title: "Sydney Harbour Bridge" content: In 1948 Yvonne Rentoul opened the "All Australian Exhibition" in the pylon. This contained dioramas, and displays about Australian perspectives on subjects such as farming, sport, transport, mining, and the armed forces. An orientation table was installed at the viewing platform, along with a wall guide and binoculars. The owner kept several white cats in a rooftop cattery, which also served as an attraction, and there was a souvenir shop and postal outlet. Rentoul's lease expired in 1971, and the pylon and its lookout remained closed to the public for over a decade. The pylon was reopened in 1982, with


title: "Sydney Harbour Bridge" content: a new exhibition celebrating the bridge's 50th anniversary. In 1987 a "Bicentennial Exhibition" was opened to mark the 200th anniversary of European settlement in Australia in 1988. The pylon was closed from April to November 2000 for the Roads & Traffic Authority and BridgeClimb to create a new exhibition called "Proud Arch". The exhibition focussed on Bradfield, and included a glass direction finder on the observation level, and various important heritage items. The pylon again closed for four weeks in 2003 for the installation of an exhibit called "Dangerous Works", highlighting the dangerous conditions experienced by the original construction workers


title: "Sydney Harbour Bridge" content: on the bridge, and two stained glass feature windows in memory of the workers. In 1950s and 1960s there were occasional newspaper reports of climbers who had made illegal arch traversals of the bridge, invariably by night. In 1973 Philippe Petit walked across a wire between the two pylons at the southern end of the Sydney Harbour Bridge. Since 1998, BridgeClimb has made it possible for tourists to legally climb the southern half of the bridge. Tours run throughout the day, from dawn to night, and are only cancelled for electrical storms or high wind. Groups of climbers are provided


title: "Sydney Harbour Bridge" content: with protective clothing appropriate to the prevailing weather conditions, and are given an orientation briefing before climbing. During the climb, attendees are secured to the bridge by a wire lifeline. Each climb begins on the eastern side of the bridge and ascends to the top. At the summit, the group crosses to the western side of the arch for the descent. Each climb takes three-and-a-half-hours, including the preparations. In December 2006, BridgeClimb launched an alternative to climbing the upper arches of the bridge. The Discovery Climb allows climbers to ascend the lower chord of the bridge and view its internal


title: "Sydney Harbour Bridge" content: structure. From the apex of the lower chord, climbers ascend a staircase to a platform at the summit. Since the opening, the bridge has been the focal point of much tourism and national pride. In 1982 the bridge celebrated the 50th anniversary of its opening. For the first time since its opening in 1932, the bridge was closed to most vehicles with the exception of vintage vehicles, and pedestrians were allowed full access for the day. The celebrations were attended by Edward Judge, who represented Dorman Long. Australia's bicentennial celebrations on 26 January 1988 attracted large crowds in the bridge's


title: "Sydney Harbour Bridge" content: vicinity as merrymakers flocked to the foreshores to view the events on the harbour. The highlight was the biggest parade of sail ever held in Sydney, square-riggers from all over the world, surrounded by hundreds of smaller craft of every description, passing majestically under the Sydney Harbour Bridge. The day's festivities culminated in a fireworks display in which the bridge was the focal point of the finale, with fireworks streaming from the arch and roadway. This was to become the pattern for later firework displays. The Harbour Bridge is an integral part of the Sydney New Year's Eve celebrations, generally


title: "Sydney Harbour Bridge" content: being used in spectacular ways during the fireworks displays at 21:00 and midnight. In recent times, the bridge has included a ropelight display on a framework in the centre of the eastern arch, which is used to complement the fireworks. As the scaffolding and framework are clearly visible for some weeks before the event, revealing the outline of the design, there is much speculation as to how the effect is to be realised. During the millennium celebrations in 2000, the Sydney Harbour Bridge was lit up with the word "Eternity", as a tribute to the legacy of Arthur Stace a


title: "Sydney Harbour Bridge" content: Sydney artist who for many years inscribed that word on pavements in chalk in beautiful copperplate writing despite the fact that he was illiterate. The effects have been as follows: The numbers for the New Year's Eve countdown also appear on the eastern side of the Bridge pylons. In May 2000 the bridge was closed to vehicular access for a day to allow a special reconciliation march—the "Walk for Reconciliation"—to take place. This was part of a response to an Aboriginal Stolen Generations inquiry, which found widespread suffering had taken place amongst Australian Aboriginal children forcibly placed into the care


title: "Sydney Harbour Bridge" content: of white parents in a little-publicised state government scheme. Between 200,000 and 300,000 people were estimated to have walked the bridge in a symbolic gesture of crossing a divide. During the Sydney 2000 Olympics in September and October 2000, the bridge was adorned with the Olympic Rings. It was included in the Olympic torch's route to the Olympic stadium. The men's and women's Olympic marathon events likewise included the bridge as part of their route to the Olympic stadium. A fireworks display at the end of the closing ceremony ended at the bridge. The east-facing side of the bridge has


title: "Sydney Harbour Bridge" content: been used several times since as a framework from which to hang static fireworks, especially during the elaborate New Year's Eve displays. In 2005 Mark Webber drove a Williams-BMW Formula One car across the bridge. In 2007, the 75th anniversary of its opening was commemorated with an exhibition at the Museum of Sydney, called "Bridging Sydney". An initiative of the Historic Houses Trust, the exhibition featured dramatic photographs and paintings with rare and previously unseen alternative bridge and tunnel proposals, plans and sketches. On 18 March 2007, the Sydney Harbour Bridge celebrated its 75th anniversary. The occasion was marked with


title: "Sydney Harbour Bridge" content: a ribbon-cutting ceremony by the governor, Marie Bashir and the premier of New South Wales, Morris Iemma. The bridge was subsequently open to the public to walk southward from Milsons Point or North Sydney. Several major roads, mainly in the CBD, were closed for the day. An Aboriginal smoking ceremony was held at 19:00. Approximately 250,000 people (50,000 more than were registered) took part in the event. Bright yellow souvenir caps were distributed to walkers. A series of speakers placed at intervals along the bridge formed a sound installation. Each group of speakers broadcast sound and music from a particular


title: "Sydney Harbour Bridge" content: era (e.g. King Edward VIII's abdication speech; Gough Whitlam's speech at Parliament House in 1975), the overall effect being that the soundscape would "flow" through history as walkers proceeded along the bridge. A light-show began after sunset and continued late into the night, the bridge being bathed in constantly changing, multi-coloured lighting, designed to highlight structural features of the bridge. In the evening the bright yellow caps were replaced by orange caps with a small, bright LED attached. The bridge was closed to walkers at about 20:30. On 25 October 2009 turf was laid across the eight lanes of bitumen,


title: "Sydney Harbour Bridge" content: and 6,000 people celebrated a picnic on the bridge accompanied by live music. The event was repeated in 2010. Although originally scheduled again in 2011, this event was moved to Bondi Beach due to traffic concerns about the prolonged closing of the bridge. On 19 March 2012 the 80th anniversary of the Sydney Harbour Bridge was celebrated with a picnic dedicated to the stories of people with personal connections to the bridge. In addition, Google dedicated its Google Doodle on the 19th to the event. The proposal to upgrade the bridge tolling equipment was announced by the NSW Roads Minister


title: "Sydney Harbour Bridge" content: Duncan Gay. As at 15 July 2003, the bridge is one of the most remarkable feats of bridge construction. At the time of construction and until recently it was the longest single span steel arch bridge in the world and is still in a general sense the largest. The bridge, its pylons and its approaches are all important elements in townscape of areas both near and distant from it. The curved northern approach gives a grand sweeping entrance to the bridge with continually changing views of the bridge and harbour. The bridge has been an important factor in the pattern


title: "Sydney Harbour Bridge" content: of growth of metropolitan Sydney, particularly in residential development in post World War II years. In the 1960s and 1970s the Central Business District had extended to the northern side of the bridge at North Sydney which has been due in part to the easy access provided by the bridge and also to the increasing traffic problems associated with the bridge. Sydney Harbour Bridge was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 25 June 1999 having satisfied the following criteria. The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New


title: "Sydney Harbour Bridge" content: South Wales. The bridge is one of the most remarkable feats of bridge construction. At the time of construction and until recently it was the longest single span steel arch bridge in the world and is still in a general sense the largest. "The archaeological remains are demonstrative of an earlier phase of urban development within Milsons Point and the wider North Sydney precinct. The walls are physical evidence that a number of 19th century residences existed on the site which were resumed and demolished as part of the Sydney Harbour Bridge construction". The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic


title: "Sydney Harbour Bridge" content: characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales. The bridge, its pylons and its approaches are all important elements in townscape of areas both near and distant from it. The curved northern approach gives a grand sweeping entrance to the bridge with continually changing views of the bridge and harbour. The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons. The bridge has been an important factor in the pattern of growth of metropolitan Sydney, particularly in residential development


title: "Sydney Harbour Bridge" content: in post World War II years. In the 1960s and 1970s the Central Business District had extended to the northern side of the bridge at North Sydney which has been due in part to the easy access provided by the bridge and also to the increasing traffic problems associated with the bridge. The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales. "The archaeological remains have some potential to yield information about the previous residential and commercial occupation of Milsons Point prior to the construction of the


title: "Sydney Harbour Bridge" content: Sydney Harbour Bridge transport link". Webcams: Images: Sydney Harbour Bridge The Sydney Harbour Bridge is a heritage-listed steel through arch bridge across Sydney Harbour that carries rail, vehicular, bicycle, and pedestrian traffic between the Sydney central business district (CBD) and the North Shore. The dramatic view of the bridge, the harbour, and the nearby Sydney Opera House is an iconic image of Sydney, and Australia itself. The bridge is nicknamed "The Coathanger" because of its arch-based design. Under the direction of Dr John Bradfield of the NSW Department of Public Works, the bridge was designed and built by British firm


title: Sushi content: Sushi Sushi is traditionally made with medium-grain white rice, though it can be prepared with brown rice. It is often prepared with seafood, such as calamari, eel, or imitation crab meat. Many others are vegetarian. Sushi is often served with pickled ginger (gari), wasabi, and soy sauce. Daikon radish is popular as a garnish. Sushi is sometimes confused with "sashimi", a related Japanese dish consisting of thinly sliced raw fish, or occasionally meat, and an optional serving of rice. Sushi originates in a Southeast Asian dish, known today as "narezushi" ( – "salted fish"), stored in fermented rice for possibly


