring in the polluted London atmosphere. In 1847, "Sharpe's London Magazine" described it as "discoloured by smoke and damp, and in appearance resembling a huge sugar erection in a confectioner's shop window." Buckingham Palace remained unoccupied, and for the most part unfinished, until it was hurriedly completed upon the accession of Queen Victoria in 1837. Within a few years the palace was


title: "Marble Arch" content: found to be too small for the large court and the Queen's expanding family. The solution was to enlarge the palace by enclosing the cour d'honneur with a new east range. This façade is today the principal front and public face of the palace and shields the inner façades containing friezes and marbles matching and complementing those of the arch. When building work began in 1847, the arch was dismantled and rebuilt by Thomas Cubitt as a ceremonial entrance to the northeast corner of Hyde Park at Cumberland Gate. The reconstruction was completed in March 1851. A popular story says


title: "Marble Arch" content: that the arch was moved because it was too narrow for the Queen's state coach to pass through, but, in fact, the gold state coach passed under it during Elizabeth II's coronation in 1953. Three small rooms inside the rebuilt arch were used as a police station from 1851 until at least 1968 (John Betjeman made a programme inside it in 1968 and referred to it as a fully functional police station). It firstly housed the royal constables of the Park and later the Metropolitan Police. One policeman stationed there during the early 1860s was Samuel Parkes, who won the


title: "Marble Arch" content: Victoria Cross in the Charge of the Light Brigade in 1854, during the Crimean War. In 2005 it was speculated that the arch might be moved across the street to Hyde Park, or to a more accessible location than its current position on a large traffic island. Park Lane was widened as part of the Park Lane Improvement Scheme of the London County Council and the Marble Arch became stranded on a traffic island. The scheme required an act of parliament in 1958, and during the passage of the Park Lane Improvement Bill the possibility of providing an underpass instead


title: "Marble Arch" content: of a roundabout was dismissed due to excessive cost and the need to demolish buildings on Edgware Road. As part of the scheme gardens were laid out around the arch on the traffic island. The works took place between 1960 and 1964. Having a tube station means it gives rise to a colloquial, entirely modern London 'area', with no parishes or established institutions bearing its name. This generally equates to parts in view of the arch of Mayfair, Marylebone and often all of St George's Fields, Marylebone (west of Edgware Road) all in the City of Westminster, London, W1H. The


title: "Marble Arch" content: eponymous London Underground station is Marble Arch on the Central line. The area around the arch forms a major road junction connecting Oxford Street to the east, Park Lane (A4202) to the south, Bayswater Road (A402) to the west, and Edgware Road (A5) to the north-west. The short road directly to the north of the arch is also known as Marble Arch. The former cinema Odeon Marble Arch was located directly adjacent to the junction. Before 1997 this had the largest cinema screen in London. The screen was originally over wide. The Odeon showcased 70 mm films in a large


title: "Marble Arch" content: circle-and-stalls auditorium. It closed in 2016 and was demolished later that same year. The arch also stands close to the former site of the Tyburn gallows (sometimes called "Tyburn Tree"), a place of public execution from 1388 until 1793. Marble Arch Marble Arch is a 19th-century white marble-faced triumphal arch in London, England. The structure was designed by John Nash in 1827 to be the state entrance to the cour d'honneur of Buckingham Palace; it stood near the site of what is today the three-bayed, central projection of the palace containing the well known balcony. In 1851 on the initiative


title: Thurso content: been held in Caithness, with Thurso East being the main focus of activity. An annual raft race is organised by the North Coast Branch of Coastguard Association. The football team, Thurso FC (nicknamed "the Vikings"), was established in 1998 and plays in the North Caledonian League. Caithness Crushers are a rugby league club playing in the Scotland Rugby League Conference Division 1, while Caithness RFC are a rugby union club that participate in the Caledonia One. The local athletics club is Caithness Amateur Athletics Club (C.A.A.C.); hurdler Moira Mcbeath was a 1986 Commonwealth Games athlete. Thurso has the largest swimming


title: "Uncontrolled airspace" content: 'as far as is practical' advisory basis. Uncontrolled airspace Uncontrolled airspace is airspace where an Air Traffic Control (ATC) service is not deemed necessary or cannot be provided for practical reasons. According to the airspace classes set by ICAO, both class F and class G airspace are uncontrolled. It is the opposite of controlled airspace. ATC does not exercise any executive authority in uncontrolled airspace, but may provide basic information services to aircraft in radio contact. Flight in uncontrolled airspace will typically be under VFR. Aircraft operating under IFR should not expect separation from other traffic: however, in certain uncontrolled


title: "Batavia, Dutch East Indies" content: Dutch fortress garrison included hired soldiers from Japan, Germany, Scotland, Denmark and Belgium. The godowns "Nassau" and "Mauritius" were expanded with the erection of a new fort extension to the east on March 12, 1619, overseen by Commander Van Raay. Coen wished to name the new settlement "Nieuw-Hoorn" (after his birthplace, Hoorn), but was prevented from doing so by the board of the East India Company, the Heeren XVII. "Batavia" was chosen to become the new name for the fort and settlement. The official naming ceremony took place on January 18, 1621. It was named after the Germanic tribe of


title: "Earl's Court" content: in the Boltons have sold for up to £20 million. The eastern boundary of Earl's Court is Collingham Gardens and Collingham Road, east of which is South Kensington. "West Earl's Court," lying to the west of Earl's Court Road, is notably different in architecture. White stucco fronted "boutique" hotels in Trebovir Road and Templeton Place, and the impressive late-Victorian mansion flats and town houses of Earl's Court Square, Nevern Square and Kensington Mansions, contrast with the area’s remaining cheaper hotels and apartment houses full of bedsits (also known as bed-sitters or bed-sitting rooms). There are some impressive examples of early-


title: Manon content: abandoned, as they decide to flee together (""Nous vivrons à Paris""). But there are hints of incompatible aspirations: while he returns, over and again, to "tous les deux" (together), the phrase she fondly repeats is, "à Paris". Making good use of the carriage provided by the disappointed Guillot, the lovers escape. "Manon and des Grieux's apartment in Paris" With little hope, des Grieux writes to his father, imploring permission to marry Manon. Lescaut enters intent on creating a scene and accompanied by de Brétigny, who is masquerading as a fellow-guardsman. But his concern for offended family honor is only camouflage


title: Tulum content: Tulum Tulum (, Yucatec: "Tulu'um") is the site of a pre-Columbian Mayan walled city which served as a major port for Coba, in the Mexican state of Quintana Roo. The ruins are situated on tall cliffs along the east coast of the Yucatán Peninsula on the Caribbean Sea in the state of Quintana Roo, Mexico. Tulum was one of the last cities built and inhabited by the Maya; it was at its height between the 13th and 15th centuries and managed to survive about 70 years after the Spanish began occupying Mexico. Old World diseases brought by the Spanish settlers


title: Tulum content: appear to have resulted in very high fatalities, disrupting the society and eventually causing the city to be abandoned. One of the best-preserved coastal Maya sites, Tulum is today a popular site for tourists. The site might have been called Zama, meaning "City of Dawn," because it faces the sunrise. Tulum stands on a bluff facing east toward the Caribbean Sea. "Tulúm" is also the Yucatán Mayan word for "fence", "wall" or "trench." The walls surrounding the site allowed the Tulum fort to be defended against invasions. Tulum had access to both land and sea trade routes, making it an


title: Tulum content: important trade hub, especially for obsidian. From numerous depictions in murals and other works around the site, Tulum appears to have been an important site for the worship of the Diving or Descending god. Tulum was first mentioned by Juan Díaz, a member of Juan de Grijalva's Spanish expedition of 1518, the first Europeans to spot Tulum. The first detailed description of the ruins was published by John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood in 1843 in the book "Incidents of Travel in Yucatan". As they arrived from the sea, Stephens and Catherwood first saw a tall building that impressed them


title: Tulum content: greatly, most likely the great Castillo of the site. They made accurate maps of the site's walls, and Catherwood made sketches of the Castillo and several other buildings. Stephens and Catherwood also reported an early classic stele at the site, with an inscribed date of AD 564 (now in the British Museum's collection). This has been interpreted as meaning that the stele was likely built elsewhere and brought to Tulum to be reused. Work conducted at Tulum continued with that of Sylvanus Morley and George P. Howe, beginning in 1913. They worked to restore and open the public beaches. The


