title: "Golden pheasant" content: Lower legs and feet are a dull yellow. The female (hen) is much less showy, with a duller mottled brown plumage similar to that of the female common pheasant. She is darker and more slender than the hen of that species, with a proportionately shorter tail (half her length). The female's breast and sides are barred buff and blackish brown, and the abdomen is plain buff. She has a buff face and throat. Some abnormal females may later in their lifetime get some male plumage. Lower legs and feet are a dull yellow. Both males and females have yellow legs


title: "Golden pheasant" content: and yellow bills. Despite the male's showy appearance, these hardy birds are very difficult to see in their natural habitat, which is dense, dark young conifer forests with sparse undergrowth. Consequently, little is known about their behaviour in the wild. They feed on the ground on grain, leaves and invertebrates, but they roost in trees at night. While they can fly clumsily in short bursts, they prefer to run and spend most of their time on the ground. If startled, they can suddenly burst upwards at great speed and with a distinctive wing sound. Golden pheasants lay 8 to 12


title: "Golden pheasant" content: eggs at a time and will then incubate these for around 22–23 days. They tend to eat berries, grubs, seeds and other types of vegetation. The male has a metallic call in the breeding season. The golden pheasant is commonly found in zoos and aviaries, but often as hybrid specimens that have the similar Lady Amherst's pheasant in their lineage. There are also different mutations of the golden pheasant known from birds in captivity, including the dark-throated, yellow, cinnamon, salmon, peach, splash, mahogany and silver. In aviculture, the wild type is referred to as "red-golden" to differentiate it from these


title: "Golden pheasant" content: mutations. Golden pheasant The golden pheasant or Chinese pheasant ("Chrysolophus pictus") is a gamebird of the order Galliformes (gallinaceous birds) and the family Phasianidae (pheasants). The genus name is from Ancient Greek "khrusolophos", "with golden crest", and "pictus" is Latin for "painted" from "pingere", "to paint". It is native to forests in mountainous areas of western China, but feral populations have been established in the United Kingdom, Canada, the United States, Mexico, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, the Falkland Islands, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, France, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand. In England they may be found in East Anglia


title: "Monetary policy" content: India, Philippines, Poland, Sweden, South Africa, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. Price level targeting is a monetary policy that is similar to inflation targeting except that CPI growth in one year over or under the long term price level target is offset in subsequent years such that a targeted price-level is reached over time, e.g. five years, giving more certainty about future price increases to consumers. Under inflation targeting what happened in the immediate past years is not taken into account or adjusted for in the current and future years. Uncertainty in price levels can create uncertainty around price and


title: "Perturbation theory (quantum mechanics)" content: as a (Maclaurin) power series in : where When , these reduce to the unperturbed values, which are the first term in each series. Since the perturbation is weak, the energy levels and eigenstates should not deviate too much from their unperturbed values, and the terms should rapidly become smaller as we go to higher order. Substituting the power series expansion into the Schrödinger equation, we obtain Expanding this equation and comparing coefficients of each power of "λ" results in an infinite series of simultaneous equations. The zeroth-order equation is simply the Schrödinger equation for the unperturbed system. The first-order


title: "Bowl and doily spider" content: Bowl and doily spider The bowl and doily spider ("Frontinella pyramitela") is a species of sheet weaver found in North and Central America. It is a small spider, about long, that weaves a fairly complex sheet web system consisting of an inverted dome shaped web, or "bowl", suspended above a horizontal sheet web, or "doily", hence its common name. The spider hangs from the underside of the "bowl", and bites through the web small flies, gnats and other small insects that fall down into the non-sticky webbing. The webs are commonly seen in weedy fields and in shrubs, and may


title: "Bowl and doily spider" content: often contain both a male and a female spider in late summer - like many linyphiids, "Frontinella" may cohabitate for some time. The scientific name "F. communis" is commonly seen, but this is a junior synonym. Bowl and doily spider The bowl and doily spider ("Frontinella pyramitela") is a species of sheet weaver found in North and Central America. It is a small spider, about long, that weaves a fairly complex sheet web system consisting of an inverted dome shaped web, or "bowl", suspended above a horizontal sheet web, or "doily", hence its common name. The spider hangs from the


title: Buganda content: high degree of autonomy. This position was reversed during 1966–67, however, before the Kabakaship and Lukiiko were disestablished altogether in 1967 before being restored in 1993. Before the arrival of Europeans in the region, Buganda was an expanding, "embryonic empire". It built fleets of war canoes from the 1840s to take control of Lake Victoria and the surrounding regions, and subjugated several weaker peoples. These subject peoples were then exploited for cheap labor. The first Europeans to enter the Kingdom of Buganda were British explorers John Hanning Speke and Captain Sir Richard Francis Burton while searching for the headwaters of


title: "Marc Rich" content: tax-reporting position had been reasonable. In the same essay, Clinton listed Lewis "Scooter" Libby as one of three "distinguished Republican lawyers" who supported a pardon for Rich. (Libby himself later received a presidential commutation and pardon from President Donald Trump for his involvement in the Plame affair.) During Congressional hearings after Rich's pardon, Libby, who had represented Rich from 1985 until the spring of 2000, denied that Rich had violated the tax laws but criticized him for trading with Iran at a time when that country was holding U.S. hostages. A New York Times editorial called the Marc Rich pardon


title: Brahmagupta content: a revised version of the received "siddhanta" of the Brahmapaksha school. Scholars state that he incorporated a great deal of originality to his revision, adding a considerable amount of new material. The book consists of 24 chapters with 1008 verses in the ārya metre. A good deal of it is astronomy, but it also contains key chapters on mathematics, including algebra, geometry, trigonometry and algorithmics, which are believed to contain new insights due to Brahmagupta himself. Later, Brahmagupta moved to Ujjain, which was also a major centre for astronomy. At the age of 67, he composed his next well known


title: "Buddhism in the West" content: Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan. Greek sculptors in the classical tradition came to teach their skills to Indian sculptors resulting in the distinctive style of Greco-Buddhist art in stone and stucco seen in hundreds of Buddhist monasteries which are still being discovered and excavated in this region. Greco-Buddhism was an important religion among the Greco-Bactrians and the Indo-Greeks. The Indo-Greek kings such as Menander I (165/155 –130 BCE) and Menander II (90–85 BCE) used Buddhist symbolism in their coins. Menander I is a main character of the Indian Buddhist scripture known as Milinda Panha ("The Questions of King Milinda"), which states


title: "Mike Ditka" content: 100 years that I know of. Now maybe I'm not watching it as carefully as other people." Ditka immediately came under criticism for his comments from many sources, including former New York Jets star Joe Namath, who said that Ditka needed to "look up the meaning of oppression. Look up the definition of oppression, and you understand that it's obviously taken place," as well as from columnists at the Chicago Sun-Times who said Ditka was "not a Chicagoan" and "...a white man who is blind to the plight of people of color in this country." The NFL distanced itself from


title: "Pat Benatar" content: and performing a solo of "The Christmas Song" on a holiday recording of the Lindenhurst High School Choir her senior year. Benatar trained as a coloratura with plans to attend the Juilliard School, but decided instead to pursue health education at the State University of New York at Stony Brook. At 19, after one year at Stony Brook, she dropped out to marry her first husband, high school sweetheart Dennis Benatar, an army draftee who trained at Fort Jackson, South Carolina, and then served with the Army Security Agency at Fort Devens, Massachusetts, before being stationed at Fort Lee, Virginia,


title: "Pat Benatar" content: and in the top 10 for more than six months, eventually becoming her first platinum certification by the RIAA. In October 1980, Benatar (along with future husband Neil Giraldo) appeared on the cover of "Rolling Stone" magazine. The album was certified 5x platinum in Canada, her best selling album in that country, where it peaked at number 2 on the album charts. In July 1981, her third LP, "Precious Time" was released. A month later, the album hit #1 on the Billboard US Top 200 LP chart. It was also her first to chart in the UK, reaching #30. The


title: "Ernesto Zedillo" content: aiding to conceal the Zapatistas guerrilla activity. Even though this activity was public years before the uprising in Proceso (magazine) among Mexico most important magazines and it was the Mexican Government who was for years trying to disguise it. And with no consideration to the political consequences of with no legal reason hurting, the already seriously damaged, recently restored Mexico Vatican political relations, because of the 24 May 1993 political assassination of a Prince of the Catholic Church, the Guadalajara, Mexico Cardinal Juan Jesús Posadas Ocampo that precisely that Agency the PGR has left it unresolved. Marcos resolve was put


title: Sigurimi content: Sigurimi The Directorate of State Security (), commonly called the Sigurimi, was the state security, intelligence and secret police service of the People's Socialist Republic of Albania. Its goal was protecting Albania from dangers, but de facto the Sigurimi served to suppress political activity in the population and hold the existing political system in place. In 2008 the Albanian parliament discussed opening the so-called "Sigurimi files", but the Socialist Party of Albania contested it. A government commission, created in 2015, has been assigned the task of publicizing the Sigurimi files and identifying candidates for public office who had collaborated with


title: Impala content: Impala The impala (); ("Aepyceros melampus") is a medium-sized antelope found in eastern and southern Africa. The sole member of the genus "Aepyceros", it was first described to European audiences by German zoologist Hinrich Lichtenstein in 1812. Two subspecies are recognised—the common impala, and the larger and darker black-faced impala. The impala reaches at the shoulder and weighs . It features a glossy, reddish brown coat. The male's slender, lyre-shaped horns are long. Active mainly during the day, the impala may be gregarious or territorial depending upon the climate and geography. Three distinct social groups can be observed: the territorial


title: Impala content: males, bachelor herds and female herds. The impala is known for two characteristic leaps that constitute an anti-predator strategy. Browsers as well as grazers, impala feed on monocots, dicots, forbs, fruits and acacia pods (whenever available). An annual, three-week-long rut takes place toward the end of the wet season, typically in May. Rutting males fight over dominance, and the victorious male courts female in oestrus. Gestation lasts six to seven months, following which a single calf is born and immediately concealed in cover. Calves are suckled for four to six months; young males—forced out of the all-female groups—join bachelor herds,


