title: "Standing Stones of Stenness" content: and bank, excavation has shown that this used to be a henge monument, possibly the oldest in the British Isles. The stones are thin slabs, approximately thick with sharply angled tops. Four, up to about high, were originally elements of a stone circle of up to 12 stones, laid out in an ellipse about diameter on a levelled platform of diameter surrounded by a ditch. The ditch is cut into rock by as much as and is wide, surrounded by an earth bank, with a single entrance causeway on the north side. The entrance faces towards the Neolithic Barnhouse Settlement


title: "Standing Stones of Stenness" content: which has been found adjacent to the Loch of Harray. The Watch Stone stands outside the circle to the north-west and is high. Once there were at least two stones there, as in the 1930s the stump of a second stone was found. Other smaller stones include a square stone setting in the centre of the circle platform where cremated bone, charcoal and pottery were found. This is referred to as a "hearth", similar to the one found at Barnhouse. Animal bones were found in the ditch. The pottery links the monument to Skara Brae and Maeshowe. Based on radiocarbon


title: "Standing Stones of Stenness" content: dating, it is thought that work on the site had begun by 3100 BC. Even in the 18th century the site was still associated with traditions and rituals, by then relating to Norse gods. It was visited by Walter Scott in 1814. Other antiquarians documented the stones and recorded local traditions and beliefs about them. One stone, known as the "Odin Stone" which stood in the field to the north of the henge, was pierced with a circular hole, and was used by local couples for plighting engagements by holding hands through the gap. It was also associated with other


title: "Standing Stones of Stenness" content: ceremonies and believed to have magical power. There was a reported tradition of making all kinds of oaths or promises with one's hand in the Odin Stone; this was known as taking the "Vow of Odin". In December 1814 Captain W. Mackay, a recent immigrant to Orkney who owned farmland in the vicinity of the stones, decided to remove them on the grounds that local people were trespassing and disturbing his land by using the stones in rituals. He started in December 1814 by smashing the Odin Stone. This caused outrage and he was stopped after destroying one other stone


title: "Standing Stones of Stenness" content: and toppling another. The toppled stone was re-erected in 1906 along with some inaccurate reconstruction inside the circle. In the 1970s, a dolmen structure was toppled, since there were doubts as to its authenticity. The two upright stones remain in place. A picture of the Stones of Stenness features on the cover of Van Morrison's album "The Philosopher's Stone", and the Odin stone is depicted on Julian Cope's album "Discover Odin". The Heart of Neolithic Orkney was inscribed as a World Heritage site in December 1999. In addition to the Standing Stones of Stenness, the site includes Maeshowe, Skara Brae,


title: "Standing Stones of Stenness" content: the Ring of Brodgar and other nearby sites. It is managed by Historic Scotland, whose 'Statement of Significance' for the site begins: The monuments at the heart of Neolithic Orkney and Skara Brae proclaim the triumphs of the human spirit in early ages and isolated places. They were approximately contemporary with the mastabas of the archaic period of Egypt (first and second dynasties), the brick temples of Sumeria, and the first cities of the Harappa culture in India, and a century or two earlier than the Golden Age of China. Unusually fine for their early date, and with a remarkably


title: "Standing Stones of Stenness" content: rich survival of evidence, these sites stand as a visible symbol of the achievements of early peoples away from the traditional centres of civilisation...Stenness is a unique and early expression of the ritual customs of the people who buried their dead in tombs like Maes Howe and lived in settlements like Skara Brae. Standing Stones of Stenness The Standing Stones of Stenness is a Neolithic monument five miles northeast of Stromness on the mainland of Orkney, Scotland. This may be the oldest henge site in the British Isles. Various traditions associated with the stones survived into the modern era and


title: "Macular degeneration" content: The drug verteporfin is administered intravenously; light of a certain wavelength is then applied to the abnormal blood vessels. This activates the verteporfin destroying the vessels. Cataract surgery could improve visual outcomes for people with AMD, though there have been concerns about surgery increasing the progression of AMD. A randomized controlled trial found that people who underwent immediate cataract surgery (within two weeks) had improved visual acuity and better quality of life outcomes than those who underwent delayed cataract surgery (6 months). Because peripheral vision is not affected, people with macular degeneration can learn to use their remaining vision to


title: "Hummer H2" content: Hummer H2 The Hummer H2 is a large SUV that was marketed by Hummer and built by AM General from 2002 to 2009 based on a modified GMT820 Chevrolet 2500 HD in front and 1500 frame in back. A common misconception was that it was based on a Tahoe frame. A four-door pickup truck version with a midgate that opens the vehicle's interior to the external cargo bed was introduced for 2005 as the "H2 SUT" (sport utility truck). In 2001 and 2002, GM allowed journalists to examine early versions of the Hummer H2, which was still under development at


title: "Hummer H2" content: the time. The H2 was built by AM General under contract with General Motors at AM General Military Assembly Plant in Mishawaka, Indiana. The H2's final frame assembly is made up of 3 sections: The front uses a modified GM 2500-Series utility frame, the midsection is all new, and the rear section uses a modified GM 1500-Series frame which is upgraded for the gross vehicle weight. The H2 was nominated for the "North American Truck of the Year" award for 2003. Hummer launched a special 2009 Black Chrome Limited Edition version. Standard features include air conditioning with tri-zone climate controls,


title: "Hummer H2" content: tilt leather-wrapped steering wheel with radio controls, cruise control, leather upholstery, heated front and rear seats, 8-way power front seats, dual memory system, BOSE premium sound system, 6-disc CD changer, outside-temperature indicator, compass, rear radio controls, independent front torsion bar suspension, rear 5-link coil spring suspension specially created for the H2, oversized tires with HUMMER rims, universal garage door opener and remote engine start (2008–2009). Options for the H2 include adjustable rear suspension [which is included within the Adventure Package], a wide power sunroof, rearview camera, DVD entertainment system, navigation system, ladder, custom grilles, side step bars, and 20" chrome


title: "Hummer H2" content: wheels (slightly different from stock wheels). General Motors is not required to provide official fuel economy ratings for the H2 due to the vehicle's heavy gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR). Prior to 2011, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) exempted vehicles with a GVWR over from fuel economy standards and testing. Under the United States income tax code, the cost of vehicles over can be deducted from specific forms of income. This deduction was enacted decades prior to assist self-employed people in purchasing a vehicle for business use. The weight minimum was intended to limit the deduction to commercial-type


title: "Hummer H2" content: trucks. For many years, the deduction remained below the average cost of a new vehicle, since large trucks were relatively inexpensive. Since it is a reduction in taxable income, the actual value of this deduction averages 30% of the price of the vehicle in question. The increasing popularity of these commercial vehicles in the late 1990s and early 2000s, however, pushed their average price to nearly double the average passenger car cost. In response, the 2002 Tax Act increased this "Section 179 depreciation deduction" to US$75,000, and it rose again to US$102,000 for the 2004 tax year. This is more


title: "Hummer H2" content: than three times the current average cost of a passenger car in the United States and covers a large number of luxury models, including the Hummer H2. In late 2006, the deduction was again reduced to US$25,000 for vehicles with GVWR between and . Base price MSRP for (2002-2003) the H2 was $53,286. Base price MSRP for (2004-2009) the H2 was $59,880. The 2009 Black Chrome Edition Base Price MSRP was $67,450. Hummer H2 The Hummer H2 is a large SUV that was marketed by Hummer and built by AM General from 2002 to 2009 based on a modified GMT820


title: "Jeep Wrangler" content: Jeep Wrangler The Jeep Wrangler is a series of compact and mid-size (Wrangler Unlimited and Wrangler 4-door JL) four-wheel drive off-road vehicle models, manufactured by Jeep since 1986, and currently in its fourth generation. The Wrangler JL was unveiled in late 2017 and will be produced at Jeep's Toledo Complex. The Wrangler is arguably an indirect progression from the World War II Jeep, through the CJ (Civilian Jeeps) produced by Willys, Kaiser-Jeep and American Motors Corporation (AMC) from the mid-1940s through 1980s. Although neither AMC nor Chrysler (after its purchase of AMC in 1987) have claimed that the Wrangler was


title: "Jeep Wrangler" content: a direct descendant of the original military model — both the CJ Jeeps and the conceptually consistent Wrangler, with their solid axles and open top, have been called the Jeep model as central to Jeep's brand identity as the rear-engined 911 is to Porsche. Similar to the Willys MB and the CJ Jeeps before it, all Wrangler models continue to use a separate body and frame, rigid live axles both front and rear, a tapering nose design with flared fenders, a fold-flat windshield, and can be driven without doors. Also, with few exceptions, they have part-time four-wheel drive systems, with


title: "Jeep Wrangler" content: the choice of high and low gearing, and standard are open bodies with removable hard- or soft-tops. However, the Wrangler series was specifically redesigned to be safer and more comfortable on-road, to attract more daily drivers, by upgrading its suspension, drivetrain, and interior, compared to the CJ line. The suspension on all Wranglers included trackbars and anti-roll bars, and, from the 1997 TJ onwards, front and rear coil springs instead of the previous leaf-springs. From 2004 the Wrangler has been complemented with long-wheelbase versions, called Wrangler "Unlimited" (until the release of the JL generation). 2004-2006 models were longer versions with


title: "Jeep Wrangler" content: 2 doors. In 2004 only automatic transmission equipped “Unlimited” versions were sold. In 2005 both an automatic and manual 6-speed (NSG-370) were offered. Since 2007, the long-wheelbase Wranglers were four-door models, offering over more room. By mid 2017 the four-door models represented three quarters of all new Wranglers on the market. Outwardly strongly resembling the Jeep CJ-7, the first Wrangler, which was formally announced in February 1986 at the 1986 Chicago Auto Show, was based on a new set of design parameters. "The product philosophy behind the two vehicles" François Castaing (AMC VP of Product Engineering) explained, "is completely different".


