title: "RAF Wilmslow" content: RAF Wilmslow RAF Wilmslow was a Royal Air Force station that existed from 1938 until 1962 in Wilmslow, Cheshire. It was known as "No. 4 School of Recruit Training." The station was used for training new recruits. The recruits would learn about living RAF procedures and other information for a period of weeks then would be transferred to their operational station. The station was demolished shortly after closing in 1962. During the 1980s the eastern part of the camp was developed with housing by local construction company Jones Homes, forming the 'Summerfields' development. During the early 1990s the A34 bypass


title: "Jacques de Cambrai" content: Jacques de Cambrai Jacques de Cambrai ("fl. c." 1260–80), sometimes Jaque or Jaikes, was a trouvère from Cambrai. He composed four "chansons courtoises", one "pastourelle", six devotional "chansons", and one Marian "rotrouenge". The Berne manuscript preserves all his works, nine of them uniquely. In addition, a chanson and the pastourelle are preserved in the manuscript Oxford Douce 308 and one of the devotional songs is also copied in two other sources. The Berne manuscript notes that his "Haute dame, com rose et lis" was modelled on (i.e. a contrafactum of) "Ausi com l'unicorne sui" by Theobald I of Navarre and


title: "Stonehaven (comics)" content: as elves, ogres and dwarves, have always existed openly alongside humans. As a result, they are treated as common-place and almost mundane within the contemporary environment. However, their existence has had a significant impact on political and scientific advancements. The most notably covered so far has been the stymieing of ‘secular’ medicine in the wake of politically powerful pagan faith healing. Kevin Tinsley, the creator of the "Stonehaven" series, minored in Philosophy and Religious Studies while in college. These studies appear to heavily influence the themes and stories behind the series. The central philosophical foundation of the series is that


title: "Barbara Hogan" content: Barbara Hogan Barbara Hogan (born 28 February 1952) is a former Minister of Health and of Public Enterprises in the Cabinet of South Africa. Hogan attended St Dominic's Catholic School for Girls, Boksburg, and gained a degree at the University of the Witwatersrand. Hogan has qualifications in Accounting and Economics. Hogan joined the African National Congress in 1976 after the Soweto Uprising, many years after the organisation had been declared illegal and had moved its activities underground. Her responsibilities in this movement were to mobilise the white political left, participate in public political campaigning and supply the ANC underground in


title: "Max Mermelstein" content: Max not only became intimate with the operations of the dominant drug smuggling network at the time called the Medellín Cartel, but vastly improved them. He was responsible for working out the logistics of drug shipments to the United States, arranging flights, locating drop points, scheduling deliveries. Max also traveled extensively to Colombia where he engaged all the leaders of Medellin Cartel including Pablo Escobar, Jorge Luis Ochoa, Gonzalo Rodriguez Gacha and Carlos Lehder. He spent most of his time with Rafa and the Ochoas. Together they worked on transportation routes and developed new techniques so cocaine could be dropped


title: "Jock Wadley" content: I had launched [Sporting Cyclist] because I knew the cycling world wanted it. There was never any suggestion that it would make a lot of money for anybody. Yet within a few years, after a series of mergers and takeovers, "Sporting Cyclist" found itself under the control of a giant publishing organisation whose business, understandably, was to make money. A small monthly magazine supported by what it considered to be a "dying industry" was obviously of little interest to such a concern, and its eventual merger with "Cycling" was simply a matter of time. When the decision was taken I


title: "History of Limbuwan" content: for the State and Hindu settlers 1) The state had no authority over Kipat Lands in Limbuwan. 2) The state could not generate revenue or make use of Lands in Limbuwan because Limbus owned the rights to rivers, waters, forests, mines and minerals. 3) The Limbu Kipat owners can anytime ask their tenants to move away from their Kipat lands. 4) Due to its strategic location and being far away from the capital, the state had to exert its control over the people of Limbuwan by mass immigrating Hindu settlers to keep rebellious Limbus in check. Before the Land Reform


title: "Jim Crow laws" content: just as the black schools, and some Native American children attended schools that were only for children of color. Immediate citizenship didn't change the views White Americans had towards Native Americans, and voter suppression was a tactic that was used against Native Americans in the South. States used five basic arguments in justifying the denial of voting rights to Native Americans: (1) failure to sever tribal ties makes Native Americans ineligible; (2) "Native Americans not taxed"; (3) Native Americans that are under guardianship; (4) reservation Indians are not residents; and (5) tribal sovereignty precludes participation in state and local governments.


title: "Assembly of Representatives (Mandatory Palestine)" content: in 1928. Further elections were held in 1931 and 1944. In the latter elections, some groups, especially the Sephardic Jews, boycotted the elections and were not represented. From 1944 onwards the Assembly was also boycotted by Hatzohar due to disagreements with the elected leaders over policy. Assembly of Representatives (Mandatory Palestine) The Assembly of Representatives (, "Asefat HaNivharim") was the elected parliamentary assembly of the Jewish community in Mandatory Palestine. It was established on 19 April 1920, and functioned until 13 February 1949, the day before the first Knesset, elected on 25 January, was sworn in. The Assembly met once


title: "To Mee Navhech" content: is set in a courtroom scene with a revolving set used for cut scenes and flashbacks. The storyline focuses on a con Lakhoba Lokhande, who claims he is a tobacco merchant from Nipani. The drama starts with a courtroom scene in which Lakhoba Lokhande is sitting in the defendant box. He has been accused by the prosecution of swindling different persons through disguise and fraud. The prosecution lawyer presents many witnesses, most of whom are the victims of Lakhoba's embezzlement (and in some cases torture). The witnesses narrate their experiences with the defendant through flashbacks. Lakhoba runs his own case


title: "2008 attacks on Christians in southern Karnataka" content: Associations (IFKCA). Secular organisations participating in the protest included Udupi Jilla Alpasankhyatara Vedike (UJAV), the People's Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL), the DK District Committee, the local unit of the Democratic Youth Federation of India (DYFI), and the Muslim Vartakara Sangha (VS) and Muslim Okkoota groups. The protest rally was "organised against a backdrop of an apparent whitewash by the B. K. Somasekhara Commission concerning Hindu radicals and government agencies." The protesters tied black cloths over their mouths and carried black flags as they walked silently for about a kilometre in one of the strongest Christian areas of the city.


title: "Josef Veltjens" content: World War I comrade, Hermann Göring, managed to protect him. In 1935, Mussolini requested arms from Germany to support him in the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, and Göring delegated the task of supply to Veltjens. The United Kingdom and France were actually the official allies of Italy at the time in order to stop Italy from getting too close to Germany, but refrained from supplying arms because both warring countries were members of the League of Nations. Just before the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in March 1936, Colonel Veltjens was contacted by Infante Alfonso, Duke of Galliera, Infante of


title: "Takaji Wachi" content: attached to the Japanese China Garrison Army Staff. Wachi engaged in efforts to negotiate with the Chinese to end the war and tried to communicate with General He Yingqin the National Revolutionary Army Chief of Staff, via a Chinese agent in 1938, but these efforts failed. Wachi was transferred to Taiwan in 1938, and back to Japan, where he was assigned to the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff from 1938 to 1939. He returned to China from 1939 to 1940 on the staff of the Central China Expeditionary Army. Promoted to major general in 1940, he returned to Taiwan in


title: Morgnshtern content: The organisation was even more vocally opposed to boxing, and had proposed banning boxing from the Socialist Workers' Sport International at the 1929 SWSI congress. However, the Warsaw branch of "Morgnshtern" set up a boxing club in late December 1935, which was rather successful in the late 1930s. A delegation of "Morgnshtern" participated in the 1927 congress of the Socialist Workers' Sport International. "Morgnshtern" had a complicated relationship with the Polish Workers' Sport Federation (ZRSS), due to political antagonism between the Bund and the Polish Socialist Party (which dominated the ZRSS). The two organisations clashes at the 1929 Prague congress


title: "Harry Dunlop" content: famous achievement came during his 16-game stint with his first team, the Bristol Twins of the Class D Appalachian League. Between May 13 and May 26, 1952, Dunlop caught three no-hitters from Bristol pitchers, one from Ron Necciai in which Necciai struck out a record 27 batters in a nine-inning game, and two no-hitters from teammate Bill Bell. The Necciai game is regarded as one of the most outstanding achievements in baseball history. While he recorded 27 strikeouts and one ground ball out, Necciai had to garner 28 outs in the game because of a passed ball by Dunlop on


title: "Karl Wilhelm Ludwig Pappe" content: Karl Wilhelm Ludwig Pappe Karl Wilhelm Ludwig Pappe (1803, in Hamburg – 14 October 1862) was a German-born physician and botanist. He studied medicine and botany at Leipzig, and in 1831 relocated to Cape Town as a physician. His primary focus soon turned to botany, and he began performing extensive investigations of South African flora. He would later earn the title of "colonial botanist", and in 1858 became the first professor of botany at South African College. His personal herbarium (including the collection he acquired from his colleague Karl Ludwig Philipp Zeyher 1799-1858) became the nucleus of the South African


title: "Jerry Grant (composer)" content: and fellow TV and film score composer Mike Post, which lasted for another nine years. Composer/Conductor Jerry Grant spans the music world as a creator of music for television and film, with works for Chorus and Chorus with Ensembles, Chorus with Electronics, Jazz Orchestra, Chamber Ensembles, Symphony Orchestra and Wind Ensemble. He blends jazz, symphonic and dramatic influences into an eclectic style that speaks with compelling imagery. Having had a career in film composition since 1978, Jerry has scored and supervised or conducted over 500 episodes of television film and features. Grant composed music for films and television during the


title: "Paraserianthes lophantha" content: Paraserianthes lophantha Paraserianthes lophantha, commonly called Albizia, Cape Leeuwin Wattle, Cape Wattle, Crested Wattle or plume albizia, is a fast-growing wattle with creamy-yellow, bottlebrush like flowers. It is a small tree (uppermost height approximately 5 metres) that occurs naturally along the southwest coast of Western Australia, from Fremantle to King George Sound. It was first spread beyond southwest Australia by Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, who gave packets of "P. lophantha" seeds to early explorers under the assumption that if they planted the seeds at their campsites, the trees would indicate the routes they travelled. It is considered a weed in


