title: "Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve" content: become locally extinct. Traditional livestock grazing continues within the grass/shrublands administered by the BLM. Most desert animals are nocturnal, or mainly active at night. Nocturnal behavior is an adaptation to both predation and hot summer daytime temperatures. Nocturnal animals at Craters of the Moon include woodrats (also called packrats), skunks, foxes, bobcats, mountain lions, bats, nighthawks, owls, and most other small desert rodents. Animals that are most active at dawn and dusk, when temperatures are cooler than mid-day, are called crepuscular. The subdued morning and evening light helps make them less visible to predators, but is bright enough to allow


title: "Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve" content: them to locate food. Some animals are crepuscular mainly because their prey is. Crepuscular animals in the area include mule deer, coyotes, porcupines, mountain cottontails, jackrabbits, and many songbirds. Some desert animals are diurnal, or primarily active during the day. These include ground squirrels, marmots, chipmunks, lizards, snakes, hawks, and eagles. Many animals have a specific temperature range where they are active, meaning the times they are active vary with the seasons. Snakes and lizards hibernate during the winter months, are diurnal during the late spring and early fall, and become crepuscular during the heat of summer. Many insects and


title: "Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve" content: some birds also alter their times of activity. Some animals, like ground squirrels and marmots, have one or more periods of estivation, a summer hibernation that allows them to avoid the hottest and driest periods. Several animals are unique to Craters of the Moon and the surrounding area. Subspecies of Great Basin pocket mouse, American pika, yellow-pine chipmunk, and yellow-bellied marmot are found nowhere else. Lava tube beetles and many other cave animals are found only in the lava tubes of eastern Idaho. In May 1980 wildlife researcher Brad Griffith of the University of Idaho started a three-year study to


title: "Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve" content: mark and count the mule deer in the monument. The National Park Service was concerned that the local herd might grow so large that it would damage its habitat. Griffith found that this group of mule deer has developed a drought evasion strategy unique for its species. The deer arrive in the southern part of the pre-2000 extent of the monument mid-April each year once winter snows have melted away enough to allow for foraging. Griffith found that by late summer plants in the area have already matured and dried to the point that they can no longer provide enough


title: "Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve" content: moisture to sustain the deer. In late July after about 12 days above and warm nights above the herd migrates north to the Pioneer Mountains to obtain water from free-flowing streams and shade themselves in aspen and Douglas-fir groves. Rain in late September prompts the herd to return to the monument to feed on bitterbrush until snow in November triggers them to migrate back to their winter range. This herd, therefore, has a dual summer range. It is also very productive with one of the highest fawn survival rates of any herd in the species. Afternoon winds usually die down


title: "Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve" content: in the evening, prompting behavioral modifications in the herd. The deer avoid the dry wind by being more active at night when the wind is not blowing. In 1991 there was a three-year average of 420 mule deer. A series of fissure vents, cinder cones, spatter cones, rafted blocks, and overlapping lava flows are accessible from the Loop Drive, long. Wildflowers, shrubs, trees, and wild animals can be seen by hiking on one of the many trails in the monument or by just pulling over into one of the turn-offs. More rugged hiking opportunities are available in the Craters of


title: "Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve" content: the Moon Wilderness Area and Backcountry Area, the roadless southern and major part of the monument. Craters of the Moon Campground has 51 sites – none of which can be reserved in advance. Camping facilities are basic but do include water, restrooms, charcoal grills, and trash containers. National Park Service rangers present evening programs at the campground amphitheater in the summer. Camping enables visitors to enjoy the park during the evening and morning, when the heat, glare and wind are far less. A Lunar Ranger program enables children to earn an embroidered patch in a few hours. Backcountry hiking is


title: "Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve" content: available in the Craters of the Moon Wilderness and the much larger Backcountry Area beyond (added in 2000). Only two trails enter the wilderness area and even those stop after a few miles or kilometers. From there most hikers follow the Great Rift and explore its series of seldom-visited volcanic features. All overnight backcountry hikes require registration with a ranger. No drinking water is available in the backcountry and the dry climate quickly dehydrates hikers. Avoiding summer heat and winter cold are therefore recommended by rangers. Pets, camp fires, and all mechanized vehicles, including bicycles, are not allowed in the


title: "Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve" content: wilderness area. Skiing is allowed on the Loop Drive after it is closed to traffic in late November because of snow drifts. Typically there are of snow by January and by February. Cross-country skiing off Loop Drive is allowed but may be dangerous owing to sharp lava and hidden holes under the snow. Blizzards and other inclement weather may occur. Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve is a U.S. National Monument and national preserve in the Snake River Plain in central Idaho. It is along US 20 (concurrent with US


title: Mantineia content: response, the Mantineans expelled pro-Spartans from the city. After the Spartan defeat at the end of the Corinthian War, Mantineia re-formed into a single city. The fortifications now became almost circular, keeping some parts of the old walls. The Second Battle of Mantinea, in 362 BC, led to the fall of Theban hegemony. In that battle, Athens and Sparta were allied. Thebes won the battle, but its greatest general, Epaminondas, was killed in the fighting. Macedonian king Antigonus III Doson sacked the city at 223 BC. Antigonus handed the city to the Achaeans, which colonized it, under Aratos, and renamed