title: Sushi content: months at a time. The lacto-fermentation of the rice prevented the fish from spoiling; the rice would be discarded before consumption of the fish. This early type of sushi became an important source of protein for its Japanese consumers. The term "sushi" comes from an antiquated grammatical form no longer used in other contexts, and literally means "sour-tasting"; the overall dish has a sour and umami or savoury taste. Narezushi still exists as a regional specialty, notably as "funa-zushi" from Shiga Prefecture. Vinegar began to be added to the preparation of narezushi in the Muromachi period (1336–1573) for the sake


title: Sushi content: of enhancing both taste and preservation. In addition to increasing the sourness of the rice, the vinegar significantly increased the dish's longevity, causing the fermentation process to be shortened and eventually abandoned. The primitive sushi would be further developed in Osaka, where over several centuries it became "oshi-zushi" or "hako-zushi"; in this preparation, the seafood and rice were pressed into shape with wooden (typically bamboo) molds. It was not until the Edo period (1603-1868) that fresh fish was served over vinegared rice and nori. The particular style of today's "nigirizushi" became popular in Edo (contemporary Tokyo) in the 1820s or


title: Sushi content: 1830s. One common story of "nigirizushi"'s origins is of the chef Hanaya Yohei (1799-1858), who invented or perfected the technique in 1824 at his shop in Ryōgoku. The dish was originally termed "Edomae zushi" as it used freshly caught fish from the "Edo-mae" (Edo or Tokyo Bay); the term "Edomae nigirizushi" is still used today as a by-word for quality sushi, regardless of its ingredients' origins. The "Oxford English Dictionary" mistakenly notes the earliest written mention of sushi in English in an 1893 book, "A Japanese Interior", where it mentions sushi as "a roll of cold rice with fish, sea-weed,


title: Sushi content: or some other flavoring". However, there is an earlier mention of sushi in James Hepburn's Japanese-English dictionary from 1873, and an 1879 article on Japanese cookery in the journal "Notes and Queries". The common ingredient in all types of sushi is vinegared "sushi rice". Fillings, toppings, condiments, and preparation vary widely. Note that due to rendaku consonant mutation, sushi is spelled with "zu" instead of "su" whenever a prefix is attached, such as in nigirizushi for instance. "Chirashizushi" (, "scattered sushi", also referred to as "barazushi") serves the rice in a bowl and tops it with a variety of raw


title: Sushi content: fish and vegetable garnishes. It is commonly eaten because it is filling, fast and easy to make. It is eaten annually on Hinamatsuri in March. Inarizushi () is a pouch of fried tofu typically filled with sushi rice alone. Tales tell that inarizushi is named after the Shinto god "Inari". Foxes, messengers of Inari, are believed to have a fondness for fried tofu, and an Inari-zushi roll has pointed corners that resemble fox ears. Regional variations include pouches made of a thin omelette (, "fukusa-zushi", or , "chakin-zushi") instead of tofu. It should not be confused with "inari maki", which


title: Sushi content: is a roll filled with flavored fried tofu. Cone sushi is a variant of "inarizushi" originating in Hawaii that may include green beans, carrots, or gobo along with rice, wrapped in a triangular aburage piece. It is often sold in "okazu-ya" (Japanese delis) and as a component of bento boxes. Makizushi (, "rolled sushi"), norimaki (, "Nori roll") or makimono (, "variety of rolls") is a cylindrical piece, formed with the help of a bamboo mat known as a "makisu" (). "Makizushi" is generally wrapped in nori (seaweed), but is occasionally wrapped in a thin omelette, soy paper, cucumber, or


title: Sushi content: shiso (perilla) leaves. "Makizushi" is usually cut into six or eight pieces, which constitutes a single roll order. Below are some common types of "makizushi", but many other kinds exist. Futomaki (, "thick, large or fat rolls") is a large cylindrical piece, usually with "nori" on the outside. A typical "futomaki" is five to six centimeters (2–2.5 in) in diameter. They are often made with two, three, or more fillings that are chosen for their complementary tastes and colors. During the evening of the Setsubun festival, it is traditional in the Kansai region to eat uncut futomaki in its cylindrical


title: Sushi content: form, where it is called "ehō-maki" (, lit. happy direction rolls). By 2000 the custom had spread to all of Japan. Futomaki are often vegetarian, and may utilize strips of cucumber, "kampyō" gourd, "takenoko" bamboo shoots, or lotus root. Strips of "tamagoyaki" omelette, tiny fish roe, chopped tuna, and "oboro (food)" whitefish flakes are typical non-vegetarian fillings. Traditionally, the rice is lightly seasoned with salt and sesame oil/perilla oil. Popular protein ingredients are fish cakes, imitation crab meat, eggs, or seasoned beef rib-eye. Vegetables usually include cucumbers, spinach, carrot and (pickled radish). After the makizushi has been rolled and sliced,


title: Sushi content: it is typically served with takuan. Short grain white rice is usually used, although short-grain brown rice, like olive oil on nori, is now becoming more widespread among the health-conscious. Rarely, sweet rice is mixed in makizushi rice. Nowadays, the rice in makizushi can be many kinds of black rice, boiled rice and cereals etc.Besides the common ingredients listed above, some varieties may include cheese, spicy cooked squid, yakiniku, kamaboko, lunch meat, sausage, bacon or spicy tuna. The nori may be brushed with sesame oil or sprinkled with sesame seeds. In a variation, sliced pieces of makizushi may be lightly


title: Sushi content: fried with egg coating. Tamago makizushi (玉子巻き寿司) is makizushi is rolled out by a thin egg. Tempura Makizushi (天ぷら 巻き寿司) or Agezushi (揚げ寿司ロール) is a fried version of the dish. Hosomaki (, "thin rolls") is a small cylindrical piece, with "nori" on the outside. A typical "hosomaki" has a diameter of about two and a half centimeters (1 in). They generally contain only one filling, often tuna, cucumber, "kanpyō", thinly sliced carrots, or, more recently, avocado. "Kappamaki", () a kind of "Hosomaki" filled with cucumber, is named after the Japanese legendary water imp fond of cucumbers called the kappa. Traditionally,


title: Sushi content: "kappamaki" is consumed to clear the palate between eating raw fish and other kinds of food, so that the flavors of the fish are distinct from the tastes of other foods. "Tekkamaki" () is a kind of "hosomaki" filled with raw tuna. Although it is believed that the word "tekka", meaning "red hot iron", alludes to the color of the tuna flesh or salmon flesh, it actually originated as a quick snack to eat in gambling dens called "tekkaba" (), much like the sandwich. "Negitoromaki" () is a kind of "hosomaki" filled with scallion ("negi") and chopped tuna ("toro"). Fatty


title: Sushi content: tuna is often used in this style. "Tsunamayomaki" () is a kind of "hosomaki" filled with canned tuna tossed with mayonnaise. Temaki (, "hand roll") is a large cone-shaped piece of "nori" on the outside and the ingredients spilling out the wide end. A typical "temaki" is about ten centimeters (4 in) long, and is eaten with fingers because it is too awkward to pick it up with chopsticks. For optimal taste and texture, "temaki" must be eaten quickly after being made because the "nori" cone soon absorbs moisture from the filling and loses its crispness, making it somewhat difficult


title: Sushi content: to bite through. For this reason, the "nori" in pre-made or take-out temaki is sealed in plastic film which is removed immediately before eating. "Narezushi" (, "matured sushi") is a traditional form of fermented sushi. Skinned and gutted fish are stuffed with salt, placed in a wooden barrel, doused with salt again, then weighed down with a heavy tsukemonoishi (pickling stone). As days pass, water seeps out and is removed. After six months, this "sushi" can be eaten, remaining edible for another six months or more. The most famous variety of "narezushi" are the ones offered as a specialty dish


title: Sushi content: of Shiga Prefecture, particularly the "funa-zushi" made from fish of the crucian carp genus, the authentic version of which calls for the use "nigorobuna", a particular locally differentiated variety of wild goldfish endemic to Lake Biwa). "Nigirizushi" (, "hand-pressed sushi") consists of an oblong mound of "sushi rice" that the chef presses between the palms of the hands to form an oval-shaped ball, and a topping (the "neta") draped over the ball. It is usually served with a bit of "wasabi"; "neta" are typically fish such as salmon, tuna or other seafood. Certain toppings are typically bound to the rice


title: Sushi content: with a thin strip of "nori", most commonly octopus ("tako"), freshwater eel ("unagi"), sea eel ("anago"), squid ("ika"), and sweet egg ("tamago"). One order of a given type of fish typically results in two pieces, while a sushi set (sampler dish) may contain only one piece of each topping. "Gunkanmaki" (, "warship roll") is a special type of "nigirizushi": an oval, hand-formed clump of sushi rice that has a strip of "nori" wrapped around its perimeter to form a vessel that is filled with some soft, loose or fine-chopped ingredient that requires the confinement of "nori" such as roe, "nattō",


title: Sushi content: oysters, "uni" (sea urchin roe), corn with mayonnaise, scallops, and quail eggs. "Gunkan-maki" was invented at the "Ginza Kyubey" restaurant in 1941; its invention significantly expanded the repertoire of soft toppings used in sushi. "Temarizushi" (, "ball sushi") is a sushi made by pressing rice and fish into a ball-shaped form by hand using a plastic wrap. , also known as , is a pressed sushi from the Kansai region, a favorite and specialty of Osaka. A block-shaped piece is formed using a wooden mold, called an "oshibako". The chef lines the bottom of the "oshibako" with the toppings, covers


title: Sushi content: them with sushi rice, and then presses the lid of the mold down to create a compact, rectilinear block. The block is removed from the mold and then cut into bite-sized pieces. Particularly famous is ("battera", pressed mackerel sushi) or ("saba zushi"). In "oshizushi", all the ingredients are either cooked or cured and raw fish is never used. The increasing popularity of "sushi" around the world has resulted in variations typically found in the Western world, but rarely in Japan (a notable exception to this is the use of salmon, which was introduced by Bjørn Eirik Olsen, a Norwegian businessman


title: Sushi content: tasked with helping the Norwegian salmon industry sell more fish in the early 1980s). Such creations to suit the Western palate were initially fueled by the invention of the California roll (a "norimaki" with crab (later, imitation crab), cucumber, and avocado). A wide variety of popular rolls ("norimaki" and "uramaki") has evolved since. Norway roll is another variant of "uramakizushi" filled with "tamago" (omelette), imitation crab and cucumber, rolled with "shiso" leaf and "nori", topped with slices of Norwegian salmon, garnished with lemon and mayonnaise. Uramaki (, "inside-out roll") is a medium-sized cylindrical piece with two or more fillings, and


