title: "Cladonia rangiferina" content: many lichens, is slow growing (3–11 mm per year) and may take decades to return once overgrazed, burned, trampled, or otherwise consumed. A similar-looking species, also known by the common name "reindeer lichen", is "Cladonia portentosa". Thalli are fruticose, and extensively branched, with each branch usually dividing into three or four (sometimes two); the thicker branches are typically 1–1.5 mm in diameter. The color is grayish, whitish or brownish grey. "C. rangiferina" forms extensive mats up to 10 cm tall. The branching is at a smaller angle than that of "Cladonia portentosa". It lacks a well-defined cortex (a protective layer


title: "Cladonia rangiferina" content: covering the thallus, analogous to the epidermis in plants), but rather, a loose layer of hyphae cover the photobionts. The photobiont associated with the reindeer lichen is "Trebouxia irregularis". It grows on humus, or on soil over rock. it also grows mostly in taiga and the tundra. "Cladonia rangiferina" often dominates the ground in boreal pine forests and open, low-alpine sites in a wide range of habitats, from humid, open forests, rocks and heaths. A specific biome in which this lichen is represented is the Boreal forests of Canada. In certain parts of its range, this lichen is a threatened


title: "Cladonia rangiferina" content: species. For example, in the British Duchy of Cornwall it is protected under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan. A variety of bioactive compounds have been isolated and identified from "C. rangiferina", including abietane, labdane, isopimarane, the abietane diterpenoids hanagokenols A and B, ontuanhydride, sugiol, 5,6-dehydrosugiol, montbretol, "cis"-communic acid, imbricatolic acid, 15-acetylimbricatoloic acid, junicedric acid, 7α-hydroxysandaracopimaric acid, β-resorylic acid, atronol, barbatic acid, homosekikaic acid, didymic acid and condidymic acid. Some of these compounds have mild inhibitory activities against methicillin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" and vancomycin-resistant "Enterococci". Exposure to UV-B radiation induces the accumulation of usnic acid and melanic compounds. Usnic acid is thought


title: "Cladonia rangiferina" content: to play a role in protecting the photosymbiont by absorbing excess UV-B. This lichen can be used in the making of aquavit, and is sometimes used as decoration in glass windows. The lichen is used as a traditional remedy for removal of kidney stones by the Monpa in the alpine regions of the West Kameng district of Eastern Himalaya. The Inland Dena'ina used reindeer lichen for food by crushing the dry lichen and then boiling it or soaking it in hot water until it becomes soft. They eat it plain or, preferably, mixed with berries, fish eggs, or lard. The


title: "Cladonia rangiferina" content: Inland Dena'ina also boil reindeer lichen and drink the juice as a medicine for diarrhea. Due to acids present in lichens, their consumption may cause an upset stomach, especially if not well cooked. A study released in May 2011 claims that some species of lichens, including "Cladonia rangiferina", are able to degrade the deadly prion implicated in transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) through the enzyme serine protease. Cladonia rangiferina Cladonia rangiferina, also known as reindeer lichen (c.p. Sw. "renlav"), lat., is a light-colored, fruticose lichen belonging to the family Cladoniaceae. It grows in both hot and cold climates in well-drained, open


title: "Kenora District" content: an informal name for the part of the Kenora District lying north of the Albany River, which was transferred from the Northwest Territories to Ontario on May 15, 1912 in the Ontario Boundaries Extension Act, 1912. This area was originally a separate division named Patricia District, but became part of Kenora District in 1937. With the exception of a few communities along the northernmost ends of Highway 599 and the Highway 105/Highway 125 corridor, the Patricia Portion consists almost entirely of remote First Nations communities which are only accessible by float plane or winter road. Accordingly, the name "Patricia Portion"


title: "Vincent Auriol" content: in 1908; he was head of the Association of Journalists in Toulouse at this time. In 1914, Auriol entered the Chamber of Deputies as a Socialist Deputy for Muret, a position he retained until 1942. He also served as Mayor of Muret from 3 May 1925 to 17 January 1947, and as a member of the Conseil Général of Haute-Garonne from 1928 to 17 January 1947. In December 1920, after the breakup of the SFIO, Auriol refused to join the newly created SFIC and became one of the leaders of the new SFIO (the remaining socialist minority), along with Léon


title: Yonaguni content: form a part of Okinawa Prefecture. On May 4, 1998, a part of the island was destroyed by a submarine earthquake. As a result of increased tensions between Japan, China, and Taiwan over the disputed sovereignty of the Japanese-controlled uninhabited Senkaku/Diaoyu/Tiaoyutai Islands which are located roughly 80 nautical miles north-northeast of Yonaguni Island, Japan began construction in 2014 of a coastal monitoring/early warning station with radar and other sensors on Yonaguni to counter a perceived threat from Chinese forces. The initial planned complement of a 150 troops include personnel stationed at a physically separate garrison camp located on the outskirts


title: "Park Ji-sung" content: against the New England Revolution and in a 7–0 win against Seattle Sounders FC. In the last USA tour game, which Manchester United won 4–0, Park was named the man of the match after scoring a goal on the stroke of half-time. On 28 August 2011, Park scored the sixth goal in an 8–2 home win against Arsenal, shortly after coming on as a second-half substitute. Park made his first start of the season in the Premier League in a 2–0 home win against Norwich City. Late on in the game he was involved in a neat one-two with Danny


title: "Chrysler Crossfire" content: Chrysler Crossfire The Chrysler Crossfire is a rear-wheel drive, two-seat sports car that was sold by Chrysler and built by Karmann of Germany for the 2004 to 2008 model years. Developed during the union of Daimler and Chrysler, the two-seater is based on the Mercedes-Benz R170 platform and shares 80% of its components with the first generation SLK. The second generation SLK was built on a new R171 platform starting in the 2005 model year; the R170 platform was essentially handed down to Chrysler for use in building the Crossfire. Having initially arrived in 2001 as a concept car styled


title: "Chrysler Crossfire" content: by Eric Stoddard, the Chrysler was further refined by Andrew Dyson before production began in 2003 for 2004 model year sales. The name "Crossfire" refers to the two character lines that run from front to rear along the body sides — their crease directions cross below the mirrors on the door panels. Conceived during the period of Chrysler's ownership by Daimler-Benz, the name also refers to the collaboration of the two companies. The Chrysler Crossfire concept car was introduced at the 2001 North American International Auto Show and the production version unveiled at the 2002 Los Angeles Auto Show as


title: "Chrysler Crossfire" content: a 2004 model "is as faithful a translation from concept to production as any in recent memory." The concept car was made "to evoke a strong, passionate, emotional response. We had to retain that. We want to polarize our audience—we want people to love it or hate it." Conceived to be a two-seat image building or halo car for the Chrysler brand, the marketing objective was also to make use of available components using a two-seat roadster chassis. The production car shares about 39% of its parts with Mercedes-Benz vehicles and Chrysler dealers were required to invest in special equipment,


title: "Chrysler Crossfire" content: tools, and parts to be able to sell the new luxury model. The rear-wheel-drive Crossfire coupe design objective was to make an "impression" with looks that are "unique, almost sculptural." The Crossfire's visual presence includes a wide body raked over relatively huge 19-inch rear wheels and 18-inch front wheels. The most distinctive design element is the fastback roof and broad rear fenders made for a rear end design that prompted automotive journalists and writers to compare the new car to American Motors' 1965–1967 AMC Marlin. The "distinctive boat-tail rear end that reminds more than one observer of the old Rambler


title: "Chrysler Crossfire" content: Marlin." For example, Rob Rothwell wrote "... when I first espied the rear lines of the Chrysler Crossfire I was instantly transported back to 1965 and my favorite car of that year, the Rambler Marlin." "Motor Trend" also compared the "provocative boattail theme" of the 2004 Crossfire's sheetmetal to that of the AMC Marlin fastback. Likewise, the new Chrysler's boat-tail is "formed as the edges of the roof converge into a kind of teardrop shape, leaving the rear fenders to flare out over the rear wheels." Chrysler executed the interior and exterior styling. All other elements of the car such


title: "Chrysler Crossfire" content: as wheelbase, track, engine, transmission, chassis structure, suspension components, are shared with the R170 platform. An example of this is the engine bay of the Crossfire, which is virtually identical to the Mercedes-Benz SLK320 on the R170 platform. The seats from the Mercedes-Benz SLK320 would bolt directly into the Crossfire chassis. The dashboard layout, controls and instruments are also similar to those on the Mercedes-Benz SLK320. The standard transmission is a 6-speed manual with an optional 5-speed automatic. Base (Standard) and Limited models, originally sold beginning in the 2004 model year, are equipped with a Mercedes-Benz M112 3.2 L, 18-valve,


title: "Chrysler Crossfire" content: SOHC V6 engine which produced and of torque. SRT-6 models were equipped with a supercharged version of the M112 engine built by Mercedes' performance branch, AMG. SRT-6 models came only with the 5-speed automatic transmission, consistent with AMG cars of the same era. The 6-speed transmission used by the Chrysler Crossfire is a variant of the Mercedes sourced NSG-370. The 5-speed automatic transmission in the Crossfire (known as 5G-Tronic) is also Mercedes sourced and a variant of the 722.6 family. The automatic achieves a better EPA fuel efficiency rating over the 6MT, mostly due to the difference in gear ratios.