title: "Jeep Wrangler" content: Although the 1987 Wrangler YJ continued to use a separate body and frame, with the same wheelbase as the CJ-7, and still solid axles both front and rear, it was a significantly new design, that borrowed its suspension, drivetrain, and interior from the 1984 Cherokee (XJ) model. The new car had a wider track, slightly less ground clearance, more comfort and improved handling. The YJ still had leaf spring suspension similar to that of the CJ – however the springs were wider, and the first Wrangler sported trackbar suspension links and anti-roll bars for improved handling and safety, making it


title: "Jeep Wrangler" content: less easy to flip by untrained or unwary drivers. The Wrangler debuted in 1986 as a new model after discontinuance of the famous Jeep CJ series. It was revised in 1996, and completely redesigned in 2006. In addition to the model name "Wrangler", each model received a designation corresponding to its generation: YJ (1986–1995), TJ (1997–2006), TJU's (commonly known as LJs- 2004–2006 Unlimited models, or YJL, in the Egyptian owners manual.), JKU (2007–2017 Unlimited models) and JK (2007–2017), and the latest JL model, introduced for the 2018 model year. Foreign military versions of the Wrangler have carried the J8 designation


title: "Jeep Wrangler" content: which was initially dubbed TJL when first produced at Arab American Vehicle's Egyptian plant. Jeep YJ models were manufactured between 1986 and 1995 at Brampton Assembly, and subsequently at the Toledo South Assembly plant. A major difference in the 1987–1995 models were the rectangular headlights, which reverted to rounded ones in the TJ and then JK versions. In 2006, Wrangler production was moved to Toledo Complex. Post-2006 Wranglers were set apart from their predecessors by the angle of the grille. In all previous models, the grille was flat and even with the front fenders. The newer Wrangler was constructed with


title: "Jeep Wrangler" content: a grille which angled out from the top, and then continued in a straight line from the midway point, toward the bottom. This decreased the hood length, while increasing the length of the fenders. In more recent models, this angle has been lowered more toward the bottom of the grille. In Egypt, the YJ was produced as well as a long wheel-base version, dubbed LJ (or labeled as YJL in Egypt's Owners Manual), and which has retained the 2-door design. The YJL is considered as the first predecessor of the JK's long wheel-base by continuing as TJL (aka J8) which


title: "Jeep Wrangler" content: has directly inspired the JK's 4-door. There is a Jeep Wrangler Pickup coming into production in 2019. Although introduced in 1986 (under control of Renault), and by 1987 (the first model year) under new ownership of Chrysler, the first-generation Wrangler had still been developed by American Motors Corporation. It featured rectangular headlamps, differing from the round ones on its predecessors, the CJ Jeeps. Although continuing many essentials, such as an open body on a separate frame, with the same wheelbase, part-time 4WD and live rigid axles on leaf-springs, both front and rear, just like the CJ-7 – it was a


title: "Jeep Wrangler" content: significantly new design with a wider track, slightly less ground clearance, more comfort and improved safety and handling. Israeli military carmaker Automotive Industries Ltd. introduced its first generation of the AIL Storm, the workhorse off-road vehicle of the Israeli Security Forces, as a variant of the 1991 Wrangler YJ, but on the CJ-6 / CJ-8 wheelbase. AIL builds the whole vehicles themselves, save for various externally sourced engines. Long and short wheelbase versions were also available for civilian purchase.<br> Aside from this, there was a Jeep-managed production line in Egypt, whose jeeps are used by the Egyptian armed forces –


title: "Jeep Wrangler" content: but this was absorbed into the AIL Storm production after it closed in 1995. Introduced in 1996 as a 1997 model, the second-generation Wrangler reintroduced the round headlamps from the classic Jeep models.The main engine was the AMC 242 4.0L inline 6. From the Wrangler TJ onwards, all Wranglers were fitted with coil-spring instead of leaf-spring suspension. Late in the TJ's life cycle, in 2004, a long-wheelbase "Unlimited" model was introduced for the first time. Furthermore, starting 2006, Israeli Automotive Industries Ltd. produced the first five-door Jeep Wrangler derivative, built under license from Chrysler, for the Israel Defense Forces, based


title: "Jeep Wrangler" content: on a wheelbase Wrangler (TJ) The third-generation Wrangler was released in 2006 for the 2007 model year. Developed under ownership of DaimlerChrysler, the JK was Jeep's first Wrangler that was a completely clean-sheet design of body, frame and suspension. New features for the Wrangler included power windows, remote power door locks, navigation, as well as electronically detachable sway-bars on some models. Along with the traditional 2-door model, a 4-door "Unlimited" model was released, offering considerably more room, thanks to an over 20 inches (50 cm) longer wheelbase. These became quite successful sellers. By mid 2017 the four-door models represented three


title: "Jeep Wrangler" content: quarters of all new Wranglers on the market. The fourth-generation Wrangler was unveiled in late 2017 as a 2018 model. The JL features a host of new features including: additional powertrains over the Pentastar V6, a redesigned transmission, easier fold-flat windshield and soft top designs, and a more modern interior. Powertrains for the 2018 model included both the 2.0L Turbo engine and the Pentastar V6. The Jeep Wrangler received the 2009 Best Resale Value Award from "Kelley Blue Book" (KBB) in the sport utility vehicle category. In 2012 and for 2013, it was also awarded the Best Resale Value Award


title: "Jeep Wrangler" content: from Kelly Blue Book in the compact sport utility vehicle category. The Wrangler also holds the Models to Best Hold Its Value recognition from Kelley Blue Book for 1998, 1999, 2003, 2011, and 2012. The 2011, 2012, and 2013 Jeep Wranglers have received "Canadian Black Book's" Best Retained Value Award for the compact SUV category. In 2007, The Jeep Wrangler had set the Guinness World Record for highest altitude attained by a four-wheeled vehicle after ferrying Matthias Jeschke and his Extrem Events adventure team up Chile's Ojos del Salado, the highest volcano on Earth (record beaten the same year by


title: "Jeep Wrangler" content: a Suzuki Samurai ). The trek from base camp to the world record height ran from March 7 to March 13, when the team's pair of Wrangler Rubicon Unlimiteds checked in at . In 2007 and for 2013, the magazine "Four Wheeler" awarded the Jeep Wrangler with its Four-Wheeler of the Year Award and in January 2010, they awarded the Jeep Wrangler Unlimited Rubicon its title of 4x4 of the Decade. In 1997, 2007, and 2012, the magazine "Petersen's 4-Wheel & Off-Road" awarded the Jeep Wrangler with its 4x4 of the Year award. The 2008 edition of "Forbes" Autos lists


title: "Jeep Wrangler" content: the four-wheel-drive convertible Jeep Wrangler at number four among the top ten vehicles with the highest resale value. In May 2009, "Business Week" magazine named the Wrangler One of the Most Iconic Cars of the Last 20 Years. In September 2008, Chrysler Vice Chairman Tom LaSorda unveiled a range-extended electric 4-door Wrangler along with similarly engineered Town and Country minivan and a purely electric sports car. The Wrangler would have a range before a gas engine starts and begins supplying additional electricity. However, in November 2009 Fiat SpA disbanded Chrysler's ENVI electric car division and dropped these models from future


title: "Jeep Wrangler" content: product plans. Jeep Wrangler The Jeep Wrangler is a series of compact and mid-size (Wrangler Unlimited and Wrangler 4-door JL) four-wheel drive off-road vehicle models, manufactured by Jeep since 1986, and currently in its fourth generation. The Wrangler JL was unveiled in late 2017 and will be produced at Jeep's Toledo Complex. The Wrangler is arguably an indirect progression from the World War II Jeep, through the CJ (Civilian Jeeps) produced by Willys, Kaiser-Jeep and American Motors Corporation (AMC) from the mid-1940s through 1980s. Although neither AMC nor Chrysler (after its purchase of AMC in 1987) have claimed that the


title: "Ford F-Series" content: Ford F-Series The Ford F-Series is a series of light-duty trucks and medium-duty trucks (Class 2-7) that have been marketed and manufactured by Ford Motor Company since 1948. While most variants of the F-Series trucks are full-size pickup trucks, the F-Series also includes chassis cab trucks and commercial vehicles. The Ford F-Series has been the best-selling vehicle in the United States since 1986 and the best-selling pickup since 1977. It is also the best selling vehicle in Canada. As of the 2018 model year, the F-Series generates $ billion in annual revenue for Ford, making the F-Series brand more valuable


title: "Ford F-Series" content: than Coca-Cola and Nike. In 1999, to bridge the gap between the pickup line and the medium-duty trucks, the F-250 and F-350 became the Ford Super Duty vehicles; considered an expansion of the F-Series, the Super Duty trucks are built on a distinct chassis with heavier-duty components. As of the 2017 model year, the F-Series includes the F-150, the Super Duty (F-250 through F-550), and F-650 and F-750 Super Duty medium-duty commercial trucks. The most popular version of the F-Series is the F-150, now in its thirteenth generation. Through the use of rebadging, Ford has marketed the F-Series through all


title: "Ford F-Series" content: three Ford divisions in North America. From 1946 to 1968, Mercury sold the Mercury M-Series in Canada; during the 2000s, Lincoln sold the Lincoln Blackwood, replaced by the Lincoln Mark LT. The first-generation F-Series pickup (known as the Ford Bonus-Built) was introduced in 1948 as a replacement for the previous car-based pickup line introduced in 1942. The F-Series was sold in eight different weight ratings, with pickup, panel truck, cab-over engine (COE), conventional truck, and school bus chassis body styles. For the 1953 model year, Ford introduced a second generation of the F-Series trucks. Increased dimensions, improved engines, and an


title: "Ford F-Series" content: updated chassis were features of the second generation. In another change, the model nomenclature of the F-Series was expanded to three numbers; this remains in use in the present day. The half-ton F-1 became the F-100 (partially influenced by the North American F-100 Super Sabre); the F-2 and F-3 were combined into the ¾-ton F-250 while the F-4 became the one-ton F-350. Conventional F-Series trucks were F-500 to F-900; COE chassis were renamed C-Series trucks. While large body parts are the same from 1953-1956 F-100 & F-250s (namely the hood, fenders, and all bed components), in 1956 the cab underwent


title: "Ford F-Series" content: a major revision. Centered around a wraparound windshield, the cab was given new doors, a redesigned dashboard, and an (optional) panoramic rear window). In line with Ford cars, the 1956 F-Series offered seat belts as an option. Introduced in 1957, the third generation F-series was a significant modernization and redesign. Front fenders became integrated into the body, and the new Styleside bed continued the smooth lines to the rear of the pickup. The cab-over F-Series was discontinued, having been replaced by the tilt-cab C-Series. In 1959, Ford began in-house production of four-wheel-drive pickups. Ford introduced a dramatically new style of


title: "Ford F-Series" content: pickup in 1961 with the fourth generation F-Series. Longer and lower than its predecessors, these trucks had increased dimensions and new engine and gearbox choices. Additionally, the 1961–1963 models were constructed as a unibody design with the cab and bed integrated. This proved unpopular and Ford reverted to the traditional separate cab/bed design in 1964. In 1965, the F-Series was given a significant mid-cycle redesign. A completely new platform, including the "Twin I-Beam" front suspension, was introduced that would be used until 1996 on the F-150 and until 2016 on the F-250/350 4x2. Additionally that year, the Ranger name made