title: "Paraserianthes lophantha" content: the parts of Australia where it is not indigenous, as well as in New Zealand, South Africa, the Canary Islands, and Chile. Paraserianthes lophantha Paraserianthes lophantha, commonly called Albizia, Cape Leeuwin Wattle, Cape Wattle, Crested Wattle or plume albizia, is a fast-growing wattle with creamy-yellow, bottlebrush like flowers. It is a small tree (uppermost height approximately 5 metres) that occurs naturally along the southwest coast of Western Australia, from Fremantle to King George Sound. It was first spread beyond southwest Australia by Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, who gave packets of "P. lophantha" seeds to early explorers under the assumption that


title: "Bullfrog Power" content: Bullfrog Power Bullfrog Power is a Canadian green energy retailer operating in Canada. Bullfrog offers its customers power from renewable energy sources, such as wind, low-impact hydro and green natural gas, a renewable biogas product that serves as an alternative to fossil fuel-based natural gas. Bullfrog only sources electricity from generation sources that meet or exceed the federal government's Environmental Choice Program EcoLogo standard for renewable electricity. Bullfrog's green natural gas product is produced at facilities that have met environmental standards as defined by ICF International. Across Canada, Bullfrog's electricity comes exclusively from regionally sourced wind and hydro facilities. Bullfrog's


title: "Managerial prerogative" content: Managerial prerogative Managerial Prerogatives are considered natural rights that allow employers to manage their employees. They are the discretionary powers left at any moment in the hands of managers. Every act which a manager or his subordinates can lawfully do, without the consent of the worker organization, is done by virtue of this prerogative. Consequently, employee’s are unable to negotiate with them on terms and conditions.For this reason Trade Unions work to aid employees as well as control and regulate these prerogatives. Managerial prerogatives give managers the power to control the direction in which their businesses are heading. Employees do


title: "Balwant Gargi" content: York City and two semi-autobiographical novels in English and Punjabi, "The Naked Triangle" ("Nangi Dhup") and "The Purple Moonlight (Kashni Vehra)" brought him to the forefront of cosmopolitan attention. Balwant Gargi was among the pioneers of playwriting in Punjabi and the production and telecast of his plays like "Sanjha Chulha" on Doordarshan received countrywide appreciation Gargi was awarded the Sahitya Akademi award, the highest Indian literary award, in 1962 for his book "Rang Manch". This was followed by the Padma Shri (1972), and the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award in Punjabi Playwriting in 1998. Gargi is one of the few artists


title: "Judiciary of Indonesia" content: Constitutional Court rules over disputes concerning the Constitution of Indonesia as well as matters involving elections and political parties. The current Chief Justice of the Constitutional Court of Indonesia is Arief Hidayat, who replaced Hamdan Zoelva in 2015. Zoelva's predecessor, Akil Mochtar, was stripped of his powers following allegations of accepting bribes. The current Deputy Chief Justice of the Constitutional Court of Indonesia is Anwar Usman. The public courts comprise the district courts at the first level and the high courts at the appellate level, after which any appeal goes to the Supreme Court. They can try criminal and civil


title: "Samantha Shaw" content: Samantha Shaw Samantha Slimp Shaw (born February 10, 1957) is an American politician. She is a Republican who was elected State Auditor of Alabama in 2006, and was re-elected in 2010. She is a member of the Executive Committee of the Alabama Republican Party. Shaw was born in Homewood, Alabama to June Daly and William M. 'Bill' Slimp. She graduated from Auburn University and was employed as an accountant for the Shaw Oil Company, for a branch of La-Z-Boy Furniture Gallery, and for Alabama Steel Supply. She has also worked as a bookkeeper and office manager. In 1980, she married


title: Brumado content: ("Herpailurus yaguaroundi"), ferret ("Galictis vittatus"), coati ("Nasua nassua"), among others. Disordered hunting of these animals for food consumption is the factor that most contributes to putting animals on the extinction list. There are also a myriad of birds that are part of the fauna; Most of them are targeted by breeders and collectors, favoring the trafficking of these animals. Among the most common and well-known are: canary, quail, partridge, northeastern cardinal ("Paroaria dominicana"'), "Caatinga" "bacural" ("Chordeiles pusillus"), canan crow ("Cyanocorax cyanopogon"), mustache("Sporophila lineola"), cowgirl-heron ("Bubulcus ibis"), Great Blue Heron ("Casmerdius albus"), "garrincha" (Thryothorus genibarbis"), "seriema" ("Cariama cristata"), fire sanhaço ("Piranga


title: "Arrowrock Dam" content: Arrowrock Dam Arrowrock Dam is a concrete arch dam on the Boise River, in the U.S. state of Idaho. It opened in 1915 and is located on the border between Boise County and Elmore County, upstream of the Lucky Peak Dam and reservoir. The spillway elevation for Arrowrock is above sea level and its primary purpose is to provide irrigation water for agriculture. In 1910 the Reclamation Service began to consider another storage facility further east on the Boise River. After several surveys, engineers decided upon the Arrowrock site which had previously been the site of a private irrigation venture


title: "Arrowrock Dam" content: under the direction of Arthur De Wint Foote yet failed for lack of funding. The Arrowrock site is at the confluence of the main channel and the south fork. This was to be the most ambitious project to date for Reclamation. At , Arrowrock would be the largest concrete arch dam in the world. Prior to construction considerable preparatory work would need to be completed. As the structure was some up the Boise River from the Boise River Diversion Dam, routing supplies to the worksite would be a massive undertaking unto itself. The Reclamation Service elected to construct a new


title: "Arrowrock Dam" content: rail line on the old wagon road leading north to Idaho City. The railroad would begin at the Barberton mill near the Diversion Dam and extend to through a winding canyon up to Arrowrock. Even before the dam had been approved, Reclamation began work on the rail line. Some significant problems existed with construction of the railroad. The Barberton Lumber Company owned the roads right-of-way. This meant the Reclamation Service needed to come to an agreement over ownership of the rail line. In an unprecedented move, the government agreed to lease the track from Barberton but run the actual locomotive.


title: "Arrowrock Dam" content: Part of this agreement stipulated that the line would remain a common carrier. This made the Arrowrock & Boise Railroad the first publicly owned line in the nation. The Service hid this fact from President Howard Taft when they applied for the Arrowrock dam’s approval. Fortunately for Reclamation, Taft failed to recognize the loophole and in June 1910, entire project went forward. Yet when the Oregon Shortline refused to honor the pact between Barberton and Reclamation, the Arrowrock & Boise terminal was reduced to a field just outside the Barber lumberyard. On August 22, 1910, the entire deal was finalized


title: "Arrowrock Dam" content: and work began on the line to the Arrowrock site. Salt Lake City’s Manly Brothers won the contract for grading the Arrowrock & Boise road in May, 1911. The government called for force account to lay the track from Barber to the work site. Although the construction was delayed several times by the shortage of railroad ties, workers finished the track in early November. By most accounts, the trip through the canyon was a very long and harrowing event. For the first several months, riders were asked to disembark at the unfinished Gooseneck bridge while the cars were winched across


title: "Arrowrock Dam" content: one at a time. Yet once they arrived, most passengers were surprised by what they found. Not only was the view breathtaking but the "work" camp offered amenities that were unavailable to some residents of the Treasure Valley. Not only was the site fully powered, but it also provided a central heating plant, running water and an efficient sewage system. Along with the Reclamation offices, the Arrowrock camp carried a hospital, mess hall, post office, and hotel. Workers and visitors were offered lodging in the site’s hotel, bunkhouses or cottages. In addition to the outdoor recreational activities, the camp also


title: "Arrowrock Dam" content: operated a YMCA., school, and dancehall. At the peak of construction, some 1,400 people had called Arrowrock home, including some 200 families. To provide power for the site, Reclamation retrofitted The Boise River Diversion Dam with a small powerhouse. Finished in 1912, the plant’s three generators produced 1,500 kilowatts of electricity for Arrowrock’s camp, sawmills, and giant cement mixers. The German made Allis-Chalmers turbines were the first in the world to be built with a vertical shaft design. Along with the power lines, government forces hung a two way phone cable to connect Arrowrock with the outside world. In 1976,


title: "Arrowrock Dam" content: the power plant was added to the National Register of Historic Places. After being refurbished by the Bonneville Power Administration in 2002, it is now on ready reserve status and occasionally provides surplus power during times of peak demand. Special care was made to maintain the historic qualities of the powerhouse. The original governors, slate control panels, transformers, overhead crane, and generator housings, although no longer functional, were retained for historic purposes. Work began on the Arrowrock Dam in early 1912 and moved along at a record-setting pace. As labor was becoming more plentiful with the completion of Deer Flat


title: "Arrowrock Dam" content: and the Diversion Dam, wage rates began to decrease. Common laborers were now offered $2.40 and day while skilled workers pulled in anywhere from $3.00 to $4.00. In addition, several deductions were made for room and board. Workers could choose between the dormitory style bunkhouses at $1.25 a month or a private room at $4.00. Seventy-five cents was deducted each day for meals and $1.00 a month went towards hospital’s costs. The work proved moderately dangerous and accounted for numerous injuries and twelve deaths. Yet despite the hazards and reduction in pay, it appears there was a unique level of


title: "Arrowrock Dam" content: camaraderie at the Arrowrock site. As stated above, the workers set several construction records, not the least of which included the of concrete laid on the dam. The Reclamation Service spared no expense regarding the equipment at Arrowrock Dam. Along with the refurbished 70-ton Atlantic steam shovel from Deer Flat were two versatile 18-ton "dinkey" excavators and several brand new dump cars. The cement mixers produced over 2,000 barrels per day and ran uninterrupted for almost 30 months. Two 12-ton Lidgerwood cableways hovered over the site and moved material and concrete from their loading grounds to the dam site. Scores


title: "Arrowrock Dam" content: of horse teams helped carry equipment and gravel from the camp to the various work areas. Additionally, one Buick and seven Ford trucks serviced both crews and visitors and provided an unexpected level of mobility throughout the campsite. In an effort to alleviate some of the discomfort along the Boise & Arrowrock, Reclamation purchased a 60-ton locomotive and several new passenger cars. For almost five years the train ran faithfully through the canyon, delivering over 89,500 visitors and crewmen. And during its commission, the Boise & Arrowrock traveled more than and carried 14,000,000 tons of freight. On October 4, 1915,


title: "Arrowrock Dam" content: the Arrowrock Dam was finally dedicated. As stated above, it was the tallest dam in the world, a claim it would hold for nine years until completion of the Schräh dam in Switzerland in 1924 with a height of . In addition, engineers pioneered the use of dam instrumentation with the placement of ten thermometers embedded deep within the structure's concrete. Along with innovative contraction joints, the Reclamation Service was able to control the temperature of the setting concrete, ensuring the dams strength. It is thick at the base and thick at the crest. It is serviced by 25 outlets


title: "Arrowrock Dam" content: some of which are designed to regulate themselves, another first in engineering. Ten outlets were built for an eventual power plant, but they have yet to be used. In total, the dam contains of concrete and the reservoir holds over of irrigation water. Within the first week of operation, an estimated 12,000 visitors braved the canyon ride to see the dam. Yet as interest waned, the Arrowrock & Boise Railroad schedule dropped significantly. The campsite, once a bustling hive of activity, was quickly becoming a ghost town. And on August 11, 1916, the government decommissioned its very first public carrier.