title: Tulum content: work was continued by the Carnegie Institution from 1916 to 1922, Samuel Lothrop in 1924 who also mapped the site, Miguel Ángel Fernández in the late 1930s and early 1940s, William Sanders in 1956, and then later in the 1970s by Arthur G. Miller. Through these later investigations done by Sanders and Miller, it has been determined that Tulum was occupied during the late Postclassic period around AD 1200. The site continued to be occupied until contact with the Spanish was made in the early 16th century. By the end of the 16th century, the site was abandoned completely. Tulum


title: Tulum content: has architecture typical of Maya sites on the east coast of the Yucatán Peninsula. This architecture is recognized by a step running around the base of the building which sits on a low substructure. Doorways of this type are usually narrow with columns used as support if the building is big enough. As the walls flare out there are usually two sets of molding near the top. The room usually contains one or two small windows with an altar at the back wall, roofed by either a beam-and-rubble ceiling or being vaulted. This type of architecture resembles what can be


title: Tulum content: found in the nearby Chichen Itza, just on a much smaller scale. Tulum was protected on one side by steep sea cliffs and on the landward side by a wall that averaged about in height. The wall also was about thick and long on the side parallel to the sea. The part of the wall that ran the width of the site was slightly shorter and only about on both sides. Constructing this massive wall would have taken an enormous amount of energy and time, which shows how important defense was to the Maya when they chose this site. On


title: Tulum content: the southwest and northwest corners there are small structures that have been identified as watch towers, showing again how well defended the city was. There are five narrow gateways in the wall with two each on the north and south sides and one on the west. Near the northern side of the wall a small cenote provided the city with fresh water. It is this impressive wall that makes Tulum one of the most well-known fortified sites of the Maya. There are three major structures of interest at the Tulum archaeological site. El Castillo, the Temple of the Frescoes, and


title: Tulum content: the Temple of the Descending God. Among the more spectacular buildings here is the Temple of the Frescoes that included a lower gallery and a smaller second story gallery. The Temple of the Frescoes was used as an observatory for tracking the movements of the sun. Niched figurines of the Maya “diving god” or Venus deity decorate the facade of the temple. This “diving god” is also depicted in the Temple of the Diving God in the central precinct of the site. Above the entrance in the western wall a stucco figure of the “diving god” is still preserved, giving


title: Tulum content: the temple its name. A mural can still be seen on the eastern wall that resembles that of a style that originated in highland Mexico, called the Mixteca-Puebla style, though visitors are no longer permitted to enter. The Temple of the Descending God consists of a single room with a door to the west and a narrow staircase that was built on top of another temple that served as its base. In the niche located at the top of the door stands a sculpture that’s found throughout Tulum. He has wings, a headdress and holds an object in his hands.


title: Tulum content: Also in the central precinct is the Castillo, which is tall. The Castillo was built on a previous building that was colonnaded and had a beam and mortar roof. The lintels in the upper rooms have serpent motifs carved into them. The construction of the Castillo appears to have taken place in stages. A small shrine appears to have been used as a beacon for incoming canoes. This shrine marks a break in the barrier reef that is opposite the site. Here there is a cove and landing beach in a break in the sea cliffs that would have been


title: Tulum content: perfect for trading canoes coming in. This characteristic of the site may be one of the reasons the Maya founded the city of Tulum exactly here, as Tulum later became a prominent trading port during the late Postclassic. Both coastal and land routes converged at Tulum. A number of artifacts found in or near the site show contacts with areas all over Central Mexico and Central America. Copper artifacts from the Mexican highlands have been found near the site, as have flint artifacts, ceramics, incense burners, and gold objects from all over the Yucatán. Salt and textiles were among some


title: Tulum content: of the goods brought by traders to Tulum by sea that would be dispersed inland. Typical exported goods included feathers and copper objects that came from inland sources. These goods could be transported by sea to rivers such as the Río Motagua and the Río Usumacincta/Pasión system, which could be traveled inland, giving seafaring canoes access to both the highlands and the lowlands. The Río Motagua starts from the highlands of Guatemala and empties into the Caribbean. The Río Pasión/Ucamacincta river system also originates in the Guatemalan highlands and empties into the Gulf of Mexico. It may have been one


title: Tulum content: of these seafaring canoes that Christopher Columbus first encountered off the shores of the Bay Islands of Honduras. Jade and obsidian appear to be some of the more valuable found here. The obsidian would have been brought from Ixtepeque in northern Guatemala, which was nearly away from Tulum. This huge distance, coupled with the density of obsidian found at the site, show that Tulum was a major center for the trading of obsidian. Tulum archaeological site is relatively compact compared with many other Maya sites in the vicinity, and is one of the best-preserved coastal Maya sites. Its proximity to


title: Tulum content: the modern tourism developments along the Mexican Caribbean coastline and its short distance from Cancún and the surrounding "Riviera Maya" has made it a popular Maya tourist site in the Yucatán. Daily tour buses bring a constant stream of visitors to the site. The Tulum ruins are the third most-visited archaeological site in Mexico, after Teotihuacan and Chichen Itza, receiving over 2.2 million visitors in 2017. A large number of cenotes are located in the Tulum area such as Maya Blue, Naharon, Temple of Doom, Tortuga, Vacaha, Grand Cenote, Abejas, Nohoch Kiin and Carwash cenotes and cave systems. The tourist


title: Tulum content: destination is now divided into four main areas: the archaeological site, the "pueblo" (or town), the "zona hotelera" (or hotel zone) and the biosphere reserve of Sian Ka'an. In 1995, tourism came to a brief halt as the powerful Hurricane Roxanne pounded into Tulum, packing 115 mph winds. Damage was moderate. Considered a tropical savanna climate typically with a pronounced dry season. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Aw" (Tropical Savanna Climate). Tulum Tulum (, Yucatec: "Tulu'um") is the site of a pre-Columbian Mayan walled city which served as a major port for Coba, in the Mexican


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: Caerphilly Castle Caerphilly Castle () is a medieval fortification in Caerphilly in South Wales. The castle was constructed by Gilbert de Clare in the 13th century as part of his campaign to conquer Glamorgan, and saw extensive fighting between Gilbert, his descendants, and the native Welsh rulers. Surrounded by extensive artificial lakes – considered by historian Allen Brown to be "the most elaborate water defences in all Britain" – it occupies around and is the second largest castle in Britain. It is famous for having introduced concentric castle defences to Britain and for its large gatehouses. Gilbert began work on


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: the castle in 1268 following his occupation of the north of Glamorgan, with the majority of the construction occurring over the next three years at a considerable cost. The project was opposed by Gilbert's Welsh rival Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, leading to the site being burnt in 1270 and taken over by royal officials in 1271. Despite these interruptions, Gilbert successfully completed the castle and took control of the region. The core of Caerphilly Castle, including the castle's luxurious accommodation, was built on what became a central island, surrounding by several artificial lakes, a design Gilbert probably derived from that at


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: Kenilworth. The dams for these lakes were further fortified, and an island to the west provided additional protection. The concentric rings of walls inspired Edward I's castles in North Wales, and proved what historian Norman Pounds has termed "a turning point in the history of the castle in Britain". The castle was attacked during the Madog ap Llywelyn revolt of 1294, the Llywelyn Bren uprising in 1316 and during the overthrow of Edward II in 1326–27. In the late 15th century, however, it fell into decline and by the 16th century the lakes had drained away and the walls were


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: robbed of their stone. The Marquesses of Bute acquired the property in 1776 and under the third and fourth Marquesses extensive restoration took place. In 1950 the castle and grounds were given to the state and the water defences were re-flooded. In the 21st century, the Welsh heritage agency Cadw manages the site as a tourist attraction. Caerphilly Castle was built in the second half of the 13th century, as part of the Anglo-Norman expansion into South Wales. The Normans began to make incursions into Wales from the late 1060s onwards, pushing westwards from their bases in recently occupied England.