title: Sushi content: was developed as a result of the creation of the California roll, as a method originally meant to hide the nori. "Uramaki" differs from other "makimono" because the rice is on the outside and the "nori" inside. The filling is in the center surrounded by "nori", then a layer of rice, and optionally an outer coating of some other ingredients such as roe or toasted sesame seeds. It can be made with different fillings, such as tuna, crab meat, avocado, mayonnaise, cucumber or carrots. Examples of variations include the rainbow roll (an inside-out topped with thinly sliced "maguro, hamachi, ebi,


title: Sushi content: sake" and avocado) and the caterpillar roll (an inside-out topped with thinly sliced avocado). Also commonly found is the "rock and roll" (an inside-out roll with barbecued freshwater eel and avocado with toasted sesame seeds on the outside). In Japan, "uramaki" is an uncommon type of "makimono"; because sushi is traditionally eaten by hand in Japan, the outer layer of rice can be quite difficult to handle with fingers. "Futomaki" is a more popular variation of sushi within the United States, and comes in variations that take their names from their place of origin. Other rolls may include a variety


title: Sushi content: of ingredients, including chopped scallops, spicy tuna, beef or chicken teriyaki roll, okra, and assorted vegetables such as cucumber and avocado, and the "tempura roll", where shrimp tempura is inside the roll or the entire roll is battered and fried tempura-style. In the Southern United States, many sushi restaurants prepare rolls using crawfish. Sometimes, rolls are made with brown rice or black rice, which appear in Japanese cuisine as well. Per Food and Drug Administration regulations, raw fish served in the United States must be frozen prior to serving in order to kill parasites. Because of this and the relative


title: Sushi content: difficulty of acquiring fresh seafood compared to Japan, raw seafood (e.g., sashimi) is not as prevalent of a component in American-style sushi. Since rolls are usually made to-order it is not unusual for the customer to specify the exact ingredients desired (e.g. salmon roll, cucumber roll, avocado roll, Shrimp/tuna tempura roll, tuna roll, etc.). Though the menu names of dishes often vary by restaurant, some examples include: All sushi has a base of specially prepared rice, complemented with other ingredients. "Sushi-meshi" (also known as "Su-meshi" , "shari" , or "gohan" ) is a preparation of white, short-grained, Japanese rice mixed


title: Sushi content: with a dressing consisting of rice vinegar, sugar, salt, and occasionally kombu and "sake". It has to be cooled to room temperature before being used for a filling in a "sushi" or else it will get too sticky while being seasoned. Traditionally, the mixing is done with a hangiri, which is a round, flat-bottom wooden tub or barrel, and a wooden paddle (shamoji). Sushi rice is prepared with short-grain Japanese rice, which has a consistency that differs from long-grain strains such as those from India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Thailand, and Vietnam. The essential quality is its stickiness or glutinousness, although


title: Sushi content: the type of rice used for sushi is different from glutinous rice. Freshly harvested rice ("shinmai") typically contains too much water, and requires extra time to drain the rice cooker after washing. In some fusion cuisine restaurants, short-grain brown rice and wild rice are also used. There are regional variations in sushi rice and individual chefs have their individual methods. Most of the variations are in the rice vinegar dressing: the Kantō region (or East Japan) version of the dressing commonly uses more salt; in Kansai region (or West Japan), the dressing has more sugar. The black seaweed wrappers used


title: Sushi content: in "makimono" are called "nori" (海苔). "Nori" is a type of algae, traditionally cultivated in the harbors of Japan. Originally, algae was scraped from dock pilings, rolled out into thin, edible sheets, and dried in the sun, in a process similar to making rice paper. Today, the commercial product is farmed, processed, toasted, packaged, and sold in sheets. The size of a "nori" sheet influences the size of "makimono". A full-size sheet produces "futomaki", and a half produces "hosomaki" and "temaki". To produce "gunkan" and some other "makimono", an appropriately-sized piece of "nori" is cut from a whole sheet. "Nori"


title: Sushi content: by itself is an edible snack and is available with salt or flavored with teriyaki sauce. The flavored variety, however, tends to be of lesser quality and is not suitable for sushi. When making "fukusazushi", a paper-thin omelette may replace a sheet of "nori" as the wrapping. The omelette is traditionally made on a rectangular omelette pan (makiyakinabe), and used to form the pouch for the rice and fillings. For culinary, sanitary, and aesthetic reasons, the minimum quality and freshness of fish to be eaten raw must be superior to that of fish which is to be cooked. Sushi chefs


title: Sushi content: are trained to recognize important attributes, including smell, color, firmness, and freedom from parasites that may go undetected in commercial inspection. Commonly used fish are tuna ("maguro, shiro-maguro"), Japanese amberjack, yellowtail ("hamachi"), snapper ("kurodai"), mackerel ("saba"), and salmon ("sake"). The most valued sushi ingredient is "toro," the fatty cut of the fish. This comes in a variety of "ōtoro" (often from the bluefin species of tuna) and "chūtoro", meaning "middle toro", implying that it is halfway into the fattiness between "toro" and the regular cut. "Aburi" style refers to "nigiri" sushi where the fish is partially grilled (topside) and partially


title: Sushi content: raw. Most nigiri sushi will have completely raw "neta". Other seafoods such as squid ("ika"), eel ("anago" and "unagi"), pike conger ("hamo"), octopus ("tako"), shrimp ("ebi" and "amaebi"), clam ("mirugai", "aoyagi" and "akagai"), fish roe ("ikura", "masago", "kazunoko" and "tobiko"), sea urchin ("uni"), crab ("kani"), and various kinds of shellfish (abalone, prawn, scallop) are the most popular seafoods in sushi. Oysters, however, are less common, as the taste is not thought to go well with the rice. "Kani kama", or imitation crab stick, is commonly substituted for real crab, most notably in California rolls. Pickled daikon radish ("takuan") in "shinko


title: Sushi content: maki", pickled vegetables ("tsukemono"), fermented soybeans ("nattō") in "nattō maki", avocado, cucumber in "kappa maki", asparagus, yam, pickled ume ("umeboshi"), gourd ("kanpyō"), burdock ("gobo"), and sweet corn (possibly mixed with mayonnaise) are also used in sushi. Tofu and eggs (in the form of slightly sweet, layered omelette called "tamagoyaki" and raw quail eggs ride as a "gunkan-maki" topping) are common. Sushi is commonly eaten with condiments. Sushi may be dipped in shōyu (soy sauce), and is usually flavored with wasabi, a piquant paste made from the grated stem of the "Wasabia japonica" plant. Japanese-style mayonnaise is a common condiment in


title: Sushi content: Japan on salmon, pork and other sushi cuts. True wasabi has anti-microbial properties and may reduce the risk of food poisoning. The traditional grating tool for wasabi is a sharkskin grater or "samegawa oroshi". An imitation wasabi ("seiyo-wasabi"), made from horseradish, mustard powder and green dye is common. It is found at lower-end "kaiten-zushi" restaurants, in bento box sushi and at most restaurants outside Japan. If manufactured in Japan, it may be labelled "Japanese Horseradish". Gari (sweet, pickled ginger) is eaten in between sushi courses to both cleanse the palate and aid in digestion. In Japan, green tea ("ocha") is


title: Sushi content: invariably served together with sushi. Better sushi restaurants often use a distinctive premium tea known as "mecha". In sushi vocabulary, green tea is known as "agari". Sushi may be garnished with gobo, grated daikon, thinly sliced vegetables, carrots/radishes/cucumbers that have been shaped to look like flowers, real flowers, or seaweed salad. When closely arranged on a tray, different pieces are often separated by green strips called "baran" or "kiri-zasa" (切り笹). These dividers prevent the flavors of neighboring pieces of sushi from mixing and help to achieve an attractive presentation. Originally, these were cut leaves from the "Aspidistra elatior" (葉蘭 "haran")


title: Sushi content: and "Sasa veitchii" (熊笹 "kuma-zasa") plants, respectively. Using actual leaves had the added benefit of releasing antimicrobial phytoncides when cut thereby extending the limited shelf life of the sushi. Sushi bento boxes are a staple of Japanese supermarkets and convenience stores. As these stores began rising in prominence in the 1960s, the labor-intensive cut leaves were increasingly replaced with green plastic in order to lower costs. This coincided with the increased prevalence of refrigeration which acted to extend the shelf life of sushi without the need for the cut leaves. Today the plastic strips are commonly used in sushi bento


title: Sushi content: boxes and to a lesser degree in sushi presentations found in sushi bars and restaurants. In store-sold or to-go packages of sushi, the plastic leaf strips are often used to prevent the rolls from coming into early or unwanted contact with the ginger and wasabi included with the dish. The main ingredients of traditional Japanese sushi, raw fish and rice, are naturally low in fat, high in protein, carbohydrates (the rice only), vitamins, and minerals, as are "gari" and "nori". Other vegetables wrapped within the sushi also offer various vitamins and minerals. Many of the seafood ingredients also contain omega-3


title: Sushi content: fatty acids, which have a variety of health benefits. The omega-3 fatty acids found in fish has certain beneficial property, especially on cardiovascular health, natural anti-inflammatory compounds, and play a role in brain function. Generally sushi is not a particularly fattening food. However, rice in sushi contains a fair amount of carbohydrates, plus the addition of other ingredients such as mayonnaise added into sushi rolls might increase the caloric content. Sushi also has a relatively high sodium content, especially contributed from "shoyu" soy sauce seasoning. Some of the ingredients in sushi can present health risks. Large marine apex predators such


title: Sushi content: as tuna (especially bluefin) can harbor high levels of methylmercury, which can lead to mercury poisoning when consumed in large quantity or when consumed by certain higher-risk groups, including women who are pregnant or may become pregnant, nursing mothers and young children. According to recent studies, there have been about 18 million infections worldwide from eating raw fish. This serves as a great risk to expecting mothers due to the health risks that medical interventions or treatment measures may pose on the developing fetus. Parasitic infections can have a wide range of health impacts, including bowel obstruction, anemia, liver disease,


title: Sushi content: and more. The impact of these illnesses alone can pose some health concerns on the expecting mother and baby, but the curative measures that may need to take place to recover, are also a concern as well. Sashimi or other types of sushi containing raw fish present a risk of infection by three main types of parasites: For the above reasons, EU regulations forbid the use of fresh raw fish. It must be frozen at temperatures below in all parts of the product for no less than 24 hours. As such, a number of fishing boats, suppliers and end users