title: "Arrowrock Dam" content: From 1935-1937, construction at Arrowrock raised the dam 5 feet (increasing its capacity by 9000 acre-feet) and replaced deteriorating concrete on the dam's downstream face and spillway channel. From 2001-2004, ten aging Ensign valves were removed and replaced with clamshell gates. By 2011, work was completed to permanently plug all five sluice gate outlets. A 15-MW powerplant was added to Arrowrock Dam in March 2010, and the transmission line to the dam was updated. Arrowrock Dam Arrowrock Dam is a concrete arch dam on the Boise River, in the U.S. state of Idaho. It opened in 1915 and is located


title: "Syritta pipiens" content: Syritta pipiens Syritta pipiens is a common species of European hover fly. It is sometimes called the thick-legged hoverfly, from its distinctive broad hind femora. They are fast nimble fliers, and the larvae feed in rotting organic matter. External images For terms see Morphology of Diptera<br> Wing length: . The male femur 3 is strongly thickened. It has no basal protuberance. Tergites 2 and 3 have small, pale marks. Female tergites have similar markings, with ocellar triangle bluish-black, metallic sheen. Side margins of thorax dorsum are dusted. Side and hind margins of tergite 4 are not dusted. See references for


title: "Syritta pipiens" content: determination. The species is cosmopolitan except for the Afrotropical realm. Syritta pipiens Syritta pipiens is a common species of European hover fly. It is sometimes called the thick-legged hoverfly, from its distinctive broad hind femora. They are fast nimble fliers, and the larvae feed in rotting organic matter. External images For terms see Morphology of Diptera<br> Wing length: . The male femur 3 is strongly thickened. It has no basal protuberance. Tergites 2 and 3 have small, pale marks. Female tergites have similar markings, with ocellar triangle bluish-black, metallic sheen. Side margins of thorax dorsum are dusted. Side and hind


title: "Riverside Park (Buffalo, New York)" content: The park was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982. Some attractions include a playground, picnic areas, two public pools, tennis court, and a basketball court. The lighthouse facing Tonawanda street was recently relit after years of inoperation. The Bud Bakewell Arena, located on the Niagara Street side of the park directly facing the river, is an ice rink and lacrosse field, as well as home to youth hockey, Hasek's Heroes, and other sports affiliations. The park is also home to several baseball diamonds maintained by the River Rock Baseball League, a youth baseball and softball organization,


title: "Osówka, Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship" content: Osówka, Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship Osówka is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Szydłów, within Staszów County, Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship, in south-central Poland. It lies approximately north of Szydłów, north-west of Staszów, and south-east of the regional capital Kielce. The village has a population of 214. According to the 2002 Poland census, there were 219 people residing in Osówka village, of whom 49.8% were male and 50.2% were female. In the village, the population was spread out with 20.5% under the age of 18, 37% from 18 to 44, 23.3% from 45 to 64, and 19.2% who were 65 years of


title: "Matt Roper" content: play Chico, had to learn how to reproduce a fiendishly singular accent—not an Italian accent but a New York Italian-émigré accent as rendered in caricature by an émigré New York Jew—as well as how to play “trick” piano, in the distinctive Chico style, with the left hand lolling and the right hand shooting the keys and kittening... he captures the strange, unearned belligerence of Chico." On December 6, 2017 Roper opened Off-Broadway in the comic/clown role of the first large-scale pantomime to be presented in New York for over a century, at the Playhouse Theater of the Henry Street Settlement.


title: "Zgoša" content: Zgoša Zgoša () is a settlement in the Municipality of Radovljica in the Upper Carniola region of Slovenia. Zgoša was first attested in written sources as "Guscha" in 1075 (and as "Goscha" in 1085, "Sgusch" in 1394, and "Zguoch" in 1406). The name derives from "*Zgošča", created from a nominalized possessive adjective based on the personal name "*Zgost". The name is believed to originally be a hydronym, "*Zgošča (reka/voda)" (literally, 'river/creek where Zgost lives'), shortened through ellipsis and the Upper Carniolan phonological development"-šč-" > "-š-". Zgoša Creek, which flows through the settlement, is also referred to as Begunščica Creek today.


title: Barley content: Barley Barley ("Hordeum vulgare"), a member of the grass family, is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally. It was one of the first cultivated grains, particularly in Eurasia as early as 10,000 years ago. Barley has been used as animal fodder, as a source of fermentable material for beer and certain distilled beverages, and as a component of various health foods. It is used in soups and stews, and in barley bread of various cultures. Barley grains are commonly made into malt in a traditional and ancient method of preparation. In 2016, barley was ranked fourth among


title: Barley content: grains in quantity produced (141 million tonnes) behind maize, rice and wheat. The Old English word for 'barley' was "bære", which traces back to Proto-Indo-European and is cognate to the Latin word "farina" "flour". The direct ancestor of modern English "barley" in Old English was the derived adjective "bærlic," meaning "of barley". The first citation of the form "bærlic" in the "Oxford English Dictionary" dates to around 966 CE, in the compound word "bærlic-croft". The underived word "bære" survives in the north of Scotland as "bere", and refers to a specific strain of six-row barley grown there. The word barn,


title: Barley content: which originally meant "barley-house", is also rooted in these words. Barley is a member of the grass family. It is a self-pollinating, diploid species with 14 chromosomes. The wild ancestor of domesticated barley, "Hordeum vulgare" subsp. "spontaneum", is abundant in grasslands and woodlands throughout the Fertile Crescent area of Western Asia and northeast Africa, and is abundant in disturbed habitats, roadsides and orchards. Outside this region, the wild barley is less common and is usually found in disturbed habitats. However, in a study of genome-wide diversity markers, Tibet was found to be an additional center of domestication of cultivated barley.


title: Barley content: Wild barley ("H. spontaneum") is the ancestor of domestic barley ("H. vulgare") and harbours distinctive genes, alleles and regulators with potential for resistance to abiotic or biotic stresses to cultivated barley and adaptation to climatic changes. Wild barley has a brittle spike; upon maturity, the spikelets separate, facilitating seed dispersal. Domesticated barley has nonshattering spikes, making it much easier to harvest the mature ears. The nonshattering condition is caused by a mutation in one of two tightly linked genes known as Bt and Bt; many cultivars possess both mutations. The nonshattering condition is recessive, so varieties of barley that exhibit


title: Barley content: this condition are homozygous for the mutant allele. Each plant gets a set of genes from both parents, so two copies of each gene are in every plant. If one gene copy is a nonworking mutant, but the other gene copy works, the mutation has no effect. Only when the plant is homozygous with both copies of the gene as nonworking mutants does the mutation show its effect by exhibiting the nonshattering condition. Domestication in barley is followed by the change of key phenotypic traits at the genetic level. Little is known about the genetic variation among domesticated and wild


title: Barley content: genes in the chromosomal regions. Spikelets are arranged in triplets which alternate along the rachis. In wild barley (and other Old World species of "Hordeum"), only the central spikelet is fertile, while the other two are reduced. This condition is retained in certain cultivars known as two-row barleys. A pair of mutations (one dominant, the other recessive) result in fertile lateral spikelets to produce six-row barleys. Recent genetic studies have revealed that a mutation in one gene, "vrs1", is responsible for the transition from two-row to six-row barley. Two-row barley has a lower protein content than six-row barley, thus a


title: Barley content: more fermentable sugar content. High-protein barley is best suited for animal feed. Malting barley is usually lower protein ("low grain nitrogen", usually produced without a late fertilizer application) which shows more uniform germination, needs shorter steeping, and has less protein in the extract that can make beer cloudy. Two-row barley is traditionally used in English ale-style beers. Six-row barley is common in some American lager-style beers, especially when adjuncts such as corn and rice are used, whereas two-row malted summer barley is preferred for traditional German beers. Hulless or "naked" barley ("Hordeum vulgare "L. var." nudum" Hook. f.) is a


title: Barley content: form of domesticated barley with an easier-to-remove hull. Naked barley is an ancient food crop, but a new industry has developed around uses of selected hulless barley to increase the digestible energy of the grain, especially for swine and poultry. Hulless barley has been investigated for several potential new applications as whole grain, and for its value-added products. These include bran and flour for multiple food applications. In traditional classifications of barley, these morphological differences have led to different forms of barley being classified as different species. Under these classifications, two-row barley with shattering spikes (wild barley) is classified as


title: Barley content: "Hordeum spontaneum" K. Koch. Two-row barley with nonshattering spikes is classified as "H. distichum" L., six-row barley with nonshattering spikes as "H. vulgare" L. (or "H. hexastichum" L.), and six-row with shattering spikes as "H. agriocrithon" Åberg. Because these differences were driven by single-gene mutations, coupled with cytological and molecular evidence, most recent classifications treat these forms as a single species, "H. vulgare" L. "H. vulgare" contains the phenolics caffeic acid and p-coumaric acid, the ferulic acid 8,5'-diferulic acid, the flavonoids catechin-7-O-glucoside, saponarin, catechin, procyanidin B3, procyanidin C2, and prodelphinidin B3, and the alkaloid hordenine. Barley was one of the


title: Barley content: first domesticated grains in the Fertile Crescent, an area of relatively abundant water in Western Asia, and near the Nile river of northeast Africa. The grain appeared in the same time as einkorn and emmer wheat. Wild barley ("H. vulgare" ssp. "spontaneum") ranges from North Africa and Crete in the west, to Tibet in the east. According to some scholars, the earliest evidence of wild barley in an archaeological context comes from the Epipaleolithic at Ohalo II at the southern end of the Sea of Galilee. The remains were dated to about 8500 BCE. Other scholars have written that the


