title: Reculver content: the Christian Peoples Alliance 128 (0.3%). For European elections Reculver is in the South East England constituency. The ruins of the Roman fort and medieval church at Reculver stand on the remnant of a promontory, a low hill with a maximum height of , which is the "last seaward extension of the Blean Hills." Sediments laid down around 55 million years ago are particularly well displayed in the cliffs to the west. Nearby Herne Bay is the type section for the upper part of the Thanet Formation, previously known as the Thanet Beds, consisting of a fine-grained sand that can


title: Reculver content: be clayey and glauconitic and is of Thanetian (late Paleocene) age. It rests unconformably on the Chalk Group, and forms the base of the cliffs in the Reculver and Herne Bay area. Above the Thanet Sand are the Upnor Formation, a medium sandstone, and the sandy clays of the Harwich Formation at the Paleocene/Eocene boundary. The highest cliffs, rising to a maximum height of about to the west of Reculver, have a cap of London Clay, a fine silty clay of Eocene age. The surface consists mainly of flint gravel with some areas of brickearth, both of which are glacial


title: Reculver content: deposits. Rocks such as these are easily washed away by the sea. It has been estimated that the Roman fort was originally about 1 mile (1.6 km) from the sea to the north, but the cliffs are eroding at a rate of approximately per year. Coastal erosion had washed away most of Reculver village by 1800, leading residents to re-locate to Hillborough, within Reculver parish. A plan is in place to manage this erosion whereby some parts of the coastline such as the country park will be allowed to continue eroding, and others – including the site of the Roman


title: Reculver content: fort and the medieval church – will be protected from further erosion. New sea defences were built in the 1990s, including covering the beaches around the church with boulders. The warmest time of year in Kent is in July and August, with average maximum temperatures of around , and the coolest is in January and February, with average minimum temperatures of around . Average maximum and minimum temperatures are about 0.5 °C (0.3 °F) higher than they are nationally. Locations on the north coast of Kent, like Reculver, are sometimes warmer than areas further inland, owing to the influence of


title: Reculver content: the North Downs to the south. Average annual rainfall in Kent is about , with the highest rainfall from October to January. This is lower than the national average annual rainfall of . Occasional drought conditions can lead to the imposition of Temporary Use Bans to conserve water supplies, and it was announced in 2013 that a water desalination plant was to be built at Reculver to increase supplies. In the census of 1801 the number of people present in the parish of Reculver, enclosing an area of about and including the settlements of Hillborough, Bishopstone and part of Broomfield,


title: Reculver content: was given as 252, and this figure remained roughly stable until the 20th century when a dramatic increase was recorded: in the census of 1931, the number was given as 829. But this included holidaymakers, and in 2005 the number of people at Reculver was estimated to increase to "over 1,000 at the height of the [summer] holiday season". In the 2001 census the relevant census area covered and included only Reculver and outlying farms and houses, in which 135 people were found, almost a quarter of whom were in caravans. All were born in the United Kingdom except for


title: Reculver content: three individuals from the Republic of Ireland and three from South Africa. Gender was given as 69 female and 66 male, and the age distribution was 12 individuals aged 0–5 years (8.8%), 16 aged 6–16 years (14%), 30 aged 17–35 years (22.2%), 14 aged 36–45 years (10.3%), 44 aged 46–64 years (32.5%) and 21 aged 65 years and over (15.5%). Half (67) of all the individuals recorded were described as economically active, with 58 of these having employers and nine being self-employed; none were recorded as full-time students or unemployed. Twenty-four people (17.7%) were described as retired. Of those aged


title: Reculver content: 16–74 years, 14 (12.8%) were placed at the highest level for education or qualification. Christianity was the only religion represented, by 99 individuals, with 22 recorded as having no religion and 14 whose religion was not stated. From April 2001 to March 2002 the average gross weekly income of households in the electoral ward of Reculver was estimated by the Office for National Statistics as £560, or £29,120 per year; this was below the average for the south-east of England, excluding London, which was £660, or £34,320. In the 2011 census the relevant census area was identical to the electoral


title: Reculver content: ward, an area of , and produced information for the area as a whole. Therefore, while the total resident population of the ward at the 2011 census numbered 8,845, detailed information comparable to that of the 2001 census is unavailable. In the Middle Ages Reculver was one of several members, or "limbs", of the Cinque Port of Sandwich: possibly originating in a loose association in the 11th century, this status was first recorded in about 1300. Like other limbs at Fordwich, Deal, Sarre and Stonar, it was then involved in maritime trade, and it shared in the Cinque Ports' duty


title: Reculver content: to supply ships and men for the king's use, in return for concessions such as tax exemption. The last surviving record of Reculver as a limb of Sandwich dates from 1377, and its name is absent from Cinque Port records of 1432, probably because of "drastic coastal erosion, and the consequent silting up of the Wantsum Channel between Sarre and the North Mouth [adjacent to Reculver]." In 1220 King Henry III granted the archbishop of Canterbury a market to be held weekly at Reculver on Thursdays, and an annual fair was held there on Saint Giles's Day, 1 September. Oysters


title: Reculver content: from the "Rutupian shore" – the shoreline around Richborough, a little over to the south-east – were noted as a delicacy by the Roman poet Juvenal, and in 1576 oysters from Reculver itself were "reputed as farre to passe those of Whitstaple, as Whitstaple doe surmount the rest of this shyre [of Kent] in savorie saltnesse." An enclosed area of salt water known as the Dene was leased for the breeding of oysters and lobsters in 1867; as of 2014 there is a hatchery for oysters in saltwater ponds on the eastern side of Reculver belonging to a seafood company


title: Reculver content: that is based there. Young oysters are transplanted from the hatchery to the sea bed at Whitstable. In May 1914, Anglo-Westphalian Kent Coalfield Ltd drilled a borehole at Reculver in search of coal, since it had found a seam of coal thick at nearby Chislet and was developing a colliery there; possible samples of coal were retrieved from the borehole at a depth of , but it was abandoned, no workable seam having been found. Today Reculver is dominated by static caravan parks, the first of which appeared after the Second World War. Also present are a country park, the


title: Reculver content: King Ethelbert public house, which is a free house, and a nearby shop and cafe. Reculver was defined as a "key heritage area" in 2008, and there are plans for its development as a destination for green tourism. Canterbury City Council's "Reculver Masterplan", adopted in 2009, envisaged the creation of 100 touring pitches in its caravan park, south-east of the Roman fort, which was then leased to the Camping and Caravanning Club. That caravan park was closed by 2015, when Canterbury City Council undertook a consultation on its incorporation into the country park. Reculver Church of England Primary School is


title: Reculver content: adjacent to the church at Hillborough. The school's site also hosts Beltinge Day Nursery and Reculver Breakfast and Afterschool Club. The nearest school for older children is Herne Bay High School. The nearest post office is in Beltinge, about to the west-southwest. The nearest general practitioner (GP) surgery is about to the south-west, between Bishopstone and Hillborough, with others in Beltinge, Herne Bay, Broomfield and St Nicholas-at-Wade. While the nearest general hospital is the Queen Victoria Memorial Hospital, about to the west in Herne Bay, the closest hospital with an Accident and Emergency (A&E) department is the Queen Elizabeth The


title: Reculver content: Queen Mother Hospital, about to the east in Margate. The nearest community centre is Reculver and Beltinge Memorial Hall, about to the west-southwest. The medieval towers of the ruined church of St Mary are Reculver's "most dominant features". They were added in the late 12th century to a church founded in 669, when King Ecgberht of Kent granted land to Bassa the priest for the foundation of a monastery. The church was sited near the centre of the Roman fort, and was built "almost completely from demolished Roman structures". In 692 the monastery's abbot Berhtwald was elected archbishop of Canterbury,


title: Reculver content: and King Eadberht II of Kent was buried inside the church in the 760s. The church building was considerably enlarged over time, the last additions being made in the 15th century. But it retained many prominent Anglo-Saxon features, including a triple chancel arch and a stone high cross, though this had been removed by 1784. The church was demolished in 1809, in what has been described as "an act of vandalism for which there can be few parallels even in the blackest records of the nineteenth century". Archaeological excavations in the 19th and 20th centuries established the building sequence of


title: Reculver content: the church, and areas of missing wall are marked on the ground by concrete edged with flint. The ruins are now in the care of English Heritage. The sea defences protecting them were installed by Trinity House in 1810, but are now maintained by the Environment Agency. Fragments of the stone cross, and two stone columns that had been part of the church's triple chancel arch, are on display in Canterbury Cathedral. A byname for the towers is the "Twin Sisters", and an account of how this first arose was current about a hundred years after its supposed happening in


title: Reculver content: the late 15th century, but in its usual form, for example in a 19th-century travel guide, it is mostly an invention created around "pseudo-historical detail". "The Ingoldsby Legends" includes a re-invention of the story in which two brothers, Robert and Richard de Birchington, are substituted for the two sisters. Clive Aslet used the byname in noting that, in Ian Fleming's "James Bond" novel "Goldfinger", the villain Auric Goldfinger "lived at Reculver". Reculver Country Park is a nature reserve managed by Canterbury City Council and the Kent Wildlife Trust. It covers and comprises a narrow strip of protected, cliff-top land about


title: Reculver content: long, running from the remaining enclosure of the Roman fort west to Bishopstone Glen. Most of the cliff-top and all of the foreshore in this area are included in the Thanet Coast SSSI, the Thanet Coast and Sandwich Bay SPA and the similarly named Ramsar site; most of the Country Park is also part of the Bishopstone Cliffs local nature reserve, which covers of the coastline between Beltinge and Reculver. In winter brent geese and wading birds such as sanderlings and turnstones may be seen; during the summer months the largest colony of sand martins in Kent nests in the


title: Reculver content: soft cliffs, on top of which fulmars were also reported to have begun nesting in 2013, and wading curlews may be seen at any time. The grasslands on the cliff top are among the few remaining cliff-top wildflower meadows left in Kent, and are home to butterflies and skylarks. Also present are the nationally scarce hog's fennel and two species of digger wasp, "Alysson lunicornis" and "Ectemnius ruficornis". The coastline here forms part of the "key on-land Palaeocene site in the London Basin", and is the only location in the Woolwich Beds to contain wood. The foreshore displays a "rich


