title: "Pinus strobus" content: pine logs can still be processed in a lumber mill a year or more after being cut down. In contrast, most hardwood trees such as cherry, maple, oak, and ash must be cut into 1" thick boards immediately after felling or large cracks will develop in the trunk which can render the wood worthless. Although eastern white pine was frequently used for flooring in buildings constructed before the U.S. Civil War, the wood is soft and will tend to cup over time with wear. George Washington opted for the much harder southern yellow pine at Mount Vernon instead. During the


title: "Pinus strobus" content: age of square riggers, tall white pines with high quality wood in the Thirteen Colonies were known as "mast pines". Marked by agents of the Crown with the broad arrow, these "mast pines" were reserved for the British Royal Navy. Special barge-like vessels were built to ship up to 50 pine trunks destined to become masts. The wood was often squared immediately after felling to fit in the holds of ships better. A mast was about at the butt and at the top, while a mast was by on its ends. Marking of large specimens by the Crown was very


title: "Pinus strobus" content: controversial in the colonies, leading to the Pine Tree Riot in 1772; its act of rebellion played a significant role in the events leading to the American Revolution. During that conflict colonists cut down and hauled off many mast pines. The original masts on the USS "Constitution" were single trees but were later replaced by laminated spars to better withstand cannonballs. An unusual large, lone, white pine was found in colonial times in coastal South Carolina along the Black River, far east of its southernmost normal range. The king's mark was carved into it, giving rise to the town of


title: "Pinus strobus" content: Kingstree. Eastern white pine is now widely grown in plantation forestry within its native area. Freshly cut eastern white pine is creamy white or a pale straw color but pine wood which has aged many years tends to darken to a deep rich golden tan. Occasionally one can find light brown pine boards with unusual yellowish-golden or reddish-brown hues. This is the famous "pumpkin pine". It is generally thought that slow growing pines in old-growth forests accumulate colored products in the heartwood, but genetic factors and soil conditions may also play a role in rich color development. This wood is


title: "Pinus strobus" content: also favored by pattern makers for its easy working. Eastern white pine needles contain from a similar, to three times (by weight) the amount of, vitamin C of lemons and make an excellent herbal tea. The cambium is edible. It is also a source of resveratrol. Linnaeus noted in the 18th century that cattle and pigs fed pine bark bread grew well, but he personally did not like the taste. Caterpillars of Lusk's pinemoth ("Coloradia luski") have been found to feed only on "Pinus strobus". Pine tar is produced by slowly burning pine roots, branches, or small trunks in a


title: "Pinus strobus" content: partially smothered flame. Pine tar mixed with beer can be used to remove tapeworms (flat worms) or nematodes (round worms). Pine tar mixed with sulfur is useful to treat dandruff, and marketed in present-day products. Pine tar can also be processed to make turpentine. The name “Adirondack” is an Iroquois word which means tree-eater and referred to their neighbors (more commonly known as the Algonquians) who collected the inner bark of this tree, "Picea rubens", and others during times of winter starvation. The white soft inner bark (cambial layer) was carefully separated from the hard, dark brown bark and dried.


title: "Pinus strobus" content: When pounded this product can be used as flour or added to stretch other starchy products. The young staminate cones were stewed by the Ojibwe Indians with meat and were said to be sweet and not pitchy. In addition, the seeds are sweet and nutritious, but not as tasty as those of some of the western nut pines. Pine resin (sap) has been used by various tribes to waterproof baskets, pails, and boats. The Chippewa also used pine resin to successfully treat infections and even gangrenous wounds. This is because pine resin apparently has a number of quite efficient antimicrobials.


title: "Pinus strobus" content: Generally a wet pulp from the inner bark, or pine tar mixed with beeswax or butter was applied to wounds and used as a salve to prevent infection. "Pinus strobus" is cultivated by plant nurseries as an ornamental tree, for planting in gardens and parks. The species is low-maintenance and rapid growing as a specimen tree. With regular shearing it can also be trained as a hedge. Some cultivars are used in bonsai. Cultivars have been selected for small to dwarf mature forms, and foliage color characteristics. They include: Smaller specimens are popular as live Christmas trees. Eastern white pines


title: "Pinus strobus" content: are noted for holding their needles well, even long after being harvested. They also are well suited for people with allergies, as they give little to no aroma. A standard tree takes approximately 6 to 8 years to grow in ideal conditions. Sheared varieties are usually desired because of their stereotypical Christmas tree conical shape, as naturally grown ones can become too thick for larger ornaments, or grow bushy in texture. The branches of the eastern white pine are also widely used in making holiday wreaths and garland because of their soft, feathery needles. Eastern white pine is the Provincial


title: "Pinus strobus" content: Tree of Ontario, Canada. In the United States it is the State Tree of Maine (as of 1945) and Michigan (as of 1955). Its "pine cone and tassel" is also the State Flower of Maine. Sprigs of eastern white pine were worn as badges as a symbol of Vermont identity during the Vermont Republic and are depicted in a stained glass window in the Vermont State House, on the Flag of Vermont, and on the naval ensign of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and the state of Maine. The 1901 Maine Flag prominently featured the tree during its brief tenure as


title: "Pinus strobus" content: Maine's state flag. The Native American Haudenosaunee (Iroquois Confederation) denominated it the "Tree of Peace". Pinus strobus Pinus strobus, commonly denominated the eastern white pine, northern white pine, white pine, Weymouth pine (British), and soft pine is a large pine native to eastern North America. It occurs from Newfoundland, Canada west through the Great Lakes region to southeastern Manitoba and Minnesota, United States, and south along the Appalachian Mountains and upper Piedmont to northernmost Georgia and perhaps very rarely in some of the higher elevations in northeastern Alabama. The Native American Haudenosaunee denominated it the "Tree of Peace". It is


title: "Positive airway pressure" content: mixed with the water in the container. They would then let it stand for a few minutes before emptying and rinsing. If this procedure is used, it is imperative to rinse the unit with soap and water before reinstalling onto the machine and breathing. Anti-bacterial soap is not recommended by sellers. To reduce the risk of contamination, distilled water is a good alternative to tap water. If traveling in areas where the mineral content or purity of the water is unknown or suspect, an alternative is to use a water "purifier" such as Brita. In cold climates, humidified air may


title: "Sharjah International Airport" content: to the city and was opened in 1932. It was the first airport in UAE and the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf, for use by Imperial Airways, and was subsequently used by the RAF until 14 December 1971. The reason for the move was development pressure from the city of Sharjah. The old airport's runway is now part of King Abdul Aziz Street in the city centre. The airport was used by the United States Air Force 926th Tactical Fighter Group during Operation Desert Shield/Storm. Approximately 450 members of the unit were stationed at the airport,


title: "USS Sangamon (CVE-26)" content: USS Sangamon (CVE-26) USS "Sangamon" (CVE-26) was an escort carrier converted from a T3 Tanker oiler, the second ship to carry her name. She was one of 12 "Cimarron" class oilers built on a joint Navy-Maritime Commission design later duplicated by the T3-S2-A1 type. "Sangamon" was laid down as Esso Trenton (MC hull 7) on 13 March 1939 by the Federal Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company, Kearny, New Jersey; launched on 4 November 1939, sponsored by Mrs. Clara Esselborn; operated by Standard Oil of New Jersey on runs from gulf coast ports to the east coast; and acquired by the


title: Tenoch content: Tenoch Tenoch (or Tenuch, ) was a ruler of the Mexicas (Aztecas) during the fourteenth century during the Aztec travels from Aztlán to Tenochtitlan. Tenoch's father was Iztacmixcoatl, who had a total of seven sons with two wives. The Tenochtitlan people were originally referred to as Tenochca, then the Mexica. He was a respected chief who was elected to power by the council of elders and died in 1375. There is disagreement whether Tenoch is a mythological person or a real Mexica leader who was later mythologized. Tenoch was one of nine Mexica leaders who were told how Mexica could


title: "Inhibitory postsynaptic potential" content: being performed in the field of dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area, which deals with reward, and the substantia nigra, which is involved with movement and motivation. Metabotropic responses occur in dopamine neurons through the regulation of the excitability of cells. Opioids inhibit GABA release; this decreases the amount of inhibition and allows them to fire spontaneously. Morphine and opioids relate to inhibitory postsynaptic potentials because they induce disinhibition in dopamine neurons. IPSPs can also be used to study the input-output characteristics of an inhibitory forebrain synapse used to further study learned behavior, to be specific song learning in


title: "Mercedes-Benz E-Class" content: Mercedes-Benz E-Class The Mercedes-Benz E-Class is a range of executive cars manufactured by German automaker Mercedes-Benz in various engine and body configurations. Produced since 1953, the E-Class falls midrange in the Mercedes line-up, and has been marketed worldwide across five generations. Before 1993, the E in Mercedes-Benz nomenclature was a suffix following a vehicle's model number which stood for "Einspritzmotor" (German for fuel injection engine). It began to appear in the early 1960s, when that feature began to be utilized broadly in the maker's product line, and not just in its upper tier luxury and sporting models. By the launch


title: "Mercedes-Benz E-Class" content: of the facelifted W124 in 1993 fuel-injection was ubiquitous in Mercedes engines, and the E was adopted as a prefix (i.e., E 220) and the model line referred to officially as the E-Class (or "E-Klasse"). All generations of the E-Class have offered either rear-wheel drive or Mercedes' 4Matic four-wheel drive system. Historically, the E-Class is Mercedes-Benz' best-selling model, with more than 13 million sold by 2015. The first E-Class series was originally available as four-door sedan, five-door station wagon, 2 door coupe and 2 door convertible. From 1997 to 2009, the equivalent coupe and convertible were sold under the Mercedes-Benz


title: "Mercedes-Benz E-Class" content: CLK-Class nameplate; which was actually based on the mechanical underpinnings of the smaller C-Class while borrowing the styling and some powertrains from the E-Class, a trend continued with the C207 E-Class coupe/convertible which was sold parallel to the W212 E-Class sedan/wagon. With the latest incarnation of the E-Class released for the 2017 model year, all body styles share the same W213 platform. Due to the E-Class's size and durability, it has filled many market segments, from personal cars to frequently serving as taxis in European countries, as well special-purpose vehicles (e.g., police or ambulance modifications) from the factory. The first