title: Sushi content: "super-freeze" fish for sushi to temperatures as low as −60 °C. As well as parasite destruction, super-freezing also prevents oxidation of the blood in tuna flesh, thus preventing the discoloration that happens at temperatures above −20 °C. Some forms of sushi, notably those containing pufferfish fugu and some kinds of shellfish, can cause severe poisoning if not prepared properly. Particularly, fugu consumption can be fatal. Fugu fish has a lethal dose of tetrodotoxin in its internal organs and, by law in many countries, must be prepared by a licensed fugu chef who has passed the prefectural examination in Japan. The


title: Sushi content: licensing examination process consists of a written test, a fish-identification test, and a practical test that involves preparing the fugu and separating out the poisonous organs. Only about 35 percent of the applicants pass. Sustainable sushi is sushi made from fished or farmed sources that can be maintained or whose future production does not significantly jeopardize the ecosystems from which it is acquired. Concerns over the sustainability of sushi ingredients arise from greater concerns over environmental, economic and social stability and human health. Traditionally, sushi is served on minimalist Japanese-style, geometric, mono- or duo-tone wood or lacquer plates, in keeping


title: Sushi content: with the aesthetic qualities of this cuisine. Many sushi restaurants offer fixed-price sets, selected by the chef from the catch of the day. These are often graded as "shō-chiku-bai" (), "shō/matsu" (, pine), "chiku/take" (, bamboo) and ("bai/ume"), with "matsu" the most expensive and " ume" the cheapest. Sushi restaurants will often have private booth dining, where guests are asked to remove their shoes, leaving them outside the room; However, most sushi bars offer diners a casual experience with an open dining room concept. Sushi may be served "kaiten zushi" (sushi train) style. Color-coded plates of sushi are placed on


title: Sushi content: a conveyor belt; as the belt passes, customers choose as they please. After finishing, the bill is tallied by counting how many plates of each color have been taken. Newer "kaiten zushi" restaurants use barcodes or RFID tags embedded in the dishes to manage elapsed time after the item was prepared. Some specialized or slang terms are used in the sushi culture. Most of these terms are used only in sushi bars. Unlike sashimi, which is almost always eaten with chopsticks, "nigirizushi" is traditionally eaten with the fingers, even in formal settings. Although it is commonly served on a small


title: Sushi content: platter with a side dish for dipping, sushi can also be served in a "bento", a box with small compartments that hold the various dishes of the meal. Soy sauce is the usual condiment, and sushi is normally served with a small sauce dish, or a compartment in the bento. Traditional etiquette suggests that the sushi is turned over so that only the topping is dipped; this is because the soy sauce is for flavoring the topping, not the rice, and because the rice would absorb too much soy sauce and would fall apart. If it is difficult to turn


title: Sushi content: the sushi upside-down, one can baste the sushi in soy sauce using "gari" (sliced ginger) as a brush. Toppings that have their own sauce (such as eel) should not be eaten with soy sauce. Traditionally, the sushi chef will add an appropriate amount of wasabi to the sushi while preparing it, and etiquette suggests eating the sushi as is, since the chef is supposed to know the proper amount of wasabi to use. However, today wasabi is more a matter of personal taste, and even restaurants in Japan may serve wasabi on the side for customers to use at their


title: Sushi content: discretion, even when there is wasabi already in the dish. Sushi Sushi is traditionally made with medium-grain white rice, though it can be prepared with brown rice. It is often prepared with seafood, such as calamari, eel, or imitation crab meat. Many others are vegetarian. Sushi is often served with pickled ginger (gari), wasabi, and soy sauce. Daikon radish is popular as a garnish. Sushi is sometimes confused with "sashimi", a related Japanese dish consisting of thinly sliced raw fish, or occasionally meat, and an optional serving of rice. Sushi originates in a Southeast Asian dish, known today as "narezushi"


title: "Steve Biko" content: a claim repeated in the pro-government press. South Africa's attorney general initially stated that no one would be prosecuted for Biko's death. Two weeks after the funeral, the government banned all Black Consciousness organisations, including the BCP, which had its assets seized. Both domestic and international pressure called for a public inquest to be held, to which the government agreed. It began in Pretoria's Old Synagogue courthouse in November 1977, and lasted for three weeks. Both the running of the inquest and the quality of evidence submitted came in for extensive criticism. An observer from the Lawyers' Committee for Civil


title: Sudan content: the opposition Umma and Democratic Unionist parties, respectively. Only the Darfur region has traditionally been bereft of the Sufi brotherhoods common in the rest of the country. Roman Catholics are 3.2% of the population and Protestants are 5% mainly in the South. Significant, long-established groups of Coptic Orthodox and Greek Orthodox Christians exist in Khartoum and other northern cities. Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox communities also exist in Khartoum and eastern Sudan, largely made up of refugees and migrants from the past few decades. The largest groups affiliated with Western Christian denominations are Roman Catholic and Anglican. Other Christian groups with


title: "Sense and Sensibility" content: disadvantageous to "our little Harry", Mrs. Dashwood soon forgets about Harry and it is made apparent her objections are founded in greed; Montolieu altered the scene by having Mrs. Dashwood continuing to speak of "our little Harry" as the basis of her objections, completely changing her motives. When Elinor learns the Ferrars who married Lucy Steele is Robert, not Edward, Montolieu adds in a scene where Edward, the Dashwood sisters and their mother all break down in tears while clasping hands that was not in the original. Austen has the marriage of Robert Ferrars and Lucy Steele end well while


title: "Samuel Pepys" content: frustration to Pepys. Pepys' diary provides a first-hand account of the Restoration, and it is also notable for its detailed accounts of several major events of the 1660s, along with the lesser known diary of John Evelyn. In particular, it is an invaluable source for the study of the Second Anglo-Dutch War of 1665–7, the Great Plague of 1665, and the Great Fire of London in 1666. In relation to the Plague and Fire, C. S. Knighton has written: "From its reporting of these two disasters to the metropolis in which he thrived, Pepys's diary has become a national monument."


title: "Steve Wozniak" content: television and people. After losing several million dollars on the 1982 festival, he stated that unless the 1983 event turned a profit, he would end his involvement with rock festivals and get back to designing computers. Later that year, Wozniak returned to Apple product development, desiring no more of a role than that of an engineer and a motivational factor for the Apple workforce. In the mid-1980s he designed the Apple Desktop Bus, a proprietary bit-serial peripheral bus introduced on many later Macintosh and NeXT computer models. However, even with the success he helped create at Apple, Wozniak felt that


title: Sword content: 16th century. Throughout history two-handed swords have generally been less common than their one-handed counterparts, one exception being their common use in Japan. A Hand and a half sword, colloquially known as a "bastard sword", was a sword with an extended grip and sometimes pommel so that it could be used with either one or two hands. Although these swords may not provide a full two-hand grip, they allowed its wielders to hold a shield or parrying dagger in their off hand, or to use it as a two-handed sword for a more powerful blow. These should not be confused


title: Scrabble content: gives the information a serious player needs to advance to successful tournament play. There have been numerous documentaries made about the game, including: Scrabble Scrabble is a word game in which two to four players score points by placing tiles bearing a single letter onto a board divided into a 15×15 grid of squares. The tiles must form words that, in crossword fashion, read left to right in rows or downward in columns, and be included in a standard dictionary or lexicon. The name is a trademark of Hasbro, Inc. in the United States and Canada; outside these two countries


title: Szczecin content: property and loaded them onto trains headed to the camp, escorted by members of the SA and SS. Due to publicity given to the event, German institutions ordered such future actions to be made in a way unlikely to attract public notice. Allied air raids in 1944 and heavy fighting between the German and Soviet armies destroyed 65% of Stettin's buildings and almost all of the city centre, the seaport, and local industries. Polish Home Army intelligence assisted in pinpointing targets for Allied bombing in the area of Stettin. The city itself was covered by the Home Army's "Bałtyk" structure,


title: "Siberian Husky" content: Siberian Husky The Siberian Husky (, lit: Sibirskiy Haski) is a medium size working dog breed that originated in Northeast Asia. The breed belongs to the Spitz genetic family. With proper training, they make great home pets and sled dogs. It is recognizable by its thickly furred double coat, erect triangular ears, and distinctive markings. The original Siberian Huskies were bred by the Chukchi people whose hunter-gatherer culture relied on their help. It is an active, energetic, resilient breed, whose ancestors lived in the extremely cold and harsh environment of the Siberian Arctic. William Goosak, a Russian fur trader, introduced


title: "Siberian Husky" content: them to Nome, Alaska during the Nome Gold Rush, initially as sled dogs. The people of Nome referred to Siberian Huskies as "Siberian Rats" due to their size of , versus the Malamutes size of . The first dogs arrived in the Americas 12,000 years ago; however, people and their dogs did not settle in the Arctic until the Paleo-Eskimo people 4,500 years ago and then the Thule people 1,000 years ago, both originating from Siberia. The Siberian Husky was originally developed by the Chukchi people of the Chukchi Peninsula in eastern Siberia. They were brought to Nome, Alaska, in


title: "Siberian Husky" content: 1908 for sled-dog racing. In 1989, a study was made of ancient canid remains dated to the Late Pleistocene and early Holocene that had been uncovered by miners decades earlier around Fairbanks, Alaska. These were identified as "Canis lupus" and described as "short-faced wolves". The collection was separated into those specimens that looked more wolf-like (i.e. the Beringian wolf), and those that looked more dog-like and in comparison to the skulls of Eskimo dogs from both Greenland and Siberia thought to be their forerunners. In 2015, a study using a number of genetic markers indicated that the Siberian Husky, the


title: "Siberian Husky" content: Alaskan Malamute and the Alaskan husky share a close genetic relationship between each other and were related to Chukotka sled dogs from Siberia. They were separate to the two Inuit dogs, the Canadian Eskimo Dog and the Greenland dog. In North America, the Siberian Husky and the Malamute both had maintained their Siberian lineage and had contributed significantly to the Alaskan husky, which showed evidence of crossing with European breeds that were consistent with this breed being created in post-colonial North America. Nearly all dog breeds' genetic closeness to the gray wolf is due to admixture. However, several Arctic dog


title: "Siberian Husky" content: breeds show a genetic closeness with the now-extinct Taymyr wolf of North Asia due to admixture. These breeds are associated with high latitudes - the Siberian Husky and Greenland dog that are also associated with arctic human populations and to a lesser extent, the Shar Pei and Finnish spitz. An admixture graph of the Greenland dog indicates a best-fit of 3.5% shared material, however an ancestry proportion ranging between 1.4% and 27.3% is consistent with the data. This indicates admixture between the Taymyr wolf population and the ancestral dog population of these 4 high-latitude breeds. This introgression could have provided