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: Their advance was marked by the construction of castles and the creation of regional lordships. The task of subduing the region of Glamorgan was given to the earls of Gloucester in 1093; efforts continued throughout the 12th and early 13th centuries, accompanied by extensive fighting between the Anglo-Norman lords and local Welsh rulers. The powerful de Clare family acquired the earldom in 1217 and continued to attempt to conquer the whole of the Glamorgan region. In 1263, Gilbert de Clare, also known as "Red Gilbert" because of the colour of his hair, inherited the family lands. Opposing him in Glamorgan


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: was the native Welsh prince Llywelyn ap Gruffudd. Llywelyn had taken advantage of the chaos of the civil war in England between Henry III and rebel barons during the 1260s to expand his power across the region. In 1265 Llywelyn allied himself with the baronial faction in England in exchange for being granted authority over the local Welsh magnates across all the territories in the region, including Glamorgan. De Clare believed his lands and power were under threat and allied himself with Henry III against the rebel barons and Llywelyn. The baronial revolt was crushed between 1266 and 1267, leaving


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: de Clare free to advance north into Glamorgan from his main base in Cardiff. De Clare started to construct a castle at Caerphilly to control his new gains in 1268. The castle lay in a basin of the Rhymney Valley, alongside the Rhymney River and at the heart of network of paths and roads, adjacent to a former Roman fort. Work began at a huge pace, with ditches cut to form the basic shape of the castle, temporary wooden palisades erected and extensive water defences created by damming a local stream. The walls and internal buildings were built at speed,


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: forming the main part of the castle. The architect of the castle and the precise cost of the construction are unknown, but modern estimates suggest that it could have cost as much as castles such as Conwy or Caernarfon, perhaps as much as £19,000, a huge sum for the period. Llywelyn responded by intervening with his own forces but outright conflict was prevented by the diplomatic efforts of Henry III. De Clare continued building work and in 1270 Llywelyn responded by attacking and burning the site, probably destroying the temporary defences and stores. De Clare began work again the following


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: year, raising tensions and prompting Henry to send two bishops, Roger de Meyland and Godfrey Giffard, to take control of the site and arbitrate a solution to the dispute. The bishops took possession of the castle later in 1271 and promised Llywelyn that building work would temporarily cease and that negotiations would begin the following summer. In February of the next year, however, de Clare's men seized back the castle, threw out the bishops' soldiers, and de Clare – protesting his innocence in these events – began work once again. Neither Henry nor Llywelyn could readily intervene and de Clare


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: was able to lay claim to the whole of Glamorgan. Work on the castle continued, with additional water defences, towers and gatehouses added. Llywelyn's power declined over the next two decades. In 1276 Henry's son, Edward I, invaded Wales following a dispute with the prince, breaking his power in South Wales, and in 1282 Edward's second campaign resulted in Llwelyn's death and the collapse of independent Welsh rule. Further defences were added to the walls until work stopped around 1290. Local disputes remained. De Clare argued with Humphrey de Bohun, the earl of Hereford, in 1290 and the following year


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: the case was brought before the king, resulting in the temporary royal seizure of Caerphilly. In 1294 Madog ap Llywelyn rebelled against English rule, the first major insurrection since the 1282 campaign. The Welsh appear to have risen up over the introduction of taxation and Madog had considerable popular support. In Glamorgan, Morgan ap Maredudd led the local uprising; Morgan had been dispossessed by de Clare in 1270 and saw this as a chance to regain his lands. Morgan attacked Caerphilly, burning half of the town, but failed to take the castle. In the spring of 1295 Edward pressed home


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: a counter-attack in North Wales, putting down the uprising and arresting Madog. De Clare attacked Morgan's forces and retook the region between April and May, resulting in Morgan's surrender. De Clare died at the end of 1295, leaving Caerphilly Castle in a good condition, linked to the small town of Caerphilly which had emerged to the south of it and a large deer park in the nearby Aber Valley. Gilbert's son, also called Gilbert de Clare, inherited the castle, but he died fighting at the battle of Bannockburn in 1314 while still quite young. The family's lands were initially placed


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: under the control of the Crown, but before any decision could be taken on the inheritance, a revolt broke out in Glamorgan. Anger over the actions of the royal administrators caused Llywelyn Bren to rise up in January 1316, attacking Caerphilly Castle with a large force of men. The castle withstood the attack, but the town was destroyed and the rebellion spread. A royal army was despatched to deal with the situation, defeating Bren in a battle at Caerphilly Mountain and breaking the Welsh siege of the castle. In 1317 Edward II settled the inheritance of Glamorgan and Caerphilly Castle


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: on Eleanor de Clare, who had married the royal favourite, Hugh le Despenser. Hugh used his relationship with the king to expand his power across the region, taking over lands throughout South Wales. Hugh employed Master Thomas de la Bataile and William Hurley to expand the Great Hall at the castle, including richly carved windows and doors. In 1326, however, Edward's wife, Isabella of France, overthrew his government, forcing the king and Hugh to flee west. The pair stayed in Caerphilly Castle at the end of October and early November, before leaving to escape Isabella's approaching forces, abandoning the extensive


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: stores and £14,000 held at the castle. William la Zouche besieged the castle with a force of 425 soldiers, cornering the constable, Sir John de Felton, Hugh's son – also called Hugh – and the garrison of 130 men inside. Caerphilly held out until March 1327, when the garrison surrendered on the condition that the younger Hugh was pardoned, his father having been already executed. Tensions between the Welsh and the English persisted and spilled over in 1400 with the outbreak of the Glyndŵr Rising. It is uncertain what part the castle played in the conflict, but it seems to


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: have survived intact. In 1416, the castle passed through Isabel le Despenser in marriage to her first husband Richard de Beauchamp, the earl of Worcester, and then to her second husband, Richard Beauchamp, the earl of Warwick. Isabel and her second husband invested heavily in the castle, conducting repairs and making it suitable for use as their main residence in the region. The castle passed to Richard Neville in 1449 and to Jasper Tudor, the earl of Pembroke, in 1486. After 1486, the castle went into decline, eclipsed by the more fashionable residence of Cardiff Castle; once the sluice-gates fell


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: into disrepair, the water defences probably drained away. Antiquarian John Leland visited Caerphilly Castle around 1539, and described it as having "waulles of a wonderful thiknes", but beyond a tower used to hold prisoners it was in ruins and surrounded by marshland. Henry Herbert, the earl of Pembroke used the castle for his manorial court. In 1583 the castle was leased to Thomas Lewis, who stripped it of much of its stone to extend his house, causing extensive damage. In 1642 the English Civil War broke out between the Royalist supporters of Charles I and those of Parliament. South Wales


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: was predominantly Royalist in sympathy, and during the conflict, a sconce, or small fort, was built overlooking Caerphilly Castle to the north-west, on the site of the old Roman fort. It is uncertain if this was built by Royalist forces or by the Parliamentary army that occupied the area during the final months of the war in March 1646, but the fort's guns would have dominated the interior of the castle. It is also uncertain whether or not Caerphilly Castle was deliberately slighted by Parliament to prevent its future use as a fortification. Although several towers had collapsed by the


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: 18th century, possibly as a result of such an operation, it is probable that this deterioration was actually the result of subsidence damage caused when the water defences retreated, as there is no evidence of deliberate destruction having been ordered. The Marquesses of Bute acquired the castle in 1776. John Stuart, the first marquess, took steps to protect the ruins. His great-grandson John Crichton-Stuart, the third marquess, was immensely rich as the result of the family's holdings in the South Wales coalfields and was passionately interested in the medieval period. He had the site fully surveyed by the architect William


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: Frame, and reroofed the great hall in the 1870s. The marquess began a process of buying back leasehold properties around the castle with the intent of clearing back the town houses that had been built up to the edge of the site. The fourth marquess, John Crichton-Stuart, was an enthusiastic restorer and builder and commissioned a major restoration project between 1928 and 1939. The stonework was carefully repaired, with moulds made to recreate missing pieces. The Inner East Gatehouse was rebuilt, along with several of the other towers. The marquess carried out landscaping work, with the intent of eventually re-flooding


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: the lakes, and thanks to several decades of purchases was finally able to demolish the local houses encroaching on the view of the castle. By 1947, when John Crichton-Stuart, the fifth marquess, inherited the castle, the Bute family had divested itself of most of its land in South Wales. John sold off the family's remaining property interests and in 1950 he gave Caerphilly Castle to the state. The lakes were re-flooded and the final stages of the restoration work were completed in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 21st century the castle is managed by the Welsh heritage agency Cadw


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: as a tourist attraction. In 2006, the castle saw 90,914 visitors. It is protected as a scheduled monument and as a grade I listed building. The Great Hall is available for wedding ceremonies. Caerphilly Castle comprises a set of eastern defences, protected by the Outer East Moat and the North Lake, and fortifications on the Central Island and the Western Island, both protected by the South Lake. The site is around in size, making it the second largest in Britain. It is constructed on a natural gravel bank in the local river basin, and the castle walls are built from


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: Pennant sandstone. The castle's architecture is famous and historically significant. The castle introduced concentric castle defences to Britain, changing the future course of the country's military architecture, and also incorporated a huge gatehouse. The castle also featured a sophisticated network of moats and dams, considered by historian Allen Brown to be "the most elaborate water defences in all Britain". The eastern defences were reached via the Outer Main Gatehouse, which featured circular towers resting on spurred, pyramidic bases, a design particular to South Wales castles. Originally the gatehouse would have been reached over a sequence of two drawbridges, linked by