title: "Mercedes-Benz E-Class" content: modern midsize Mercedes was the W120 'Ponton' 180 of 1953 and was produced till 1962. Sharing its engineering with the R121 190 SL of 1955, the Ponton was a stylish sedan with a four-cylinder engine. A larger-engined W121 190 appeared in 1958. Mercedes added tailfins to both the big S-Class and the new W110 'Fintail' 190 of 1962. In the 1965 230 model a Straight-6 engine appeared for the first time, and the four cylinder engine grew in displacement. The midsize Mercedes was redesigned in 1968 as the W114/W115 'Stroke-8'. This time, the 6-cylinder models (The W114s) were most prevalent,


title: "Mercedes-Benz E-Class" content: with the W115 line making up the bottom of the company's offerings with four – and five-cylinder power. Diesel engines joined the line-up, as did a coupé body. The popular W123 quickly became a best-seller on its launch in 1976. Especially in diesel powered 200D and 240D (also the five-cylinder 300D) guises, the cars enhanced the company's reputation for product quality. Over 2.6 million were produced until the end of production in 1986. Saloon/Sedan, Coupé and Estate body configurations were offered. The W124 was presented in 1984 and introduced several new standards for a mid-size Mercedes. It was the third


title: "Mercedes-Benz E-Class" content: car to inherit the company's new design theme since the late 1970s, following the flagship W126 and compact W201. Similar to its predecessors, the W124 also offered a coupé and estate body styles. A new convertible (internally A124) was also available, making it the first mid-size Mercedes convertible. The "E-Class" name first appeared in with the facelifted W124 in 1993 for the model year 1994 (the W124 was introduced in 1984 but continued with the older naming convention until 1993, when all Mercedes-Benz models switched to a new system, e.g. E 320 instead of 300 E). The diesel versions continued


title: "Mercedes-Benz E-Class" content: to be the fuel economy option over the four and six-cylinder gasoline engines, and the gasoline V8 engines (available after 1992) increased gasoline power outputs further. Four-cylinder gasoline models were not marketed in the United States. The V8 powered sedans/saloons were named 400 E/500 E from 1992–1993, and E 420/E 500 after 1993. Likewise, the 3.0-litre cars (e.g. 300 E) were also re-badged to E 320 with the new 3.2-litre "M104" engines and naming rationalization of 1994. For the diesel models the name change was less elegant, with the 250 D becoming the E 250 Diesel for example. Sedan (W124),


title: "Mercedes-Benz E-Class" content: Coupé (C124), Convertible (A124) and Estate (S124) body configurations were offered. The W210 E-Class, launched in 1995, brought the line firmly into the upper end of the mid-size luxury market. In September 1999 the W210 E-class was facelifted. This included visual, mechanical and quality improvements over the earlier versions. The Mercedes-Benz E-Class was "Motor Trend"'s Import Car of the Year for 1996. While the W210 sedan was replaced by the W211 in 2002, the wagon version continued to be sold until March 2003 when the W211 wagon replaced the W210 wagon. Launched in 2002, the W211 E-Class was another evolution


title: "Mercedes-Benz E-Class" content: of the previous model. The W211-based W219 CLS-Class sedan was introduced as a niche model in 2005, primarily to attract a younger demographic. The W211 E-Class was facelifted in June 2006 for the 2007 model year to address quality and technical issues raised by earlier models, Sensotronic was dropped, while Pre-Safe (w/o brake support) was made standard. The largest factory built engine in the E-class range is the E500 (badged E550 in the U.S.) which had its engine size increased from 5 litres to 5.5 litres in 2006 along with the facelift. There is also an AMG model badged E63


title: "Mercedes-Benz E-Class" content: AMG and other tuning house installations. In 2007 the diesel version of the E-Class was rebadged from CDI (Common rail Direct Injection) to Bluetec. While in some of the other Mercedes-Benz diesels urea injection was added, in the W211 E-Class the Bluetec name was only adopted to prevent confusion in the diesel lineup. The W212 replaced the W211 in 2009 (as a 2010 model). Official photos of the W212 were leaked on the internet on 9 December 2008 ahead of its 2009 Geneva Motor Show unveiling. Scans of a leaked brochure were posted onto the internet in January 2009, detailing


title: "Mercedes-Benz E-Class" content: the whole E-Class range including the new E 200 CGI and E 230 CGI with direct injected forced inducted engines. New features included a blind spot monitor, Lane Keeping Assist, Pre-safe with Attention Assist and Night View Assist Plus. In the United States the E-Class was priced nearly US$4,600 less than the previous model. The W212 estate was also announced and available from November 2009. In 2013, the E-Class was comprehensively facelifted, featuring significant styling changes, fuel economy improvements and updated safety features. Daimler invested close to €1 billion into the development of the extensive refresh, making it likely the


title: "Mercedes-Benz E-Class" content: most expensive mid-life facelift in the history of the automobile. The biggest change was the singular front lights replacing the twin headlamp design (marking the end of Mercedes's dual headlamps use) with integrated LED DRLs. Although not an all-new model, the W212 facelift was the only mid-cycle refresh featured on a family portrait of several generations of the E-Class side by side by Mercedes-Benz for the unveiling of the W213 E-Class. The coupé (C207) was first shown at the 2009 Geneva Motor Show, while the convertible (A207) was unveiled at the 2010 North American International Auto Show. Both models replaced


title: "Mercedes-Benz E-Class" content: the previous C209/A209 CLK-Class models. The C207/A207 E-Class is based off the W204 C-Class platform, and are produced alongside each other in the Bremen plant. The fifth generation E-Class was unveiled at the 2016 North American International Auto Show. The next generation E-Class has design cues from the larger W222 S-Class and the smaller W205 C-Class. While the W212 E-Class has tighter surface and harder edges, the new model is curvier and more flowing. Engine options for the W213 E-Class will see a major update, thanks to the switch to inline-6 engines from the current V6 engines, along with a


title: "Mercedes-Benz E-Class" content: new generation of four-cylinder diesel engines, codenamed OM654, and existing four-cylinder petrol engines. The W213 E-Class is the second most technologically advanced Mercedes after the new S Class. The E-Class received the latest in autonomous driving technology for use at highway speeds, capable of piloting itself up to speeds of for up to 2 minutes. The system uses a complex array of motion sensors, radars and cameras to scan the road ahead, and requires the driver's hands to be placed on the wheel at all times. Mercedes-Benz E-Class The Mercedes-Benz E-Class is a range of executive cars manufactured by German


title: "Josh Gibson" content: example, against all levels of competition Gibson hit 69 home runs in 1934; the same year in league games he hit 11 home runs in 52 games. In 1933, he hit .467 with 55 home runs in 137 games against all levels of competition. His lifetime batting average is said to be higher than .350, with other sources putting it as high as .384, the best in Negro league history. Gibson's Hall of Fame plaque states he hit "almost 800 home runs in league and independent baseball during his 17-year career." (This figure includes vs. semi-pro competition and in exhibition


title: "African spoonbill" content: African spoonbill The African spoonbill ("Platalea alba") is a long-legged wading bird of the ibis and spoonbill family Threskiornithidae. The species is widespread across Africa and Madagascar, including Botswana, Kenya, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, and Zimbabwe. It lives in marshy wetlands with some open shallow water and nests in colonies in trees or reedbeds. They usually don't share colonies with storks or herons. The African spoonbill feeds in shallow water, and fishes for various fish, molluscs, amphibians, crustaceans, insects and larvae. The animal uses its open bill to catch foods by swinging it from side-to-side in the water, which catches


title: "African spoonbill" content: foods in its mouth. Long legs and thin, pointed toes enable it to walk easily through varying depths of water. The African spoonbill is almost unmistakable through most of its range. The breeding bird is all white except for its red legs and face and long grey spatulate bill. It has no crest, unlike the common spoonbill. Immature birds lack the red face and have a yellow bill. Unlike herons, spoonbills fly with their necks outstretched. The African spoonbill begins breeding in the winter, which lasts until spring. The spoonbill's nest, generally located in trees above water, is built from


title: "African spoonbill" content: sticks and reeds and lined with leaves. Three to five eggs are laid by the female birds, usually during the months of April or May. The eggs are incubated by both parents for up to 29 days, and upon hatching the young birds are cared for by both parents for around 20 to 30 days. The birds are ready to leave the nest soon afterward, and begin flying after another four weeks. The African spoonbill is one of the species to which the "Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds" (AEWA) applies. African spoonbill The African spoonbill ("Platalea alba")


title: "Golden hamster" content: Golden hamster The golden hamster or Syrian hamster ("Mesocricetus auratus") is a rodent in the subfamily Cricetinae, the hamsters. Their natural geographical range is limited to arid areas of northern Syria and southern Turkey. Their numbers have been declining due to a loss of habitat caused by agriculture and deliberate elimination by humans. Thus, in the wild, they are now considered vulnerable by the IUCN. However, captive-breeding programs are well established, and captive-bred golden hamsters are often kept as small house pets. Additionally, they are also used as scientific research animals throughout the world. The size of adult animals ranges


title: "Golden hamster" content: from long, with a lifespan of two to three years (3–4 years in domestic homes, 2–3 years in the wild). Body mass is in the range of 120-125 g. Like most members of the subfamily, the golden hamster has expandable cheek pouches, which extend from its cheeks to its shoulders. In the wild, hamsters are larder hoarders; they use their cheek pouches to transport food to their burrows. Their name in the local Arabic dialect where they were found roughly translates to "mister saddlebags" (Arabic: أبو جراب) due to the amount of storage space in their cheek pouches. If food


title: "Golden hamster" content: is plentiful, the hamster stores it in large amounts Sexually mature female hamsters come into season (estrus) every four days. Golden hamsters and other species in its genus have the shortest gestation period in any known placental mammal at around 16 days. Gestation has been known to last up to 21 days, but this is rare and almost always includes complications. They can produce large litters of 20 or more young, although the average litter size is between eight and 10 pups. If a mother hamster is inexperienced or feels threatened, she may abandon or eat her pups. A female