title: Impala content: while females may stay back. The impala is found in woodlands and sometimes on the interface (ecotone) between woodlands and savannahs; it inhabits places close to water. While the black-faced impala is confined to southwestern Angola and Kaokoland in northwestern Namibia, the common impala is widespread across its range and has been reintroduced in Gabon and southern Africa. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classifies the impala as a species of least concern; the black-faced subspecies has been classified as a vulnerable species, with less than 1,000 individuals remaining in the wild as of 2008. The first attested


title: Impala content: English name, in 1802, was palla or pallah, from the Tswana ' 'red antelope'; the name "impala", also spelled "impalla" or "mpala", is first attested in 1875. Its Afrikaans name, ' 'red buck', is also sometimes used in English. The scientific generic name "Aepyceros" ( ‘high-horned’) comes from Ancient Greek (', 'high, steep') + (', 'horn'); the specific name "melampus" ( ‘black-foot’) from (', 'black') + (', 'foot'). The impala is the sole member of the genus "Aepyceros" and belongs to the family Bovidae. It was first described by German zoologist Martin Hinrich Carl Lichtenstein in 1812. In 1984, palaeontologist


title: Impala content: Elisabeth Vrba opined that the impala is a sister taxon to the alcelaphines, given its resemblance to the hartebeest. A 1999 phylogenetic study by Alexandre Hassanin (of the National Centre for Scientific Research, Paris) and colleagues, based on mitochondrial and nuclear analyses, showed that the impala forms a clade with the suni ("Neotragus moschatus"). This clade is sister to another formed by the bay duiker ("Cephalophus dorsalis") and the klipspringer ("Oreotragus oreotragus"). An rRNA and β-spectrin nuclear sequence analysis in 2003 also supported an association between "Aepyceros" and "Nesotragus". The following cladogram is based on the 1999 study: Up to


title: Impala content: six subspecies have been described, although only two are generally recognised on the basis of mitochondrial data. Though morphologically similar, the subspecies show a significant genetic distance between them, and no hybrids between them have been reported. According to Vrba, the impala developed from an alcelaphine ancestor. She noted that while this ancestor has diverged at least 18 times into various morphologically different forms, the impala has continued in its basic form for at least five million years. Several fossil species have been discovered, including "A. datoadeni" from the Pliocene of Ethiopia. The oldest fossil discovered suggests its ancient ancestors


title: Impala content: were slightly smaller than the modern form, but otherwise very similar in all aspects to the latter. This implies that the impala has efficiently adapted to its environment since prehistoric times. Its gregarious nature, variety in diet, positive population trend, defence against ticks and symbiotic relationship with the tick-feeding oxpeckers could have played a role in preventing major changes in morphology and behaviour. The impala is a medium-sized, slender antelope similar to the kob or Grant's gazelle in build. The head-and-body length is around . Males reach approximately at the shoulder, while females are tall. Males typically weigh and females


title: Impala content: . Sexually dimorphic, females are hornless and smaller than males. Males grow slender, lyre-shaped horns long. The horns, strongly ridged and divergent, are circular in section and hollow at the base. Their arch-like structure allows interlocking of horns, which helps a male throw off his opponent during fights; horns also protect the skull from damage. The glossy coat of the impala shows two-tone colourationthe reddish brown back and the tan flanks; these are in sharp contrast to the white underbelly. Facial features include white rings around the eyes and a light chin and snout. The ears, long, are tipped with


title: Impala content: black. Black streaks run from the buttocks to the upper hindlegs. The bushy white tail, long, features a solid black stripe along the midline. The impala's colouration bears a strong resemblance to the gerenuk, which has shorter horns and lacks the black thigh stripes of the impala. The impala has scent glands covered by a black tuft of hair on the hindlegs. Sebaceous glands concentrated on the forehead and dispersed on the torso of dominant males are most active during the mating season, while those of females are only partially developed and do not undergo seasonal changes. There are four


title: Impala content: nipples. Of the subspecies, the black-faced impala is significantly larger and darker than the common impala; melanism is responsible for the black colouration. Distinctive of the black-faced impala is a dark stripe, on either side of the nose, that runs upward to the eyes and thins as it reaches the forehead. Other differences include the larger black tip on the ear, and a bushier and nearly 30% longer tail in the black-faced impala. The impala has a special dental arrangement on the front lower jaw similar to the toothcomb seen in strepsirrhine primates, which is used during allogrooming to comb


title: Impala content: the fur on the head and the neck and remove ectoparasites. The impala is diurnal (active mainly during the day), though activity tends to cease during the hot midday hours; they feed and rest at night. Three distinct social groups can be observedthe territorial males, bachelor herds and female herds. The territorial males hold territories where they may form harems of females; territories are demarcated with urine and faeces and defended against juvenile or male intruders. Bachelor herds tend to be small, with less than 30 members. Individuals maintain distances of from one another; while young and old males may


title: Impala content: interact, middle-aged males generally avoid one another except to spar. Female herds vary in size from 6 to 100; herds occupy home ranges of . The mother–calf bond is weak, and breaks soon after weaning; juveniles leave the herds of their mothers to join other herds. Female herds tend to be loose and have no obvious leadership. Allogrooming is an important means of social interaction in bachelor and female herds; in fact, the impala appears to be the only ungulate to display self-grooming as well as allogrooming. In allogrooming, females typically groom related impalas, while males associate with unrelated ones.


title: Impala content: Each partner grooms the other six to twelve times. Social behaviour is influenced by the climate and geography; as such, the impala are territorial at certain times of the year and gregarious at other times, and the length of these periods can vary broadly among populations. For instance, populations in southern Africa display territorial behaviour only during the few months of the rut, whereas in eastern African populations, territoriality is relatively minimal despite a protracted mating season. Moreover, territorial males often tolerate bachelors, and may even alternate between bachelorhood and territoriality at different times of the year. A study of


title: Impala content: impala in the Serengeti National Park showed that in 94% of the males, territoriality was observed for less than four months. The impala is an important prey species for several carnivores, such as cheetahs, leopards and lions. The antelope displays two characteristic leapsit can jump up to , over vegetation and even other impala, covering distances of up to ; the other type of leap involves a series of jumps in which the animal lands on its forelegs, moves its hindlegs mid-air in a kicking fashion, lands on all fours and then rebounds. It leaps in either manner in different


title: Impala content: directions, probably to confuse predators. At times, the impala may also conceal itself in vegetation to escape the eye of the predator. The most prominent vocalisation is the loud roar, delivered through one to three loud snorts with the mouth closed, followed by two to ten deep grunts with the mouth open and the chin and tail raised; a typical roar can be heard up to away. Scent gland secretions identify a territorial male. Impalas are sedentary; adult and middle-aged males, in particular, can hold their territories for years. Common ixodid ticks collected from impala include "Amblyomma hebraeum", "Boophilus decoloratus",


title: Impala content: "Hyalomma marginatum", "Ixodes cavipalpus", "Rhipicephalus appendiculatus" and "R. evertsi". In Zimbabwe, heavy infestation by ticks such as "R. appendiculatus" has proved to be a major cause behind the high mortality of ungulates, as they can lead to tick paralysis. Impala have special adaptations for grooming, such as their characteristic dental arrangement, to manage ticks before they engorge; however, the extensive grooming needed to keep the tick load under control involves the risk of dehydration during summer, lower vigilance against predators and gradual wearing out of the teeth. A study showed that impala adjust the time devoted to grooming and the


title: Impala content: number of grooming bouts according to the seasonal prevalence of ticks. Impala are symbiotically related to oxpeckers, which feed on ticks from those parts of the antelope's body which the animal cannot access by itself (such as the ears, neck, eyelids, forehead and underbelly). The impala is the smallest ungulate with which oxpeckers are associated. In a study it was observed that oxpeckers selectively attended to impala despite the presence of other animals such as Coke's hartebeest, Grant's gazelle, Thompson's gazelle and topi. A possible explanation for this could be that because the impala inhabits woodlands (which can have a


title: Impala content: high density of ticks), the impala could have greater mass of ticks per unit area of the body surface. Another study showed that the oxpeckers prefer the ears over other parts of the body, probably because these parts show maximum tick infestation. Lice recorded from impala include "Damalinia aepycerus", "D. elongata", "Linognathus aepycerus" and "L. nevilli"; in a study, ivermectin (a medication against parasites) was found to have an effect on "Boophilus decoloratus" and "Linognathus" species, though not on "Damalinia" species. In a study of impala in South Africa, the number of worms in juveniles showed an increase with age,


title: Impala content: reaching a peak when impala turned a year old. This study recorded worms of genera such as "Cooperia", "Cooperoides", "Fasciola", "Gongylonema". "Haemonchus", "Impalaia", "Longistrongylus" and "Trichostrongylus"; some of these showed seasonal variations in density. Impala browse as well as graze; either may predominate, depending upon the availability of resources. The diet comprises monocots, dicots, forbs, fruits and "acacia" pods (whenever available). Impala prefer places close to water sources, and resort to succulent vegetation if water is scarce. An analysis showed that the diet of impala is composed of 45% monocots, 45% dicots and 10% fruits; the proportion of grasses in


title: Impala content: the diet increases significantly (to as high as 90%) after the first rains, but declines in the dry season. Browsing predominates in the late wet and dry season, and diets are nutritionally poor in the mid-dry season, when impala feed mostly on woody dicots. Another study showed that the dicot proportion in the diet is much higher in bachelors and females than in territorial males. Impala feed on soft and nutritious grasses such as "Digitaria macroblephara"; tough, tall grasses, such as "Heteropogon contortus" and "Themeda triandra", are typically avoided. Impala on the periphery of the herds are generally more vigilant


title: Impala content: against predators than those feeding in the centre; a foraging individual will try to defend the patch it is feeding on by lowering its head. A study revealed that time spent in foraging reaches a maximum of 75.5% of the day in the late dry season, decreases through the rainy season, and is minimal in the early dry season (57.8%). Males are sexually mature by the time they are a year old, though successful mating generally occurs only after four years. Mature males start establishing territories and try to gain access to females. Females can conceive after they are a


title: Impala content: year and a half old; oestrus lasts for 24 to 48 hours, and occurs every 12–29 days in non-pregnant females. The annual three-week-long rut (breeding season) begins toward the end of the wet season, typically in May. Gonadal growth and hormone production in males begin a few months before the breeding season, resulting in greater aggressiveness and territoriality. The bulbourethral glands are heavier, testosterone levels are nearly twice as high in territorial males as in bachelors, and the neck of a territorial male tends to be thicker than that of a bachelor during the rut. Mating tends to take place


title: Impala content: between full moons. Rutting males fight over dominance, often giving out noisy roars and chasing one another; they walk stiffly and display their neck and horns. Males desist from feeding and allogrooming during the rut, probably to devote more time to garnering females in oestrus; the male checks the female's urine to ensure that she is in oestrus. On coming across such a female, the excited male begins the courtship by pursuing her, keeping a distance of from her. The male flicks his tongue and may nod vigorously; the female allows him to lick her vulva, and holds her tail


title: Impala content: to one side. The male tries mounting the female, holding his head high and clasping her sides with his forelegs. Mounting attempts may be repeated every few seconds to every minute or two. The male loses interest in the female after the first copulation, though she is still active and can mate with other males. Gestation lasts six to seven months. Births generally occur in the midday; the female will isolate herself from the herd when labour pain begins. The perception that females can delay giving birth for an additional month if conditions are harsh may however not be realistic.