title: "Vicia faba" content: Vicia faba Vicia faba, also known in the culinary sense as the broad bean, fava bean, or faba bean is a species of flowering plant in the pea and bean family Fabaceae. It is of uncertain origin and widely cultivated as a crop for human consumption. It is also used as a cover crop, the bell bean, which has smaller beans. Varieties with smaller, harder seeds that are fed to horses or other animals are called field bean, tic bean or tick bean. Horse bean, "Vicia faba" var. "equina" is a variety recognized as an accepted name. Some people suffer


title: "Vicia faba" content: from favism, a hemolytic response to the consumption of broad beans, a condition linked to G6PDD. Otherwise the beans, with the outer seed coat removed, can be eaten raw or cooked. In young plants, the outer seed coat can be eaten, and in very young plants, the seed pod can be eaten. "Vicia faba" is a stiffly erect plant tall, with stems that are square in cross-section. The leaves are long, pinnate with 2–7 leaflets, and colored a distinct glaucous () grey-green color. Unlike most other vetches, the leaves do not have tendrils for climbing over other vegetation. The flowers


title: "Vicia faba" content: are long with five petals; the standard petals are white, the wing petals are white with a black spot (true black, not deep purple or blue as is the case in many "black" colorings) and the keel petals are white. Crimson-flowered broad beans also exist, which were recently saved from extinction. The flowers have a strong sweet scent which is attractive to bees and other pollinators. The fruit is a broad, leathery pod that is green, but matures to a dark blackish-brown, with a densely downy surface; the wild species has pods that are long and 1 cm diameter, but


title: "Vicia faba" content: many modern cultivars developed for food use have pods long and 2–3 cm thick. Each bean pod contains 3–8 seeds that are round to oval and have a 5–10 mm diameter in the wild plant, but are usually flattened and up to 20–25 mm long, 15 mm broad and 5–10 mm thick in food cultivars. "V. faba" has a diploid (2n) chromosome number of 12 (six homologous pairs). Five pairs are acrocentric chromosomes and one pair is metacentric. Broad beans have a long tradition of cultivation in Old World agriculture, being among the most ancient plants in cultivation and also


title: "Vicia faba" content: among the easiest to grow. Along with lentils, peas, and chickpeas, they are believed to have become part of the eastern Mediterranean diet around 6000 BCE or earlier. They are still often grown as a cover crop to prevent erosion because they can overwinter and, as a legume, they fix nitrogen in the soil. The broad bean has high plant hardiness; it can withstand harsh and cold climates. Unlike most legumes, the broad bean can be grown in soils with high salinity, as well as in clay soil. However, it prefers rich loams. In much of the English-speaking world, the


title: "Vicia faba" content: name "broad bean" is used for the large-seeded cultivars grown for human food, while "horse bean" and "field bean" refer to cultivars with smaller, harder seeds that are more like the wild species and used for animal feed, though their stronger flavour is preferred in some human food recipes, such as falafel. The term "fava bean" (from for the bean) is used in some English-speaking countries such as the US, but "broad bean" is the most common name in the UK and Australia and New Zealand. Broad bean plants are highly susceptible to early summer infestations of the black bean


title: "Vicia faba" content: aphid, which can cover large sections of growing plants with infestations, typically starting at the tip of the plant. Severe infestations can significantly reduce yields, and can also cause discolouration of pods and reduction in their saleable values. Faba bean rust is a fungal pathogen commonly affecting broad bean plants at maturity, causing small orange dots with yellow halos on the leaves, which may merge to form an orange lawn on both leaf surfaces. Beans are also attacked by chocolate spot fungus, which can have a severe impact on yield. In mainland Europe and North Africa, the plant parasite "Orobanche


title: "Vicia faba" content: crenata" (carnation-scented broomrape) can cause severe impacts on fields of broad beans, devastating their yields. Broad beans are generally eaten while still young and tender, enabling harvesting to begin as early as the middle of spring for plants started under glass or overwintered in a protected location, but even the main crop sown in early spring will be ready from mid to late summer. Horse beans, left to mature fully, are usually harvested in the late autumn, and are then eaten as a pulse. The immature pods are also cooked and eaten, and the young leaves of the plant can


title: "Vicia faba" content: also be eaten, either raw or cooked as a pot herb (like spinach). Broad beans were a major food of old Mediterranean civilizations, particularly for the Romans and Greeks. Preparing broad beans involves first removing the beans from their pods, then steaming or boiling the beans, either whole or after parboiling them to loosen their exterior coating, which is then removed. The beans can be fried, causing the skin to split open, and then salted and/or spiced to produce a savory, crunchy snack. These are popular in China, Malaysia, Colombia, Peru ("habas saladas"), Guatemala ("habas"), Mexico ("habas con chile"), Gilan


title: "Vicia faba" content: (North of Iran) and Thailand (where their name means "open-mouth nut"). In some Arab countries, the fava bean is used for a breakfast dish called "ful medames". Fava beans are common in Latin American cuisines, as well. In central Mexico, mashed fava beans are a common filling for many corn flour-based "antojito" snacks such as "tlacoyos". In Colombia, they are most often used whole in vegetable soups. Dried and salted fava beans are a popular snack in many Latin countries. Broad beans are widely cultivated in the Kech and Panjgur districts of Balochistan Province in Pakistan, and in the eastern