title: "Golden hamster" content: hamster enters estrus almost immediately after giving birth, and can become pregnant despite already having a litter. This act puts stress on the mother's body and often results in very weak and undernourished young. Hamsters are very territorial and intolerant of each other; attacks against each other are ubiquitous. Exceptions do occur, usually when a female and male meet when the female is in heat, but even so, the female may attack the male after mating. Even siblings, once mature, may attack one another. In captivity, babies are separated from their mother and by gender after four weeks, as they


title: "Golden hamster" content: sexually mature at four to five weeks old. Same-sex groups of siblings can stay with each other until they are about eight weeks old, at which point they will become territorial and fight with one another, sometimes to the death. Infanticide is not uncommon among female golden hamsters. In captivity, they may kill and eat healthy young as a result of the pups interacting with humans, for any foreign scent is treated as a threat. Females also eat their dead young in the wild. Golden hamsters mark their burrows with secretions from special scent glands on their hips. Male hamsters


title: "Golden hamster" content: in particular lick their bodies near the glands, creating damp spots on the fur, then drag their sides along objects to mark their territory. Females also use bodily secretions and faeces. Golden hamsters originate from Syria and were first described and officially named in 1839 by British zoologist George Robert Waterhouse. Waterhouse's original specimen was a female hamster; he named it "Cricetus auratus" or the "golden hamster". The skin of the specimen is kept at the Natural History Museum in London. In 1930, Israel Aharoni, a zoologist and professor at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, captured a mother hamster and


title: "Golden hamster" content: her litter of pups in Aleppo, Syria. The hamsters were bred in Jerusalem as laboratory animals. Some escaped from the cage through a hole in the floor, and most of the wild golden hamsters in Israel today are believed to be descended from this litter. Descendants of the captive hamsters were shipped to Britain in 1931, where they came under the care of the Wellcome Bureau of Scientific Research. They bred well and two more pairs were given to the Zoological Society of London in 1932. The descendants of these were passed on to private breeders in 1937. A separate


title: "Golden hamster" content: stock of hamsters was exported from Syria to the United States in 1971, but apparently none of today's North American pets is descended from these (at least in the female line), because recent mitochondrial DNA studies have established that all domestic golden hamsters are descended from one female – probably the one captured in 1930 in Syria. Since the species was named, the genus "Cricetus" has been subdivided and this species (together with several others) was separated into the genus "Mesocricetus", leading to the currently accepted scientific name for the golden hamster of "Mesocricetus auratus". Following Professor Aharoni's collection in


title: "Golden hamster" content: 1930, only infrequent sightings and captures were reported in the wild. Finally, to confirm the current existence of the wild golden hamster in northern Syria and southern Turkey, two expeditions were carried out during September 1997 and March 1999. The researchers found and mapped 30 burrows. None of the inhabited burrows contained more than one adult. The team caught six females and seven males. One female was pregnant and gave birth to six pups. All these 19 caught golden hamsters, together with three wild individuals from the University of Aleppo, were shipped to Germany to form a new breeding stock.


title: "Golden hamster" content: Observations of females in this wild population have revealed, contrary to laboratory populations, activity patterns are crepuscular rather than nocturnal, possibly to avoid nocturnal predators such as owls. Owls, however, have also evolved to hunt at dusk and dawn, and even during the day on rare occasions, so the predator avoidance advantage may not apply to owls in particular. Another theory is that hamsters, which are extremely sensitive to temperature fluctuations, may be crepuscular to avoid the extreme temperatures of full daylight and night time temperatures. Golden hamsters in captivity run two to five miles per 24-hour period and can


title: "Golden hamster" content: store up to one ton of food in a lifetime. They keep their food carefully separated from their urination and nesting areas. Very old hamsters with weak teeth break this "rule" by soaking hard seeds and nuts with urine to soften it for eating. Hamsters are extraordinary housekeepers and often sort through their hoards to clean and get rid of molding or rotting food. They gather food in the wild by foraging and carrying it home in their cheek pouches, which they empty by pushing it out through their open mouths, from back to front, with their paws, until it


title: "Golden hamster" content: is empty. If a lot of food is available to carry, they may stuff the pouches so full that they cannot even close their mouths. Although these observations refer to studies using captive hamsters, they shine some light on the hamsters' natural behaviors in the wild. Golden hamsters are used to model the human medical conditions including various cancers, metabolic diseases, non-cancer respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, infectious diseases, and general health concerns. In 2006-07, golden hamsters accounted for 19% of the total animal research participants in the United States. Golden hamsters are popular as house pets due to their docile,


title: "Golden hamster" content: inquisitive nature, cuteness, and small size. However, these animals have some special requirements that must be met for them to be healthy. Although some people think of them as a pet for young children, the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals recommends hamsters as pets only for people over age 6 and the child should be supervised by an adult. Cages should be a suitable size, safe, comfortable, and interesting. If a hamster is consistently chewing, then it needs more stimulation or a larger cage. The minimum recommended size for a hamster cage is 450 square inches


title: "Golden hamster" content: or 2903.22 square centimeters, of continuous floor space. These can be made from a plastic storage bin or a large glass tank. The majority of hamster cages sold in pet stores do not meet these requirements. A hamster wheel is a common type of environmental enrichment, and it is important that hamsters have a wheel in their cage. The wheel should be a minimum of eight inches in diameter and made of a solid material. Hamsters can get their feet stuck in wire or mesh wheels which causes a condition called bumblefoot. Eight inches is the minimum size for a


title: "Golden hamster" content: wheel, many hamsters end up needing a nine or ten-inch wheel once they are fully grown. A hamster should be able to run on its wheel without arching its back. A hamster that has to run with an arched back can have back pain and spine problems. A variety of toys, either shop-bought or home-made can help to keep them entertained. Cardboard tubes and boxes are stimulating. Golden hamsters are energetic and need space to exercise. Most hamsters in American and British pet stores are golden hamsters. Originally, golden hamsters occurred in just one color — the mixture of brown,


title: "Golden hamster" content: black, and gold, but they have since developed a variety of color and pattern mutations, including cream, white, blonde, cinnamon, tortoiseshell, black, three different shades of gray, dominant spot, banded, and dilute. The practice of selective breeding of golden hamsters requires an understanding of their care, knowledge about breed variations, a plan for selective breeding, scheduling of the female body cycle, and the ability to manage a colony of hamsters. Often long-haired hamsters are referred to by their nickname “teddy bear”. They are identical to short-haired Syrians except for the hair length and can be found in any color, pattern,


title: "Golden hamster" content: or other coat type available in the species. Male long-haired hamsters usually have longer fur than the female, culminating in a "skirt" of longer fur around their backsides. Long-haired females have a much shorter coat although it is still significantly longer than that of a short-haired female. Golden hamster The golden hamster or Syrian hamster ("Mesocricetus auratus") is a rodent in the subfamily Cricetinae, the hamsters. Their natural geographical range is limited to arid areas of northern Syria and southern Turkey. Their numbers have been declining due to a loss of habitat caused by agriculture and deliberate elimination by humans.


title: "Betula pubescens" content: Betula pubescens Betula pubescens (syn. "Betula alba"), commonly known as downy birch and also as moor birch, white birch, European white birch or hairy birch, is a species of deciduous tree, native and abundant throughout northern Europe and northern Asia, growing farther north than any other broadleaf tree. It is closely related to, and often confused with, the silver birch ("B. pendula"), but grows in wetter places with heavier soils and poorer drainage; smaller trees can also be confused with the dwarf birch ("B. nana"). Three varieties are recognised and it hybridises with the silver and dwarf birches. A number


title: "Betula pubescens" content: of cultivars have been developed but many are no longer in cultivation. The larva of the autumnal moth ("Epirrita autumnata") feeds on the foliage and in some years, large areas of birch forest can be defoliated by this insect. A large number of fungi are associated with the tree and certain pathogenic fungi are the causal agents of birch dieback disease. The tree is a pioneer species, readily colonising cleared land, but later being replaced by taller, more long-lived species. The bark can be stripped off without killing the tree and the bark and the timber is used for turnery


title: "Betula pubescens" content: and in the manufacture of plywood, furniture, shelves, coffins, matches, toys and wood flooring. The inner bark is edible and it was ground up and used in bread-making in times of famine. The rising sap in spring can be used to make refreshing drinks, wines, ales and liqueurs and various parts of the tree have been used in herbal medicine. "Betula pubescens" is commonly known as downy birch, with other common names including moor birch, white birch, European white birch or hairy birch. It is a deciduous tree growing to tall (rarely to 27 m), with a slender crown and


title: "Betula pubescens" content: a trunk up to (exceptionally 1 m) in diameter, with smooth but dull grey-white bark finely marked with dark horizontal lenticels. The shoots are grey-brown with fine downy. The leaves are ovate-acute, long and broad, with a finely serrated margin. The flowers are wind-pollinated catkins, produced in early spring before the leaves. The fruit is a pendulous, cylindrical aggregate long and wide which disintegrates at maturity, releasing the individual seeds; these seeds are long with two small wings along the side. "B. pubescens" is closely related to, and often confused with, the silver birch ("B. pendula"). Many North American texts


title: "Betula pubescens" content: treat the two species as conspecific (and cause confusion by combining the downy birch's alternative vernacular name, white birch, with the scientific name "B. pendula" of the other species), but they are regarded as distinct species throughout Europe. Downy birch can be distinguished from silver birch with its smooth, downy shoots, which are hairless and warty in silver birch. The bark of the downy birch is a dull greyish white, whereas the silver birch has striking white, papery bark with black fissures. The leaf margins also differ, finely serrated in downy birch, coarsely double-toothed in silver birch. The two have


title: "Betula pubescens" content: differences in habitat requirements, with downy birch more common on wet, poorly drained sites, such as clays and peat bogs, and silver birch found mainly on dry, sandy soils. In more northerly locations, downy birch can also be confused with the dwarf birch ("Betula nana"), both species being morphologically variable. All three species can be distinguished cytologically, silver birch and dwarf birch being diploid (with two sets of chromosomes), whereas downy birch is tetraploid (with four sets of chromosomes). In Iceland, dwarf birch and downy birch sometimes hybridise, the resulting plants being triploid (with three sets of chromosomes). "Betula pubescens"


title: "Betula pubescens" content: has a wide distribution in northern and central Europe and Asia. Its range extends from Newfoundland, Iceland, the British Isles and Spain eastwards across northern and central Europe and Asia as far as the Lake Baikal region in Siberia. The range extends southwards to about 40°N, its southernmost limit being Turkey, the Caucasus and the Altai Mountains. It is a pioneer species which establishes itself readily in new areas away from the parent tree. This allows other woodland trees to become established and the birch, a short-lived tree, eventually gets crowded out as its seedlings are intolerant of shady conditions.