title: "Chrysler Crossfire" content: Unlike most cars of its time, the Crossfire does not use a rack and pinion steering system; instead, it utilizes a recirculating ball system as employed on the donor R170 platform. Front suspension is unequal length (SLA) double wishbone suspension with 5 point multi link in the rear. Just like the concept car, all Crossfire models were built with two different wheel sizes measuring 18x7.5-inch on the front and 19x9-inch on the rear. Standard all-season tires were 225/40R18 on the front and 255/35R19 on the rear. The first production Crossfire was driven off the assembly line on 3 February 2003,


title: "Chrysler Crossfire" content: by Chrysler Group's COO Wolfgang Bernhard in Germany. The Chrysler Crossfire's standard features included large alloy wheels with performance-rated tires, a Becker (part of Harman/Kardon)–sourced AM/FM stereo with anti-theft system and a single-disc CD player, keyless entry with security alarm, a power-retractable rear wing spoiler, leather-trimmed seating surfaces, dual power front sports bucket seats, full instrumentation, a 3.2L V6 engine with manual transmission, rear-wheel-drive (RWD), a leather-wrapped and stitched steering wheel, a power-retractable cloth convertible roof (for convertible models), front floor mats, and air conditioning. Optional features on the Chrysler Crossfire included an automatic transmission, a six-speaker premium Infinity sound


title: "Chrysler Crossfire" content: system with two "subwoofers" mounted directly behind each seat, a CD-based GPS navigational system, exterior paint colors, and additional interior color choices. The original contract with Karmann to build the Crossfire was for about five years with an annual sales target of 20,000 units in the United States. Sales of the Crossfire were slow, with an average 230-day supply of the vehicles during November 2005. A small number of Crossfires were imported to the United States and Mexico for 2006 (and almost all of these were roadsters). Chrysler discontinued the Crossfire after the 2008 model year, as part of its


title: "Chrysler Crossfire" content: restructuring plans. The last Crossfire rolled off of the assembly line on December 17, 2007. For the first model year (2004), only the coupe was offered (with no trim levels), equipped quite similarly to the next year's Limited model. In model year 2005, there were two models available; Coupe and Roadster, each with three trim levels: Base (with fewer amenities), Limited, and SRT-6 (supercharged). There was an SE Roadster model (essentially a base model) in 2006-2007 available only in Blaze Red Crystal Pearl and with black accented 15-spoke SRT-6 style wheels. Base Crossfire models, both Coupe and Roadster, have black


title: "Chrysler Crossfire" content: painted windshield frames, black filler plugs (in place of fog-lights) in the front fascia, and fabric seats with separate, movable headrests. Limited and SRT-6 models, both Coupe and Roadster, all have silver painted windshield frames and are equipped with fog lights. The Limited has leather upholstery. The SRT-6 model has unique Leather/Alcantara upholstery. The SRT-6 trim level, as both coupe and convertible, featured an AMG supercharged engine delivering and of torque. Other SRT-6 model-specific features included suspension and brake modifications, a front fascia air dam and a fixed rear spoiler. The Crossfire SRT-6 model used the same drivetrain, suspension, and


title: "Chrysler Crossfire" content: braking components as those used on the Mercedes-Benz SLK 32 AMG. The standard tires were upgraded to Z-rated Michelin Pilot Sports, sized 225/40R18 on the front and 255/35R19s in back. In 2006, the SRT-6 was changed to special order only. Chrysler Crossfire The Chrysler Crossfire is a rear-wheel drive, two-seat sports car that was sold by Chrysler and built by Karmann of Germany for the 2004 to 2008 model years. Developed during the union of Daimler and Chrysler, the two-seater is based on the Mercedes-Benz R170 platform and shares 80% of its components with the first generation SLK. The second


title: WNUV content: to legally permit a duopoly (the FCC requires a market to have eight unique station owners once a duopoly is formed—effectively limiting duopolies to markets with at least nine full-power stations). As a result, WNUV was one of five stations retained by Glencairn, which was renamed Cunningham Broadcasting. However, Cunningham (and WNUV) is still effectively owned by Sinclair since most of its stock is held by trusts owned by the Smith family. There is nearly uncontestable evidence that Glencairn/Cunningham has served as a corporate shell used by Sinclair to circumvent FCC ownership rules. On January 24, 2006, Time Warner and


title: WMYA-TV content: initially signed on during the early afternoon hours and carried a mix of cartoons, a couple of low-budget barter syndicated series, some religious programs, and even U.S. Army training films. Later in 1979, Harte-Hanks sold the station to Frank Outlaw, founder of the BI-LO chain. Outlaw, who had sold BI-LO to Ahold in 1977, changed the station's calls to WAXA. The station began signing on at 7:00 a.m. every day and added low-budget syndicated shows such as very old sitcoms, westerns, and older movies to the lineup. In the fall of 1979, WAXA activated a more powerful transmitter in Fountain


title: "Mariano Rumor" content: 1974, the legal minimum for pensions was raised to 27.75% of the average industrial wage for 1973. A law of 16 July 1974 extended family allowances to INPS pensioners, in lieu of child supplements. A law of August 1974 extended hospital assistance to all those not previously covered by any scheme. He was born in Vicenza, Veneto. He graduated in Letters and was elected to the Constituent Assembly, which was opening the way for the new Italian Parliament of the Italian Republic, in 1946. In 1973, Interior Minister Mariano Rumor was attacked by Gianfranco Bertoli, a self-described anarchist. Four were


title: "Chrysler New Yorker" content: sound insulation and revised structural engineering to give it a quieter ride. A new built-in transmitter replaced the remote garage door opener. The antenna was now integrated in the rear window. Due to similarities between the New Yorker and LHS, and the LHS's strong sales, the New Yorker name was dropped after a short 1996 production run. Despite being far more contemporary and monochromatic in design compared to previous models, the traditional New Yorker with its two-tone cladding and chrome trim still did not follow the modern, monochromatic styling trend of the division's other vehicles in 1996. The fourteenth, and


title: "The Vicar of Wakefield" content: of the vicar is restored, as the bankrupt merchant is reported to be found. The book consists of 32 chapters which fall into three parts: Chapter 17, when Olivia is reported to be fled, can be regarded as the climax as well as an essential turning point of the novel. From chapter 17 onward it changes from a comical account of eighteenth-century country life into a pathetic melodrama with didactic traits. There are quite a few interpolations of different literary genres, such as poems, histories or sermons, which widen the restricted view of the first person narrator and serve as


title: "Gavin Ward (footballer)" content: before moving on to Shrewsbury Town. He failed to make an appearance for either club and left for West Bromwich Albion where he made his professional debut in a League Cup match against Bradford City. He then moved to Cardiff City where he finally found regular football becoming a regular in the 1991–92 season and helped the "Bluebirds" win the Division Three title in 1992–93. He made over 60 league and cup appearances for Cardiff in four seasons before moving to Leicester City for a transfer fee of £175,000 in 1993 where he help them to win promotion to the


title: "Frederic Morton" content: Austria in 1962 to marry his fiancée, Marcia, whom he had met at college. From 1959, Morton worked as a columnist for several American periodicals including "The New York Times", "Esquire", and "Playboy". He died at the Hilton hotel in Vienna at the age of 90 on April 20, 2015. Frederic Morton Frederic Morton (October 5, 1924 – April 20, 2015) was an Austrian-born American writer. Born Fritz Mandelbaum in Vienna, Morton was the son of a blacksmith who specialized in forging (manufacturing) imperial medals. In the wake of the "Anschluss" of 1938, his father was arrested, but later released.


title: "Fort Macon State Park" content: Fort Macon State Park Fort Macon State Park is a North Carolina state park in Carteret County, North Carolina, in the United States. Located on Bogue Banks near Atlantic Beach, the park opened in 1936. Fort Macon State Park is the second most visited state park in North Carolina, with an annual visitation of 1.3 million, despite being one of the smallest state parks in North Carolina with . Fort Macon was built as part of the Third System of US fortifications, and was preceded by Fort Hampton of the Second System. The Battle of Fort Macon was fought there


title: "Fort Macon State Park" content: during March and April 1862. In addition to the fully restored fort, the park offers visitors both soundside and surf fishing, nature trails, ranger guided tours, a protected swim area, a refreshment stand, and a bathhouse. With the exception of the bathhouse, there are no fees to enjoy the park. The park is open year-round and does not charge an admission or parking fee. During the non-summer months the protected swimming area, refreshment stand, and bathhouse are not available. However, you can swim at your own risk and public restrooms are open year-round. Fort Macon State Park also completely surrounds


title: "Fort Macon State Park" content: United States Coast Guard Station Fort Macon. The main gate is located directly across from the park office and barracks, and visitors can catch a glimpse of one of the Coast Guard Cutters that are moored there. Five-sided Fort Macon is constructed of brick and stone. Twenty-six vaulted rooms (also called casements) are enclosed by outer walls that are thick. In modern times, the danger of naval attack along the North Carolina coast seems remote, but during the 18th and 19th centuries the region around Beaufort was highly vulnerable to attack. Blackbeard and other infamous pirates were known to have


title: "Fort Macon State Park" content: passed through Beaufort Inlet at will, while successive wars with Spain, France and Great Britain during the Colonial Period provided a constant threat of coastal raids by enemy warships. Blackbeard's ship, the Queen Anne's Revenge "QAR" is thought to have been discovered in shallow water right off the park in the Atlantic Ocean and is being recovered. Beaufort was captured and plundered by the Spanish in 1747 and again by the British in 1782. North Carolina leaders recognized the need for coastal defenses to prevent such attacks and began efforts to construct forts. The eastern point of Bogue Banks was


title: "Fort Macon State Park" content: determined to be the best location for a fort to guard the entrance to Topsail inlet now identified as the Beaufort Inlet. In 1756 construction of Fort Dobbs began. Fort Dobbs was commissioned as a small fascine fort but was never fully completed leaving the Topsail inlet undefended during the American Revolution. During the same time frame and with an escalating Indian War on the western frontier of North Carolina; another fortification was being constructed in the piedmont region of the state near Statesville, North Carolina. Fort Dobbs was constructed to specifically provide defense on the edge of the western


title: "Fort Macon State Park" content: frontier during the French and Indian War. The Embargo Act of 1807 was a general embargo enacted by the United States Congress against Great Britain and France for actions during the Napoleonic Wars under Great Britain's Orders in Council (1807), and the second attempt at building a fort to protect the town and port at Beaufort, North Carolina began as a part of the United States Government's program to build a national defense chain of coastal fortifications. This program was later called the Second System of US fortifications. Thus construction began on Fort Hampton, a small masonry fort with a


title: "Fort Macon State Park" content: horseshoe-shaped parapet facing the channel. The parapet was seven feet high and made using oyster shell cement called tabby, or tapia. The parapet wall was fourteen feet thick at its base, tapering down to eight feet as the wall rose to its top. Located behind the parapet was a gun platform 23 feet wide where there were to be five 18-pounder cannons mounted. Each cannon could fire an 18-pound iron shot with an estimated effective range of just under one mile. At the rear of this fort at the two prongs of the horseshoe were located, the walls were eighteen