title: "Vicia faba" content: province of Iran. They are called "bakalaink" in the Balochi language, and "baghalee" in Persian. In south Algerian cuisine, broad beans are used to make Besarah and Doubara. Doubara is popular in the city of Biskra. In the Sichuan cuisine of China, broad beans are combined with soybeans and chili peppers to produce a spicy fermented bean paste called "doubanjiang". Perhaps due to the bean's popularity in Sichuan cuisine, in addition to the regular Chinese terms of "silkworm bean" (蚕豆 "cándòu") or "orchid bean" (兰花豆 "lánhuādòu"), they are also known as "Sichuan beans" (川豆 "chuāndòu") in Chinese. Fava beans (Colombia:


title: "Vicia faba" content: Haba(s)) are a common food in most regions of Colombia, mostly in Bogota and Boyacá. Fava beans are used mostly in Dalmatia as a part of the traditional dish stuffed artichokes with fava beans and peas. Steamed fava beans (known as "habitas") with cheese are common in the cold-weather regions of Ecuador, especially around the Andes mountains and surroundings of Ambato. Fava beans ( "" ) are a common staple food in the Egyptian diet, eaten by rich and poor alike. Egyptians eat fava beans in various ways: they may be shelled and then dried, bought dried and then cooked


title: "Vicia faba" content: by adding water in very low heat for several hours, etc. They are the primary ingredient in falafel. However, the most popular way of preparing them in Egypt is by taking the mashed, cooked beans and adding oil, salt and cumin to them. The dish, known as "ful medames", is traditionally eaten with bread (generally at breakfast) and is considered the Egyptian national dish. Broad beans (Amharic: "baqella") are one of the most popular legumes in Ethiopia. They are tightly coupled with every aspect of Ethiopian life. They are mainly used as an alternative to peas to prepare a flour


title: "Vicia faba" content: called "shiro", which is used to make "shiro wot" (a stew almost ubiquitous in Ethiopian dishes). During the fasting period in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church tradition called "Tsome Filliseta, Tsome arbeå, Tsome Tahsas, and Tsome Hawaria" (which are in August, end of February–April, mid-November–beginning of January and June–July), two uncooked spicy vegetable dishes are made using broad beans. The first is "Hilibet", a thin, white paste of broad bean flour mixed with pieces of onion, green pepper, garlic, and other spices based on personal taste. The second is "siljo", a fermented, sour, spicy thin yellow paste of broad bean flour.


title: "Vicia faba" content: Both are served with other stews and "injera" (a pancake-like bread) during lunch and dinner. "Baqella nifro" (boiled broad beans) are eaten as a snack during some holidays and during a time of mourning. This tradition goes well into religious holidays, too. On the Thursday before Good Friday, in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church tradition "tselote hamus" (the Prayer of Thursday), people eat a different kind of "nifro" called "gulban". "Gulban" is made of peeled, half beans collected and well cooked with other grains such as wheat, peas and chickpeas. This is done to mourn the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. "Boq'ullit"


title: "Vicia faba" content: (boiled salted broad beans embryo) is one of the most favorite snacks in the evening, the common story-telling time in north and central Ethiopia. It is particularly a favorite for the story-teller (usually a society elder), as it is delicious, and easy to chew and swallow. Ripe broad beans are eaten by passers-by. Besides that, they are one of the gift items from a countryside relative in a period close to the Ethiopian Epiphany. The Greek word "fáva" (φάβα) does "not" refer to broad beans, but to the yellow split pea and also to another legume, known as "Lathyrus sativus".


title: "Vicia faba" content: Broad beans are known instead as "koukiá" (), and are eaten in a stew combined with artichokes, while they are still fresh in their pods. Dried broad beans are eaten boiled, sometimes combined with garlic sauce ("skordalia"). In Crete, fresh broad beans are shelled and eaten as a companion to "tsikoudia", the local alcoholic drink. Favism is quite common in Greece because of malaria endemicity in previous centuries, and people afflicted by it do not eat broad beans. In India, fava beans are eaten in the northeastern state of Manipur. They are locally known as "hawai-amubi" and are ingredients in


title: "Vicia faba" content: the dish eromba. Broad beans, or "Baghalee" (Persian: باقالی) are primarily cultivated in the central and north parts of Iran. The city of Kashan has the highest production of broad beans with high quality in terms of the taste, cooking periods and color. However, broad beans have a very short season (roughly two weeks). The season is usually in the middle of spring. When people have access to fresh beans in season, they cook them in brine and then add vinegar and "Heracleum persicum" depending on taste. They also make an extra amount to dry to be used year-round. The


title: "Vicia faba" content: dried beans can be cooked with rice, which forms one of the most famous dishes in north of Iran (Gilan) called "baghalee polo" (Persian: باقالی پلو) which means "rice with broad beans". In Iran broad beans are cooked, served with Golpar-origan and salt and sold on streets in the winter. This food is also available preserved in metal cans. Broad beans which are called Bagilla (باگله/باقله) in the Iraqi dialect of Arabic are a common ingredient in many Iraqi foods. One of the most popular Iraqi dishes that uses the broad bean is Bagilla Bil-Dihin (باگله بالدهن) also called Tishreeb