title: "Betula pubescens" content: Downy birch extends farther north into the Arctic than any other broadleaf tree. Specimens of the subarctic populations are usually small and very contorted, and are often distinguished as arctic downy birch or mountain birch, "B. p." var. "pumila". (not to be confused with "B. nana"). This variety is notable as being one of very few trees native to Iceland and Greenland, and is the only tree to form woodland in Iceland. At one time the island is thought to have been covered in downy birch woodland, but that cover is reduced to about one percent of the land surface


title: "Betula pubescens" content: today. Three varieties are recognised, the nominate "Betula pubescens" var. "pubescens", "B. p." var. "litwinowii" (distributed in the Caucasus and Turkey) and "B. p." var. "pumila" (arctic downy birch or mountain birch, formerly called "B. p." subsp. "tortuosa"). The latter has arisen from the hybridization of var. "pubescens" and "B. nana" (dwarf birch) and is characterised by its shrubby habit, smaller leaves, resinous glands and the smaller wings on the fruit. A number of cultivars have been grown but many are no longer in cultivation. They include "Armenian gold", "Arnold Brembo" (scented foliage), "crenata nana" (shrubby and dwarf), "incisa" (lobed


title: "Betula pubescens" content: foliage), "integrifolia" (unlobed foliage), "murigthii" (shrubby with doubly serrate leaves), "ponitica" (hairless), "undulata" (leaf margins waxy), "urticifolia" (nettle-leaved), "variegata" (variegated) and "Yellow wings". Two others, described by the German botanist Ernst Schelle in 1903, are also lost; "pendula", a cultivar with a leader and weeping branches, and "pendula nana", which grows into an umbrella-shaped tree with weeping branches but no leader. The larva of the autumnal moth ("Epirrita autumnata") feeds on the foliage of "Betula pubescens" and other tree species. In outbreak years, large areas of birch forest can be defoliated by this insect. Damage to the leaf tissue stimulates


title: "Betula pubescens" content: the tree to produce chemicals that reduce foliage quality, retarding the growth of the larvae and reducing their pupal weights. In Greenland, about seventy species of fungi have been found growing in association with "B. pubescens", as parasites or saprobes on living or dead wood. Some of the most common fungi include "Ceriporia reticulata", "Chondrostereum purpureum", "Exidia repanda", "Hyphoderma" spp, "Inonotus obliquus", "Inonotus radiatus", "Mycena galericulata", "Mycena rubromarginata", "Panellus ringens", "Peniophora incarnata", "Phellinus lundellii", "Radulomyces confluens", "Stereum rugosum", "Trechispora" spp., "Tubulicrinis" spp. and "Tyromyces chioneus". Birch dieback disease, associated with the fungal pathogens "Marssonina betulae" and "Anisogramma virgultorum", can affect


title: "Betula pubescens" content: planted trees, while naturally regenerated trees seem less susceptible. This disease also affects "Betula pendula" and in 2000 was reported at many of the sites planted with birch in Scotland during the 1990s. The outer layer of bark can be stripped off the tree without killing it and can be used to make canoe skins, drinking vessels and roofing tiles. The inner bark can be used for the production of rope and for making a form of oiled paper. This bark is also rich in tannin and has been used as a brown dye and as a preservative. The bark


title: "Betula pubescens" content: can also be turned into a high quality charcoal favoured by artists. The twigs and young branches are very flexible and make good whisks and brooms. The timber is pale in colour with a fine, uniform texture and is used in the manufacture of plywood, furniture, shelves, coffins, matches and toys, and in turnery. The Sami people of Scandinavia used the bark of both "B. pubescens" and "B. pendula" as an ingredient in bread-making; the reddish phloem, just below the outer bark, was dried, ground up and blended with wheat flour to make a traditional loaf. In Finland, mämmi, a


title: "Betula pubescens" content: traditional Easter food, was packed and baked in boxes of birch bark. Nowadays, cardboard boxes are used, but imprinted with the typical bark pattern. Birch bark was used as an emergency food in times of famine; in Novgorod in 1127–28, desperate people ate it along with such things as the leaves of lime trees, wood pulp, straw, husks and moss. In Iceland, trimmings of birch trees are used with birch sap in the making of a sweet birch liqueur. The removal of bark was at one time so widespread that Carl Linnaeus expressed his concern for the survival of the


title: "Betula pubescens" content: woodlands. The leaves can be infused with boiling water to make a tea, and extracts of the plant have been used as herbal remedies. Both "B. pubescens" and "B. pendula" can be tapped in spring to obtain a sugary fluid. This can be consumed fresh, concentrated into a syrup similar to the better-known maple syrup, or can be fermented into an ale or wine. In Scandinavia, this is done on a domestic scale, but in the former USSR, particularly Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, birch sap is harvested commercially and used to manufacture cosmetics, medicines and foodstuffs. Betula


title: "Building material" content: enlarge the lifetime. It is said that, 'if it must be done, it must be done well'. Pollution costs can be macro and micro. The macro, environmental pollution of extraction industries building materials rely on such as mining, petroleum, and logging produce environmental damage at their source and in transportation of the raw materials, manufacturing, transportation of the products, retailing, and installation. An example of the micro aspect of pollution is the off-gassing of the building materials in the building or indoor air pollution. Red List building materials are materials found to be harmful. Also the carbon footprint, the total


title: "Dead code elimination" content: the relevant routines from a particular library, and even if this would be supported, a routine may still include code sections which can be considered dead code in a given scenario, but could not be ruled out at compile time, already. The techniques used to dynamically detect demand, identify and resolve dependencies, remove such conditionally dead code, and to recombine the remaining code at load or runtime are called dynamic dead code elimination or dynamic dead instruction elimination. Most programming languages, compilers and operating systems offer no or little more support than dynamic loading of libraries and late linking, therefore


title: "Georg Elser" content: whole assassination attempt had been staged by the Nazis to portray Hitler as being protected by Providence. Many others, like quarry owner Georg Vollmer, building on his dead wife's contribution, weighed in with their version of the truth. In 1948, Allen Welsh Dulles, the future Director of Central Intelligence (de facto head of the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency) summed up a range of conspiracy theories when he wrote: In 1969, historical research by Anton Hoch based on The Gestapo Protokoll (interrogation report) dated 19–23 November 1939, found that Elser had acted alone and there was no evidence to involve the


title: "USCGC Eagle (WIX-327)" content: a pier in New Bedford, Massachusetts or Arundel Cove, Maryland, and sailed on training deployments during the summers. During this time, "Salmon P. Chase" undertook numerous voyages to Europe. From 1890-1894, "Salmon P. Chase" suspended operations as there was a surplus of graduates from the United States Naval Academy. In 1907, "Salmon P. Chase" was decommissioned and transferred to the Marine Hospital Service. She was replaced by the Revenue Cutter "Itasca", a former Naval Academy training vessel. In 1922, "Itasca" was determined to be too small for the cadet corps, and was decommissioned and scrapped. She was then replaced by


title: "Federal Hall" content: Federal Hall Federal Hall is the name given to the first of two historic buildings located at 26 Wall Street, New York City. The original, a Greek Revival structure completed in 1703, served as New York's first City Hall. It was the site where the colonial Stamp Act Congress met to draft its message to King George III claiming entitlement to the same rights as the residents of Britain and protesting "taxation without representation". After the American Revolution, it served as meeting place for the Congress of the Confederation held under the Articles of Confederation. In 1788, the building was


title: "Federal Hall" content: remodeled and enlarged under the direction of Pierre Charles L'Enfant, becoming the first example of Federal Style architecture in the United States. It was renamed Federal Hall when it became the first Capitol of the newly created United States in 1789 and hosted the 1st United States Congress. On its steps George Washington was sworn in as the first President. It was demolished in 1812. The current structure, completed in 1842 and one of the best surviving examples of neoclassical architecture in New York, was built as the U.S. Custom House for the Port of New York. Later it served


title: "Federal Hall" content: as a sub-Treasury building. Though never referred to as "Federal Hall", today it is operated by the National Park Service as a national memorial and designated the Federal Hall National Memorial to commemorate the historic events that occurred at the previous structure. The original structure on the site was built as New York's second City Hall in 1699 - 1703, on Wall Street, in what is today the Financial District of Lower Manhattan. In 1735, John Peter Zenger, an American newspaper publisher, was arrested for committing libel against the British royal governor and was imprisoned and tried there. His acquittal


title: "Federal Hall" content: on the grounds that the material he had printed was true established freedom of the press as it was later defined in the Bill of Rights. In October 1765, delegates from nine of the 13 colonies met as the Stamp Act Congress in response to the levying of the Stamp Act by the Parliament of Great Britain. Drawn together for the first time in organized opposition to British policy, the attendees drafted a message to King George III, the House of Lords, and the House of Commons, claiming entitlement to the same rights as the residents of Britain and protesting


title: "Federal Hall" content: the colonies' "taxation without representation". After the American Revolution, the City Hall served as the meeting place for the Congress of the Confederation of the United States under the Articles of Confederation, from 1785 until 1789. Acts adopted here included the Northwest Ordinance, which set up what would later become the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin, but more fundamentally prohibited slavery in these future states. In 1788, the building was remodeled and enlarged under the direction of Pierre Charles L'Enfant, who was later selected by President George Washington to design the capital city on the Potomac River.