title: Reculver content: invertebrate and vertebrate fossil fauna ... and the section has been extensively studied over many years." The park first won a Green Flag Award in 2005, and it is estimated that over 200,000 people visit it each year, including up to 3,500 students for educational trips. Canterbury City Council's "Reculver Masterplan" envisages purchasing farmland to the south of the country park to replace land lost to the sea through coastal erosion. In 2011 it was found that the shoreline in the Herne Bay area, including Reculver, had come under threat from an invasive species, the carpet sea squirt ("Didemnum vexillum"),


title: Reculver content: also known as "marine vomit". First recorded in UK waters in 2008, the carpet sea squirt is indigenous to the sea around Japan, but it has been carried to other parts of the world, including New Zealand and the USA, on boat hulls, fishing equipment and floating seaweed. Carpet sea squirt can overgrow other, sessile species, "potentially smothering species living in gravel and affecting fisheries." A visitor centre in Reculver Country Park re-opened in 2009 as the Reculver Renewable Energy and Interpretation Centre, "marking 200 years of the moving of Reculver village". The centre features a log burner fuelled by


title: Reculver content: logs from the Blean woodland, solar and photovoltaic panels provide electrical power, and there are displays describing the history, geography and wildlife of the area. Reculver is at the end of an unclassified road, Reculver Lane, and is about by road from the nearest major junction of the A299, or Thanet Way. From Roman times there was a connection to Canterbury by road, the presence of which is reflected in parish boundaries for much of its length. An estate map of 1685 shows the Reculver end of this road as "The King's highe Way", which may have been in use


title: Reculver content: until 1875, when it was reported that a public road had been diverted because of a cliff fall near Love Street Farm. Remains of a Roman road leading to the east gate of the fort have also been found, which were "substantial ... consisting of a sandstone platform [10–13 feet (3–4 m)] wide and at least [11 inches (30 cm)] deep." In 1817 the nearest coaching route was that running between London, Canterbury and the Isle of Thanet, which passed through Upstreet, about south of Reculver, before entering Thanet. In 1839 coaches and vans ran daily from Herne Bay to


title: Reculver content: Canterbury and on to destinations on the southern and eastern coasts of Kent, with access to the English Channel, at Deal, Dover, Sandgate and Hythe. In 1865 transport from Herne Bay was available by "fly" – a type of one-horse hackney carriage. As of 2014 a bus service, route 7/7A, connects Reculver directly with Herne Bay and Canterbury daily except Sundays and bank holidays. Other destinations on this route include Reculver Church of England Primary School at Hillborough, Broomfield, Chislet, Hoath and the railway station at Sturry, on the Ashford to Ramsgate line. Route 36 connects Reculver with Herne Bay


title: Reculver content: and Margate daily except Sundays. Other destinations on this route include Reculver Church of England Primary School at Hillborough, Beltinge, Birchington-on-Sea and Westgate-on-Sea. The bus stop at Reculver is adjacent to the King Ethelbert Inn. The nearest railway stations are at Herne Bay, about to the west, and Birchington-on-Sea, about to the east. Both stations are on the Chatham Main Line, running between London's Victoria station and Ramsgate, on the south-eastern coast of the Isle of Thanet. The railway first reached Herne Bay from the west in 1861 and was extended to Ramsgate Harbour railway station by 1863, but no


title: Reculver content: provision was made for public access from Reculver, although purchase of land for a station there had been envisaged and a short-lived goods station was opened in 1864. In the same year a passenger station was proposed for Reculver, primarily to serve tourists, but it was not built. In 1884 the South Eastern Railway proposed building a branch line from its station at Grove Ferry on the Ashford to Ramsgate line to join the London, Chatham and Dover Railway's Chatham Main Line at Reculver, thereby linking Canterbury and Herne Bay. The Canterbury and Kent Coast Railway Bill was presented to


title: Reculver content: a select committee of MPs in January 1885: the London, Chatham and Dover Railway objected to it, particularly the junction with their main line at Reculver, so the Bill was rejected and the line was not built. Rudimentary houses were erected by the East Kent Railway company on nearby marshland in 1858 for the navvies who constructed the line through the area; these had been taken over by enginemen of the South Eastern and Chatham Railway by October 1904, when they were replaced by cottages. There is no provision for access to Reculver from the sea, but there were maritime


title: Reculver content: connections from at least the 1st century, when the Roman fort of "Regulbium" had a supporting harbour. The quantity and variety of coins found at Reculver dating from the 7th century to the 8th are almost certainly related to its location on a major trade route through the Wantsum Channel; there was probably still a harbour in Anglo-Saxon times, and the monastery may well have operated a "fleet of ships and its own boatyard." Details in the 10th-century charter in which King Eadred gave Reculver to the archbishops of Canterbury suggest that there was then an island immediately to the


title: Reculver content: north, creating a "mini-Wantsum [Channel that] could have provided a sheltered channel for beaching and berthing ships"; the present day Black Rock beyond the shoreline may be a remnant of this island. In the 17th century an inlet to the north-west was described as "anciently for a harber of ships, called now The Old Pen". In the 18th century there was a place for landing passengers and goods at the village, and the former name of the King Ethelbert Inn, the "Hoy and Anchor", makes reference to hoys, a local type of merchant sailing vessel. These continued to serve the


title: Reculver content: coastline of northern Kent in the mid-19th century. In 1810 a canal was proposed to run from the coast between Reculver and St Nicholas-at-Wade to Canterbury, with a harbour for sea-going vessels at the northern end, which would be accessible from Reculver by a new road beginning at the inn, but none of this was built. Passenger steamships called at Herne Bay pier on their route between London and destinations along the north coast of Kent from 1832, but this service ceased in the first half of the 20th century. A travel guide of 1865 advised that Coastguards were stationed


title: Reculver content: at Reculver from the mid-19th century until they were withdrawn in the mid-20th century, but the towers of the ruined church remain a landmark for mariners, both practically and through their use to mark the division between areas covered by Thames Maritime Rescue Coordination Centre (MRCC) and Dover MRCC. A new Anglican parish church was built at Hillborough, about south-west of Reculver, as a replacement for the old church of St Mary. The new church was given the same dedication to St Mary and, standing on a plot of land bought for £30, it was consecrated on 13 April 1813.


title: Reculver content: A "miserable little built in a rough and poverty-stricken style", it had a leaking roof and was already decaying by 1874, and was replaced by the present structure, begun in 1876 and consecrated on 12 June 1878. The church begun in 1876 was designed in the Gothic Revival style by the architect Joseph Clarke, who was surveyor for the diocese of Canterbury at the time. It has seating for about 100 people, and is a "simple and relatively plain building", though it incorporates stonework from the old church at Reculver. The medieval baptismal font in the church is probably from


title: Reculver content: the former chapel of All Saints, Shuart, on the Isle of Thanet, which was demolished in the 15th century. A war memorial stands at the northern edge of the churchyard, facing into the adjacent Reculver Lane, and records the names of 27 parishioners who died fighting in the First World War and the Second World War. King Eadberht II of Kent was buried in the church at Reculver in the 760s. His tomb was in the south "porticus" of the church, adjacent to the chancel: this "porticus" later became part of the church's south aisle. This was traditionally believed to


title: Reculver content: be the tomb of King Æthelberht I of Kent, and was "of an antique form, mounted with two spires". John Langton, a chancellor under the kings Edward I and Edward II, was also a rector of Reculver, as was Simon of Faversham, a 14th-century philosopher and theologian: he was given the position but was forced to defend it to the Pope, and died in France, either on his way to the papal curia in Avignon or after his arrival, some time before 19 July 1306. The first recorded owner of Brook, about south-southwest of Reculver, was Nicholas Tingewick, physician to


title: Reculver content: King Edward I and rector of Reculver until 1310, when he became its first recorded vicar. He was regarded as the "best doctor for the king's health", and there are more records of his medical practice than there are for "most physicians of his time." Brook subsequently passed to James de la Pine, sheriff of Kent in the early 1350s. His grandson sold it to an ancestor of Henry Cheyne, who was elected knight of the shire for Kent in 1563, and was created "Lord Cheyney" in 1572. He had sold all of his possessions in Kent by 1574 to


title: Reculver content: "finance his extravagance", and Brook subsequently became the property of Sir Cavalliero Maycote, who was a leading courtier to Elizabeth I and James I. He had a "handsome monument [on the south wall of the chancel in the church at Reculver] representing Sir Cavalliero and Lady Maycote, with their eight children, all in alabaster figures, kneeling". Brook is now Brook Farm, where there is a remnant of Maycote's home in the form of a gateway, which is a "very rustic Elizabethan affair", all of brick, with mouldings. Thomas Broke, alderman and MP for Calais in the mid-16th century, may have


title: Reculver content: been a son of Thomas Brooke of Reculver, as well as being a "religious radical". Ralph Brooke, officer of arms as Rouge Croix Pursuivant and York Herald under Elizabeth I and James I, died in 1625 and was buried inside the church, where he was commemorated by a black marble tablet on the south wall of the chancel, showing him dressed in his herald's coat. Robert Hunt, vicar of Reculver from 1595 to 1602, became minister of religion to the English colonial settlement at Jamestown, Virginia, sailing there in the ship "Susan Constant" in 1606, and celebrated probably "the first


title: Reculver content: known service of holy communion in what is today the United States of America on 21 June 1607." Barnabas Knell was vicar from 1602 to 1646: during the English Civil War his son Paul Knell, born in about 1615, was chaplain to a regiment of Royalist cuirassiers, to whom he preached a sermon, "The convoy of a Christian", at the siege of Gloucester in August 1643. An estate map of 1685 shows that much of the land around Reculver then belonged to James Oxenden, who spent much of his life as an MP for Kent constituencies between 1679 and 1702.