title: "Siberian Husky" content: early dogs living in high latitudes with phenotypic variation beneficial for adaption to a new and challenging environment. It also indicates the ancestry of present-day dog breeds descends from more than one region. A Siberian Husky's coat is thicker than that of most other dog breeds, comprising two layers: a dense undercoat and a longer topcoat of short, straight guard hairs. It protects the dogs effectively against harsh Arctic winters, but the coat also reflects heat in the summer. It is able to withstand temperatures as low as . The undercoat is often absent during shedding. Their thick coats require


title: "Siberian Husky" content: weekly grooming. Siberian Huskies come in a variety of colors and patterns, usually with white paws and legs, facial markings, and tail tip. The most common coats are black and white, then less common copper-red and white, grey and white, pure white, and the rare "agouti" coat, though many individuals have blondish or piebald spotting. Striking masks, spectacles, and other facial markings occur in wide variety. Merle coat patterns are not allowed. The American Kennel Club allows all coat colors from black to pure white. The American Kennel Club describes the Siberian Husky's eyes as "an almond shape, moderately spaced


title: "Siberian Husky" content: and set slightly obliquely." The AKC breed standard is that eyes may be brown, blue or black; one of each or Particoloured are acceptable (complete is heterochromia). These eye-color combinations are considered acceptable by the American Kennel Club. The parti-color does not affect the vision of the dog. Show-quality dogs are preferred to have neither pointed nor square noses. The nose is black in gray dogs, tan in black dogs, liver in copper-colored dogs, and may be light tan in white dogs. In some instances, Siberian Huskies can exhibit what is called "snow nose" or "winter nose." This condition is


title: "Siberian Husky" content: called hypopigmentation in animals. "Snow nose" is acceptable in the show ring. Siberian Husky tails are heavily furred; these dogs will often curl up with their tails over their faces and noses in order to provide additional warmth. As pictured, when curled up to sleep the Siberian Husky will cover its nose for warmth, often referred to as the "Siberian Swirl". The tail should be expressive, held low when the dog is relaxed, and curved upward in a "sickle" shape when excited or interested in something. It should be symmetrical, and not curved or deviated to the side; the tail


title: "Siberian Husky" content: can curl enough to touch the back. The breed standard indicates that the males of the breed are ideally between tall at the withers and weighing between . Females are smaller, growing to between tall at the withers and weighing between . The Husky howls rather than barks. They have been described as escape artists, which can include digging under, chewing through, or even jumping over fences. Because the Siberian Husky had been raised in a family setting by the Chukchi and not left to fend for themselves they could be trusted with children. The ASPCA classifies the breed as


title: "Siberian Husky" content: good with children. It also states they exhibit high energy indoors, have special exercise needs, and may be destructive "without proper care". Siberian Huskies have a high prey drive due to the Chukchi allowing them to roam free in the summer. The dogs hunted in packs and preyed on wild cats, birds, and squirrels, but with training can be trusted with other small animals. They would only return to the Chukchi villages when the snow returned and food became scarce. Their hunting instincts can still be found in the breed today. A fence is recommended for this breed as a


title: "Siberian Husky" content: pet, although some have been known to overcome fences as high as . Electric pet fencing may not be effective. They need the frequent companionship of people and other dogs, and their need to feel as part of a pack is very strong. A 1999 ASPCA publication shows the average life span of the Siberian Husky is 12 to 14 years. Health issues in the breed are mainly genetic, such as seizures and defects of the eye (juvenile cataracts, corneal dystrophy, canine glaucoma and progressive retinal atrophy) and congenital laryngeal paralysis. Hip dysplasia is not often found in this breed;


title: "Siberian Husky" content: however, as with many medium or larger-sized canines, it can occur. The Orthopedic Foundation for Animals currently has the Siberian Husky ranked 155th out of a possible 160 breeds at risk for hip dysplasia, with only two percent of tested Siberian Huskies showing dysplasia. Siberian Huskies used for sled racing may also be prone to other ailments, such as gastric disease, bronchitis or bronchopulmonary ailments ("ski asthma"), and gastric erosions or ulcerations. Modern Siberian Huskies registered in the US are largely the descendants of the 1930 Siberia imports and of Leonhard Seppala’s dogs, particularly Togo. The limited number of registered


title: "Siberian Husky" content: foundational dogs has led to some discussion about their vulnerability to the founder effect. The Siberian Husky, Samoyed, and Alaskan Malamute are all breeds directly descended from the original sled dog. It is thought that the term "husky" is a corrupted of the nickname "Esky" once applied to the Eskimo and subsequently to their dogs. Breeds descending from the Eskimo dog or Qimmiq were once found throughout the Northern Hemisphere from Siberia to Canada, Alaska, Greenland, Labrador, and Baffin Island. With the help of Siberian Huskies, entire tribes of people were able not only to survive, but to push forth


title: "Siberian Husky" content: into "terra incognita." Admiral Robert Peary of the United States Navy was aided by this breed during his expeditions in search of the North Pole. Dogs from the Anadyr River and surrounding regions were imported into Alaska from 1908 (and for the next two decades) during the gold rush for use as sled dogs, especially in the "All-Alaska Sweepstakes," a 408-mile (657-km) distance dog sled race from Nome, to Candle, and back. Smaller, faster and more enduring than the 100- to 120-pound (45- to 54-kg) freighting dogs then in general use, they immediately dominated the Nome Sweepstakes. Leonhard Seppala, the


title: "Siberian Husky" content: foremost breeder of Siberian Huskies of the time, participated in competitions from 1909 to the mid-1920s. On February 3, 1925, Gunnar Kaasen was first in the 1925 serum run to Nome to deliver diphtheria serum from Nenana, over 600 miles to Nome. This was a group effort by several sled-dog teams and mushers, with the longest (91 miles or 146 km) and most dangerous segment of the run covered by Leonhard Seppala. The event is also loosely depicted in the 1995 animated film "Balto", as the name of Gunnar Kaasen's lead dog in his sled team was Balto, although unlike


title: "Siberian Husky" content: the real dog, Balto the character was portrayed as half wolf in the film. In honor of this lead dog, a bronze statue was erected at Central Park in New York City. The plaque upon it is inscribed, Dedicated to the indomitable spirit of the sled dogs that relayed antitoxin six hundred miles over rough ice, across treacherous waters, through Arctic blizzards from Nenana to the relief of stricken Nome in the winter of 1925. Endurance · Fidelity · Intelligence In 1930, exportation of the dogs from Siberia was halted. The same year saw recognition of the Siberian Husky by


title: "Siberian Husky" content: the American Kennel Club. Nine years later, the breed was first registered in Canada. The United Kennel Club recognized the breed in 1938 as the "Arctic Husky," changing the name to Siberian Husky in 1991. Seppala owned a kennel in Nenana before moving to New England, where he became partners with Elizabeth Ricker. The two co-owned the Poland Springs kennel and began to race and exhibit their dogs all over the Northeast. As the breed was beginning to come to prominence, in 1933 Navy Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd brought about 50 Siberian Huskies with him on an expedition in


title: "Siberian Husky" content: which he hoped to journey around the 16,000-mile coast of Antarctica. Many of the dogs were trained at Chinook Kennels in New Hampshire. Called Operation Highjump, the historic trek proved the worth of the Siberian Husky due to its compact size and greater speeds. Siberian Huskies also served in the United States Army's Arctic Search and Rescue Unit of the Air Transport Command during World War II. Their popularity was sustained into the 21st century. They were ranked 16th among American Kennel Club registrants in 2012, rising to 14th place in 2013. The original sled dogs bred and kept by


title: "Siberian Husky" content: the Chukchi were thought to have gone extinct, but Benedict Allen, writing for "Geographical" magazine in 2006 after visiting the region, reported their survival. His description of the breeding practiced by the Chukchi mentions selection for obedience, endurance, amiable disposition, and sizing that enabled families to support them without undue difficulty. Siberians gained in popularity with the story of the "Great Race of Mercy," the 1925 serum run to Nome, featuring Balto and Togo. Although Balto is considered the more famous, being the dog that delivered the serum to Nome after running the final 53-mile leg, it was Togo who


title: "Siberian Husky" content: made the longest run of the relay, guiding his musher Leonhard Seppala on a 91-mile journey that included crossing the deadly Norton Sound to Golovin. The bronze statue of Balto that has been displayed in New York City’s Central Park since 1925 is one of its enduringly popular features. Several purebred Siberian Huskies portrayed Diefenbaker, the "half-wolf" companion to RCMP Constable Benton Fraser, in the CBS/Alliance Atlantis TV series "Due South". In 1960, the US Army undertook a project to construct an under the ice facility for defense and space research, Camp Century, part of Project Iceworm involved a 150+


title: "Siberian Husky" content: crew who also brought with them an unofficial mascot, a Siberian Husky named Mukluk. Siberian Huskies are the mascots of the athletic teams of several schools and colleges, including: St. Cloud State University (St. Cloud State Huskies, Blizzard), Northern Illinois University (Northern Illinois Huskies, Victor), the University of Connecticut (Connecticut Huskies, Jonathan), Northeastern University (Northeastern Huskies, Paws), the Michigan Technological University (Michigan Tech Huskies, Blizzard) and University of Washington (Washington Huskies, Harry), and Houston Baptist University (Kiza the Husky). Siberian Husky The Siberian Husky (, lit: Sibirskiy Haski) is a medium size working dog breed that originated in Northeast Asia.


title: "Sputnik 1" content: Sputnik 1 Sputnik 1 ( or ; "Satellite-1", or "PS-1", Простейший Спутник-1 or "Prosteyshiy Sputnik-1", "Elementary Satellite 1") was the first artificial Earth satellite. The Soviet Union launched it into an elliptical low Earth orbit on 4 October 1957, orbiting for three weeks before its batteries died, then silently for two more months before falling back into the atmosphere. It was a 58 cm (23 in) diameter polished metal sphere, with four external radio antennas to broadcast radio pulses. Its radio signal was easily detectable even by radio amateurs, and the 65° inclination and duration of its orbit made its


title: "Sputnik 1" content: flight path cover virtually the entire inhabited Earth. This surprise success precipitated the American Sputnik crisis and triggered the Space Race, a part of the Cold War. The launch ushered in new political, military, technological, and scientific developments. Tracking and studying Sputnik 1 from Earth provided scientists with valuable information. The density of the upper atmosphere could be deduced from its drag on the orbit, and the propagation of its radio signals gave data about the ionosphere. Sputnik 1 was launched during the International Geophysical Year from Site No.1/5, at the 5th Tyuratam range, in Kazakh SSR (now known as


title: "Sputnik 1" content: the Baikonur Cosmodrome). The satellite travelled at about , taking 96.2 minutes to complete each orbit. It transmitted on 20.005 and 40.002 MHz, which were monitored by radio operators throughout the world. The signals continued for 21 days until the transmitter batteries ran out on 26 October 1957. "Sputnik" burned up on 4 January 1958 while reentering Earth's atmosphere, after three months, 1440 completed orbits of the Earth, and a distance travelled of about . On 17 December 1954, chief Soviet rocket scientist Sergei Korolev proposed a developmental plan for an artificial satellite to Minister of Defence Industry Dimitri Ustinov.