title: Impala content: A single calf is born, and is immediately concealed in cover for the first few weeks of its birth. The fawn then joins a nursery group within its mother's herd. Calves are suckled for four to six months; young males, forced out of the group, join bachelor herds, while females may stay back. The impala inhabits woodlands due to its preference for shade; it can also occur on the interface (ecotone) between woodlands and savannahs. Places close to water sources are preferred. In southern Africa, populations tend to be associated with "Colophospermum mopane" and "Acacia" woodlands. Habitat choices differ seasonally"Acacia


title: Impala content: senegal" woodlands are preferred in the wet season, and "A. drepanolobium" savannahs in the dry season. Another factor that could influence habitat choice is vulnerability to predators; impala tend to keep away from areas with tall grasses as predators could be concealed there. A study found that the reduction of woodland cover and creation of shrublands by the African bush elephants has favoured impala population by increasing the availability of more dry season browse. Earlier, the "Baikiaea" woodland, which has now declined due to elephants, provided minimum browsing for impala. The newly formed "Capparis" shrubland, on the other hand, could


title: Impala content: be a key browsing habitat. Impala are generally not associated with montane habitats; however, in KwaZulu-Natal, impala have been recorded at altitudes of up to above sea level. The historical range of the impala – spanning across southern and eastern Africa – has remained intact to a great extent, although it has disappeared from a few places, such as Burundi. The range extends from central and southern Kenya and northeastern Uganda in the east to northern KwaZulu-Natal in the south, and westward up to Namibia and southern Angola. The black-faced impala is confined to southwestern Angola and Kaokoland in northwestern


title: Impala content: Namibia; the status of this subspecies has not been monitored since the 2000s. The common impala has a wider distribution, and has been introduced in protected areas in Gabon and across southern Africa. The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) classifies the impala as a species of least concern overall. The black-faced impala, however, is classified as a vulnerable species; as of 2008, fewer than 1,000 were estimated in the wild. Though there are no major threats to the survival of the common impala, poaching and natural calamities have significantly contributed to the decline of the


title: Impala content: black-faced impala. As of 2008, the population of the common impala has been estimated at around two million. According to some studies, translocation of the black-faced impala can be highly beneficial in its conservation. Around a quarter of the common impala populations occur in protected areas, such as the Okavango Delta (Botswana); Masai Mara and Kajiado (Kenya); Kruger National Park (South Africa); the Ruaha and Serengeti National Parks and Selous Game Reserve (Tanzania); Luangwa Valley (Zambia); Hwange, Sebungwe and Zambezi Valley (Zimbabwe). The rare black-faced impala has been introduced into private farms in Namibia and the Etosha National Park. Population


title: Impala content: densities vary largely from place to place; from less than one impala per square kilometre in Mkomazi National Park (Tanzania) to as high as 135 per square kilometre near Lake Kariba (Zimbabwe). Impala The impala (); ("Aepyceros melampus") is a medium-sized antelope found in eastern and southern Africa. The sole member of the genus "Aepyceros", it was first described to European audiences by German zoologist Hinrich Lichtenstein in 1812. Two subspecies are recognised—the common impala, and the larger and darker black-faced impala. The impala reaches at the shoulder and weighs . It features a glossy, reddish brown coat. The male's


title: "Abdurrahman Wahid" content: Committee in question was against Idham and announced a totally different list of people. Wahid was outraged but was pressured to accept the changes made. Wahid's ascendancy to the NU chairmanship was seen positively by Suharto and his New Order regime. Wahid's acceptance of Pancasila along with his moderate image won him favor among Government ranks. In 1985, Suharto made Wahid a Pancasila indoctrinator. In 1987, Wahid showed further support for the regime by criticizing PPP in the lead-up to the 1987 Legislative Elections and further strengthening Suharto's Golkar Party. His reward came in the form of a membership of


title: "A Nightmare on Elm Street (franchise)" content: (Jackie Earle Haley) stalks the dreams of Nancy Holbrook (Rooney Mara) and her friends as they discover that they all share a common link from their childhood; they were all physically and sexually abused by Freddy before he was murdered by their vengeful parents. Now a supernatural force in their dreams, Freddy kills off the children that alerted the parents about his transgressions. Freddy slowly works his way to Nancy, his favorite of the children, and manipulates her into going without sleep long enough that her body falls into a coma, resulting in permanent sleep and life with Freddy forever.


title: "Anthony St Leger (Lord Deputy of Ireland)" content: who had long claimed the title of King of Leinster, permitting them to retain their lands only by accepting feudal tenure on the English model. By a similar policy, he exacted obedience from the O'Mores, O'Tooles and O'Conors in Leix and Offaly. Having conciliated the O'Briens in the west and the Earl of Desmond in the south, he obtained the passage of an act in the Irish Parliament in Dublin, which conferred the title of King of Ireland on King Henry VIII and his heirs. Conn O'Neill, who had remained sullenly hostile, was forced to submit. St Leger's policy was


title: Univers content: of a large family as metal type. Univers is one of a group of neo-grotesque sans-serif typefaces, all released in 1957, that includes Folio and Neue Haas Grotesk (later renamed Helvetica). As all are based on Akzidenz-Grotesk, these three faces are sometimes confused with each other. These typefaces figure prominently in the Swiss Style of graphic design. Univers was released after a long period in which geometric typefaces such as Futura had been popular. Frutiger disliked purely geometric designs, finding them too rigid, following a common school of thought among Swiss designers of the period. While studying at the Kunstgewerbeschule


title: "Eurasian oystercatcher" content: Eurasian oystercatcher The Eurasian oystercatcher ("Haematopus ostralegus") also known as the common pied oystercatcher, or palaearctic oystercatcher, or (in Europe) just oystercatcher, is a wader in the oystercatcher bird family Haematopodidae. It is the most widespread of the oystercatchers, with three races breeding in western Europe, central Eurasia, Kamchatka, China, and the western coast of Korea. No other oystercatcher occurs within this area. This oystercatcher is the national bird of the Faroe Islands. The oystercatcher is one of the largest waders in the region. It is long, the bill accounting for , and has a wing-span of . They are


title: "Eurasian oystercatcher" content: obvious and noisy plover-like birds, with black and white plumage, red legs and strong broad red bills used for smashing or prising open molluscs such as mussels or for finding earthworms. Despite its name, oysters do not form a large part of its diet. The bird still lives up to its name, as few if any other wading birds are capable of opening oysters at all. This oystercatcher is unmistakable in flight, with white patches on the wings and tail, otherwise black upperparts, and white underparts. Young birds are more brown, have a white neck collar and a duller bill.


title: "Eurasian oystercatcher" content: The call is a distinctive loud piping. The bill shape varies; oystercatchers with broad bill tips open molluscs by prising them apart or hammering through the shell, whereas pointed-bill birds dig up worms. Much of this is due to the wear resulting from feeding on the prey. Individual birds specialise in one technique or the other which they learn from their parents. There are three subspecies: the nominate "ostralegus" found in Europe and the coasts of eastern Europe, "longipes" from Central Asia and Russia, and "osculans" found from Kamchatka in the Russian Far East and northern parts of China. Bill


title: "Eurasian oystercatcher" content: length shows clinal variation with an increase from west to east. The subspecies "longipes" has distinctly brownish upperparts and the nasal groove extends more than halfway along the bill. In the subspecies "ostralegus" the nasal groove stops short of the half-way mark. The "osculans" subspecies lacks white on the shafts of the outer 2–3 primaries and has no white on the outer webs of the outer five primaries. This is a migratory species over most of its range. The European population breeds mainly in northern Europe, but in winter the birds can be found in north Africa and southern parts


title: "Eurasian oystercatcher" content: of Europe. Although the species is present all year in Ireland, Great Britain and the adjacent European coasts, there is still migratory movement: the large flocks that are found in the estuaries of south-west England in winter mainly breed in northern England or Scotland. Similar movements are shown by the Asian populations. The birds are highly gregarious outside the breeding season. The nest is a bare scrape on pebbles, on the coast or on inland gravelly islands. 2–4 eggs are laid. Both eggs and chicks are highly cryptic. Because of its large numbers and readily identified behaviour, the oystercatcher is


title: "Eurasian oystercatcher" content: an important indicator species for the health of the ecosystems where it congregates. Extensive long-term studies have been carried out on its foraging behaviour, in northern Germany, in the Netherlands and particularly on the River Exe estuary in south-west England. These studies form an important part of the foundation for the modern discipline of behavioural ecology. The scientific name "Haematopus ostralegus" comes from the Greek "haima" αἳμα blood, "pous" πούς foot and Latin "ostrea" oyster and "legere" to collect or pick. The name "oystercatcher" was coined by Mark Catesby in 1731 as a common name for the North American species


title: "Eurasian oystercatcher" content: "H. palliatus," described as eating oysters. Yarrell in 1843 established this as the preferred term, replacing the older name "Sea Pie." Eurasian oystercatcher The Eurasian oystercatcher ("Haematopus ostralegus") also known as the common pied oystercatcher, or palaearctic oystercatcher, or (in Europe) just oystercatcher, is a wader in the oystercatcher bird family Haematopodidae. It is the most widespread of the oystercatchers, with three races breeding in western Europe, central Eurasia, Kamchatka, China, and the western coast of Korea. No other oystercatcher occurs within this area. This oystercatcher is the national bird of the Faroe Islands. The oystercatcher is one of the


