title: "Blue-headed vireo" content: Blue-headed vireo The blue-headed vireo ("Vireo solitarius") is a Neotropical migrating song bird found in North and Central America. There are currently two recognized sub-species that belong to the blue-headed vireo. It has a range that extends across Canada and the eastern coast of the United-States, Mexico and some of Central America. It prefers large temperate forests with a mix of evergreen trees and deciduous under growth. As the name suggests, the blue-headed vireo is characterized by its blue-grey head and bold yellow wing bars. Both sexes are very similar in plumage and size. Juveniles also have a similar plumage.


title: "Blue-headed vireo" content: Populations of the blue-headed vireo have been steadily increasing since the 1970s and were therefore classified as a "Least Concern" species in 2004. The blue-headed vireo has similar plumage year round and does not drastically change its appearance during the breeding season. It can be characterized by its olive green upper body, two bold yellow wing bars down the edge of its wing, and a deep blue-grey crown from which it gets its name. The juvenile plumage of immature blue-headed vireos is not distinct but very similar to the adult plumage. While this bird's appearance is similar to the closely


title: "Blue-headed vireo" content: related Cassin's vireo ("Vireo cassinii"), the Cassin's vireo can be differentiated by its lighter yellow patches, a smaller, thinner bill, and a brownish-grey crown. There is little to no sexual dimorphism between males and females as both are similar in plumage colouration and size. Like most Vireos, the blue-headed vireo is a relatively small bird with a length of . The wingspan is usually found to be around and their weight is typically . There are some subtle differences between the "V.s. solitarius" and "V.s. alticola" sub-species. "V.s. alticola", the larger of the two sub-species, has a darker back with


title: "Blue-headed vireo" content: a larger wing length of and a bill length of . Conversely, "V.s. solitarius" is slightly smaller with a wing length of , and a bill length of . The average lifespan of the blue-headed vireo in the wild has been measured to be approximately 7 years and 5 months. The blue-headed vireo is placed in the genus "Vireo", a group of small migrating passerine birds that are characterized by their usually dull greenish colouring, and a simple, monotonous song. Members of this group are usually characterized by the presence or absence of eye-rings, eye-strips, and wing bars. There is


title: "Blue-headed vireo" content: no sexual dimorphism between sexes in this group. Though it had been previously classified as a separate species, the blue-headed vireo along with the plumbeous vireo ("Vireo plumbeus") and the Cassin's Vireo ("V. cassinii") were lumped in the 1950s into a single species, based on morphological data. This group of vireos was collectively known as the "Solitary Vireo" ("Vireo solitarius"). This taxonomy prevailed until 1997 when new molecular data showed that there were in fact three distinct species. The taxonomy reverted to that prior to the 1950s, and the blue-headed vireo was once again its own species. There are two


title: "Blue-headed vireo" content: recognized subspecies of blue-headed vireo: Native to North America, the blue-headed vireo enjoys a large breeding range that extends over an immense area of Canada and northern United States. The breeding range of "V.s. solitarius" extends from northeastern British Columbia across Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario and Quebec and down to southern Pennsylvania and New Jersey. "V.s. alticola" has a distinct breeding range that includes western Maryland and south, mainly in the Appalachian Mountains, to northern Georgia. At the end of the breeding season, the blue-headed vireo migrates south to its overwintering area. "V.s. solitarius" has the longest migration of the


title: "Blue-headed vireo" content: two sub-species and inhabits an overwintering area that includes eastern and southern Mexico to northern Central America. "V.s. alticola" migrates across a shorter distance to an area that extends from southeastern Virginia to Texas. Blue-headed vireos prefer to breed in cool temperate forests, which in the southern part of its breeding range are found at higher elevations. Evergreen forests with spruce, fir, hemlock, and pine mixed with deciduous growth such as alder shrubs, willow shrubs, poplar, birch or maple trees are the habitat of choice. During the winter, blue-headed vireos inhabit mixed woods of pines and hardwoods. They are also


title: "Blue-headed vireo" content: found in coastal and flood plain swamps and low shrubby thickets. Year round, even during the breeding season, population density is somewhat low and spread out. Overwintering population densities are usually found to be lower than in the breeding season. The density of the population ultimately depends on the type of forest being inhabited. During migration, blue-headed vireos are often found to flock with groups of different sparrow species but rarely with members of its own species. When blue-headed vireos arrive on their breeding grounds, typically in mid-April, many deciduous trees have yet to leaf out, leading them to nest


title: "Blue-headed vireo" content: in evergreen trees including hemlocks. Recently, however, many hemlocks have been killed by an invasive Asian insect, the Hemlock woolly adelgid ("Adelges tsugae"), leaving the vireos with fewer nesting options until the deciduous trees begin to leaf out. The primary song of the blue-headed vireo is a simple, slow, monotonous tune that is often confused with the faster red-eyed vireo ("Vireo olivaceus") song. The primary song is sung only by the males and usually only during the breeding season. The males become quite vocal during the breeding season, with the song frequency reaching its height prior to mating and then


title: "Blue-headed vireo" content: decreasing after copulation. Both sexes share a series of calls that are used in both defence of nests, interspecies competition, and communication between breeding pairs while foraging. When foraging during the breeding season, mated pairs constantly communicate with each other using a series of high pitched chirping calls. Blue-headed vireos are mainly insectivorous birds but are also known to eat fleshy berries and fruit. They are equipped with short, strong bills used for processing insect prey with a tough carapace such as beetles. Foraging usually occurs in the mid level of trees. A foraging blue-headed vireo will hop from branch


title: "Blue-headed vireo" content: to branch on the same or to an adjacent tree and will then fly towards its prey to capture it. Typical prey consist mostly of caterpillars, butterflies and moths but may also include tree bugs, stink bugs, beetles, bees, ants, flies, dragonflies, grasshoppers, crickets, spiders and, on some occasions, snails. Fruit feeding occurs primarily during migration and overwintering, especially when overwintering in more tropical regions where fruit is more abundant or if the insect populations are low. This large and varied diet is an example of an opportunistic feeding strategy, allowing the blue-headed vireo to be plastic in its ability


title: "Blue-headed vireo" content: to adapt to resource availability. When arriving to the breeding ground in mid-April, male vireos will hold large, individual territories that can range from . Females will choose a male to mate with depending on the male's ability to defend and control a large territory. While defending their territory from other males, the male vireos will sing a primary song to attract females. Undecided females can usually be seen flying along the edges of competing male territories; usually this will force the two males into direct conflict for the right to copulate with the female. Once a female has approached


title: "Blue-headed vireo" content: a suitable mate, the male will perform a series of mating rituals. Typically, these rituals involve the male building a courtship nest for the female. The courtship nest is not a full nest but is most likely an attempt by the male to display his ability to gather resources. Once the pair is established, the courtship nest is abandoned. Mating does not occur for approximately 2 weeks after pair has been established. During this time, the male and the female will cooperatively build a breeding nest which is typically formed between forking mid-level branches of evergreen and deciduous trees and


title: "Blue-headed vireo" content: are composed of twigs and foliage. Breeding nests are not reused in following breeding seasons. In one breeding season, a female will lay 3–5 eggs at a rate of 1 egg per day. Eggs are creamy white with brown or black spots and are 17–23.1 x 13.3–15.8 mm (0.055–0.075 in x 0.04–0.05 in). Eggs are incubated for approximately 14 days after being laid. Once hatched, infants are highly altricial, often having little to no downy feathers. Infants open their eyes during day 5 or 6 and will begin to fledge after 14 days for a total chick-rearing period of 28


title: "Blue-headed vireo" content: days. Once the young are able to leave the nest, the parents will split the juveniles and separate. Juveniles are usually dependent on the parent to provide food for approximately 1 month after leaving the nest. If the nest is destroyed or a mating pair produces a failed brood, an attempt to re-nest may occur but this ultimately depends on when the brood fails. If the brood fails early on in the season, there is a higher chance that the pair will re-nest, if later, the pair will often separate and not attempt a second brood. Blue-headed vireo's have an


title: "Blue-headed vireo" content: atypical breeding strategy when compared to other closely related species. Blue-headed vireo males will assist their mates with daytime incubation of eggs, nest construction, and feeding of the chicks. Also, unlike most bird species, female blue-headed vireos do not attempt any extra-pair copulations with other males. Likewise, males make no attempt to guard females from other males, making blue-headed vireos both socially and genetically monogamous birds. The increase in male blue-headed vireo parental care is thought to be attributed to the levels of testosterone and prolactin found in the plasma of these birds during the mating season. Testosterone, a steroid


title: "Blue-headed vireo" content: hormone that is secreted by the testes, has been found to increase aggressive behaviour in male birds during the breeding season and that these males display less parental care if their testosterone levels are maintained. Conversely, prolactin is a peptide hormone that is regulated by the hypothalamus that has been found at higher levels in birds that do the majority of incubation. It was found that in the early breeding season, male blue-headed vireos have a low testosterone level and will maintain this low level at all stages of the season. This low level does not affect the Vireo's ability


title: "Blue-headed vireo" content: to compete with other males for territory however, as a high testosterone level has been found to not be necessary for territory establishment. Prolactin levels of the males were found to be high very early on in the breeding season and are maintained for the duration of the season. This high level of prolactin along with a low testosterone level, explains why male blue-headed vireos are so involved in the construction of the nest, daytime incubation, and feeding of the nestlings. Blue-headed vireos have a low nesting success rate, with about 10–30% of hatchlings surviving. Common predators of the blue-headed


title: "Blue-headed vireo" content: vireo eggs and chicks include blue jays, crows, and squirrels. Often, when a nest is attacked by a blue jay, the male and female will execute coordinated attacks on the approaching predator. This usually involves one partner swooping towards the blue jay while calling the mate who will then execute a second attack. Blue-headed vireos have also been known to nest close to nesting raptorial birds that do not prey on them. It is thought that they use the raptors as protection from squirrels that are, in turn, hunted by these bird of prey. The largest contributor to the low