title: "Sputnik 1" content: Korolev forwarded a report by Mikhail Tikhonravov with an overview of similar projects abroad. Tikhonravov had emphasized that the launch of an orbital satellite was an inevitable stage in the development of rocket technology. On 29 July 1955, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower announced through his press secretary that the United States would launch an artificial satellite during the International Geophysical Year (IGY). A week later, on 8 August, the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union approved the proposal to create an artificial satellite. On 30 August Vasily Ryabikov – the head of the State Commission on


title: "Sputnik 1" content: R-7 rocket test launches – held a meeting where Korolev presented calculation data for a spaceflight trajectory to the Moon. They decided to develop a three-stage version of the R-7 rocket for satellite launches. On 30 January 1956 the Council of Ministers approved practical work on an artificial Earth-orbiting satellite. This satellite, named "Object D", was planned to be completed in 1957–58; it would have a mass of and would carry of scientific instruments. The first test launch of "Object D" was scheduled for 1957. Work on the satellite was to be divided among institutions as follows: Preliminary design work


title: "Sputnik 1" content: was completed by July 1956 and the scientific tasks to be carried out by the satellite were defined. These included measuring the density of the atmosphere and its ion composition, the solar wind, magnetic fields, and cosmic rays. These data would be valuable in the creation of future artificial satellites. A system of ground stations was to be developed to collect data transmitted by the satellite, observe the satellite's orbit, and transmit commands to the satellite. Because of the limited time frame, observations were planned for only 7 to 10 days and orbit calculations were not expected to be extremely


title: "Sputnik 1" content: accurate. By the end of 1956 it became clear that the complexity of the ambitious design meant that 'Object D' could not be launched in time because of difficulties creating scientific instruments and the low specific impulse produced by the completed R-7 engines (304 sec instead of the planned 309 to 310 sec). Consequently, the government rescheduled the launch for April 1958. Object D would later fly as "Sputnik 3". Fearing the U.S. would launch a satellite before the USSR, OKB-1 suggested the creation and launch of a satellite in April–May 1957, before the IGY began in July 1957. The


title: "Sputnik 1" content: new satellite would be simple, light (), and easy to construct, forgoing the complex, heavy scientific equipment in favour of a simple radio transmitter. On 15 February 1957 the Council of Ministers of the USSR approved this simple satellite, designated 'Object PS'. This version allowed the satellite to be tracked visually by Earth-based observers, and it could transmit tracking signals to ground-based receiving stations. The launch of two satellites, PS-1 and PS-2, with two R-7 rockets (8K71) was approved, provided that the R-7 completed at least two successful test flights. The R-7 Semyorka was initially designed as an ICBM by


title: "Sputnik 1" content: OKB-1. The decision to build it was made by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Council of Ministers of the USSR on 20 May 1954. The R-7 was also known by its GRAU (later GURVO the Russian abbreviation for "Chief Directorate of the Rocket Forces") designation 8K71. At the time, the R-7 was known to NATO sources as the T-3 or M-104, and Type A. A special reconnaissance commission selected Tyuratam for the construction of a rocket proving ground (the 5th Tyuratam range, usually referred to as "NIIP-5", or "GIK-5" in the post-Soviet


title: "Sputnik 1" content: time). The selection was approved on 12 February 1955 by the Council of Ministers of the USSR, but the site would not be completed until 1958. Actual work on the construction of the site began on 20 July by military building units. On 14 June 1956 Sergei Korolev decided to adapt the R-7 rocket to the 'Object D', that would later be replaced by the much lighter 'Object PS'. The first launch of an R-7 rocket (8K71 No.5L) occurred on 15 May 1957. A fire began in the Blok D strap-on almost immediately at liftoff, but the booster continued flying


title: "Sputnik 1" content: until T+98 seconds when the strap-on broke away and the vehicle crashed some 400 km downrange. Three attempts to launch the second rocket (8K71 No.6) were made on 10–11 June, but an assembly defect prevented launch. The unsuccessful launch of the third R-7 rocket (8K71 No.7) took place on 12 July. An electrical short caused the vernier engines to put the missile into an uncontrolled roll which resulted in all of the strap-ons separating 33 seconds into the launch. The R-7 crashed about 7 km from the pad. The launch of the fourth rocket (8K71 No.8), on 21 August at


title: "Sputnik 1" content: 15:25 Moscow Time, was successful. The rocket's core boosted the dummy warhead to the target altitude and velocity, reentered the atmosphere, and broke apart at a height of after traveling 6,000 km. On 27 August TASS issued a statement on the successful launch of a long-distance multistage ICBM. The launch of the fifth R-7 rocket (8K71 No.9), on 7 September was also successful, but the dummy was also destroyed on atmospheric re-entry, and hence needed a redesign to completely fulfill its military purpose. The rocket, however, was deemed suitable for satellite launches, and Korolev was able to convince the State


title: "Sputnik 1" content: Commission to allow the use of the next R-7 to launch PS-1, allowing the delay in the rocket's military exploitation to launch the PS-1 and PS-2 satellites. On 22 September a modified R-7 rocket, named Sputnik and indexed as 8K71PS, arrived at the proving ground and preparations for the launch of PS-1 began. Compared to the military R-7 test vehicles, the mass of 8K71PS was reduced from 280 tonnes to 272 tonnes; its length with PS-1 was and the thrust at lift off was . PS-1 was not designed to be controlled; it could only be observed. Initial data at


title: "Sputnik 1" content: the launch site would be collected at six separate observatories and telegraphed to NII-4. Located back in Moscow (at Bolshevo), NII-4 was a scientific research arm of the Ministry of Defence dedicated to missile development. The six observatories were clustered around the launch site, with the closest situated from the launch pad. A second, nationwide observation complex was established to track the satellite after its separation from the rocket. Called the Command-Measurement Complex, it consisted of the coordination center in NII-4 and seven distant stations situated along the line of the satellite's ground track. These tracking stations were located at


title: "Sputnik 1" content: Tyuratam; Sary-Shagan; Yeniseysk; Klyuchi; Yelizovo; Makat in Guryev Oblast; and Ishkup in Krasnoyarsk Krai. Stations were equipped with radar, optical instruments, and communications systems. Data from stations were transmitted by telegraphs into NII-4 where ballistics specialists calculated orbital parameters. The complex became an early prototype of the Soviet Mission Control Center. The observatories used a trajectory measurement system called "Tral," developed by OKB MEI, by which they received and monitored data from transponders mounted on the R-7 rocket's core stage. The data was useful even after the satellite's separation from the second stage of the rocket; "Sputnik" location was calculated


title: "Sputnik 1" content: from the data on the second stage's location which followed "Sputnik" at a known distance. Tracking of the booster during launch had to be accomplished through purely passive means such as visual coverage and radar detection. R-7 test launches demonstrated that the tracking cameras were only good up to an altitude of but radar could track it for almost . Outside the Soviet Union, the satellite was tracked by amateur radio operators in many countries. The US government followed it from the Central Radio Propagation Laboratory of the National Bureau of Standards. The booster rocket was located and tracked by


title: "Sputnik 1" content: the British using the Lovell Telescope at the Jodrell Bank Observatory, the only telescope in the world able to do so by radar. Canada's Newbrook Observatory was the first facility in North America to photograph "Sputnik 1". The chief constructor of "Sputnik 1" at OKB-1 was Mikhail S. Khomyakov. The satellite was a diameter sphere, assembled from two hemispheres that were hermetically sealed with o-rings and connected by 36 bolts. It had a mass of . The hemispheres were 2 mm thick, and were covered with a highly polished 1 mm-thick heat shield made of aluminium-magnesium-titanium AMG6T alloy ("AMG" is


title: "Sputnik 1" content: an abbreviation for "aluminium-magnesium" and "T" stands for "titanium"; the alloy is 6% magnesium and 0.2% titanium). The satellite carried two pairs of antennas designed by the Antenna Laboratory of OKB-1 led by Mikhail V. Krayushkin. Each antenna was made up of two whip-like parts: in length, and had an almost spherical radiation pattern, so that the satellite beeps were transmitted with equal power in all directions, making reception of the transmitted signal independent of the satellite's rotation. The power supply, with a mass of , was in the shape of an octagonal nut with the radio transmitter in its


title: "Sputnik 1" content: hole. It consisted of three silver-zinc batteries, developed at the All-Union Research Institute of Current Sources (VNIIT) under the leadership of Nikolai S. Lidorenko. Two of these batteries powered the radio transmitter and one powered the temperature regulation system. The batteries had an expected lifetime of two weeks, and operated for 22 days. The power supply was turned on automatically at the moment of the satellite's separation from the second stage of the rocket. The satellite had a one-watt, radio transmitting unit inside, developed by Vyacheslav I. Lappo from "NII-885," the Moscow Electronics Research Institute, that worked on two frequencies,


title: "Sputnik 1" content: 20.005 and 40.002 MHz. Signals on the first frequency were transmitted in 0.3 sec pulses (under normal temperature and pressure conditions on-board), with pauses of the same duration filled by pulses on the second frequency. Analysis of the radio signals was used to gather information about the electron density of the ionosphere. Temperature and pressure were encoded in the duration of radio beeps. A temperature regulation system contained a fan, a dual thermal switch, and a control thermal switch. If the temperature inside the satellite exceeded the fan was turned on and when it fell below the fan was turned


title: "Sputnik 1" content: off by the dual thermal switch. If the temperature exceeded or fell below , another control thermal switch was activated, changing the duration of the radio signal pulses. "Sputnik 1" was filled with dry nitrogen, pressurized to 1.3 atm. The satellite had a barometric switch, activated if the pressure inside the satellite fell below 130 kPa, which would have indicated failure of the pressure vessel or puncture by a meteor, and would have changed the duration of radio signal impulse. While attached to the rocket, "Sputnik 1" was protected by a cone-shaped payload fairing, with a height of . The