title: "Ford F-Series" content: its first appearance on a Ford pickup; previously a base model of the Edsel, it was now used to denote a high-level styling package for F-Series pickups. Introduced in 1967, the fifth generation F-series pickup was built on the same platform as the 1965 revision of the fourth generation. Dimensions and greenhouse glass were increased, engine options expanded, and plusher trim levels became available during the fifth generation's production run. Suspension components from all 1969 F-Series models are completely interchangeable. Perhaps the most rare of this series is the Heavy Duty Special, often confused with the Camper Special. However, the


title: "Ford F-Series" content: Heavy Duty Special is a 1/2 T with upgraded heavy duty parts such as Firestone overload rear leaf mounts, larger brake drums and axles. A variant of the fifth generation F-series was produced until 1992 in Brazil for the South American market. The sixth generation F-series was introduced in 1973. This version of the F-series continued to be built on the 1965 fourth generation's revised platform, but with significant modernization and refinements. Front disc brakes, increased cabin dimensions, gas tank relocated outside the cab and under the bed, significantly improved heating and air conditioning, full double wall bed construction, increased


title: "Ford F-Series" content: use of galvanized steel, Super-cab was introduced in the sixth generation pickup. The FE engine series was discontinued in 1976 after a nearly 20-year run, replaced by the more modern 351 series (Modified) and 400 series engines. In 1975, the F-150 was introduced in between the F-100 and the F-250 in order to avoid certain emission control restrictions. For 1978, square headlights replaced the previous models' round ones on higher trim package models, such as Lariat and Ranger, and in 1979 became standard equipment. Also for 1978, the Ford Bronco was redesigned into a variant of the F-series pickup. 1979


title: "Ford F-Series" content: was the last year that the 460 big block engine was available in a half ton truck. The 1980 F-Series was redesigned with an all-new chassis and larger body; this was the first ground-up redesign since 1965. The exterior styling of the truck was redone to improve aerodynamics and fuel economy. Medium-duty F-Series (F600-F900) were also redesigned; although they shared the cabin of the smaller pickup trucks, the largest version of F-Series now wore a bonnet with separate front wings (like the L-Series). Medium duty Ford F-Series would carry the 1980–1986 interior design until 2000 (though pickups were restyled again


title: "Ford F-Series" content: in 1987 and 1992), with very subtle changes such as window glass and electronics. In a move towards fuel efficiency, Ford dropped the M-Series engines (the 5.8 Liter "351M" and 6.6 Liter 400 cu in V8s) in 1981, replacing them with the 4.2 Liter 255 C.I. and 5.8 Liter 351 C.I. Windsor V8 engines from the Panther platform. The 255 V8 was simply a 5.0L, 302 V8 with a smaller bore, built specifically for better fuel economy, but was dropped for the 1982 model year due to being underpowered and having limited demand. For 1982 and 1983, the 3.8L, 232


title: "Ford F-Series" content: C.I. Essex V6 was the base engine but was quickly dropped for the 1984 model year. In 1983, Ford added Diesel power to the F-Series through a partnership with International Harvester (later Navistar). The 6.9L, 420 C.I. IDI V8 produced similar power output as the gasoline 351 Windsor V8, with the fuel economy of the 4.9L, 300 I6. From this point on (1983-present), the heavier duty f-series trucks (F-350 and above) were usually equipped with the Diesel engines as standard horsepower. 1985 was the first year of electronic fuel injection on the 5.0L V8, all other engines following suit in


title: "Ford F-Series" content: 1988. There was a new "high output" version of the 5.8L Windsor beginning in 1984. A noticeable change was made to the F-Series in 1982 as the Ford "Blue Oval" was added to the center of the grill, also the Ranger and Custom trims were no longer available. The Ranger name had been shifted onto the all-new compact pickup developed as a replacement for the Courier. The new trim levels were a no-badge base model (essentially the new Custom), XL, a very rare XLS, and XLT Lariat. 1983 marked the final year of the F-100, making the F-150 the lightest


title: "Ford F-Series" content: pickup available on the market. F-100s and F-150s were virtually identical with the exception of smaller brakes. F-100s over a certain GVWR and/or without power brakes did use the F-150 axles. Also, the 1980–1983 F-100 was never offered with four-wheel-drive. 1986 marked the final year that the F-150 was available with a 3-speed manual gearbox that shifted via a steering column lever (3-on-the-tree). Incidentally, this was the second-last vehicle in the United States that offered this set up. 1986 was also the last year the Explorer package was available. This is the first generation of trucks to incorporate amenities such


title: "Ford F-Series" content: as power mirrors, power windows, and power door locks. The 1987 F-Series carried over the same body style from the seventh generation, yet sported a new rounded front clip that improved aerodynamics, as well as the softening of body lines around the rear of the bed and fender arches around the wheel wells. The interior was also completely redesigned in 1987. The transmissions available on SuperCab models were a four-speed or five-speed manual; regular cab models were also available with automatic transmission. The Custom trim made a comeback for the eighth generation. In 1988, the 4.9 Liter inline-six, 5.8 Liter


title: "Ford F-Series" content: V8, and 7.5 Liter V8 engines gained electronic fuel injection. International Navistar also increased the displacement of their 6.9 Liter V8 in the same year, resulting in the new 7.3 Liter unit. This was also the first year of a five-speed manual overdrive transmission, which included the Mazda "M5OD" in the F-150s and the heavy-duty ZF5 in the F-250s and F-350s. Four-speed manuals were discontinued as standard equipment after 1987, but were available as a customer-ordered option until 1989. In 1989, the C6 three-speed automatic was replaced as the base automatic transmission with the "E4OD", a four-speed electronically controlled automatic


title: "Ford F-Series" content: overdrive unit, though the C6 was still available as an option, mostly in F-250s and F-350s, until 1997. Heavy-Duty models included F-250s and F-350s (along with F-Super Dutys) that were classified as incomplete vehicles only that were produced with no bed, but appeared as tow trucks, box trucks (notably U-Haul), flatbed trucks, dump trucks and other models. Although the F-250s, F-250 HDs (heavy duty), and F-350s were built as a Chassis cab models only from 1987 to 1997, owners can convert the models to pickup trucks. However General Pacheco, Argentina and São Bernardo do Campo, Brazil assemblies were the only


title: "Ford F-Series" content: places F-250, F-250 HD, and F-350 were built and sold as pickup trucks models. Despite being produced only in General Pacheco, Argentina and São Bernardo do Campo, Brazil assemblies (located in South America) F-250s, F-250 HDs, and F-350s were shipped from South America to the United States as imports from 1987 to 1997. For the 1992 model year, the body-shell of the 1980 F-Series was given another major upgrade. To further improve its aerodynamics, the forward bodywork was given a slightly lower hoodline, rounding the front fenders and grille; in addition, the changes matched the F-Series with the design of


title: "Ford F-Series" content: the newly introduced Explorer and redesigned E-Series and Ranger. Along with the exterior updates, the interior received a complete redesign. Dormant since 1987, the FlareSide bed made its return as an option for 1992. To increase its appeal for younger buyers, the bed bodywork was redesigned, borrowing the sides of the F-350 dual-rear wheel bed (fitted to the narrower F-150 single-wheel chassis). To commemorate the 75th anniversary of the first Ford factory-produced truck (the 1917 Ford Model TT), Ford offered a 75th anniversary package on its 1992 F-series, consisting of a stripe package, an argent colored step bumper, and special


title: "Ford F-Series" content: 75th anniversary logos. In 1993, the 240 hp SVT Lightning was introduced as a specially-tuned performance truck; over 11,000 were built from 1993 to 1995. In a trim shift, the XLT Lariat was dropped and combined with the XLT; the XL took over for the Custom trim after 1993 (marking the last usage of the Custom nameplate by Ford). In 1995, the Eddie Bauer trim made its return. In 1995, the medium-duty Ford F-Series (F-600 through F-800 and all Ford B-Series) were given their first update since 1980. All versions (except severe-service) received a hood redesign which enlarged the grille


title: "Ford F-Series" content: and moved the turn signal indicators to the outside of the front headlights. During the second half of 1997, the F-250 HD (heavy duty) was in the same series as the F-350. The body style stayed the same until the end of 1997. The only change of the F-250 HD and F-350 was that they no longer has classic style tailgates, with the stainless steel cap on them which read FORD. Instead the tailgate had the F-250 Heavy Duty/F-350 nameplate labeled on its left side, while Ford's blue oval was labeled on The right side (similarly styled like the 1997


title: "Ford F-Series" content: Ford F-150 around this same time). The F-250 HD also had some minor changes in trim location, and options available. The 1997 F-250 HD with the 7.3 Powerstroke Diesel is also the rarest and most desirable of ninth generation Fords. Following the introduction of the tenth-generation F-150, the F-250 and F-350 continued into production into the 1998 model year, becoming part of the Ford F-Series Super Duty line as they were replaced in 1999. For 1997, Ford Motor Company made a major change to its F-Series family of trucks as the F-Series pickup line was essentially split in two. During


title: "Ford F-Series" content: the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, buyers of pickup trucks had increasingly purchased the vehicles for the purposes of personal use over work use. To further increase its growing market share, Ford sought to develop vehicles for both types of buyers. In its ultimate decision, the company decided to make the F-150 as a contemporary vehicle for personal use, while the F-250 and F-350 would be designed more conservatively for work-based customers. Introduced in early 1996 as a 1997 model, the F-150 was a completely new vehicle in comparison from its predecessor. Similar to the original Ford Taurus of 1986, the


title: "Ford F-Series" content: 1997 F-150 was developed with a radically streamlined body. Dispensing with the traditional Twin I-Beam for a fully independent front suspension, the all-new chassis only shared the transmissions with the previous generation. In a major change, the long-running 4.9L inline-6 was replaced by a 4.2 L Essex V6 engine as standard. The 4.6 L Modular V8 shared with the Panther Car was optional (with a bigger 5.4 L Triton V8 version added in mid-1997). Originally developed for use in the F-Series, the Modular/Triton V8 was the first overhead-camshaft engine ever to be installed in a full-size pickup truck. To improve


title: "Ford F-Series" content: rear-seat access for SuperCab models, a rear-hinged (curb-side) door was added to all versions. Following its popularity, the SuperCab gained a fourth door for 1999. In 2001, the F-150 became the first pickup truck in its size segment to become available with four full-size doors. Sharing the length of a standard-bed SuperCab, the F-150 SuperCrew was produced with a slightly shortened bed. During the second half of the 1997 model year, Ford introduced a heavier GVWR version (8800 GVW), bearing the F-250 name. It was distinguished by an uncommon and unique seven-lug bolt pattern for the wheels. At the same