title: "Vimalakirti Sutra" content: for non-monastic practitioners as well as stating the equal role of women in Buddhism. There are currently various translations circulating, and in the English language, there are mainly four versions being translated. Two of which have been translated from the Chinese version by Kumarajiva, and two others being translated from the Tibetan version in Kanjur Canon. The Chinese version has three versions, of which the Kumarajiva version is the most famous. The Tibetan version has two known versions, one of which is found in Kanjur, and the other being the Dunhuang version found in the early 20th century. There are


title: "Eurasian curlew" content: Eurasian curlew The Eurasian curlew or common curlew ("Numenius arquata") is a wader in the large family Scolopacidae. It is one of the most widespread of the curlews, breeding across temperate Europe and Asia. In Europe, this species is often referred to just as the "curlew", and in Scotland known as the "whaup" in Scots. This is the largest wader in its range, at in length, with an wingspan and a body weight of . It is mainly greyish brown, with a white back, greyish-blue legs and a very long curved bill. Males and females look identical, but the bill


title: "Eurasian curlew" content: is longest in the adult female. It is generally not possible to recognize the sex of a single Eurasian curlew, or even several ones, as there is much variation; telling male and female of a mated pair apart is usually possible however. The familiar call is a loud "curloo-oo". The only similar species over most of the curlew's range is the whimbrel ("N. phaeopus"). The whimbrel is smaller and has a shorter bill with a kink rather than a smooth curve. Flying curlews may also resemble bar-tailed godwits ("Limosa lapponica") in their winter plumages; however, the latter have a smaller


title: "Eurasian curlew" content: body, a slightly upturned beak, and legs that do not reach far beyond their tail tips. The Eurasian curlew's feet are longer, forming a conspicuous "point". The curlew exists as a migratory species over most of its range, wintering in Africa, southern Europe and south Asia. Occasionally a vagrant individual reaches places far from its normal range, such as Nova Scotia and the Marianas. It is present all year in the milder climates of Ireland and the United Kingdom and its adjacent European coasts. The English name "curlew" is imitative of the Eurasian curlew's call, but may have been influenced


title: "Eurasian curlew" content: by the Old French "corliu", "messenger", from "courir ", "to run". It was first recorded in 1377 in Langland's Piers Plowman ""Fissch to lyue in þe flode..Þe corlue by kynde of þe eyre"". The genus name "Numenius" is from Ancient Greek νουμήνιος, "noumēnios", a bird mentioned by Hesychius. It is associated with the curlew because it appears to be derived from "neos", "new" and "mene" "moon", referring to the crescent-shaped bill. The species name "arquata" is the Medieval Latin name for this bird, derived from Latin "arcuatus", "bow-shaped", and again referring to the shape of the bill. There are three


title: "Eurasian curlew" content: subspecies of the Eurasian curlew: It is generally wary. Highly gregarious outside the breeding season, the Eurasian curlew feeds by probing soft mud for small invertebrates, but will also pick small crabs and earthworms off the surface if the opportunity arises. The nest is a bare scrape on taiga, meadow, and similar habitats. Each curlew lays between 3 and 6 eggs in April or May and incubates them for about a month until they begin to hatch. It has been observed that curlews tend to nest close to kestrel's nests, as they can offer protection from other predators, such as


title: "Eurasian curlew" content: corvids, even though kestrels also predate curlew nests . The curlew is one of the species to which the "Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds" (AEWA) applies. Formerly classified as a species of Least Concern by the IUCN, it was suspected to be rarer than generally assumed. Following the evaluation of its population size, the classification was found to be incorrect, and it was consequently promoted to Near Threatened status in 2008. Though it is a common bird, its numbers are noticeably declining, particularly in the United Kingdom and Ireland, which have about a quarter of the global


title: "Eurasian curlew" content: population. In the twenty years up to 2016, the population is estimated to have declined by more than 50% in England and Scotland, more than 80% in Wales, and more than 90% in Ireland. At the end of 2015 it was placed on the United Kingdom's red list of most endangered bird species. Eurasian curlew The Eurasian curlew or common curlew ("Numenius arquata") is a wader in the large family Scolopacidae. It is one of the most widespread of the curlews, breeding across temperate Europe and Asia. In Europe, this species is often referred to just as the "curlew", and


title: "Marine Corps Base Quantico" content: The Quantico Company promoted the town as a tourist and excursion center, and brought in tourists from Washington and Richmond by the steamer St. Johns and trains using the RF&P railroad lines and depot developed at Quantico in 1872. A beach was developed with dressing rooms and refreshment stands. In one week in 1916, Quantico was visited by 2,600 visitors who came by steamer or train. By 1916, the Quantico Company began advertising Quantico as "The New Industrial City," and pushed for industry to come to the area. At the same time, the Quantico Shipyards were established on Hospital Point


title: "World War II in Albania" content: Combined with the passions felt about Kosovo, inflamed an insurrection. On 2 December 1944, Ballists from the Drenica region attacked the Trepča mining complex and other targets. Similarly in Kičevo, Gostivar and Tetovo, the remaining Ballists tried to remain in control of the region after the Yugoslav Partisans announced victory. The insurrection was later crushed and Ballist leaders were either imprisoned, exiled or killed due to their co-operation with the Nazis. Ballists were also active in Montenegro and Sandžak fighting the Chetniks in the area. With the overthrow of Benito Mussolini's fascist regime and Italy's surrender in 1943, the Italian


title: "Aglais io" content: Aglais io Aglais io, the European peacock, more commonly known simply as the peacock butterfly, is a colourful butterfly, found in Europe and temperate Asia as far east as Japan. It was formerly classified as the only member of the genus "Inachis" (the name is derived from Greek mythology, meaning Io, the daughter of Inachus). It should not be confused or classified with the "American peacocks" in the genus "Anartia"; these are not close relatives of the Eurasian species. The peacock butterfly is resident in much of its range, often wintering in buildings or trees. It therefore often appears quite


title: "Aglais io" content: early in spring. The peacock butterfly has figured in research in which the role of eyespots as an anti-predator mechanism has been investigated. The peacock is expanding its range and is not known to be threatened. The butterfly has a wingspan of 50 to 55 mm. The base colour of the wings is a rusty red, and at each wingtip it bears a distinctive, black, blue and yellow eyespot. The underside is a cryptically coloured dark brown or black. There are two subspecies: "A. io caucasica" (Jachontov, 1912), found in Azerbaijan, and "A. io geisha" (Stichel, 1908), found in Japan


title: "Aglais io" content: and the Russian Far East. The peacock can be found in woods, fields, meadows, pastures, parks, and gardens, from lowlands up to elevation. It is a relatively common butterfly, seen in many European parks and gardens. The peacock male exhibits territorial behaviour, in many cases territories being selected en route of the females to oviposition sites. The butterfly hibernates over winter before laying its eggs in early spring, in batches of up to 400 at a time. The eggs are ribbed, olive green, and laid on the upper parts and the undersides of leaves of nettle plants and hops. The


title: "Aglais io" content: caterpillars, which are shiny black with six rows of barbed spikes and a series of white dots on each segment, and which have a shiny black head, hatch after about a week. The chrysalis may be either grey, brown, or green in colour and may have a blackish tinge. The caterpillars grow up to 42 mm in length. The recorded food plants of the European peacock are stinging nettle ("Urtica dioica"), hop ("Humulus lupulus"), and the small nettle ("Urtica urens"). The adult butterflies drink nectar from a wide variety of flowering plants, including buddleia, willows, dandelions, wild marjoram, danewort, hemp


title: "Aglais io" content: agrimony, and clover; they also utilize tree sap and rotten fruit. "Aglais io" employs a monandrous mating system, which means that they only mate with one partner for a period of time. This is due to their life cycle in which females are receptive only during an eclosion period, after overwintering. The pairs only mate once after overwintering, as it is very difficult to find a receptive female after that period. In species where the range of the females is not defensible by a male, the males must defend a single desirable area that females will come through, such as


title: "Aglais io" content: dense food areas, watering holes, or favourable nesting sites. The males then attempt to mate with the females as they are passing through. Holding a desirable territory increases the male's likelihood of finding a mate and therefore increases his reproductive success. However, each individual needs to weigh the benefits of mating with the costs of defending a territory. "Aglais io" exhibits this type of territorial behaviour, and must defend a desirable territory from other males. If only one of the males knows the territory well, he will successfully chase off any intruders. On the other hand, if both males are


title: "Aglais io" content: familiar with the territory, there will be a contest between the two to determine which of them stays in the territory. The most desirable sites are those that will increase the male's quota of females. These sites are generally feeding and oviposition sites, which are sought after by females. This territorial behaviour is reinforced by the fact that these sites are all concentrated. If the valuable resources were dispersed, there would be less observable territorial behaviour. To find mates and defend their territory, "Aglais io" exhibits perching behaviour. The male butterflies will perch on an object at a specific height


title: "Aglais io" content: where they can observe passing flying objects. Every time they see a passing object of their own species or of a relevant species, they will fly straight towards the object until they are approximately 10 cm away. If they encounter a male, the resident male will chase him off his territory. If the resident male encounters a female, he will pursue her until she lands and mating will occur. The courtship is extended in this species. The male goes through a long chase before the female allows him to mate. He must demonstrate high performance flight. The monandrous mating system


title: "Aglais io" content: has caused the evolution of a shorter life span in males of this species. In polygynous butterflies, the male's reproductive success is largely dependent on life span. Therefore, the longer a male lives, the more he can reproduce, so he has a higher fitness. Therefore, males tend to live as long as the females. In "A. io" the synchronous eclosion at the end of winter cause males to only mate once. Their reproductive success is therefore not linked to how long they live, and there is no selective pressure to live longer. Therefore, the life span of males is shorter


title: "Aglais io" content: than the lifespan of the females. The peacock butterfly's main anti-predator defence mechanism comes from the four large eyespots that it has on its wings. These eyespots are brilliantly coloured concentric circles. Like many other butterflies that hibernate, the peacock butterfly exhibits many lines of defence against would-be predators. Avian predators of the butterfly include blue tits, pied flycatchers and other small passerine birds. The first line of defence against these predators for many hibernating butterflies is crypsis, a process in which the butterflies blend into their environment by mimicking a leaf and staying immobile. Some hibernating butterflies such as