title: "Federal Hall" content: This was the first example of Federal Style architecture in the United States. The building was renamed Federal Hall when it became the first Capitol of the United States under the Constitution in 1789. The 1st United States Congress met there on March 4, 1789, to establish the new federal government, and the first thing it did was to count the votes that elected George Washington as the first President of the United States. He was inaugurated on the balcony of the building on April 30, 1789. Many of the most important legislative actions in the United States occurred with


title: "Federal Hall" content: the 1st Congress at Federal Hall. Foremost was the proposal and initial ratification of the Bill of Rights to the U.S. Constitution; twelve amendments to the Constitution were initially drafted (ten were later adopted), and on September 25, 1789, the United States Bill of Rights was proposed in Federal Hall, establishing the freedoms claimed by the Stamp Act Congress on the same site 24 years earlier. Also, the Judiciary Act of 1789 was enacted in the building, which set up the United States federal court system that is still in use today. In 1790, the United States capital was moved


title: "Federal Hall" content: to Philadelphia, and what had been Federal Hall once again housed the government of New York City until 1812, when the building was razed with the opening of the current New York City Hall. Part of the original railing and balcony floor where Washington was inaugurated are on display in the memorial. The current structure, one of the best surviving examples of classical architecture in New York, was built as the first purpose-built U.S. Custom House for the Port of New York. Designed by John Frazee, it was constructed of Tuckahoe marble and took more than a decade to complete.


title: "Federal Hall" content: It opened in 1842. In 1862, Customs moved to 55 Wall Street and the building served as one of six United States Sub-Treasury locations. Millions of dollars of gold and silver were kept in the basement vaults until the Federal Reserve Bank replaced the Sub-Treasury system in 1920. In 1882, John Quincy Adams Ward's bronze "George Washington" statue was erected on its front steps, marking the approximate site where he was inaugurated as President in the former structure. In 1920, a bomb was detonated across the street from Federal Hall at 23 Wall Street, in what became known as the


title: "Federal Hall" content: Wall Street bombing. Thirty-eight people were killed and 400 injured, and 23 Wall Street was visibly damaged, but Federal Hall received no damage. A of the event shows the destruction and effects of the bombing with the statue of President Washington standing stoically in the face of chaos (see below). The building was designated as Federal Hall Memorial National Historic Site on May 26, 1939, and redesignated a national memorial on August 11, 1955. Administered by the National Park Service, it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966. Federal Hall was designated a landmark


title: "Federal Hall" content: by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission on . On September 6, 2002, approximately 300 members of the United States Congress traveled from Washington, D.C. to New York to convene in Federal Hall National Memorial as a symbolic show of support for the city, still recovering from the September 11, 2001 attacks. Held just four blocks from the former World Trade Center's Twin Towers, the meeting was the first by Congress in New York since 1790. The site closed on December 3, 2004, for extensive renovations. In 2006, Federal Hall National Memorial reopened after a $16 million renovation, mostly


title: "Federal Hall" content: to its foundation, after cracks threatening the structure were greatly aggravated by the collapse of the Towers. It was reported on June 8, 2008, that New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg and ABC News invited 2008 United States presidential candidates John McCain and Barack Obama to a town hall forum at Federal Hall. Both candidates declined the offer "because they do not want it limited to one television network." The National Park Service operates Federal Hall as a national memorial. As a national memorial, the site is open free to the public from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. on weekdays.


title: "Federal Hall" content: It has tourist information about the New York Harbor area's federal monuments and parks, and a New York City tourism information center. The gift shop has colonial and early American items for sale. Normally its exhibit galleries are open free to the public daily, except national holidays, and guided tours of the site are offered throughout the day. Exhibits include "George Washington’s Inauguration Gallery", including the Bible used to swear his oath of office; "Freedom of the Press", the imprisonment and trial of John Peter Zenger; and "New York: An American Capital", preview exhibit created by the National Archives and


title: "Federal Hall" content: Records Administration. Two prominent American ideals are reflected in the current building's Greek Revival architecture: The Doric columns of the facade, designed by Ithiel Town and Alexander Jackson Davis, resemble those of the Parthenon and serve as a tribute to the democracy of the Greeks; the domed ceiling inside, designed by John Frazee, echoes the Pantheon and is evocative of the republican ideals of the ancient Romans. The current structure is often overshadowed among downtown landmarks by the New York Stock Exchange, which is located diagonally across Wall and Broad Streets, but the site is one of the most important


title: "Federal Hall" content: in the history of the United States and, particularly, the foundation of the United States government and its democratic institutions. Engraved renditions of Federal Hall appear twice on U.S. postage stamps. The first stamp showing Federal Hall was issued on April 30, 1939, the 150th anniversary of President Washington's inauguration, where he is depicted on the balcony of Federal Hall taking the oath of office. The second issue was released in 1957, the 200th anniversary of Alexander Hamilton's birth. This issue depicts Alexander Hamilton and a full view of Federal Hall. Notes Sources Federal Hall Federal Hall is the name


title: "Garbage truck" content: Garbage truck Garbage truck or dustcart refers to a truck specially designed to collect municipal solid waste and haul the collected waste to a solid waste treatment facility such as a landfill. Other common names for this type of truck include trash truck in the United States, and rubbish truck, junk truck, dumpster, bin wagon, dustbin lorry, bin lorry or bin van elsewhere. Technical names include waste collection vehicle and refuse collection vehicle. These trucks are a common sight in most urban areas. Major U.S. manufacturers of garbage trucks include Mack and Autocar Trucks. Major manufacturers of garbage truck bodies


title: "Garbage truck" content: (not the truck itself) include McNeilus, and Heil. Wagons and other means had been used for centuries to haul away solid waste. Among the first self-propelled garbage trucks were those ordered by Chiswick District Council from the Thornycroft Steam Wagon and Carriage Company in 1897 described as a steam motor tip-car, a new design of body specific for "the collection of dust and house refuse". The 1920s saw the first open-topped trucks being used, but due to foul odors and waste falling from the back, covered vehicles soon became more common. These covered trucks were first introduced in more densely


title: "Garbage truck" content: populated Europe and then in North America, but were soon used worldwide. The main difficulty was that the waste collectors needed to lift the waste to shoulder height. The first technique developed in the late 20s to solve this problem was to build round compartments with massive corkscrews that would lift the load and bring it away from the rear. A more efficient model was the development of the hopper in 1929. It used a cable system that could pull waste into the truck. In 1937, George Dempster invented the "Dempster-Dumpster" system in which wheeled waste containers were mechanically tipped


title: "Garbage truck" content: into the truck. His containers were known as Dumpsters, which led to the word dumpster entering the language. In 1938, the Garwood Load Packer revolutionized the industry when the notion of including a compactor in the truck was implemented. The first primitive compactor could double a truck's capacity. This was made possible by use of a hydraulic press which compacted the contents of the truck periodically. 1955 saw the Dempster Dumpmaster the first front loader introduced, however they didn't become common until the 1970s. The 1970s also saw the introduction of smaller dumpsters, often known as wheelie bins which were


title: "Garbage truck" content: also emptied mechanically. Since that time there has been little dramatic change, although there have been various improvements to the compaction mechanisms in order to improve payload. In the mid-1970s Petersen Industries introduced the first grapple truck for municipal waste collection. In 1997, Lee Rathbun introduced the "Lightning Rear Steer System". This system includes an elevated, rear-facing cab for both driving the truck and operating the loader. This configuration allows the operator to follow behind haul trucks and load continuously. Front loaders generally service commercial and industrial businesses using large waste containers with lids known as Dumpsters in the US.


title: "Garbage truck" content: The truck is equipped with powered forks on the front which the driver carefully aligns with sleeves on the waste container using a joystick or a set of levers. The waste container is then lifted over the truck. Once it gets to the top the container is then flipped upside down and the waste or recyclable material is emptied into the vehicle's hopper. Once the waste is dumped, it is compacted by a hydraulically powered moving wall that oscillates backwards and forwards to push the waste to the rear of the vehicle. Most of the newer packing trucks have "pack-on-the-go


title: "Garbage truck" content: hydraulics" which lets the driver pack loads while driving, allowing faster route times. When the body is full, the compaction wall moves all the way to the rear of the body, ejecting it via an open tailgate. There is also a system called the Curotto Can which is an attachment for a front loader that has an automated arm that functions as an automated side loader that allows the driver to dump carts. Rear loaders have an opening at the rear that a waste collector can throw waste bags or empty the contents of bins into. Often in many areas


title: "Garbage truck" content: they have a lifting mechanism to automatically empty large carts without the operator having to lift the waste by hand. Another popular system for the rear loader is a rear load container specially built to fit a groove in the truck. The truck will have a chain or cable system for upending the container. The waste will then slide into the hopper of the truck. The modern rear loader usually compacts the waste using a hydraulically powered mechanism that employs a moving plate or shovel to scoop the waste out from the loading hopper and compress it against a moving


title: "Garbage truck" content: wall. In most compactor designs, the plate has a pointed edge (hence giving it the industry standard name "packer blade") which is designed to apply point pressure to the waste to break down bulky items in the hopper before being drawn into the main body of the truck. Compactor designs, however, have been many and varied, however the two most popular in use today are the "sweep and slide" system (first pioneered on the Leach 2R Packmaster), where the packer blade pivots on a moving carriage which slides back and forth, and the "swing link" system (such as the Dempster


title: "Garbage truck" content: Routechief) where the blade literally swings on a "pendulum"-style mechanism. The Heil Colectomatic used a combination of a lifting loading hopper and a pivoting sweeper blade to clear and compact waste in anticipation of the next load. So-called "continuous" compactors were popular in the 1960s and 1970s. The German Shark design (later Rotopress) used a huge rotating drum, analogous to a cement mixer, in conjunction with a serrated auger to grind down and compact the garbage. SEMAT-Rey of France pioneered the rotating rake system (also used in the British Shelvoke and Drewry Revopak) to both mutilate waste and break down


title: "Garbage truck" content: large items. Other systems used a large Archimedes' screw to draw in waste and mutilate it inside the body. A mixture of safety concerns, and higher fuel consumption has seen a decline in the popularity of continuously compacting garbage trucks. The Rotopress design remains popular due to its niche in being able to effectively deal with green waste for composting. The wall will move towards the front of the vehicle as the pressure forces the hydraulic valves to open, or as the operator moves it with a manual control. A unique rear-loading system involves a rear loader and a front-loading