title: "Ford F-Series" content: time, the F-250 HD (heavy duty) was in the same series as the F-350 (same square body style as the last generation F-150; it was still built in South America only). Due the Super Duty trucks never reaching Ford dealerships as for sale until the beginning of 1999, Ford produced a lighter duty F-250, using the same body the F-150 had at the time as a temporarily model (1997 to 1999). By February 1999, the f-150-based F-250 was discontinued and the Super Duty trucks finally marketed for sale. In 1999, the SVT Lightning made its return, with output expanded to


title: "Ford F-Series" content: 360 hp; over 28,000 were produced from 1999 to 2003. For 2002, Lincoln-Mercury gained its first full-size pickup truck since 1968 with the introduction of the Lincoln Blackwood, the first Lincoln pickup. Sharing the front bodywork of the Lincoln Navigator SUV and the same cab body work as the Ford F-150, the Blackwood was designed with a model-exclusive bed and was sold only in black. Due to very poor sales, the Blackwood was discontinued after 2002. In 1999, the F-250 and F-350 pickups were introduced as the 1999 Ford F-Series Super Duty model line. While remaining part of the F-Series,


title: "Ford F-Series" content: the Super Duty trucks use a different platform architecture, powertrain, and design language, primarily as they are intended for heavy-duty work use. Designed in a joint venture with Navistar International, the medium-duty F-650/F-750 Super Duty were introduced in 2000. For the 2004 model year, the F-150 was redesigned on an all-new platform. Externally, the eleventh-generation model was different from its predecessor, with sharper-edged styling; a major change was the adoption of the stepped driver's window from the Super Duty trucks. Regardless of cab type, all F-150s were given four doors, with the rear doors on the regular cab providing access


title: "Ford F-Series" content: to behind-the-seat storage. Ford also introduced the Triton engines in the variants of the F-150. Due to declining sales, the Flareside beds were dropped; this marked the first time in 56 years of F-Series production that Flareside beds were not available. From 2005 to 2008, Lincoln-Mercury dealers sold this version of the F-150 as the Lincoln Mark LT, replacing the Blackwood. In late 2007 for the 2008 model year, the Super Duty trucks were given an all-new platform. While using the same bed and cabin as before, these are distinguished from their predecessors by an all-new interior and a much


title: "Ford F-Series" content: larger grille and head lamps. Previously available only as a chassis-cab model, the F-450 now was available as a pickup directly from Ford. From 2004 to 2006 offered a different bed style as well. The twelfth generation F-150 was introduced for the 2009 model year as an update of the Ford full-size truck platform. Similar to its predecessor, these trucks are distinguished by their Super Duty-style grilles and head lamps; standard cab models again have two-doors instead of four. The FlareSide bed was continued until 2010, dropped along with the manual gearbox; outside of Mexico, the Lincoln Mark LT was


title: "Ford F-Series" content: replaced by the F-150 Platinum. A new model for 2010 included the SVT Raptor, a dedicated off-road pickup. As part of a major focus on fuel economy, the entire engine lineup for the F-150 was updated for the 2011 model year. Along with two new V8 engines, the F-150 gained a new 3.7 Liter base V6 engine, and a powerful twin-turbocharged 3.5 Liter V6, dubbed EcoBoost by Ford. An automatic transmission is the only option. Other modifications include the addition of a Nexteer Automotive Electric Power Steering (EPS) system on most models. A recent study conducted by iSeeCars.com and published


title: "Ford F-Series" content: on the Ford Motor Company website listed Ford F-250 Super Duty as the top longest-lasting vehicle and Expedition, Explorer and F-150 in the top 20 longest-lasting vehicle. The thirteenth-generation Ford F-Series was introduced for the 2015 model year. Largely previewed by the Ford Atlas concept vehicle at the 2013 Detroit Auto Show, the new design marked several extensive changes to the F-Series design. In the interest of fuel economy, Ford designers reduced curb weight of the F-150 by nearly 750 pounds, without physically altering its exterior footprint. To allow for such a massive weight reduction, nearly every body panel was


title: "Ford F-Series" content: switched from steel to aluminum (with the exception of the firewall); the frame itself remains high-strength steel. To prove the durability of the aluminum-intensive design, during the development of the thirteenth-generation F-Series, Ford entered camouflaged prototypes into the Baja 1000 endurance race (where the vehicles finished). The 2015 F-150 was the first pickup truck with adaptive cruise control, which uses radar sensors on the front of the vehicle to maintain a set following distance between it and the vehicle ahead of it, decreasing speed if necessary. The 3.7L V6 was dropped, replaced by a 3.5L V6 as the standard engine,


title: "Ford F-Series" content: with a 2.7L EcoBoost V6 added alongside the 3.5L EcoBoost V6. While the 6.2L V8 was withdrawn, the 5.0L V8 continued as an option, with a 6-speed automatic as the sole transmission. For the 2018 model year, the Ford F-150 underwent a mid-cycle redesign, being revealed at the 2017 New York International Auto Show. Following the introduction of the 2017 Super Duty model line, the F-Series (F-150 through F-550 and Ford Raptor) are again manufactured using a common cab (for the first time since 1996). For 2018, the F-150 shifted from the long-running 3-bar design used on Ford trucks to


title: "Ford F-Series" content: the "center bar" designs that debuted on the 2017 Super Duty model line. The powertrain underwent several revisions, as the 3.5L V6 was replaced by a 3.3L V6 mated to a 6 speed transmission. The EcoBoost V6 engines and 5.0L V8 engines were fitted with a 10-speed automatic (from the Raptor) and stop-start capability (previously only from the 2.7L EcoBoost). In 2018, a PowerStroke diesel engine was fitted to the F-150 for the first time, as Ford introduced a 250 hp 3.0L twin-turbocharged V6 (from the "Lion" lineup of engines shared by PSA Peugeot Citroën and Jaguar Land Rover). Safety


title: "Ford F-Series" content: and driver assistance features improved and added for the 2018 model year include Pre-Collision Assist with Pedestrian Detection and Adaptive Cruise Control with Stop and Go. The crew-cab version of the 2018 F-150 reclaimed an IIHS Top Safety Pick rating. Ford F-150's advertisement called "Big Dog" takes subtle shots at the redesigned Chevy Silverado and Ram 1500. Throughout its production, variants of the Ford F-Series has been produced to attract buyers. While these variants primarily consist of trim packages, others are high-performance versions while other variants were designed with various means of improving functionality. For 1961 into part of the


title: "Ford F-Series" content: 1963 model year, the Ford F-Series was offered with a third body configuration, integrating the Styleside bed with the cab. With the pickup bed stampings welded directly to the cab before both assemblies were mounted to the frame, the design simplified the assembly and paint process (the configuration was similar to that of the Ford Ranchero). Following a poor market reception, the unibody pickup bed design was withdrawn during the 1963 model year. From 1961 to 1979, Ford offered several "Special" option packages for the F-Series, typically designed for owners with specific uses for their vehicles. For 1961, the "Camper


title: "Ford F-Series" content: Special" option package was introduced; designed for owners of slide-in truck campers, the option package featured pre-wiring for the camper, heavy-duty transmission and engine cooling, and a larger alternator. For 1968, Ford introduced the "Contractor's Special", and "Farm and Ranch Special", which featured toolboxes and heavier-duty suspension. The "Explorer Special" was introduced as a lower-priced variant of the Ranger trim. The "Trailer Special" was offered as well with trailer brake, heavy-duty radiator, transmission cooler, and tow hitch. In 1980, the Special option packages were withdrawn as part of the F-Series redesign, while a number of features continued as stand-alone options;


title: "Ford F-Series" content: the Explorer continued as a variant of the Ranger trim through the 1986 model year. Sold from 1991 to 1992 on the Ford F-150 XLT Lariat, the Nite special edition was an monochromatic option package, featuring black paint and trim with a multicolor accent stripe. For 1991, it was exclusive to the regular-cab F-150; for 1992, it was available on all bodystyles of the F-150 and introduced on the Ford Bronco. The Nite edition was available with two-wheel drive or four-wheel drive with either the 5.0L or 5.8L V8; it also included a sport suspension and alloy wheels on 235/75R15


title: "Ford F-Series" content: white-letter tires. For 1994, Ford introduced the Eddie Bauer trim level for the F-150. In a fashion similar to the same trim packages on the Aerostar, Bronco, and Explorer/Bronco II, it consisted of outdoors-themed interior trim with two-tone exterior paint. Introduced as a 1993 model, the Ford SVT Lightning is a high-performance version of the F-150 that was produced by the Ford Special Vehicle Team (SVT). Intended as a competitor for the Chevrolet 454SS, the SVT Lightning was derived from the F-150; to improve its handling, extensive modifications were made to the front and rear suspension and frame. Powered by


title: "Ford F-Series" content: a 240 hp version of the 5.8L V8, the Lightning used a heavy-duty 4-speed automatic transmission from the F-350 (normally paired with the 7.5L V8 or 7.3L diesel V8). While slower in acceleration than the GMC Syclone, the Lightning retained nearly all of the towing and payload capacity of a standard Ford F-150. Produced from 1993 to 1995, the first-generation SVT Lightning was withdrawn as Ford readied the 1997 Ford F-150 for sale. After a three-year hiatus, Ford released a second generation of the SVT Lightning for the 1999 model year. In line with its 1993-1995 predecessor, the second-generation Lightning


title: "Ford F-Series" content: was based on the F-150 with a number of suspension modifications; in a design change, all examples were produced with a FlareSide bed. In place of a model-specific engine, the second-generation was powered by a supercharged version of the 5.4L V8 from the F-150, producing 360 hp (increased to 380 hp in 2001). As before, the higher-output engine was paired with a heavier-duty transmission from the F-350 pickup. For the 2004 redesign of the Ford F-150, the SVT Lightning was not included, leaving 2004 as the final year for the model line. While of an entirely different design focus from


title: "Ford F-Series" content: the SVT Lightning, the SVT/Ford Raptor is the succeeding generation of high-performance Ford F-Series pickup trucks. From 2000 to 2011, the Harley-Davidson Edition was an option package available on the F-150. Primarily an appearance package featuring monochromatic black trim, from 2002 to 2003, the edition included a slightly detuned version of the supercharged 5.4L V8 engine from the SVT Lightning. In 2003, a 100th Anniversary Edition was produced for F-150 SuperCrew trucks. For 2004, the Harley-Davidson option package became available for F-250/F-350 Super Duty trucks. After 2008, the option package adopted many of the options featured from the Platinum trim