title: "Fort Macon State Park" content: inches thick at the top and were loopholed for riflemen to fire their rifles through. Connecting the two prongs and enclosing the fortification's rear was a two-story barracks roughly 82 feet long and 30 feet wide. Each story contained five 13×16-foot rooms, three laid out for enlisted men and two for the fort's officers. The barracks could accommodate a single company consisting of fifty men. Beside the barracks on the right-hand prong was a small 15×16-foot brick building for a gunpowder magazine. From rear wall to front the fort was 90 feet long, 123 feet wide and had a perimeter


title: "Fort Macon State Park" content: of about 440 feet. In July, the United States engaged in the War of 1812 and Fort Hampton's soldiers withdrew the fort's garrison to other service for the war. However, North Carolina Governor William Hawkins ordered four local militia companies to occupy the fort and the surrounding harbor area in anticipation of an English attack. When no attack ensued, the militia was withdrawn until November 1812 when the 10th US Infantry was garrisoned there and remained for 9 months until reassigned in June 1813. In July 1813 the British assaulted Ocracoke Inlet at which time North Carolina Militia was re-instated


title: "Fort Macon State Park" content: to protect Beaufort and the interests of the state. The fort's armament was increased with the addition of two 6-pounders and a 4-pounder cannon to supplement the main battery of 18-pounders cannon already in place at the fort. In 1814 after much internal struggle the State of North Carolina convinced the United States Department of War to secure the fort with Federal Troops. The War Department garrisoned elements of the 43rd US Infantry where they remained until the end of the war. By 1820 and 1821 engineers surveying the fort noted that the high tide mark had advanced to the


title: "Fort Macon State Park" content: point of lapping the base of the fort's rounded front. Still, there was limited interest in Fort Hampton because by now the federal government had begun the construction of a chain of permanent forts for a new system of Seacoast defense in the United States known as the Third System. Fort Hampton for reasons of an eroding facade and beach at Bogue Point. During a survey in February, 1826, the high tide mark lay over 200 feet to the rear of the spot where Fort Hampton stood. By 1834, Fort Hampton lay in now Beaufort inlet along the line of


title: "Fort Macon State Park" content: a 12-foot deep ship channel. Initially the new fort at Bogue Point was designated by the engineers to be 130 feet SW of Fort Hampton, by 1826 with Fort Hampton in the channel, the US Army Corps of Engineers elected to move 300 yards west of Fort Hampton where Fort Macon now stands. The War of 1812 demonstrated the weakness of existing coastal defenses of the United States coastline and prompted the United States government to develop an improved coastal defenses through a chain of coastal fortifications. The present fort, Fort Macon, was a part of this chain. Fort Macon's


title: "Fort Macon State Park" content: purpose was to guard Beaufort Inlet and Beaufort Harbor, North Carolina's only major deepwater ocean port. Named after a U.S. Senator from the State of North Carolina, Nathaniel Macon, who procured the funds to build the facility, Fort Macon was designed by Brig. Gen. Simon Bernard and built by the US Army Corps of Engineers. Construction began in 1826 and lasted eight years, under the Third System of US fortifications. The fort was completed in December, 1834, and it was improved with further modification during 1841–46. The total cost of the fort was $463,790. In the 1840s, a system of


title: "Fort Macon State Park" content: erosion control was initially engineered by Robert E. Lee, who later became general of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia. At the beginning of the Civil War, North Carolina seized the fort from Union forces. The fort was later attacked in 1862, and it fell back into Union hands. For the duration of the war, the fort was a coaling station for navy ships. Often an ordnance sergeant acting as a caretaker was the only person stationed at the fort. The Civil War began on April 12, 1861, and only two days elapsed before local North Carolina militia forces from


title: "Fort Macon State Park" content: Beaufort arrived to seize the fort for the state of North Carolina and the Confederacy. North Carolina Confederate forces occupied the fort for a year, preparing it for battle and arming it with 54 heavy cannons. Early in 1862, Union forces commanded by Maj. Gen. Ambrose E. Burnside swept through eastern North Carolina, and part of Burnside's command under Brig. Gen. John G. Parke was sent to capture Fort Macon. Parke's men captured Morehead City and Beaufort without resistance, then landed on Bogue Banks during March and April to fight to gain Fort Macon. Col. Moses J. White and 400


title: "Fort Macon State Park" content: North Carolina Confederates in the fort refused to surrender even though the fort was hopelessly surrounded. On April 25, 1862, Parke's Union forces bombarded the fort with heavy siege guns for 11 hours, aided by the fire of four Union gunboats in the ocean offshore and floating batteries in the sound to the east. While the fort easily repulsed the Union gunboat attack, the Union land batteries, utilizing new rifled cannons, hit the fort 560 times. There was such extensive damage that Col. White was forced to surrender the following morning, April 26, with the fort's Confederate garrison being paroled


title: "Fort Macon State Park" content: as prisoners of war. This battle was the second time in history new rifled cannons were used against a fort, demonstrating the obsolescence of such fortifications as a way of defense. The Union held Fort Macon for the remainder of the war, while Beaufort Harbor served as an important coaling and repair station for its navy. During the Reconstruction Era, the US Army actively occupied Fort Macon until 1877. During this time, because there were no state or federal penitentiaries in the military district of North Carolina and South Carolina, Fort Macon was used for about 11 years as a


title: "Fort Macon State Park" content: civil and military prison. The fort was deactivated after 1877 only to be garrisoned by state troops once again during the summer of 1898 for the Spanish–American War. Finally, in 1903, the US Army completely abandoned the fort. In 1923, Fort Macon was offered for sale as surplus military property. However, at the bidding of North Carolina leaders, a Congressional Act on June 4, 1924, sold the fort and surrounding reservation for the sum of $1 to the state of North Carolina to be used as a public park. This was the second area acquired by the state for the


title: "Fort Macon State Park" content: purpose of establishing a state parks system. During 1934–35, the Civilian Conservation Corps restored the fort and established public recreational facilities, which enabled Fort Macon State Park to officially open May 1, 1936, as North Carolina's first functioning state park. At the outbreak of World War II, the US Army leased the park from the state and actively manned the old fort with Coast Artillery troops to protect a number of important nearby facilities. The fort was occupied from December 1941 to November 1944. During the occupation some unsuspecting soldiers rolled cannonballs into the fireplaces as andirons, mistaking them for


title: "Fort Macon State Park" content: solid iron shot. The powder-filled balls exploded, killing two men and injuring others- thus firing the "last shot of the Civil War". On October 1, 1946, the Army returned the fort and the park to the state. A conclusive history of Fort Macon and Fort Macon State Park can be found in Paul R. Branch Jr's book, "Fort Macon: A History". (). Paul R. Branch is Fort Macon's on-site historian and has been part of the Park Ranger staff for over 20 years. The following state parks are within of Fort Macon State Park: Fort Macon State Park Fort Macon


title: "Moment magnitude scale" content: The scale was unable to characterize these "great earthquakes" accurately. The difficulties with use of in characterizing the quake resulted from the size of these earthquakes. Great quakes produced 20 s waves such that was comparable to normal quakes, but also produced very long period waves (more than 200 s) which carried large amounts of energy. As a result, use of the modified Richter scale methodology to estimate earthquake energy was deficient at high energies. The concept of seismic moment was introduced in 1966 by Keiiti Aki, a professor of geophysics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He employed elastic


title: "Kraków-Płaszów concentration camp" content: 1943 with the first deportations of the "Barrackenbau" Jews from the Ghetto beginning 28 October 1942. In 1943 the camp was expanded and turned into one of many "KL" concentration camps. The Kraków-Płaszów concentration camp was divided into multiple sections. There was a separate area for camp personnel, work facilities, male prisoners, female prisoners, and a further subdivision between Jews and non-Jews. Although separated, men and women still managed to have contact with one another. There was also a private barracks for the camp's Jewish police and their families. While the primary function of the camp was forced labor, the


title: "Transcendental Meditation movement" content: of the Maharishi Group of Companies". According to the web sites of Picasso Animation College and Maharishi Ayurveda Products Ltd. the "Maharishi Group is a multinational and multidimensional conglomerate with presence in over 120 countries".[sic] "In India, Maharishi organization is engaged in multifarious activities including education, health, technology development and social welfare. Maharishi Group is a multinational and multidimensional conglomerate with presence in over 120 countries." According to a report in Global Solar Technology, the Maharishi Group is "India's leading International group with diversified interests". A company called Maharishi Renewable Energy Ltd (MREL) was reported in 2009 to be "part


title: Monnaz content: of the population) did not answer the question. In Monnaz about 105 or (37.6%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 63 or (22.6%) have completed additional higher education (either University or a "Fachhochschule"). Of the 63 who completed tertiary schooling, 50.8% were Swiss men, 25.4% were Swiss women, 15.9% were non-Swiss men and 7.9% were non-Swiss women. In the 2009/2010 school year there were a total of 72 students in the Monnaz school district. In the Vaud cantonal school system, two years of non-obligatory pre-school are provided by the political districts. During the school year, the


title: "Dung beetle" content: Dung beetle Dung beetles are beetles that feed partly or exclusively on feces (dung). A dung beetle can bury dung 250 times heavier than itself in one night. Many dung beetles, known as "rollers", roll dung into round balls, which are used as a food source or breeding chambers. Others, known as "tunnelers", bury the dung wherever they find it. A third group, the "dwellers", neither roll nor burrow: they simply live in manure. They are often attracted by the dung collected by burrowing owls. There are dung beetle species of different colours and sizes, and some functional traits such


title: "Dung beetle" content: as body mass (or biomass) and leg length can have high levels of variability. All the species belong to the superfamily Scarabaeoidea; most of them to the subfamilies Scarabaeinae and Aphodiinae of the family Scarabaeidae (scarab beetles). As most species of Scarabaeinae feed exclusively on feces, that subfamily is often dubbed "true dung beetles". There are dung-feeding beetles which belong to other families, such as the Geotrupidae (the "earth-boring dung beetle"). The Scarabaeinae alone comprises more than 5,000 species. The nocturnal African dung beetle "Scarabaeus satyrus" is the only known non-vertebrate animal to navigate and orient itself using the Milky