title: "Blue-headed vireo" content: nesting success rate of the blue-headed vireo is most likely the parasitic brown-headed cowbird ("Molothrus ater"). These birds will often lay their large eggs overtop the existing brood, causing the parents to feed the cowbird which will ultimately starve the infant Vireos. Blue-headed vireo The blue-headed vireo ("Vireo solitarius") is a Neotropical migrating song bird found in North and Central America. There are currently two recognized sub-species that belong to the blue-headed vireo. It has a range that extends across Canada and the eastern coast of the United-States, Mexico and some of Central America. It prefers large temperate forests with


title: "Yellow-throated vireo" content: Yellow-throated vireo The yellow-throated vireo ("Vireo flavifrons") is a small American songbird."Vireo" is a Latin word referring to a green migratory bird, perhaps the female golden oriole, possibly the European greenfinch. The specific "flavifrons" is from the Latin words "flavus", "yellow", and "frons", "forehead". Adults are mainly olive on the head and upperparts with a yellow throat and white belly; they have dark eyes with yellow "spectacles". The tail and wings are dark with white wing bars. They have thick blue-grey legs and a stout bill. Their breeding habitat is open deciduous woods in southern Canada and the eastern United


title: "Yellow-throated vireo" content: States. These birds migrate to the deep southern United States, Mexico, and Central America. They are very rare vagrants to western Europe; there is a September 1990 record from Kenidjack Valley in Cornwall, Great Britain, and September 1998 record from Heligoland, a small German archipelago in the German Bight. They forage for insects high in trees. They also eat berries, especially before migration and in winter when they are occasionally seen feeding on gumbo-limbo ("Bursera simaruba") fruit. They make a thick cup nest attached to a fork in a tree branch. Yellow-throated vireo The yellow-throated vireo ("Vireo flavifrons") is a


title: "Criticism of the Catholic Church" content: Criticism of the Catholic Church Criticism of the Catholic Church includes the observations made about the current or historical Catholic Church, in its actions, teachings, omissions, structure, or nature. The logical disagreements are covered on a denominational basis. Criticisms may regard the concepts of papal primacy and supremacy, or aspects of church structure, governance, and particular practices. Since the Catholic Church is the largest Christian church representing over half of all Christians and one sixth of the world's population, these criticisms may not necessarily represent the majority view of all Christians and non-Christians. Criticism of the Catholic Church in previous


title: "Texture (music)" content: also is changed by the amount and the richness of the instruments playing the piece. The thickness varies from light to thick. A piece's texture may be changed by the number and character of parts playing at once, the timbre of the instruments or voices playing these parts and the harmony, tempo, and rhythms used . The types categorized by number and relationship of parts are analyzed and determined through the labeling of primary textural elements: primary melody (PM), secondary melody (SM), parallel supporting melody (PSM), static support (SS), harmonic support (HS), rhythmic support (RS), and harmonic and rhythmic support


title: "Battle of the Sabis" content: made their preparations and were now waiting for the Romans. Caesar sent forward experienced scouts to choose the next campsite. He learnt from prisoners taken later that sympathisers in the ragtag of surrendered Belgae and other Gauls travelling with the army had gone to the Nervii and reported his disposition of his column. They reported that the individual legionary baggage trains were interspersed between the legions and that it would be easy to cut off the leading legion from the rest and destroy it before any support could reach it. It was believed this would intimidate the Romans into withdrawing.


title: "University of North Carolina at Charlotte" content: scholarship programs. UNC Charlotte's J. Murrey Atkins Library, named for the first chairman of the Board of Trustees of Charlotte College, has over 3.3 million volumes, including 930,000 e-books, over 400 databases, and approximately 75,000 journals, the vast majority available electronically, as well as an area for special collections. The recently renovated library includes a ten-story tower that accentuates the library's place at the heart of UNC Charlotte's campus. In April 2007, Atkins received its one-millionth volume, a copy of T. S. Eliot's "The Waste Land". A special collections section is housed on the tenth floor at the top of


title: "Francesco Tamagno" content: money. The amount charged for each of Tamagno's discs represented at least a week's wages for the common man and for that outlay he would receive a single-sided product, sometimes containing less than two minutes of music. Clearly, Tamagno's recordings were aimed at upper-crust customers, as were those made by such eminent contemporaries of his as Nellie Melba, Adelina Patti, Pol Plançon and Mattia Battistini. The small group of composers featured on Tamagno's combined recorded output of 1903 and 1904 comprises Giacomo Meyerbeer, Camille Saint-Saëns, Jules Massenet, de Lara, Giordano, Rossini and, naturally enough, Verdi. Apart from "Otello", the operas


title: "Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam" content: party elected members to vote according to their conscience. Dr.V.V.Giri was elected as the President of India with the support of Mrs. Indira Gandhi. This has resulted in the split of Congress Party and in October 1969. Senior Leaders like Morarji Desai, Athulya Ghosh, Kamarajar, S K Patil and Nijalingappa on the one side as Congress (Organisation) and Indira Gandhi, Shankar Dayal Sharma, Jagjivan Ram, C Subramaniam on the Other Side as Congress (Indira). The DMK, led by Mr.Karunanidhi took a stance to support Mrs. Indira Gandhi in certain reforms like abolition of privy purse, nationalisation of Banks. In 1971


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: Hurva Synagogue The Hurva Synagogue, (, translit: "Beit ha-Knesset ha-Hurva", lit. "The Ruin Synagogue"), also known as Hurvat Rabbi Yehudah he-Hasid ("Ruin of Rabbi Judah the Pious"), is a historic synagogue located in the Jewish Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem. The synagogue was founded in the early 18th century by followers of Judah heHasid, but it was destroyed by Muslims a few years later in 1721. The plot lay in ruins for over 140 years and became known as the Ruin, or "Hurva". In 1864, the Perushim rebuilt the synagogue, and although officially named the Beis Yaakov Synagogue,


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: it retained its name as the Hurva. It became Jerusalem's main Ashkenazic synagogue, until it too was deliberately destroyed by the Arab Legion after the withdrawal of Israeli forces during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. After Israel captured East Jerusalem from Jordan in 1967, a number of plans were submitted for the design of a new building. After years of deliberation and indecision, a commemorative arch was erected instead at the site in 1977, itself becoming a prominent landmark of the Jewish Quarter. The plan to rebuild the synagogue in its 19th-century style received approval by the Israeli Government in 2000,


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: and the newly rebuilt synagogue was dedicated on March 15, 2010. The Hurva Synagogue today stands off a plaza in the centre of Jerusalem's Jewish Quarter. Excavations carried out at the site in July and August 2003 revealed evidence from four main settlement periods: First Temple (800–600 BCE), Second Temple (100 CE), Byzantine and Ottoman. Three bedrock-hewn mikvehs (ritual baths) were uncovered there dating from the 1st century. The earliest tradition regarding the site is of a synagogue existing there at the time of the second-century sage Judah the Prince. By the 13th century, the area had become a courtyard,


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: known as "Der Ashkenaz" (the Ashkenazic Compound), for the Ashkenazic community of Jerusalem. In 1488, Obadiah ben Abraham Bartenura described a large courtyard containing many houses for exclusive use of the Ashkenazim, adjacent to a "synagogue built on pillars", referring to the Ramban Synagogue. The Ramban Synagogue had been used jointly by both Ashkenazim and Sephardim until 1586, when the Ottoman authorities confiscated the building. Thereafter, the Ashkenazim established a synagogue within their own, adjacent courtyard. In the winter of 1700, a group of around 500 Ashkenazim led by Judah heHasid arrived from Europe. They were mystics who were intent


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: on advancing the arrival of the Messianic Era by settling in Jerusalem and leading ascetic lives. A few days after their arrival in the city, heHasid died, and without a leader, their messianic hopes dissipated and the community began to disintegrate. Those who remained managed to build forty dwellings and a small synagogue in the Ashkenazic Compound. Soon after, they endeavoured to construct a larger synagogue, but the task proved expensive. They found themselves having to bribe the Ottoman authorities in order to enable them to proceed with their building project. Unexpected costs relating to the construction, financial hardships and


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: the burden of various other taxes drained their funds. They became impoverished and were forced to take loans from local Arabs, eventually falling into severe debt. Pressure and threats from the creditors led to a "meshulach" (rabbinical emissary) being sent abroad to solicit funds for repayment of the loans. In late 1720, with the debts still outstanding, the Arab lenders lost patience and set the synagogue and its contents alight. The leaders of the community were imprisoned and shortly after, all the Ashkenazim were banished from the city. Over the course of time, shops were built in the courtyard and


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: the synagogue was left desolate, in a pile of rubble. It thus became known as the "Ruin of Rabbi Judah heHasid". Between 1808 and 1812 another group of ascetic Jews, known as Perushim, immigrated to Palestine from Lithuania. They were disciples of the Vilna Gaon and had settled in the city of Safed to the north. Some had wished to settle in Jerusalem and reclaim the Ashkenazic Compound. They were worried, however, that descendants of the Arab creditors still held the old promissory notes relating to the century-old debts incurred by he-Hasid's followers and that a new group of Ashkenazic


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: immigrants would possibly inherit responsibility for repayment. The descendants of a group of Hasidim who made "aliyah" in 1777 also presented a problem. They apparently objected to any effort by the Perushim to take control of the synagogue ruin, claiming it had never belonged to the Perushim or their ancestors. The Hasidim claimed they had closer ties with the original owners and that their rights to the parcel of land were greater. Nevertheless, in late 1815, leader of the Safed Perushim, Rabbi Menachem Mendel of Shklov, arrived in Jerusalem with a group of followers. They directed their main efforts to


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: rebuilding he-Hasid's synagogue, which had symbolised the expulsion of the Ashkenazim from Jerusalem. By this, they intended to demonstrate the re-establishment of Ashkenazic presence in the city. Rebuilding one of Jerusalem's ruins would also have symbolic kabbalistic significance. The "repairing" of an earlier destruction would represent the first step of rebuilding the entire city, a prerequisite for the arrival of the Messiah. In 1816 they "pleaded with the powers in the city of Constantinople to obtain a royal decree that the Arabs residing in Jerusalem would not be permitted to enforce the debts of the Ashkenazim", but nothing came of


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: it. A year later, several leaders of the group, including Avraham Shlomo Zalman Zoref, a Lithuanian-born silversmith, and Soloman Pach, travelled to Constantinople endeavouring to obtain such a "firman" (imperial decree). Two years later, in 1819, their efforts were realised and the century-old debts were cancelled. The group acquired a legal document delineating the entire site acquired by he-Hasid in 1700. The area now included dilapidated dwellings and shops built by the creditors' heirs on part of the site. Next, they had to secure another "firman" that would permit construction at the site, including the building of a large synagogue.