title: "Vicia faba" content: Bagilla (تشريب باگله). This dish is a common breakfast dish in Iraq and consists of bread soaked in boiled broad beans’ water then topped with broad beans, melted Ghee, and often also a boiled or fried egg. Fool (فول) is another common breakfast dish in Iraq as well as many other Arab countries and consists of mashed fava beans. Another famous Iraqi dish is Timmen Bagilla (تمن باگله), which is Arabic for 'broad bean rice'. This classic Iraqi dish consists of rice cooked with broad bean and dill. In Rome, Italy, Fava beans are popular either cooked with guanciale or


title: "Vicia faba" content: with globe artichokes, as side dish together with lamb or kid, or raw with Pecorino romano. "Fave e Pecorino" is the traditional dish for 1 May picnic in Tuscany, Umbria and Latium. In Sicily, "Maccu" is a Sicilian soup prepared with fava beans as a primary ingredient. In Apulia, broad bean purée with wild chicory is typical dish. Broad beans, called Soramame (Japanese:そら豆) lit: “Sky Bean”, are consumed in a variety of ways in Japan. Most commonly, the beans are boiled and are eaten straight or added to rice. It is also consumed as a popular snack called “ikarimame” (Japanese:いかり豆)


title: "Vicia faba" content: lit: “Anchor Bean”, where the beans are roasted or fried. "Judd mat Gaardebounen", or smoked collar of pork with broad beans, is the national dish of Luxembourg. They are a primary ingredient of the Maltese Kusksu, a vegetable soup primarily containing fava beans and pasta beads. They are also used in a popular appetizer called bigilla where they are served as a pureé mixed with olive oil, lemon juice, garlic, parsley and mint. It is served with bread or crackers and is the Maltese answer to hummus. In Mexico, fava beans are often eaten in a soup called "sopa de


title: "Vicia faba" content: habas", meaning "fava soup". They are also eaten as a snack, in which they are fried, salted, and dried. They are either by themselves as a snack or in combination with other salted, dried beans and nuts. In Morocco, fava beans are made into bessara, a dip sold as a street food. In Nepal, fava beans are called "bakulla". They are eaten as a green vegetable when the pods are young, generally stir-fried with garlic. When dried, fava beans are eaten roasted, or mixed with other legumes, such as moong beans, chick peas, and peas, and called "qwati". The mixture,


title: "Vicia faba" content: soaked and germinated, is cooked as soup and consumed with rice or beaten rice on the occasion of "Janai Purnima" also known as "Rakshya Bandhan", a festival celebrated by the Hindus. The dry and stir-fried version of "qwati" is called "biraula". The "qwati" soup is believed to reinvigorate the body affected by monsoon paddy season. In the Netherlands, they are traditionally eaten with fresh savory and some melted butter. The combination of the beans tossed with crispy fried bacon is also common. When rubbed, the velvet insides of the pods are a folk remedy against warts. Fava beans (Peru: Haba(s))


title: "Vicia faba" content: are eaten fresh or dried as stew, toasted, boiled, roasted, stewed, soup etc. Habas are one of the essential ingredients of the famous "Pachamanca" in the Andes of Peru, and are also an additive for "Panetela", which is a homemade remedy to keep your child fed and hydrated in cases of diarrhea or stomach infection and even for cholera treatment. To make Panetela combine and roast a cup of: fava bean (habas), barley, corn, wheat, rice and / or beans without allowing it to burn; add a cup of water, a carrot cut into pieces and a pinch of salt


title: "Vicia faba" content: until fully cooked; drain, add water until it reaches a liter and boil one last time. For babies only the fluid is used. Peruvian dishes with fava beans include: Fava beans (Portuguese: "favas") is widely cultivated in Portugal and are very popular throughout the country. The most popular dish cooked with favas is "favada", a stew with onion and pork - depending on the region of the country the pork may be chorizo, bacon, pork shoulder, ribs or the mixture of many of these. In Alentejo a lot of coriander will be added in the end. Besides favada, fava beans


title: "Vicia faba" content: may be served dry and fried as an apetiser. Broad beans (Spanish: "habas") are widely cultivated in Spain. Culinary uses vary among regions, but they can be used as the main pulse in a stew ("fabada, habas estofadas, michirones") or as an addition to other dishes ("menestra, paella"). In certain regions they can be eaten while unripe or fried and packaged as a snack. Fava beans are one of the most widely consumed foods in Sudan. For most Sudanese they form the main dish during lunch time (ghada), especially more so for city and urban dwellers. The beans are cooked


title: "Vicia faba" content: by steadily boiling over a sustained period of time. Similar to Egypt, the cooked beans are mashed, and prepared by adding salt and pepper. For additional flavour, sesame oil is added along with a sprinkling of jibna ("feta" cheese) on top. The dish is then eaten with bread and is sometimes refereed to as "ful medames". Broad beans (, literally: "farmer beans"), which in Sweden were traditionally eaten as soaked brown and boiled dried broad beans fried in lard, were for a very long time popular to add to other foods as a filling side, specially with fried pork. The


title: "Vicia faba" content: green raw and lightly boiled broad beans were only used seasonally as a side green. It almost disappeared from Swedish plates in the 70's during a time of rapid increase in expectations of food quality and variety, and changes in food habits. However, since the 2000's, broad beans have made a comeback, partly as healthy, locally grown produce, but even more because of an increased interest in legumes, vegetarianism, healthy foods, but also a general greater curiosity about food in general, including a renewed interest in forgotten traditional foods of Sweden, as well as the increased popularity of foreign food,