title: "Dung beetle" content: Way. Dung beetles are not a single taxonomic group; dung feeding is found in a number of families of beetles, so the behaviour cannot be assumed to have evolved only once. Systematic Position: Dung beetles live in many habitats, including desert, grasslands and savannas, farmlands, and native and planted forests. They are highly influenced by the environmental context, and do not prefer extremely cold or dry weather. They are found on all continents except Antarctica. They eat the dung of herbivores and omnivores, and prefer that produced by the latter. Many of them also feed on mushrooms and decaying leaves


title: "Dung beetle" content: and fruits. One type living in Central America, "Deltochilum valgum", is a carnivore preying upon millipedes. Those that eat dung do not need to eat or drink anything else, because the dung provides all the necessary nutrients. Most dung beetles search for dung using their sensitive sense of smell. Some smaller species simply attach themselves to the dung-providers to wait for the dung. After capturing the dung, a dung beetle rolls it, following a straight line despite all obstacles. Sometimes, dung beetles try to steal the dung ball from another beetle, so the dung beetles have to move rapidly away


title: "Dung beetle" content: from a dung pile once they have rolled their ball to prevent it from being stolen. Dung beetles can roll up to 10 times their weight. Male "Onthophagus taurus" beetles can pull 1,141 times their own body weight: the equivalent of an average person pulling six double-decker buses full of people. A species of dung beetle (the African "Scarabaeus zambesianus") navigates by polarization patterns in moonlight, the first animal known to do so. Dung beetles can also navigate when only the Milky Way or clusters of bright stars are visible, making them the only insects known to orient themselves by


title: "Dung beetle" content: the Milky Way. The eyes of dung beetles are superposition compound eyes typical of many scarabaeid beetles ; Cambefort and Hanski (1991) classified dung beetles into three functional types based on their feeding and nesting strategies such as – Rollers, Tunnelers and Dwellers. The "rollers" roll and bury a dung ball either for food storage or for making a brooding ball. In the latter case, two beetles, one male and one female, stay around the dung ball during the rolling process. Usually it is the male that rolls the ball, while the female hitch-hikes or simply follows behind. In some


title: "Dung beetle" content: cases, the male and the female roll together. When a spot with soft soil is found, they stop and bury the ball, then mate underground. After the mating, one or both of them prepares the brooding ball. When the ball is finished, the female lays eggs inside it, a form of mass provisioning. Some species do not leave after this stage, but remain to safeguard their offspring. The dung beetle goes through a complete metamorphosis. The larvae live in brood balls made with dung prepared by their parents. During the larval stage, the beetle feeds on the dung surrounding it.


title: "Dung beetle" content: The behavior of the beetles was poorly understood until the studies of Jean Henri Fabre in the late 19th century. For example, Fabre corrected the myth that a dung beetle would seek aid from other dung beetles when confronted by obstacles. By observation and experiment, he found the seeming helpers were in fact awaiting an opportunity to steal the roller's food source. They are widely used in ecological research as a good bioindicator group to examine the impacts from human activities on tropical biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, such as seed dispersal, soil bioturbation and nutrient cycling. Dung beetles play a


title: "Dung beetle" content: remarkable role in agriculture and tropical forests. By burying and consuming dung, they improve nutrient recycling and soil structure. Dung beetles have been further shown to improve soil conditions and plant growth on rehabilitated coal mines in South Africa. They are also important for the dispersal of seeds present in animals' dung, influencing seed burial and seedling recruitment in tropical forests. They can protect livestock, such as cattle, by removing the dung which, if left, could provide habitat for pests such as flies. Therefore, many countries have introduced the creatures for the benefit of animal husbandry. In developing countries, the


title: "Dung beetle" content: beetles are especially important as an adjunct for improving standards of hygiene. The American Institute of Biological Sciences reports that dung beetles save the United States cattle industry an estimated US$380 million annually through burying above-ground livestock feces. In Australia, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) commissioned the Australian Dung Beetle Project (1965–1985) which, led by George Bornemissza, sought to introduce species of dung beetles from South Africa and Europe. The successful introduction of 23 species was made, most notably "Digitonthophagus gazella" and "Euoniticellus intermedius", which has resulted in improvement of the quality and fertility of Australian cattle


title: "Dung beetle" content: pastures, along with a reduction in the population of pestilent bush flies by around 90 percent. An application has been made by Landcare Research to import up to 11 species of dung beetle into New Zealand. As well as improving pasture soils the Dung Beetle Release Strategy Group say that it would result in a reduction in emissions of nitrous oxide (a greenhouse gas) from agriculture. There is, however, strong opposition from some at the University of Auckland, and a few others, based on the risks of the dung beetles acting as vectors of disease. There are public health researchers


title: "Dung beetle" content: at the University of Auckland who agree with the current EPA risk assessment and indeed there are several Landcare programmes in Australia that involve schoolchildren collecting dung beetles. The African dung beetle, "D. gazella", was introduced in several locations in North and South America and has been spreading its distribution to other regions by natural dispersal and accidental transportation, and is now probably naturalized in most countries between México and Argentina. The exotic species might be useful for controlling diseases of livestock in commercial areas, and might displace native species in modified landscapes, however data is not conclusive about its


title: "Dung beetle" content: effect on native species in natural environments and further monitoring is required. Like many other insects, the (dried) dung beetle, called "qianglang" (蜣蜋) in Chinese, is used in Chinese herbal medicine. It is recorded in the "Insect section" (蟲部) of the "Compendium of Materia Medica", where it is recommended for the cure of 10 diseases. In Isan, Northeastern Thailand, the local people famously eat many different kinds of insects including the dung beetle. There is an Isan song กุดจี่หายไปใหน "Where did the Dung Beetle go", which relates the replacement of water buffalo with the "metal" buffalo, which doesn't provide the


title: "Dung beetle" content: dung needed for the dung beetle. Hence, the increasing rarity of the dung beetle in the agricultural region. Several species of the dung beetle, most notably the species "Scarabaeus sacer" (often referred to as "the sacred scarab"), enjoyed a sacred status among the ancient Egyptians. Egyptian hieroglyphic script uses the image of the beetle to represent a triliteral phonetic that Egyptologists transliterate as "xpr" or "ḫpr" and translate as "to come into being", "to become" or "to transform". The derivative term "xprw" or "ḫpr(w)" is variously translated as "form", "transformation", "happening", "mode of being" or "what has come into being",


title: "Dung beetle" content: depending on the context. It may have existential, fictional, or ontologic significance. The scarab was linked to Khepri ("he who has come into being"), the god of the rising sun. The ancients believed that the dung beetle was only male in gender, and reproduced by depositing semen into a dung ball. The supposed self-creation of the beetle resembles that of Khepri, who creates himself out of nothing. Moreover, the dung ball rolled by a dung beetle resembles the sun. Plutarch wrote: The ancient Egyptians believed that Khepri renewed the sun every day before rolling it above the horizon, then carried


title: "Dung beetle" content: it through the other world after sunset, only to renew it, again, the next day. Some New Kingdom royal tombs exhibit a threefold image of the sun god, with the beetle as symbol of the morning sun. The astronomical ceiling in the tomb of Ramses VI portrays the nightly "death" and "rebirth" of the sun as being swallowed by Nut, goddess of the sky, and re-emerging from her womb as Khepri. The image of the scarab, conveying ideas of transformation, renewal, and resurrection, is ubiquitous in ancient Egyptian religious and funerary art. Excavations of ancient Egyptian sites have yielded images


title: "Dung beetle" content: of the scarab in bone, ivory, stone, Egyptian faience, and precious metals, dating from the Sixth Dynasty and up to the period of Roman rule. They are generally small, bored to allow stringing on a necklace, and the base bears a brief inscription or cartouche. Some have been used as seals. Pharaohs sometimes commissioned the manufacture of larger images with lengthy inscriptions, such as the commemorative scarab of Queen Tiye. Massive sculptures of scarabs can be seen at Luxor Temple, at the Serapeum in Alexandria (see Serapis) and elsewhere in Egypt. The scarab was of prime significance in the funerary


title: "Dung beetle" content: cult of ancient Egypt. Scarabs, generally, though not always, were cut from green stone, and placed on the chest of the deceased. Perhaps the most famous example of such "heart scarabs" is the yellow-green pectoral scarab found among the entombed provisions of Tutankhamen. It was carved from a large piece of Libyan desert glass. The purpose of the "heart scarab" was to ensure that the heart would not bear witness against the deceased at judgement in the Afterlife. Other possibilities are suggested by the "transformation spells" of the "Coffin Texts", which affirm that the soul of the deceased may transform


title: "Dung beetle" content: ("xpr") into a human being, a god, or a bird and reappear in the world of the living. One scholar comments on other traits of the scarab connected with the theme of death and rebirth: In contrast to funerary contexts, some of ancient Egypt's neighbors adopted the scarab motif for seals of varying types. The best-known of these being Judean LMLK seals (8 of 21 designs contained scarab beetles), which were used exclusively to stamp impressions on storage jars during the reign of Hezekiah. The scarab remains an item of popular interest thanks to modern fascination with the art and


title: "Dung beetle" content: beliefs of ancient Egypt. Scarab beads in semiprecious stones or glazed ceramics can be purchased at most bead shops, while at Luxor Temple a massive ancient scarab has been roped off to discourage visitors from rubbing the base of the statue "for luck". Some dung beetles are used as food in South East Asia and a variety of dung beetle species have been used therapeutically (and are still being used in traditionally living societies) in potions and folk medicines to treat a number of illnesses and disorders . In Aesop's fable "The Eagle and the Beetle", the eagle kills a


title: "Dung beetle" content: hare that has asked for sanctuary with a beetle. The beetle then takes revenge by twice destroying the eagle's eggs. The eagle, in despair, flies up to Olympus and places her latest eggs in Zeus's lap, beseeching the god to protect them. When the beetle finds out what the eagle has done, it stuffs itself with dung, goes straight up to Zeus and flies right into his face. Zeus is startled at the sight of the unpleasant creature, jumping to his feet so that the eggs are broken. Learning of the origin of their feud, Zeus attempts to mediate and,