title: "Ford F-Series" content: level, featuring leather seating produced from materials reserved for Harley-Davidson biker jackets. For 2012, the Harley-Davidson Edition was replaced by the Limited trim level, retaining a monochromatic exterior appearance (shifting past motorcycle-themed trim). For 2010, Ford introduced its second high-performance truck, the SVT Raptor. In contrast to the enhanced on-road performance of the SVT Lightning, the SVT Raptor is a focused towards off-road use, in line with that of a Baja 1000 racing truck. While a road-legal vehicle, many design modifications of the Raptor were made to improve its off-road capability, with the vehicle featuring a model-exclusive suspension with long-travel


title: "Ford F-Series" content: springs and shocks. The Raptor shares only its cab with a standard F-150; to accommodate its larger tires, the Raptor is fitted with wider front fenders, hood, and pickup bed. Initially produced as a SuperCab, a Raptor SuperCrew was introduced late in the 2010 model year. For the first time on a Ford vehicle in North America since 1983, the word "Ford" was spelled across the grille of the SVT Raptor in place of the Ford Blue Oval badge. For 2010, the SVT Raptor was powered by a 310 hp 5.4L V8; a 411 hp 6.2L V8 (from the F-150


title: "Ford F-Series" content: Platinum and Super Duty trucks) became optional, replacing the 5.4L V8 for 2011. A six-speed automatic is the sole transmission paired with both engines. After a two-year hiatus, the second-generation Ford Raptor (the SVT prefix was removed) was introduced for the 2017 model year. Derived from the thirteenth-generation F-Series, the Ford Raptor shifted to an aluminum body. Again produced as a high-performance off-road vehicle, the Raptor is produced in SuperCab and SuperCrew configurations, with long-travel suspension specific to the vehicle. As a design theme, the second-generation Raptor does not carry a Ford Blue Oval grille badge, instead spelling out "Ford"


title: "Ford F-Series" content: across the grille. To improve fuel economy and reduce weight, the 6.2L V8 was replaced by a 450 hp 3.5L twin-turbocharged V6, paired with a 10-speed automatic transmission. Introduced for 2009, Platinum is a luxury-oriented trim of the Ford F-150. Effectively replacing the Lincoln Mark LT in the United States and Canada (though its production continued through 2014 in Mexico), the Platinum adopted many of the luxury features and content from the Mark LT with more subdued exterior styling (the Platinum was fitted with an eggcrate grille similar to early models of the Ford Expedition). In 2013, Ford began use


title: "Ford F-Series" content: of the Platinum trim for Super Duty trucks, from the F-250 to the F-450 pickup trucks. Until 2016, the Platinum trim was an add-on package to a Super Duty that was ordered as a Lariat. 2017 saw the Platinum become a separate trim level. For the 2014 model year, Ford introduced the Tremor model of the F-150. The Tremor was released as a high-performance sport truck for street truck enthusiasts. The regular-cab Tremor is based on the style of the FX Appearance Package with the 3.5 Liter EcoBoost engine and a 4.10 rear axle. The interior uses a console-mounted shifter,


title: "Ford F-Series" content: custom bucket seats and a flow-through center console not found in any other F-150. The Tremor is available in both 4x2 and 4x4. Both options feature an electronic locking rear differential and customized suspension. There were 2,230 Tremors built. The truck won the San Felipe 250 eight times between 1999 and 2007. Greg Biffle won the 2000 NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series. Drivers such as Roger Norman and Larry Roeseler won the Primm 300 in 2003, 2007 and 2008. In 2008, Ford announced its entrance into the Baja 1000 class-eight race for moderately modified, full-size pickups. The driver of record was


title: "Ford F-Series" content: Steve Oligos, supported by co-drivers Randy Merritt, Greg Foutz, and Bud Brutsman. The vehicle was built with collaboration between the Ford Special Vehicle Team (SVT), Ford Racing, and Foutz Motorsports, Inc. The Ford F-150 SVT Raptor R completed the 2008 41st Tecate SCORE Baja 1000 race in 25.28:10, and ranked third in its class. Tavo Vildosola and Gus Vildosola won the event in 2010. In the Best in the Desert race series, an F-150 SVT Raptor R completed the "Terrible's 250" race, placing second overall in the class 8000. In January 2010, a single Raptor SVT (No. 439), driven by


title: "Ford F-Series" content: Chilean driver Javier Campillay, competed in the Argentina-Chile Dakar Rally. However, the pickup was unable to finish due to a catch-up crash with another car in the middle of the road during stage seven. In January 2011, two Raptors started in the Argentina-Chile Dakar Rally in Buenos Aires, with Campillay driving the more reliable Raptor (No. 375), and American female driver Sue Mead driving a T2 Raptor (No. 374). Mead crossed the finish line in Buenos Aires and won the "super production" class, the first North American class win in Dakar history. Campillay was unable to finish the 12th stage


title: "Ford F-Series" content: after losing time due to mechanical failure during the 11th stage, which led to his disqualification for failing to reach the race camp by the designated deadline. The Ford F-150 has won numerous awards; in 2009 alone, it received: Quantities of Ford F-Series trucks sold Sales in 2018 are on track to set new records, with first-half sales at 4.2% more than the first half of the record-setting year 2004. For most of its production, the F-Series was sold in a medium-duty conventional truck configuration alongside the traditional pickup trucks. Beginning in 1948 with the 1½ ton F-5 (later F-500),


title: "Ford F-Series" content: the medium-duty trucks ranged up to the F-8 (F-800). Prior to the 1957 introduction of the Ford C-Series tilt-cab, the medium-duty range was offered as both a conventional and in a COE (cabover) configuration. Following the introduction of the fifth-generation F-Series in 1967, the medium-duty trucks were designed separately from the pickup truck range. Although remaining part of the F-Series range, the medium-duty trucks shared only the cab and interior with the F-Series pickup trucks. Since 1967, the cab design has changed only in 1980 and in 2000. Redesigned on an all-new chassis, the 2017 F-Series medium-duty trucks retain an


title: "Ford F-Series" content: updated version of the 2000-2016 F-650/F750 cab. The medium-duty F-Series served as the donor platform for the B-Series cowled bus chassis produced from 1948 to 1998. Produced primarily for school bus bodies, the B-Series was discontinued as part of the sale of the Ford heavy-truck line to Freightliner in 1996. Above its medium-duty truck ranges, the Ford F-Series was used as a heavy-truck chassis during its early production. In 1951, Ford debuted its "Big Job" line, denoting the F-8 conventional. In 1958, the "Super Duty" and "Extra Heavy Duty" replaced the Big Job trucks, marking the debut of the Super


title: "Ford F-Series" content: Duty V8 engine line. In 1963, the N-Series became the first short-hood conventional built by Ford, replacing the F-900 Super Duty/Extra Heavy Duty. Although based on an all-new chassis and separate bodywork, the cab was sourced from the F-Series. In 1970, Ford introduced the L-Series "Louisville" line of conventional trucks, moving all heavy truck development away from the F-Series. The L-Series/Aeromax would remain in production through 1998, as Ford exited the heavy-truck segment. From 1948 until 1960, Ford manufactured the F-Series in a panel van configuration, largely replacing it with the Econoline in 1961. In contrast to General Motors, the


title: "Ford F-Series" content: panel van was never produced in a passenger "carryall" variant, such as the Chevrolet/GMC Suburban. For much of its production life, the Ford E-Series vans shared a high degree of mechanical commonality with the F-Series; in the late 1970s, some body components were shared. Since the 1990s, this changed somewhat, as Ford updated the F-Series several times since 1992 while the E-Series continued on with very few changes; no powertrains were shared as of 2016. As of 2018, outside of the United States, Canada, and Mexico, the Ford F-150 is officially sold in most Caribbean countries (except Trinidad and Tobago,


title: "Ford F-Series" content: Saint Kitts and Nevis and Cuba), Suriname, Ecuador, Peru, Chile, the Middle East (including Afghanistan), Iceland, Angola, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Gabon, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Madagascar, the Dutch territories of Aruba, Curaçao, Saint Maarten and the British overseas territory of the Cayman Islands. The SVT Raptor is sold in the United States, Canada, Mexico, the Middle East (including Afghanistan), China, Ecuador, Chile and Peru. Both are available in LHD only. In Mexico, the F-150 (XLT and higher trim levels) is called the "Ford Lobo" while the F-150 SVT Raptor


title: "Ford F-Series" content: is called the "Ford Lobo Raptor". The F-150 XL is called F-150 XL. There is a strong grey market presence of Ford F-Series trucks around the world, most notably in Europe, China, and Australia, and usually driven by wealthy car enthusiasts, as the higher end trim models are the most sought-after versions. In Bolivia, Ford F-series truck are imported from the United States. F-150 single, super cab and crew cab are available with short and long bed. F-series Heavy Duty like F-250, F-350 are available in Super Cab and Crew cab with long bed, but the F-450 is available only


title: "Ford F-Series" content: in a chassis version. The F-150 Raptor is available, too. In Australia, Ford F-series trucks are imported and converted to right-hand drive by several Australian importers, mostly by the Harrison Motoring Group, which as become the largest importer of F-Series vehicles in the Southern Hemisphere. Harrison F-Trucks have become Australia's number one converter and supplier of the famous Ford F-Series badges. In the United Kingdom, most imported Ford F-Series trucks are the F-150 model, and usually the higher-end four door versions. Right-hand drive versions of the F-Series for the United Kingdom and Australia were manufactured in Brazil. In Argentina and


title: "Ford F-Series" content: Brazil, the petrol engines are often converted to also run with alternative fuels, E-96h (Brazilian-spec ethanol) and compressed natural gas (CNG). Biodiesel also is used in Diesel engines. The addition of the 3.0l V6 turbo diesel engine could potentially make the Ford F-150 go global and in both LHD and RHD from the factory. Ford F-Series The Ford F-Series is a series of light-duty trucks and medium-duty trucks (Class 2-7) that have been marketed and manufactured by Ford Motor Company since 1948. While most variants of the F-Series trucks are full-size pickup trucks, the F-Series also includes chassis cab trucks


title: "Hey Jude (Beatles album)" content: the B-side of "Lady Madonna". He also overlooked "From Me to You", "Misery", and "There's a Place", which were first issued in the US by Vee Jay Records but had not yet been issued on a Capitol album. "Sie Liebt Dich", a German-language version of "She Loves You", and the single version of "Get Back" were also passed over. (The single version of "Let It Be" and its B-side, "You Know My Name (Look Up the Number)", had yet to be released.) Steckler and Apple had become disappointed with the Capitol Records release schedules and determined to promote the new