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: Two successive missions in 1820 and 1821 to obtain the "firman" from the sultan's court failed. Still awaiting imperial permission to build in the courtyard, the Perushim wished to rely on an old "firman" given to the Jews in 1623, which stated that there could be no objection to them building in their own quarters. Having received a supporting document issued by the Qadi of Jerusalem in March 1824, it was possible for them begin rebuilding the dwellings in the courtyard. In practice, however, construction never materialised as they were unable to exercise their authority over the plot of land.


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: This was apparently due to confrontation with the Arab squatters and the local government's disregard of the documents proving their ownership of the courtyard. In 1825, following the disruption the group were experiencing, Shapira travelled to Europe once again. He hoped to secure the necessary "firman", which would place the courtyard firmly in the Perushim's possession, and also to raise funds to cover the costs incurred trying to redeem the courtyard. His mission, however, was unsuccessful, as was a later mission attempted in 1829 by Zoref. With the annexation of Jerusalem by Egypt in 1831, a new opportunity arose for


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: the Perushim. They petitioned Muhammad Ali regarding the rebuilding of the synagogue, but concerns about deviating from longstanding Muslim tradition and the Pact of Umar (which restricted the repair or construction of non-Muslim houses of worship) meant permission was not forthcoming. However, five months after the earthquake of May 1834, the prohibition was relaxed and the Sephardim were allowed to carry out repair works to their existing synagogues. This consent gave rise to further efforts by the Ashkenazim to receive authorisation to rebuild theirs. On June 23, 1836, after traveling to Egypt, Zoref, together with the backing of the Austrian


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: and Russian consuls in Alexandria, obtained the long-awaited "firman". It seems he was successful in gaining support of the Austrian consul and Muhammad Ali by invoking the name of Baron Salomon Mayer von Rothschild of Vienna. Muhammad Ali was hopeful that by giving his permission to rebuild the Ruin, Rothschild would be inclined to forge financial and political ties with him, which would in turn secure political support of Austria and France. In fact, Rothschild's involvement was a ruse. As soon as Zoref received the "firman", he contacted Zvi Hirsch Lehren of the Clerks' Organisation in Amsterdam, requesting that funds


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: his brother had pledged towards the building of synagogues in Palestine be applied to the Ruin. But Lehren had doubts as to what exactly the "firman" permitted. Explicit authorisation for construction of a large synagogue was absent. (A letter from the leaders of the Amsterdam community to Moses Montefiore in 1849 confirms that permission for a synagogue in the Ashkenasic Compound had not been sanctioned; they had only been allowed to build dwellings in the area.) In spite of the doubts highlighted in relation to the construction of a synagogue, the Perushim, confidently in possession of the ambiguous "firman", began


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: clearing away the rubble from the Ruin courtyard in September 1836. As the foundations of he-Hasid's original synagogue were revealed, they discovered a few old documents dating from 1579, signed by Israel ben Moses Najara. After much debate, they decided not to rebuild the Ruin, but initially erect a small structure on the edge of the Ashkenasic compound. The Arab creditors, however, still refused to relinquish the claims they had on the Jews and continued to interfere with the works. Zoref, claiming that the Ashkenazim currently in Jerusalem were not related in any way to those who had borrowed the


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: money at the turn of the 18th century, was forced to appear in court requesting a further ruling cancelling the debts. He mentioned that an injunction had already been passed that absolved the Ashkenazim from repaying the debt and maintained that the Turkish Statute of Limitations cancelled out the debts of Judah heHasid's followers. Although the court ruled in the Ashkenazim's favour, Zoref nevertheless had to appease the Arab instigators with annual bribes in order to allow building to continue. At some point this arrangement ceased and in 1851, he was struck on the head with a sword and died


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: of his wounds three months later. By January 1837 however, the Perushim had dedicated the modest Menachem Zion Synagogue in the northwestern corner of the courtyard. In 1854, a second smaller synagogue was built within the compound. The actual plot upon which he-Hasid's synagogue had stood 130 years earlier, however, remained in ruins. In the early 1850s, the Perushim felt ready to attempt the building a larger synagogue on he-Hasid's original site. An outcome of the Crimean War was the British Government's willingness to use its increased influence at Constantinople to intervene on behalf of its Jewish subjects who resided


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: in Jerusalem. On July 13, 1854, James Finn of the British consulate in Jerusalem wrote to the British ambassador in Constantinople describing the wishes of the 2,000 strong Ashkenazic community to build a new synagogue. He noted that funds for construction had been collected by Moses Montefiore twelve years earlier. He also enclosed a 150-year-old "firman", which authorised the Ashkenazic Jews to rebuild their ruined synagogue. As the title to the plot of land was held by the Amzalag family, who were British subjects, they designated London-born Rabbi Hirschell, son of Chief Rabbi of Great Britain Solomon Hirschell, to negotiate


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: the transfer. The British consulate agreed to lend its sanction to the contract in order to avoid possible intrusion by the Turks. At issue was the question of whether the building of a synagogue at the site constituted the repair of an old house of non-Muslim worship or the establishment of a new synagogue. The Turks would have to grant a special license for the latter. This was received through the efforts of Francis Napier and Stratford Canning, 1st Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe, British ambassadors to the Sublime Porte, who secured the necessary "firman" in 1854. In July 1855, while


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: in Constantinople, Montefiore was handed the "firman", which he hand-delivered during his fourth visit to Jerusalem in 1857. With permission granted, the groundbreaking ceremony took place on the last day of Hanukkah of 1855. On April 22, 1856, the cornerstone was laid in the presence of Chief Rabbi of Jerusalem, Shmuel Salant. Salant had been instrumental in raising the necessary funding, making a trip to Europe in 1860 and obtaining large donations, especially from Montefiore. Some of the stones used in construction of the building was purchased from the Industrial Plantation, where poor Jews assisted in quarrying and shaping the


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: blocks. On May 7, 1856 Consul Finn inspected the site after receiving complaints from Muslims who suspected the opening of windows towards a mosque. Although originally in possession of a lump sum they hoped would pay for the planned edifice, expenses increased. Construction work progressed slowly for lack of funds and the impoverished community soon found themselves having to arrange collections throughout the diaspora. One notable emissary, Jacob Saphir, set off for Egypt in 1857 and returned in 1863 having visited Yemen, Aden, India, Java, Australia, New Zealand and Ceylon. The largest single gift came from Ezekiel Reuben, a wealthy


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: Sephardi Jew from Baghdad, who gave 100,000 of the million piasters needed. His sons, Menashe and Sasson, later supplemented his donation. The combined donations from the Reuben family eventually covered more than half the cost. It marked an important step in the unity of the Sephardic and Ashkenazic communities of the city. Another contributor was Frederick William IV of Prussia, whose name was inscribed above the entrance together with those of other benefactors. He also gave permission for funds to be collected from his Jewish subjects. Throughout Western Europe, emissaries sought donations with the slogan "Merit Eternal Life with one


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: stone". With new funds arriving, work could progress. In 1862 the domed ceiling was completed and Rabbi Yeshaya Bardaki, head of the Ashkenazic community, was honored with placing the final stone of the dome. Two years later in 1864, the new synagogue was dedicated. Present was Baron Alphonse James de Rothschild, who 8 years earlier had been given the honour of laying the first stone. The edifice was officially named "Beis Yaakov" – "House of Jacob" – in memory of James Mayer de Rothschild, whose son Edmond James de Rothschild had dedicated much of his life supporting the Jews of


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: Palestine. The locals, however, continued to refer to the building as the Hurva. As a token of gratitude to the British government for their involvement, the British Consul James Finn, was invited to the dedication ceremony, which included a thanksgiving service. He described the "beautiful chants and anthems in Hebrew", the subsequent refreshments provided and the playing of Russian and Austrian music. The Hurva Synagogue was designed and constructed under the supervision of Assad Effendi, the sultan's official architect. Built in Byzantine Revival style, it was supported by four massive pilasters at each corner over which soared a large dome.


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: The construction of only one of these towers was completed. The other three were missing the upper level and the small dome that capped it. The facade was covered in finely hewn stone and incorporated high window arches. The height of the synagogue to the bottom of its dome was around and to the top of the dome it was . Twelve windows were placed around the base of the dome, which was surrounded by a veranda, which offered a fine view of large parts of the Old City and the area around Jerusalem. Being one of the tallest structures


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: in the Old City, it was visible for miles. The synagogue prayer hall was reached via an entrance with three iron gates. The length was around and the width was around . The women's section was in the galleries, along the three sides of the chapel, except the eastern side. Access to the galleries was through towers situated at the corners of the building. The Torah ark had the capacity to house 50 Torah scrolls and was built on two levels. It was flanked by four Corinthian columns surrounded by baroque woodcuts depicting flowers and birds. The Ark, together with


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: its ornamental gates, were taken from the Nikolayevsky Synagogue in Kherson, Russia, which had been used by Russian Jewish conscripts forced to spend twenty-five years in the Imperial Russian Army. Directly above the Ark was a triangular window with rounded points. To the right and in front of the ark was the cantor's podium, which was designed as a miniature version of the two-level Ark. The centre of the synagogue originally contained a high wooden bimah, but this was later replaced with a flat platform covered with expensive marble plates. Numerous crystal chandeliers hung from the dome. The dome itself


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: was painted sky-blue and strewn with golden stars. Frescoes with religious motifs, such as stars of David, the menorah, Mount Sinai and the Ten Commandments, adorned every wall. In the four corners were drawings of four animals in accordance with the statement in "Pirkei Avot": "Be strong as the leopard and swift as the eagle, fleet as the deer and brave as the lion to do the will of your Father in Heaven." One of the most generous donations came from Pinchas Rosenberg, the Imperial Court tailor of Saint Petersburg. In the diary of Rabbi Chaim ha-Levy, the emissary who