title: Reculver content: Reculver Reculver is a village and coastal resort about east of Herne Bay in south-east England, in a ward of the same name, in the City of Canterbury district of Kent. It once occupied a strategic location at the north-western end of the Wantsum Channel, a sea lane that separated the Isle of Thanet and the Kent mainland until the late Middle Ages. This led the Romans to build a small fort there at the time of their conquest of Britain in 43 AD, and, starting late in the 2nd century, they built a larger fort, or "castrum", called "Regulbium",


title: "Arab Christians" content: Iraq during and after WWI and then post-2003. Due to the Syrian civil war, a large number of Christians fled the country to Lebanon, Jordan and Europe, though major share of the population still resides in Syria (some being internally displaced). The Arab Christians of Syria are Greek Orthodox and Greek Catholic (Melkites) as well as some Latin Rite Roman Catholics. Non-Arab Syrian Christians include Assyrians (mainly in the north east), Syriac-Arameans, Greeks and Armenians. The largest Christian denomination in Syria is the Greek Orthodox church, some of whom are Arab Christians, followed in second place by the Syrian Orthodox,


title: "Programmable Universal Machine for Assembly" content: Programmable Universal Machine for Assembly The PUMA (Programmable Universal Machine for Assembly", or Programmable Universal Manipulation Arm") is an industrial robotic arm developed by Victor Scheinman at pioneering robot company Unimation. Initially developed for General Motors, the PUMA was based on earlier designs Scheinman invented while at Stanford University. Unimation produced PUMAs for years until being purchased by Westinghouse (ca. 1980), and later by Swiss company Stäubli (1988). Nokia Robotics manufactured about 1500 PUMA robots during the 1980s, the Puma-650 being their most popular model with customers. Some own Nokia Robotics products were also designed, like Nokia NS-16 Industrial Robot


title: "Massimo d'Azeglio" content: Club was founded by its students in 1897. There is a poetry contest organized by a cultural organization in Puglia (Italian region) named after D'Azeglio. Massimo d'Azeglio Massimo Taparelli, Marquess of Azeglio () (24 October 1798 – 15 January 1866), commonly called Massimo d'Azeglio, was a Piedmontese-Italian statesman, novelist and painter. He was Prime Minister of Sardinia for almost three years, until his rival Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour succeeded him. D'Azeglio was not a liberal or a republican, but a paternal conservative and monarchist who hoped for a federal union between Italian states. As Prime Minister, he consolidated the


title: "Demons (Dostoevsky novel)" content: preoccupied with the unexpected return of his ex-wife Marie, who has turned up on his doorstep, alone, ill and poverty-stricken. He is overjoyed to see her, and when it turns out that she is going into labour with Stavrogin's child he frantically sets about helping her. The child is born and, reconciled with Marie, he is happy that he is going to be the father. That night the emissary from the revolutionary group—Erkel—arrives to escort Shatov to the isolated part of Skvoreshniki where the printing press is buried. Thinking this will be his final interaction with the society, Shatov agrees


title: "Haro (character)" content: is set and time approaches, the Green Haro plays a tune (not the actual song) of Mobile Suit Gundam's OP theme, "Tobe! Gundam". Years later, at the height of "Gundam SEED"'s popularity, a 1/1 scale (the same size as the 1/4 scale) Pink Haro called "Haro 2" was released to coincide with popular character Lacus Clyne. The Pink Haro is more sensitive to sound than its predecessors, along with a light-detection sensor. When the ambiance changes from bright to dark (usually by casting a shadow over it by waving your hand), the Pink Haro will react in the same manner


title: "Norwegian Guide and Scout Association" content: to the individual member's level of development, the program is divided up into age groups by grade (division varies): , NSF had 18,500 members, organised in 29 districts and 6 corps with 450 local groups. The main activities of the Norges speiderforbund takes place in work units (see age groups above) in Scout groups. The meetings are regular, often weekly, and with several trips a year. Most Scout groups offer their members a camp of about one week's duration each summer. NSF also have some events on the regional and federation level. At the federal level there's national jamboree, held


title: "Fender Jazzmaster" content: different pickup circuits, the "lead" and "rhythm" circuits. When the switch is in the lead position, the guitar's tone is controlled by the conventional tone and volume knobs and the pickup selector switch. When it is in the rhythm position, it selects the neck pickup only with the brightness rolled off slightly due to different values of the potentiometers (50k vs 1M in the lead circuit), and the volume and tone are controlled by the two thumbwheels; the other controls are bypassed. The intention was that this circuit would allow the performer to quickly switch to a "preset" volume and


title: "Adonis (plant)" content: Adonis (plant) Adonis is a genus of about 20–30 species of flowering plants of the crowfoot family, Ranunculaceae, native to Europe and Asia. The species grow to in height, with feathery, finely divided leaves. Their flowers are red, yellow or orange and have 5–30 petals. The Autumn Adonis, pheasant's-eye ("A. annua"), has flowers with bright red petals. The generic name "Adonis" refers to the mythic character Adonis, a lover of the goddess Aphrodite or Venus. According to the "Metamorphoses" of Ovid the anemone, also of the family "Ranunculaceae", was created when Venus sprinkled nectar on his blood. They are cultivated


title: "Peak ground acceleration" content: a probability of exceedance (PE). Seismic engineers and government planning departments use these values to determine the appropriate earthquake loading for buildings in each zone, with key identified structures (such as hospitals, bridges, power plants) needing to survive the maximum considered earthquake (MCE). Damage to buildings is related to both peak ground velocity (PGA) and the duration of the earthquake – the longer high-level shaking persists, the greater the likelihood of damage. Peak ground acceleration provides a measurement of "instrumental intensity", that is, ground shaking recorded by seismic instruments. Other intensity scales measure "felt intensity", based on eyewitness reports, felt


title: "Ching chong" content: not on purpose. Only 'cause it's how my brain works." "Time" called it a "pseudo-apology". O'Donnell later wrote in her autobiography "Celebrity Detox: The Fame Game" that "I wish I had been a bit more pure in my public apology." On January 19, 2011, conservative political commentator Rush Limbaugh mocked Chinese president Hu Jintao during his visit to the White House on his radio show. "Hu Jintao—He was speaking and they weren't translating. They normally translate every couple of words. Hu Jintao was just going ching chong, ching chong cha," said Limbaugh, who imitated Hu's speech for 17 seconds. Representative


title: "Tim Bray" content: would return to Guelph to receive an honorary Doctor of Science degree). Tim described his switch of focus from Math to Computer Science this way: "In math I’d worked like a dog for my Cs, but in CS I worked much less for As—and learned that you got paid well for doing it." Fresh out of university, Bray joined Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) in Toronto as a software specialist. In 1983, Bray left DEC for Microtel Pacific Research. He joined the New Oxford English Dictionary (OED) project at the University of Waterloo in 1987 as its manager. It was during


title: "Valley of Flowers National Park" content: Valley of Flowers National Park Valley of Flowers National Park is an Indian national park, located in North Chamoli, in the state of Uttarakhand and is known for its meadows of endemic alpine flowers and the variety of flora. This richly diverse area is also home to rare and endangered animals, including the Asiatic black bear, snow leopard, musk deer, brown bear, red fox, and blue sheep. Birds found in the park include Himalayan monal pheasant and other high altitude birds. At 3352 to 3658 meters above sea level, the gentle landscape of the Valley of Flowers National Park complements


title: "Valley of Flowers National Park" content: the rugged mountain wilderness of Nanda Devi National Park to the east. Together, they encompass a unique transition zone between the mountain ranges of the Zanskar and Great Himalaya. The park stretches over an expanse of 87.50 km and it is about 8 km long and 2 km wide. Both parks are encompassed in the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (223,674 ha) which is further surrounded by a buffer zone (5,148.57 km). Nanda Devi National Park Reserve is in the UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves. The Valley of Flowers is a high-altitude Himalayan valley that has long been acknowledged by


title: "Valley of Flowers National Park" content: renowned mountaineers, botanists, and in literature. It has been recognized internationally for over a century and is referenced in the Hindu religion. Local people have visited the valley since ancient times. Indian yogis are known to have visited the valley for meditation. The Valley of Flowers has many different colourful flowers, taking on various shades of colours as time progressed. The valley was declared a national park in 1982 and now it is a World Heritage Site. The Valley of Flowers has gained importance as a region containing a diversity of alpine flora, representative of the Western Himalayan alpine shrub


title: "Valley of Flowers National Park" content: and meadows ecoregion. The rich diversity of species reflects the valley's location within a transition zone between the Zanskar and Great Himalayas ranges to the north and south, respectively, and between the Eastern Himalaya and Western Himalaya flora. A number of plant species are considered threatened. Several have not been recorded outside of Uttarakhand. Two have not been recorded in Nanda Devi National Park. The diversity of threatened species of medicinal plants is higher than has been recorded in other Indian Himalayan protected areas. The entire Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve lies within the Western Himalayas Endemic Bird Area (EBA). The


title: "Valley of Flowers National Park" content: Valley of Flowers National Park is the second core zone of the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve. Seven restricted-range bird species are endemic to this part of the EBA. State: Uttarakhand, India District: Chamoli Nearest town: Ghangharia, after Joshimath The Valley of Flowers is nestled in the upper expanses of Bhyundar Ganga near Joshimath in Garhwal region. The lower reaches of Bhyundar Ganga near Gobindghat are known as Bhyundar Valley. The Valley of Flowers is in the Pushpawati valley 23 km north-northwest of Nanda Devi Park, It lies between 30° 41' to 30° 48'N and 79° 33' to 79° 46'E. The


title: "Valley of Flowers National Park" content: Valley is 20 km northwest of Nanda Devi National Park across the wide valley of the Bhyundar Ganga. It is one of two hanging valleys lying at the head of the Bhyundar valley, the other being the shorter Hemkund valley which runs parallel some 10 km south. It runs east-west approximately 15 km by an average of 6 km wide, in the basin of the Pushpawati river, a small tributary flowing from the Tipra glacier which descends from Gauri Parbat in the east. The area lies on the Zanskar range of the Himalayas with the highest point in the national


title: "Valley of Flowers National Park" content: park being Gauri parbat at 6,719 m above sea level. The best time to visit Valley of Flowers depends upon your liking as the valley is for all time beautiful. If you want to see maximum number of flowers July and August is a best time, if you want to see lot of glaciers you should visit in June, to see Brahamkamal flowers at Hemkud August and September is a best time. The place was little known to the outside world due to its inaccessibility. In 1931, Frank S. Smythe, Eric Shipton and R.L. Holdsworth, all British mountaineers, lost their


title: "Valley of Flowers National Park" content: way while returning from a successful expedition to Mt.Kamet and happened upon the valley, which was full of flowers. They were attracted to the beauty of the area and named it the "Valley of Flowers." Frank Smythe later authored a book of the same name. In 1939, Joan Margaret Legge,(21 February 1885 – 4 July 1939) a botanist deputed by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, arrived at the valley to study flowers and while traversing some rocky slopes to collect flowers, she slipped off and lost her life. Her sister later visited the valley and erected a memorial near the


title: "Valley of Flowers National Park" content: spot. Prof. Chandra Prakash Kala, a botanist deputed by the Wildlife Institute of India, carried out a research study on the floristics and conservation of the valley for a decade, beginning in 1993. He made an inventory of 520 alpine plants exclusively growing in this national park and authored two important books - "The Valley of Flowers - Myth and Reality" and "Ecology and Conservation of the Valley of Flowers National Park, Garhwal Himalaya. 1862: The Pushpawati valley was discovered by Col. Edmund Smyth; 1931: The valley visited by the climber Frank S. Smythe who wrote a book publicising the