title: "Vicia faba" content: specially Middle-Eastern food, among Swedes, but even more among immigrants from North Africa and the Middle-East specially in the Egyptian/Sudanese dish Ful Medames (; ), or as an ingredient in Egyptian and Gaza style falafel, which often contains broad beans instead of chickpeas, or both, which has lately become one of the most popular fast foods in Sweden. In Syria, broad beans are prepared in multiple ways for breakfast, lunch or dinner. Ful Medames is the same as the Egyptian dish (it is not mashed though) but with the addition of tomato, parsley and onion and with olive oil. Another


title: "Vicia faba" content: version of it includes the addition of tahini (sesame paste), olive oil, garlic and lemon. For lunch, broad beans are cooked with a mix of minced and big chunks of meat and is topped on white rice and eaten with cold yogurt and cucumber salad. Bulgur is sometimes used in preparing this recipe instead of rice. Broad beans are cooked with pieces of garlic, meat and meat stock with the addition of lemon juice and cilantro. This dish is called foulieh and is eaten on the side with rice. Same recipe is prepared without meat as a vegan dish eaten


title: "Vicia faba" content: on lent by Christians in Syria. In Turkey, broad beans are called '. This is also the name of a "zeytinyağlı" dish made by simmering young and tender broad bean pods with chopped onions in olive oil. It is traditionally garnished with dill and served cool, together with yoghurt. Another popular dish is ', a meze prepared by soaking and boiling shelled dried broad beans until soft and then pureeing with olive oil and optionally fresh dill. The puree is left to set overnight, and served cold, garnished with dill and slices of lemon. Raw mature fava beans are 11%


title: "Vicia faba" content: water, 58% carbohydrates, 26% protein, and 2% fat. A 100 gram reference amount supplies 341 calories and numerous essential nutrients in high content (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV). Folate (106% DV) and dietary minerals, such as manganese, phosphorus, magnesium, and iron (range of DV 52 to 77%), have considerable content (table). B vitamins have moderate to rich content (19 to 48% DV). Sufferers of favism must avoid broad beans, since these trigger a hemolytic crisis. Broad beans are rich in tyramine, and thus should be avoided by those taking monoamine oxidase inhibitors. Vicia faba Vicia faba, also


title: Shed content: cheaper, but they cannot handle the weight of snow in winter (roofs may cave in). Vinyl sheds also offer more colour options. In the early and middle years of the 20th century, many garden sheds and domestic garages were made of asbestos-cement sheets supported on a very light angle-iron frame. Concerns about safety led to the practice being discontinued, but they were cheap and long-lasting, and many can still be seen in British gardens. Advice on continued use or disposal is available. Since 2013 garden sheds have been available in the UK made from TPR - a sustainable alternative to


title: Lapwing content: Lapwing Vanellinae are any of various crested plovers, family Charadriidae, noted for its slow, irregular wingbeat in flight and a shrill, wailing cry. Its length is 10–16 inches. They are a subfamily of medium-sized wading birds which also includes the plovers and dotterels. The Vanellinae are collectively called lapwings but also contain the ancient red-kneed dotterel. A lapwing can be thought of as a larger plover. The traditional terms "plover", "lapwing" and "dotterel" were coined long before modern understandings of the relationships between different groups of birds emerged: in consequence, several of the Vanellinae are still often called "plovers", and


title: Lapwing content: the reverse also applies, albeit more rarely, to some Charadriinae (the "true" plovers and dotterels). In Europe's Anglophone countries, "lapwing" refers specifically to the northern lapwing, the only member of this group to occur in most of the continent and thus the first bird to go by the English name 'lapwing'. While authorities generally agree that there about 25 species of Vanellinae, classifications within the subfamily remain confused. At one extreme, Peters recognised no less than 20 different genera for the birds listed in 2 genera here; other workers have gone so far as to group all the "true" lapwings


title: Lapwing content: (except the red-kneed dotterel) into the single genus "Vanellus". Current consensus favors a more moderate position, but it is unclear which genera to split. The "Handbook of Birds of the World" provisionally lumps all Vanellinae into "Vanellus" except the Red-kneed Dotterel, which is in the monotypic "Erythrogonys". Its plesiomorphic habitus resembles that of plovers, but details like the missing hallux (hind toe) are like those of lapwings: it is still not entirely clear whether it is better considered the most basal plover or lapwing. Many coloration details of the red-kneed dotterel also occur here and there among the living members


title: Lapwing content: of the main lapwing clade. Its position as the most basal of the living Vanellinae or just immediately outside it thus means that their last common ancestor – or even the last common ancestor of plovers and lapwings – almost certainly was a plover-sized bird with a black crown and breast-band, a white feather patch at the wrist, no hallux, and a lipochromic (probably red) bill with a black tip. Its legs were most likely black or the color of the bill's base. The fossil record of the Vanellinae is scant and mostly recent in origin; no Neogene lapwings seem


title: Lapwing content: to be known. On the other hand, it appears as if early in their evolutionary history the plovers, lapwings and dotterels must have been almost one and the same, and they are hard to distinguish osteologically even today. Thus, since the Red-kneed Dotterel is so distinct that it might arguably be considered a monotypic subfamily, reliably dating its divergence from a selection of true lapwings and plovers would also give a good idea of charadriid wader evolution altogether. A mid-Oligocene – c.28 mya (million years ago) – fossil from Rupelmonde in Belgium has been assigned to "Vanellus", but even if