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: had been sent from Jerusalem to collect funds for the synagogue, Rosenberg set out in details what his money was intended for. Among the items that were bought with his money were two big bronze candelabras; a silver menorah that "arrived miraculously on the 1st "Tevet" [1866] precisely in time to light the last eight Hanukah candles" and an iron door made under the holy ark for safe-keeping of the candlestick. He also earmarked funds towards the building of an "artistically wrought iron fence around the roof under the upper windows so that there be a veranda on which may


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: stand all our brethren who go up in pilgrimage to behold our desolate Temple, and also a partition for the womenfolk on the Feast of Tabernacles and Simchat Torah". From 1864 onwards, the Hurva Synagogue was considered the most beautiful and most important synagogue in the Land of Israel. It was described as "the glory of the Old City" and the "most striking edifice in all of Palestine". It also housed part of the Etz Chaim Yeshiva, the largest yeshiva in Jerusalem. It was a focal point of Jewish spiritual life in the city and was the site of the


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: installation of the Ashkenazic chief rabbis of both Palestine and Jerusalem. On his visit to Jerusalem in 1866, Moses Montefiore went to the synagogue, placing a silver breastplate on one of the Torah scrolls. When he visited again in 1875, a crowd of 3,000 Jews turned out to greet him. On February 3, 1901 a memorial service for Queen Victoria took place inside the synagogue in gratitude for the protection afforded to the Jews of Jerusalem by Britain. The service was presided over by the Ashkenazic Chief Rabbi, Shmuel Salant. According to a report in "The Jewish Chronicle", the large


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: building was "filled to its utmost capacity and policemen had to keep off the crowds, who vainly sought admission, by force". In around 1919, Benjamin Lee Gordon wrote that the "synagogue presented a very pleasant and dignified appearance. It was well illuminated with artistic lamps presented by a certain Mr. Lichtenstein, of Philadelphia". In 1921 Abraham Isaac Kook was appointed first Chief Rabbi of Palestine at the synagogue. The synagogue also hosted Herbert Samuel, 1st Viscount Samuel, who was honoured with reciting a portion of the Torah. In 1923 Yosef Shalom Eliashiv's bar mitzvah was held at the synagogue. In


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: the 1930s and possibly earlier, the synagogue housed the Chayei Olam Cheider, where indigent students form the Old City received their Torah education. On May 25, 1948, during the battle for the Old City, commander of the Jordanian Arab Legion, Major Abdullah el-Tell, wrote to Otto Lehner of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement to warn that unless the Haganah abandoned its positions in the synagogue and its adjoining courtyard, he would be forced to attack it. Moshe Russnak, commander of the Haganah in the Old City, ignored his request, knowing that if the Hurva fell, the battle


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: for the Jewish Quarter would soon be lost. On May 26, 1948, the Jordanian Arab Legion delivered an ultimatum to the Jews to surrender within 12 hours; otherwise the Hurva would be bombarded. On May 27, el-Tell, after receiving no answer to his proposition, told his men to "Get the Hurva Synagogue by noon." Fawzi el-Kutub executed the mission by placing a 200-litre barrel filled with explosives against the synagogue wall. The explosion resulted in a gaping hole and Haganah fighters spent forty-five minutes fighting in vain to prevent the Legionnaires from entering. When they finally burst through, they tried


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: to reach the top of its dome to plant an Arab flag. Three were shot by snipers, but the fourth succeeded. The Arab flag flying over the Old City skyline signaled the Legion's triumph. As the Legionnaires took the "Hurva" Synagogue, the quarter’s most sacred building, they blew it up without reason A huge explosion reduced the 84-year-old synagogue, together with the Etz Chaim Yeshiva attached to it, to rubble. The building was deliberately mined after the Arabs had captured the area. Together with that major synagogue, another 57 Jewish sanctuaries were purposely and systematically destroyed by the Jordanians soon


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: after their occupation of the Old City in 1948. Following the Six-Day War, plans were mooted and designs sought for a new synagogue to be built at the site, part of the overall rehabilitation of the Jewish Quarter. Many religious and political figures supported the proposal to rebuild the original synagogue "where it was, as it was" in line with the traditional religious character of the area. However, the Jewish Quarter Development Company, in charge of the restoration of the Jewish Quarter, strongly opposed it. The Israeli planners and architects involved in developing the area wanted the building to reflect


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: their modern Western identity. Additionally, although it would have been possible to rebuild it as it was, neither the architects nor the masons felt they were sufficiently qualified in traditional masonry technology to attempt it. Moreover, most of the original carved stones and surviving decorative elements had been removed, making a true "reconstruction" unrealisable. Swayed by the creativity of contemporary architecture and contrary to the 19th century design, which was meant to blend in with the Oriental landscape, they supported the modern redesign of the Hurva by a prominent architect. Leading the campaign to rebuild the Hurva was Shlomo Zalman


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: Tzoref's great-great-grandson, Ya'acov Salomon. He consulted Ram Karmi, who in turn recommended Louis Kahn, a world-renowned architect who was also a founding member of the Jerusalem Committee. Kahn had also previously designed Philadelphia's Mikveh Israel Synagogue in 1961 which remained unbuilt. Between 1968 and 1973, Kahn presented three plans for the reconstruction. The ruins were incorporated in a memorial garden, with a new structure on an adjacent lot and a promenade, the "Route of the Prophets", leading to the Western Wall. Kahn proposed a structure within a structure, monumental "pylons of Jerusalem stone on each side enclosing four huge central


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: pillars of reinforced concrete, so that the pylons function[ed] as a container and the pillars as its content". Following the Beaux-Arts tradition, the elements of architecture were conceived as hollow, thus creating pocketing spaces within both structures. The outer structure was composed of 16 piers covered in golden Jerusalem stone cut in blocks of the same proportions and same course finish as those of the Western Wall. In the bases of the four corners of the two-story, high structure delineated by the piers, there would be small alcoves for meditation or individual prayer. Such alcoves would be used for daily


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: prayer services, allowing larger crowds on Sabbath or festivals. Boston-based architect Moshe Safdie, who had built extensively in Jerusalem and trained with Kahn in Philadelphia, was also in favour of rebuilding using contemporary design: "It's absurd to reconstruct the Hurva as if nothing had happened. If we have the desire to rebuild it, let's have the courage to have a great architect do it." When Teddy Kollek, then mayor of Jerusalem, had learned of Kahn's plans to design the Hurva at a scale comparable to the Dome of the Rock and the Kotel, the mayor was unsupportive and stated: "Should


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: we in the Jewish Quarter have a building of major importance which 'competes' with the Mosque and the Holy Sepulcher and should we in general have any building which would compete in importance with the Western Wall of the Temple?" Kollek was also concerned with the impact such a monumental temple may have in the Old City. Kahn's model was displayed in the Israel Museum, but his plan was shelved when he died in 1974. Kent Larson later referred to Kahn's proposal as "the greatest of the unbuilt". As no permanent solution could be agreed upon, a temporary, symbolic solution


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: was created. In 1977, one of the four stone arches that had originally supported the synagogue's monumental dome was recreated. The height of the original building, including the dome, had been 50% greater than that of the new commemorative arch, which stood high. Together with the remains of the building and explanatory plaques, it was a stark reminder of what had once stood at the site. With the ongoing disputes over the modern façade of the proposed new building, which some felt did not properly match the Jewish Quarter's aesthetic, an Englishman named Charles Clore took the initiative to fund


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: a new design projects. He commissioned Denys Lasdun, who drew up plans between 1978 and 1981 that more closely adhered to the original Hurva. His plans were still considered insufficient, as they were rejected by Prime Minister Menachem Begin and the Minister of Interior, who refused to sign papers enabling construction to begin. No further progress was made and when Clore, who had wished to see the synagogue completed in his lifetime, died, his daughter provided funds to create one of the few open spaces in the Jewish Quarter adjacent to the Hurva. The Hurva featured on a NIS 3.60


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: Israeli postage stamp in 1993 to commemorate 45 years of Israeli independence, and its arch on a $1.20 Antiguan postage stamp in 1996. However, in 1996, the supposedly temporary arch of the Hurva was almost thirty years old and, as a solution, it became nearly perpetual. Such condition was then publicly noted and interpreted: This suggested that the single reconstructed arch of the Hurva could no longer be understood as a satisfactory expression of any commitment to rebuild the lost synagogue nor as an acceptable official response to its intentional destruction in 1948. The plan to rebuild the synagogue in


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: its original 19th-century style received approval by the Israeli government in 2000. Jerusalem architect Nahum Meltzer, who proposed rebuilding the synagogue in its original Ottoman format, was given the commission. Meltzer stated that "both out of respect for the historical memory of the Jewish people and out of respect for the built-up area of the Old City, it is fitting for us to restore the lost glory and rebuild the Hurva Synagogue the way it was." The state-funded Jewish Quarter Development Corporation under the leadership of Dov Kalmanovich convinced the Israeli government to allocate $6.2 million (NIS 24m), about 85%


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: of the cost, for the reconstruction, with private donors contributing the remainder. In the end, the government only gave NIS 11m, with the remainder being donated by a Ukrainian Jewish businessman and philanthropist, Vadim Rabinovitch. In 2002 the Israeli mint issued a set of medals featuring the synagogue to mark the beginning of the reconstruction project. Following comprehensive historic research, the reconstruction works began in 2005 and on February 15, 2007, Simcha HaKohen Kook of Rehovot was appointed as its rabbi, a move confirmed by leading rabbis, including Yosef Shalom Eliashiv. On April 15, 2008 a celebration marked the placing


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: of the keystone in the synagogue's dome. Recently, contention arose over what kind of institution the Hurva would be. Secularist and nationalist-religious activists opposed the notion of another synagogue in the Old City and wanted the site to become a museum presenting the historical saga of the Jewish Quarter and displaying archaeological finds unearthed there. They viewed the appointment of Kook as the rabbi while the structure was still a shell as a move aimed at preventing a Modern Orthodox rabbi, who would have been more amenable to a broader utilisation of the site, from getting the position. Rabbi of