title: "Aglais io" content: the peacock have a second line of defence: when attacked, they open their wings, expose their eyespots and perform an intimidating display of threat. The intimidating visual display shown by the peacock butterfly gives it a much better chance at escaping predators than butterflies that rely solely on leaf mimicry. While the main targets of these anti-predation measures are small passerine birds, even larger birds such as chickens have been shown to react to the stimuli and avoid the butterfly when exposed to eyespots. Research has shown that avian predators attempting to attack a butterfly hesitate for a much longer


title: "Aglais io" content: time if they encounter butterflies that display their eyespots than if they encounter butterflies whose eyespots are covered. In addition, the predators delay their return to the butterfly if it displays eyespots and some predators even flee before attacking the butterfly. By intimidating the predator so that it delays or gives up its attack, the peacock butterfly has a much greater chance of escaping predation. According to the eye mimicry hypothesis, the eyespots serve an anti-predatory purpose by imitating the eyes of the avian predators' natural enemies. In contrast, the conspicuousness hypothesis posits that rather than recognition of the eyespots


title: "Aglais io" content: as belonging to an enemy, the conspicuous nature of the eyespots, which are typically large and bright, causes a response in the visual system of the predator that leads to avoidance of the butterfly. In one experiment, observed responses of the avian predators to the eyespots included increased vigilance, a delay in their return to the peacock butterfly, and the production of alarm calls associated with ground-based predators. These responses to the eyespot stimuli lend support to the eye mimicry hypothesis as they indicated that the avian predator sensed that the eyespots belonged to a potential enemy. When faced with


title: "Aglais io" content: avian predators like the blue tit, the peacock butterfly makes a hissing noise as well as threateningly displaying its eyespots. However, it is the eyespots that protect the butterfly the most; peacock butterflies that have had their sound production capability removed still defend themselves extremely well against avian predators if their eyespots are present. While hibernating in dark wintering areas, the peacock butterfly frequently encounters rodent predators such as small mice. Against these predators, however, the visual display of eyespots is ineffective due to the darkness of the environment. Instead, these rodent predators show a much stronger adverse reaction to


title: "Aglais io" content: the butterfly when it produces its auditory hissing signal. This indicates that for rodent predators, it is the auditory signal produced by the butterfly that serves as a deterrent. Io is a figure in Greek mythology. She was a priestess of Hera in Argos. Aglais io Aglais io, the European peacock, more commonly known simply as the peacock butterfly, is a colourful butterfly, found in Europe and temperate Asia as far east as Japan. It was formerly classified as the only member of the genus "Inachis" (the name is derived from Greek mythology, meaning Io, the daughter of Inachus). It


title: Truffle content: Truffle A truffle is the fruiting body of a subterranean ascomycete fungus, predominantly one of the many species of the genus "Tuber". In addition to "Tuber", many other genera of fungi are classified as truffles including "Geopora", "Peziza", "Choiromyces", "Leucangium", and over a hundred others. These genera belong to the class Pezizomycetes and the Pezizales order. There are several truffle-like basidiomycetes excluded from Pezizales including "Rhizopogon" and "Glomus". Truffles are ectomycorrhizal fungi and are therefore usually found in close association with tree roots. Spore dispersal is accomplished through fungivores, animals that eat fungi. These fungi have significant ecological roles in


title: Truffle content: nutrient cycling and drought tolerance. Some of the truffle species are highly prized as food. French gourmet Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin called truffles "the diamond of the kitchen". Edible truffles are held in high esteem in French, Italian, Ottoman, Middle Eastern and Spanish cuisine, as well as in international . Truffles are cultivated agriculturally and are also harvested from natural habitats. The first mention of truffles appears in the inscriptions of the neo-Sumerians regarding their Amorite enemy's eating habits (Third Dynasty of Ur, 20th century BCE) and later in writings of Theophrastus in the fourth century BCE. In classical times, their


title: Truffle content: origins were a mystery that challenged many; Plutarch and others thought them to be the result of lightning, warmth and water in the soil, while Juvenal thought thunder and rain to be instrumental in their origin. Cicero deemed them children of the earth, while Dioscorides thought they were tuberous roots. Rome and Thracia in the Classical period produced three kinds of truffles: the , the and the . The Romans, however, did not use these and instead used a variety of fungus called Terfez, also sometimes called a "desert truffle." Terfez used in Rome came from Lesbos, Carthage, and especially


title: Truffle content: Libya, where the coastal climate was less dry in ancient times. Their substance is pale, tinged with rose. Unlike truffles, terfez have little inherent flavour. The Romans used the terfez as a carrier of flavour, because the terfez tend to absorb surrounding flavours. Indeed, Ancient Roman cuisine used many spices and flavourings, and terfez were perfect in that context. Truffles were rarely used during the Middle Ages. Truffle hunting is mentioned by Bartolomeo Platina, the papal historian, in 1481, when he recorded that the sows of Notza were without equal in hunting truffles, but they should be muzzled to prevent


title: Truffle content: them from eating the prize. During the Renaissance, truffles regained popularity in Europe and were honoured at the court of King Francis I of France. However, it was not until the 17th century that Western (and in particular French) cuisine abandoned "heavy" oriental spices, and rediscovered the natural flavour of foodstuffs. Truffles were very popular in Parisian markets in the 1780s. They were imported seasonally from truffle grounds, where peasants had long enjoyed their secret. Brillat-Savarin (1825) noted characteristically that they were so expensive they appeared only at the dinner tables of great nobles and kept women. A great delicacy


title: Truffle content: was a truffled turkey. Truffles long eluded techniques of domestication, as Jean-Anthelme Brillat-Savarin (1825) noted: The most learned men have sought to ascertain the secret, and fancied they discovered the seed. Their promises, however, were vain, and no planting was ever followed by a harvest. This perhaps is all right, for as one of the great values of truffles is their dearness, perhaps they would be less highly esteemed if they were cheaper. However, truffles can be cultivated. As early as 1808, there were successful attempts to cultivate truffles, known in French as . People had long observed that truffles


title: Truffle content: were growing among the roots of certain trees, and in 1808, Joseph Talon, from Apt ("département" of Vaucluse) in southern France, had the idea of transplanting some seedlings that he had collected at the foot of oak trees known to host truffles in their root system. For discovering how to cultivate truffles, some sources now give priority to Pierre II Mauléon (1744–1831) of Loudun (in western France), who began to cultivate truffles around 1790. Mauléon saw an "obvious symbiosis" between the oak tree, the rocky soil and the truffle, and attempted to reproduce such an environment by taking acorns from


title: Truffle content: trees known to have produced truffles, and sowing them in chalky soil. His experiment was successful, with truffles being found in the soil around the newly grown oak trees years later. In 1847, Auguste Rousseau of Carpentras (in Vaucluse) planted of oak trees (again from acorns found on the soil around truffle-producing oak trees), and he subsequently obtained large harvests of truffles. He received a prize at the 1855 World's Fair in Paris. These successful attempts were met with enthusiasm in southern France, which possessed the sweet limestone soils and dry, hot weather that truffles need to grow. In the


title: Truffle content: late 19th century, an epidemic of phylloxera destroyed many of the vineyards in southern France. Another epidemic killed most of the silkworms there, too, making the fields of mulberry trees useless. Thus, large tracts of land were set free for the cultivation of truffles. Thousands of truffle-producing trees were planted, and production reached peaks of hundreds of tonnes at the end of the 19th century. In 1890, there were of truffle-producing trees. In the 20th century, however, with the growing industrialization of France and the subsequent rural exodus, many of these truffle fields ( or ) returned to wilderness. The


title: Truffle content: First World War also dealt a serious blow to the French countryside, killing 20% or more of the male working force. As a consequence, newly acquired techniques of were lost. Also, between the two world wars, the truffle groves planted in the 19th century stopped being productive. (The average life cycle of a truffle-producing tree is 30 years.) Consequently, after 1945, the production of truffles plummeted, and the prices have risen dramatically. In 1900, truffles were used by most people, and on many occasions. Today, they are a rare delicacy reserved for the rich, or used on very special occasions.


title: Truffle content: In the last 30 years, new attempts for mass production of truffles have been started. Eighty percent of the truffles now produced in France come from specially planted truffle groves. Nonetheless, production has yet to recover its 1900s peaks. Local farmers are sometimes opposed to a return of mass production, which would possibly decrease the price of truffles (though it is commonly stated that demand is 10 times higher than supply). In exchange there are heavy investments in cultivated plantations underway in many parts of the world. Thanks to controlled irrigation, regular and resilient production is indeed possible. There are


title: Truffle content: now truffle-growing areas in the United Kingdom, United States, Spain, Italy, Sweden, New Zealand, Australia, Chile and South Africa. A critical phase of the cultivation is the quality control of the mycorrhizal plants. It takes between 7 and 10 years for the truffles to develop their mycorrhizal network, and only after that the host-plants come into production. Both a complete soil analysis to avoid contamination by other dominant fungus and a very strict control of the formation of mycorrhizae are necessary to ensure the success of a plantation. Total investment per hectare for an irrigated and barrier-sealed plantation (against wild


title: Truffle content: boars) can cost up to €10,000. Considering the level of initial investment and the maturity delay, farmers who have not taken care of both soil conditions and seedling conditions are at high risk of failure. The first black truffles () to be produced in the Southern Hemisphere were harvested in Gisborne, New Zealand, in 1993. In 1999, the first Australian truffles were harvested in Tasmania, the result of eight years of work. Trees were inoculated with the truffle fungus in the hope of creating a local truffle industry. Their success and the value of the resulting truffles has encouraged a


title: Truffle content: small industry to develop. A Western Australian venture, The Truffle and Wine Company, had its first harvest in 2004, and in 2005 they unearthed a 1-kg (2.2-lb) truffle. In 2008, an estimated of truffles were removed from the rich ground of Manjimup. Each year, the company has expanded its production, moving into the colder regions of Victoria and New South Wales. In June 2010, Tasmanian growers harvested Australia's largest truffle from their property at Myrtle Bank, near Launceston. It weighed in at and was valued at about A$1,500 per kg. New Zealand's first burgundy truffle was found in July 2012