title: Lapwing content: the genus were broadly defined, it is entirely unclear if the placement is correct. Its age ties in with the appearance of the first seemingly distinct Charadriinae at about the same time, and with the presence of more basal Charadriidae a few million years earlier. However, the assignment of fragmentary fossils to Charadriinae or Vanellinae is not easy. Thus, it is very likely that the charadriid waders originate around the Eocene-Oligocene boundary – roughly 40–30 mya – but nothing more can be said at present. If the Belgian fossil is not a true lapwing, there are actually no Vanellinae fossils


title: Lapwing content: known before the Quaternary. The Early Oligocene fossil "Dolicopterus" from Ronzon (France) may be such an ancestral member of the Charadriidae or even the Vanellinae, but it has not been studied in recent decades and is in dire need of review. Apart from the prehistoric "Vanellus", the extinct lapwing genus "Viator" has been described from fossils. Its remains were found in the tar pits of Talara in Peru and it lived in the Late Pleistocene. Little is known of this rather large lapwing; it may actually belong in "Vanellus". The remaining Charadrii are highset and/or chunky birds, even decidedly larger


title: Lapwing content: than a lot of the scolopacid waders. The evolutionary trend regarding the Charadriidae – which make up most of the diversity of the Charadrii – thus runs contrary to Cope's Rule. Genus "Vanellus" Genus "Erythrogonys" Lapwing Vanellinae are any of various crested plovers, family Charadriidae, noted for its slow, irregular wingbeat in flight and a shrill, wailing cry. Its length is 10–16 inches. They are a subfamily of medium-sized wading birds which also includes the plovers and dotterels. The Vanellinae are collectively called lapwings but also contain the ancient red-kneed dotterel. A lapwing can be thought of as a larger


title: "John Cheke" content: "Life" of 1705 apparently derives from the same source as a later engraving by James Fittler, A.R.A., after a drawing by William Skelton, itself said to be based on an original picture at Ombersley Court, Worcestershire, formerly in possession of the Dowager Marchioness of Devonshire. Gerard Langbaine gives this list of his writings: An edition of his English translation of the Gospel of St Matthew appeared in 1843. Many of Cheke's works are still in manuscript: some have been altogether lost. John Cheke Sir John Cheke (Cheek) (16 June 1514 – 13 September 1557) was an English classical scholar and


title: "Washington, Tyne and Wear" content: any such records from the time would likely have been long lost by now. Although this is by no means the definite theory of origin, most scholars and historians (especially local) agree that it is the most likely. Another of the popular origin theories is that "Washington" is in fact derived from the Old English verb "wascan" and the noun "dūn" meaning "hill"; thus making the name "Wascandūn", meaning "washing hill". This theory likely originates from the proximity of the river Wear to the actual Anglo-Saxon hall at the time (most likely where Washington Old Hall stands today). This idea


title: Pentathlon content: to be useful in war or battle. With the revival of the Olympic Games in the modern era, the pentathlon returned in two formats. The athletics pentathlon was a modern variation on the original events, with a competition over five track and field events. The modern pentathlon, invented by Pierre de Coubertin (father of the Modern Olympics), was a variation on the military aspect of the Ancient pentathlon. It focused on the skills required by a late-19th-century soldier, with competitions in shooting, swimming, fencing, equestrianism, and cross country running. A prominent aspect of modern pentathlons is the point system, whereby


title: "Salt marsh" content: established seedling survival, either by burial or exposure of seeds, or uprooting or burial of established seedlings. However, bioturbation by crabs may also have a positive effect. In New Zealand, the tunnelling mud crab "Helice crassa" has been given the stately name of an 'ecosystem engineer' for its ability to construct new habitats and alter the access of nutrients to other species. Their burrows provide an avenue for the transport of dissolved oxygen in the burrow water through the oxic sediment of the burrow walls and into the surrounding anoxic sediment, which creates the perfect habitat for special nitrogen cycling


title: Regnitz content: Regnitz The Regnitz is a river in Franconia, Germany. It is a left tributary of the Main and is in length. The river is formed by the confluence of the rivers Rednitz and Pegnitz, which meet in the city of Fürth. From there the Regnitz runs northwards through the cities of Erlangen and Forchheim. It finally meets the Main near the city of Bamberg. Including its source rivers Rednitz and Franconian Rezat, it is long. Small portions of the Regnitz near Bamberg are incorporated into a canal connecting the Main with the Danube: the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal, which runs parallel most


title: Krillin content: characters who delivers the Dragon Balls to restore the aqua city of Odaiba after Goku and Monkey D. Luffy's battle with Eneru. Krillin has performed many songs throughout the years. These songs feature his voice actor Mayumi Tanaka in character singing cheerfully about certain thing pertaining to Krillin. First with the song "Asa - Hiru - Yoru - Kimi - Boku" from the album "Dragon Ball Z Hit Song Collection IV: Character Special" released in 1990. Then with "Ichido wa Kekkon Shitai Manbo" from "Dragon Ball Z Hit Song Collection 8: Character Special 2" released in 1991. Where he happily