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: an intervening tower, since destroyed. To the north side of the gatehouse was the North Dam, protected by three substantial towers, and which may have supported the castle's stables. Despite subsidence damage, the dam still holds back the North Lake. The South Dam was a massive structure, long, ending in a huge buttressed wall. The remains of the castle mill – originally powered by water from the dam – survive. Four replica siege engines have been placed on display. The dam ended in Felton's Tower, a square fortification designed to protect the sluicegates regulating the water levels of the dam,


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: and the South Gatehouse – also called Giffard's Tower – originally accessed via a drawbridge, which led into the town. Caerphilly's water defences were almost certainly inspired by those at Kenilworth, where a similar set of artificial lakes and dams was created. Gilbert de Clare had fought at the siege of Kenilworth in 1266 and would have seen these at first hand. Caerphilly's water defences provided particular protection against mining, which could otherwise undermine castle walls during the period, and are considered the most advanced of their kind in Britain. The central island held Caerphilly's inner defences, a roughly square


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: design with a walled inner and middle ward, the inner ward protected by four turrets on each of the corners. The walls of the inner ward overlooked those of the middle ward, producing a concentric defence of two enclosed rings of walls; in the medieval period, the walls of the middle ward would have been much higher than today, forming a more substantial defence. Caerphilly was the first concentric castle in Britain, pre-dating Edward I's famous programme of concentric castles by a few years. The design influenced the design of Edward's later castles in North Wales, and historian Norman Pounds


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: considers it "a turning point in the history of the castle in Britain". Probable subsidence has caused the south-east tower in the Inner Ward to lean outwards at an angle of 10 degrees. Access to the central island occurred over a drawbridge, through a pair of gatehouses on the eastern side. Caerphilly Castle's Inner East Gatehouse, based on the gatehouse built at Tonbridge in the 1250s, reinforced a trend in gatehouse design across England and Wales. Sometimes termed a keep-gatehouse, the fortification had both exterior and interior defences, enabling it to be defended even if the perimeter of the castle


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: was breached. Two huge towers flanked the gatehouse on either side of an entrance that was protected by portcullises and murder-holes. The substantial size of the gatehouse allowed it to be used for accommodation as well as defence and it was comfortably equipped on a grand scale, probably for the use of the castle constable and his family. Another pair of gatehouses protected the west side. Inside the inner ward was the castle's Great Hall and accommodation. Caerphilly was built with fashionable, high-status accommodation, similar to that built around the same time in Chepstow Castle. In the medieval period the


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: Great Hall would have been subdivided with wooden screens, colourful decorations, with rich, detailed carving and warmed by a large, central fireplace. Some carved medieval corbels in the shape of male and female heads survive in the hall today, possibly depicting the royal court in the 1320s, including Edward II, Isabella of France, Hugh Despenser and Eleanor de Clare. To the east of the Great Hall was the castle chapel, positioned above the buttery and pantry. On the west side of the hall were the castle's private apartments, two solar blocks with luxurious fittings. Beyond the central island was the


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: Western Island, probably reached by drawbridges. The island is called "Y Weringaer" or "Caer y Werin" in Welsh, meaning "the people's fort", and may have been used by the town of Caerphilly for protection during conflicts. On the north-west side of the Western Island was the site of the former Roman fort, enclosing around , and the remains of the 17th-century civil-war fortification built on the same location. The long-running British television show "Doctor Who" chose Caerphilly Castle as a filming location for several episodes, including "The End of Time" in 2009. On that occasion, producers used the residential quarters


title: "Caerphilly Castle" content: of the East Gatehouse, Constable's Hall and Broase Gallery for the filming of a dungeon in the fictional Broadfell Prison. Caerphilly Castle Caerphilly Castle () is a medieval fortification in Caerphilly in South Wales. The castle was constructed by Gilbert de Clare in the 13th century as part of his campaign to conquer Glamorgan, and saw extensive fighting between Gilbert, his descendants, and the native Welsh rulers. Surrounded by extensive artificial lakes – considered by historian Allen Brown to be "the most elaborate water defences in all Britain" – it occupies around and is the second largest castle in Britain.


title: Bridgend content: the UK's most successful amateur clubs having won two UK national amateur titles in four years and Welsh Champions five years in succession. The Bulls played at Coychurch Road but following the announcement about the setting up of the Celtic Crusaders they were invited to play at the Brewery Field by the owner Leighton Samuel. One year on they were refused permission to continue playing at the Brewery Field in the middle of the season. They were then aided by Porthcawl RFC and staged the remaining 2006 home games at the Porthcawl ground. Subsequently Porthcawl RFC have become their regular


title: "Pomarine jaeger" content: Pomarine jaeger The pomarine jaeger ("Stercorarius pomarinus"), pomarine skua, or pomatorhine skua, is a seabird in the skua family Stercorariidae. It is a migrant, wintering at sea in the tropical oceans. Its relationships are not fully resolved; its mitochondrial DNA is most similar to the great skua, but from morphology and behavior, it is closer to the lesser skuas (such as the parasitic jaeger). The most likely explanation is extensive hybridization between the great and one species of lesser skuas, which resulted in a hybrid population that eventually evolved into a distinct species, the pomarine jaeger; or alternatively between the


title: "Pomarine jaeger" content: pomarine and a species of Southern Hemisphere skua, with the great skua being the hybrid offspring, perhaps appearing as recently as the 15th century. Judging from characteristics of the skeleton and behavior, the former seems more likely, as the pomarine jaeger shares several similarities with the "Catharacta" skuas, while the great skua does not seem much different from its Southern Hemisphere relatives. The mtDNA difference between the pomarine jaeger and the great skua is one of the smallest between any two vertebrate species yet analyzed, being less than the variation found between different individuals of widespread species. The apparent capability


title: "Pomarine jaeger" content: for hybridization has led to the abolition of the separate genus "Catharacta" for the Southern Hemisphere and great skuas. The word "jaeger" is derived from the German word "Jäger", meaning "hunter". The genus name "Stercorarius" is Latin and means "of dung"; the food disgorged by other birds when pursued by skuas was once thought to be excrement. The specific "Pomatorhinus" is from Ancient Greek "poma, pomatos", "lid" and "rhis, rhinos", "nostrils". This refers to the cere, which the pomarine jaeger shares with the other skuas. The name of this species is unrelated to the Baltic Sea region of Pomerania. This


title: "Pomarine jaeger" content: species ranges from in length, in wingspan and in weight. The upper limit of the length includes the elongated tail streamer of breeding adults, which is about in length. Identification of this jaeger is complicated by its similarities to parasitic jaeger and the existence of three morphs. Pomarine jaegers are larger than common gulls. They are much bulkier, broader-winged and less falcon-like than the parasitic jaeger, but show the same wide range of plumage variation. The flight is more measured than that of the smaller species. It has many harsh chattering calls and others which sounds like "which-yew". Light-morph adult


title: "Pomarine jaeger" content: pomarine jaegers have a brown back, mainly white underparts and dark primary wing feathers with a white "flash". The head and neck are yellowish-white with a black cap. Dark morph adults are dark brown, and intermediate morph birds are dark with somewhat paler underparts, head and neck. All morphs have the white wing flash, which appears as a diagnostic double flash on the underwing. In breeding adults of all morphs, the two central tail feathers are much longer than the others, spoon-shaped, and twisted from the horizontal. Juveniles are even more problematic to identify, and are difficult to separate from


title: "Pomarine jaeger" content: parasitic jaegers at a distance on plumage alone. This species breeds in the far north of Eurasia and North America. It nests on Arctic tundra and islands, laying 2–3 olive-brown eggs in grass lined depressions. Like other skuas, it will fly at the head of a human or other intruder approaching its nest. Although it cannot inflict serious damage, the experience is frightening and painful. This bird feeds on fish, carrion, scraps, smaller birds up to the size of common gull and rodents, especially lemmings. It robs gulls, terns and even gannets of their catches. Like most other skua species,


title: "Pomarine jaeger" content: it continues this piratical behaviour throughout the year, showing great agility as it harasses its victims. Only the white-tailed eagle and the golden eagle are known to take adult, healthy pomarine skuas. Pomarine jaeger The pomarine jaeger ("Stercorarius pomarinus"), pomarine skua, or pomatorhine skua, is a seabird in the skua family Stercorariidae. It is a migrant, wintering at sea in the tropical oceans. Its relationships are not fully resolved; its mitochondrial DNA is most similar to the great skua, but from morphology and behavior, it is closer to the lesser skuas (such as the parasitic jaeger). The most likely explanation