title: "Whaling in Japan" content: was provided by the capture of a Russian whaling fleet and subsequent transfer to Toyo GyoGyo Co. Ltd. As Japan's whaling industry expanded into new territory, including Korean waters, ship production and oil processing, Oka's company (renamed Toyo Hogei K.K.) returned significant profits to its investors which led to increased Japanese competition. Oka later became the first president of the Japan Whaling and Fishing Association, established in 1908. However, at the start of the 20th century local traditions conflicted with modern whaling practices. In 1911 the conflict turned violent in Same Village, Aomori Prefecture. Ocean pollution from the whaling stations,


title: "Whaling in Japan" content: of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (Japan) and groups and individuals of anonymous watched the group's movements and threaten them not to conduct the tour. Prior to this movement, those who claimed conserving marine mammals including pinnipeds, or individuals who tried to correct illegal and over-extensive hunts (including C. W. Nicol who was a sympathizer to Japan's whaling industries) or domestic medias that have done reporting assignments in Japan had been discriminated. Some of these including former fishermen who were ostracized in their communities later became whale-watching operators. Several other tours have been operated by former whalers or dolphin hunters such


title: Fettercairn content: a week. How odd! It went on playing some time after we got home". Historically Fettercairn lies at the southern end of the Monboddo Estate, where the Scottish philosopher and precursor of evolutionary thought, James Burnett, Lord Monboddo, lived. Fettercairn houses the Fettercairn distillery (owned by Whyte and Mackay Ltd.) that produces the "Fettercairn 1824" single malt whisky. Fettercairn Fettercairn (, ) is a small village in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, northwest of Laurencekirk in Aberdeenshire on the B966 from Edzell. Fettercairn is also reached via the Cairn O' Mount road (B974) from Deeside. The name comes from the Scottish Gaelic "Fothair"


title: "Paul Edwards (politician)" content: Paul Edwards (politician) Paul Edwards (born February 21, 1961) is a Manitoba politician and lawyer. He served as leader of the Manitoba Liberal Party between 1993 and 1996. Edwards was born in Kingston, Ontario and was educated at Trent University and Queen's University. He later worked as a barrister and solicitor. In 1988, Edwards was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba for the Winnipeg riding of St. James, defeating Progressive Conservative Jae Eadie by about 600 votes. He joined 19 other Liberals in forming the official opposition to the minority government of Progressive Conservative Premier Gary Filmon. The 1988


title: "Feral cat" content: the spread of cats throughout much of the world is thought to have originated in Egypt, where they were popular and effective at controlling mouse populations. Traders from Phoenicia brought them to Europe to control rat populations, and monks brought them further into Asia. Roman armies also helped with the spread, eventually bringing them to England. Since then, cats continued to be introduced to new areas, often by sailors or settlers. Cats are thought to have been introduced to Australia in either the 1600s by Dutch shipwrecks, or the late 1700s by English settlers. These domesticated cats began to form


title: "Gray fox" content: Gray fox The gray fox ("Urocyon cinereoargenteus"), or grey fox, is an omnivorous mammal of the family Canidae, widespread throughout North America and Central America. This species and its only congener, the diminutive Channel Island fox ("Urocyon littoralis"), are the only living members of the genus "Urocyon", which is considered to be the most basal of the living canids. Though it was once the most common fox in the eastern United States, and still is found there, human advancement and deforestation allowed the red fox to become more dominant. The Pacific States still have the gray fox as a dominant.


title: "Gray fox" content: It is the only American canid that can climb trees. Its specific epithet "cinereoargenteus" means "ashen silver". The gray fox is mainly distinguished from most other canids by its grizzled upper parts, black-tipped tail and strong neck, while the skull can be easily distinguished from all other North American canids by its widely separated temporal ridges that form a U-shape. There is little sexual dimorphism, save for the females being slightly smaller than males. The gray fox ranges from in total length. The tail measures of that length and its hind feet measure . The gray fox typically weighs ,


title: "Gray fox" content: though exceptionally can weigh as much as . It is readily differentiated from the red fox by the lack of "black stockings" that stand out on the latter and the stripe of black hair that runs along the middle of the tail as well as individual guard hairs being banded with white, gray, and black. The gray fox displays white on the ears, throat, chest, belly and hind legs. In contrast to all "Vulpes" and related (Arctic and fennec) foxes, the gray fox has oval (instead of slit-like) pupils. The dental formula of the "U. cinereoargenteus" is = 42. The


title: "Gray fox" content: gray fox appeared in North America during the mid-Pliocene (Hemphillian land animal age) epoch ago (AEO) with the first fossil evidence found at the lower 111 Ranch site, Graham County, Arizona with contemporary mammals like the giant sloth, the elephant-like "Cuvieronius", the large-headed llama, and the early small horses of "Nannippus" and "Equus." Genetic analyses of the fox-like canids confirmed that the gray fox is a distinct genus from the red foxes ("Vulpes" spp.). Genetically, the gray fox often clusters with two other ancient lineages, the east Asian raccoon dog ("Nyctereutes procyonoides") and the African bat-eared fox ("Otocyon megalotis"). The


title: "Gray fox" content: chromosome number is 66 (diploid) with a fundamental number of 70. The autosomes include 31 pairs of sub-graded subacrocentrics, but one only pair of metacentrics. Faunal remains at two northern California cave sites confirm the presence of the gray fox during the late Pleistocene. Genetic analysis has shown that the gray fox migrated into the northeastern United States post-Pleistocene in association with the Medieval Climate Anomaly warming trend. Recent mitochondrial genetic studies suggests divergence of North American eastern and western gray foxes in the Irvingtonian mid-Pleistocene into separate sister taxa. The gray fox's dwarf relative, the Channel Island fox, is


title: "Gray fox" content: likely descended from mainland gray foxes. These foxes apparently were transported by humans to the islands and from island to island, and are descended from a minimum of 3–4 matrilineal founders. The genus "Urocyon" is considered to be the most basal of the living canids. The species occurs throughout most rocky, wooded, brushy regions of the southern half of North America from southern Canada (Manitoba through southeastern Quebec) to the northern part of South America (Venezuela and Colombia), excluding the mountains of northwestern United States. It is the only canid whose natural range spans both North and South America. In


title: "Gray fox" content: some areas, high population densities exist near brush-covered bluffs. The gray fox's ability to climb trees is shared only with the Asian raccoon dog among canids. Its strong, hooked claws allow it to scramble up trees to escape many predators, such as the domestic dog or the coyote, or to reach tree-bound or arboreal food sources. It can climb branchless, vertical trunks to heights of 18 meters and jump from branch to branch. It descends primarily by jumping from branch to branch, or by descending slowly backwards as a domestic cat would do. The gray fox is primarily nocturnal or


title: "Gray fox" content: crepuscular and makes its den in hollow trees, stumps or appropriated burrows during the day. Such gray fox tree dens may be located 30 ft above the ground. Prior to European colonization of North America, the red fox was found primarily in boreal forest and the gray fox in deciduous forest, but now the red fox is dominant in most of the eastern United States since they are the more adaptable species to development and urbanization. In areas where both red and gray foxes exist, the gray fox is dominant. The gray fox is assumed monogamous. The breeding season of


title: "Gray fox" content: the gray fox varies geographically; in Michigan, the gray fox mates in early March, in Alabama, breeding peaks occur in February. The gestation period lasts approximately 53 days. Litter size ranges from 1 to 7, with a mean of 3.8 young per female. The sexual maturity of females is around 10 months of age. Kits begin to hunt with their parents at the age of 3 months. By the time that they are four months old, the kits will have developed their permanent dentition and can now easily forage on their own. The family group remains together until the autumn,


title: "Gray fox" content: when the young males reach sexual maturity, then they disperse. Out of a study of nine juvenile gray foxes, only the males dispersed up to 84 km. The juvenile females stayed within proximity of the den within 3 km and always returned. On the other hand, adult gray foxes showed no signs of dispersion for either gender. The annual reproductive cycle of males has been described through epididymal smears and become fertile earlier and remain fertile longer than the fertility of females. Dens are used at any time during the year but mostly during whelping season. Dens are built in


title: "Gray fox" content: brushy or wooded regions and are less obvious than the dens of the red fox. Logs, trees, rocks, burrows, or abandoned dwellings serve as suitable den sites. The gray fox is an omnivorous, solitary hunter. It frequently preys on the eastern cottontail ("Sylvilagus floridanus") in the eastern U.S., though it will readily catch voles, shrews, and birds. In California, the gray fox primarily eats rodents, followed by lagomorphs, e.g. jackrabbit, brush rabbit, etc. In some parts of the Western United States (such as in the Zion National Park in Utah), the gray fox is primarily insectivorous and herbivorous. Fruit is


title: "Gray fox" content: an important component of the diet of the gray fox and they seek whatever fruits are readily available, generally eating more vegetable matter than does the red fox ("Vulpes vulpes"). There are 16 subspecies recognized for the gray fox. Parasites of gray fox include trematode "Metorchis conjunctus". Gray fox The gray fox ("Urocyon cinereoargenteus"), or grey fox, is an omnivorous mammal of the family Canidae, widespread throughout North America and Central America. This species and its only congener, the diminutive Channel Island fox ("Urocyon littoralis"), are the only living members of the genus "Urocyon", which is considered to be the


title: "Shanghai Triad" content: Triad" to follow up the politically controversial "To Live" was no accident, as he hoped that a "gangster movie" would be a conventional film. The film was originally intended to be a straight adaptation of the novel "Gang Law" by author Li Xiao. This plan eventually changed with Gong Li's character becoming more important and the story's viewpoint shifting to that of the young boy, Tang Shuisheng. As a result, the film's title was changed to reflect its new "younger" perspective. Though perhaps less well known than some of Zhang Yimou's more celebrated films (notably "Ju Dou", "To Live" and


title: "Hayward Fault Zone" content: low-rise urban development, most of which was built soon after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, and long before even moderately earthquake resistant construction practices had been developed in the late 1920s. Further improvement in the construction of resistant structures and the development of retrofitting method have only recently been developed, largely in response to the effects of the 1971 Sylmar, 1989 Loma Prieta, and 1994 Northridge events in California – none of which were hugely catastrophic, but each of which caused loss of life in structures not thought to be vulnerable, and so increased public, engineering, and government awareness of


title: "Castle Geyser" content: Castle Geyser Castle Geyser is a cone geyser in the Upper Geyser Basin of Yellowstone National Park. It is noted for the particularly large geyserite sinter deposits, which form its cone. These deposits have been likened in appearance to a castle. When the geyser was given this name in 1870, the top edges of the structure resembled the typical profile associated with the modern concept of a castle, having the appearance of a large keep, multiple turrets, and especially because of the crenellation along the top edges of what resembled its towers. As the drawing below shows the cone had