title: "Valley of Flowers National Park" content: "Valley of Flowers"; 1934: The upper Nanda Devi Sanctuary was reached and described by mountaineers Eric Shipton & Bill Tilman; 1936: Mountaineers Bill Tilman & Noel Odell climbed Nanda Devi; 1939: The basin established as the Nanda Devi Game Sanctuary by Government Order 1493/XIV- 28 of 7/01; 1962: Border disputes closed the area to traffic, altering the local economy; 1974-82: The sanctuary was opened to mountaineering, but the ensuing degradation led to its closure to all users; 1980: The park was established as Sanjay Gandhi National Park by Notification 3912/ XIV 3-35-80; grazing and mountaineering stopped; 1980: The Valley of


title: "Valley of Flowers National Park" content: Flowers was declared a national park by Government Order 4278/XIV-3-66-80 under the provisions of the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972, for the conservation of its flora; 1982: The park was renamed Nanda Devi National Park; 1988: The Nanda Devi National Biosphere Reserve established (223,674 ha) with the national park as core zone (62,462 ha) and a 514,857 ha buffer area surrounding both sites; restrictions were imposed on the rights of nearby villagers; 2000: The Biosphere Reserve extended by the government to 586,069 ha and the Valley of Flowers National Park was added as the second core zone (62,462 ha+ 8,750


title: "Valley of Flowers National Park" content: ha, totalling core areas of 71,212 ha); 2004: The two core zones and buffer zone designated a UNESCO MAB reserve. The park is administered by the Uttarakhand State Forestry Department, the national Ministry of Environment and Forests, India. There is no settlement in the national park and grazing in the area has been banned since 1983. The park is open only during summer from June to October and it is covered by heavy snow for the rest of the year. Being an inner Himalayan valley, the Nanda Devi Basin has a distinctive microclimate. Conditions are generally dry with low annual


title: "Valley of Flowers National Park" content: precipitation, but there is heavy monsoon rainfall from late June to early September. Prevailing mist and low cloud during the monsoon keeps the soil moist, hence the vegetation is lusher than is usual in the drier inner Himalayan valleys. From mid April to June temperatures are moderate to cool (19 °C maximum). The Valley of Flowers also has the microclimate of an enclosed inner Himalayan valley, and is shielded from the full impact of the southwest summer monsoon by the Greater Himalaya range to its south. There is often dense fog and rain especially during the late summer monsoon. Both


title: "Valley of Flowers National Park" content: Basin and Valley are usually snow-bound for six to seven months between late October and late March, the snow accumulating deeper and at lower altitudes on the shadowed southern than on the northern side of the valleys. Getting to the Valley of Flowers requires a trek of about 17 km (10.5 mi). The nearest major town is Joshimath in Garhwal, which has convenient road connections from Haridwar and Dehradun, both about 270 km (168 mi) from Joshimath. From Delhi, one can take the train to Haridwar and then travel by bus to Govindghat via Rishikesh. Govindghat is approximately 24 km


title: "Valley of Flowers National Park" content: before another important destination of Badrinath. It is also possible to drive from Delhi to Govindghat, a distance of about 500 km. Govindghat is a small place close to Joshimath (around one hour distance), where the trek begins. From Govindghat, shared taxis up to 4 km and then a trek of less than 11 km (8.6 mi) brings trekkers to Ghangaria, a small settlement located about 3 km (about 2 mi) from the valley. One can also hire a porter, mule or helicopter to reach Ghangaria. The trek from Govindghat to Ghangaria is common to the Sikh Temple at Hemkund


title: "Valley of Flowers National Park" content: and a trekker is likely to find many Sikh pilgrims on the route.As one nears Ghangaria one is greeted by fields of perfumed wild flowers, wild rose bushes and wild strawberries by the sides of the path. The visitors to Valley of Flowers need to get a permit from Forest Department, at Ghangaria and the permit is valid for three days and visiting and trekking is allowed only during day time. As visitors are not allowed to stay inside the National park, accommodation can be obtained at Ghangaria. The best time to visit is between July and early September, when


title: "Valley of Flowers National Park" content: the valley is full of flowers, just after the outbreak of monsoon. The valley has three sub-alpine between 3,200m and 3,500m which is the limit for trees, lower alpine between 3,500m and 3,700m, and higher alpine above 3,700m. The habitats include valley bottom, river bed, small forests, meadows, eroded, scrubby and stable slopes, moraine, plateau, bogs, stone desert and caves. The lower surrounding hills in the buffer zone are thickly forested. The Forest Research Institute in 1992 recorded 600 species of angiosperms and 30 pteridophytes in the valley and surroundings, discovering 58 new records for the valley of which 4


title: "Valley of Flowers National Park" content: were new for Himalayan state. Of these plants, 5 out of 6 species globally threatened are not found in Nanda Devi National Park or elsewhere in Uttarakhand: "Aconitum falconeri", "A. balfouri", Himalayan maple ("Acer caesium"), the blue Himalayan poppy ("Meconopsis aculeata") and "Saussurea atkinsoni". Kala classified 31 species of rare and endangered categories within the national park in 1998. Further his studies report that the dominant family in Valley of Flowers is Asteraceae with 62 species. 45 medicinal plants are used by local villagers and several species, such as "Saussurea obvallata" (brahmakamal) are collected as religious offerings to goddesses Nanda


title: "Valley of Flowers National Park" content: Devi and Sunanda Devi. The site is designated a Centre of Plant Diversity. Characteristic of the sub-alpine zone are high altitude forests which help to retain moisture and snow and support a large number of floral and faunal communities. It is dominated by the uncommon Himalayan maple "Acer caesium" (VU), west Himalayan fir "Abies pindrow", Himalayan white birch "Betula utilis", and "Rhododendron campanulatum" with Himalayan yew "Taxus wallichiana", "Syringa emodi" and "Sorbus lanata". Some of the common herbs are "Arisaema jacquemontii", "Boschniakia himalaica", "Corydalis cashmeriana", "Polemonium caerulium", "Polygonum polystachyum" (a rampant tall weed), "Impatiens sulcata", "Geranium wallichianum", "Galium aparine", "Morina


title: "Valley of Flowers National Park" content: longifolia", "Inula grandiflora", "Nomochoris oxypetala", "Anemone rivularis", "Pedicularis pectinata", "P. bicornuta", "Primula denticulate" and "Trillidium govanianum". In trampled areas where past livestock congregated, Himalayan knotweed "Polygonum polystachium" is a rampant weed. The density of wild animals in the valley is not high, but all the animals found are rare or endangered. A total 13 species of mammals are recorded for the park by CP Kala and its vicinity although only he sighted 9 species directly: northern plains grey langur "Semnopithecus entellus", flying squirrel "Petaurista petaurista", Himalayan black bear "Ursus thibetanus (VU)", red fox "Vulpes vulpes", Himalayan weasel "Mustela sibirica", and


title: "Valley of Flowers National Park" content: Himalayan yellow-throated marten "Martes flavigula", Himalayan goral "Naemorhedus goral", Himalayan musk deer "Moschus leucogaster", Indian chevrotain "Moschiola indica", Himalayan thar "Hemitragus jemlahicus (VU)" and serow "Capricornis sumatraensis (VU)". The tahr is common, the serow, goral, musk deer and bharal, blue sheep are rare. The common leopard "Panthera pardus" is reported from lower parts of the valley closer to the villages. Local people have also reported evidence of brown bear "Ursus arctos" and bharal or blue sheep "Pseudois nayaur". A recent faunal survey in October 2004 has established the presence of snow leopard "Panthera uncia" (EN) in the national park. The


title: "Valley of Flowers National Park" content: area is within the West Himalayan Endemic Bird Area but there have been no surveys specific to the Valley. 114 species were seen in 1993 in Nanda Devi Park. Species frequently seen in the valley include lammergeier "Gypaetus barbatus", Himalayan vulture "Gyps himalayensis", yellow billed and red billed choughs "Pyrrhocorax graculus" and "P. pyrrhocorax", koklass pheasant "Pucrasia macrolopha", the nationally listed Himalayan monal pheasant "Lophophorus impejanus", found in rhododendron thickets, scaly-bellied and yellow-nape woodpeckers "Picus squamatus" and "P. flavinucha", great and bluethroated barbets "Megalaima virens" and "M. asiatica", snow pigeon "Columba leuconota" and spotted dove "Stigmatopelia chinensis". The area is


title: "Valley of Flowers National Park" content: relatively poor in reptiles: most often seen are the high altitude lizard "Agama tuberculata", Himalayan ground skink "Leiolopisma himalayana" and Himalayan pit viper "Gloydius himalayanus". Along with the flowers are wild bees and many species of butterfly which need to be more researched. A few of the more evident species are lime butterfly "Papilio demoleus demoleus", common yellow swallowtail "Papilio machaon", common Mormon "Papilio polytes romulus", spangle "Papilio protenor protenor" and common blue apollo "Parnassius hardwickei". The Flowers was surveyed and inventoried in 1987 by the Botanical Survey of India, in 1992 by the Forest Research Institute and in 1997


title: "Valley of Flowers National Park" content: by the Wildlife Institute of India which found five species new to science. A research nursery and seed/rhizome/tuber bank for propagating rare plants and valuable medicinal herbs has been created at Musadhar near the entrance of the site. Rare and valuable medicinal plants are the subject of special programs. These include "Aconitum heterophyllum", "A. falconeri", "Arnebia benthamii", "Dactylorhiza hatagirea", "Gymnadenia orchides", "Megacarpaea polyandra", "Picrorhiza kurrooa", "Podophyllum hexandrum" and "Taxus wallichiana". Research plots have been set up to determine the best way to control the spread of the tall Himalayan knotweed "Polygonum polystachium" without damaging other plants or the surface of


title: "Valley of Flowers National Park" content: the soil. A first annual survey was conducted in 2004 and will be repeated annually. Flowers mostly orchids, poppies, primulas, marigold, daisies and anemones carpet the ground. Sub-alpine forests of birch and rhododendron cover parts of the park's area. A decade long study of Prof. C.P. Kala from 1993 onwards concludes that the Valley of Flowers endows with 520 species of higher plants (angiosperms, gymnosperms and pteridophytes), of these 498 are flowering plants. The park has many species of medicinal plants including "Dactylorhiza hatagirea", "Picrorhiza kurrooa", "Aconitum violaceum", "Polygonatum multiflorum", "Fritillaria roylei" and "Podophyllum hexandrum". Valley of Flowers National Park