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: the Jewish Quarter, Avigdor Nebenzahl, has been clear that he wants the building to serve as a synagogue and a house of study. The reconstructed Hurva was officially opened on March 15, 2010 in the presence of Israeli politicians and chief rabbis. A day earlier, hundreds of people had accompanied a new Torah scroll into the synagogue. Several Palestinian leaders claimed that the rededication signaled Israel's intent to destroy the Muslim holy places on the Temple Mount and replace it with the Third Temple. Fatah official Khatem Abd el-Khader called the renovation of the Hurva a "provocation", warned Israel that


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: it was "playing with fire" and called on Palestinians to "converge on Al-Aksa to save it". Khaled Mashal of Hamas described the synagogue's opening as "a declaration of war" and called it a "falsification of history and Jerusalem's religious and historic monuments". Fearing riots by Arab protestors, over 3,000 policemen were deployed ahead of the dedication ceremony. The Organisation of the Islamic Conference said that the reopening risked "dragging the region into a religious war" and claimed the building was historically on a "waqf" (Islamic trust) land. The Jordanian government also condemned the move stating that it "categorically rejects the


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: rededication of Hurva synagogue and all other unilateral Israeli measures in occupied East Jerusalem because they run counter to international legitimacy". Iran urged the international community to respond to the reopening and a Foreign Ministry spokesman called the move a "catastrophe that has distressed the Islamic world". Israeli officials countered that Arab fears of a takeover of the Temple Mount were based on rumors and Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu extended a message of coexistence. The U.S. State Department criticised Palestinians for stoking tensions at the rededication of the historic synagogue. The day after, Arabs clashed with Israeli police in


title: "Hurva Synagogue" content: East Jerusalem after Palestinian groups called for a "day of rage" over the reopening. In September 2010, Hamas released a propaganda video showing various Israeli landmarks, including the Hurva synagogue, ablaze after coming under missile attack. The images were the result of special effects, as no such attacks had taken place. Hurva Synagogue The Hurva Synagogue, (, translit: "Beit ha-Knesset ha-Hurva", lit. "The Ruin Synagogue"), also known as Hurvat Rabbi Yehudah he-Hasid ("Ruin of Rabbi Judah the Pious"), is a historic synagogue located in the Jewish Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem. The synagogue was founded in the early


title: "Music history of the United States in the 1970s" content: of the era included Barry Manilow, Paul McCartney, Elton John, Neil Diamond, Stevie Wonder and Rod Stewart. Female soloists who epitomized the 1970s included Roberta Flack, Carly Simon, Donna Summer, Barbra Streisand, Linda Ronstadt, Olivia Newton-John, Diana Ross, and Helen Reddy. A number of styles defined country music during the 1970s decade. At the beginning of the decade, the countrypolitan — an offshoot of the earlier "Nashville Sound" of the late 1950s and early 1960s — and the honky-tonk fused Bakersfield Sound were some of the more popular styles. The countrypolitan sound — a polished, streamlined sound featuring string sections,


title: "Michael Ancher" content: of Jutland where the Baltic and North Sea converge. From the mid-1870s, he and Madsen became key members of a group of artists who congregated there each summer, known as the Skagen Painters. After Ancher first visited Skagen in 1874, he settled there joining the growing society of artists. The colony of painters regularly met in the Brøndums Hotel in Skagen in order to exchange ideas. In 1880 Ancher married fellow painter and Skagen native Anna Brøndum, whose father owned the Brøndums Hotel. In the first years of their marriage, the couple had a home and studio in the "Garden


title: "Tia Carrere" content: Tia Carrere Althea Rae Janairo (born January 2, 1967), known professionally as Tia Carrere, is an American actress who obtained her first big break as a regular on the daytime soap opera "General Hospital". She played Cassandra Wong in the feature films "Wayne's World" and "Wayne's World 2", Juno Skinner in "True Lies", Nani Pelekai in "Lilo & Stitch", its sequel films and "", Queen Tyr'ahnee in "Duck Dodgers", Richard Lewis' girlfriend, Cha Cha, in "Curb Your Enthusiasm", and Sydney Fox in the television series "Relic Hunter". She appeared as a contestant in the second season of "Dancing with the


title: "Jesse Jackson Jr." content: as a possible candidate to replace Barack Obama, who, after being elected President of the United States on November 4, 2008, officially resigned his seat in the U.S. Senate effective November 16. The class 3 Illinois Senate seat was up for re-election in 2010. Other contenders included Danny Davis, Jan Schakowsky, Tammy Duckworth, Emil Jones Jr., Kwame Raoul, Dan Hynes, and Lisa Madigan, while other sources also mentioned Luis Gutierrez and Melissa Bean. One early name mentioned, Valerie Jarrett, withdrew her name from consideration and both Davis and Duckworth noted that they had not been contacted by the governor's office


title: "Computer accessibility" content: and with upwards of 150 individual statements, ISO 9241-172 is difficult to interpret and apply. Luckily, not every statement is relevant to every situation, therefore it may be advisable to identify a subset of statements that are tailored to the particular software environment, making the use of this document much more achievable. Computer accessibility In human–computer interaction, computer accessibility (also known as accessible computing) refers to the accessibility of a computer system to all people, regardless of disability type or severity of impairment. The term "accessibility" is most often used in reference to specialized hardware or software, or a combination


title: Neuss content: with its harbour and ferry. During the 10th century, the remains of the martyr and tribune Saint Quirinus, not to be confused with the Roman god Quirinus, had been relocated to Neuss. This resulted in pilgrimage to the shrine of St. Quirinus even from countries beyond the borders of the Holy Roman Empire. Neuss was first documented as a town in 1138. One of the main events in the town's history is the siege of the town in 1474–75 by Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, that lasted for nearly a year. The citizens of Neuss withstood the siege and


title: "Western kingbird" content: Western kingbird The western kingbird ("Tyrannus verticalis") is a large tyrant flycatcher. Adults are grey-olive on the upperparts with a grey head and a dark line through the eyes; the underparts are light becoming light orange-yellow on the lower breast and belly. They have a long black tail with white outer feathers. Western kingbirds also have a reddish crown that they only display during courtship and confrontations with other species. The Western Kingbird is very similar to and easily confused with Cassin's kingbird, Couch's kingbird and the tropical kingbird, all of which overlap the western kingbird's range to some extent.


title: "Western kingbird" content: The western, however, is generally lighter in coloration and can be distinguished from these species by the black squared tail with white outer webs, as well as voice. Their breeding habitat is open areas in western North America. The increase in trees throughout the Great Plains during the past century due to fire suppression and tree planting facilitated the range expansion of the western kingbird as well as range expansions of many other species of birds. Kingbirds make a sturdy cup nest in a tree or shrub, sometimes on top of a pole or other man-made structure. Three to five


title: "Western kingbird" content: eggs, pale blue in color, often mottled with brown spots, are laid and incubated for 12 to 14 days. Due to the small size of the nest, and the chicks rapid rate of growth, most of them are pushed out of the nest, due to overcrowding, before they are fully feathered, and able to fly. The name "kingbird" is derived from their "take-charge" behaviour. These birds aggressively defend their territory, even against much larger birds such as hawks. They will attack humans, livestock and pets, when they think their young are in danger. These birds migrate in flocks to Florida


title: "Western kingbird" content: and the Pacific coast of southern Mexico and Central America. They wait on an open perch and fly out to catch insects in flight, sometimes hovering and then dropping to catch food on the ground. They also eat berries. The song is a squeaky chatter, sometimes compared to a squeaky toy. The call is a sharp loud "whit". It occasionally sings before sunrise. Western kingbird The western kingbird ("Tyrannus verticalis") is a large tyrant flycatcher. Adults are grey-olive on the upperparts with a grey head and a dark line through the eyes; the underparts are light becoming light orange-yellow on


title: "River Stour, Worcestershire" content: Hills, and which, together with the Hoo Brook, creates a large complex of pools to the east. Passing through the formerly navigable section around Wilden, it joins the River Severn at Stourport, in a small, old industrial area to the east of the canal port. The Stour rises on the north-eastern edge of the Clent Hills, an outcrop of New red sandstone that traps it on the West Midland plateau. Its course is mainly over similar sandstone, together with some gravels, as it finds its way off the plateau by a fairly circuitous route, to the Severn valley. In this


title: "The Simple Life" content: reality and not embarrassed to talk about it. There was a sweetness to her." The two departments talked and realized they had their show: Send Paris Hilton and her sister Nicky, who had never worked a day in their lives, to live and work on a farm. At the time, the studio was working closely with Mike Darnell, head of reality programming at Fox, who liked the idea. "They wanted to see stilettos in cow shit," Klein said. Paris was convinced to come on board, however Nicky, being somewhat shy to the limelight at the time, opted out. Paris told


title: "New Lanark" content: New Lanark New Lanark is a village on the River Clyde, approximately 1.4 miles (2.2 kilometres) from Lanark, in Lanarkshire, and some southeast of Glasgow, Scotland. It was founded in 1786 by David Dale, who built cotton mills and housing for the mill workers. Dale built the mills there in a brief partnership with the English inventor and entrepreneur Richard Arkwright to take advantage of the water power provided by the only waterfalls on the River Clyde. Under the ownership of a partnership that included Dale's son-in-law, Robert Owen, a Welsh philanthropist and social reformer, New Lanark became a successful


title: "New Lanark" content: business and an early example of a planned settlement and so an important milestone in the historical development of urban planning. The New Lanark mills operated until 1968. After a period of decline, the New Lanark Conservation Trust (NLCT) was founded in 1974 (now known as the New Lanark Trust (NLT)) to prevent demolition of the village. By 2006 most of the buildings have been restored and the village has become a major tourist attraction. It is one of six UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Scotland and an Anchor Point of ERIH - the European Route of Industrial Heritage. The


title: "New Lanark" content: New Lanark cotton mills were founded in 1786 by David Dale in a brief partnership with Richard Arkwright. Dale was one of the self-made "Burgher Gentry" of Glasgow who, like most of this gentry, had a summer retreat, an estate at Rosebank, Cambuslang, not far from the Falls of Clyde, which have been painted by J. M. W. Turner and many other artists. The mills used the recently developed water-powered cotton spinning machinery invented by Richard Arkwright. Dale sold the mills, lands and village in the early 19th century for £60,000, payable over 20 years, to a partnership that included