title: "Black-backed woodpecker" content: Black-backed woodpecker The black-backed woodpecker ("Picoides arcticus") also known as the Arctic three-toed woodpecker is a medium-sized woodpecker ( long) inhabiting the forests of North America. The plumage of adults is black on the head, back, wings and rump. They are white from the throat to the belly; the flanks are white with black bars. Their tail is black with white outer feathers. There is an element of sexual dimorphism in the plumage, with the adult male possessing a yellow cap. Unlike all other woodpeckers except the related American and Eurasian three-toed woodpeckers, this species has three-toed feet. Their breeding


title: "Black-backed woodpecker" content: range is boreal forest across Canada, Alaska, the north-western United States, as well as northern Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Upper Michigan. In particular the species is a burnt-forest specialist, feeding on the outbreaks of wood-boring beetles that feed on recently burnt trees. The most important wood boring beetles taken are in the families Cerambycidae and Buprestidae, along with engraver beetles and Mountain pine beetle. Most food is obtained by pecking, a smaller proportion is obtained by gleaning off branches. Black-backed woodpeckers are generally non-migratory but historically have undertaken intermittent irruptions. Nest excavation occurs in April and May; a fresh nest is


title: "Black-backed woodpecker" content: drilled each year into the sapwood of dead trees. Abandoned nests are used by other species of bird to nest in. The female lays three or four eggs, and incubation duties are shared between both parents, although the male alone incubates during the night. Upon hatching the altricial chicks are brooded until the nestling phase. Both parents feed the chicks, which take about 24 days to fledge. The call note of the black-backed woodpecker is a single, sharp "pik", and is lower pitched than the call of the American three-toed woodpecker. Black-backed woodpecker The black-backed woodpecker ("Picoides arcticus") also known


title: "West Lake" content: West Lake West Lake () is a freshwater lake in Hangzhou, China. It is divided into five sections by three causeways. There are numerous temples, pagodas, gardens, and artificial islands within the lake. West Lake has influenced poets and painters throughout Chinese history for its natural beauty and historic relics, and it has also been among the most important sources of inspiration for Chinese garden designers. It was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2011, described as having "influenced garden design in the rest of China as well as Japan and Korea over the centuries" and reflecting "an idealized


title: "West Lake" content: fusion between humans and nature". The earliest recorded name for West Lake was the "Wu Forest River" (). The "Book of Han"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s "Geography Column" says, "Qiantang, affiliated to the western governor general. Wu Forest Mountain ("Wǔlínshān") is the origin of the Wu Forest River. Running east into the sea, it covers 830 li" (roughly, ). Other former names include the "Qian River", "Qiantang Lake", "Mingsheng Lake", "Jinniu Lake", "Shihan Lake", "Shang Lake", "Lianyan Lake", "Fangsheng Pond", "Xizi Lake", "Gaoshi Lake", "Xiling Lake", "Meiren Lake", "Xianzhe Lake", and "Mingyue Lake". But only two names were widely accepted in history and recorded


title: "West Lake" content: in historical documents. One is "Qiantang Lake", due to the fact that Hangzhou was called "Qiantang" in ancient times. The other name is "West Lake", due to the lake being west of the city. The name "West Lake" first appeared in two poems of Bai Juyi, "Bestowed on guests as returning from West Lake in the evening and looking back to Gushan Temple" () and "On the returning boat to Hangzhou" (). Since the Northern Song dynasty, most poems and articles of scholars used the name "West Lake", while the name "Qiantang Lake" was gradually deprecated. "The request of dredging


title: "West Lake" content: West Lake" written by Su Shi was the first time that "West Lake" appeared in an official document. Over 2,000 years ago, West Lake was still a part of the Qiantang River. Due to soil sedimentation, the feet of Wu Mountain and Baoshi Mountains, the surrounding mountains on the northern and southern sides of the lake, gradually stretched to form shoal heads. Later, these sand spits slowly merged into a bank, to which a lagoon emerged to the west; this was the old West Lake of the Qin and Han dynasties. "West Lake Dream Searching" , written by Zhang Dai,


title: "West Lake" content: relates the story that Qin Shi Huang visited the area and moored his boat to a stone later developed into the Big Stone Buddhist Temple. The stone was located on Baoshi Mountain, north of the West Lake, and can still be seen. The short-lived Sui dynasty is noted for the great engineering works which it accomplished during its brief existence. After AD 610, the Jiangnan Canal was opened and connected to the North Canal. Thus, five major rivers of China (the Hai, Yellow, Huai, Yangtze, and Qiantang) were all were connected: this facilitated transportation to and from Hangzhou and thus


title: "West Lake" content: boosted the regional economy. Tourism in Hangzhou also started to boom. In the Tang dynasty, West Lake had an area of roughly 10.8 square kilometers. The western and southern parts of the lake all extended to the foot of West Hill. The northeastern part stretched to Wulin Gate area. Pilgrims could take the boat to the hill-foot and walk up to the hill to worship. Due to the ongoing aggradation of the lake, together with the virtual lack of any hydraulic projects, in those days, the lake would flood after heavy rains and dry up during long droughts. In September


title: "West Lake" content: 781, Li Mi () was appointed the governor of Hangzhou. In order to supply fresh water, he creatively induced the water into the city. He ordered six wells dug in populous areas like Qiantang Gate and Yongjin Gate, and set up a "shadow conduit" (underground clay and bamboo pipes) to introduce lake water into the city. The six wells have long vanished today. The only existing relic from that time is the Xiangguo Well, located west of Jinting Bridge on Jiefang Road. The other five wells were Xi Well (to the west of Xiangguo Well), Fang Well (or Four-eyed Well),


title: "West Lake" content: Jinniu Well (northwest of Xi Well), Baigui Well (west of Longxiang Bridge), and Xiaofang Well (or Six-eyed Well, inside Qiantang Gate, now Xiaoche Bridge area). In the middle of the Zhenyuan era (785-804) in the Tang dynasty, poet and government official Bai Juyi was appointed the governor of Hangzhou. Already an accomplished and famous poet, his deeds at Hangzhou made him a great governor. He realized that the farmland nearby depended on the water of West Lake, but due to the negligence of previous governors, the old dyke had collapsed, and the lake so dried out that the local farmers


title: "West Lake" content: were suffering from severe drought. He ordered the construction of a stronger and taller dyke, with a dam to control the flow of water, providing water for irrigation and mitigating the drought problem. The livelihood of local people of Hangzhou improved over the following years. Bai Juyi used his leisure time to enjoy the beauty of West Lake, visiting the lake almost every day. He ordered the construction of a causeway to allow crossing part of the lake on foot, instead of requiring the services of a boat. A causeway, the Baisha Causeway, is now commonly referred to as Bai


title: "West Lake" content: Causeway () in Bai Juyi's honour, but the original Bai Causeway no longer exists. The most prominent eras in Hangzhou's development history, the Wuyue Kingdom (907–960) and Southern Song dynasty, had great impacts on West Lake. The comprehensive development and fundamental layout of West Lake occurred in these two Dynasties. During Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, the Wuyue Kingdom made Hangzhou its capital. It facilitated the transportation to coastal regions, and promoted trading with foreign countries like Japan and Korea. In the meantime, successive rulers in the Wuyue Kingdom paid great tribute to Buddhism, and built a number of


title: "West Lake" content: temples, pagodas, shrines and grottos around the lake area. They expanded Lingyin Temple, founded Zhaoqing Temple, Jingci Temple, Li'an Temple, Liutong Temple and Taoguang Temple, and built Baochu Pagoda, Liuhe Pagoda, Leifeng Pagoda and White Pagoda. The area was thus acclaimed as "Buddhist Country". Lingyin Temple, Tianzhu Temple and the tide of Qiantang were the most famous scenic spots at that time. Due to the geological characteristics, earth deposited speedly in West Lake and dredging became a routine maintenance. Thus in AD 927, the king of Wuyue, Qian Liu, installed a lake-dredging army of 1,000 to mow grasses and deepen


title: "West Lake" content: springs, and preserved the water body of the lake. Over one hundred years later, at the beginning of the Song dynasty's Yuanyou era (1086–1094), another great poet, Su Shi (also known as Su Dongpo), came to Hangzhou to serve as its governor. At that time, the farmers suffered greatly drought again, due to overgrowth of the weeds at the bottom of the lake clogging the irrigation ducts. He ordered dredging of the lake and piled up all the mud into another causeway, in the style of Bai Causeway, but much wider and nearly three times as long: he also planted