title: Barley content: earliest evidence comes from Jarmo in Kurdistan (present day Iraq). Scholars believe domesticated barley ("hordeum vulgare") originally spread from Central Asia to India, Persia, Mesopotamia, Syria and Egypt. Some of the earliest domesticated barley occurs at aceramic ("pre-pottery") Neolithic sites, in the Near East such as the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B layers of Tell Abu Hureyra, in Syria. By 4200 BCE domesticated barley occurs as far as in Eastern Finland and had reached Greece and Italy around the 4th c. BCE. Barley has been grown in the Korean Peninsula since the Early Mumun Pottery Period ("circa" 1500–850 BCE) along with other


title: Barley content: crops such as millet, wheat, and legumes. Barley (known as in both Vedic and Classical Sanskrit) is mentioned many times in Rigveda and other Indian scriptures as one of the principal grains in ancient India. Traces of Barley cultivation have also been found in post-Neolithic Bronze Age Harappan civilization 5700–3300 years before present. In the Pulitzer Prize-winning book "Guns, Germs, and Steel", Jared Diamond proposed that the availability of barley, along with other domesticable crops and animals, in southwestern Eurasia significantly contributed to the broad historical patterns that human history has followed over approximately the last 13,000 years; "i.e.", why


title: Barley content: Eurasian civilizations, as a whole, have survived and conquered others. Barley beer was probably one of the first alcoholic drinks developed by Neolithic humans. Barley later on was used as currency. The ancient Sumerian word for barley was "akiti". In ancient Mesopotamia, a stalk of barley was the primary symbol of the goddess Shala. Alongside emmer wheat, barley was a staple cereal of ancient Egypt, where it was used to make bread and beer. The general name for barley is "jt" (hypothetically pronounced "eat"); "šma" (hypothetically pronounced "SHE-ma") refers to Upper Egyptian barley and is a symbol of Upper Egypt.


title: Barley content: According to Deuteronomy , barley is one of the "Seven Species" of crops that characterize the fertility of the Promised Land of Canaan, and it has a prominent role in the Israelite sacrifices described in the Pentateuch (see e.g. Numbers ). A religious importance extended into the Middle Ages in Europe, and saw barley's use in justice, via alphitomancy and the corsned. Rations of barley for workers appear in Linear B tablets in Mycenaean contexts at Knossos and at Mycenaean Pylos. In mainland Greece, the "ritual" significance of barley possibly dates back to the earliest stages of the Eleusinian Mysteries.


title: Barley content: The preparatory "kykeon" or mixed drink of the initiates, prepared from barley and herbs, referred in the Homeric hymn to Demeter, whose name some scholars believe meant "Barley-mother". The practice was to dry the barley groats and roast them before preparing the porridge, according to Pliny the Elder's "Natural History" (xviii.72). This produces malt that soon ferments and becomes slightly alcoholic. Pliny also noted barley was a special food of gladiators known as "hordearii", "barley-eaters". However, by Roman times, he added that wheat had replaced barley as a staple. Tibetan barley has been a staple food in Tibetan cuisine since


title: Barley content: the fifth century CE. This grain, along with a cool climate that permitted storage, produced a civilization that was able to raise great armies. It is made into a flour product called "tsampa" that is still a staple in Tibet. The flour is roasted and mixed with butter and butter tea to form a stiff dough that is eaten in small balls. In medieval Europe, bread made from barley and rye was peasant food, while wheat products were consumed by the upper classes. Potatoes largely replaced barley in Eastern Europe in the 19th century. The genome of barley was sequenced


title: Barley content: in 2012, due to the efforts of the International Barley Genome Sequencing Consortium and the UK Barley Sequencing Consortium. The genome is composed of seven pairs of nuclear chromosomes (recommended designations: 1H, 2H, 3H, 4H, 5H, 6H and 7H), and one mitochondrial and one chloroplastic chromosome, with a total of 5000 Mbp. Abundant biological information is already freely available in several barley databases. The wild barley ("H. vulgare" ssp." spontaneum") found currently in the Fertile Crescent might not be the progenitor of the barley cultivated in Eritrea and Ethiopia, indicating that separate domestication may have occurred in eastern Africa. In


title: Barley content: 2016, world production of barley was 141 million tonnes, led by the European Union producing 41% of the world total. Russia, Germany, France, and Ukraine were major producers. Barley is a widely adaptable crop. It is currently popular in temperate areas where it is grown as a summer crop and tropical areas where it is sown as a winter crop. Its germination time is one to three days. Barley grows under cool conditions, but is not particularly winter hardy. Barley is more tolerant of soil salinity than wheat, which might explain the increase of barley cultivation in Mesopotamia from the


title: Barley content: second millennium BCE onwards. Barley is not as cold tolerant as the winter wheats ("Triticum aestivum"), fall rye ("Secale cereale") or winter triticale (× "Triticosecale" Wittm. ex A. Camus.), but may be sown as a winter crop in warmer areas of Australia and Great Britain. Barley has a short growing season and is also relatively drought tolerant. This plant is known or likely to be susceptible to barley mild mosaic bymovirus, as well as bacterial blight. It can be susceptible to many diseases, but plant breeders have been working hard to incorporate resistance. The devastation caused by any one disease


title: Barley content: will depend upon the susceptibility of the variety being grown and the environmental conditions during disease development. Serious diseases of barley include powdery mildew caused by "Blumeria graminis" f.sp. "hordei", leaf scald caused by "Rhynchosporium secalis", barley rust caused by "Puccinia hordei", crown rust caused by "Puccinia coronata", and various diseases caused by "Cochliobolus sativus". Barley is also susceptible to head blight. In a 100-g serving, raw barley provides 352 Calories and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of essential nutrients, including protein, dietary fiber, the B vitamins, niacin (31% DV) and vitamin B


title: Barley content: (20% DV), and several dietary minerals (table). Highest nutrient contents are for manganese (63% DV) and phosphorus (32% DV) (table). Raw barley is 78% carbohydrates, 1% fat, 10% protein, and 10% water (table). Hulled barley (or covered barley) is eaten after removing the inedible, fibrous, outer hull. Once removed, it is called dehulled barley (or pot barley or scotch barley). Considered a whole grain, dehulled barley still has its bran and germ, making it a nutritious and popular health food. Pearl barley (or pearled barley) is dehulled barley which has been steam processed further to remove the bran. It may


title: Barley content: be polished, a process known as "pearling". Dehulled or pearl barley may be processed into a variety of barley products, including flour, flakes similar to oatmeal, and grits. Barley meal, a wholemeal barley flour lighter than wheat meal but darker in colour, is used in porridge and gruel in Scotland. Barley meal gruel is known as "sawiq" in the Arab world. With a long history of cultivation in the Middle East, barley is used in a wide range of traditional Arabic, Assyrian, Israelite, Kurdish, and Persian foodstuffs including kashkak, kashk and murri. Barley soup is traditionally eaten during Ramadan in


title: Barley content: Saudi Arabia. "Cholent" or "hamin" (in Hebrew) is a traditional Jewish stew often eaten on Sabbath, in a variety of recipes by both Mizrachi and Ashkenazi Jews, with barley cited throughout the Hebrew Bible in multiple references. In Eastern and Central Europe, barley is also used in soups and stews such as ričet. In Africa, where it is a traditional food plant, it has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable landcare. The six-row variety "bere" is cultivated in Orkney, Shetland, Caithness and the Western Isles in the Scottish Highlands and islands. When


title: Barley content: milled into "beremeal" it is used locally in bread, biscuits, and the traditional beremeal bannock. According to Health Canada and the US Food and Drug Administration, consuming at least 3 grams per day of barley beta-glucan or 0.75 grams per serving of soluble fiber can lower levels of blood cholesterol, a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. Eating whole-grain barley, as well as other grains with lots of fiber, improves regulation of blood sugar (i.e., reduces blood glucose response to a meal). Consuming breakfast cereals containing barley over weeks to months also improved cholesterol levels and glucose regulation. Like wheat, rye,


title: Barley content: and their hybrids and derivatives, barley contains gluten, which makes it an unsuitable grain for consumption by people with gluten-related disorders, such as celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity and wheat allergy sufferers, among others. Nevertheless, some wheat allergy patients can tolerate barley or rye. Barley is a key ingredient in beer and whisky production. Two-row barley is traditionally used in German and English beers. Six-row barley was traditionally used in US beers, but both varieties are in common usage now. Distilled from green beer, whiskey has been made primarily from barley in Ireland and Scotland, while other countries have used


title: Barley content: more diverse sources of alcohol, such as the more common corn, rye and wheat in the USA. In the US, a grain type may be identified on a whisky label if that type of grain constitutes 51% or more of the ingredients and certain other conditions are satisfied. About 25% of the United States' production of barley is used for malting, for which barley is the best-suited grain. Barley wine is a style of strong beer from the English brewing tradition. Another alcoholic drink known by the same name, enjoyed in the 18th century, was prepared by boiling barley in


title: Barley content: water, then mixing the barley water with white wine and other ingredients, such as borage, lemon and sugar. In the 19th century, a different barley wine was made prepared from recipes of ancient Greek origin. Nonalcoholic drinks such as barley water and roasted barley tea have been made by boiling barley in water. In Italy, barley is also sometimes used as coffee substitute, "caffè d'orzo" (coffee of barley). This drink is obtained from ground, roasted barley and it is prepared as an espresso (it can be prepared using percolators, filter machines or cafetieres). It became widely used during the Fascist


title: Barley content: period and WWII, as Italy was affected by embargo and struggled to import coffee. It was also a cheaper option for poor families (often grown and roasted at home) in the period. Afterwards, it was promoted and sold as a coffee substitute for children. Nowadays, it is experiencing a revival and it can be considered some Italians' favourite alternative to coffee when, for health reasons, caffeine drinks are not recommended. Half of the United States' barley production is used as livestock feed. Barley is an important feed grain in many areas of the world not typically suited for maize production,