title: "New Lanark" content: his son-in-law Robert Owen. Owen, who became mill manager in 1800, was an industrialist who carried on his father-in-law's philanthropic approach to industrial working and who subsequently became an influential social reformer. New Lanark, with its social and welfare programmes, epitomised his Utopian socialism ("see also Owenism"). The town and mills are important historically through their connection with Owen's ideas, but also because of their role in the developing industrial revolution in the UK and their place in the history of urban planning. The New Lanark mills depended upon water power. A dam was constructed on the Clyde above New


title: "New Lanark" content: Lanark and water was drawn off the river to power the mill machinery. The water first travelled through a tunnel, then through an open channel called the lade. It then went to a number of water wheels in each mill building. It was not until 1929 that the last waterwheel was replaced by a water turbine. Water power is still used in New Lanark. A new water turbine has been installed in Mill Number Three to provide electricity for the tourist areas of the village. In Owen's time some 2,500 people lived at New Lanark, many from the poorhouses of


title: "New Lanark" content: Glasgow and Edinburgh. Although not the grimmest of mills by far, Owen found the conditions unsatisfactory and resolved to improve the workers' lot. He paid particular attention to the needs of the 500 or so children living in the village (one of the tenement blocks is named Nursery Buildings) and working at the mills, and opened the first infants' school in Britain in 1817, although the previous year he had completed the Institute for the Formation of Character. The mills thrived commercially, but Owen's partners were unhappy at the extra expense incurred by his welfare programmes. Unwilling to allow the


title: "New Lanark" content: mills to revert to the old ways of operating, Owen bought out his partners. In 1813 the Board forced an auction, hoping to obtain the town and mills at a low price but Owen and a new board (including the economist Jeremy Bentham) that was sympathetic to his reforming ideas won out. New Lanark became celebrated throughout Europe, with many statesmen, reformers and royalty visiting the mills. They were astonished to find a clean, healthy industrial environment with a content, vibrant workforce and a prosperous, viable business venture all rolled into one. Owen's philosophy was contrary to contemporary thinking, but


title: "New Lanark" content: he was able to demonstrate that it was not necessary for an industrial enterprise to treat its workers badly to be profitable. Owen was able to show visitors the village's excellent housing and amenities, and the accounts showing the profitability of the mills. As well as the mills' connections with reform, socialism and welfare, they are also representative of the Industrial Revolution that occurred in Britain in the 18th and 19th centuries and which fundamentally altered the shape of the world. The planning of employment in the mills alongside housing for the workers and services such as a school also


title: "New Lanark" content: makes the settlement iconic in the development of urban planning in the UK. In 1825, control of New Lanark passed to the Walker family when Owen left Britain to start settlement of New Harmony in the US. The Walkers managed the village until 1881, when it was sold to Birkmyre and Sommerville and the Gourock Ropeworks (although they tried unsuccessfully to sell the mills and the town in 1851). They and their successor companies remained in control until the mills closed in 1968. The town and the industrial activity had been in decline before then, but after the mills closed


title: "New Lanark" content: migration away from the village accelerated, and the buildings began to deteriorate. The top two floors of Mill Number 1 were removed in 1945 but the building has since been restored and is now the New Lanark Mill Hotel. In 1963 the New Lanark Association (NLA) was formed as a housing association and commenced the restoration of Caithness Row and Nursery Buildings. In 1970 the mills, other industrial buildings and the houses used by Dale and Owen were sold to Metal Extractions Limited, a scrap metal company. In 1974 the NLCT (now the NLT) was founded to prevent demolition of


title: "New Lanark" content: the village. A compulsory purchase order was used in 1983 to recover the mills and other buildings from Metal Extractions after a repairs notice had been served in 1979. This was because of the state of repair of the buildings despite their listing as historic buildings that required their legal preservation in 1971. They are now controlled by the NLT, either directly through the Trust or through wholly owned companies (New Lanark Trading Ltd, New Lanark Hotel Ltd and New Lanark Homes). By 2005 most of the buildings had been restored and the village has become a major tourist attraction.


title: "New Lanark" content: In the mid 19th century, an entire family would have been housed in a single room. Some sense of such living conditions can be obtained by visiting the David Livingstone Centre at Blantyre. David Dale, who founded New Lanark, was also involved in the mills at Blantyre. Only one tenement row has survived in Blantyre, and that building is now a museum. This is mostly devoted to David Livingstone, who was born there in 1813, but it includes a re-creation of the single~room living conditions of the time at New Lanark, featuring trundle beds for children such as Livingstone would


title: "New Lanark" content: have used. The David Livingstone Centre is 18 miles by road from New Lanark, between Glasgow and Hamilton. The living conditions in the village gradually improved, and by the early 20th century families would have had the use of several rooms. It was not until 1933 that the houses had interior cold water taps for sinks and the communal outside toilets were replaced by inside facilities. From 1938 the village proprietors provided free electricity to all the homes in New Lanark, but only enough power was available for one dim bulb in each room. The power was switched off at


title: "New Lanark" content: 10 pm Sunday-Friday, 11 pm Saturday. In 1955 New Lanark was connected to the National Grid. It has been estimated that over 400,000 people visit the village each year. The importance of New Lanark has been recognised by UNESCO as one of Scotland's six World Heritage Sites, the others being Edinburgh Old and New Towns, Heart of Neolithic Orkney, St Kilda, the Antonine Wall and the Forth Bridge. The mills and town were listed in 2001 after an unsuccessful application for World Heritage listing in 1986. About 200 people live in New Lanark. Of the residential buildings, only Mantilla Row


title: "New Lanark" content: has not been restored. Some of the restoration work was undertaken by the NLA and the NLCT. Braxfield Row and most of Long Row were restored by private individuals who bought the houses as derelict shells and restored them as private houses. In addition to the 20 owner-occupied properties in the village there are 45 rented properties let by the NLA, which is a registered housing association. The NLA also owns other buildings in the village. In 2009 the NLA was wound up as being financially and administratively unviable, and responsibility for the village's tenanted properties passed to the NLCT.


title: "New Lanark" content: The same year, Clydesdale Bank released a new series of Scottish banknotes, of which the 20-pound note features New Lanark on its reverse. Considerable attention has been given to maintaining the historical authenticity of the village. No television aerials or satellite dishes are allowed in the village, and services such as telephone, television and electricity are delivered though buried cables. To provide a consistent appearance all external woodwork is painted white, and doors and windows follow a consistent design. Householders used to be banned from owning dogs, but this rule is no longer enforced. Some features introduced by the NLT,


title: "New Lanark" content: such as commercial signage and a glass bridge connecting the Engine House and Mill Number Three, have been criticised. The retention of a 1924-pattern red telephone box in the village square has also been seen as inappropriate. The mills, the hotel and most of the non-residential buildings in the village are owned and operated by the NLT through wholly owned companies. A 1911 Ordnance Survey map is available from the National Library of Scotland is available and There is a large free car park on the outskirts of the village. Only disabled visitors may park in the village. The walk


title: "New Lanark" content: from the car park down to the mill village provides a worthwhile panoramic view. There is a bus service [Number 135] from Lanark station bus stance. The railway station has half-hourly services from Glasgow. The village has a four-star hotel, the New Lanark Mill Hotel, owned and operated by the New Lanark Conservation Trust; holiday flats, the Waterhouses, let by the hotel; and the Wee Row hostel type accommodation. There are restaurants and shops in the village, and a visitors' centre. The Clyde walkway long distance footpath passes through the village and the Scottish Wildlife Trust's visitor centre for the


title: "New Lanark" content: Falls of Clyde Nature reserve is based in a group of mill buildings. New Lanark New Lanark is a village on the River Clyde, approximately 1.4 miles (2.2 kilometres) from Lanark, in Lanarkshire, and some southeast of Glasgow, Scotland. It was founded in 1786 by David Dale, who built cotton mills and housing for the mill workers. Dale built the mills there in a brief partnership with the English inventor and entrepreneur Richard Arkwright to take advantage of the water power provided by the only waterfalls on the River Clyde. Under the ownership of a partnership that included Dale's son-in-law,


title: Staining content: to reveal specific parts or areas. Some of the most common biological stains are listed below. Unless otherwise marked, all of these dyes may be used with fixed cells and tissues; vital dyes (suitable for use with living organisms) are noted. Acridine orange (AO) is a nucleic acid selective fluorescent cationic dye useful for cell cycle determination. It is cell-permeable, and interacts with DNA and RNA by intercalation or electrostatic attractions. When bound to DNA, it is very similar spectrally to fluorescein. Like fluorescein, it is also useful as a non-specific stain for backlighting conventionally stained cells on the surface


title: "History of Colorado" content: U.S. history. Colorado is now 1 of 8 states that have legalized both medical and recreational marijuana, allowing them to tax the product. As of July 2014, six months after recreational shops began sales of marijuana in Colorado, the state has enjoyed a tax revenue of 45 million with 98 million expected by the end of the calendar year. This is in addition to increased economic revenues from "pot tourists." History of Colorado The human history of Colorado extends back more than 14,000 years. The region that is today the state of Colorado was first inhabited by Native American people.