title: Truffle content: at a Waipara truffle farm. It weighed 330 g and was found by the farm owner's beagle. While there have been some notable successes in truffle farming in the United States in the recent past, and farmers have planted trees that may produce large harvests in the near future, all current harvests are small scale. Tom Michaels, owner of Tennessee Truffle, began producing Périgord truffles commercially in 2007. At its peak in the 2008-2009 season, his farm produced about 200 pounds of truffles, but Eastern filbert blight almost entirely wiped out his hazel trees by 2013 and production dropped tenfold,


title: Truffle content: essentially driving him out of business. Eastern filbert blight similarly destroyed the orchards of other once promising commercial farmers such as Tom Leonard, also in East Tennessee, and Garland Truffles in North Carolina. Newer farmers such as New World Truffieres clients Pat Long in Oregon and Paul Beckman in Idaho, or Nancy Rosborough of Mycorrhiza Biotech in Gibsonville, NC, are still in the early stages and waiting for their harvests to increase in size. The origin of the word "truffle" appears to be the Latin term , meaning "swelling" or "lump", which became "tufer-" and gave rise to the various


title: Truffle content: European terms: Croatian , Danish , Dutch , English "truffle", French , German , Greek τρούφα "trúfa", Italian , Polish , Romanian , Spanish , and Swedish . The German word ("potato") is derived from the Italian term for truffle because of superficial similarities. In Portuguese, the words and are synonyms, the latter closer to the Latin term. Phylogenetic analysis has demonstrated the convergent evolution of the ectomycorrhizal trophic mode in diverse fungi. The subphylum, Pezizomycotina, containing the order Pezizales, is approximately 400 million years old. Within the order Pezizales, subterranean fungi evolved independently at least fifteen times. Contained within


title: Truffle content: Pezizales are the families Tuberaceae, Pezizaceae, Pyronematacae, and Morchellaceae. All of these families contain lineages of subterranean or truffle fungi. The oldest ectomycorrhizal fossil is from the Eocene about 50 million years ago. This indicates that the soft bodies of ectomycorrhizal fungi do not easily fossilize. Molecular clockwork has suggested the evolution of ectomycorrhizal fungi occurred approximately 130 million years ago. The evolution of subterranean fruiting bodies has arisen numerous times within the Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and Glomeromycota. For example, the genera "Rhizopogon" and "Hysterangium" of Basidiomycota both form subterranean fruiting bodies and play similar ecological roles as truffle forming ascomycetes.


title: Truffle content: The ancestors of the Ascomycota genera "Geopora", "Tuber", and "Leucangium" originated in Laurasia during the Paleozoic era. Phylogenetic evidence suggests that the majority of subterranean fruiting bodies evolved from above-ground mushrooms. Over time mushroom stipes and caps were reduced, and caps began to enclose reproductive tissue. The dispersal of sexual spores then shifted from wind and rain to utilizing animals. The phylogeny and biogeography of the genus "Tuber" was investigated in 2008 using internal transcribed spacers (ITS) of nuclear DNA and revealed five major clades (Aestivum, Excavatum, Rufum, Melanosporum and Puberulum); this was later improved and expanded in 2010 to


title: Truffle content: nine major clades using large subunits (LSU) of mitochondrial DNA. The Magnatum and Macrosporum clades were distinguished as distinct from the Aestivum clade. The Gibbosum clade was resolved as distinct from all other clades, and the Spinoreticulatum clade was separated from the Rufum clade. The truffle habit has evolved independently among several basidiomycete genera. Phylogenetic analysis has revealed that basidiomycete subterranean fruiting bodies, like their ascomycete counterparts, evolved from above ground mushrooms. For example, it is likely that "Rhizopogon" species arose from an ancestor shared with "Suillus", a mushroom forming genus. Studies have suggested that selection for subterranean fruiting bodies


title: Truffle content: among ascomycetes and basidiomycetes occurred in water-limited environments. The black truffle or black Périgord truffle ("Tuber melanosporum"), the second-most commercially valuable species, is named after the Périgord region in France. Black truffles associate with oaks, hazelnut, cherry, and other deciduous trees and are harvested in late autumn and winter. The genome sequence of the black truffle was published in March 2010. The black summer truffle ("Tuber aestivum") is found across Europe and is prized for its culinary value. Burgundy truffles (designated "Tuber uncinatum", but the same species) are harvested in autumn until December and have aromatic flesh of a darker


title: Truffle content: colour. These associate with various trees and shrubs. "Tuber magnatum", the high-value white truffle or "trifola d'Alba Madonna" ("Truffle of the White Madonna" in Italian) is found mainly in the Langhe and Montferrat areas of Italy of the Piedmont region in northern Italy and, most famously, in the countryside around the cities of Alba and Asti. The "whitish truffle" ("Tuber borchii") is a similar species found in Tuscany, Abruzzo, Romagna, Umbria, the Marche and Molise. It is not as aromatic as those from Piedmont, although those from Città di Castello come quite close. "Geopora" spp. are important ectomycorrhizal partners of


title: Truffle content: trees in woodlands and forests throughout the world. "Pinus edulis", a widespread pine species of the Southwest, is dependent on "Geopora" for nutrient and water acquisition in arid environments. Like other truffle fungi, "Geopora" produces subterranean sporocarps as a means of sexual reproduction. "Geopora cooperi", also known as pine truffle or fuzzy truffle, is an edible species of this genus. A less common truffle is "garlic truffle" ("Tuber macrosporum"). In the U.S. Pacific Northwest, several species of truffle are harvested both recreationally and commercially, most notably, the "Leucangium carthusianum", Oregon black truffle; "Tuber gibbosum", Oregon spring white truffle; and "Tuber


title: Truffle content: oregonense", the Oregon winter white truffle. "Kalapooya brunea", the Oregon brown truffle, has also been commercially harvested and is of culinary note. The pecan truffle ("Tuber lyonii") syn. "texense" is found in the Southern United States, usually associated with pecan trees. Chefs who have experimented with them agree "they are very good and have potential as a food commodity". Although pecan farmers used to find them along with pecans and discard them, considering them a nuisance, they sell for about $160 a pound and have been used in some gourmet restaurants. The term "truffle" has been applied to several other


title: Truffle content: genera of similar underground fungi. The genera "Terfezia" and "Tirmania" of the family "Terfeziaceae" are known as the "desert truffles" of Africa and the Middle East. The basidiomycete "Hart's truffle" is a name for "Elaphomycetaceae". "Pisolithus tinctorius", which was historically eaten in parts of Germany, is sometimes called "Bohemian truffle". "Rhizopogon" spp. are ectomycorrhizal members of the Basidiomycota and the order Boletales, a group of fungi that typically form mushrooms. Like their ascomycete counterparts, these fungi are capable of creating truffle-like fruiting bodies. "Rhizopogon" spp. are ecologically important in coniferous forests where they associate with various pines, firs, and Douglas-fir.


title: Truffle content: In addition to their ecological importance, these fungi hold economic value as well. "Rhizopogon" spp. are commonly used to inoculate coniferous seedlings in nurseries and during reforestation. "Hysterangium" spp. are ectomycorrhizal members of the Basidiomycota and the order Hysterangiales that form sporocarps similar to true truffles. These fungi form mycelial mats of vegetative hyphae that may cover 25-40% of the forest floor in Douglas-fir forests, thereby contributing to a significant portion of the biomass present in soils. Like other ectomycorrhizal fungi, "Hysterangium" play a role in nutrient exchange in the nitrogen cycle by accessing nitrogen unavailable to host plants and


title: Truffle content: by acting as nitrogen sinks in forests. "Glomus" spp. are arbuscular mycorrhizae of the phylum Glomeromycota within the order Glomerales. "Glomus" spp. that form truffle-like fruiting bodies are some of the most ancient subterranean fungi. "Glomus" species vary in the diversity of their spore-bearing structures. While some produce truffle-like fruiting bodies, many have naked spores or rudimentary sporocarps. Members of this genus have low host specificity, associating with a variety of plants including hardwoods, forbs, shrubs and grasses. These fungi commonly occur throughout the Northern hemisphere. The mycelia of truffles form symbiotic, mycorrhizal relationships with the roots of several tree


title: Truffle content: species including beech, birch, hazel, hornbeam, oak, pine, and poplar. Mutualistic ectomycorrhizal fungi such as truffles provide valuable nutrients to plants in exchange for carbohydrates. Ectomycorrhizal fungi lack the ability to survive in the soil without their plant host. In fact, many of these fungi have lost the enzymes necessary for obtaining carbon through other means. For example, truffle fungi have lost their ability to degrade the cell walls of plants limiting their capacity to decompose plant litter. Plant hosts can also be dependent on their associated truffle fungi. Studies have demonstrated that "Geopora", "Peziza", and "Tuber" spp. are vital


title: Truffle content: in the establishment of oak communities. "Tuber" species prefer argillaceous or calcareous soils that are well drained and neutral or alkaline. "Tuber" truffles fruit throughout the year, depending on the species, and can be found buried between the leaf litter and the soil. The majority of fungal biomass is found in the humus and litter layers of soil. Most truffle fungi produce both asexual spores (mitospores or conidia) and sexual spores (meiospores or ascospores/basidiospores). Conidia can be produced more readily and with less energy than ascospores and can disperse during disturbance events. Production of ascospores is energy intensive because the


title: Truffle content: fungus must allocate resources to the production of large sporocarps. Ascospores are borne within sac-like structures called asci, which are contained within the sporocarp. Because truffle fungi produce their sexual fruiting bodies underground, spores cannot be spread via wind and water. Therefore nearly all truffles depend on mycophagous animal vectors for spore dispersal. This is analogous to the dispersal of seeds in fruit of angiosperms. When the ascospores are fully developed, the truffle will begin to exude volatile compounds that serve to attract animal vectors. For successful dispersal, these spores must survive passage through the digestive tracts of animals. Ascospores


title: Truffle content: have thick walls composed of chitin to help them endure the environment of animal guts. Animal vectors include birds, deer, and rodents such as voles, squirrels, and chipmunks. Many species of trees, such as "Quercus" "garryana", are dependent on the dispersal of sporocarps to inoculate isolated individuals. For example, the acorns of "Q. garryana" may be carried to new territory that lacks the necessary mycorrhizal fungi for establishment. Some mycophagous animals depend on truffles as their dominant food source. Flying squirrels, "Glaucomys sabrinus", of North America play a role in a three-way symbiosis with truffles and their associated plants. "Glaucomys