title: Barley content: especially in northern climates—for example, northern and eastern Europe. Barley is the principal feed grain in Canada, Europe, and in the northern United States. A finishing diet of barley is one of the defining characteristics of western Canadian beef used in marketing campaigns. As of 2014, an enzymatic process can be used to make a high-protein fish feed from barley, which is suitable for carnivorous fish such as trout and salmon. Barley straw, in England, is placed in mesh bags and floated in fish ponds or water gardens to help prevent algal growth without harming pond plants and animals. Barley


title: Barley content: straw has not been approved by the EPA for use as a pesticide and its effectiveness as an algae regulator in ponds has produced mixed results, with either more efficacy against phytoplankton algae versus mat-forming algae, or no significant change, during university testing in the US and the UK. Barley grains were used for measurement in England, there being three or four barleycorns to the inch and four or five poppy seeds to the barleycorn. The statute definition of an inch was three barleycorns, although by the 19th century, this had been superseded by standard inch measures. This unit still


title: Barley content: persists in the shoe sizes used in Britain and the USA. As modern studies show, the actual length of a kernel of barley varies from as short as to as long as depending on the cultivar. Older sources claimed the average length of a grain of barley being . The barleycorn was known as "arpa" in Turkish, and the feudal system in Ottoman Empire employed the term "arpalik", or "barley-money", to refer to a second allowance made to officials to offset the costs of fodder for their horses. A new stabilized variegated variety of "H. vulgare", billed as "H. vulgare"


title: Barley content: varigate, has been introduced for cultivation as an ornamental and pot plant for pet cats to nibble. In English folklore, the figure of John Barleycorn in the folksong of the same name is a personification of barley, and of the alcoholic beverages made from it: beer and whisky. In the song, John Barleycorn is represented as suffering attacks, death, and indignities that correspond to the various stages of barley cultivation, such as reaping and malting. Barley Barley ("Hordeum vulgare"), a member of the grass family, is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally. It was one of the


title: "Steve Guerdat" content: Steve Guerdat Steve Guerdat (born 10 June 1982 in Bassecourt, Canton of Jura) is a Swiss Olympic-level equestrian who competes in the sport of show jumping. He is the 2012 Olympic Champion in individual jumping. He also won the bronze medal at the 2008 Summer Olympics in team jumping following the disqualification of Norwegian rider Tony André Hansen. In July 2012, Steve Guerdat was ranked third in the world. Steve is a two-time World Cup champion, winning in 2015 and 2016. Steve Guerdat began riding at the age of seven and was trained by his father, Philippe Guerdat, and by


title: "2008 Austrian legislative election campaign posters" content: to the time of the TV debate and calling it "two good reasons to vote for Faymann: today, 21:15 ORF2". Furthermore, the SPÖ's youth wing, the Socialist Youth of Austria ("Sozialistische Jugend Österreich"), on 27 August 2008 presented an election campaign (gegenrechts.at, "gegen Rechts" meaning "against the right") calling for an end to the majority of the right in parliament and for preventing an ÖVP–FPÖ–BZÖ coalition. The ÖVP presented its first wave of election posters on 5 August 2008. Unlike the SPÖ's posters, they didn't feature Molterer; what the three subjects have in common are the words Molterer used to


title: "Alessandro Dal Canto" content: coach. On 15 March 2011 Dal Canto was appointed temporary head coach of Padova, following the dismissal of head coach Alessandro Calori. In his first game in charge of the first team, he guided Padova to its first away win of the season, defeating Pescara 2–0. Club chairman Marcello Cestaro successively confirmed him as Padova head coach until the end of next season 2011–12. He then served as head coach of Venezia in the Italian third tier (Lega Pro Prima Divisione, then unified to Lega Pro in 2014), from July 2013 to October 2014. On 13 June 2018, he was


title: "Tour Vauban" content: Tour Vauban The Tour Vauban (Vauban Tower), initially known as the tour de Camaret, is an 18m-high polygonal defensive tower built to a plan by Vauban on the Sillon at Camaret-sur-Mer, as part of the fortifications of the goulet de Brest. It has three levels and is flanked by walls, a guardhouse and a gun battery which can hold 11 cannons as well as a cannonball foundry added in the French Revolution period. Drafted in 1683, the tower was designed in 1689 by Vauban and construction was supervised by the military engineer Jean-Pierre Traverse from 1693 to completion in 1696.


title: "Tour Vauban" content: The 11 cannons in the battery are believed to have been forged with those for the battery on pointe du Grand Gouin, for the Quélern defensive-lines and the many neighbouring batteries. In the French victory in the Battle of Camaret on 18 June 1694, the battery and its two guard houses were only armed with nine 24-pounder cannon and three mortars firing 30 cm balls. On 18 June 1694 Vauban himself was in command of the garrison when they repelled an Anglo-Dutch attack. The battery put several British vessels out of action. On land, a charge by French dragoons scattered


title: "Tour Vauban" content: the British troops that had landed, and the local militia helped complete the victory. The French claimed to have killed 1200 attackers and captured 450 prisoners. Vauban's forces claimed to have only suffered 45 men wounded. British estimates were that they had lost 700 soldiers killed, wounded, and captured, and that 400 men aboard the ships were killed or wounded. A Dutch frigate of 20 guns also was sunk. The Anglo-Dutch fleet anchored between Camaret Bay and Bertheaume. Consequently, Tour Vauban also received some support from Fort de Bertheaume on the opposite side of the Goulet de Brest. Camaret-sur-Mer is


title: "Tour Vauban" content: a member of the network of major Vauban sites. Since 7 July 2008 the tour Vauban and 11 other sites have been classed as a World Heritage Site. Tour Vauban The Tour Vauban (Vauban Tower), initially known as the tour de Camaret, is an 18m-high polygonal defensive tower built to a plan by Vauban on the Sillon at Camaret-sur-Mer, as part of the fortifications of the goulet de Brest. It has three levels and is flanked by walls, a guardhouse and a gun battery which can hold 11 cannons as well as a cannonball foundry added in the French Revolution


title: "Homo erectus" content: "H. heidelbergensis / H. rhodesiensis", namely the Neanderthals, Denisovans, as well as unknown archaic African hominins. "See" admixture; and "see" Neanderthal admixture theory. There has been evidence of H. erectus inhabiting a cave in Zhoukoudian, China. This evidence consisted of remains, stones, charred animal bones, collections of seeds, and possibly ancient hearths and charcoal. Although this does not prove that H. erectus lived in caves, it does show that H. erectus spent periods of time in caves of Zhoukoudian. Remains of H. erectus have more consistently been found in lake beds and in stream sediments. This suggest that H. erectus


title: "Oseen equations" content: the stream function used in two-dimensional problems. It turns out to be: where formula_99 is Reynolds number for the flow close to the sphere. Note that in some notations formula_100 is replaced by formula_101 so that the derivation of formula_92 from formula_103 is more similar to its derivation from the stream function in the two-dimensional case (in polar coordinates). formula_100 can be expressed as follows: where: The vector laplacian of a vector of the type formula_110 reads: It can thus be calculated that: Therefore: Thus the vorticity is: where we have used the vanishing of the divergence of formula_95 to


title: Brewery content: Brewery A brewery or brewing company is a business that makes and sells beer. The place at which beer is commercially made is either called a brewery or a beerhouse, where distinct sets of brewing equipment are called plant. The commercial brewing of beer has taken place since at least 2500 BC; in ancient Mesopotamia, brewers derived social sanction and divine protection from the goddess Ninkasi. Brewing was initially a cottage industry, with production taking place at home; by the ninth century monasteries and farms would produce beer on a larger scale, selling the excess; and by the eleventh and


title: Brewery content: twelfth centuries larger, dedicated breweries with eight to ten workers were being built. The diversity of size in breweries is matched by the diversity of processes, degrees of automation, and kinds of beer produced in breweries. A brewery is typically divided into distinct sections, with each section reserved for one part of the brewing process. Beer may have been known in Neolithic Europe and was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. In some form, it can be traced back almost 5000 years to Mesopotamian writings describing daily rations of beer and bread to workers. Before the rise of production breweries,


title: Brewery content: the production of beer took place at home and was the domain of women, as baking and brewing were seen as "women's work". Breweries, as production facilities reserved for making beer, did not emerge until monasteries and other Christian institutions started producing beer not only for their own consumption but also to use as payment. This industrialization of brewing shifted the responsibility of making beer to men. The oldest, still functional, brewery in the world is believed to be the German state-owned Weihenstephan brewery in the city of Freising, Bavaria. It can trace its history back to 1040 AD. The


title: Brewery content: nearby Weltenburg Abbey brewery, can trace back its beer-brewing tradition to at least 1050 AD. The Žatec brewery in the Czech Republic claims it can prove that it paid a beer tax in 1004 AD. Early breweries were almost always built on multiple stories, with equipment on higher floors used earlier in the production process, so that gravity could assist with the transfer of product from one stage to the next. This layout often is preserved in breweries today, but mechanical pumps allow more flexibility in brewery design. Early breweries typically used large copper vats in the brewhouse, and fermentation


title: Brewery content: and packaging took place in lined wooden containers. Such breweries were common until the Industrial Revolution, when better materials became available, and scientific advances led to a better understanding of the brewing process. Today, almost all brewery equipment is made of stainless steel. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, and domestic manufacture ceased to be significant by the end of the 19th century. A handful of major breakthroughs have led to the modern brewery and its ability to produce the same beer consistently. The steam engine, vastly improved in 1775 by


title: Brewery content: James Watt, brought automatic stirring mechanisms and pumps into the brewery. It gave brewers the ability to mix liquids more reliably while heating, particularly the mash, to prevent scorching, and a quick way to transfer liquid from one container to another. Almost all breweries now use electric-powered stirring mechanisms and pumps. The steam engine also allowed the brewer to make greater quantities of beer, as human power was no longer a limiting factor in moving and stirring. Carl von Linde, along with others, is credited with developing the refrigeration machine in 1871. Refrigeration allowed beer to be produced year-round, and


title: Brewery content: always at the same temperature. Yeast is very sensitive to temperature, and, if a beer were produced during summer, the yeast would impart unpleasant flavours onto the beer. Most brewers would produce enough beer during winter to last through the summer, and store it in underground cellars, or even caves, to protect it from summer's heat. The discovery of microbes by Louis Pasteur was instrumental in the control of fermentation. The idea that yeast was a microorganism that worked on wort to produce beer led to the isolation of a single yeast cell by Emil Christian Hansen. Pure yeast cultures