title: "Pontcysyllte Aqueduct" content: Pontcysyllte Aqueduct The Pontcysyllte Aqueduct (; ) is a navigable aqueduct that carries the Llangollen Canal across the River Dee in the Vale of Llangollen in north east Wales. The 18-arched stone and cast iron structure is for use by narrow boats and was completed in 1805 having taken ten years to design and build. It is the longest aqueduct in Great Britain and the highest canal aqueduct in the world. The aqueduct was to have been a key part of the central section of the proposed Ellesmere Canal, an industrial waterway that would have created a commercial link between


title: "Pontcysyllte Aqueduct" content: the River Severn at Shrewsbury and the Port of Liverpool on the River Mersey. Although a cheaper construction course was surveyed further to the east, the westerly high-ground route across the Vale of Llangollen was preferred because it would have taken the canal through the mineral-rich coalfields of North East Wales. Only parts of the canal route were completed because the expected revenues required to complete the entire project were never generated. Most major work ceased after the completion of the Pontcysyllte Aqueduct in 1805. The structure is a Grade I listed building and a World Heritage Site. The name


title: "Pontcysyllte Aqueduct" content: "Pontcysyllte" in the Welsh language means "Cysyllte Bridge". It is derived from the township of Cysyllte. The completed aqueduct linked the villages of Froncysyllte, at the southern end of the bridge in the Cysyllte township of Llangollen parish (from where it takes its name), and Trevor, at the northern end of the bridge in the Trefor Isaf township, also of Llangollen parish. The aqueduct was originally known as ("Bridge of Cysyllte"). Other translations such as "Bridge of the Junction" or "The Bridge that links" are a modern false etymology, derived from the name's apparent similarity to the word "" (plural


title: "Pontcysyllte Aqueduct" content: of "cyswllt") which means connections or links. The aqueduct was designed by civil engineers Thomas Telford and William Jessop for a location near an 18th-century road crossing, Pont Cysylltau. After the westerly high-ground route was approved, the original plan was to create a series of locks down both sides of the valley to an embankment that would carry the Ellesmere Canal over the River Dee. After Telford was hired the plan was changed to an aqueduct that would create an uninterrupted waterway straight across the valley. Despite considerable public scepticism, Telford was confident his construction method would work because he


title: "Pontcysyllte Aqueduct" content: had previously built a cast-iron trough aqueduct – the Longdon-on-Tern Aqueduct on the Shrewsbury Canal. The aqueduct was one of the first major feats of civil engineering undertaken by Telford, who was becoming one of Britain's leading industrial civil engineers; although his work was supervised by Jessop, the more experienced canal engineer. Ironwork was supplied by William Hazledine from his foundries at Shrewsbury and nearby Cefn Mawr. The work, which took around ten years from design to construction, cost around of £47,000. Adjusted for inflation this is equivalent to no more than £ in , but represented a major investment


title: "Pontcysyllte Aqueduct" content: against the contemporary GDP of some £400 million. The Pontcysyllte aqueduct officially opened to traffic on 26 November 1805. A plaque commemorating its inauguration reads: The nobility and gentry, the adjacent Counties having united their efforts with the great commercial interests of this country. In creating an intercourse and union between England and North Wales by a navigable communication of the three Rivers, Severne Dee and Mersey for the mutual benefit of agriculture and trades, caused the first stone of this aqueduct of Pontcysyllty , to be laid on the 25th day of July MDCCXCV [1795]. When Richard Myddelton of


title: "Pontcysyllte Aqueduct" content: Chirk, Esq, M.P. one of the original patrons of the Ellesmere Canal was Lord of this manor, and in the reign of our Sovereign George the Third. When the equity of the laws, and the security of property, promoted the general welfare of the nation. While the arts and sciences flourished by his patronage and the conduct of civil life was improved by his example. The bridge is long, wide and deep. It consists of a cast iron trough supported above the river on iron arched ribs carried on eighteen hollow masonry piers (pillars). Each of the 18 spans is


title: "Pontcysyllte Aqueduct" content: wide. With the completion of the aqueduct, the next phase of the canal should have been the continuation of the line to Moss Valley, Wrexham where Telford had constructed a feeder reservoir lake in 1796. This would provide the water for the length of canal between Trevor Basin and Chester. The plan to build this section was cancelled in 1798, and the isolated feeder and a stretch of navigation between Ffrwd and a basin in Summerhill was abandoned. Remnants of the feeder channel are visible in Gwersyllt. A street in the village is still named "Heol Camlas" (). With the


title: "Pontcysyllte Aqueduct" content: project incomplete, Trevor Basin just over the Pontcysyllte aqueduct would become the canal's northern terminus. In 1808 a feeder channel to bring water from the River Dee near Llangollen was completed. In order to maintain a continual supply, Telford built an artificial weir known as the Horseshoe Falls near Llantysilio to maintain water height. Subsequently, the Plas Kynaston Canal was built to serve industry in the Cefn Mawr and Rhosymedre areas in the 1820s. There might have been another canal extension ("Ward's") but detailed records do not survive. Goods traffic was brought down to the canal by the Ruabon Brook


title: "Pontcysyllte Aqueduct" content: Tramway which climbed towards Acrefair and Plas Bennion. This railway was eventually upgraded to steam operation and extended towards Rhosllannerchrugog and Wrexham. In 1844, the Ellesmere and Chester Canal Company, which owned the broad canals from Ellesmere Port to Chester and from Chester to Nantwich, with a branch to Middlewich, began discussions with the narrow Birmingham and Liverpool Junction Canal, which ran from Nantwich to Autherley, where it joined the Staffordshire and Worcestershire Canal. The two companies had always worked together, in a bid to maintain their profits against competition from the railways, and amalgamation seemed to be a logical


title: "Pontcysyllte Aqueduct" content: step. An agreement was worked out by August, and the two companies then sought a Private Act of Parliament to authorise the takeover. This was granted on 8 May 1845, when the larger Ellesmere and Chester Canal Company was formed. In 1846, the canal and the aqueduct became part of the Shropshire Union Railways and Canal Company. But the intent of the merger was to build railways at a reduced cost, by using the existing routes of the canals they owned. By 1849, the plan to turn canals into railways had been dropped. As the aqueduct was largely in an


title: "Pontcysyllte Aqueduct" content: area that was served by railways owned by the Great Western Railway, the LNWR was more than happy for the canal to remain open as long as it remained profitable. With the start of the First World War in 1914, the Shropshire Union – which the Pontcysyllte aqueduct was a part – served the war effort with its fleet of more than 450 narrow boats. Commercial traffic on the canal greatly declined after a waterway breach near Newtown, Powys (now part of the Montgomery Canal) in 1936. By 1939 boat movements across the aqueduct to Llangollen had ceased. The canal


title: "Pontcysyllte Aqueduct" content: was formally closed to navigation under the London Midland and Scottish Railway Company Act of 1944. On 6 September 1945, due to inadequate maintenance, the canal breached its banks east of Llangollen near Sun Bank Halt. The flow of hundreds of tons of water washed away the embankment of the railway further down the hill, tearing a crater deep. This caused the first traffic of the morning, a mail and goods train composed of 16 carriages and two vans, to crash into the breach, killing one and injuring two engine crew. The aqueduct was saved (despite its official closure to


title: "Pontcysyllte Aqueduct" content: waterway traffic) because it was still required as a water feeder for the remainder of the Shropshire Union Canal. The aqueduct also supplied drinking water to a reservoir at Hurleston. In 1955 the Mid & South East Cheshire Water Board agreed to maintain the canal securing its future. In the latter half of the 20th century, leisure boating traffic began to rise. In a rebranding exercise by British Waterways in the 1980s, the former industrial waterway was renamed the Llangollen Canal. It has since become one of the most popular canals for holidaymakers in Britain because of its aqueducts and


title: "Pontcysyllte Aqueduct" content: scenery. The Pontcysyllte Aqueduct is now maintained and managed by the Canal & River Trust. Otters have been seen in the area. The mortar used lime, water and ox blood. Blood and extracts of blood containing haemoglobin have been used in the construction and building industry since antiquity as air entraining colloids to inexpensively strengthen mortar exposed to freeze-thaw temperature cycles. The iron castings for the trough were produced at the nearby Plas Kynaston Foundry, Cefn Mawr, which was built by the Shrewsbury ironfounder and millwright William Hazledine in the hope of gaining the contract. The rib castings may have


title: "Pontcysyllte Aqueduct" content: been made at Hazledine's original works at Coleham, near Shrewsbury. The trough was made from flanged plates of cast iron, bolted together, with the joints bedded with Welsh flannel and a mixture of white lead and iron particles from boring waste. After 25 years the white lead was replaced with ordinary tar. As with Telford's Longdon-on-Tern Aqueduct, the plates are not rectangular but shaped as voussoirs, similar to those of a stone arch. There is no structural significance to their shape: it is a decorative feature only, following the lines of the stiffening plates (see below) in the castings beneath.


title: "Pontcysyllte Aqueduct" content: In nearby Cefn Mawr a high quartz content sandstone was discovered at the location where the New Cefn Druids football stadium has since been built. Known locally as 'The Rock', the sandstone was extracted and worked here into the many numerous shapes as required by the architects. Many remnants of the workings are still visible alongside Rock Road which links Rhosymedre to Plas Madoc. The supporting arches, four for each span, are in the form of cast-iron ribs, each cast as three voussoirs with external arches cast with an un-pierced web to give greater strength, at the cost of extra


title: "Pontcysyllte Aqueduct" content: weight. Using cast iron in this way, in the same manner as the stone arch it supersedes, makes use of the material's strength in compression. They also give an impression of greater solidity than would be the case were the webs pierced. This impression is enhanced by the arrangement of strips of thicker stiffening incorporated into the castings, arranged in the manner of joints between voussoirs. Cast plates are laid transversely to form the bed of the canal trough. The trough is not fastened to the arches, but lugs are cast into the plates to fit over the rib arches


title: "Pontcysyllte Aqueduct" content: to prevent movement. The aqueduct was left for six months with water inside to check that it was watertight. A feature of a canal aqueduct, in contrast with a road or railway viaduct, is that the vertical loading stresses are virtually constant. According to Archimedes' principle, the mass (weight) of a boat and its cargo on the bridge pushes an equal mass of water off the bridge. The towpath is mounted above the water, with the inner edge carried on cast-iron pillars in the trough. This arrangement allows the water displaced by the passage of a narrow boat to flow


title: "Pontcysyllte Aqueduct" content: easily under the towpath and around the boat, enabling relatively free passage. Pedestrians, and the horses once used for towing, are protected from falling from the aqueduct by railings on the outside edge of the towpath, but the holes in the top flange of the other side of the trough, capable of mounting railings, were never used. The trough sides rise only about above the water level, less than the depth of freeboard of an empty narrow boat, so the helmsman of the boat has no visual protection from the impression of being at the edge of an abyss. The


title: "Pontcysyllte Aqueduct" content: trough of the Cosgrove aqueduct has a similar structure, although it rests on trestles rather than iron arches. It is also less impressively high. Every five years the ends of the aqueduct are closed and a plug in one of the highest spans is opened to drain the canal water into the River Dee below, to allow inspection and maintenance of the trough. The aqueduct and surrounding lands were submitted to the "tentative list" of properties being considered for UNESCO World Heritage Site status in 1999. The aqueduct was suggested as a contender in 2005—its 200th anniversary year—and it was