title: "York Centre" content: filled in a Jewish ethnic origin). The riding was previously considered one of the safest Liberal Party seats in Canada; however, this changed as the Conservative Party has gained ground the last few elections, and its candidate Mark Adler won the seat in 2011. However, the Liberal Party regained the seat in 2015 with its candidate Michael Levitt. York Centre consists of the part of the City of Toronto bounded on the north by the northern city limit, and on the east, south and west by a line drawn from the city limit south along Bathurst Street, southeast along the


title: Ruins content: the nineteenth century. In Europe, many religious buildings suffered as a result of the politics of the day. In the 16th century, the English monarch Henry VIII set about confiscating the property of monastic institutions in a campaign which became known as the Dissolution of the Monasteries. Many abbeys and monasteries fell into ruin when their assets, including lead roofs, were stripped. In the 20th century, a number of European historic buildings fell into ruin as a result of taxation policies, which required all structures with roofs to pay substantial property tax. The owners of these buildings, like Fetteresso Castle


title: "Hans Zarkov" content: the 1996 animated series. Jody Racicot portrayed the character in the 2007 "Flash Gordon" television series. He assists Flash, Dale, and Baylin by monitoring rifts that open. He seems very nervous constantly and Baylin describes as a "strange, fidgety little man". His nervous attitude came from the fact that after Doctor Gordon disappeared in the rift experiment, he was hounded by FBI agents to cover up the truth. Hans Zarkov Dr. Hans Zarkov is a fictional character appearing in the "Flash Gordon" comic strip and the following serials, films, television shows and comic books. Zarkov is a brilliant scientist who


title: "Retinal ganglion cell" content: layer, reducing the quality of vision. There are human eye diseases where this does, in fact, happen. In some vertebrates, for example the chicken, the ganglion cell axons "are" myelinated inside the retina. [[Category:Histology]] [[Category:Human eye anatomy]] [[Category:Visual system]] [[Category:Human cells]] [[Category:Neurons]] Retinal ganglion cell A retinal ganglion cell (RGC) is a type of neuron located near the inner surface (the ganglion cell layer) of the retina of the eye. It receives visual information from photoreceptors via two intermediate neuron types: bipolar cells and retina amacrine cells. Retina amacrine cells, particularly narrow field cells, are important for creating functional subunits


title: "Theoren Fleury" content: program. The decision ended his season. Prior to the 2001–02 season Fleury said that he continued to struggle with substance abuse and had difficulty adapting to life in Manhattan after growing up in a Canadian prairie town of 1,500. He played all 82 games in 2001–02, but his problems affected his behavior on the ice. After receiving a major and game misconduct penalty in a game against the San Jose Sharks on December 28, he wound up in a confrontation with the Sharks' mascot, S.J. Sharkie, in a hallway of the HP Pavilion, reportedly breaking the rib of the mascot


title: "Pieris brassicae" content: Pieris brassicae Pieris brassicae, the large white, also called cabbage butterfly, cabbage white, cabbage moth (erroneously), or in India the large cabbage white, is a butterfly in the family Pieridae. It is a close relative of the small white, "Pieris rapae". The large white is common throughout Europe, North Africa and Asia. The large white is common throughout Europe, north Africa, and Asia to the Himalayas often in agricultural areas, meadows and parkland. It has managed to establish a population in South Africa and in 1995 it was predicted to spread to Australia and New Zealand. The large white is


title: "Pieris brassicae" content: a strong flier and the British population is reinforced in most years by migrations from the continent. Scattered reports of the large white from the north-eastern United States (New York, Rhode Island and Maine) over the past century are of a dubious nature and indicate either accidental transport or intentional release. Such introductions threaten to establish this agricultural pest in North America. In 2010 the butterfly was found in Nelson, New Zealand where it is known as the great white butterfly. It is classed as an unwanted pest due to the potential effect on crops. For a limited period in


title: "Pieris brassicae" content: October 2013 the Department of Conservation offered a monetary reward for the capture of the butterfly. After two weeks, the public had captured 134 butterflies, netting $10 for each one handed in. As a result of this and other containment measures, such as over 263,000 searches in the upper South Island and the release of predatory wasps, the large white was officially declared to be eradicated from New Zealand as of December 2014. The large white eggs appear as a pale yellow colour. They turn into a darker yellow within twenty-four hours of being oviposited. A few hours prior to


title: "Pieris brassicae" content: hatching, they will become black in colour, and the shell will become more transparent, and the larvae will appear visible. Large white larvae experience four moultings and five instars. The first instar follows hatching of the egg into large white larvae. The larvae are a light yellow in colour with distinctive brown heads and have soft bodies. The larvae appear as if they are very hairy. Following a moulting, the larvae enter the second instar. They have tubercles covered with black hair. In the third instar, large white larvae display more activity. This instar is when the larvae are observed


title: "Pieris brassicae" content: to eat voraciously, and cause significant amounts of damage to their host plant. At this point, they are observed to be more yellow in colour, studded with black dots. Following the third instar, the larvae go through the fourth instar, with similar appearances as the larvae of the third instar, but with more aggrandized size and feeding behaviour. The large white larvae are observed to be cylindrical, robust, and elongated by the fifth instar, yellow in colour and with bright colouration on their abdomen and thorax. They are also observed to have a grey and black head. This instar requires


title: "Pieris brassicae" content: maximum food quality and quantity in order to aid in full development, otherwise the larva dies before becoming an adult butterfly. For both males and females, the wings are white with black tips on the forewings. The female also has two black spots on each forewing. The underside of each wing is a pale greenish and serves as excellent camouflage when at rest. The black markings are generally darker in the summer brood. The large white butterfly's wingspan reaches 5 to 6.5 cm on average. The upperside of the male is creamy white. The forewing is irrorated (sprinkled) with black


title: "Pieris brassicae" content: scales at the base and along costa for a short distance. The apex and termen above vein 2 are more or less broadly black with the inner margin of the black area containing a regular even curve. In one or two specimens a small longitudinally narrow black spot was found in interspace 3. Hindwing: uniform, irrorated with black scales at base, a large black subcostal spot before the apex, and in a few specimens indications of black scaling on the termen anteriorly. The underside of the forewing is white, slightly irrorated with black scales at the base of cell and


title: "Pieris brassicae" content: along costa. The apex is light ochraceous brown with a large black spot in outer half of interspace 1 and another quadrate black spot at base of interspace 3. The hindwing is light ochraceous brown, closely irrorated with minute black scales. The subcostal black spot before the apex shows through from the upperside. The antennae are black and white at apex. The head, thorax, and abdomen are black, with some white hairs, where underneath is whitish. The upperside of the female is similar to that of the male, but the irroration of black scales at the bases of the wings


title: "Pieris brassicae" content: is more extended. The black area on apex and termen of forewing is broader, its inner margin less evenly curved. A conspicuous large, black spot also exists in the outer half of interspace 1 near the base of interspace 3. On the hindwing the subcostal black spot before the apex is much larger and more prominent. The underside is similar to that of the male but the apex of the forewing and the whole surface of the hindwing is a light ochraceous yellow, not ochraceous brown. The black discal spots on forewing are much larger. The antennae, head, thorax, and


title: "Pieris brassicae" content: abdomen of the females are the same as for the male. The large white butterfly's habitat consists of large, open spaces, as well as farms and vegetable gardens, because of the availability of its food source. Some favoured locations include walls, fences, tree trunks, and often their food plant, which is important for large white survival since they need to have access to their food source for survival. They primarily hover around these locations, which should contain both wild and cultivated crucifer, as well as oil-seed rape, cabbages, and Brussels sprouts. These butterflies can be polyandrous, but it is not


title: "Pieris brassicae" content: the predominant mating system. This means that, though some female butterflies can have more than one mate, most of the large white females only have one male mate at a time through a monogamous mating system. Two generations of butterflies are produced each year. The first brood consists of adults with a spring hatching around April. The second brood is made up of adults that hatch around July. Sometimes, a third brood can be observed farther along in the summer if the weather is warm enough. These female butterflies oviposit eggs in bunches on the undersides of leaves because the


title: "Pieris brassicae" content: larvae prefer the morphology of leaf undersides over the upper surface of leaves. To oviposit, the female butterflies use the tip of the abdomen and arrange the eggs in specific batches. The pre-oviposition period, which lasts three to eight days, provides ample time for these butterflies to mate. Females tend to use their forelegs to drum on the surfaces of their intended leaves as a test of the plant's suitability for breeding. If they find a suitable surface, female large whites oviposit two to three days following copulation. They oviposit approximately six to seven times in eight days. The females


title: "Pieris brassicae" content: can pair up to mate again approximately five or more days after the previous mating. Females rely on visual cues, such as the colours of plants, to decide where to lay their eggs. They favour green surfaces in particular to display oviposition behaviour. This colour preference could be due to the fact that the large white's food source also acts as a host plant for oviposition. Most females choose nectar plants like buddleia or thistles, which are green and ideal plants for the larvae. These plants, used as oviposition sites, typically contain mustard oil glucosides, whose primary function is to


title: "Pieris brassicae" content: help the larvae survive as their essential food source. For instance, previous studies have shown that the large white larvae do not survive if the adult butterflies oviposit on a different host plant such as broad bean ("Vicia faba") because this bean does not contain the proper nutrients to aid in larval development. The large white eggs hatch approximately one week after being laid and live as a group for some time. The hatching period constitutes around two to seven hours. Upon hatching, they cause a lot of damage to the host plant by eating away at and destroying the


title: "Pieris brassicae" content: host plant. The large whites are found throughout most of Eurasia, though there are some seasonal fluctuations present due to migration. The northern populations tend to be augmented during the summer migration season from butterflies from southern areas. The large whites fly starting early spring, and keep migrating until seasons shift to autumn and the resultant cold weather. This means the large whites typically take two to three flights per butterfly reproductive season. Large white butterfly migration patterns are typically observed only when there is a disturbance. In general, the large white butterfly's migratory patterns are atypical; normally, butterflies fly


title: "Pieris brassicae" content: towards the poles in the spring, and towards the more temperate Equator during the fall. However, they fly in random directions, excluding north, in the spring, and there is little return migration observed. However, it has been hard to track entire migratory paths, since these butterflies can migrate more than 800 kilometres; thus, individual butterflies may not migrate the 800 kilometres, but rather that other butterflies start their migrations from where the other butterflies ended. Large white broods in the north have not been seen to overwinter, or hibernate over the winter, successfully. However, they have been observed to hibernate