title: "Castle Geyser" content: distinctive appearance at the time. Over time the cone's shape changes because of the layers of mineral deposited in successive eruptions. On September 18, 1870, the Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition entered the Upper Geyser Basin. Eventually, members of the expedition named seven geysers they observed in the basin. The appearance of this geyser led Lieutenant Gustavus Cheyney Doane to name it "Castle Geyser". Nathaniel P. Langford gave this account in his 1871 Scribner's article: "The Castle," situated on the summit of an incrusted mound, has a turreted crater through which a large volume of water is expelled at intervals of two or


title: "Castle Geyser" content: three hours to the height of , from a discharging orifice about in diameter. The architectural features of the silicious sinter surrounding it, which is very massive and compact, indicating that at some former period the flow of water must have been much greater than at present, suggested its name. A vent near it is constantly discharging a large stream of boiling water, and when the geyser is in action the water in this vent boils and bubbles with great fierceness. The Castle Geyser has a 10- to 12-hour eruption cycle. The geyser erupts hot water for about 20 minutes


title: "Castle Geyser" content: in a vertical column that reaches a height of before changing to a noisy steam phase that issues for 30 to 40 minutes. The sinter cone for Castle Geyser has been dated to around 1022 using carbon-14 dating. This date is much younger than the originally-presumed age of 5,000 to 15,000 years. A 3-D laser scan made of the cone reveals evidence that this geyser has evolved through four to five distinct stages to reach its current configuration. In November 2002, the Denali earthquake in Denali National Park and Preserve, Alaska caused Castle Geyser, as well as other geysers in


title: "Castle Geyser" content: Yellowstone, to decrease in eruption frequency. The affected geysers have returned to their previous pattern since that time, however. Castle Geyser Castle Geyser is a cone geyser in the Upper Geyser Basin of Yellowstone National Park. It is noted for the particularly large geyserite sinter deposits, which form its cone. These deposits have been likened in appearance to a castle. When the geyser was given this name in 1870, the top edges of the structure resembled the typical profile associated with the modern concept of a castle, having the appearance of a large keep, multiple turrets, and especially because of


title: "James Larkin" content: MacDonagh and Lola Ridge; his character has been central in plays by Daniel Corkery, George Russell (Æ), and Seán O'Casey; and he is a heroic figure in the background of James Plunkett's novel "Strumpet City" and Lyn Andrews' "Where the Mersey Flows". James Larkin was memorialised by the New York Irish rock band Black 47, in their song "The Day They Set Jim Larkin Free", and Donagh MacDonagh's "The Ballad of James Larkin" was recorded by Christy Moore and also the Dubliners. Paddy Reilly sings a song simply entitled "Jim Larkin" that describes the lot of the worker and their


title: Arica content: with that reach almost to the 194.000 inhabitants). The growing city of Arica spreads outward into the desert and the Peru-Chile border. The Azapa Valley has developed a year-round agricultural economy due to improvements in irrigation and transportation of its products. The villages that make up the commune are Villa Frontera and San Miguel de Azapa. Some hamlets are Poconchile, Molinas, Sora, Las Maitas and Caleta Vitor. Arica was made famous in 1970 by the spiritual master Oscar Ichazo when he held a 10-month training there for 50 North Americans from the Esalen Institute in California. The Arica School, based


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: Panicum virgatum Panicum virgatum, commonly known as switchgrass, is a perennial warm season bunchgrass native to North America, where it occurs naturally from 55°N latitude in Canada southwards into the United States and Mexico. Switchgrass is one of the dominant species of the central North American tallgrass prairie and can be found in remnant prairies, in native grass pastures, and naturalized along roadsides. It is used primarily for soil conservation, forage production, game cover, as an ornamental grass, in phytoremediation projects, fiber, electricity, heat production, for biosequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide, and more recently as a biomass crop for ethanol


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: and butanol. Other common names for switchgrass include tall panic grass, Wobsqua grass, blackbent, tall prairiegrass, wild redtop, thatchgrass, and Virginia switchgrass. Switchgrass is a hardy, deep-rooted, perennial rhizomatous grass that begins growth in late spring. It can grow up to high, but is typically shorter than big bluestem grass or indiangrass. The leaves are long, with a prominent midrib. Switchgrass uses C carbon fixation, giving it an advantage in conditions of drought and high temperature. Its flowers have a well-developed panicle, often up to 60 cm long, and it bears a good crop of seeds. The seeds are 3–6


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: mm long and up to 1.5 mm wide, and are developed from a single-flowered spikelet. Both glumes are present and well developed. When ripe, the seeds sometimes take on a pink or dull-purple tinge, and turn golden brown with the foliage of the plant in the fall. Switchgrass is both a perennial and self-seeding crop, which means farmers do not have to plant and reseed after annual harvesting. Once established, a switchgrass stand can survive for ten years or longer. Unlike corn, switchgrass can grow on marginal lands and requires relatively modest levels of chemical fertilizers. Overall, it is considered


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: a resource-efficient, low-input crop for producing bioenergy from farmland. Much of North America, especially the prairies of the Midwestern United States, was once prime habitat to vast swaths of native grasses, including switchgrass, indiangrass ("Sorghastrum nutans"), eastern gamagrass ("Tripsacum dactyloides"), big bluestem ("Andropogon gerardi"), little bluestem ("Schizachyrium scoparium") and others. As European settlers began spreading west across the continent, the native grasses were plowed under and the land converted to crops such as corn, wheat, and oats. Introduced grasses such as fescue, bluegrass, and orchardgrass also replaced the native grasses for use as hay and pasture for cattle. Switchgrass is


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: a versatile and adaptable plant. It can grow and even thrive in many weather conditions, lengths of growing seasons, soil types, and land conditions. Its distribution spans south of latitude 55°N from Saskatchewan to Nova Scotia, south over most of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, and further south into Mexico. As a warm-season perennial grass, most of its growth occurs from late spring through early fall; it becomes dormant and unproductive during colder months. Thus, the productive season in its northern habitat can be as short as three months, but in the southern reaches of its habitat


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: the growing season may be as long as eight months, around the Gulf Coast area. Switchgrass is a diverse species, with striking differences between plants. This diversity, which presumably reflects evolution and adaptation to new environments as the species spread across the continent, provides a range of valuable traits for breeding programs. Switchgrass has two distinct forms, or "cytotypes": the lowland cultivars, which tend to produce more biomass, and the upland cultivars, which are generally of more northern origin, more cold-tolerant, and therefore usually preferred in northern areas. Upland switchgrass types are generally shorter (≤ 2.4 m, tall) and less


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: coarse than lowland types. Lowland cultivars may grow to ≥ 2.7 m, in favorable environments. Both upland and lowland cultivars are deeply rooted (> 1.8 m, in favorable soils) and have short rhizomes. The upland types tend to have more vigorous rhizomes, so the lowland cultivars may appear to have a bunchgrass habit, while the upland types tend to be more sod-forming. Lowland cultivars appear more plastic in their morphology, produce larger plants if stands become thin or when planted in wide rows, and they seem to be more sensitive to moisture stress than upland cultivars. In native prairies, switchgrass


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: is historically found in association with several other important native tallgrass prairie plants, such as big bluestem, indiangrass, little bluestem, sideoats grama, eastern gamagrass, and various forbs (sunflowers, gayfeather, prairie clover, and prairie coneflower). These widely adapted tallgrass species once occupied millions of hectares. Switchgrass’ suitability for cultivation in the Gran Chaco is being studied by Argentina’s Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA). Switchgrass can be grown on land considered unsuitable for row crop production, including land that is too erodible for corn production, as well as sandy and gravelly soils in humid regions that typically produce low yields of


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: other farm crops. No single method of establishing switchgrass can be suggested for all situations. The crop can be established both by no-till and conventional tillage. When seeded as part of a diverse mixture, planting guidelines for warm-season grass mixtures for conservation plantings should be followed. Regional guidelines for growing and managing switchgrass for bioenergy or conservation plantings are available. Several key factors can increase the likelihood of success for establishing switchgrass. These include: Mowing and properly labeled herbicides are recommended for weed control. Chemical weed control can be used in the fall prior to establishment, or before or after


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: planting. Weeds should be mowed just above the height of the growing switchgrass. Hormone herbicides, such as 2,4-D, should be avoided as they are known to reduce development of switchgrass when applied early in the establishing year. Plantings that appear to have failed due to weed infestations are often wrongly assessed, as the failure is often more apparent than real. Switchgrass stands that are initially weedy commonly become well established with appropriate management in subsequent years. Once established, switchgrass can take up to three years to reach its full production potential. Depending on the region, it can typically produce 1/4


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: to 1/3 of its yield potential in its first year and 2/3 of its potential in the year after seeding. After establishment, switchgrass management will depend on the goal of the seeding. Historically, most switchgrass seedings have been managed for the Conservation Reserve Program in the US. Disturbance such as periodic mowing, burning, or disking is required to optimize the stand’s utility for encouraging biodiversity. Increased attention is being placed on switchgrass management as an energy crop. Generally, the crop requires modest application of nitrogen fertilizer, as it is not a heavy feeder. Typical nitrogen (N) content of senescent material


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: in the fall is 0.5% N. Fertilizer nitrogen applications of about 5 kg N/hectare (ha) applied for each tonne of biomass removed is a general guideline. More specific recommendations for fertilization are available regionally in North America. Herbicides are not often used on switchgrass after the seeding year, as the crop is generally quite competitive with weeds. Most bioenergy conversion processes for switchgrass, including those for cellulosic ethanol and pellet fuel production, can generally accept some alternative species in the harvested biomass. Stands of switchgrass should be harvested no more than twice per year, and one cutting often provides as


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: much biomass as two. Switchgrass can be harvested with the same field equipment used for hay production, and it is well-suited to baling or bulk field harvesting. If its biology is properly taken into consideration, switchgrass can offer great potential as an energy crop. Switchgrass can be used as a feedstock for biomass energy production, as ground cover for soil conservation, and to control erosion, for forages and grazing, as game cover, and as feedstock for biodegradable plastics. It can be used by cattle farmers for hay and pasture and as a substitute for wheat straw in many applications, including


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: livestock bedding, straw bale housing, and as a substrate for growing mushrooms. Additionally, switchgrass is grown as a drought-resistant ornamental grass in average to wet soils and in full sun to part shade. It is the preferred larval host plant of Dargida rubripennis. Switchgrass has been researched as a renewable bioenergy crop since the mid-1980s, because it is a native perennial warm season grass with the ability to produce moderate to high yields on marginal farmlands. It is now being considered for use in several bioenergy conversion processes, including cellulosic ethanol production, biogas, and direct combustion for thermal energy applications.