title: Brewery content: allow brewers to pick out yeasts for their fermentation characteristics, including flavor profiles and fermentation ability. Some breweries in Belgium, however, still rely on "spontaneous" fermentation for their beers (see lambic). The development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process, and greater knowledge of the results. Breweries today are made predominantly of stainless steel, although vessels often have a decorative copper cladding for a nostalgic look. Stainless steel has many favourable characteristics that make it a well-suited material for brewing equipment. It imparts no flavour in beer, it reacts with very few


title: Brewery content: chemicals, which means almost any cleaning solution can be used on it (concentrated chlorine [bleach] being a notable exception) and it is very sturdy. Sturdiness is important, as most tanks in the brewery have positive pressure applied to them as a matter of course, and it is not unusual that a vacuum will be formed incidentally during cleaning. Heating in the brewhouse usually is achieved through pressurized steam, although direct-fire systems are not unusual in small breweries. Likewise, cooling in other areas of the brewery is typically done by cooling jackets on tanks, which allow the brewer to control precisely


title: Brewery content: the temperature on each tank individually, although whole-room cooling is also common. Today, modern brewing plants perform myriad analyses on their beers for quality control purposes. Shipments of ingredients are analyzed to correct for variations. Samples are pulled at almost every step and tested for [oxygen] content, unwanted microbial infections, and other beer-aging compounds. A representative sample of the finished product often is stored for months for comparison, when complaints are received. Brewing is typically divided into 9 steps: milling, malting, mashing, lautering, boiling, fermenting, conditioning, filtering, and filling. Mashing is the process of mixing milled, usually malted, grain with


title: Brewery content: water, and heating it with rests at certain temperatures to allow enzymes in the malt to break down the starches in the grain into sugars, especially maltose. Lautering is the separation of the extracts won during mashing from the spent grain to create wort. It is achieved in either a lauter tun, a wide vessel with a false bottom, or a mash filter, a plate-and-frame filter designed for this kind of separation. Lautering has two stages: first wort run-off, during which the extract is separated in an undiluted state from the spent grains, and sparging, in which extract that remains


title: Brewery content: with the grains is rinsed off with hot water. Boiling the wort ensures its sterility, helping to prevent contamination with undesirable microbes. During the boil, hops are added, which contribute aroma and flavour compounds to the beer, especially their characteristic bitterness. Along with the heat of the boil, they cause proteins in the wort to coagulate and the pH of the wort to fall, and they inhibit the later growth of certain bacteria. Finally, the vapours produced during the boil volatilize off-flavours, including dimethyl sulfide precursors. The boil must be conducted so that it is even and intense. The boil


title: Brewery content: lasts between 60 and 120 minutes, depending on its intensity, the hop addition schedule, and volume of wort the brewer expects to evaporate. Fermentation begins as soon as yeast is added to the cooled wort. This is also the point at which the product is first called beer. It is during this stage that fermentable sugars won from the malt (maltose, maltotriose, glucose, fructose and sucrose) are metabolized into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Fermentation tanks come in many shapes and sizes, from enormous cylindroconical vessels that can look like storage silos, to five-gallon glass carboys used by homebrewers. Most breweries


title: Brewery content: today use cylindroconical vessels (CCVs), which have a conical bottom and a cylindrical top. The cone's aperture is typically around 70°, an angle that will allow the yeast to flow smoothly out through the cone's apex at the end of fermentation, but is not so steep as to take up too much vertical space. CCVs can handle both fermenting and conditioning in the same tank. At the end of fermentation, the yeast and other solids have fallen to the cone's apex can be simply flushed out through a port at the apex. Open fermentation vessels are also used, often for


title: Brewery content: show in brewpubs, and in Europe in wheat beer fermentation. These vessels have no tops, making it easy to harvest top-fermenting yeasts. The open tops of the vessels increase the risk of contamination, but proper cleaning procedures help to control the risk. Fermentation tanks are typically made of stainless steel. Simple cylindrical tanks with beveled ends are arranged vertically, and conditioning tanks are usually laid out horizontally. A very few breweries still use wooden vats for fermentation but wood is difficult to keep clean and infection-free and must be repitched often, perhaps yearly. After high kräusen, the point at which


title: Brewery content: fermentation is most active and copious foam is produced, a valve known in German as the "spundapparat" may be put on the tanks to allow the carbon dioxide produced by the yeast to naturally carbonate the beer. This bung device can regulate the pressure to produce different types of beer; greater pressure produces a more carbonated beer. When the sugars in the fermenting beer have been almost completely digested, the fermentation process slows and the yeast cells begin to die and settle at the bottom of the tank. At this stage, especially if the beer is cooled to around freezing,


title: Brewery content: most of the remaining live yeast cells will quickly become dormant and settle, along with the heavier protein chains, due simply to gravity and molecular dehydration. Conditioning can occur in fermentation tanks with cooling jackets. If the whole fermentation cellar is cooled, conditioning must be done in separate tanks in a separate cellar. Some beers are conditioned only lightly, or not at all. An active yeast culture from an ongoing batch may be added to the next boil after a slight chilling in order to produce fresh and highly palatable beer in mass quantity. Filtering the beer stabilizes flavour and


title: Brewery content: gives it a polished, shiny look. It is an optional process. Many craft brewers simply remove the coagulated and settled solids and forgo active filtration. In localities where a tax assessment is collected by government pursuant to local laws, any additional filtration may be done using an active filtering system, the filtered product finally passing into a calibrated vessel for measurement just after any cold conditioning and prior to final packaging where the beer is put into the containers for shipment or sale. The container may be a bottle, can, of keg, cask or bulk tank. Filters come in many


title: Brewery content: types. Many use pre-made filtration media such as sheets or candles. Kieselguhr, a fine powder of diatomaceous earth, can be introduced into the beer and circulated through screens to form a filtration bed. Filtration ratings are divided into rough, fine, and sterile. Rough filters remove yeasts and other solids, leaving some cloudiness, while finer filters can remove body and color. Sterile filters remove almost all microorganisms. Brewing companies range widely in the volume and variety of beer produced, ranging from small breweries, such as Ringwood Brewery, to massive multinational conglomerates, like SABMiller in London or Anheuser-Busch InBev, that produce hundreds


title: Brewery content: of millions of barrels annually. There are organizations that assist the development of brewing, such as the Siebel Institute of Technology in the United States and the Institute of Brewing and Distilling in the UK. In 2012 the four largest brewing companies (Anheuser-Busch InBev, SABMiller, Heineken International, and Carlsberg Group) controlled 50% of the market The biggest brewery in the world is the Belgian-Brazilian company Anheuser-Busch InBev. In the United States, there were 69,359 people employed in breweries in 2017. This is up from 27,805 in 2001. Some commonly used descriptions of breweries are: Contract brewing –When one brewery hires


title: Brewery content: another brewery to produce its beer. The contracting brewer generally handles all of the beer's marketing, sales, and distribution, while leaving the brewing and packaging to the producer-brewery (which confusingly may also be referred to as a contract brewer). Often the contract brewing is performed when a small brewery can not supply enough beer to meet demands and contracts with a larger brewery to help alleviate their supply issues. Some breweries do not own a brewing facility, these contract brewers have been criticized by traditional brewing companies for avoiding the costs associated with a physical brewery. Gypsy, or nomad, brewing


title: Brewery content: usually falls under the category of contract brewing. Gypsy breweries generally do not have their own equipment or premises. They operate on a temporary or itinerant basis out of the facilities of another brewery, generally making "one-off" special occasion beers. The trend of gypsy brewing spread early in Scandinavia. Their beers and collaborations later spread to America and Australia. Gypsy brewers typically use facilities of larger makers with excess capacity. Prominent examples include Pretty Things, Stillwater Artisanal Ales, Gunbarrel Brewing Company, Mikkeller, and Evil Twin. For example, one of Mikkeller's founders, Mikkel Borg Bjergsø, has traveled around the world between


title: Brewery content: 2006 and 2010, brewing more than 200 different beers at other breweries. Breweries and football have ended up in a symbiotic relationship since the very beginnings of the game. The English Football League was founded in 1888, and by the next decade several teams already had their own brewery sponsor. In return for their financial support, the breweries were given concessions to sell beer to spectators and advertise their products in stadiums. The most outwardly visible sign of sponsorship are the adverts printed on football team’s kit. For example, Liverpool F.C. had the logo of the Denmark-based Carlsberg brewery group


title: Brewery content: on the front of its shirts for nearly twenty years, from 1992 to 2010. Nowadays major brewing corporations are involved in sponsorship on a number of different levels. The prevailing trend is for the leading brand not to be linked to individual teams; rather, they achieve visibility as sponsor of tournaments and leagues, so all fans can engage with them regardless of which team they support. Heineken sponsors the UEFA Champions League with its namesake lager; Carlsberg sponsors the English Premier League as well as the 2012 and 2016 UEFA European Championships. Meanwhile, the AB InBev Group supports the FA


title: Brewery content: Cup and the FIFA World Cup. The head brewer (UK) or brewmaster (US) is in charge of the production of beer. The major breweries employ engineers with a chemistry/Biotechnology background. Brewmasters may have had a formal education in the subject from institutions such as the Siebel Institute of Technology, VLB Berlin, Heriot-Watt University, American Brewers Guild, University of California at Davis, University of Wisconsin, Olds College or Niagara College. They may hold membership in professional organisations such as the Brewers Association, Master Brewers Association, American Society of Brewing Chemists, the Institute of Brewing and Distilling, and the Society of Independent


title: Brewery content: Brewers. Depending on a brewery's size, a brewer may need anywhere from five to fifteen years of professional experience before becoming a brewmaster; Brewery A brewery or brewing company is a business that makes and sells beer. The place at which beer is commercially made is either called a brewery or a beerhouse, where distinct sets of brewing equipment are called plant. The commercial brewing of beer has taken place since at least 2500 BC; in ancient Mesopotamia, brewers derived social sanction and divine protection from the goddess Ninkasi. Brewing was initially a cottage industry, with production taking place at


title: "Latin soul" content: Latin soul Latin soul (and related Boogaloo) was a short lived musical genre which developed in the 1960s in New York City. It consisted of a blend of Cuban mambo with elements of Latin jazz and soul music. Although short-lived, the genre had a great influence on the growing Salsa movement which would dominate the New York Latin music scene in the 1970s. Today, the term is typically used by Hispanic artists producing R&B or soul music. Latin soul placed a heavy emphasis on its Afro-Cuban rhythms and featured songs sung mostly in English. The style grew out of an