title: "Pieris brassicae" content: in the south. Males do not display considerable amounts of territorial behaviour. It has been suggested that this could be a reason why there is no observed significant sexual dimorphism between the male and female large white butterflies. Large white butterflies have a preference for what types of food plant they usually eat. Studies have shown that the preference for certain plants is reliant upon the butterflies' previous experiences. The large white butterflies, then, are shown to rely on the species of food plants, the time of experience, and the choice-situation. Thus, the large white butterflies learn what types of


title: "Pieris brassicae" content: foods they prefer, rather than relying on their sense organs or physiological changes. In contrast, this preference for adult food plant differs from the preference of female large whites using visual cues such as plant colour to determine the best host plants for oviposition. Plants with mustard-oil glucosides are important for this butterfly because it dictates their eating behaviours, and resultant survival rates, as specified in the section regarding oviposition. This is so beneficial for large whites because their large consumption of plants containing mustard oils is the specific reason they are so distasteful to predators, such as birds. Thus,


title: "Pieris brassicae" content: caterpillars are protected from attack, despite them being brightly coloured; in fact, the bright colouration is to signal to predators that they taste bad. However, there is more benefit to this species' use of mustard oil glucosides. In addition to predator protection, these glucosides belong to a class of stimuli that produce the biting responses associated with eating. Some plants contain alkaloids and steroids; these reduce and inhibit the butterflies' responsiveness to mustard oil glucosides. Thus, this utilization of mustard oil glucosides dramatically affects the behaviour of the butterfly, and the resulting food selection for survival. The food source of


title: "Pieris brassicae" content: the larva of the white butterfly are cabbages, radishes, and the undersides of leaves. Adults feed on flower nectar. Large white butterflies do not have a specific group of predators. Instead, they are preyed upon by a wide range of animals, and even the occasional plant. This butterfly's main predators include birds; however, large whites can also be preyed upon by species in orders such as Hymenoptera, Hemiptera, Coleoptera, Diptera, Arachnid; some species of mammals, one of reptiles, one species of insectivorous plant, and species in amphibian orders, as well as other miscellaneous insect species. The butterflies are typically preyed


title: "Pieris brassicae" content: upon as eggs, larvae, and imagines. Large white butterflies emit an unpleasant smell which deters predators. In addition, large whites are an aposematic species, meaning that they display warning colours, which benefits the large whites against predation. This aposematic colouration occurs in the larval, pupal, and imago stages, where toxic mustard oil glycosides from food plants are stored in the individuals' bodies. Aposematism is not entirely related to Müllerian mimicry; however, large white larvae often benefit from multiple other aposematic larvae from other species, such as the larvae of "Papilio machaon". The crops most susceptible to "P. brassicae" damage in


title: "Pieris brassicae" content: areas in Europe are those in the genus "Brassica" (cabbage, mustard, and their allies), particularly Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, kohlrabi, rape, swede, and turnip. The attacks to crops are rather localized and can lead to 100% crop loss in a certain area. In addition, because of its strong inclination to migrate, adults may infest new areas that were previously free from attack. Because many of the host plants of "P. brassicae" are sold for consumption, damage by these butterflies can cause a great reduction of crop value. Larvae may also bore into the vegetable heads of cabbage and cauliflower and


title: "Pieris brassicae" content: cause damage. High populations of these larvae may also skeletonise their host plants. In present-day areas such as Great Britain, "P. brassicae" are now less threatening as pests because of natural and chemical control reasons. However, it is still considered a pest in other European countries, in China, India, Nepal, and Russia. In fact, it is estimated to cause over 40% yield loss annually on different crop vegetables in India and Turkey. Pieris brassicae Pieris brassicae, the large white, also called cabbage butterfly, cabbage white, cabbage moth (erroneously), or in India the large cabbage white, is a butterfly in the


title: "Chipping Ongar" content: Chipping Ongar Chipping Ongar is a small market town in the civil parish of Ongar, in the Epping Forest district of the county of Essex, England. It is located east of Epping, southeast of Harlow and northwest of Brentwood. For population details taken at the 2011 Census see under the civil parish of Ongar. The name "Ongar" means "grass land" (akin to the German word: Anger). "Chipping" is from Old English "cēping", "a market, a market-place", akin to Danish "købing" and Swedish "köping"; the same element is found in other towns such as Chipping Norton, Chipping Sodbury and Chipping (now


title: "Common blue" content: Common blue The common blue butterfly ("Polyommatus icarus") is a butterfly in the family Lycaenidae and subfamily Polyommatinae. The butterfly can be found in Europe, North Africa, and the Canary Islands, but it is especially common throughout the British Isles. Recently, however, there has been an estimated 96% population loss for the common blue due to habitat loss. The butterfly's name comes from the coloring of the wings. The males usually have blue wings with a black-brown border and a white fringe at the edge. The females are usually brown with a little blue dusting and fewer orange spots on


title: "Common blue" content: the lower parts of the wings. This species was first defined in Rottemburg (1775). The subspecies was first defined in Kane (1893). Other vernacular names that have been given to "P. Icarus" include: Little Blew Argus, Blew Argus, Mixed Argus, Selvedg’d Argus, Utramarine Blue, Common Blue, Caerulean Butterfly, and Alexis. Subspecies include: "Polyommatus icarus" has a wingspan of . The dorsal side of the wings is an iridescent lilac blue with a thin black border. Females' wings are brown with a row of red spots along the edges of the wings and usually some blue at the base. The extent


title: "Common blue" content: of blue and brown is extremely variable depending on location. The top of the wings may be mostly blue, especially in Ireland and Scotland, but it always has red spots. The ventral side has a grayish base color in the males and a more brownish hue in the females. Both sexes have a row of red spots along the edge of the hindwings and extending onto the forewings, though they are generally fainter there, particularly in the males, where they are sometimes missing altogether. There are about a dozen black-centered white spots on the hindwings and nine on the forewings.


title: "Common blue" content: These usually include one in the middle of the forewing cell, absent in Chapman's and Escher's blues. The fringes on the outer edge of the wings are uniform white, not crossed with black lines (lack checkering), as it is in the chalkhill blue and Adonis blues. The larvae, or caterpillar is small, pale green with yellow stripes and, as usual with lycid larvae, and rather slug like. The common blue butterfly is found in Europe, North Africa, the Canary Islands, and temperate Asia to Northern China. Recently it was discovered in Quebec, Canada. It is widespread in the British Isles,


title: "Common blue" content: mainly in the countries of England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Its distribution trend shows a 15% decline since the 1970s. The common blue is Britain's (and probably Europe's) most common and most widespread blue. It is found as far north as Orkney and on most of the Outer Hebrides. A range of grassland habitats are used: meadows, coastal dunes, woodland clearings, and also many man-made habitats, anywhere their food plants are found. It is a recently introduced species in eastern Canada. The common blue butterfly was discovered in Mirabel, Quebec, Canada, by Ara Sarafian, an amateur entomologist who observed the


title: "Common blue" content: butterfly from 2005 to 2008. He contacted the Canadian National Collection of Insects in Ottawa where the butterfly was identified as "Polyommatus icarus", a new alien butterfly to Canada and to North America. The butterfly seems to be well established and is extending its range from year to year. In 2016, pictures were taken of a male butterfly in the forest near Kamloops, British Columbia. These butterflies inhabit flowery or grassy places, warm and cool, open or wooded areas and at all altitudes up to high alpine meadows at an elevation of above sea level. It mostly resides on chalk


title: "Common blue" content: or limestone grassland, but also in smaller numbers in woodland clearings, meadows, heathlands, sand dunes, along railway embankments, and under cliffs. Previously, "P. icarus" was a very common species that occupied Europe and Asia, and was one of the most widely distributed butterflies in Britain. They are known to be tolerant of many habitats, including a wide range of grassland habitats. There has been an estimated 96% loss of the butterfly population, which could be due to the fact that 46% of the total land area it occupies has been lost since 1901. Host plant decline has also contributed to


title: "Common blue" content: the loss of "P.icarus" population. The host plant "Lotus corniculatus" that provided habitat for "P. icarus" has lost 46% of the total area. This host plant is a favored plant for two reasons: it provides adult nutrition, as well as food for the larvae after it hatches. The larvae feed on plants from the family Leguminosae (bean family). Recorded food plants are "Lathyrus" species, "Vicia" species, "Vicia cracca", "Oxytropis campestris", bird's foot trefoil ("Lotus corniculatus"), "Oxytropis pyrenaica", "Astragalus aristatus", "Astragalus onobrychis", "Astragalus pinetorum", black medick ("Medicago lupulina"), "Medicago romanica", "Medicago falcata", common restharrow ("Ononis repens"), wild thyme "Thymus serpyllum", lesser


title: "Common blue" content: trefoil ("Trifolium dubium"), "Trifolium pratense" and white clover ("Trifolium repens"). Common blues sequester flavonoids from their host plants and allocate these pigments that are UV-absorbing into their wings. These flavonoid pigments in females attract males to them more. Males who patrol areas of suitable habitats while searching for virgin females stop and inspect females who have flavonoid pigments in them. This may be due to the fact that flavonoid pigments that have UV absorption increase color saturation on females and allow females to be more conspicuous. There are also some other advantages of sequestering flavonoids, including the protection of eggs


title: "Common blue" content: from adverse UV chemical reactions, as the butterflies will absorb the UV rays, and the flavonoids can offer a chemical defense against predators or pathogens. Flavonoid sequestration is much more effective when coming from natural host plants than from experimentally offered diets. Females sequester about 60% more flavonoids than do males. This richness in females may increase visibility, but could also confer information about feeding history, and consequentially the quality of potential mate. Flavonoid sequestration is an important component of intraspecific visual communication and sexual signaling in polyommatus butterflies. During oviposition, females must locate a potential host plant and evaluate


title: "Common blue" content: its suitability as the host plant for oviposition. "P. icarus" uses visual cues to conduct this task. Females use several plants in the family fabaceae as larval host plants, many which could also potentially function as nectar sources. "P. icarus" prefers plants with flowers over plants without, and prefer to oviposit near the flowers. The common blue goes through two life cycles per year. The first brood usually emerges in May and lives until mid-June. The second brood emerges in late July or early August and lives until September. Males are often very obvious as they defend territories against rivals


title: "Common blue" content: and seek out the more reclusive females. In the south of Britain there are two broods a year, flying in May and June and again in August and September. Northern England has one brood, flying between June and September. In a year with a long warm season, there is sometimes a partial third brood in the south flying into October. The egg stage lasts for around eight days. The eggs are white and shaped like flattened spheres. The eggs are very small, about . The ground color of the egg sac is pale-greenish grey, with the actual arrangement being white.