title: "Garbage truck" content: tractor (usually a Caterpillar front loader with a Tink Claw) for yard waste collection (and in some cities, garbage and recycling). The front loader picks up yard waste set in the street, and then loaded into the back of a rear loader. This system is used in several cities, including San Jose. Side loaders are loaded from the side, either manually, or with the assistance of a joystick-controlled robotic arm with a claw, used to automatically lift and tip wheeled bins into the truck's hopper. Lift-equipped trucks are referred to as automated side loaders, or ASL's. Similar to a front-end


title: "Garbage truck" content: loader, the waste is compacted by an oscillating packer plate at the front of the loading hopper which forces the waste through an aperture into the main body and is therefore compacted towards the rear of the truck. An automated side loader only needs one operator, whereas a traditional rear load garbage truck may require two or three people, and has the additional advantage of reducing on the job injuries due to repetitive heavy lifting. Due to these advantages, ASLs have become more popular than traditional manual collection. Typically an automated side loader uses standardized wheeled carts compatible with the


title: "Garbage truck" content: truck's automated lift. Semi-automated side loaders use an automated mechanism to lift and dump manually aligned waste containers inside the main body of the truck. The primary difference of semi-automated side loaders is that they require more than one person, to operate the truck, and to manually bring and align containers to the loading hopper on the side of the truck. As with front loaders, the compaction mechanism comprises a metal pusher plate in the collection hopper which oscillates backwards and forwards under hydraulic pressure, pushing the refuse through an aperture, thus compacting it against the material already loaded. On


title: "Garbage truck" content: some ASLs there is also a "folding" crusher plate positioned above the opening in the hopper, that folds down to crush bulky items within reach of the metal pusher plate. Another compactor design is the "paddle packer" which uses a paddle that rotates from side to side, forcing refuse into the body of the truck. Pneumatic collection trucks have a crane with a tube and a mouthpiece that fits in a hole, usually hidden under a plate under the street. From here it will suck up waste from an underground installation. The system usually allows the driver to "pick up"


title: "Garbage truck" content: the waste, even if the access is blocked by cars, snow or other barriers. Grapple trucks enable the collection of bulk waste. A large percentage of items in the solid waste stream are too large or too heavy to be safely lifted by hand into traditional garbage trucks. These items (furniture, large appliances, branches, logs) are called bulky waste or "oversized." The preferred method for collecting these items is with a grapple truck. Grapple trucks have hydraulic knucklebooms, tipped with a clamshell bucket, and usually include a dump body or trailer. Roll-offs are characterized by a rectangular footprint, utilizing wheels


title: "Garbage truck" content: to facilitate rolling the dumpster in place. The container is designed to be transported by special roll-off trucks. They are relatively efficient for bulk loads of waste. A bin tipper is a machine which mechanically lifts and inverts bins for the purpose of emptying them. They are often components of larger machines such as garbage trucks, or can be 'standalone' or mobile units. Bin tippers typically have a steel frame, guarding and cradle, with a motor or crank-handle driving a lifting mechanism, which may be hydraulic or chain operated. Bins are placed into the machine, then lifted and inverted over


title: "Garbage truck" content: the destination receptacle, allowing the contents to be emptied by gravity. A side-load bin tipper was fitted to a garbage truck as early as 1929, by the Heil company in America. In the 1950s the Dempster Dumpmaster popularized the front-end loader variant, with bins being tipped over the cab of the truck. Both types of integrated bin tipper are now common on municipal refuse collection trucks. Standalone bin tippers developed later, with the release of a machine called the Simpro Ezi-Dump in 1990. The use of bin tippers and other lifting aids has been stimulated in recent years by research


title: "Garbage truck" content: linking heavy manual lifting with musculoskeletal disorders; some government organisations, schools and companies now prohibit emptying bins by hand. Health and safety concerns have also driven the adoption of bin tippers in the manufacturing, food-processing and construction industries. Garbage truck Garbage truck or dustcart refers to a truck specially designed to collect municipal solid waste and haul the collected waste to a solid waste treatment facility such as a landfill. Other common names for this type of truck include trash truck in the United States, and rubbish truck, junk truck, dumpster, bin wagon, dustbin lorry, bin lorry or bin van


title: "Wax gourd" content: Wax gourd Benincasa hispida, the wax gourd, also called ash gourd, white gourd, winter gourd, tallow gourd, ash pumpkin, and winter melon and “Chinese preserving melon” is a vine grown for its very large fruit, eaten as a vegetable when mature. It is the only member of the genus Benincasa. The fruit is fuzzy when young. The immature melon has thick white flesh that is sweet when eaten. By maturity, the fruit loses its hairs and develops a waxy coating, giving rise to the name "wax gourd", and providing a long shelf life. The melon may grow as large as


title: "Wax gourd" content: 80 cm in length. It has yellow flowers and broad leaves. The taste is rather bland. It is native to South Asia and Southeast Asia. The wax gourd is widely grown throughout Asia, including Java and Japan, the places where it is thought to have originated. The name “winter melon” that is sometimes given to this plant is based on the Chinese name (), however, the character () can also mean “gourd” or “squash”. It is likely that the name “melon” is given because this gourd is sometimes candied or made into a sweet tea; see the Uses section below.


title: "Wax gourd" content: It is grown in well drained loam and sandy soils, in warm mild climates, but will not tolerate frosts. The crops are grown in riverbeds or furrows, and needs constant irrigation during the growing season. The wax gourd requires very warm weather to grow but can be stored for many months much like winter squash. Ash gourds of the Indian subcontinent have a white coating with rough texture (hence the name ash gourd, literally, in some vernaculars). South East Asian varieties have a smooth waxy texture. It is one of the few vegetables available during winter in areas of deciduous


title: "Wax gourd" content: vegetation, hence its Chinese name literally means 'winter gourd'. The Wax Gourd can typically be stored for 12 months. In India, the wax gourd is recognized for its medicinal properties in the Ayurvedic system of medicine. It is also has significance in spiritual traditions of India and Yoga, where it is identified as a great source of Prana. In Vietnamese cuisine, it is called "bí đao", which is usually used to make soup or stew. When cooked with pork short ribs, the resulting soup is traditionally thought to help produce more milk for breastfeeding mothers. In Chinese cuisine the gourds


title: "Wax gourd" content: are used in stir fry or usually combined with pork or pork/beef bones to make winter gourd soup, often served in the scooped out gourd, carved by scraping off the waxy coating. It is also chopped and candied as wintermelon candy (táng dōng guā) to be commonly eaten at New Year festivals, or as filling for Sweetheart cake (lǎopó bǐng). It has also been used as the base filling in Chinese and Taiwanese mooncakes for the Moon Festival. In the Philippines it is candied (referred to plainly as "kundol") and is used as a pastry filling for bakpia ("hopia" in


title: "Wax gourd" content: the Philippines). It is also an ingredient in some savory soups (sabaw) and stir-fries (guisado). In Indian cuisine this gourd is traditionally used to prepare a wide variety of dishes. In northern India it is used to prepare a candy called "Petha". In South Indian cuisine, it is traditionally used to make a variety of curries, including a stew made with a yogurt base. The juice of raw ash gourd is used by the Mizo community of North-East India as a natural remedy to treat mild to severe dysentery.In north India particularly in middle Himalayas it is paired with pulses


title: "Wax gourd" content: such as moong which when squashed along with winter gourd results in the making of a dish locally called as 'BARI' which is then dried in the cool sunlight of Winters and after it become somewhat hard then this bari is used as a curry dish and eaten along with rice or chapati. This practice is done in Himalayas for quite a long time as people in mountains depends upon the nature to help them survive in harsh winter. This bari is great source of iron and lots of vitamins and eaten diversely in the mountains. In Nepal, where it


title: "Wax gourd" content: is called Kubhindo, it is cooked as a vegetable when young, but the ripe gourds are usually popular in making preserves or crystallized candied sweet known as "murabba" or "petha". Occasionally, it is used to produce a fruit drink with a very distinctive taste. It is usually sweetened with caramelized sugar. In Southeast Asia, the drink is widely marketed as wax gourd tea or wax gourd punch. The shoots, tendrils, and leaves of the plant may also be eaten as greens. Wax gourd Benincasa hispida, the wax gourd, also called ash gourd, white gourd, winter gourd, tallow gourd, ash pumpkin,


title: "Arthur Bremer" content: at Laurel Shopping Center, 16 miles away in Laurel, Maryland, there was minor heckling but it did not last. About 1,000 people were present; they were mostly quiet and it was generally a friendly crowd. After he had finished speaking, Wallace shook hands with some of those present, against the advice of his Secret Service guards. At approximately 4:00 p.m., Bremer pushed his way forward, aimed his .38 revolver at Wallace's abdomen and opened fire, emptying the weapon before he could be subdued. He hit Wallace four times. Wallace fell back and lost a pint of blood, going into a


title: "Maltese dog" content: Maltese dog The Maltese (), "Canis familiaris Maelitacus", is a small breed of dog in the Toy Group. It descends from dogs originating in the Central Mediterranean Area. The breed name and origins are generally understood to derive from the Mediterranean island nation of Malta. This ancient breed has been known by a variety of names throughout the centuries. It has also been known in English as the "ancient dog of Malta," the "Roman Ladies' Dog," the "Maltese Lion Dog," and "Melita" (the former name of Malta). The origin of the common name "Cokie" is unknown, but is believed to


title: "Maltese dog" content: have originated in the mid-1960s on the U.S. East Coast and spread in popular use. This breed has been referred to falsely as the "Bichon", a name that refers to the family ("small long-haired dog") and not the breed. The Kennel Club officially settled on the name "Maltese" for the breed in the 19th century. The Maltese is thought to have been descended from a Spitz-type dog found among the Swiss Lake Dwellers and was selectively bred to attain its small size. There is also some evidence that the breed originated in Asia and is related to the Tibetan Terrier;


title: "Maltese dog" content: however, the exact origin is unknown. The dogs probably made their way to Europe through the Middle East with the migration of nomadic tribes. Some writers believe these proto-Maltese were used for rodent control before the appearance of the breed gained paramount importance. The oldest record of this breed was found on a Greek amphora found in the Etruscan town of Vulci, in which a Maltese-like dog is portrayed along with the word Μελιταιε (Melitaie). Archaeologists date this ancient Athenian product to the decades around 500 BC. References to the dog can also be found in Ancient Greek and Roman