title: "Pontcysyllte Aqueduct" content: formally announced in 2006 that a larger proposal, covering a section of the canal from the aqueduct to Horseshoe Falls would be the United Kingdom's 2008 nomination. The length of canal from Rhoswiel, Shropshire, to the Horseshoe Falls, including the main Pontcysyllte Aqueduct structure as well as the older Chirk Aqueduct, were visited by assessors from UNESCO during October 2008, to analyse and confirm the site management and authenticity. The aqueduct was inscribed by UNESCO on the World Heritage List on 27 June 2009. Pontcysyllte Aqueduct The Pontcysyllte Aqueduct (; ) is a navigable aqueduct that carries the Llangollen Canal


title: Sphygmomanometer content: Sphygmomanometer A sphygmomanometer, also known as a blood pressure meter, blood pressure monitor, or blood pressure gauge, is a device used to measure blood pressure, composed of an inflatable cuff to collapse and then release the artery under the cuff in a controlled manner, and a mercury or mechanical manometer to measure the pressure. It is always used in conjunction with a means to determine at what pressure blood flow is just starting, and at what pressure it is unimpeded. Manual sphygmomanometers are used in conjunction with a stethoscope. A sphygmomanometer consists of an inflatable cuff, a measuring unit (the


title: "Magen David Adom" content: for mass casualty events, and armored ambulances. Most of the fleet is made up of regular size vans providing Basic Life Support. These are called "Lavan" (which in Hebrew means "White") due to their external aspect and to differentiate them from the MICU, which have orange stripes on the sides. They are manned by EMTs who generally have ranks equivalent to Basic and Intermediate EMTs in the US. In Israel, they are called "ma'ar" (first responders), "ma'ar bachir" (Certified first responder over 18, with some additional training), "chovesh" (EMT-B), and "chovesh bachir" (EMT-I). Ambulance drivers are EMTs or higher with


title: "Lark sparrow" content: Lark sparrow The lark sparrow ("Chondestes grammacus") is a fairly large American sparrow. It is the only member of the genus "Chondestes". This passerine bird breeds in southern Canada, much of the United States, and northern Mexico. It is much less common in the east, where its range is contracting. The populations in Mexico and adjacent states of the United States are resident, but other birds are migratory, wintering in the southern United States, Mexico and south to Guatemala. It is a very rare vagrant to western Europe, with two accepted records in Great Britain in 1981 and 1991. The


title: "Lark sparrow" content: lark sparrow is distinctive. Adults have a typically sparrow-like dark-streaked brown back, and white underparts except for a dark central spot. The cheeks and crown sides are chestnut, with white eyebrow and crown stripes. The dark tail's corners are also white. Young lark sparrows are duller, and the underparts are streaked. These birds forage on the ground or in low bushes. They mainly eat seeds, but insects, including grasshoppers, are also eaten in the breeding season. They form flocks on migration or in winter. The breeding habitat is a variety of open habitats including grasslands and cultivation. Lark sparrows nest


title: "Lark sparrow" content: on the ground, laying three to six eggs in a grass cup nest sheltered by a clump of grass or other vegetation. The eggs are white with black scrawling. The song is two clear notes followed by a mixture of buzzes and trills. The flight call is a thin "sit". Lark sparrow The lark sparrow ("Chondestes grammacus") is a fairly large American sparrow. It is the only member of the genus "Chondestes". This passerine bird breeds in southern Canada, much of the United States, and northern Mexico. It is much less common in the east, where its range is contracting.


title: Stapler content: Stapler A stapler is a mechanical device that joins pages of paper or similar material by driving a thin metal staple through the sheets and folding the ends. Staplers are widely used in government, business, offices, homes and schools. The word "stapler" can actually refer to a number of different devices of varying uses. In addition to joining paper sheets together, staplers can also be used in a surgical setting to join tissue together with surgical staples to close a surgical wound (much in the same way as sutures). Most staplers are used to join multiple sheets of paper. Paper


title: Stapler content: staplers come in two distinct types: manual and electric. Manual staplers are normally hand-held, although models that are used while set on a desk or other surface are not uncommon. Electric staplers exist in a variety of different designs and models. Their primary operating function is to join large numbers of paper sheets together in rapid succession. Some electric staplers can join up to 20 sheets at a time. Typical staplers are a third-class lever. A staple gun is usually a heavier duty, hand-held device; it can be strictly manual or pneumatic. Staple guns are used to fasten a thin


title: Stapler content: material to a solid backing—such as a piece of paper to a bulletin board, or to a piece of wood. The two legs of a staple from a staple gun are not folded over, but are embedded straight into the backing material. The growing uses of paper in the 19th century created a demand for an efficient paper fastener. In 1866, George McGill received U.S. patent 56,587 for a small, bendable brass paper fastener that was a precursor to the modern staple. In 1867, he received U.S. patent 67,665 for a press to insert the fastener into paper. He showed


title: Stapler content: his invention at the 1876 Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and continued to work on these and other various paper fasteners throughout the 1880s. In 1868 an English patent for a stapler was awarded to C. H. Gould, and in the U.S, Albert Kletzker of St. Louis, MO also patented a device. In 1877 Henry R. Heyl filed patent number 195,603 for the first machines to both insert and clinch a staple in one step, and for this reason some consider him the inventor of the modern stapler. In 1876 and 1877 Heyl also filed patents for the Novelty Paper


title: Stapler content: Box Manufacturing Co. of Philadelphia, PA, However, the N. P. B. Manufacturing Co.'s inventions were to be used to staple boxes and books. The first machine to hold a magazine of many pre-formed staples came out in 1878. On February 18, 1879, George McGill received patent 212,316 for the McGill Single-Stroke Staple Press, the first commercially successful stapler. This device weighed over two and a half pounds and loaded a single 1/2 inch wide wire staple, which it could drive through several sheets of paper. The first published use of the word "stapler" to indicate a machine for fastening papers


title: Stapler content: with a thin metal wire was in an advertisement in the American "Munsey's Magazine" in 1901. In the early 1900s, several devices were developed and patented that punched and folded papers to attach them to each other without a metallic clip. The "Clipless Stand Machine" (made in North Berwick) sold from 1909 into the 1920s. It cut a tongue in the paper that it folded back and tucked in. "Bump's New Model Paper Fastener" used a similar cutting and weaving technology. In 1941 the type of paper stapler that is the most common in use today was developed: the four


title: Stapler content: way paper stapler. With the four way, the operator could either use the stapler to staple papers to wood or cardboard, or used to staple like pliers for bags, or the normal way with the head positioned a small distance above the stapling plate. The stapling plate is known as the anvil. The anvil often has two settings: the first, and by far most common, is the reflexive setting, also known as the "primary" or "permanent" setting. In this position the legs of the staple are folded toward the center of the cross bar. It is used to staple papers


title: Stapler content: which are not expected to need separation. If rotated 180° or slid to its second position, the anvil will be set on the sheer setting, also known as "secondary", "temporary", or "straight". In this position the legs of the staple are folded outwards, away from the cross bar, resulting in the legs and cross bar being in more or less a straight line. Stapling with this setting will result in more-weakly secured papers, but a staple that is much easier to remove. The use of the second setting is almost never seen, however, due to the prevalence of staple removers


title: Stapler content: and the general lack of knowledge about its use. Some simple modern staplers feature a fixed anvil that lacks the sheer position. Modern staplers continue to evolve and adapt to the changing habits of users. Less-effort, or easy-squeeze/use staplers, for example, make use of different leverage efficiencies to reduce the amount of force the user need apply. As a result, these staplers tend to be used in work environments where repetitive, large stapling jobs are routine. Some modern desktop staplers make use of Flat Clinch technology. With Flat Clinch staplers, the staple legs first pierce the paper and are then


title: Stapler content: bent over and pressed absolutely flat against the paper – doing away with the two-setting anvil commonly used and making use of a recessed stapling base in which the legs are folded. Accordingly, staples do not have sharper edges exposed and lead to flatter stacking of paper – saving on filing and binder space. In 2012, $80 million worth of staplers were sold in the US. The dominant US manufacturer is Swingline. Permanent fastening binds items by driving the staple through the material and into an "anvil", a small metal plate that bends the ends, usually inward. On most modern


title: Stapler content: staplers, the anvil rotates or slides to change between bending the staple ends inward for permanent stapling or outward for "pinning" (see below). Clinches can be standard, squiggled, flat, or rounded completely adjacent to the paper to facilitate neater document stacking. Pinning temporarily binds documents or other items, often cloth or clothing for sewing. To pin, the anvil slides or rotates so that the staple bends outwards instead of inwards. Some staplers pin by bending one leg of the staple inwards and the other outwards. The staple binds the item with relative security, but is easily removed. This is commonly


title: Stapler content: used for sewing. Tacking fastens objects to surfaces, such as bulletin boards or walls. A stapler that can tack has a base that folds back out of the way so staples drive directly into an object rather than fold against the anvil. In this position the staples are driven similar to the way a staple gun works, but with less force driving the staple. Saddle staplers have an inverted V-shaped saddle for stapling pre-fold sheets to make booklets. Stapleless staplers, invented in 1910, are a means of stapling that punches out a small flap of paper and weaves it through


title: Stapler content: a notch. A more recent alternative method avoids the resulting hole by crimping the pages together with serrated metal teeth instead. Surgeons can use surgical staplers in place of sutures to close the skin, or during surgical anastomosis. A surgical stapler doesn't resemble a standard stapler, as it has no anvil. Surgical staples are commonly preshaped into an "M". Pressing the stapler into the skin and applying pressure onto the handle bends the staple through the skin and into the fascia, until the two ends almost meet in the middle to form a rectangle. Staplers are commonly used intra-operatively during


title: Stapler content: bowel resections in colorectal surgery. Often these staplers have an integral knife which, as the staples deploy, cuts through the bowel and maintains the aseptic field. The staples, made from surgical steel, are typically supplied in disposable sterilized cartridges. Stapler A stapler is a mechanical device that joins pages of paper or similar material by driving a thin metal staple through the sheets and folding the ends. Staplers are widely used in government, business, offices, homes and schools. The word "stapler" can actually refer to a number of different devices of varying uses. In addition to joining paper sheets together,