title: Krillin content: the other "Dragon Ball" characters after they are drafted for the Oakland A's by Billy Beane in a parody of the film "Moneyball". Krillin is a popular character in the series; in 2004 Japanese fans voted him the seventh most popular character. In January 2007, Oricon held a poll in which they asked Japanese fans of manga and anime which characters from any series they would most like to see in spin-off series. Krillin ranked third in the men's poll and sixth in the overall poll. In 2016, Krillin was ranked No. 3 on the saikoplus.com list "10 Most Popular


title: "Pinot blanc" content: Pinot blanc Pinot blanc is a white wine grape. It is a point genetic mutation of Pinot noir. Pinot noir is genetically unstable and will occasionally experience a point mutation in which a vine bears all black fruit except for one cane which produces white fruit. In Alsace, Germany, Luxembourg, Italy, Hungary, Czech Republic and Slovakia, the wine produced from this grape is a full-bodied white. In 2000, there were of Pinot blanc in France, with most of the plantations found in Alsace, where it is used for both still white wines and is the most common variety used for


title: "Pinot blanc" content: sparkling wine, Crémant d'Alsace. Somewhat confusingly, the designation "Pinot blanc" for Alsace AOC wine does not necessarily mean that the wine is varietally pure Pinot blanc. (This is in difference to Pinot gris, which is a "true" varietal designation in Alsace.) Rather, the designation means that it is a white wine made from Pinot varieties. Under Alsace appellation rules, the varieties Pinot blanc, Auxerrois blanc, Pinot gris and Pinot noir (vinified white, without skin contact) may all be used, but a blend of Pinot blanc and Auxerrois blanc is the most common. The most full-bodied "Pinot blanc" wines from Alsace,


title: "Pinot blanc" content: with a spicy and smokey character and moderate acidity, are probably dominated by Auxerrois grapes. Historically, Pinot blanc was used both in Burgundy and Champagne. It is still allowed in Bourgogne blanc blend and small amounts of Pinot blanc may in principle be blended into some Burgundy wines, but very small amounts are cultivated in either region. In the Champagne region, Pinot blanc is often called Blanc vrai. In Germany, where it is known as Weißer Burgunder or Weißburgunder, there were of Pinot blanc in 2006. The most powerful versions are usually made in Baden and Palatinate. In the United


title: "Pinot blanc" content: States it is mainly produced in California. In the United States, many of the vines called Pinot blanc are actually a different variety, Melon de Bourgogne/Muscadet, that resembles Chardonnay when on the vine. This mistake was discovered around the mid-1980s by a French oenologist who was examining rootstock while visiting University of California, Davis, and now Pinot blanc purchased from a nursery will be the genuine article. The grape is also grown in Austria and Hungary as well as in Burgundy, France. In Canada, Pinot blanc is often used to make ice wine. Canada's Okanagan Valley has developed a reputation


title: "Pinot blanc" content: for Pinot blanc as its signature wine. Pinot blanc has also been confused with Chardonnay, and wineries often vinify it in a similar style, using barrel fermentation, new oak and malolactic fermentation. It can also be treated more lightly and made into a crisper wine that still has some ability to age. During a series of trials between 1930 and 1935, Pinot blanc was crossed with Riesling to create the white Italian wine grape variety Manzoni bianco. In Alsace, Italy and Hungary, the wine produced from this grape is a full-bodied dry white wine while in Germany and Austria they


title: "Pinot blanc" content: can be either dry or sweet. One of the components of the wine Vin Santo can be Pinot blanc. In France the grape is often blended with Klevner, sometimes referred to by locals as "true Pinot," and Auxerrois grapes, in order to give it a more alsacian flavor. Bottles labeled Pinot Blanc offer fruity aromas, often of apple, citrus fruit, and floral characteristics. Bottles that are varietally pure, although more difficult to find, provide stronger floral characteristics, stone fruits and a headier minerality. Regardless of their exact composition, most wines under the label 'Pinot Blanc' are rather high in acidity


title: "Pinot blanc" content: and are vinified in tank, though more prestigious examples are fermented in large, 100% used oak barrels. Pinot blanc wines are usually made for immediate consumption. Pinot blanc's name varies by region. In Austria it may be bottled as Weissburgunder or Klevner. Weissburgunder is also used in the Südtirol/Alto Adige region of north east Italy (also occasionally named so in Alsace) and in Germany. Hungary calls it Fehér Burgundi. Spain and Italy refer to it as Pinot bianco. In the Czech Republic it is known as Rulandské Bílé, in Slovakia Rulandské Biele and in Croatia "Pinot bijeli" or "Burgundac bijeli".


title: "Pinot blanc" content: In Serbia it is called "Бели пино", "Бели бургундац", "Пино блан". Pinot blanc Pinot blanc is a white wine grape. It is a point genetic mutation of Pinot noir. Pinot noir is genetically unstable and will occasionally experience a point mutation in which a vine bears all black fruit except for one cane which produces white fruit. In Alsace, Germany, Luxembourg, Italy, Hungary, Czech Republic and Slovakia, the wine produced from this grape is a full-bodied white. In 2000, there were of Pinot blanc in France, with most of the plantations found in Alsace, where it is used for both