title: "Dung beetle" content: when his efforts to mediate fail, he changes the breeding season of the eagle to a time when the beetles are not above ground. Aristophanes alluded to Aesop's fable several times in his plays. In "Peace", the hero rides up to Olympus to free the goddess Peace from her prison. His steed is an enormous dung beetle which has been fed so much dung that it has grown to monstrous size. Hans Christian Andersen's "The Dung Beetle" tells the story of a dung beetle who lives in the stable of the king's horses in an imaginary kingdom. When he demands


title: "Dung beetle" content: golden shoes like those the king's horse wears and is refused, he flies away and has a series of adventures, which are often precipitated by his feeling of superiority to other animals. He finally returns to the stable having decided (against all logic) that it is for him that the king's horse wears golden shoes. In Franz Kafka's "The Metamorphosis", the transformed character of Gregor Samsa is called an "old dung beetle" ("alter Mistkäfer") by the charwoman. Dung beetle Dung beetles are beetles that feed partly or exclusively on feces (dung). A dung beetle can bury dung 250 times heavier


title: "Abbotsford (electoral district)" content: 6. The electoral district was created in 2003. 56.1% of the riding was taken from Fraser Valley riding, and 43.9% from Langley—Abbotsford. The 2012 federal electoral boundaries redistribution concluded that the electoral boundaries of Abbotsford should be adjusted, and a modified electoral district of the same name will be contested in future elections. The redefined Abbotsford loses portions of its current territory in the north and west to the new districts of Mission—Matsqui—Fraser Canyon and Langley—Aldergrove. These new boundaries were legally defined in the 2013 representation order, which came into effect upon the call of the 42nd Canadian federal election,


title: "Welcome Freshmen" content: the third season, the gang became sophomores, except Walter who flunked and was held behind. Merv and Tara left, and new characters came in: Manny and Erin (incoming freshmen) and Grant, a junior who was Erin's brother and soon became Alex's boyfriend. Eventually Walter moves up to sophomore as the teachers all threatened to quit if they had him another year. Welcome Freshmen Welcome Freshmen is an American comedy series that ran on Nickelodeon from 1991 to 1994 with reruns until 1996. The show took place at Hawthorne High School with a group of high school students and a bumbling


title: "Toxicoscordion fremontii" content: Toxicoscordion fremontii Toxicoscordion fremontii, known as the common star lily or Frémont's deathcamas (after John C. Frémont) or star zigadene, is an attractive wildflower found on grassy or woody slopes, or rocky outcrops, in many lower-lying regions of California, southwestern Oregon, and northern Baja California. Like other deathcamases, "T. fremontii" grows from a more or less spherical bulb, which in this species has a diameter of 20–35 mm. Its leaves can reach up to half a meter in length, but are typically half that length. They grow from the base of the plant. Flowers, which can be seen from March


title: "Toxicoscordion fremontii" content: to June, grow in clusters. They have six petals (strictly, three petals and three very similar sepals), arranged symmetrically, giving rise to the name star-lily. Each flower is 1–4 cm across. Toxicoscordion fremontii Toxicoscordion fremontii, known as the common star lily or Frémont's deathcamas (after John C. Frémont) or star zigadene, is an attractive wildflower found on grassy or woody slopes, or rocky outcrops, in many lower-lying regions of California, southwestern Oregon, and northern Baja California. Like other deathcamases, "T. fremontii" grows from a more or less spherical bulb, which in this species has a diameter of 20–35 mm. Its


title: "Rat king" content: Rat king A rat king is a collection of rats whose tails are intertwined and bound together by one of several possible mechanisms, such as entangling material like hair or sticky substances like sap or gum. The number of rats joined together varies from a few to as many as 32. Historically, the phenomenon is particularly associated with Germany, which produced many reported instances. Rat kings occur so rarely that they have sometimes been thought to be cryptids, but there are several well-attested modern occurrences. A similar phenomenon happens with other small rodents such as forest mice and squirrels. In


title: "Anglesey Abbey" content: Anglesey Abbey Anglesey Abbey is a country house, formerly a priory, in the village of Lode, northeast of Cambridge, England. The house and its grounds are owned by the National Trust and are open to the public as part of the Anglesey Abbey, Gardens and Lode Mill property, although some parts remain the private home of the Fairhaven family. The 98 acres (400,000 m) of (Grade II* listed) landscaped grounds are divided into a number of walks and gardens, with classical statuary, topiary and flowerbeds. The grounds were laid out in an 18th-century style by the estate's last private owner,


title: "Anglesey Abbey" content: The 1st Baron Fairhaven, in the 1930s. A large pool, the Quarry Pool, is believed to be the site of a 19th-century coprolite mine. Lode Water Mill (then known as "Anglesea Watermill") , dating from the 18th century was restored to working condition in 1982 and now sells flour to visitors. The 1st Lord Fairhaven also improved the house and decorated its interior with a valuable collection of furniture, pictures and "objets d'art". A community of Augustinian canons built a priory here, known as Anglesea or Anglesey Priory, some time during the reign of Henry I (i.e., between 1100 and


title: "Anglesey Abbey" content: 1135), and acquired extra land from the nearby village of Bottisham in 1279 and operated as a hospital of St Mary. The canons were expelled in 1535 during the Dissolution of the Monasteries. Three years later, lawyer, John Hynde owned the priory and gutted the roofs for his new mansion Madingley Hall, leaving Anglesea derelict. The former priory was acquired around 1600 by Thomas Hobson, who converted it to a country house for his son-in-law, Thomas Parker, retaining a few arches from the original priory. At that time the building's name was changed to "Anglesey Abbey", which sounded grander than


title: "Anglesey Abbey" content: the original "Anglesey Priory". In the late 18th century, the house was owned by Sir George Downing, the founder of Downing College, Cambridge. Rev. John Hailstone of Bottisham purchased the abbey in 1848 and altered the building further, adding a stable block and removing the Jacobean dormer windows from the front of the house. In 1900 the mill was converted from grinding corn to grinding cement, having been bought by the Bottisham and Lode Cement and Brick company. Huttleston (1896–1966) and Henry (1900–1973) Broughton bought the site in 1926 and made improvements to the house. They were the sons of


title: "Anglesey Abbey" content: Urban Broughton (1857–1929), who had made a fortune in the mining and railway industries in America and both promised to sell their share should either one be married. Henry married, leaving the abbey to his brother, then 1st Lord Fairhaven, in 1930. Henry later became the 2nd Lord Fairhaven. Meanwhile, the 1st Lord Fairhaven used his wealth to indulge his interests in history, art, and garden design, and to lead an eighteenth-century lifestyle at the house. On his death in 1966, Lord Fairhaven left the abbey to the National Trust so that the house and gardens could "represent an age


title: "Anglesey Abbey" content: and way of life that was quickly passing". In 1926, Anglesey Abbey was bought by Huttleston Broughton, later Lord Fairhaven, and his brother Henry. The 1st Lord Fairhaven fully restored the house which had fallen into disrepair and began to collect beautiful furniture, artworks and statuary. He restored the dormer windows and installed a mock medieval fireplace. Professor Sir Albert Richardson designed a two storey gallery to house Lord Fairhaven's art collection, including views on Windsor Castle. By 1920 the Bottisham and Lode Cement and Brick Company and Lord Fairhaven purchased the mill in 1934 and by 1936 had restored


title: "Anglesey Abbey" content: it back to grinding corn. All of these can be seen at the Abbey today. The Rt Hon. Urban Huttleston Broughton, 1st Baron Fairhaven, was born in 1896 in Fairhaven, Massachusetts. His father, Urban H. Broughton, had amassed a considerable fortune. His mother was Cara Leland Rogers, the daughter of multimillionaire American oil magnate Henry Huttleston Rogers. Rogers had died unexpectedly in 1909 and Urban Broughton had taken over the management of a large part of the Rogers empire. The Broughton family had moved to England in 1912 when Huttleston was sixteen. They lived in Park Lane, Mayfair. Huttleston was


title: "Anglesey Abbey" content: educated at Harrow and the Royal Military Academy at Sandhurst. In 1916 he became a lieutenant in the 1st Life Guards. He served during the First World War, and retired from the military in 1924. He obtained the title Baron Fairhaven in 1929. One of the great achievements of the 1st Lord Fairhaven was the establishment of the garden at the house. In 1964, when the 1st Lord Fairhaven was still living, Lanning Roper wrote a book entitled "The Gardens of Anglesey Abbey", in which he described the careful planning of this remarkable garden with its many vistas, avenues, rare


title: "Anglesey Abbey" content: and common trees, pools, statues and river temples. He describes the way in which huge areas of sky and mown grass were used to balance symmetrical planting and how Lord Fairhaven used the trees and shrubs to make groups of contrasting colour and foliage. To commemorate the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth in 1937, Lord Fairhaven planted an extensive avenue of trees with a crossing avenue at the far end. The trees used were London plane alternating with horse chestnut in four rows, copying those planted in Windsor Great Park. However, following storms only the Horse Chestnut


title: "Anglesey Abbey" content: trees remain. Likewise, in 1953 he constructed Temple Lawn, to commemorate the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. This was Lord Fairhaven's final planting scheme before his death. The 1st Lord Fairhaven did not marry and had no heirs. He died in 1966 and left Anglesey Abbey to the National Trust. The Cambridgeshire Wind and Water Mill society began restoring the mill in 1978. In 1998 a Winter Garden was opened in his memory. The first-ever biography of Lord Fairhaven, "Finding Fairhaven: A Search for the Shy Lord of Anglesey Abbey", by Tom Hickman, published in May 2017, is available on


title: "Anglesey Abbey" content: Amazon (£10.99). The name "Anglesey" is not a reference to the Welsh island known as Anglesey in English, although the two names do have some etymology in common. Anglesey Priory was built on what was, before improvements in the drainage of the area, an island. In both place names, as in many other place names in Britain, the final "-ey" is from a Germanic word meaning 'isle'. In the case of the Welsh island, "Angle-" is from an Old Norse word "ǫngull", which is either a personal name, or a word meaning 'angle' or 'corner'. In the case of the