title: Truffle content: sabrinus" is particularly adapted to finding truffles using its refined sense of smell, visual clues, and long-term memory of prosperous populations of truffles. This intimacy between animals and truffles indirectly influences the success of mycorrhizal plant species. After ascospores are dispersed, they remain dormant until germination is initiated by exudates excreted from host plant roots. Following germination, hyphae will form and seek out the roots of host plants. Arriving at roots, hyphae will begin to form a mantle or sheath on the outer surface of root tips. Hyphae will then enter the root cortex intercellularly to form the Hartig net


title: Truffle content: for nutrient exchange. Hyphae can spread to other root tips colonizing the entire root system of the host. Over time, the truffle fungus accumulates sufficient resources to form fruiting bodies. Rate of growth is correlated with increasing photosynthetic rates in the spring as trees leaf out. In exchange for carbohydrates, truffle fungi provide their host plants with valuable micro and macronutrients. Plant macronutrients include potassium, phosphorus, nitrogen, and sulfur whereas micronutrients include iron, copper, zinc, and chloride. In truffle fungi, as in all ectomycorrhizae, the majority of nutrient exchange occurs in the Hartig net, the intercellular hyphal network between plant


title: Truffle content: root cells. A unique feature of ectomycorrhizal fungi is the formation of the mantle on outer surface of fine roots. Truffles have been suggested to co-locate with the orchid species "Epipactis helleborine" and "Cephalanthera damasonium"., though this is not always the case. Truffle fungi are ecologically important in nutrient cycling. Plants obtain nutrients via their fine roots. Mycorrhizal fungi are much smaller than fine roots and therefore have a higher surface area and a greater ability to explore soils for nutrients. Acquisition of nutrients includes the uptake of phosphorus, nitrogen, iron, magnesium and other ions. Many ectomycorrhizal fungi form fungal


title: Truffle content: mats in the upper layers of soils surrounding host plants. These mats have significantly higher concentrations of carbon and fixed nitrogen than surrounding soils. Because these mats are nitrogen sinks, leaching of nutrients is reduced. Mycelial mats can also help maintain the structure of soils by holding organic matter in place and preventing erosion. Often these networks of mycelium provide support for smaller organisms in the soil, such as bacteria and microscopic arthropods. Bacteria feed on the exudates released by mycelium and colonize soil surrounding them. Microscopic arthropods such as mites feed directly on mycelium and release valuable nutrients for


title: Truffle content: the uptake of other organisms. Thus, truffle fungi, along with other ectomycorrhizal fungi, facilitate a complex system of nutrient exchange between plants, animals, and microbes. Plant community structure is often affected by the availability of compatible mycorrhizal fungi. In arid-land ecosystems, these fungi become essential for the survival of their host plants by enhancing ability to withstand drought. A foundation species in arid-land ecosystems of the Southwest United States is "Pinus" "edulis," commonly known as pinyon pine. "Pinus" "edulis" associates with the subterranean fungi "Geopora" and "Rhizopogon". As global temperatures rise, so does the occurrence of severe droughts detrimentally affecting


title: Truffle content: the survival of arid-land plants. This variability in climate has increased the mortality of "P. edulis". Therefore, the availability of compatible mycorrhizal inoculum can greatly affect the successful establishment of "P." "edulis" seedlings. Associated ectomycorrhizal fungi will likely play a significant role in the survival of "P. edulis" with continuing global climate change. Because truffles are subterranean, they are often located with the help of an animal possessing a refined sense of smell. Traditionally, pigs have been utilized for the extraction of truffles. Both the female pig's natural truffle-seeking, as well as her usual intent to eat the truffle, are


title: Truffle content: due to a compound within the truffle similar to androstenol, the sex pheromone of boar saliva, to which the sow is keenly attracted. Studies in 1990 demonstrated that the compound actively recognized by both truffle pigs and dogs is dimethyl sulfide. In Italy, the use of the pig to hunt truffles has been prohibited since 1985 because of damage caused by animals to truffle mycelia during the digging that dropped the production rate of the area for some years. An alternative to truffle pigs are dogs. Dogs pose an advantage in that they do not have a strong desire to


title: Truffle content: eat truffles and can therefore be trained to locate sporocarps without digging them up. Pigs will attempt to dig up truffles. Fly species of the genus "Suilla" can also detect the volatile compounds associated with subterranean fruiting bodies. These flies will lay their eggs above truffles to provide food for their young. At ground level "Suilla" can be seen flying above truffles. The volatile constituents responsible for the natural aroma of truffles are released by the mycelia, fruiting body or derive from truffle-associated microbes. The chemical ecology of truffle volatiles is complex, interacting with plants, insects and mammals, which contribute


title: Truffle content: to spore dispersal. Depending on the truffle species, life cycle or location, these are most notably: A number of truffle species and varieties are differentiated based on their relative contents or absence of sulfides, ethers or alcohols, respectively. The sweaty-musky aroma of truffles is similar to that of the pheromone androstenol that also occurs in humans. , the volatile profiles of seven black and six white truffle species have been studied. Because of their high price and their pungent aroma, truffles are used sparingly. Supplies can be found commercially as unadulterated fresh produce or preserved, typically in a light brine.


title: Truffle content: As the volatile aromas dissipate quicker when heated, truffles are generally served raw and shaved over warm, simple foods where their flavor will be highlighted, such as buttered pasta or eggs. Thin truffle slices may be inserted into meats, under the skins of roasted fowl, in "foie gras" preparations, in "pâtés", or in stuffings. Some specialty cheeses contain truffles as well. Truffles are also used for producing truffle salt and truffle honey. While in the past chefs used to peel truffles, in modern times, most restaurants brush the truffle carefully and shave it or dice it with the skin on


title: Truffle content: so as to make the most of this valuable ingredient. A few restaurants in Switzerland still stamp out circular discs of truffle flesh and use the skins for sauces. Truffle oil is used as a lower-cost and convenient substitute for truffles, to provide flavouring, or to enhance the flavour and aroma of truffles in cooking. Many "truffle oils", however, do not contain any truffles, while others will include pieces of one of the many inexpensive, unprized truffle varietals, which have no culinary value simply for show. The vast majority is oil which has been artificially flavoured using a synthetic agent


title: Truffle content: such as 2,4-dithiapentane. Because a greater variety of aromatic molecules in truffles are soluble in alcohol, it can be used to carry a more complex and accurate truffle flavour than oil without the need for synthetic flavourings. However, many commercial producers of "truffled" alcohol use 2,4-dithiapentane regardless, as it has become the dominant flavor most consumers, who have never been exposed to fresh truffles but only truffle oils, associate with them. Because most Western nations do not have ingredient labeling requirements for spirits, there is often no way for consumers to know if additional flavorings have been used. Although used


title: Truffle content: as a spirit in its own right and mixed in a range of cocktails, truffle-flavored alcohol is also used by chefs to flavour dishes. Truffle A truffle is the fruiting body of a subterranean ascomycete fungus, predominantly one of the many species of the genus "Tuber". In addition to "Tuber", many other genera of fungi are classified as truffles including "Geopora", "Peziza", "Choiromyces", "Leucangium", and over a hundred others. These genera belong to the class Pezizomycetes and the Pezizales order. There are several truffle-like basidiomycetes excluded from Pezizales including "Rhizopogon" and "Glomus". Truffles are ectomycorrhizal fungi and are therefore usually


title: "RRS Discovery" content: of Deep sea fish. She was fitted with electric lighting powered by both a steam generator and a paraffin engine for use when under sail and also now boasted a refrigerated store for fresh provisions. She carried four motorboats of various sizes. In her new form she was re-registered as a steamship. Stanley Wells Kemp was appointed the project's director of research while Joseph Stenhouse, veteran of the drift of the Aurora, was made captain of "Discovery". The ship left Portsmouth in July 1925. The final aspects of the refit and trials had been rushed in order to reach the


title: "Electric Six" content: it into several best-of-2003 lists, as well as reaching the top 10 in the UK album chart, and another single "Dance Commander", which gave Electric Six its third Top 40 single in the UK. After finishing the recording of "Fire", three members left in June, leaving Dick Valentine, M, and Tait Nucleus?. (John Nash, lead guitar, member of The Volebeats, The Witches and solo effort The Alphabet), The Colonel (Zach Shipps, rhythm guitar, ex member of Brendan Benson, The Atomic Numbers and Mood Elevator), John R. Dequindre (Chris Peters, bass/guitar) and Frank Lloyd Bonaventure (Mark Dundon, bass) (both-ex members of


title: Patchouli content: Patchouli Patchouli ("Pogostemon cablin") is a species of plant from the family "Lamiaceae", commonly called the "mint" or "deadnettle" family. The plant grows as a bushy herb, with erect stems reaching around 75 centimetres (2.5 ft) in height and bearing small, pale pink-white flowers. It is native to tropical regions of Asia, and is now extensively cultivated in China, Indonesia, Cambodia, Myanmar, India, Maldives, Malaysia, Mauritius, Seychelles, Madagascar, Taiwan, the Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, South America and the Caribbean. The heavy and strong scent of patchouli has been used for centuries in perfumes and, more recently, in incense, insect repellents, and


title: Patchouli content: alternative medicines. The word derives from the Tamil "patchai" () (green), "ellai" () (leaf). In Assamese it is known as "xukloti". In Kannada it is known as "Pachhethene". "Pogostemon cablin", "P. commosum", "P. hortensis", "P. heyneasus" and "P. plectranthoides" are all cultivated for their essential oil, known as patchouli oil. Patchouli grows well in warm to tropical climates. It thrives in hot weather but not direct sunlight. If the plant withers due to lack of water, it will recover well and quickly after rain or watering. The seed-producing flowers are very fragrant and blossom in late fall. The tiny seeds


title: Patchouli content: may be harvested for planting, but they are very delicate and easily crushed. Cuttings from the mother plant can also be rooted in water to produce additional plants. Extraction of patchouli's essential oil is by steam distillation of the dried leaves, requiring rupture of its cell walls by steam scalding, light fermentation, or drying. The main chemical component of patchouli oil is patchoulol, a sesquiterpene alcohol. Leaves may be harvested several times a year and, when dried, may be exported for distillation. Some sources claim a highest quality oil is usually produced from fresh leaves distilled close to where they