title: "West Lake" content: willow trees along its banks. This causeway was later named after him as the "Su Causeway". There are six bridges along the Su Causeway (), and they are called separately Yingbo (), Suolan (), Wangshan () ,Yadi (), Dongpu (), and Kuahong () Bridge, which all symbolize the characteristics of the bridge itself and also expose the structural beauty and its colorful connotation. "Dawn on the Su Causeway in Spring " is one of the attractions. When the Southern Song dynasty made Hangzhou its capital in 1127, Hangzhou became the national center of politics, economy and culture, and its name


title: "West Lake" content: was also changed into Lin'an. The population grew rapidly, and the economy developed greatly. Hangzhou entered its heyday. Wu Zimu described the extravagance in his "Mengliang lu" ("Dreaming Over a Bowl of Millet") (), "The life in Lin'an is luxurious in all seasons, full of delight and appreciation with no idle days. In the west there is a lovely lake with arresting scenes, and in the east the river tides are spectacular. Both are miracles." Besides pilgrims, the tourists in Hangzhou included envoys of foreign countries, businessmen, monks and scholar candidates of the imperial examination. The beauty of West Lake


title: "West Lake" content: started to gain wide reputation. In those days, boating on the lake was a popular entertainment. According to records, there were hundreds of boats in the West Lake. All were delicately built, with exquisite carving and decorations, and glided gracefully on the water. Poet Lin Sheng vividly described the ostentation in his poem "On a hotel wall in Lin'an". In addition, poet Yang Wanli also acclaimed the engaging scenery of West Lake in the poem "Coming out of Jingci Temple at dawn to see Lin Zifang off", which greatly show how thriving this metropolis was at that time and how


title: "West Lake" content: yearning it was for people at that time. The renowned painter Muqi Fachang came here and refounded the abandoned monastery Liutong Temple in 1215. In the Yuan dynasty, West Lake was still socially thriving, with a population full of exuberance for singing and dancing. Volume 23 of the "Book of Yuan" says, in the 2nd year of the Zhida era (1309), "in Hangzhou, Jiang-Zhe area, during half a year there were more than 1,200 foreign visitors. Foreigners Sangwu and Baoheding brought lions, panthers, crows and falcons. They stayed for 27 days. People and animals ate meat of more than 1,300


title: "West Lake" content: "jin"." Increasing number of businessmen and travelers from countries of Turkestan and western Europe came to visit Hangzhou. The most famous among them was Venetian explorer Marco Polo, who complimented Hangzhou in his travel notes as "the most splendid heavenly city in the world". In the late Yuan dynasty, there were "Qiantang Ten Scenic Spots", in addition to the "West Lake Ten Scenic Spots" of the Southern Song dynasty; the existence of which expanded the scope of tourism. During the Zhiyuan era of the reign of Kublai Khan, the lake was dredged, and renamed "pond of freeing captive animals" (放生池).


title: "West Lake" content: Some of the lake area was gradually enriched and became cultivated zones. In the late Yuan dynasty, West Lake lacked governmental attention, and plutocrats and noblemen enclosed water zones, so that the lake deteriorated into a desolate state with most of its area silting up and turning into swampland. In the later Yuan Dynasty and beginning of the Ming Dynasty, people attributed the collapse of the Southern Song Dynasty to the West Lake, because the upper class and emperors indulge themselves into the melody and wine with the sceneries of the lake. Therefore, people and the govern's didn't want to


title: "West Lake" content: make it clean and thriving in case that this kind of thing happened again. But later in the Ming dynasty, Hangzhou began to restore its prosperity in the Xuande and Zhengtong eras (1426–1449). Then, the local government kept a close watch on West Lake. In the 16th year of the Hongzhi era (one source suggests it was the 3rd year of the Zhengde era) the then governor Yang Mengying (), with the support of special envoy Ju Liang (), obtained approval to dredge the lake, despite much resistance from local magnates. This project was funded by the Engineering Department. The


title: "West Lake" content: "West Lake Visit Guide" () recorded, "The work commenced in February... It took 152 days, and 6,700,000 men at a cost of 23,607 silver taels, and the removal of 3,481 acres of illegal fields... Thus, West Lake was restored to its image in the Tang and Song dynasties." The dredging project extended the water surface from west of Su Causeway to Hongchun Bridge and Mao Jia Bu. The excavated silt was used to broaden Su Causeway, and also used to build a long causeway in western Inside Lake, called "Yanggong Causeway" (). Both in the Ming and Qing dynasties, West


title: "West Lake" content: Lake was dredged several times. The silt dug up was heaped to form two islands in the lake, "Huxin Island" and "Xiao Ying Zhou". In 1607, the governor of Qiantang County, Nie Xintang (), constructed a circular causeway from south to west outside the Fangsheng Pond of the island "Xiao Ying Zhou", which resulted in a unique view of "Island in Lake, Lake in Island". In 1611, Yang Wanli subsequently built the outer bank, and the whole plot was realized by 1620. Outside the pond were erect three small stony pagodas, called "Three Ponds (or Pools) Mirroring the Moon" (),


title: "West Lake" content: which often give also their name to the Xiao Ying island. The Kangxi and Qianlong emperors of the Qing dynasty toured South China and stopping by Hangzhou many times; which helped to expedite the revamping and rehabilitation of West Lake. The Kangxi Emperor visited Hangzhou five times, and wrote the names of "Ten Scenic Spots of West Lake" selected in the Southern Song dynasty. The local governor then inscribed the emperor's handwriting onto stelae and built pavilions over them. Thereafter those scenes such as "Two Peaks Piercing the Clouds" and "Moon over the Peaceful Lake in Autumn" acquired fixed locations


title: "West Lake" content: for appreciation. During the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor, "Eighteen Scenic Sites of West Lake" had developed into a new nomenclature together with enriched tourism resources. The Qianlong Emperor visited Hangzhou six times, composing poems as well as erecting stelae for the "Ten Scenic Spots". He also wrote names for "Eight Scenic Spots of Dragon Well", bringing renown to the mountainous scenery of remote the Dragon Well region (Longjing). In the Qianlong era, two Hangzhou natives, brothers Qu Hao and Qu Han, co-authored a book called "A Glance at Lakes and Hills", recording as many as 1,016 tourist spots around


title: "West Lake" content: West Lake. This is the earliest known travel guide in Hangzhou. During the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor, West Lake still preserved a water area of 7.54 square kilometers, but more than were shoals. Due to extensive dredging projects, the lake area spread beyond the west of now Xishan Road to the neighborhood of Hongchun Bridge, Maojia Bu, Turtle Pond, and Chishan Bu. In the fifth year of the Yongzheng era, the governor of Zhejiang and Right Vice Director of the Court of Censors, Li Wei, spent 42,742 silver taels to dredge the lake. He built stone weirs in Jinsha


title: "West Lake" content: Harbor, Chishan Bu, Jingjia Hill and Maojia Bu in order to store water and to flush out the lake silt. In 1800, Yan Jian (), the governor of Zhejiang, beseeched the imperial court to support a hydraulic project in West Lake. The project was supervised by the governor of Zhejiang, Ruan Yuan, who had the excavated silt piled into a mound, which was then named "Ruan Gong Dun" (). By then, the modern configuration of West Lake was determined. In 1864, the West Lake Dredging Bureau was founded, and a Qiantang native, Ding Bin, was appointed as director. From the


title: "West Lake" content: end of the Qing dynasty to the Republican era, the Shanghai-Hangzhou-Ningbo and the Zhejiang-Jiangxi railways as well as the Hangzhou-Shanghai, Hangzhou-Nanjing, and Hangzhou-Ningbo highways were built. This facilitation of transportation encouraged the development of Hangzhou's tourism industry. Besides traditional pilgrims, more and more travelers came from domestic cities like Shanghai and Nanjing as well as from Europe, the United States and Japan. "The special memorial edition of Hangzhou government 10th anniversary" says, from 1930–1936, the recorded tourists to Hangzhou were counted to 32,845. Hangzhou's tourism resources became more abundant in the Republican era, as scenic spots and cultural relics were


title: "West Lake" content: steadily added around West Lake. The government converted the imperial garden of the imperial palace remaining from the Qing dynasty into a park, on Solitary Hill. In 1927, the park was renamed "Zhongshan Park" or "Sun Yat-sen Park". On the left side of the park, the Zhejiang Martyrs' Memorial was built, honoring those deceased when the Zhejiang army captured Jinling. In addition, tombs for Xu Xilin and Qiu Jin were constructed near Xiling Bridge. In 1917, the Dabei Pavilion in Lingyin Temple was erected, and the Yue Wang Temple and Yue Fei's tomb were renovated several times. From 1923–1931, the