title: "Anglesey Abbey" content: Priory, "Angle-" is probably a reference to the Angles, a Germanic people who invaded the east of England in the 5th century. The anterior origin of "this" name is debatable, with some versions linking it to 'angle', a reference to the shape of their homeland, and others claiming a reference to 'angling'. However, it is likely that the name refers to the fact that the Fens and its islands were home to a native British (Brythonic) population, and that the Angles were an island community within a predominantly Celtic landscape. The extensive landscaped gardens are popular with visitors throughout the


title: "Anglesey Abbey" content: year. The most visited areas include the rose garden (replanted by Lord Fairhaven ) and the dahlia garden (established 1952 ) , which contain many dozens of varieties. Out of season the spring garden and winter dell are famed nationally, particularly in February when the snowdrops first appear. Following the outbreak of Dutch Elm Disease, Hornbeam trees were planted to replace the Elms planted in the 1930s. The lawns of the South Park are mown less frequently and this allows the many wildflowers to flower and set seed. Over 50 species of wildflower have been recorded, including bee orchid, twayblade,


title: "Anglesey Abbey" content: pyramidal orchid and common spotted orchid. In mid-summer, there are large numbers of butterflies such as meadow brown, gatekeeper, small skippers and marbled whites. The gardens are located in East Anglia which has a remarkably dry climate, in 1999 a composting system was established; to improve drainage and help retain water in drought. Ten years later: 95% of garden waste was composted. Anglesey Abbey Anglesey Abbey is a country house, formerly a priory, in the village of Lode, northeast of Cambridge, England. The house and its grounds are owned by the National Trust and are open to the public as


title: "School bus" content: School bus A school bus is a type of bus owned, leased, contracted to, or operated by a school or school district and regularly used to transport students to and from school or school-related activities, but not including a charter bus or transit bus. Various configurations of school buses are used worldwide; the most iconic examples are the yellow school buses of the United States and Canada. In North America, school buses are purpose-built vehicles distinguished from other types of buses by design characteristics mandated by federal and state regulations. In addition to their distinct paint color (school bus yellow),


title: "School bus" content: school buses are fitted with exterior warning lights (to give them traffic priority) and multiple safety devices. In the second half of the 19th century, many rural areas of the United States and Canada were served by one-room schools. For those students who lived beyond practical walking distance from school, transportation was facilitated in the form of the kid hack; at the time, "hack" was a term referring to certain types of horse-drawn carriages. One of the longest-running school bus manufacturers, Wayne Works (later Wayne Corporation), started producing its first school wagons in Indiana in the late 1880s. Essentially a


title: "School bus" content: re-purposed farm wagon with the addition of interior bench seats, the design featured a rear entrance door. As kid hacks were horse-drawn vehicles, the feature was intended in order to avoid startling the horses while loading or unloading passengers. After the first decade of the 20th century, student transport underwent a major transition, as vehicles transitioned from horse-drawn wagons towards "horseless" automotive chassis. In terms of overall configuration, few initial changes were made, as wagon bodies were adapted to truck frames. For the passenger compartment, the rear entry door and perimeter bench seating remained. For most of the first three


title: "School bus" content: decades, school bus bodies were given little, if any, weather protection, sometimes consisting of a tarpaulin stretched above the passenger seating. In 1927, Ford dealership owner A.L. Luce produced a bus body for a 1927 Ford Model T. Unlike previous wood-bodied buses, Luce used wood only to frame the body of the bus, paneling the body in steel; this would become the first bus produced by what would later become bus manufacturer Blue Bird. While the bus was constructed with a roof, its only weather protection was afforded by roll-up canvas side curtains. During the 1930s, several advances in school


title: "School bus" content: buses were seen that would change its design and production forever. To better adapt automotive chassis design, school bus entry doors were moved from the rear to the front curbside, becoming a door operated by the driver (to ease loading passengers and improve forward visibility). However, school buses retained the rear door, re-purposed as an emergency exit. Following the introduction of the steel-paneled 1927 Luce bus, school bus manufacturing began to transition towards all-steel bus bodies. In 1930, both Wayne and Superior introduced all-steel school buses, with the latter introducing a body with safety glass windows. As school bus design


title: "School bus" content: paralleled design of light to medium-duty commercial trucks of the time, the advent of forward-control trucks would have their own influence on school bus design. In an effort to gain extra seating capacity and visibility, Crown Coach built its own cabover school bus design from the ground up. The highest-capacity school bus of the time, the 76-passenger Crown Supercoach was aptly named, as many California school districts operated in terrain requiring heavy-duty vehicles. As the 1930s progressed, flat-front school buses began to follow motorcoach design in styling as well as engineering, partially the reason the industry adopted "transit-style" in naming


title: "School bus" content: them. In 1940, the first mid-engined transit school bus was produced by Gillig in California. The custom-built nature of school buses created an inherent obstacle to their profitable mass production on a large scale. Although school bus design had moved away from the wagon-style kid hacks of the generation before, there was not yet an agreed on set of industry-wide standards for school buses. Organized by rural education expert Dr. Frank W. Cyr, a week-long 1939 conference at Teachers College, Columbia University forever changed the design and production of school buses. Funded by a $5000 grant, Dr. Cyr had invited


title: "School bus" content: transportation officials, representatives from body and chassis manufacturers, and paint companies. To reduce the complexity of school bus production and increase safety, a set of 44 standards were agreed upon and adopted by the attendees (such as interior and exterior dimensions and the forward-facing seating configuration). To allow for large-scale production of school buses among body manufacturers, adoption of these standards allowed for greater consistency among body manufacturers. While many of the standards of the 1939 conference have been modified or updated, one part of its legacy remains a key part of every school bus in North America today: the


title: "School bus" content: adoption of a standard paint color for all school buses. While technically named National School Bus Glossy Yellow, school bus yellow was adopted for use since it was considered easiest to see in dawn and dusk, and it contrasted well with black lettering. While not universally used worldwide, yellow has become the shade most commonly associated with school buses both in North America and abroad. In the years leading up to World War II, school buses would begin to take on a new role in the education system. This would lead to school districts purchasing and operating their own fleets


title: "School bus" content: of school buses, taking over from buses owner-operated by local individuals. In all but the most isolated areas, the one-room schools from the turn of the century were being phased out and consolidated in favor of the multi-grade schools seen in urban areas. Following the war and the rise of suburban growth in North America, the need for school busing came into use for more than just rural areas; beyond a certain distance from home, community design often made walking to school impractical, particularly as students progressed into high school. At the beginning of the 1950s, the baby boom generation


title: "School bus" content: began their education, leading to a significant increase in student populations across North America; this would be a factor that would directly influence school bus production into the early 1980s. To accommodate the larger student populations, school buses began to grow in size, adding extra rows of seats for the bus body. Coinciding with the larger bodies, truck manufacturers began to offer heavier-duty bus chassis. The same applied to transit-style school buses, as the first diesel-powered school bus was introduced in 1954 and the first tandem axle school bus in 1955 (a Crown Supercoach, with a 91-passenger seating capacity). At


title: "School bus" content: the end of the 1950s, a new option was developed, which is specified in many school buses today: a curbside wheelchair lift to transport wheelchair-bound passengers. As full-size school buses grew larger during the 1950s and early 1960s, they became difficult to navigate the crowded, narrow streets of urban neighborhoods; other rural routes were extremely isolated, with roads that could not accommodate full-size buses. To fill this role, yellow-painted vehicles such as the International Travelall and Chevrolet Suburban came into use. As they entered production in the 1960s, passenger vans such as the Chevrolet Van/GMC Handi-Van, Dodge A100, and Ford


title: "School bus" content: Econoline were converted to school bus use, largely by the addition of red warning lights and yellow paint. A drawback to using passenger vans and utility vehicles is that, along with their lower seating capacity, they could not offer the same level of safety as a full-size school bus. During the 1970s, school buses would undergo a number of design upgrades related to safety. While many changes were related to protecting passengers, others were intended to minimizing the chances of traffic collisions. To decrease confusion over traffic priority (increasing safety around school bus stops), federal and state regulations were amended,


title: "School bus" content: requiring for many states/provinces to add amber warning lamps inboard of the red warning lamps. Similar to a yellow traffic light, the amber lights are activated before stopping (at distance), indicating to drivers that a school bus is about to stop and unload/load students. Adopted by a number of states during the mid-1970s, amber warning lights became nearly universal equipment on new school buses by the end of the 1980s. To supplement the additional warning lights, to help prevent drivers from passing a stopped school bus, a stop arm was added to nearly all school buses; connected to the wiring


title: "School bus" content: of the warning lights, the deployable stop arm extended during a bus stop with its own set of red flashing lights. During the 1960s, as with standard passenger cars, concerns began to arise for passenger protection in catastrophic traffic collisions. At the time, the weak point of the body structure was the body joints; where panels and pieces were riveted together, joints could break apart in major accidents, with the bus body causing harm to passengers. After subjecting a bus to a rollover test in 1964, in 1969, Ward Body Works pointing that fasteners had a direct effect on joint


title: "School bus" content: quality (and that body manufacturers were using relatively few rivets and fasteners). In its own research, Wayne Corporation discovered that the body joints were the weak points themselves. In 1973, to reduce the risk of body panel separation, Wayne introduced the Wayne Lifeguard, a school bus body with single-piece body side and roof stampings. While single-piece stampings seen in the Lifeguard had their own manufacturing challenges, school buses of today use relatively few side panels to minimize body joints. From 1939 to 1973, school bus production was largely self-regulated. In 1973, the first federal regulations governing school buses went into


title: "School bus" content: effect, as FMVSS 217 was required for school buses; the regulation governed specifications of rear emergency exit doors/windows. Following the focus on school bus structural integrity, NHTSA introduced the four "Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards for School Buses," applied on April 1, 1977, bringing significant change to the design, engineering, and construction of school buses and a substantial improvement in safety performance. While many changes related to the 1977 safety standards were made under the body structure (to improve crashworthiness), the most visible change was to passenger seating. In place of the metal-back passenger seats seen since the 1930s, the