title: "Maltese dog" content: literature. Aristotle was the first to mention its name "Melitaei Catelli", when he compares the dog to a mustelid, around 370 BC. The first written document (supported by Stephanus of Byzantium) describing the small "Canis Melitaeus" was given by the Greek writer Callimachus, around 350 BC. Pliny suggests the dog as having taken its name from the Adriatic island Méléda; however, Strabo, in the early first century AD, identifies the breed as originating from the Mediterranean island of Malta, and writes that they were favored by noble women. During the first century, the Roman poet Martial wrote descriptive verses to


title: "Maltese dog" content: a small white dog named Issa owned by his friend Publius. It is commonly thought that Issa was a Maltese dog, and various sources link Martial's friend Publius with the Roman Governor Publius of Malta, though others do not identify him. John Caius, physician to Queen Elizabeth I, also claimed that Callimachus was referring to the island of Melita "in the Sicilian strait" (Malta). This claim is often repeated, especially by English writers. The dog's links to Malta are mentioned in the writings of Abbé Jean Quintin d'Autun, Secretary to the Grand Master of the Knights of Malta Philippe Villiers


title: "Maltese dog" content: de L'Isle-Adam, in his work "Insulae Melitae Descriptio". Around the 17th and 18th centuries, some breeders decided to "improve" the breed, by making it smaller still. Linnaeus wrote in 1792 that these dogs were about the size of a squirrel. The breed nearly disappeared and was crossbred with other small dogs such as Poodles and miniature Spaniels. In the early 19th century, there were as many as nine different breeds of Maltese dog. Parti-colour and solid colour dogs were accepted in the show ring from 1902 until 1913 in England, and as late as 1950 in Victoria, Australia. However, white


title: "Maltese dog" content: Maltese were required to be pure white. Coloured Maltese could be obtained from the south of France. The Maltese had been recognized as a FCI breed under the patronage of Italy in 1954, at the annual meeting in Interlaken, Switzerland. The current FCI standard is dated November 27, 1989, and the latest translation from Italian to English is dated April 6, 1998. The American Kennel Club recognized the breed in 1888, its latest standard being from March 10, 1964. Characteristics include slightly rounded skulls, with a finger-wide dome, a black button nose and brown eyes. They usually grow up to


title: "Maltese dog" content: be about 7-10 inches tall. The body is compact with the length equaling the height and the tail is almost always curled. The drop ears with (sometimes) long hair, and surrounded by darker skin pigmentation (called a "halo"), gives Maltese their expressive look. Lacking exposure to a lot sunlight, their noses can fade and become pink or light brown in color. This is often referred to as a "winter nose" and many times will become black again with increased exposure to the sun. The Maltese's paws are very sensitive to touch. The coat is long and silky and lacks an


title: "Maltese dog" content: undercoat. Some Maltese can have curly hair (especially behind their ears), but this is considered a fault. The colour of the coat is pure white. A pale ivory tinge is permitted on the ears. In some standards, a pure white coat with slight lemon markings is tolerated. The Maltese does not shed, and is therefore a good choice for people with dog allergies. Some people prefer their dogs to have the coat short. The most common cut for the Maltese is called "the puppy cut," which involves trimming or shaving the entire body (skirt, legs/paws, chest, and head fur) to


title: "Maltese dog" content: one short length (typically less than an inch long). Adult Maltese range from roughly , though breed standards, as a whole, call for weights between 5-8 lbs. There are variations depending on which standard is being used. The American Kennel Club calls for a weight between , with preferred, while the FCI standard popular in Europe prefers a heavier Maltese between . They stand normally . As per the AKC standard: The Maltese moves with a jaunty, smooth, flowing gait. Viewed from the side, they give an impression of rapid movement, size considered. In the stride, the forelegs reach straight


title: "Maltese dog" content: and free from the shoulders, with elbows close. Hind legs to move in a straight line. Cowhocks or any suggestion of hind leg toeing in or out are faults. Maltese are bred to be companion dogs. They are extremely lively and playful, and even as a Maltese ages, its energy level and playful demeanor remain fairly constant. Some Maltese may occasionally be snappish with smaller children and should be supervised when playing, although socializing them at a young age will reduce this habit. They also adore humans, and prefer to stay near them. The Maltese is very active within a


title: "Maltese dog" content: house, and, preferring enclosed spaces, does very well with small yards. For this reason, the breed also fares well in apartments and townhouses, and is a prized pet of urban dwellers. Some Maltese may suffer from separation anxiety. An Australia-wide (not including Tasmania) research project carried out in conjunction with RSPCA found owners likely to dump their Maltese, citing the tendency of Maltese to bark constantly. This breed is Australia's most dumped dog. In addition, figures released in 2010 by the Korean National Veterinary Research and Quarantine Service show that some 1,208 Maltese were abandoned between January and August 2010,


title: "Maltese dog" content: making it the most abandoned breed in Seoul, South Korea. Maltese have no undercoat, and have little to no shedding if cared for properly. Like their relatives, the Poodles and Bichon Frisé, they are considered to be largely hypoallergenic and many people who are allergic to dogs may not be allergic to the Maltese. Daily cleaning is required to prevent the risk of tear-staining. Many owners find that a weekly bath is sufficient for keeping the coat clean, although it is recommended to not wash a dog so often, so washing every three weeks is sufficient, although if the dog


title: "Maltese dog" content: keeps clean even longer than that. They need to be professionally groomed about once every month and a half. Regular grooming is also required to prevent the coats of non-shedding dogs from matting. Many owners will keep their Maltese clipped in a "puppy cut", a 1–2 in (2.5–5 cm) all over trim that makes the dog resemble a puppy. Some owners, especially those who show Maltese in the sport of conformation, prefer to wrap the long fur to keep it from matting and breaking off, and then to show the dog with the hair unwrapped combed out to its full


title: "Maltese dog" content: length. Some Maltese need to be blow-dried in order to prevent mats because drying is ineffective to some dogs. Maltese dogs can exhibit signs of tear staining underneath the eyes. Dark staining in the hair around the eyes ("tear staining") can be a problem in this breed, and is mostly a function of how much the individual dog's eyes water and the size of the tear ducts. To get rid of tear staining, a solution or powder can be specially made for tear stains, which can often be found in local pet stores. A fine-toothed metal pet comb, moistened with


title: "Maltese dog" content: hot water and applied perhaps twice weekly, also works extremely well. The antibiotic Cephalexin has been shown to completely clear up "tear staining" in some cases. Maltese are susceptible to "reverse sneezing", which sounds like a honking, snorting or gagging sound and results often from over-excitement, play, allergies, or upon waking up. It is not life-threatening or dangerous—it will go away after about a minute. They are ranked 59th out of 79 in Stanley Coren's "The Intelligence of Dogs", which indexes obedience and the ability of a dog breed to follow commands, with very light focus on skills seen outside


title: "Maltese dog" content: of working breeds, such as emotional intelligence. Maltese tend to have many or several tooth problems usually resulting in cavities, without proper care the infected teeth may fall out as the dog gets older. Maltese might need additional care and have their teeth brushed with a soft-bristled toothbrush and special dog toothpaste every week to avoid tooth problems. Maltese dog The Maltese (), "Canis familiaris Maelitacus", is a small breed of dog in the Toy Group. It descends from dogs originating in the Central Mediterranean Area. The breed name and origins are generally understood to derive from the Mediterranean island


title: Abelia content: Abelia Abelia is a formerly recognized genus that contained about 30 species and hybrids, placed in the honeysuckle family, Caprifoliaceae. Molecular phylogenetic studies showed that the genus was not monophyletic, and in 2013, Maarten Christenhusz proposed the merger of "Abelia" (excluding section "Zabelia") into "Linnaea", along with some other genera. "Abelia" section "Zabelia" was raised to the genus "Zabelia". Species formerly placed in "Abelia" are shrubs from 1–6 m tall, native to eastern Asia (Japan west to the Himalaya) and southern North America (Mexico); the species from warm climates are evergreen, and colder climate species deciduous. The leaves are opposite


title: Abelia content: or in whorls of three, ovate, glossy, dark green, 1.5–8 cm long, turning purplish-bronze to red in autumn in the deciduous species. The flowers appear in the upper leaf axils and stem ends, 1-8 together in a short cyme; they are pendulous, white to pink, bell-shaped with a five-lobed corolla, 1–5 cm long, and usually scented. Flowering continues over a long and continuous period from late spring to fall. The generic name commemorates Clarke Abel, a keen naturalist who accompanied Lord Amherst's unsuccessful embassy to China in 1816 as surgeon, under the sponsorship of Sir Joseph Banks. All of Abel's


title: Abelia content: seeds and plants were lost in a shipwreck on the homeward voyage, however; living plants of "Abelia chinensis" (now "Linnaea chinensis") were first imported to England in 1844 by Robert Fortune. Some species placed in "Abelia" were transferred to "Linnaea" at various times from 1872 onwards, but these transfers were not accepted by most botanists. Molecular phylogenetic studies showed that a number of genera traditionally placed in the tribe Linnaeeae were closely related, but that "Abelia" was not monophyletic, even with "Abelia" section "Zabelia" split off as a separate genus "Zabelia". In 2013, Maarten Christenhusz proposed that "Abelia" and related


title: Abelia content: genera be merged into "Linnaea". This proposal has been adopted by recent sources, including the Plants of the World Online. Species and synonyms previously placed in "Abelia" but now placed in other genera include: Abelia Abelia is a formerly recognized genus that contained about 30 species and hybrids, placed in the honeysuckle family, Caprifoliaceae. Molecular phylogenetic studies showed that the genus was not monophyletic, and in 2013, Maarten Christenhusz proposed the merger of "Abelia" (excluding section "Zabelia") into "Linnaea", along with some other genera. "Abelia" section "Zabelia" was raised to the genus "Zabelia". Species formerly placed in "Abelia" are shrubs