title: "Sputnik 1" content: fairing separated from both "Sputnik" and the spent R-7 second stage at the same time as the satellite was ejected. Tests of the satellite were conducted at OKB-1 under the leadership of Oleg G. Ivanovsky. The control system of the Sputnik rocket was adjusted to an intended orbit of , with an orbital period of 101.5 min. The trajectory had been calculated earlier by Georgi Grechko, using the USSR Academy of Sciences' mainframe computer. The Sputnik rocket was launched on 4 October 1957 at 19:28:34 UTC (5 October at the launch site) from Site No.1 at NIIP-5. Telemetry indicated that


title: "Sputnik 1" content: the strap-ons separated 116 seconds into the flight and the core stage engine shut down 295.4 seconds into the flight. At shut down, the 7.5 tonne core stage with PS-1 attached had attained an altitude of above sea level, a velocity of and velocity vector inclination to the local horizon of 0 degrees 24 minutes. This resulted in an initial orbit of by , with an apogee approximately lower than intended, and an inclination of 65.1 degrees and a period of 96.2 minutes. The launch came very close to failure—a postflight examination of telemetry data found that the Blok G


title: "Sputnik 1" content: strap-on had not attained full power at ignition and the resulting imbalanced thrust caused the booster to pitch over about 2° six seconds after liftoff. Two seconds later, the flight control system tried to compensate by rapidly moving the vernier engines and stabilizer fins. The Blok G strap-on finally reached 100% thrust only one second before the pitch angle would have been great enough to trigger an automatic shutdown command, which would have terminated the launch and sent the R-7 and "Sputnik 1" crashing to the ground in a fireball only a short distance from the pad. A fuel regulator


title: "Sputnik 1" content: in the booster also failed around 16 seconds into launch, which resulted in excessive RP-1 consumption for most of powered flight and engine thrust 4% above nominal. Core stage cutoff was intended for T+296 seconds, but the premature propellant depletion caused thrust termination to occur one second earlier when a sensor detected overspeed of the empty RP-1 turbopump. There were of LOX remaining at cutoff. At 19.9 seconds after engine cut-off, PS-1 separated from the second stage and the satellite's transmitter was activated. These signals were detected at the IP-1 station by Junior Engineer-Lieutenant V.G. Borisov, where reception of "Sputnik


title: "Sputnik 1" content: 1" "beep-beep-beep" tones confirmed the satellite's successful deployment. Reception lasted for two minutes, until PS-1 fell below the horizon. The Tral telemetry system on the R-7 core stage continued to transmit and was detected on its second orbit. The designers, engineers and technicians who developed the rocket and satellite watched the launch from the range. After the launch they drove to the mobile radio station to listen for signals from the satellite. They waited about 90 minutes to ensure that the satellite had made one orbit and was transmitting, before Korolev called Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev. On the first orbit


title: "Sputnik 1" content: the Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union (TASS) transmitted: "As result of great, intense work of scientific institutes and design bureaus the first artificial Earth satellite has been built". The R-7 core stage, with a mass of 7.5 tonnes and a length of 26 meters, also reached Earth orbit and was visible from the ground at night as a first magnitude object following the satellite. Deployable reflective panels were placed on the booster in order to increase its visibility for tracking. The satellite, a small, highly polished sphere, was barely visible at sixth magnitude, and thus more difficult to follow


title: "Sputnik 1" content: optically. A third object, the payload fairing, also achieved orbit. The core stage of the R-7 remained in orbit for two months until 2 December 1957, while "Sputnik 1" orbited for three months, until 4 January 1958, having completed 1,440 orbits of the Earth. The Soviets provided details of "Sputnik 1" before the launch but few outside the Soviet Union noticed. After reviewing information publicly available before the launch, the science writer Willy Ley wrote in 1958: Organized through the citizen science project Operation Moonwatch, teams of visual observers at 150 stations in the United States and other countries were


title: "Sputnik 1" content: alerted during the night to watch for the Soviet sphere at dawn and during the evening twilight through binoculars or telescopes as it passed overhead. The USSR asked radio amateurs and commercial stations to record the sound of the satellite on magnetic tape. News reports at the time pointed out that "anyone possessing a short wave receiver can hear the new Russian earth satellite as it hurtles over this area of the globe". Directions, provided by the American Radio Relay League were to "Tune in 20 megacycles sharply, by the time signals, given on that frequency. Then tune to slightly


title: "Sputnik 1" content: higher frequencies. The 'beep, beep' sound of the satellite can be heard each time it rounds the globe." The first recording of "Sputnik 1" signal was made by RCA engineers near Riverhead, Long Island. They then drove the tape recording into Manhattan for broadcast to the public over NBC radio. However, as "Sputnik" rose higher over the East Coast, its signal was picked up by W2AEE, the ham radio station of Columbia University. Students working in the university's FM station, WKCR, made a tape of this, and were the first to rebroadcast the "Sputnik" signal to the American public (or


title: "Sputnik 1" content: whoever could receive the FM station). At first the Soviet Union agreed to use equipment "compatible" with that of the United States, but later announced the lower frequencies. The White House declined to comment on military aspects of the launch, but said "it did not come as a surprise." On 5 October the Naval Research Laboratory announced it had recorded four crossings of "Sputnik 1" over the United States. The USAF Cambridge Research Center collaborated with Bendix-Friez, Westinghouse Broadcasting Co., and the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory to obtain a motion picture of "Sputnik" rocket body crossing the pre-dawn sky of Baltimore,


title: "Sputnik 1" content: broadcast on 12 October by WBZ-TV in Boston. U.S. President Eisenhower obtained photographs of the Soviet facilities from Lockheed U-2 flights conducted since 1956. The success of "Sputnik 1" seemed to have changed minds around the world regarding a shift in power to the Soviets. The USSR's launch of "Sputnik 1" spurred the United States to create the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) in February 1958 to regain a technological lead. In Britain the media and population initially reacted with a mixture of fear for the future, but also amazement about humankind's progress. Many newspapers and magazines heralded


title: "Sputnik 1" content: the arrival of the Space Age. However, when the Soviet Union launched a second craft containing the dog Laika, the media narrative returned to one of anti-communism and many people sent protests to the Russian embassy and the RSPCA. "Sputnik 1" was not immediately used for Soviet propaganda. The Soviets had kept quiet about their earlier accomplishments in rocketry, fearing that it would lead to secrets being revealed and failures being exploited by the West. When the Soviets began using "Sputnik" in their propaganda, they emphasized pride in the achievement of Soviet technology, arguing that it demonstrated the Soviets' superiority


title: "Sputnik 1" content: over the West. People were encouraged to listen to "Sputnik" signals on the radio and to look out for "Sputnik" in the night sky. While "Sputnik" itself had been highly polished, its small size made it barely visible to the naked eye. What most watchers actually saw was the much more visible 26 meter core stage of the R-7. Shortly after the launch of PS-1, Khrushchev pressed Korolev to launch another satellite in time for the 40th anniversary of the October Revolution on 7 November 1957. The launch of "Sputnik 1" surprised the American public and shattered the perception, furthered


title: "Sputnik 1" content: by American propaganda, of the United States as the technological superpower and the Soviet Union as a backward country. Privately, however, the CIA and President Eisenhower were aware of progress being made by the Soviets on "Sputnik" from secret spy plane imagery. Together with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), the Army Ballistic Missile Agency built "Explorer 1", and launched it on 31 January 1958. Before work was completed, however, the Soviet Union launched a second satellite, "Sputnik 2", on 3 November 1957. Meanwhile, the televised failure of "Vanguard TV3" on 6 December 1957 deepened American dismay over the country's position


title: "Sputnik 1" content: in the Space Race. The Americans took a more aggressive stance in the emerging space race, resulting in an emphasis on science and technological research and reforms in many areas from the military to education systems. The federal government began investing in science, engineering and mathematics at all levels of education. An advanced research group was assembled for military purposes. These research groups developed weapons such as ICBMs and missile defense systems, as well as spy satellites for the U.S. Initially U.S. President Eisenhower was not surprised by "Sputnik 1". He had been forewarned of the R-7's capabilities by information


title: "Sputnik 1" content: derived from U-2 spy plane overflight photos, as well as signals and telemetry intercepts. The Eisenhower administration's first response was low-key and almost dismissive. Eisenhower was even pleased that the USSR, not the U.S., would be the first to test the waters of the still-uncertain legal status of orbital satellite overflights. Eisenhower had suffered the Soviet protests and shoot-downs of Project Genetrix (Moby Dick) balloons and was concerned about the probability of a U-2 being shot down. To set a precedent for "freedom of space" before the launch of America's secret WS-117L spy satellites, the U.S. had launched Project Vanguard


title: "Sputnik 1" content: as its own "civilian" satellite entry for the International Geophysical Year. Eisenhower greatly underestimated the reaction of the American public, who were shocked by the launch of "Sputnik" and by the televised failure of the Vanguard Test Vehicle 3 launch attempt. The sense of fear was inflamed by Democratic politicians and professional cold warriors, who portrayed the United States as woefully behind. One of the many books that suddenly appeared for the lay-audience noted seven points of "impact" upon the nation: Western leadership, Western strategy and tactics, missile production, applied research, basic research, education, and democratic culture. The U.S. soon


title: "Sputnik 1" content: had a number of successful satellites, including "Explorer 1", Project SCORE, and "Courier 1B". However, public reaction to the Sputnik crisis spurred America to action in the Space Race, leading to the creation of both the Advanced Research Projects Agency (renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency or DARPA in 1972), and NASA (through the National Aeronautics and Space Act), as well as an increase in U.S. government spending on scientific research and education. "Sputnik" also contributed directly to a new emphasis on science and technology in American schools. With a sense of urgency, Congress enacted the 1958 National Defense


title: "Sputnik 1" content: Education Act, which provided low-interest loans for college tuition to students majoring in math and science. After the launch of "Sputnik", a poll conducted and published by the University of Michigan showed that 26% of Americans surveyed thought that Russian sciences and engineering were superior to that of the United States. (A year later, however, that figure had dropped to 10% as the U.S. began launching its own satellites into space.) One consequence of the "Sputnik" shock was the perception of a "missile gap." This became a dominant issue in the 1960 Presidential campaign. One irony of the "Sputnik" event


title: "Sputnik 1" content: was the initially low-key response of the Soviet Union. The Communist Party newspaper "Pravda" only printed a few paragraphs about "Sputnik 1" on 4 October. "Sputnik" also inspired a generation of engineers and scientists. Harrison Storms, the North American designer who was responsible for the X-15 rocket plane, and went on to head the effort to design the Apollo Command/Service Module and Saturn V launch vehicle's second stage was moved by the launch of "Sputnik" to think of space as being the next step for America. Astronauts Alan Shepard, who was the first American in space, and Deke Slayton later