title: "West Lake" content: Huanglong Dong was built. From 1923–1924, the deserted Qian King Temple was renovated and converted to a garden. In 1933, the leaning Baochu Pagoda was revamped. The construction of parks in Hangzhou started with Lakeside Park in the Republican era. In 1912, the military government of Zhejiang demolished the city walls from Qiantang Gate to Yongjin Gate as well as the fortress of banners, and built Hubing Rd along the lakeside. Hurdles were put up 20 meters from the lake and flowers and trees were planted. The area was called "Lakeside Park", covering around one Chinese mile and was divided


title: "West Lake" content: into five parks, first to fifth. In the spring of 1930, the city government paved a land of around 21 "mu" with mud dredged out of the lake from north of Changsheng Rd to Qiantang Gate, and founded Sixth Park. From 1928-1933, Zhejiang's provincial government erected "Chen Yingshi Statue", "North Expedition Martyr Memorial Tower" and "Martyrs of 88 Division in Songhu Campaign Memorial Stela" at the piers of Third Park, Second Park and Fifth Park, respectively. Due to continuous digging by stealth on its base, Leifeng Pagoda, after lasting nearly a thousand years, collapsed all of a sudden on September


title: "West Lake" content: 25, 1924. It was shocking news in media. Lu Xun purposely wrote "Comment on the Collapse of Leifeng Pagoda" and "Second Comment on the Collapse of Leifeng Pagoda", making a remark on this incident. The fall of Leifeng Pagoda also put an end to one of "Ten Scenes of West Lake", "Leifeng Pagoda in the Sunset" (). From June 6 to October 20, 1929, the government of Zhejiang hosted the first "West Lake Expo", and total participants numbered over 20 million. The location of West Lake Expo was set at areas around the lakeside, such as Broken Bridge, Solitary Hill,


title: "West Lake" content: Yue-Wang Temple, and North Hill. The primary purpose of the expo was to promote national products and encourage enterprises. Besides over 1,000 delegate groups from nationwide, involved included delegates from America, Japan, Britain, Indonesia and other countries. It was the largest and longest pageant in Hangzhou during the Republican era. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, Hangzhou was among the first places opened to tourism. The city government preserved the mountain area around the lake and planted a large number of trees. Meanwhile, West Lake was extensively dredged. Within West Lake scenery zone, a new


title: "West Lake" content: botanical garden and flower garden was opened. Fish Viewing at the Flower Pond () park, and Orioles Singing in the Willows () park were constructed. Fish Viewing at the Jade Springs and Yongjin Park were rebuilt. Lingyin Temple, Jingci Temple, Yue-Wang Temple, Three Ponds Mirroring the Moon (), Lake-heart Pavilion and other spots were renovated. In addition, West Huanhu Rd (Xishan Rd), Longjin Rd and Jiuxi Rd were newly built. In 1959, West Lake of Hangzhou received over 1,400 foreign tourists, over 2,300 tourists from Hong Kong and Macao and over five million domestic visitors. During the Cultural Revolution Liutong


title: "West Lake" content: Temple and another temple were destroyed. After the Cultural Revolution, the number of tourists to West Lake increased again. In 1978, it received 53,000 tourists from overseas and Hong Kong and Macao combined, in addition to about six million domestic travelers. In May 1983, the state council named Hangzhou "Famed Historical and Cultural City" and "National Key Scenic Tourism City". In September 1984, the executive office of state council instructed that Hangzhou evolve to the tourism center of Southeast China and a first-class international scenic tourism city. Thereafter Hangzhou government refurbished Lingyin Temple, Tianzhu Temple, Jingci Temple, Yue-Wang Temple, Dacheng


title: "West Lake" content: Hall, stela pavilions of "Ten Scenes" and other relics. Resorts such as Galloping Tiger Spring were expanded. Curved Yard and Lotus Pool in Summer () park was founded. New spot "Exploring Plum Blossoms at Ling Peak" () was opened. Archaizing carnivals were held in Huanglong Dong and Ruangong Dun. There were also night gardens and music night markets for amusement. In 1949, West Lake silted up, with average depth of merely 0.55 meters and capacity only 4 million cubic meters. Marshy weeds blanketed the lake bed so that large boat could only make their ways through specific channels. In 1950,


title: "West Lake" content: the government listed West Lake dredging as a national investment project. Hangzhou launched the West Lake Dredging Project in 1951 to excavate the silt thoroughly. By 1954, all the work had been mechanized. The project concluded in 1959. As a result, the achieved average depth was 1.808 meters with nadir of 2.6 meters. The capacity elevated to 10,271,900 cubic meters. The silt was used to fill 18 ponds or lacunae in surrounding areas including Zhaoqing Temple and Qingbo Park. However, because of the erosion and sediment on lake bed afterward, the depth of the water lessened to 1.47 meters. The


title: "West Lake" content: government thus invested two million yuan in 1976 to dredge the lake again. By 1980, the depth increased to 1.5 meters. Besides dredging work, the city government substantially fortified the lake shore, resulting in a bank of total length of 29,800 meters. That was the largest bank enhancement project in the history of West Lake. Along with the project, more than 10 piers for mooring the boats were renovated or newly built in Lakeside Park, Zhongshan Park, Yue Fei's tomb and both sides of Su Causeway. The West Lake Diversion Project was inaugurated on 1 February 1985. The project built


title: "West Lake" content: a pump at Zhakou section of Qiantang River, and drew 300,000 cubic meters of water daily, equivalent to one thirty-third of total capacity of the lake. As a consequence, the lake's water body transparency was increased by 5 to 7 cm. Other the other hand, The lake-wide sewage interception project was launched in 1978, and was finished in 1981. It was divided into three branches, southern, western and northern, buried sewage tunnels of over 17 kilometers, and was equipped with 10 pumping stations. In 1984, five organizations including Hangzhou Daily newspaper sponsored voting for the "New Ten Scenes in West


title: "West Lake" content: Lake". The elected new scenes are Cloud-Sustained Path in a Bamboo Grove (), Misty Trees by Nine Streams (), Dreams at Galloping Tiger Spring (), Yellow Dragon Cave Dressed in Green (), Sweet Osmanthus Rain at Manjuelong Village (), Clouds Scurrying over Jade Emperor Hill (), Inquiring about Tea at Dragon Well (), Precious Stone Hill Floating in Rosy Clouds (), Heavenly Wind over Wushan Hill (), and Ruan's Mound Encircled by Greenness (). While embracing both exquisite natural beauty and abundant cultural deposits, West Lake of Hangzhou was among the first "National Key Scenic Tourist Resorts" in 1982, and


title: "West Lake" content: elected one of "Ten Chinese Scenic Sites" in 1985. After 71 years, the West Lake Expo was launched in Xi Hu in 2000. The new exhibition was held from October 20 to November 10, attracting 1,400,000 tourists domestic and overseas. The tourism industry raked in 1.12 billion RMB. The Expo greatly enhanced the reputation of West Lake domestically and internationally. Thereafter the West Lake Expo was made a conventional annual celebration. Images of the West Lake have appeared various times on Chinese currency. The picture of "Three Ponds Mirroring the Moon" was printed on the backs of both the foreign


title: "West Lake" content: exchange certificate one yuan bill issued by the government in 1979 and the fifth version of RMB one yuan bill issued in 2004. Over the centuries, the beauty and culture of West Lake has attracted numerous literati, who left behind works of literature and poetry to describe the lake. For example, "Dream in West Lake" and "The Enchiridion of Lake and Mountain" recorded a lot about West Lake and ancient Hangzhou historic anecdotes. Poets such as Bai Juyi, Su Shi, Xu Zhimo and Hu Shih also wrote countless poems about West Lake. The Chinese legend "Legend of the White Snake"


title: "West Lake" content: is also set in West Lake in Hangzhou and has been adapted into films and television series over the years. Entering the 21st century, West Lake witnessed several environmental renovation projects. First of them was "West Lake Southern Side Renovation Project". From February to October 2002, Hangzhou government incorporated four large parks on the southern side of the lake, and these four parks have been free to public 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. On October 25, 2002, on the old site of the Leifeng Pagoda which collapsed 78 years ago, a new pagoda with height of 71.7