title: "Obando Church" content: Obando Church The Obando Church, formally known as the San Pascual Baylon Parish Church, is a Roman Catholic church located in the municipality of Obando in the province of Bulacan, Philippines. Founded by Franciscan missionaries, under the Spanish flag, it is the venue of the three-day Obando Fertility Rites held annually in honor of three patron saints, namely: St. Pascual Baylon, St. Claire of Assisi and Our Lady of Salambao, a celebration that was mentioned by Jose Rizal, the Philippine national hero, in the pages of his Spanish-language novel, the "Noli Me Tangere" (in "Chapter 6: Captain Tiago"). During the


title: "Obando Church" content: month of May, parishioners and other devotees perform the three-day Obando Dance (formerly known as the "Kasilonawan", now locally called "Sayaw sa Obando", literally "the dance in Obando") inside the church, followed by a street procession. Its façade had been described as similar to that of the church of Marilao, Bulacan. The edifice is composed of windows and flat columns, and has a pediment with a niche and two round windows at the sides. The façade is also flanked by an octagonal belltower. Connected to its structure is the Colegio de San Pascual Baylon, a private school managed by the


title: "Obando Church" content: parish. The altar of the church is believed to be gilded with silver. The Obando Church was built by the Franciscan Order, headed by Rev. P. Manuel de Olivencia, the first curate of Obando, on April 29, 1754. The church was destroyed in World War II during the fight for the liberation from the Japanese rule. According to some reports, the original statues of Our Lady of Salambao, Saint Clare and Saint Paschal Baylon were also destroyed during the fighting, and that the images presently venerated are commissioned replication of the original images. The church was rebuilt in 1947 through


title: "Obando Church" content: the efforts of Rev. Fr. Marcos C. Punzal with the help of local Obandeño parishioners. Other parish priests who also managed the Obando Church since the 1900s include: Rev. Fr. Juan Dilag, Rev. Fr. Padre Exequiel Morelos, Rev. Fr. Ricardo Pulido, Rev. Fr. Marcos Punzal, Rev Msgr. Rome R. Fernandez, Rev. Fr. Marcelo K. Sanchez, Rev. Fr. Danilo G. delos Reyes, and Rev. Fr. Avelino A. Sampana. It was Rev. Fr. Rome Fernandez, with the assistance from the Cultural Commission of Obando, who revived the celebration of the Obando Fertility Rites or the Obando Dance in 1972. This was after


title: "Obando Church" content: a prohibition of the practice was imposed by an archbishop of Manila after World War II. The Church of Obando has been declared as the "Diocesan Shrine" of the Our Lady of the Immaculate Concepcion of Salambao (the long name for the Our Lady of Salambao) by the Catholic Church on December 1, 2007. The church is connected to several barangay chapels in Obando, Bulacan, namely: the chapels of Barangays Panghulo, Catanghalan, Pag-asa, Paliwas, San Pascual, Hulo, Mahabang-Lawa (or Lawa), Tawiran, Wawang-Pulo, Liputan, and Ubihan. Two former chapels that now have parochial church statuses include the Santa Cruz Parish in


title: "Obando Church" content: Barangay Paco and the Parish of Nuestra Señora de Salambao (the Parish of Our Lady of Salambao) of Barangay Binuangan. Both are still within the political boundaries of present-day Obando, Bulacan. Thus, there are now three parishes in Obando, Bulacan, each with their own parochial churches: those of Barangays Paco and Binuangan, in addition to the Parish of San Pascual Baylon (the Obando Church). At present, the church is managed by Rev. Fr. Vergilio Ramos. Obando Church The Obando Church, formally known as the San Pascual Baylon Parish Church, is a Roman Catholic church located in the municipality of Obando


title: "Bogdan Saltanov" content: painters declined the job, and it passed to Saltanov. The absence of records confirming payment for the job to Saltanov led Elena Ovchinnikova to assert in 1956 that it was not Saltanov's work at all (she attributed it to Bezmin). For the next decades her opinion prevailed, but authors like Kazaryan (1969) and Komashko (2003) returned the credit to Saltanov. Attribution of the Cross of Kiy icon from the Crucifix church in Moscow Kremlin and its copies is equally disputed. Tradition starting with the 1907 work by A. I. Uspensky attributes these icons (or at least the original "Cross of


title: Golf content: Golf Golf is a club-and-ball sport in which players use various clubs to hit balls into a series of holes on a course in as few strokes as possible. Golf, unlike most ball games, cannot and does not utilize a standardized playing area, and coping with the varied terrains encountered on different courses is a key part of the game. The game at the usual level is played on a course with an arranged progression of 18 holes, though recreational courses can be smaller, often having 9 holes. Each hole on the course must contain a tee box to start


title: Golf content: from, and a putting green containing the actual hole or cup (4.25 inches in diameter). There are other standard forms of terrain in between, such as the fairway, rough (long grass), bunkers (or "sand traps"), and various hazards (water, rocks) but each hole on a course is unique in its specific layout and arrangement. Golf is played for the lowest number of strokes by an individual, known as stroke play, or the lowest score on the most individual holes in a complete round by an individual or team, known as match play. Stroke play is the most commonly seen format


title: Golf content: at all levels, but most especially at the elite level. The modern game of golf originated in 15th century Scotland. The 18-hole round was created at the Old Course at St Andrews in 1764. Golf's first major, and the world's oldest tournament in existence, is The Open Championship, also known as the British Open, which was first played in 1860 in Ayrshire, Scotland. This is one of the four major championships in men's professional golf, the other three being played in the United States: The Masters, the U.S. Open, and the PGA Championship. While the modern game of golf originated


title: Golf content: in 15th-century Scotland, the game's ancient origins are unclear and much debated. Some historians trace the sport back to the Roman game of paganica, in which participants used a bent stick to hit a stuffed leather ball. One theory asserts that paganica spread throughout Europe as the Romans conquered most of the continent, during the first century BC, and eventually evolved into the modern game. Others cite chuiwan ("chui" means striking and "wan" means small ball) as the progenitor, a Chinese game played between the eighth and fourteenth centuries. A Ming Dynasty scroll dating back to 1368 entitled "The Autumn


title: Golf content: Banquet" shows a member of the Chinese Imperial court swinging what appears to be a golf club at a small ball with the aim of sinking it into a hole. The game is thought to have been introduced into Europe during the Middle Ages. Another early game that resembled modern golf was known as cambuca in England and chambot in France. The Persian game chaugán is another possible ancient origin. In addition, kolven (a game involving a ball and curved bats) was played annually in Loenen, Netherlands, beginning in 1297, to commemorate the capture of the assassin of Floris V,


title: Golf content: a year earlier. The modern game originated in Scotland, where the first written record of golf is James II's banning of the game in 1457, as an unwelcome distraction to learning archery. James IV lifted the ban in 1502 when he became a golfer himself, with golf clubs first recorded in 1503–1504: "For golf clubbes and balles to the King that he playit with". To many golfers, the Old Course at St Andrews, a links course dating to before 1574, is considered to be a site of pilgrimage. In 1764, the standard 18-hole golf course was created at St Andrews


title: Golf content: when members modified the course from 22 to 18 holes. Golf is documented as being played on Musselburgh Links, East Lothian, Scotland as early as 2 March 1672, which is certified as the oldest golf course in the world by Guinness World Records. The oldest surviving rules of golf were compiled in March 1744 for the Company of Gentlemen Golfers, later renamed The Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers, which was played at Leith, Scotland. The world's oldest golf tournament in existence, and golf's first major, is The Open Championship, which was first played on 17 October 1860 at Prestwick Golf


title: Golf content: Club, in Ayrshire, Scotland, with Scottish golfers winning the earliest majors. Two Scotsmen from Dunfermline, John Reid and Robert Lockhart, first demonstrated golf in the U.S. by setting up a hole in an orchard in 1888, with Reid setting up America's first golf club the same year, Saint Andrew's Golf Club in Yonkers, New York. A golf course consists of either 9 or 18 holes, each with a teeing ground that is set off by two markers showing the bounds of the legal tee area, fairway, rough and other hazards, and the putting green surrounded by the fringe with the


title: Golf content: pin (normally a flagstick) and cup. The levels of grass are varied to increase difficulty, or to allow for putting in the case of the green. While many holes are designed with a direct line-of-sight from the teeing area to the green, some holes may bend either to the left or to the right. This is commonly called a "dogleg", in reference to a dog's knee. The hole is called a "dogleg left" if the hole angles leftwards and "dogleg right" if it bends right. Sometimes, a hole's direction may bend twice; this is called a "double dogleg". A regular


title: Golf content: golf course consists of 18 holes, but nine-hole courses are common and can be played twice through for a full round of 18 holes. Early Scottish golf courses were primarily laid out on links land, soil-covered sand dunes directly inland from beaches. This gave rise to the term "golf links", particularly applied to seaside courses and those built on naturally sandy soil inland. The first 18-hole golf course in the United States was on a sheep farm in Downers Grove, Illinois, in 1892. The course is still there today. Every round of golf is based on playing a number of


title: Golf content: holes in a given order. A "round" typically consists of 18 holes that are played in the order determined by the course layout. Each hole is played once in the round on a standard course of 18 holes. The game can be played by any number of people. Though a typical group playing will have 1-4 people playing the round. The typical amount of time required for pace of play for a 9-hole round is two hours and four hours for an 18-hole round. Playing a hole on a golf course is initiated by putting a ball into play by


title: Golf content: striking it with a club on the teeing ground (also called the tee box, or simply the tee). For this first shot on each hole, it is allowed but not required for the golfer to place the ball on a tee prior to striking it. A tee is a small peg that can be used to elevate the ball slightly above the ground up to a few centimetres high. Tees are commonly made of wood but may be constructed of any material, including plastic. Traditionally, golfers used mounds of sand to elevate the ball, and containers of sand were provided


title: Golf content: for the purpose. A few courses still require sand to be used instead of peg tees, to reduce litter and reduce damage to the teeing ground. Tees help reduce the interference of the ground or grass on the movement of the club making the ball easier to hit, and also places the ball in the very centre of the striking face of the club (the "sweet spot") for better distance. When the initial shot on a hole is intended to move the ball a long distance (typically more than ), the shot is commonly called a "drive" and is generally