title: "Sputnik 1" content: wrote of how the sight of "Sputnik I" passing overhead inspired them to their new careers. The launch of "Sputnik 1" inspired United States writer Herb Caen to coin the term "beatnik" in an article about the Beat Generation in the "San Francisco Chronicle" on 2 April 1958. The flag of the Russian city of Kaluga, which, due to its importance as Konstantin Tsiolkovsky's birthplace, is very focused on space, features a small "Sputnik" in the left section. At least two vintage duplicates of "Sputnik 1" exist, built apparently as backup units. One resides just outside Moscow in the corporate


title: "Sputnik 1" content: museum of Energia, the modern descendant of Korolev's design bureau, where it is on display by appointment only. Another is in the Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington. Unlike Energia's unit, it has no internal components, but it does have casings and molded fittings inside (as well as evidence of battery wear), which suggest it was built as more than just a model. Authenticated by the Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics in Moscow, the unit was auctioned in 2001 and purchased by an anonymous private buyer who donated it to the museum. Two more "Sputnik" backups are said to be in


title: "Sputnik 1" content: the personal collections of American entrepreneurs Richard Garriott and Jay S. Walker. In 1959, the Soviet Union donated a replica of Sputnik to the United Nations. There are dozens of other full-size "Sputnik" replicas, more or less accurate, on display in locations around the world, including the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C.; the Frontiers of Flight Museum and the Fort Worth Museum of Science and History, both in Texas; the Armstrong Air and Space Museum and the National Museum of the United States Air Force, both in Ohio; the Cosmosphere in Hutchinson, Kansas; the California Science Center


title: "Sputnik 1" content: in Los Angeles; the Science Museum, London; the World Museum in Liverpool; the Powerhouse Museum in Sydney, Australia and outside the Russian embassy in Madrid, Spain. Three one-third scale student-built replicas of "Sputnik 1" were deployed from the Mir space station between 1997 and 1999. The first, named "Sputnik 40" to commemorate the fortieth anniversary of the launch of "Sputnik 1", was deployed in November 1997. "Sputnik 41" was launched a year later, and "Sputnik 99" was deployed in February 1999. A fourth replica was launched, but never deployed, and was destroyed when Mir was deorbited. Sputnik 1 Sputnik 1


title: Springbok content: Springbok The springbok (; "Antidorcas marsupialis") is a medium-sized antelope found mainly in southern and southwestern Africa. The sole member of the genus "Antidorcas", this bovid was first described by the German zoologist Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann in 1780. Three subspecies are identified. A slender, long-legged antelope, the springbok reaches at the shoulder and weighs between . Both sexes have a pair of black, long horns that curve backwards. The springbok is characterised by a white face, a dark stripe running from the eyes to the mouth, a light-brown coat marked by a reddish-brown stripe that runs from the


title: Springbok content: upper fore leg to the buttocks across the flanks like the Thomson's gazelle, and a white rump flap. Active mainly at dawn and dusk, springbok form harems (mixed-sex herds). In earlier times, springbok of the Kalahari desert and Karoo migrated in large numbers across the countryside, a practice known as "trekbokken". A feature unique to the springbok is pronking, in which the springbok performs multiple leaps into the air, up to above the ground, in a stiff-legged posture, with the back bowed and the white flap lifted. Primarily a browser, the springbok feeds on shrubs and succulents; this antelope can


title: Springbok content: live without drinking water for years, meeting its requirements through eating succulent vegetation. Breeding takes place year-round, and peaks in the rainy season, when forage is most abundant. A single calf is born after a five- to six-month-long pregnancy; weaning occurs at nearly six months of age, and the calf leaves its mother a few months later. Springbok inhabit the dry areas of south and southwestern Africa. The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources classifies the springbok as a least concern species. No major threats to the long-term survival of the species are known; the springbok, in


title: Springbok content: fact, is one of the few antelope species considered to have an expanding population. They are popular game animals, and are valued for their meat and skin. The springbok is the national animal of South Africa. The common name "springbok" comes from the Afrikaans words "spring" ("jump") and "bok" ("antelope" or "goat"); the first recorded use of the name dates to 1775. The scientific name of the springbok is "Antidorcas marsupialis"; "anti" is Greek for "opposite", and "dorcas" for "gazelle" – identifying that the animal is not a gazelle. The specific epithet "marsupialis" comes from the Latin "marsupium" ("pocket"); it


title: Springbok content: refers to a pocket-like skin flap which extends along the midline of the back from the tail. In fact, this physical feature distinguishes the springbok from true gazelles. The springbok is the sole member of the genus "Antidorcas" and is placed in the family Bovidae. It was first described by the German zoologist Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann in 1780. Zimmermann assigned the genus "Antilope" (blackbuck) to the springbok. In 1845, Swedish zoologist Carl Jakob Sundevall placed the springbok in "Antidorcas", a genus of its own. In 2013, Eva Verena Bärmann (of the University of Cambridge) and colleagues undertook a


title: Springbok content: revision of the phylogeny of the tribe Antilopini on the basis of nuclear and mitochondrial data. They showed that the springbok and the gerenuk ("Litocranius walleri") form a clade with saiga ("Saiga tatarica") as sister taxon. The study pointed out that the saiga and the springbok could be considerably different from the rest of the antilopines; a 2007 phylogenetic study even suggested that the two form a clade sister to the gerenuk. The cladogram below is based on the 2013 study. Fossil springbok are known from the Pliocene; the antelope appears to have evolved about three million years ago from


title: Springbok content: a gazelle-like ancestor. Three fossil species of "Antidorcas" have been identified, in addition to the extant form, and appear to have been widespread across Africa. Two of these, "A. bondi" and "A. australis", became extinct around 7,000 years ago (early Holocene). The third species, "A. recki", probably gave rise to the extant form "A. marsupialis" during the Pleistocene, about 100,000 years ago. Fossils have been reported from Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Holocene sites in northern, southern, and eastern Africa. Fossils dating back to 80 and 100 thousand years ago have been excavated at Herolds Bay Cave (Western Cape Province, South Africa)


title: Springbok content: and Florisbad (Free State), respectively. Three subspecies are recognised: The springbok is a slender antelope with long legs and neck. Both sexes reach at the shoulder with a head-and-body length typically between . The weights for both sexes range between . The tail, long, ends in a short, black tuft. Major differences in the size and weight of the subspecies are seen. A study tabulated average body measurements for the three subspecies. "A. m. angolensis" males stand tall at the shoulder, while females are tall. The males weigh around , while the females weigh . "A. m. hofmeyri" is the


title: Springbok content: largest subspecies; males are nearly tall, and the notably shorter females are tall. The males, weighing , are heavier than females, that weigh . However, "A. m. marsupialis" is the smallest subspecies; males are tall and females tall. Average weight of males is , while for females it is . Another study showed a strong correlation between the availability of winter dietary protein and the body mass. Dark stripes extend across the white face, from the corner of the eyes to the mouth. A dark patch marks the forehead. In juveniles, the stripes and the patch are light brown. The


title: Springbok content: ears, narrow and pointed, measure . Typically light brown, the springbok has a dark reddish-brown band running horizontally from the upper foreleg to the edge of the buttocks, separating the dark back from the white underbelly. The tail (except the terminal black tuft), buttocks, the insides of the legs and the rump are all white. Two other varieties – pure black and pure white forms – are artificially selected in some South African ranches. Though born with a deep black sheen, adult black springbok are two shades of chocolate-brown and develop a white marking on the face as they mature.


title: Springbok content: White springbok, as the name suggests, are predominantly white with a light tan stripe on the flanks. The three subspecies also differ in their colour. "A. m. angolensis" has a brown to tawny coat, with thick, dark brown stripes on the face extending two-thirds down to the snout. While the lateral stripe is nearly black, the stripe on the rump is dark brown. The medium brown forehead patch extends to eye level and is separated from the bright white face by a dark brown border. A brown spot is seen on the nose. "A. m. hofmeyri" is a light fawn,


title: Springbok content: with thin, dark brown face stripes. The stripes on the flanks are dark brown to black, and the posterior stripes are moderately brown. The forehead patch, dark brown or fawn, extends beyond the level of the eyes and mixes with the white of the face without any clear barriers. The nose may have a pale smudge. "A. m. marsupialis" is a rich chestnut brown, with thin, light face stripes. The stripe near the rump is well-marked, and that on the flanks is deep brown. The forehead is brown, fawn, or white, the patch not extending beyond the eyes and having


title: Springbok content: no sharp boundaries. The nose is white or marked with brown. The skin along the middle of the dorsal side is folded in, and covered with white hair erected by arrector pili muscles (located between hair follicles). This white hair is almost fully concealed by the surrounding brown hairs until the fold opens up, and this is a major feature distinguishing this antelope from gazelles. Springbok differ from gazelles in several other ways; for instance, springbok have two premolars on both sides of either jaw, rather than the three observed in gazelles. This gives a total of 28 teeth in


title: Springbok content: the springbok, rather than 32 of gazelles. Other points of difference include a longer, broader, and rigid bridge to the nose and more muscular cheeks in springbok, and differences in the structure of the horns. Both sexes have black horns, about long, that are straight at the base and then curve backward. In "A. m. marsupialis", females have thinner horns than males; the horns of females are only 60 to 70% as long as those of males. Horns have a girth of at the base; this thins to towards the tip. In the other two subspecies, horns of both sexes


title: Springbok content: are nearly similar. The spoor, narrow and sharp, is long. Springbok are mainly active around dawn and dusk. Activity is influenced by weather; springbok can feed at night in hot weather, and at midday in colder months. They rest in the shade of trees or bushes, and often bed down in the open when weather is cooler. The social structure of the springbok is similar to that of Thomson's gazelle. Mixed-sex herds or harems have a roughly 3:1 sex ratio; bachelor individuals are also observed. In the mating season, males generally form herds and wander in search of mates. Females


title: Springbok content: live with their offspring in herds, that very rarely include dominant males. Territorial males round up female herds that enter their territories and keep out the bachelors; mothers and juveniles may gather in nursery herds separate from harem and bachelor herds. After weaning, female juveniles stay with their mothers until the birth of their next calves, while males join bachelor groups. A study of vigilance behaviour of herds revealed that individuals on the borders of herds tend to be more cautious; vigilance decreases with group size. Group size and distance from roads and bushes were found to have major influence