title: "Common blue" content: Eggs are laid singly on young shoots of the food plant. The larvae emerge around a week or two after eggs are laid. The larvae of "P. icarus" feed on the underside of leaves, causing botching. Hibernation occurs as a half-grown larvae. They are attractive to ants of genera "Myrmica", "Lasius", "Formica", "Plagiolepiss ", but not as much as some other species of blues. The chrysalis is olive green/brown and formed on the ground, where it is attended by ants of genera "Myrmica", "Lasius", "Formica", "Plagiolepiss," which will often take it into their nests. The larva creates a substance called


title: "Common blue" content: honeydew, which the ants eat while the butterfly lives in the ant hill. The relationship between these ants and blue common larvae is described to be facultatively mutualistic. There are five instars of larvae. During the first instar, larva emerge and eat away the crown of the egg. The segments of the larvae are large and rounded, and the following segments are smaller. The body is a light green, and is whitish in light. This stage lasts about nine days. The second instar, after the first moult, adds a couple of body segments onto the larvae, and the body is


title: "Common blue" content: more green. The third instar signifies more feeding and growing in size of the larvae. They are about long and the head and legs are black colored. In the fourth and fifth instar, the larvae becomes very green, has ten body segments, and measures about in length. Larval growth rates are thought to be determined mainly by temperature and food quality and availability. The larvae of "P. icarus" are oligophagous, meaning they utilize a range of host plants in the family fabacaceae, as well as have a mutualistic relationship with ants. For both male and female larvae, the total development


title: "Common blue" content: time is longer with longer day lengths, corresponding to earlier times in the season. When larvae are born earlier in the season, they take a longer time to develop. When they are born later, they take a shorter time to develop. Thus the external effect of photoperiod affects the length of development for the larvae. Pupation, a stage that lasts about two weeks, occurs under silk strands at the base of the food plant. The chrysalis is olive green/brown and formed on the ground, where it is attended by ants. Ants may aid in protecting the pupa and may bury


title: "Common blue" content: it to protect it from predators. The male, with a bluer color, is more conspicuous than the female, which has brown upperwings. Males fly farther distances in search of territories that have fertile females. Females fly lower and search for nectar and places to lay her eggs. Wing span ranges from . When the sexes meet, copulation occurs immediately, usually without any courtship ritual. Visual systems in butterflies are highly diverse and their color vision abilities have only begun to be explored. To see color, "P. icarus" uses a duplicated blue opsin in conjunction with its long-wavelength opsin LWRh. This


title: "Common blue" content: enables the common blue to see color in the green part of the light spectrum extending up to . There is also a difference between the dorsal and ventral eye-shine of "P. icarus", with the dorsal retina dominated by yellow-reflecting ommatidia and the ventral exhibiting yellow and red-reflecting ommatidia. "P. icarus" is able to use color vision and distinguish between yellow of and blue of , but are not able to distinguish between yellow and red of 640 nm. Common blue The common blue butterfly ("Polyommatus icarus") is a butterfly in the family Lycaenidae and subfamily Polyommatinae. The butterfly can


title: "Glasgow Cathedral" content: Glasgow Cathedral Glasgow Cathedral, also called the High Kirk of Glasgow or St Kentigern's or St Mungo's Cathedral is the oldest cathedral on mainland Scotland and is the oldest building in Glasgow. Since the Reformation the cathedral continues in public ownership, within the responsibility of Historic Environment Scotland The congregation is part of the established Church of Scotland's Presbytery of Glasgow and its services and associations are open to all. The cathedral and its kirkyard are at the top of High Street, at Cathedral Street. Immediately neighbouring it are Glasgow Royal Infirmary, opened in 1794, and the elevated Glasgow Necropolis,


title: "Glasgow Cathedral" content: opened in 1833. Nearby are the Provand's Lordship, Glasgow`s oldest house and its herbal medical gardens, the Barony Hall (Barony Church), University of Strathclyde, Cathedral Square, Glasgow Evangelical Church (North Barony Church), and St Mungo Museum. The history of the cathedral is linked with that of the city, and is allegedly located where the patron saint of Glasgow, Saint Mungo, built his church. The tomb of the saint is in the lower crypt. Walter Scott's novel "Rob Roy" gives an account of the kirk. Built before the Reformation from the late 12th century onwards and serving as the seat of


title: "Glasgow Cathedral" content: the Bishop and later the Archbishop of Glasgow, the building is a superb example of Scottish Gothic architecture. It is also one of the few Scottish medieval churches (and the only medieval cathedral on the Scottish mainland) to have survived the Reformation not unroofed. James IV ratified the treaty of Perpetual Peace with England at the high altar on 10 December 1502. The cathedral and the nearby castle played a part in the battles of Glasgow in 1544 and 1560. Twenty years after the Reformation, on 22 April 1581 James VI granted the income from a number of lands to


title: "Glasgow Cathedral" content: Glasgow town for the kirk's upkeep. He traced the ownership of these lands to money left by Archbishop Gavin Dunbar as a legacy for repairing the cathedral. The town council agreed on 27 February 1583 to take responsibility for repairing the kirk, while recording they had no obligation to do so. The church survives because of this resolution. Inside, the rood screen is also a very rare survivor in Scottish churches. The cathedral has been host to number of congregations and continues as a place of active Christian worship, hosting a Church of Scotland congregation. The current minister (since 15


title: "Glasgow Cathedral" content: February 2007) is the Rev Laurence A. B. Whitley, PhD,(Retired 2017) who was previously minister at Montrose Old and St Andrew's Parish Church. The previous minister was the Very Rev William Morris, who was minister from 1967 until retiring in November 2005. The building itself is in the ownership of the Crown, is maintained by Historic Scotland, and is a popular destination for tourists. The University of Glasgow originated in classes held within the precinct of the Cathedral. William Turnbull, Bishop of Glasgow was primarily responsible for the foundation of the University around the year 1451. In 1460, the University


title: "Glasgow Cathedral" content: moved out of the Cathedral to an adjacent site on the east side of the High Street, known locally as The College, and moved to its current home on Gilmorehill in 1870. Glasgow Cathedral Choir is a professional adult ensemble, singing at the two regular Sunday services each week. The current Director of Music is Andrew Forbes and the Cathedral Organist is Malcolm Sim. The four-manual Father Willis organ was installed in 1879, and has been maintained by Harrison & Harrison since they rebuilt the instrument in 1996. Other cathedrals in Glasgow are St. Andrew's Cathedral (Roman Catholic), St. Mary's


title: "Glasgow Cathedral" content: Cathedral (Scottish Episcopal) and St Luke's Cathedral (Greek Orthodox). As of July 2017 the Cathedral is in a vacancy. Glasgow Cathedral Glasgow Cathedral, also called the High Kirk of Glasgow or St Kentigern's or St Mungo's Cathedral is the oldest cathedral on mainland Scotland and is the oldest building in Glasgow. Since the Reformation the cathedral continues in public ownership, within the responsibility of Historic Environment Scotland The congregation is part of the established Church of Scotland's Presbytery of Glasgow and its services and associations are open to all. The cathedral and its kirkyard are at the top of High


title: "Eucratides I" content: I in Bactria, whose son Demetrius was conquering northwestern India. The king whom Eucratides dethroned in Bactria was probably Antimachus I. It is unclear whether Eucratides was a Bactrian official who raised a rebellion, or, according to some scholars, a cousin of the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes who was trying to regain the Bactrian territory. Justin explains that Eucratides acceded to the throne at about the same time as Mithridates, whose rule is accurately known to have started in 171 BC, thereby giving an approximate date for the accession of Eucratides: Some of the coins of Eucratides probably represent


title: "Flame retardant" content: independently and significantly associated with higher levels of most flame retardant congeners in the children. "San Antonio Statement on Brominated and Chlorinated Flame Retardants 2010": A group of 145 prominent scientists from 22 countries signed the first-ever consensus statement documenting health hazards from flame retardant chemicals found at high levels in home furniture, electronics, insulation, and other products. This statement documents that, with limited fire safety benefit, these flame retardants can cause serious health issues, and, as types of flame retardants are banned, the alternatives should be proven safe before being used. The group also wants to change widespread policies


title: "Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Destiny" content: on Shinn's involvement in the war. He addressed that such conflict would happen in the series, but refrained from giving its reasons. In order to add more entertainment to the series, the staff also worked on the fight scenes between mobile suits. Shinn's character was meant to contrast Kira's in regards to their involvement across the series, but as Kira did, he would also go through a major development. "Gundam SEED Destiny" had its premiere broadcast in Japan on October 9, 2004, at 6:00 p.m. on the Japan News Network television stations Tokyo Broadcasting System and Mainichi Broadcasting System replacing


title: "Enabling Act of 1802" content: United States in the State of Ohio" (Sess. 2, ch. 7, ). This act did not purport to admit the state, but declared that Ohio, by the formation of its constitution in pursuance of the act of April 30, 1802, "has become one of the United States of America." Neither act, however, set a formal date of statehood. An official statehood date for Ohio was not set until 1953, when the 83rd Congress passed a Joint resolution "for admitting the State of Ohio into the Union", () which designated March 1, 1803, as that date. Along with the extensively discussed


title: Rhinoceros content: Rhinoceros A rhinoceros (, , ), commonly abbreviated to 'rhino', is one of any five extant species of odd-toed ungulates in the family Rhinocerotidae, as well as any of the numerous extinct species. Two of the extant species are native to Africa and three to Southern Asia. The term "rhinoceros" is often more broadly applied to now extinct relatives of the superfamily Rhinocerotoidea. Members of the rhinoceros family are some of the largest remaining megafauna, with all species able to reach or exceed one tonne in weight. They have a herbivorous diet, small brains (400–600 g) for mammals of their


title: Rhinoceros content: size, one or two horns, and a thick (1.5–5 cm) protective skin formed from layers of collagen positioned in a lattice structure. They generally eat leafy material, although their ability to ferment food in their hindgut allows them to subsist on more fibrous plant matter when necessary. Unlike other perissodactyls, the two African species of rhinoceros lack teeth at the front of their mouths, relying instead on their lips to pluck food. Rhinoceros are killed by some humans for their horns, which are bought and sold on the black market, and used by some cultures for ornaments or traditional medicine.