title: "School bus" content: regulations introduced taller seats with thick padding on both the front and back, acting as a protective barrier. Further improvement has resulted from continuing efforts by the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and Transport Canada, as well as by the bus industry and various safety advocates. As of 2018 production, all of these standards remain in effect. Many people wonder a school bus is not required to have safety belts in place. According to the National Highway Transportation Association, studies completed previously on school buses showed that due to their size and heaviness, school buses did not require


title: "School bus" content: that safety belts in place. Information gathered in previous studies showed that a bus's size, combined with the design of the seat, and the material the in the space between the seats themselves, showed that there was no need of safety belts on a school bus. A bus is larger and heavier than a normal size passenger vehicle and could distribute the force of the crash evenly. Combined with the space between the seats as well as the design prevented serious injuries from happening. This information, however, does not carry over to a small bus. Buses weighing less than ten


title: "School bus" content: thousand pounds do need to have safety belts in place. The reason for this is smaller size. However, recent accidents involving school buses that have caused serious if not fatal injuries has caused the National Transportation Board to conduct new tests to check the legitimacy of this continued practice. After completing these tests due to the bus accidents in 2016, they have recommended that new buses being built need to have both a lap and shoulder harness in place. They have also recommended that 42 states add seat belts a requirement. There are some states that have already added the


title: "School bus" content: lap belt. This study made the NTSB recommend adding shoulder harness to those states that already have a lap belt in place In the 1970s, school busing expanded further, under controversial reasons; a number of larger cities began to bus students in an effort to racially integrate schools. Out of necessity, the additional usage created further demand for bus production. As manufacturers sought to develop safer school buses, a new generation of small school buses was developed. In the mid-1970s, the Wayne Busette and Blue Bird Micro Bird were introduced. To replace conversions of passenger vans, manufacturers began production of


title: "School bus" content: bus bodies using cutaway van chassis; the combination offered additional seating capacity alongside safer body construction. By the beginning of the 1980s, nearly the entire baby-boom generation had completed its high-school education, which led to a decrease in student populations in North America. Coupled with the recession economy of the early 1980s, the school bus production industry was left with a large degree of overcapacity; several manufacturers were in financial ruin. During the 1980s and 1990s, safety would remain a highlight of many school bus redesigns and model introductions. To increase loading-zone visibility, the design of bus bodies began to


title: "School bus" content: move the driver upward, outboard, and forward; windshields grew larger in size. Improving the ergonomics of the drivers' compartment was intended to decrease driver distraction, which led to improved layouts of controls and switches. To avoid stalling in stop-and-go driving (and in potentially dangerous places, such as intersections or railroad crossings), automatic transmissions had begun to replace manual transmissions during the 1980s. As a result of the 1970s fuel shortages, steps were also taken to improve the fuel economy of school buses. In the 1980s, manufacturers began to include diesel engines as options in conventional and small school buses; previously,


title: "School bus" content: diesel engines were considered a premium option only used on transit-style school buses. In 1986, Navistar International became the first chassis manufacturer to phase out gasoline engines entirely. Other manufacturers followed suit, and diesel engines replaced gasoline engines in virtually all full-size school buses by the mid-1990s. In 1986, with the signing of the Commercial Motor Vehicle Safety Act, school bus drivers across the United States became required to acquire a commercial driver's license (CDL); while still issued by individual states, the federal CDL requirement ensured that drivers of large vehicles such as school buses have a consistent training level.


title: "School bus" content: School buses are generally considered Class C vehicles with passenger and namesake endorsements, but the highest-capacity versions require a Class B license (based on their higher GVWR). The demand for better forward visibility and better turning radius led to a major expansion of market share for transit-style school buses in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Initially, this was led by the 1986 Wayne Lifestar; however, the AmTran Genesis, Blue Bird TC/2000, and Thomas Saf-T-Liner MVP would prove far more successful. In 1996, AmTran introduced the AmTran RE, the first low-cost rear-engine school bus. During the 1990s, an emerging trend


title: "School bus" content: among body manufacturers was mergers, joint ventures, and acquisitions among major chassis suppliers. Navistar International became the owner of AmTran (formerly Ward), Spartan Motors purchased Carpenter, and Thomas Built Buses was acquired by Freightliner. By the beginning of the 21st century, manufacturer consolidation and industry contraction would necessitate production changes among remaining school bus manufacturers. Gone were the days of customers picking and choosing school bus body and chassis separately; the acquisition of AmTran and Thomas along with the General Motors supply arrangement with Blue Bird had reduced the separate combinations available to build. Although the aspect of choice was


title: "School bus" content: disappearing, the decreased complexity paved the way for new product innovations previously thought impossible. In the past, conventional-style buses were bodied on a chassis supplied by a separate manufacturer. For 2004, two manufacturers introduced conventional-body school buses that integrated both body and chassis within a single manufacturer. Blue Bird introduced the Vision; in the fashion of the All American, the chassis was designed by the company specifically for bus use and built in its own factory. Thomas Built Buses introduced the Thomas Saf-T-Liner C2; although the chassis was derived from the Freightliner Business Class M2, the chassis and the body


title: "School bus" content: of the C2 were designed together as a unique vehicle. A key trait of both the Vision and the C2 was improved visibility around the loading zone; both vehicles feature highly sloped hoods and extra glass around the entry door of the bus. In a major change from manufacturing precedent, the C2 was the first use of adhesive bonding to join body panels and minimizing the need for rivets in a school bus. After the sale of the General Motors P-chassis to Navistar subsidiary Workhorse in 1998, the Type B bus configuration largely began to disappear. In their place, cutaway


title: "School bus" content: versions of Class 4–5 trucks began to appear; various school buses utilized Chevrolet/GMC C4500 and International 3200 cutaway cabs. In 2006, IC Bus introduced the BE200, the first Type B bus with a fully cowled chassis (a scaled-down Type C body). During the 1990s, mergers and acquisitions would continue to influence school bus production; however, aside from the failure of startup manufacturer Liberty Bus, contraction was largely absent. In 2007, Collins Bus Corporation, the largest independent manufacturer of Type A buses, acquired Canadian manufacturer Corbeil out of bankruptcy. Corbeil joined Ohio-based manufacturer Mid Bus as a Collins subsidiary; manufacturing of


title: "School bus" content: all three product lines was consolidated at the Kansas factory owned by Collins. In 2009, Blue Bird and Girardin entered into a joint venture; Girardin now produces the entire small-bus product line for Blue Bird. During the 2000s, safety devices were updated, as lap-type seatbelts were largely replaced by 3-point seatbelts. School bus crossing arms, first introduced in the late 1990s, were adopted by a number of jurisdictions. Electronics took on a new role in school bus operation. To increase child safety and security, alarm systems have been developed to prevent children from being left on unattended school buses overnight.


title: "School bus" content: During the past decade, a number of changes have been made to develop a new generation of school buses; many of the changes are focused on producing environmentally friendly vehicles. In 2009, Blue Bird introduced a propane-fueled version of its Vision conventional, becoming the first manufacturer to sell a propane-fuel school bus from the factory. In 2011, Lion Bus (Autobus Lion) of Saint-Jérôme, Quebec marked the return of full-size bus production to Canada. In partnership with Spartan Motors, the company marked the first all-new manufacturer of full-size school buses since 1992. Producing a single conventional-style bus body, Lion became the


title: "School bus" content: first manufacturer to adopt design primarily with composite panels in place of the traditionally used steel. During the mid-2010s, although diesel-fuel engines have remained the primary source of school bus power, school bus manufacturers have expanded offerings of alternative-fuel vehicles, with propane and CNG becoming offered through several manufacturers by 2015. In a reversal from the 1990s, gasoline engines became available in conventional-style school buses in 2016, offering quieter interiors along with simpler emissions equipment. While hybrid diesel-electric school buses saw little interest among operators, several school buses have been produced with fully electric powertrains. In 2012, Trans Tech produced


title: "School bus" content: a limited series of the eTrans, a cutaway-body bus based upon the Smith Electric Newton electric truck; the eTrans was replaced in 2014 by the SSTe, a Trans Tech/Ford E450 school bus converted to electric power. In 2015, Autobus Lion introduced the eLion, the first full-sized fully electric school bus. In 2017, Blue Bird announced intentions to produce electric-power versions of Type A, Type C, and Type D buses. In the past decade, onboard GPS tracking devices have taken on a dual role of fleet management and location tracking. Not only does GPS tracking allow for internal management of costs,


title: "School bus" content: but it can be used to alert waiting parents and students of the real-time location of their bus. This is in use in the United States as well as worldwide markets, such as India. According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), school buses are the safest type of road vehicle. On average, five fatalities involve school-age children on a school bus each year; statistically, a school bus is over 70 times safer than riding to school by car. Many fatalities related to school buses are passengers of other vehicles and pedestrians


title: "School bus" content: (only 5% are bus occupants). Since the initial development of consistent school bus standards in 1939, many of the ensuing changes to school buses over the past eight decades have been safety related, particularly in response to more stringent regulations adopted by state and federal governments. Ever since the adoption of yellow as a standard color in 1939, school buses deliberately integrate the concept of conspicuity into their design. When making student dropoffs or pickups, traffic law gives school buses priority over other vehicles; in order to stop traffic, they are equipped with flashing lights and a stop sign. As


title: "School bus" content: a consequence of their size, school buses have a number of blind spots around the outside of the vehicle which can endanger passengers disembarking a bus or pedestrians standing or walking nearby. To address this safety challenge, a key point of school bus design is focused on exterior visibility, improving the design of bus windows, mirrors, and the windshield to optimize visibility for the driver. In the case of a collision, the body structure of a school bus is designed with an integral roll cage; as a school bus carries a large number of student passengers, a school bus is


title: "School bus" content: designed with several emergency exits to facilitate fast egress. In the United States and Canada, numerous federal and state regulations require school buses to be manufactured as a purpose-built vehicle distinct from other buses. In contrast to buses in use for public transit, dedicated school buses used for student transport are all single-deck, two-axle design (multi-axle designs are no longer in use). Outside of North America, buses utilized for student transport are derived from vehicles used elsewhere in transit systems, including coaches, minibuses, and transit buses. There are four types of school buses produced by manufacturers in North America. All