title: "Idols South Africa" content: the official finale Sasha Lee Davids was announced the winner, with 52.77% of the votes. Four days later, Idols announced that there had been problems with the voteline, and some of the votes that were sent before the cut-off time were not counted. The investigation hit the front page of the "Times" on 8 May 2009 and later in the day it was announced on www.mnet.co.za/idols/ that the recount had showed that Jason Hartman had received 200000 more votes than Sasha Lee Davids(of 2.3 million total votes in the finale (recount)). After discussion between M-Net and FremantleMedia (the format owners),


title: "Violet-green swallow" content: Violet-green swallow The violet-green swallow ("Tachycineta thalassina") is a small North American passerine bird in the swallow family. These aerial insectivores are distributed along the west coast from Alaska to Mexico, extending as far east as Montana and Texas. With an appearance very similar to the tree swallow, these individuals can be identified by the white rump side-patches that appear to separate their green back and purple tail. Violet-green swallows are secondary cavity nesters, found in a number of habitats including deciduous and coniferous forests. In addition to nesting in tree holes within these habitats, they are also widely observed


title: "Violet-green swallow" content: nesting in the cracks of large cliffs. The distinct body form of swallows distinguishes them from other passerine birds. Their long pointed wings and slim, streamlined body evolved to catch insects while in flight. The body of the violet-green swallow is no exception. With an average body length of 5¼ in. (13 cm), the violet-green swallow is slightly shorter and appears more compact in flight compared to other members of the Hirundinidae family. The violet-green swallow most closely resembles the North American tree swallow, but can be distinguished by its shorter wings and colouration. The violet-green swallow gets its name


title: "Violet-green swallow" content: from the colouration on its back and rump. The species is best identified by the glossy green on the top of the head and back as well as hints of purple on the nape, rump and upper tail. Below the green back, the remainder of the wing is a grayish-bronze. Similar to other swallows, "T. thalassina" is white below, but differs in that the white continues onto rump side-patches that almost meet at the base of the tail. These white rump side-patches sometimes look like one continuous stripe when in flight. White also extends onto the cheeks, partially surrounding the


title: "Violet-green swallow" content: eye. The notch in the tail of the violet-green swallow is slightly shallower than that of the tree swallow, but deeper than the relatively flat tail of the cliff swallow. Violet-green swallows exhibit very little sexual dimorphism, with adult males simply showing brighter colours than adult females. Additionally, the white cheeks are not as prominent and the head is more bronze than green on the female. Juveniles are not as easily identifiable compared to adults due to their dull colouration. Similar to other juvenile swallows, especially the tree swallow, the juvenile violet-green swallow is white below and grayish-brown above. However,


title: "Violet-green swallow" content: the more gradual change in colour and visible (but slightly reduced) white cheek patches can help identify juvenile individuals of the species. The swallows have been well studied ecologically, but only recently has their phylogeny been thoroughly researched. Swallows are passerine birds grouped within the family Hirundinidae. The family Hirundinidae is split into two subfamilies: Pseudochelidoninae, which contains two species of river martins, and Hirundininae, comprising all other martins and swallows. The 82 species within the subfamily "Hirundininae" are further classified into three groupings: the mud nesters, basal relicts and core martins, with the violet-green swallow falling into the latter.


title: "Violet-green swallow" content: Violet-green swallows are one of 9 species of New World tree swallows within the genus "Tachycineta". This genus is a monophyletic group and is considered the sister taxa of all other New World swallows. Violet-green swallows are important members of the "Tachycineta" clade due to their large geographic range and because they are one of 2 species that breed within North America. It is agreed upon that "Tachycineta" is split into a North and South American clade, but the phylogenetic placement within the genus depends on the type of analysis used. The violet-green swallow is a member of the North


title: "Violet-green swallow" content: American grouping, along with "T. bicolor" (the North American tree swallow), "T. euchrysea" (the golden swallow of Hispaniola and Jamaica) and "T. cyaneoviridis" (the Bahama swallow). A mitochondrial genome analysis has placed "T. thalassina" as a sister taxon of the Caribbean swallows, "T. euchrysea" and "T. cyaneoviridis", with all 3 species forming a sister clade to "T. bicolor". Nuclear genome analyses and a consensus of both methods have reorganized this North American clade, alternating the closest sister taxon of "T. thalassina" between "T. cyaneoviridis" and "T. euchrysea". Nonetheless, the taxonomy of the violet-green swallow is well understood up to the


title: "Violet-green swallow" content: genus level, after which some uncertainty surrounds the placement of "T. thalassina" within the North American clade of the genus "Tachycineta". Violet-green swallows are divided into three subspecies, T. t. thalassina, T. t. brachyptera and T. t. lepida differing in breeding ranges and wing length. "T. t. thalassina" has slightly longer wings and has been known to breed as far north as Alaska, while the shorter winged "T. t. brachyptera" breeds further south in California and Mexico. Not all of the literature agrees upon "T. t. lepida" as a 3rd subspecies, and little information is available to help distinguish it


title: "Violet-green swallow" content: from other subspecies. Hybridization has been known to occur among the swallows, with a few cases involving violet-green swallows being reported. Breeding between violet-green swallows and both tree and barn swallows has been recorded on separate occasions, but resulting offspring were not observed. In 2000, the strange plumage of a swallow seen in British Columbia, Canada suggested the possible successful hybridization of a violet-green and cliff swallow. Nonetheless, these observations are rare hence why minimal research has looked into swallow hybridization. The type of habitat occupied by violet-green swallows varies depending on their geographical location and elevation. Across their range,


title: "Violet-green swallow" content: these birds can be found in deciduous, coniferous and mixed forests, as well as within canyons and in close proximity to large cliffs. Breeding and non-breeding habitats do not differ much except that breeding habitat is usually at lower elevations. Violet-green swallows have also been observed nesting around buildings in more settled areas. Violet-green swallows are a predominantly western species, with the rare sighting of individuals in eastern North America. The distribution of the species can be divided based on the recognized subspecies, but the entire range spans from central Alaska down to Mexico. Longitudinally, the range borders the west


title: "Violet-green swallow" content: coast of Alaska, British Columbia and the United States, and extends eastward into southwestern Alberta, Montana, the Dakotas and Texas. The breeding range spans almost the entire distribution, while the winter range is restricted to Mexico. There are many knowledge gaps surrounding the vocalization behaviour of violet-green swallows. These gaps include vocalizations made during early development, alarm calls and the daily pattern of calls. The little information available suggests two main classes of vocalizations, the "chee-chee" calls and "twitter" calls. This call is most commonly heard when one violet-green swallow interacts with another swallow, either during foraging, in-flight chases or


title: "Violet-green swallow" content: when approaching a nesting site. Flocks of swallows have been recorded making "chee-chee" calls, suggesting its use in social cohesion. Juveniles have also been observed making this vocalization when waiting to be fed by an adult, implying that it plays a role in parent-juvenile recognition. Observations of violet-green swallows making "twitter" calls typically associate the vocalization with courtship displays and the establishment of new territories. Twitter calls have only been heard in flight, either by a male escorting a female or during brief intraspecific territorial disputes. Mixing of the two calls occurs occasionally, but little ecological research can explain its


title: "Violet-green swallow" content: use. Similar to other swallows, violet-green swallows are specialized aerial insectivores, catching and eating their prey while in flight. However, they have been known to feed higher in the sky than most other swallows.The examination of the stomach contents of multiple individuals has presented a wide range of diet items, including insects like ants, beetles and flies as well as other arthropods such as spiders. On rare occurrences these birds have been observed foraging along the ground, but such events represent exceptions to their typical feeding habits. Violet-green swallows will usually arrive to their breeding area weeks prior to the


title: "Violet-green swallow" content: start of reproduction. Location dependent, copulation takes place mid-May with the eggs being laid by the start of June, followed by a couple weeks of incubation before hatching. The average clutch size is 5 eggs, with females laying approximately 1 per day. During the weeks post-hatching, their parents feed the young as they slowly begin to grow their feathers. After approximately 3 weeks the young are ready to leave the nest. It is more common for pairs to reproduce once per breeding season, but a second brooding has been observed on occasion. Violet-green swallows are secondary cavity nesters, meaning they


title: "Violet-green swallow" content: typically nest in natural holes or previously occupied nests. Some breeding pairs will even go as far as usurping nests from other species. A majority of violet-green swallow nests are in tree holes excavated by other animals or within the cracks of large cliffs. Due to their dependence on large trees, violet-green swallows are highly impacted by forest management practices. In addition to nesting in natural cavities, violet-green swallows have also been observed occupying artificial nest boxes. Pairs typically breed in independent nests, except on cliffs where large colonies can be found nesting together. Violet-green swallows have been observed cooperating


title: "Violet-green swallow" content: and competing with various avian species, including western bluebirds. A similar field observation notes a violet-green swallow laying an egg in an active bluebird nest box. Initially, the male bluebird attempted to drive the swallow from the nest cavity, while the female bluebird did not seem concerned with the intruder. It appeared the bluebirds tolerated the act of egg-dumping by the violet-green swallow, but the observer returned the following day to find the newly laid egg smashed below the nest. This behaviour suggests that when unable to access her original nest after physiologically committing to laying her egg, a female


title: "Violet-green swallow" content: violet-green swallow may participate in interspecific egg-dumping. Violet-green swallows are secondary cavity nesters and aerial insectivores, making males susceptible to nest and mate competition. To avoid being cuckolded, males spend more time guarding their mate than their nest, contrary to tree swallows. This paternity-defence behaviour emphasizes that non-territorial violet-green swallows exhibit greater mate competition than nesting site competition. Multiple accounts of violet-green swallows forming cooperative relationships with other species have been recorded. From 1981 to 1982, three independent swallow pairs were observed co-occupying the nest boxes of western bluebirds. These violet-green swallows protected the nesting site, removed fecal sacs from


title: "Violet-green swallow" content: the boxes and fed the bluebird fledglings with no resistance from the adult western bluebirds. Despite too small of a sample size to hold statistical significance, fledgling survival was greater when violet-green swallows provided active care. It is believed that the swallows benefit from the cooperative relationship by inheriting the nest box after the bluebird parents and fledglings have left. Similar to the occasional observation of violet-green swallows building interspecific cooperative relationships, they have also been involved in interspecific competition for nesting sites. One example from 1974, noted the competitive behaviour between mountain chickadees and violet-green swallows. The physical altercation