title: Golf content: made with a long-shafted, large-headed wood club called a "driver". Shorter holes may be initiated with other clubs, such as higher-numbered woods or irons. Once the ball comes to rest, the golfer strikes it again as many times as necessary using shots that are variously known as a "lay-up", an "approach", a "pitch", or a "chip", until the ball reaches the green, where he or she then "putts" the ball into the hole (commonly called "sinking the putt" or "holing out"). The goal of getting the ball into the hole ("holing" the ball) in as few strokes as possible may


title: Golf content: be impeded by obstacles such as areas of longer grass called "rough" (usually found alongside fairways), which both slows any ball that contacts it and makes it harder to advance a ball that has stopped on it; "doglegs", which are changes in the direction of the fairway that often require shorter shots to play around them; bunkers (or sand traps); and water hazards such as ponds or streams. In stroke play competitions played according to strict rules, each player plays his or her ball until it is holed no matter how many strokes that may take. In match play it


title: Golf content: is acceptable to simply pick up one's ball and "surrender the hole" after enough strokes have been made by a player that it is mathematically impossible for the player to win the hole. It is also acceptable in informal stroke play to surrender the hole after hitting three strokes more than the "par" rating of the hole (a "triple bogey" - see below); while technically a violation of Rule 3-2, this practice speeds play as a courtesy to others, and avoids "runaway scores", excessive frustration and injuries caused by overexertion. The total distance from the first tee box to the


title: Golf content: 18th green can be quite long; total yardages "through the green" can be in excess of , and when adding in the travel distance between the green of one hole and the tee of the next, even skilled players may easily travel five miles or more during a round. At some courses, electric golf carts are used to travel between shots, which can speed-up play and allows participation by individuals unable to walk a whole round. On other courses players generally walk the course, either carrying their bag using a shoulder strap or using a "golf trolley" for their bag.


title: Golf content: These trolleys may or may not be battery assisted. At many amateur tournaments including U.S. high school and college play, players are required to walk and to carry their own bags, but at the professional and top amateur level, as well as at high-level private clubs, players may be accompanied by caddies, who carry and manage the players' equipment and who are allowed by the rules to give advice on the play of the course. A caddie's advice can only be given to the player or players for whom the caddie is working, and not to other competing players. The


title: Golf content: rules of golf are internationally standardised and are jointly governed by The R&A, spun off in 2004 from The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews (founded 1754), and the United States Golf Association (USGA). The underlying principle of the rules is fairness. As stated on the back cover of the official rule book: There are strict regulations regarding the amateur status of golfers. Essentially, anybody who has ever received payment or compensation for giving instruction, or played golf for money, is not considered an amateur and may not participate in competitions limited solely to amateurs. However, amateur golfers


title: Golf content: may receive expenses that comply with strict guidelines and they may accept non-cash prizes within the limits established by the Rules of Amateur Status. In addition to the officially printed rules, golfers also abide by a set of guidelines called golf etiquette. Etiquette guidelines cover matters such as safety, fairness, pace of play, and a player's obligation to contribute to the care of the course. Though there are no penalties for breach of etiquette rules, players generally follow the rules of golf etiquette in an effort to improve everyone's playing experience. Penalties are incurred in certain situations. They are counted


title: Golf content: towards a player's score as if there were extra swing(s) at the ball. Strokes are added for rule infractions or for hitting one's ball into an unplayable situation. A lost ball or a ball hit out of bounds result in a penalty of one stroke and distance (Rule 27–1). A one-stroke penalty is assessed if a player's equipment causes the ball to move or the removal of a loose impediment causes the ball to move (Rule 18–2). A one-stroke penalty is assessed if a player's ball results into a red or yellow staked hazard (Rule 26). If a golfer makes


title: Golf content: a stroke at the wrong ball (Rule 19–2) or hits a fellow golfer's ball with a putt (Rule 19–5), the player incurs a two-stroke penalty. Most rule infractions lead to stroke penalties but also can lead to disqualification. Disqualification could be from cheating, signing for a lower score, or from rule infractions that lead to improper play. Golf clubs are used to hit the golf ball. Each club is composed of a shaft with a lance (or "grip") on the top end and a club head on the bottom. Long clubs, which have a lower amount of degree loft, are


title: Golf content: those meant to propel the ball a comparatively longer distance, and short clubs a higher degree of loft and a comparatively shorter distance. The actual physical length of each club is longer or shorter, depending on the distance the club is intended to propel the ball. Golf clubs have traditionally been arranged into three basic types. Woods are large-headed, long-shafted clubs meant to propel the ball a long distance from relatively "open" lies, such as the tee box and fairway. Of particular importance is the "driver" or "1-wood", which is the lowest lofted wood club, and in modern times has


title: Golf content: become highly specialized for making extremely long-distance tee shots, up to , or more, in a professional golfer's hands. Traditionally these clubs had heads made of a hardwood, hence the name, but virtually all modern woods are now made of metal such as titanium, or of composite materials. Irons are shorter-shafted clubs with a metal head primarily consisting of a flat, angled striking face. Traditionally the clubhead was forged from iron; modern iron clubheads are investment-cast from a steel alloy. Irons of varying loft are used for a variety of shots from virtually anywhere on the course, but most often


title: Golf content: for shorter-distance shots approaching the green, or to get the ball out of tricky lies such as sand traps. The third class is the putter, which evolved from the irons to create a low-lofted, balanced club designed to roll the ball along the green and into the hole. Putters are virtually always used on the green or in the surrounding rough/fringe. A fourth class, called hybrids, evolved as a cross between woods and irons, and are typically seen replacing the low-lofted irons with a club that provides similar distance, but a higher launch angle and a more forgiving nature. A


title: Golf content: maximum of 14 clubs is allowed in a player's bag at one time during a stipulated round. The choice of clubs is at the golfer's discretion, although every club must be constructed in accordance with parameters outlined in the rules. (Clubs that meet these parameters are usually called "conforming".) Violation of these rules can result in disqualification. The exact shot hit at any given time on a golf course, and which club is used to accomplish the shot, are always completely at the discretion of the golfer; in other words, there is no restriction whatsoever on which club a golfer


title: Golf content: may or may not use at any time for any shot. Golf balls are spherical, usually white (although other colours are allowed), and minutely pock-marked by dimples that decrease aerodynamic drag by increasing air turbulence around the ball in motion, which delays "boundary layer" separation and reduces the drag-inducing "wake" behind the ball, thereby allowing the ball to fly farther. The combination of a soft "boundary layer" and a hard "core" enables both distance and spin. A tee is allowed only for the first stroke on each hole, unless the player must hit a provisional tee shot or replay his


title: Golf content: or her first shot from the tee. Many golfers wear golf shoes with metal or plastic spikes designed to increase traction, thus allowing for longer and more accurate shots. A golf bag is used to transport golf clubs and the player's other or personal equipment. Golf bags have several pockets designed for carrying equipment and supplies such as tees, balls, and gloves. Golf bags can be carried, pulled on a trolley or harnessed to a motorized golf cart during play. Golf bags have both a hand strap and shoulder strap for carrying, and sometimes have retractable legs that allow the


title: Golf content: bag to stand upright when at rest. The golf swing is outwardly similar to many other motions involving swinging a tool or playing implement, such as an axe or a baseball bat; however, unlike many of these motions, the result of the swing is highly dependent on several sub-motions being properly aligned and timed, to ensure that the club travels up to the ball in line with the desired path, the clubface is in line with the swing path, and the ball hits the centre or "sweet spot" of the clubface. The ability to do this consistently, across a complete


title: Golf content: set of clubs with a wide range of shaft lengths and clubface areas, is a key skill for any golfer, and takes a significant effort to achieve. Golfers start with the non-dominant side of the body facing the target (for a right-hander, the target is to their left). At address, the player's body and the centerline of the club face are positioned parallel to the desired line of travel, with the feet either perpendicular to that line or slightly splayed outward. The feet are commonly shoulder-width apart for middle irons and putters, narrower for short irons and wider for long


title: Golf content: irons and woods. The ball is typically positioned more to the "front" of the player's stance (closer to the leading foot) for lower-lofted clubs, with the usual ball position for a drive being just behind the arch of the leading foot. The ball is placed further "back" in the player's stance (toward the trailing foot) as the loft of the club to be used increases. Most iron shots and putts are made with the ball roughly centered in the stance, while a few mid- and short-iron shots are made with the ball slightly behind the centre of the stance to


title: Golf content: ensure consistent contact between the ball and clubface, so the ball is on its way before the club continues down into the turf. The golfer chooses a golf club, grip, and stroke appropriate to the distance: Having chosen a club and stroke to produce the desired distance, the player addresses the ball by taking their stance to the side of it and (except when the ball lies in a hazard) grounding the club behind the ball. The golfer then takes their backswing, rotating the club, their arms and their upper body away from the ball, and then begins their swing,


title: Golf content: bringing the clubhead back down and around to hit the ball. A proper golf swing is a complex combination of motions, and slight variations in posture or positioning can make a great deal of difference in how well the ball is hit and how straight it travels. The general goal of a player making a full swing is to propel the clubhead as fast as possible while maintaining a single "plane" of motion of the club and clubhead, to send the clubhead into the ball along the desired path of travel and with the clubhead also pointing that direction. Accuracy


title: Golf content: and consistency are typically stressed over pure distance. A player with a straight drive that travels only will nevertheless be able to accurately place the ball into a favourable lie on the fairway, and can make up for the lesser distance of any given club by simply using "more club" (a lower loft) on their tee shot or on subsequent fairway and approach shots. However, a golfer with a drive that may go but often doesn't fly straight will be less able to position their ball advantageously; the ball may "hook", "pull", "draw", "fade", "push" or "slice" off the intended


title: Golf content: line and land out of bounds or in the rough or hazards, and thus the player will require many more strokes to hole out. A golf stroke uses the muscles of the core (especially erector spinae muscles and latissimus dorsi muscle when turning), hamstring, shoulder, and wrist. Stronger muscles in the wrist can prevent them from being twisted during swings, whilst stronger shoulders increase the turning force. Weak wrists can also transmit the forced to elbows and even neck and lead to injury. (When a muscle contracts, it pulls equally from both ends and, to have movement at only one