title: "School bus" content: school buses are of single deck design with step entry. Depending on specifications, school buses are currently designed with a seating capacity with up to 90 passengers. In the United States, school buses are restricted to a maximum width of and a maximum length of . The smallest school buses are Type A (based on cutaway van chassis) with Type B (bodied on a bare chassis) serving as a larger format of small school buses. There are two formats of large school buses, including Type C (bodied on cowled medium-duty truck chassis, the most common design) and Type D (bodied


title: "School bus" content: on bare "forward control" or "pusher" chassis; the largest school buses). In both public and private education systems, outside of school buses in regular route service, there are two other types of school buses used in student transport, distinguished largely by their usage and markings. An "activity bus" is a school bus used for providing transportation for students. In place of home to school route service, an activity bus is used for the purpose of extracurricular activities. Depending on individual state and provincial regulations, the bus used for this purpose can either be a regular yellow school bus or a


title: "School bus" content: dedicated unit for this purpose. Dedicated activity buses, while not painted yellow, are fitted with the similar interiors as well as the same traffic control devices for dropping off students (at other schools); conversely, it cannot be used in regular route service. A Multi-Function School Activity Bus (MFSAB) is a bus intended for use in both the private sector and the educational system. Designed as an alternative for 15-passenger vans, MFSABs are typically derived from Type A school buses (though also allowed from full-size buses as well), giving a safety advantage over automotive-based vehicles. Intended for point-to-point transportation, MFSABs are


title: "School bus" content: not fitted with traffic control devices (i.e., red warning lights, stop arm) nor are they painted school bus yellow. For educational use, MFSABs are primarily used for extracurricular activities requiring transportation; in the private sector, they are typically purchased by child-care centers. To specifically identify them as such, purpose-built school buses are painted a specific shade of yellow, designed to optimize their visibility for other drivers. In addition to "School Bus" signage in the front and rear above the window line, vehicles are marked with the name of the operator (school district or bus contractor) and an identification number. Yellow


title: "School bus" content: was adopted as a standard color for North American school buses beginning in 1939. In April of that year, Frank W. Cyr, a professor at Teachers College at Columbia University in New York, organized a meeting to establish national school bus construction standards, including the adoption of a standard shade of paint. The color which became known as "school bus yellow" was selected because black lettering on that specific hue was easiest to see in the semi-darkness of early morning and late afternoon. Officially, school bus yellow was designated "National School Bus Chrome"; following the removal of lead from the


title: "School bus" content: pigment, its current name is "National School Bus Glossy Yellow". Outside the United States and Canada, while it is not a government specification, the association of yellow with school buses has led to its use (in part or in whole) on school-use buses worldwide. Some areas establishing school transport services have conducted evaluations of American yellow-style school buses; to better suit local climate conditions, other governments have established their own color requirements, favoring other high-visibility colors (such as white or orange). School buses often operate in low-visibility conditions, such as early morning, or in poor weather, as well as in


title: "School bus" content: rural areas. While their yellow paint color does give them a conspicuity advantage over other vehicles, darkness can make them hard to see. To improve their visibility, many state and provincial governments (for example, Colorado) require the use of yellow reflective tape on school buses. Marking the length, width, height, and in some cases, identifying the bus as a school bus, reflective tape makes the vehicle easier to see in low light, also marking all emergency exits (so rescue personnel can quickly find them in darkness). The equivalent requirement in Canada is almost identical; the only difference is that red


title: "School bus" content: cannot be used as a retroreflective color. To comply with federal and state requirements, school buses are equipped with a number of safety devices to prevent accidents and injuries and for the purposes of security. A key priority for a bus driver when driving, as well as when loading and unloading students, is proper sightlines around their vehicle; the blind spots formed by the school bus can be a significant risk to bus drivers and traffic as well as pedestrians. In the United States, approximately ⅔ of students killed outside of the school bus are not struck by other vehicles,


title: "School bus" content: but by their own bus. To combat this problem, school buses are specified with sophisticated and comprehensive mirror systems. In redesigns of school bus bodies, driver visibility and overall sightlines have become important considerations. In comparison to school buses from the 1980s, school buses from the 2000s have much larger windscreens and fewer blind spots. For the purposes of evacuation, in addition to the main entry door, school buses are equipped with a minimum of at least one emergency exit. The rear-mounted emergency exit door is a design feature adopted from horse-drawn wagons (the entrance was rear-mounted to avoid disturbing


title: "School bus" content: the horses); in rear-engine school buses, the door is replaced by an exit window mounted above the engine compartment (supplemented by a side-mounted exit door). Additional exits may be located in the roof (roof hatches), window exits, and/or side emergency exit doors. All are opened by the use of quick-release latches which activate an alarm. The number of emergency exits in a school bus depends on the size of the bus (its seating capacity) along with individual state regulations; Kentucky requires the most, with each full-size school bus having a total of eight emergency exits in addition to the entry


title: "School bus" content: door. Since the 1990s, video cameras have become common equipment installed inside school buses. While primarily used to monitor and record passenger behavior, video cameras have also been used in the investigation of accidents involving school buses. On March 28, 2000, a Murray County, Georgia, school bus was hit by a CSX freight train at an unsignaled railroad crossing; three children were killed. The bus driver claimed to have stopped and looked for approaching trains before proceeding across the tracks, as is required by law, but the onboard camera recorded that the bus had in fact not stopped. As VHS


title: "School bus" content: cameras have been phased out in favor of digital recording technology, a single camera has been replaced by a multiple-camera system, allowing surveillance from multiple vantage points. In the 2010s, exterior-mounted cameras synchronized with the stop arms photograph vehicles that illegally pass the bus when its stop arm and warning lights are in use (thus committing a moving violation). In contrast to cars and other light-duty passenger vehicles, school buses are not typically equipped with active restraint systems, such as seat belts; whether seat belts should be a requirement has been a topic of controversy. Since the 1970s, school buses


title: "School bus" content: have adopted the concept of compartmentalization as a passive restraint system. In 1967 and 1972, as part of an effort to improve crash protection in school buses, UCLA researchers played a role in the future of school bus interior design. Using the metal-backed seats then in use as a means of comparison, several new seat designs were researched in crash testing. In its conclusion, the UCLA researchers found that the safest design was a 28-inch high padded seatback spaced a maximum of 24 inches apart, using the concept of compartmentalization as a passive restraint. While the UCLA researchers found the


title: "School bus" content: compartmentalized seats to be the safest design, they found active restraints (such as seatbelts) to be next in terms of importance of passenger safety. In 1977, FMVSS 222 mandated a change to compartmentalized seats, though the height requirement was lowered to 24 inches. According to the NTSB, the main disadvantage of passive-restraint seats is its lack of protection in side-impact collisions (with larger vehicles) and rollover situations. Though by design, students are protected front to back by compartmentalization, it allows the potential for ejection in other crash situations (however rare). "Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) 222" was introduced in


title: "School bus" content: 1977, requiring passive restraints and more stringent structural integrity standards; this exempted the requirement of seatbelts in school buses with a gross vehicle weight (GVWR) of over 10,000 pounds. In 2011, FMVSS 222 was revised; to improve occupant protection in small (Type A) school buses, three-point seatbelts were required in new Type A school buses; the revision introduced testing standards for bus seats with 3-point seatbelts and anchor points for the optional installation of these seat-belt systems in large school buses. While previously reducing capacity by up to one-third, NHTSA recognized new technology that allows using seatbelts for either three


title: "School bus" content: small (elementary-age) children or two larger children (high-school age) per seat. In October 2013, the National Association of State Directors of Pupil Transportation Services (NASDPTS) most recently stated at their annual transportation conference (NAPT) that they now fully support three-point lap-shoulder seat belts on school buses. In July 2004, California became the first state to require three-point lap/shoulder seat belts on all new Type A small school buses. A year later, this requirement was extended to large Type C and Type D school buses. Texas had planned a voluntary adoption of seat belts in newly purchased large school buses by


title: "School bus" content: 2010, with the state reimbursing school districts for the additional costs. However, due to budget cuts, only 36% of the planned funding was allocated for the extra costs As of 2015, they are a requirement in at least five states: California, Florida, New Jersey, New York, and Texas. Of the states that equip buses with two-point lap seat belts (Florida, Louisiana, New Jersey and New York), only New Jersey requires seat belt usage by riders. In other states, it is up to the district or operator whether to require riders to use them or not. In most cases, school bus


title: "School bus" content: body companies function as second stage manufacturers. Some school buses (typically those of Type D configuration) are produced with both body and chassis from the same manufacturer. In 2015, 40,190 school buses were sold in USA and Canada and 40,513 in 2007; in 2013, 36,073 school buses were sold in North America, a 12.6% increase over 2012. In the United States and Canada, school buses are currently produced by nine different manufacturers. Four of them—Collins Industries, Starcraft Bus, Trans Tech, and Van Con — specialize exclusively in small buses. Thomas Built Buses and Blue Bird Corporation (the latter, through its


title: "School bus" content: Micro Bird joint venture with Girardin)—produce both small and large buses. IC Bus and Lion Electric produce full-size buses exclusively. Founded in 2011, Lion Electric Company (in French, La Compagnie Électrique Lion) is a Quebec-based manufacturer that specializes in the development of fully electric vehicles; the company produces bodies on cowled chassis supplied by Spartan Motors. In the 20th century, Canada was home to satellite facilities of several U.S. firms (Blue Bird, Thomas, Wayne). At the time, to meet demand in both countries, Canadian-produced school buses were exported to the United States (and Canada imported buses from the United States).


title: "School bus" content: Domestically, the Quebec-based firm Corbeil manufactured full-size and small school buses from 1985 to 2007. Following its acquisition by Collins, Corbeil served as its Canadian brand from 2008 to 2016. Every year in the United States and Canada, school buses provide an estimated 8 billion student trips from home and school. Each school day in 2015, nearly 484,000 school buses transported 26.9 million children to and from school and school-related activities; over half of the United States K–12 student population is transported by school bus. Outside North America, purpose-built vehicles for student transport are less common. Depending on location, students