title: Patchouli content: are harvested; others that boiling the dried leaves and fermenting them for a period of time is best. Patchouli is used widely in modern perfumery, by individuals who create their own scents, and in modern scented industrial products such as paper towels, laundry detergents, and air fresheners. Two important components of its essential oil are patchoulol and norpatchoulenol. One study suggests that patchouli oil may serve as an all-purpose insect repellent. More specifically, the patchouli plant is claimed to be a potent repellent against the Formosan subterranean termite. Patchouli is an important ingredient in East Asian incense. Both patchouli oil


title: Patchouli content: and incense underwent a surge in popularity in the 1960s and 1970s in the US and Europe, mainly as a result of the hippie movement of those decades. Patchouli leaves have been used to make an herbal tea. In some cultures, patchouli leaves are eaten as a vegetable or used as a seasoning. In 1985 Mattel used patchouli oil in the plastic used to produce the action figure Stinkor in the Masters of the Universe line of toys. Patchouli Patchouli ("Pogostemon cablin") is a species of plant from the family "Lamiaceae", commonly called the "mint" or "deadnettle" family. The plant


title: "Places in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy" content: a unified government "run" by an appointed President. Its immensely powerful and monumentally callous civil service is run out of the Megabrantis Cluster, mainly by the Vogons. A "former Galactic Empire" is mentioned in several adaptations of the series. By the time set in the "Hitchhiker's" series, the government of the Galaxy is referred to as the "Imperial Galactic Government", though it is further explained that the term 'Imperial' is now something of an anachronism. In the television adaptation of the series, the name "Imperatala Galacticon" is used in one graphic as an alternative name for the previous Galactic Empire.


title: "Tuileries Garden" content: Tuileries Garden The Tuileries Garden (, ) is a public garden located between the Louvre and the Place de la Concorde in the 1st arrondissement of Paris, France. Created by Catherine de' Medici as the garden of the Tuileries Palace in 1564, it was eventually opened to the public in 1667 and became a public park after the French Revolution. In the 19th and 20th centuries, it was a place where Parisians celebrated, met, strolled and relaxed. In July 1559, after the accidental death of her husband, Henry II, Queen Catherine de' Medici decided to leave her residence of the


title: "Tuileries Garden" content: Hôtel des Tournelles, at the eastern part of Paris, near the Bastille. Together with her son, the new king of France François II, her other children and the royal court, she moved to the Louvre Palace. Five years later, in 1564, she commissioned the construction of a new palace just beyond the wall of Charles V, not far from the Louvre, from which it would be separated by a neighborhood of private hotels, churches, convents, and the "Hospice des Quinze-Vingts" near the Porte Saint-Honoré. The garden of Catherine de' Medici was an enclosed space five hundred metres long and three


title: "Tuileries Garden" content: hundred metres wide, separated from the new palace by a lane. It was divided into rectangular compartments by six alleys, and the sections were planted with lawns, flower beds, and small clusters of five trees, called quinconces; and, more practically, with kitchen gardens and vineyards. The Tuileries garden was the largest and most beautiful garden in Paris at the time. Catherine used it for lavish royal festivities honoring ambassadors from Queen Elizabeth I of England, and the marriage of her daughter, Marguerite de Valois, to Henri III of Navarre, better known as Henry IV, King of France and of Navarre.


title: "Tuileries Garden" content: King Henry III was forced to flee Paris in 1588, and the gardens fell into disrepair. His successor, Henry IV (1589–1610), and his gardener, Claude Mollet, restored the gardens, built a covered promenade the length of the garden, and a parallel alley planted with mulberry trees where he hoped to cultivate silkworms and start a silk industry in France. He also built a rectangular ornamental lake of 65 metres by 45 metres with a fountain supplied with water by the new pump called La Samaritaine, which had been built in 1608 on the Pont Neuf. The area between the palace


title: "Tuileries Garden" content: and the former moat of Charles V was turned into the "New Garden" (Jardin Neuf) with a large fountain in the center. Though Henry IV never lived in the Tuilieries Palace, which was continually under reconstruction, he did use the gardens for relaxation and exercise. In 1610, at the death of his father, Louis XIII became the new owner of the Tuileries Gardens at the age of nine. It became his enormous playground - he used it for hunting, and he kept a menagerie of animals. On the north side of the gardens, Marie de' Medici established a riding school,


title: "Tuileries Garden" content: stables, and a covered manege for exercising horses. When the king and court were absent from Paris, the gardens were turned into a pleasure spot for the nobility. In 1630 a former rabbit warren and kennel at the west rampart of the garden were made into a flower-lined promenade and cabaret. The daughter of Gaston d'Orléans and the niece of Louis XIII, known as La Grande Mademoiselle, held a sort of court in the cabaret, and the "New Garden" of Henry IV (the present-day Carousel) became known as the "Parterre de Mademoiselle." In 1652, "La Grande Mademoiselle" was expelled from


title: "Tuileries Garden" content: the chateau and garden for having supported an uprising, the Fronde, against her cousin, the young Louis XIV. The new king quickly imposed his own sense of order on the Tuileries Gardens. His architects, Louis Le Vau and François d'Orbay, finally finished the Tuileries Palace, making a proper royal residence. In 1662, to celebrate the birth of his first child, Louis XIV held a vast pageant of mounted courtiers in the New Garden, which had been enlarged by filling in Charles V's moat and had been turned into a parade ground. Thereafter the square was known as the Place du


title: "Tuileries Garden" content: Carrousel. In 1664, Colbert, the king's superintendent of buildings, commissioned the landscape architect André Le Nôtre, to redesign the entire garden. Le Nôtre was the grandson of Pierre Le Nôtre, one of Catherine de' Medici's gardeners, and his father Jean had also been a gardener at the Tuileries. He immediately began transforming the Tuileries into a formal garden à la française, a style he had first developed at Vaux-le-Vicomte and perfected at Versailles, based on symmetry, order and long perspectives. Le Nôtre's gardens were designed to be seen from above, from a building or terrace. He eliminated the street which


title: "Tuileries Garden" content: separated the palace and the garden, and replaced it with a terrace looking down upon flowerbeds bordered by low boxwood hedges and filled with designs of flowers. In the centre of the flowerbeds he placed three ornamental lakes with fountains. In front of the centre of the first fountain he laid out the Grande Allée, which extended 350 metres. He built two other alleys, lined with chestnut trees, on either side. He crossed these three main alleys with small lanes, to create compartments planted with diverse trees, shrubs and flowers. On the south side of the park, next to the


title: "Tuileries Garden" content: Seine, he built a long terrace called the Terrasse du bord-de-l'eau, planted with trees, with a view of the river He built a second terrace on the north side, overlooking the garden, called the Terrasse des Feuillants. On the west side of the garden, beside the present-day Place de la Concorde, he built two ramps in a horseshoe shape and two terraces overlooking an octagonal lake in diameter with a fountain in the centre. These terraces frame the western entrance of the garden, and provide another viewpoint to see the garden from above. Le Nôtre wanted his grand perspective from


title: "Tuileries Garden" content: the palace to the western end of the garden to continue outside the garden. In 1667, he made plans for an avenue with two rows of trees on either side, which would have continued west to the present Rond-Point des Champs Élysées. Le Nôtre and his hundreds of masons, gardeners and earth-movers worked on the gardens from 1666 to 1672. In 1682, however, the king, furious with the Parisians for resisting his authority, abandoned Paris and moved to Versailles. In 1667, at the request of the famous author of "Sleeping Beauty" and other fairy tales, Charles Perrault, the Tuileries Garden


title: "Tuileries Garden" content: was opened to the public, with the exception of beggars, "lackeys" and soldiers. It was the first royal garden to be open to the public. After the death of Louis XIV, the five-year-old Louis XV became owner of the Tuileries Garden. The garden, abandoned for nearly forty years, was put back in order. In 1719, two large equestrian statuary groups, "La Renommée" and "Mercure", by the sculptor Antoine Coysevox, were brought from the king's residence at Marly and placed at the west entrance of the garden. Other statues by Nicolas and Guillaume Coustou, Corneille an Clève, Sebastien Slodz, Thomas Regnaudin


title: "Tuileries Garden" content: and Coysevox were placed along the Grande Allée. A swing bridge was placed at the west end over the moat, to make access to the garden easier. The creation of the place Louis XV (now Place de la Concorde) created a grand vestibule to the garden. Certain holidays, such as August 25, the feast day of Saint Louis, were celebrated with concerts and fireworks in the park. A famous early balloon ascent was made from the garden on December 1, 1783 by Jacques Alexandre César Charles and Nicolas Louis Robert. Small food stands were placed in the park, and chairs


title: "Tuileries Garden" content: could be rented for a small fee. Public toilets were added in 1780. On October 6, 1789, as the French Revolution began, King Louis XVI was brought against his will to the Tuileries Palace. The garden was closed to the public except in the afternoon. Queen Marie Antoinette and the Dauphin were given a part of the garden for her private use, first at the west end of the Promenade Bord d'eaux, then at the edge of the Place Louis XV. After the king's failed attempt to escape France, the surveillance of the family was increased. The royal family was


title: "Tuileries Garden" content: allowed to walk in the park on the evening of September 18, 1791, during the festival organized to celebrate the new French Constitution, when the alleys of the park were illuminated with pyramids and rows of lanterns. On August 10, 1792, a mob stormed the Palace, and the king's Swiss guards were chased through the gardens and massacred. After the king's removal from power and execution, the Tuileries became the National Garden (Jardin National) of the new French Republic. In 1794 the new government assigned the renewal of the gardens to the painter Jacques-Louis David, and to his brother in


title: "Tuileries Garden" content: law, the architect August Cheval de Saint-Hubert. They conceived a garden decorated with Roman porticos, monumental porches, columns, and other classical decoration. The project of David and Saint-Hubert was never completed. All that remains today are the two "exedres", semicircular low walls crowned with statues by the two ponds in the centre of the garden. While David's project was not finished, large numbers of statues from royal residences were brought to the gardens for display. The garden was also used for revolutionary holidays and festivals. On June 8, 1794, a ceremony in honor of the Cult of the Supreme Being