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: The main agronomic advantages of switchgrass as a bioenergy crop are its stand longevity, drought and flooding tolerance, relatively low herbicide and fertilizer input requirements, ease of management, hardiness in poor soil and climate conditions, and widespread adaptability in temperate climates. In some warm humid southern zones, such as Alabama, it has the ability to produce up to 25 oven-dry tonnes per hectare (ODT/ha). A summary of switchgrass yields across 13 research trial sites in the United States found the top two cultivars in each trial to yield 9.4 to 22.9 t/ha, with an average yield of 14.6 ODT/ha. However,


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: these yields were recorded on small plot trials, and commercial field sites could be expected to be at least 20% lower than these results. In the United States, switchgrass yields appear to be highest in warm humid regions with long growing seasons such as the US Southeast and lowest in the dry short season areas of the Northern Great Plains. The energy inputs required to grow switchgrass are favorable when compared with annual seed bearing crops such as corn, soybean, or canola, which can require relatively high energy inputs for field operations, crop drying, and fertilization. Whole plant herbaceous perennial


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: C4 grass feedstocks are desirable biomass energy feedstocks, as they require fewer fossil energy inputs to grow and effectively capture solar energy because of their C4 photosynthetic system and perennial nature. One study cites it takes from 0.97 to 1.34 GJ to produce 1 tonne of switchgrass, compared with 1.99 to 2.66 GJ to produce 1 tonne of corn. Another study found that switchgrass uses 0.8 GJ/ODT of fossil energy compared to grain corn's 2.9 GJ/ODT. Given that switchgrass contains approximately 18.8 GJ/ODT of biomass, the energy output-to-input ratio for the crop can be up to 20:1. This highly favorable


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: ratio is attributable to its relatively high energy output per hectare and low energy inputs for production. Considerable effort is being expended in developing switchgrass as a cellulosic ethanol crop in the USA. In George W. Bush's 2006 State of the Union Address, he proposed using switchgrass for ethanol; since then, over US$100 million has been invested into researching switchgrass as a potential biofuel source. Switchgrass has the potential to produce up to 380 liters of ethanol per tonne harvested. However, current technology for herbaceous biomass conversion to ethanol is about 340 liters per tonne. In contrast, corn ethanol yields


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: about 400 liters per tonne. The main advantage of using switchgrass over corn as an ethanol feedstock is its cost of production is generally about 1/2 that of grain corn, and more biomass energy per hectare can be captured in the field. Thus, switchgrass cellulosic ethanol should give a higher yield of ethanol per hectare at lower cost. However, this will depend on whether the cost of constructing and operating cellulosic ethanol plants can be reduced considerably. The switchgrass ethanol industry energy balance is also considered to be substantially better than that of corn ethanol. During the bioconversion process, the


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: lignin fraction of switchgrass can be burned to provide sufficient steam and electricity to operate the biorefinery. Studies have found that for every unit of energy input needed to create a biofuel from switchgrass, four units of energy are yielded. In contrast, corn ethanol yields about 1.28 units of energy per unit of energy input. A recent study from the Great Plains indicated that for ethanol production from switchgrass, this figure is 6.4, or alternatively, that 540% more energy was contained in the ethanol produced than was used in growing the switchgrass and converting it to liquid fuel. However, there


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: remain commercialization barriers to the development of cellulosic ethanol technology. Projections in the early 1990s for commercialization of cellulosic ethanol by the year 2000 have not been met. The commercialization of cellulosic ethanol is thus proving to be a significant challenge, despite noteworthy research efforts. Thermal energy applications for switchgrass appear to be closer to near-term scale-up than cellulosic ethanol for industrial or small-scale applications. For example, switchgrass can be pressed into fuel pellets that are subsequently burned in pellet stoves used to heat homes (which typically burn corn or wood pellets). Switchgrass has been widely tested as a substitute


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: for coal in power generation. The most widely studied project to date has been the Chariton Valley Project in Iowa. The Show-Me-Energy Cooperative (SMEC) in Missouri is using switchgrass and other warm-season grasses, along with wood residues, as feedstocks for pellets used for the firing of a coal-fired power plant. In Eastern Canada, switchgrass is being used on a pilot scale as a feedstock for commercial heating applications. Combustion studies have been undertaken and it appears to be well-suited as a commercial boiler fuel. Research is also being undertaken to develop switchgrass as a pellet fuel because of lack of


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: surplus wood residues in eastern Canada, as a slowdown in the forest products industry in 2009 is now resulting in wood pellet shortages throughout Eastern North America. Generally speaking, the direct firing of switchgrass for thermal applications can provide the highest net energy gain and energy output-to-input ratio of all switchgrass bioconversion processes. Research has found switchgrass, when pelletized and used as a solid biofuel, is a good candidate for displacing fossil fuels. Switchgrass pellets were identified to have a 14.6:1 energy output-to-input ratio, which is substantially better than that for liquid biofuel options from farmland. As a greenhouse gas


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: mitigation strategy, switchgrass pellets were found to be an effective means to use farmland to mitigate greenhouse gases on the order of 7.6-13 tonnes per hectare of CO. In contrast, switchgrass cellulosic ethanol and corn ethanol were found to mitigate 5.2 and 1.5 tonnes of CO per hectare, respectively. Historically, the major constraint to the development of grasses for thermal energy applications has been the difficulty associated with burning grasses in conventional boilers, as biomass quality problems can be of particular concern in combustion applications. These technical problems now appear to have been largely resolved through crop management practices such


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: as fall mowing and spring harvesting that allow for leaching to occur, which leads to fewer aerosol-forming compounds (such as K and Cl) and N in the grass. This reduces clinker formation and corrosion, and enables switchgrass to be a clean combustion fuel source for use in smaller combustion appliances. Fall harvested grasses likely have more application for larger commercial and industrial boilers. Switchgrass is also being used to heat small industrial and farm buildings in Germany and China through a process used to make a low quality natural gas substitute. Bai et al. (2010) conducted a study to analyze


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: the environmental sustainability of using switchgrass plant material as a feedstock for ethanol production. Life cycle analysis was used to make this assessment. They compared efficiency of E10, E85, and ethanol with gasoline. They took into account air and water emissions associated with growing, managing, processing and storing the switchgrass crop. They also factored in the transportation of the stored switchgrass to the ethanol plant where they assumed the distance was 20 km. The reductions in global warming potential by using E10 and E85 were 5 and 65%, respectively. Their models also suggested that the “human toxicity potential” and “eco-toxicity


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: potential” were substantially greater for the high ethanol fuels (i.e., E85 and ethanol) than for gasoline and E10. In 2014, a genetically altered form of the bacterium Caldicellulosiruptor bescii was created which can cheaply and efficiently turn switchgrass into ethanol. In a novel application, US scientists have genetically modified switchgrass to enable it to produce polyhydroxybutyrate, which accumulates in beadlike granules within the plant's cells. In preliminary tests, the dry weight of a plants leaves were shown to comprise up to 3.7% of the polymer. Such low accumulation rates do not, as of 2009, allow for commercial use of switchgrass


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: as a biosource. Switchgrass is useful for soil conservation and amendment, particularly in the United States and Canada, where switchgrass is endemic. Switchgrass has a deep fibrous root system – nearly as deep as the plant is tall. Since it, along with other native grasses and forbs, once covered the plains of the United States that are now the Corn Belt, the effects of the past switchgrass habitat have been beneficial, lending to the fertile farmland that exists today. The deep fibrous root systems of switchgrass left a deep rich layer of organic matter in the soils of the Midwest,


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: making those mollisol soils some of the most productive in the world. By returning switchgrass and other perennial prairie grasses as an agricultural crop, many marginal soils may benefit from increased levels of organic material, permeability, and fertility, due to the grass's deep root system. Soil erosion, both from wind and water, is of great concern in regions where switchgrass grows. Due to its height, switchgrass can form an effective wind erosion barrier. Its root system, also, is excellent for holding soil in place, which helps prevent erosion from flooding and runoff. Some highway departments (for example, KDOT) have used


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: switchgrass in their seed mixes when re-establishing growth along roadways. It can also be used on strip mine sites, dikes, and pond dams. Conservation districts in many parts of the United States use it to control erosion in grass waterways because of its ability to anchor soils while providing habitat for wildlife. Switchgrass is an excellent forage for cattle; however, it has shown toxicity in horses, sheep, and goats through chemical compounds known as saponins, which cause photosensitivity and liver damage in these animals. Researchers are continuing to learn more about the specific conditions under which switchgrass causes harm to


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: these species, but until more is discovered, it is recommended switchgrass not be fed to them. For cattle, however, it can be fed as hay, or grazed. Grazing switchgrass calls for watchful management practices to ensure survival of the stand. It is recommended that grazing begin when the plants are about 50 cm tall, and that grazing be discontinued when the plants have been eaten down to about 25 cm, and to rest the pasture 30 – 45 days between grazing periods. Switchgrass becomes stemmy and unpalatable as it matures, but during the target grazing period, it is a favorable


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: forage with a relative feed value (RFV) of 90-104. The grass's upright growth pattern places its growing point off the soil surface onto its stem, so leaving 25 cm of stubble is important for regrowth. When harvesting switchgrass for hay, the first cutting occurs at the late boot stage – around mid-June. This should allow for a second cutting in mid-August, leaving enough regrowth to survive the winter. Switchgrass is well-known among wildlife conservationists as good forage and habitat for upland game bird species, such as pheasant, quail, grouse, and wild turkey, and song birds, with its plentiful small seeds


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: and tall cover. A study published in 2015 has shown that switchgrass, when grown in a traditional monoculture, has an adverse impact on some wildlife. Depending on how thickly switchgrass is planted, and what it is partnered with, it also offers excellent forage and cover for other wildlife across the country. For those producers who have switchgrass stands on their farm, it is considered an environmental and aesthetic benefit due to the abundance of wildlife attracted by the switchgrass stands. Some members of Prairie Lands Bio-Products, Inc. in Iowa have even turned this benefit into a profitable business by leasing


title: "Panicum virgatum" content: their switchgrass land for hunting during the proper seasons. The benefits to wildlife can be extended even in large-scale agriculture through the process of strip harvesting, as recommended by The Wildlife Society, which suggests that rather than harvesting an entire field at once, strip harvesting could be practiced so that the entire habitat is not removed, thereby protecting the wildlife inhabiting the switchgrass. Panicum virgatum Panicum virgatum, commonly known as switchgrass, is a perennial warm season bunchgrass native to North America, where it occurs naturally from 55°N latitude in Canada southwards into the United States and Mexico. Switchgrass is one