title: "West Lake" content: meters was erected. About the formation of West Lake, there are few records in ancient documents. The "West Lake Sight-Seeing Record" () says, "West Lake is surrounded by mountains on three sides. Streams wander down the hills into the pond. There're hundreds of springs underneath. Accumulated water forms the lake." () Modern scholars studied topography, geology, sediment and hydrodynamics, and generally held that West Lake was a lagoon formed gradually from a gulf. In 1920, scientist Zhu Kezhen published "The Cause of Formation of West Lake in Hangzhou" () after examining the topography around the lake. He claimed, "West Lake


title: "West Lake" content: originally was a little bay on left side of Qiantang River. Later the earth in the river sedimented and slowly corked the mouth of the bay, hence a lagoon formed." Zhu postulated, based on the calculation of the rate of sedimentation, that West Lake was formed about 12,000 years ago, when the lake would have been significantly larger than now; and, that the lake's water area had gradually shrunk, due to its being filled by sediments carried down from the creeks in the hills which surround it on three sides. West Lake would no longer exist today without all the


title: "West Lake" content: dredging work done in the historical period. In 1924, geologist Zhang Hongzhao () published "One Explanation of the Formation of West Lake". While supporting Zhu's arguments, he supplemented that the formation of West Lake started with tidal force building the lake bank. Later, the alterations of the beach helped to maintain the water level. These were two prerequisites to the formation of the lake. West Lake not only hosts abundant natural and cultural resources, it also possesses various plant resources. Around the year, all kinds of flowers and plants in West Lake and on surrounding mountains blossom alternatively, which enriches


title: "West Lake" content: the landscape of plantation around the lake and also significantly improves the environmental quality of the city. Peach Blossom: On the lake banks and Su and Bai Causeways a large number of willows and peach trees are planted. It is said one willow is accompanied by one peach tree. Other horticultural plants include magnolia, cherry, Confederate rose, etc. The blooming season of peach tree in Hangzhou usually ranges from end of February to middle of April. Lotus: Some sites in Hangzhou were named after lotus, such as lotus pond () and lotus lane (). There is traditional food called "lotus


title: "West Lake" content: cake". The fossil of lotus seeds was unearthed at Kuahuqiao site in Xiaoshan, which indicates at least before the Tang dynasty there was cultivated lotus. Yang Wanli of the Song dynasty wrote poem, "Lotus leaves grow to the sky with endless green, lotus blossoms bathed in the sunlight appear especially red. (), which brought high reputation to the lotus in West Lake. Nowadays, there are 14 lotus cultivation areas in the lake, totally 130 Chinese acres. Most are in "North Inside Lake" and "Yue Lake". According to statistics, West Lake lotus starts to bloom in early June, and reaches peak


title: "West Lake" content: blossom time in late June. It can last till late August or early September. Osmanthus: As the city flower, osmanthus is one of representative plants of Hangzhou. Poet Bai Juyi wrote "search osmanthus around the temple on hill in the middle of Autumn", indicating osmanthus had been cultivated as early as in the Tang dynasty. "Osmanthus" trees have been massively planted in parks around the lake, and the best-known locations to appreciate are "Sweet Osmanthus Rain at Manjuelong Village", one of "New Ten Scenes of West Lake", and Hangzhou Botanical Garden. "Osmanthus" can be divided into four major species, Thunbergii


title: "West Lake" content: group (), Latifolius Group (), Aurantiacus Group () and Fragrans Division (). Among them, the Thunbergii and Latifolius are the best. Every year around mid-autumn, the sweet-scented osmanthus blossoming is a highlight of tourism in Hangzhou. In addition to its elegant looks, osmanthus is also edible. Thunbergii and Latifolius boast intensive sweet scent, and are natural ingredients for seasoning. Pickled osmanthus blossoms mixed with white sugar became a traditional food of Hangzhou, "Sweet Osmanthus" (). West Lake "Osmanthus" blooming period commences from early September, lasting till early November. Plum blossom: Lin Bu (), a famous recluse in the Song dynasty,


title: "West Lake" content: lived on Solitary Hill. His poem "Little Plum Blossom of Hill Garden" () became the best known poem praising the flower and enriched the cultural contributions of the plum blossoms of West Lake. The opening line of the poem says, "When everything has faded they alone shine forth, encroaching on the charms of smaller gardens" (). Ling Peak, Solitary Hill and West Creek have long been the three finest spots of plum blossom cherishing in Hangzhou. The flowering season is typically around the Spring Festival, from late January to middle February. Tulip: The "Prince Bay Park" () of Hangzhou imported


title: "West Lake" content: almost all species of tulips from Netherlands in 1992, and held annual tulips exhibition ever since. It has become a new scenic spot on the lake bank. The normal tulips blossom season spans from middle of March to end of April. Because the city government has paid increasing attention to environmental protection, the ecological conditions in West Lake area have been gradually improved. Mallards, halcyons and koi carp are among the most frequently spotted animals in the lake. Squirrels loiter among the trees on the bank. West Lake is said to be the incarnation of Xi Shi, one of the


title: "West Lake" content: Four Beauties of ancient China. Since ancient times, West Lake was associated with a large number of romantic poets, profound philosophers, national heroes and heroines. West Lake was also the retreat for many Chinese writers of the past. The Northern Song Dynasty poet Lin Bu, shunning the life of being an official, lived in seclusion by West Lake for twenty years, and dedicated himself to the cultivation of peach and plum blossoms. The great Ming dynasty essayist Zhang Dai, wrote a number of essays about West Lake in "Reminiscence and Dream of Tao'an" (), and a whole book: "Search for


title: "West Lake" content: West Lake in Dreams" (). West Lake has had a profound impact on Far Eastern landscape designs, and its features have often been imitated by other palaces and gardens, such as Kunming Lake at the Summer Palace in Beijing, the central ponds of the Kyu Shiba Rikyu Garden and Koishikawa Kōrakuen Garden in Tokyo, Japan, among others. Due to its prominent historical and cultural status, West Lake was selected as a National Key Scenic Resort in 1982, one of Ten Scenic Resorts in 1985 and a national 5A tourist resort in 2006. Along with its cultural importance, West Lake historically


title: "West Lake" content: was also of value for local commercial fishermen. According to statistics from 1977, the lake had an annual fish yield of 1300 kg/hectare, quite a bit more than for some larger lakes (that is, East Lake of Wuhan had a yield of only 450 kg/ha). Other attractions include: Traditionally, there are ten best-known scenic spots on the West Lake, each remembered by a four-character epithet. Collectively, they are known as the "Ten Scenes of West Lake" (10 Scenic Spots in West Lake ). Each is marked by a stele with an epithet written in the calligraphy of the Qianlong Emperor.


title: "West Lake" content: They are: Phoenix Mountain West Lake West Lake () is a freshwater lake in Hangzhou, China. It is divided into five sections by three causeways. There are numerous temples, pagodas, gardens, and artificial islands within the lake. West Lake has influenced poets and painters throughout Chinese history for its natural beauty and historic relics, and it has also been among the most important sources of inspiration for Chinese garden designers. It was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2011, described as having "influenced garden design in the rest of China as well as Japan and Korea over the centuries"


title: "Reformation Day" content: the Sunday (called Reformation Sunday) on or before 31 October, with All Saints' Day moved to the Sunday on or after 1 November. On 31 October 1999, the Lutheran World Federation and the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity signed the "Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification", regarding a resolution on some points of doctrinal disagreement between mainline Lutheran Churches and the Catholic Church (See also Criticism of Protestantism). The World Methodist Council formally recognized the "Declaration" in 2006. In 2013, the Joint International Commission between representatives of the Lutheran World Federation and the Catholic Church published a report


title: "Acorn woodpecker" content: Acorn woodpecker The acorn woodpecker ("Melanerpes formicivorus") is a medium-sized woodpecker, long, with an average weight of . The adult acorn woodpecker has a brownish-black head, back, wings and tail, white forehead, throat, belly and rump. The eyes are white. There is a small part on the small of their backs where there are some green feathers. The adult male has a red cap starting at the forehead, whereas females have a black area between the forehead and the cap. The white neck, throat, and forehead patches are distinctive identifiers. When flying, they take a few flaps of their wings


title: "Acorn woodpecker" content: and drop a foot or so. White circles on their wings are visible when in flight. Acorn woodpeckers have a call that sounds almost like they are laughing. The breeding habitat is forested areas with oaks in the hills of coastal areas and foothills of California and the southwestern United States south to Colombia. This species may occur at low elevations in the north of its range, but rarely below in Central America, and it breeds up to the timberline. The breeding pair excavate a nest in a large cavity in a dead tree or a dead part of a