title: Rhinoceros content: East Asia, specifically Vietnam, is the largest market for rhino horns. By weight, rhino horns cost as much as gold on the black market. People grind up the horns and consume them, believing the dust has therapeutic properties. The horns are made of keratin, the same type of protein that makes up hair and fingernails. Both African species and the Sumatran rhinoceros have two horns, while the Indian and Javan rhinoceros have a single horn. The IUCN Red List identifies the Black, Javan, and Sumatran rhinoceros as critically endangered. The word "rhinoceros" is derived through Latin from the , which


title: Rhinoceros content: is composed of ("rhino-", "nose"), ("keras", "horn") and "ontos": on: with a horn on the nose. The plural in English is "rhinoceros" or "rhinoceroses". The collective noun for a group of rhinoceroses is "crash" or "herd". The name has been in use since the 14th century. The family Rhinocerotidae consists of only four extant genera: "Ceratotherium" (White rhinoceros), "Dicerorhinus" (Sumatran rhinoceros), "Diceros" (Black rhinoceros) and "Rhinoceros" (Indian and Javan rhinoceros). The living species fall into three categories. The two African species, the white rhinoceros and the black rhinoceros, belong to the tribe Dicerotini, which originated in the middle Miocene, about


title: Rhinoceros content: 14.2 million years ago. The species diverged during the early Pliocene (about 5 million years ago). The main difference between black and white rhinos is the shape of their mouths – white rhinos have broad flat lips for grazing, whereas black rhinos have long pointed lips for eating foliage. There are two living Rhinocerotini species, the Indian rhinoceros and the Javan rhinoceros, which diverged from one another about 10 million years ago. The Sumatran rhinoceros is the only surviving representative of the most primitive group, the Dicerorhinini, which emerged in the Miocene (about 20 million years ago). A subspecific hybrid


title: Rhinoceros content: white rhino ("Ceratotherium s. simum" × "C. s. cottoni") was bred at the Dvůr Králové Zoo (Zoological Garden Dvur Kralove nad Labem) in the Czech Republic in 1977. Interspecific hybridisation of black and white rhinoceros has also been confirmed. While the black rhinoceros has 84 chromosomes (diploid number, 2N, per cell), all other rhinoceros species have 82 chromosomes. However, chromosomal polymorphism might lead to varying chromosome counts. For instance, in a study there were three northern white rhinoceroses with 81 chromosomes. There are two subspecies of white rhinoceros: the southern white rhinoceros ("Ceratotherium simum simum") and the northern white rhinoceros


title: Rhinoceros content: ("Ceratotherium simum cottoni"). As of 2013, the southern subspecies has a wild population of 20,405 – making them the most abundant rhino subspecies in the world. However, the northern subspecies is critically endangered, with all that is known to remain being two captive females. There is no conclusive explanation of the name "white rhinoceros". A popular idea that "white" is a distortion of either the Afrikaans word "wyd" or the Dutch word "wijd" (or its other possible spellings "whyde", "weit", etc.,), meaning "wide" and referring to the rhino's square lips, is not supported by linguistic studies. The white rhino has


title: Rhinoceros content: an immense body and large head, a short neck and broad chest. Females weigh and males . The head-and-body length is and the shoulder height is . On its snout it has two horns. The front horn is larger than the other horn and averages in length and can reach . The white rhinoceros also has a prominent muscular hump that supports its relatively large head. The colour of this animal can range from yellowish brown to slate grey. Most of its body hair is found on the ear fringes and tail bristles, with the rest distributed rather sparsely over


title: Rhinoceros content: the rest of the body. White rhinos have the distinctive flat broad mouth that is used for grazing. The name "black rhinoceros" ("Diceros bicornis") was chosen to distinguish this species from the white rhinoceros ("Ceratotherium simum"). This can be confusing, as the two species are not truly distinguishable by color. There are four subspecies of black rhino: South-central ("Diceros bicornis minor"), the most numerous, which once ranged from central Tanzania south through Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique to northern and eastern South Africa; South-western ("Diceros bicornis occidentalis") which are better adapted to the arid and semi-arid savannas of Namibia, southern Angola,


title: Rhinoceros content: western Botswana and western South Africa; East African ("Diceros bicornis michaeli"), primarily in Tanzania; and West African ("Diceros bicornis longipes") which was declared extinct in November 2011. The native Tswanan name "keitloa" describes a South African variation of the black rhino in which the posterior horn is equal to or longer than the anterior horn. An adult black rhinoceros stands high at the shoulder and is in length. An adult weighs from , exceptionally to , with the females being smaller than the males. Two horns on the skull are made of keratin with the larger front horn typically 50


title: Rhinoceros content: cm long, exceptionally up to 140 cm. Sometimes, a third smaller horn may develop. The black rhino is much smaller than the white rhino, and has a pointed mouth, which it uses to grasp leaves and twigs when feeding. During the latter half of the 20th century, their numbers were severely reduced from an estimated 70,000 in the late 1960s to a record low of 2,410 in 1995. Since then, numbers have been steadily increasing at a continental level with numbers doubling to 4,880 by the end of 2010. Current numbers are however still 90% lower than three generations ago.


title: Rhinoceros content: The Indian rhinoceros, or greater one-horned rhinoceros, ("Rhinoceros unicornis") has a single horn 20 to 60 cm long. It is nearly as large as the African white rhino. Its thick, silver-brown skin folds into the shoulder, back, and rump, giving it an armored appearance. Its upper legs and shoulders are covered in wart-like bumps, and it has very little body hair. Grown males are larger than females in the wild, weighing from . Shoulder height is . Females weigh about and are long. The record-sized specimen was approximately . Indian rhinos once inhabited many areas ranging from Pakistan to Myanmar


title: Rhinoceros content: and maybe even parts of China. However, because of human influence, they now exist in only several protected areas of India (in Assam, West Bengal, and a few pairs in Uttar Pradesh) and Nepal, plus a few pairs in Lal Suhanra National Park in Pakistan. They are confined to the tall grasslands and forests in the foothills of the Himalayas. Two-thirds of the world's Indian rhinoceroses are now confined to the Kaziranga National Park situated in the Golaghat district of Assam, India. The Javan rhinoceros ("Rhinoceros sondaicus") is one of the most endangered large mammals in the world. According to


title: Rhinoceros content: 2015 estimates, only about 60 remain, in Java, Indonesia, all in the wild. It is also the least known rhino species. Like the closely related, and larger, Indian rhinoceros, the Javan rhino has a single horn. Its hairless, hazy gray skin falls into folds into the shoulder, back, and rump, giving it an armored appearance. Its length reaches including the head, and its height . Adults are variously reported to weigh 900–1,400 kg or 1,360–2,000 kg. Male horns can reach 26 cm in length, while in females they are knobs or altogether absent. These animals prefer dense lowland rain forest,


title: Rhinoceros content: tall grass and reed beds that are plentiful with large floodplains and mud wallows. Though once widespread throughout Asia, by the 1930s they were nearly hunted to extinction in Nepal, India, Burma, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra for the supposed medical powers of their horns and blood. As of 2015, only 58–61 individuals remain in Ujung Kulon National Park, Java, Indonesia. The last known Javan rhino in Vietnam was reportedly killed for its horn in 2011 by Vietnamese poachers. Now only Java contains the last Javan rhinos. The Sumatran rhinoceros ("Dicerorhinus sumatrensis") is the smallest extant rhinoceros species, as well as


title: Rhinoceros content: the one with the most hair. It can be found at very high altitudes in Borneo and Sumatra. Due to habitat loss and poaching, their numbers have declined and it has become the most threatened rhinoceros. About 275 Sumatran rhinos are believed to remain. There are three subspecies of Sumatran rhinoceros: the Sumatran rhinoceros proper ("Dicerorhinus sumatrensis sumatrensis"), the Bornean rhinoceros ("Dicerorhinus sumatrensis harrissoni") and the possibly extinct Northern Sumatran rhinoceros ("Dicerorhinus sumatrensis lasiotis"). A mature rhino typically stands about high at the shoulder, has a length of and weighs around , though the largest individuals have been known to


title: Rhinoceros content: weigh as much as . Like the African species, it has two horns; the larger is the front (), with the smaller usually less than long. Males have much larger horns than the females. Hair can range from dense (the densest hair in young calves) to sparse. The color of these rhinos is reddish brown. The body is short and has stubby legs. The lip is prehensile. Sumatran rhinoceros are on the verge of extinction due to loss of habitat and illegal hunting. Once they were spread across South-east Asia, but now they are confined to several parts of Indonesia


title: Rhinoceros content: and Malaysia due to reproductive isolation. There were 320 "D. sumatrensis" in 1995, which by 2011 have dwindled to 216. It has been found through DNA comparison that the Sumatran rhinoceros is the most ancient extant rhinoceros and related to the extinct Eurasian woolly rhino species, "Coelodonta". In 1994 Alan Rabinowitz publicly denounced governments, NGOs, and other institutions for lacking in their attempts to conserve the Sumatran rhinoceros. To conserve it, they would have to relocate them from small forests to breeding programs that could monitor their breeding success. To boost reproduction, the Malaysian and Indonesian governments could also agree


title: Rhinoceros content: to exchange the gametes of the Sumatran and (smaller) Bornean subspecies. The Indonesian and Malaysian governments have also proposed a single management unit for these two ancient subspecies. Plantations for palm oil have taken out the living areas and led to the eradication of the rhino in Sumatra. Rhinocerotoids diverged from other perissodactyls by the early Eocene. Fossils of "Hyrachyus eximus" found in North America date to this period. This small hornless ancestor resembled a tapir or small horse more than a rhino. Three families, sometimes grouped together as the superfamily Rhinocerotoidea, evolved in the late Eocene, namely the Hyracodontidae,


title: Rhinoceros content: Amynodontidae and Rhinocerotidae. Hyracodontidae, also known as "running rhinos", showed adaptations for speed, and would have looked more like horses than modern rhinos. The smallest hyracodontids were dog-sized; the largest was "Paraceratherium", one of the largest known land mammals that ever existed. The hornless "Paraceratherium" was almost seven metres high, ten metres long, and weighed as much as 15 tons. Like a giraffe, it ate leaves from trees. Hyracodontids spread across Eurasia from the mid-Eocene to early Miocene. The Amynodontidae, also known as "aquatic rhinos", dispersed across North America and Eurasia, from the late Eocene to early Oligocene. The amynodontids