title: "Excel Saga" content: was too fast, and there was plenty of time left to match the lip-synch". In such cases, either he would add new material or Mitsuishi would ad-lib. At first Rikdo felt stunned and uncomfortable at hearing Excel speak, but he called the casting "amazing" and was pleased to hear his favourite voice actors read lines from his work. The series began serialisation in Japan in 1996 in the monthly anthology "Young King OURs" and finished in August 2011. The individual chapters began being collected and published in "tankōbon" format by Shōnen Gahōsha in April 1997 and volume 27 was released


title: "Loch Lomond" content: Loch Lomond Loch Lomond (; - 'Lake of the Elms') is a freshwater Scottish loch which crosses the Highland Boundary Fault, often considered the boundary between the lowlands of Central Scotland and the Highlands. Traditionally forming part of the boundary between the counties of Stirlingshire and Dunbartonshire, Loch Lomond is split between the council areas of Stirling, Argyll and Bute and West Dunbartonshire. Its southern shores are about northwest of the centre of Glasgow, Scotland's largest city. The Loch forms part of the Loch Lomond and The Trossachs National Park which was established in 2002. Loch Lomond is long and


title: "Loch Lomond" content: between wide, with a surface area of . It is the largest inland stretch of water in Great Britain by surface area; within the United Kingdom, it is surpassed only by Lough Neagh and Lough Erne in Northern Ireland, although within the British Isles as a whole there are also several larger loughs in the Republic of Ireland. The loch has a maximum depth of about in the deeper northern portion, although the southern part of the loch rarely exceeds in depth. The total volume of Loch Lomond is , making it the second largest inland stretch of water in


title: "Loch Lomond" content: Great Britain (after Loch Ness) by water volume. The loch contains many islands, including Inchmurrin, the largest fresh-water island in the British Isles. Loch Lomond is a popular leisure destination and is featured in the song "The Bonnie Banks o' Loch Lomond". The loch is surrounded by hills, including Ben Lomond on the eastern shore, which is in height and the most southerly of the Scottish Munro peaks. A 2005 poll of "Radio Times" readers voted Loch Lomond as the sixth greatest natural wonder in Britain. The depression in which Loch Lomond sits was carved out by glaciers during the


title: "Loch Lomond" content: final stages of the last ice age, during a return to glacial conditions known as the Loch Lomond Readvance between 20,000 and 10,000 years ago. The loch lies on the Highland Boundary Fault, and the difference between the Highland and Lowland geology is reflected in the shape and character of the loch: in the north the glaciers dug a deep channel in the Highland schist, removing up to 600 m of bedrock to create a narrow, fjord-like finger lake. Further south the glaciers were able to spread across the softer Lowland sandstone, leading to a wider body of water that


title: "Loch Lomond" content: is rarely more than 30 m deep. In the period following the Loch Lomond Readvance the sea level rose, and for several periods Loch Lomond was connected to the sea, with shorelines identified at 13, 12 and 9 metres above sea level (the current loch lies at 8 m above sea level). The change in rock type can be clearly seen at several points around the loch, as it runs across the islands of Inchmurrin, Creinch, Torrinch and Inchcailloch and over the ridge of Conic Hill. To the south lie green fields and cultivated land; to the north, mountains. The


title: "Loch Lomond" content: loch contains thirty or more other islands, depending on the water level. Several of them are large by the standards of British bodies of freshwater. Inchmurrin, for example, is the largest island in a body of freshwater in the British Isles. Many of the islands are the remains of harder rocks that withstood the passing of the glaciers, however as in Loch Tay, several of the islands appear to be crannogs, artificial islands built in prehistoric periods. English travel writer, H.V. Morton wrote: Writing some 150 years earlier than Morton, Samuel Johnson had however been less impressed by Loch Lomond's


title: "Loch Lomond" content: islands, writing: As well as forming part of the Loch Lomond and the Trossachs National Park, Loch Lomond holds multiple other conservation designations. 428 ha of land in the southeast, including five of the islands, is designated as national nature reserve: the Loch Lomond National Nature Reserve. Seven islands and much of the shoreline form a Special Area of Conservation (SAC), the "Loch Lomond Woods". This designation overlaps partially with the national nature reserve, and is protected due to the presence of Atlantic oak woodlands and a population of otters. Four islands and a section of the shoreline are designated


title: "Loch Lomond" content: as a Special Protection Area due to their importance for breeding capercaillie and visiting Greenland white-fronted geese: this designation overlaps partially with both the national nature reserve and the SAC. Loch Lomond is also a designated Ramsar site, again for the presence of Greenland white-fronted geese. The surrounding hills are home to species such as black grouse, ptarmigan, golden eagles, pine martens, red deer and mountain hares. Many species of wading birds and water vole inhabit the loch shore. The loch and its surrounding are designated as a national scenic area, one of forty such areas in Scotland, which have


title: "Loch Lomond" content: been defined so as to identify areas of exceptional scenery and to ensure its protection from inappropriate development. Powan are one of the commonest fish species in loch, which has more species of fish than any other loch in Scotland, including lamprey, lampern, brook trout, perch, loach, common roach and flounder. The Scottish dock ("Rumex aquaticus"), sometimes called the Loch Lomond dock, is in Britain unique to the shores of Loch Lomond, being found mostly on around Balmaha on the western shore of the loch. It was first discovered growing there in 1936 (else it grows eastwards through Europe and


title: "Loch Lomond" content: Asia all the way to Japan). One of the loch's islands, Inchconnachan, is home to a colony of wallabies. People first arrived in the Loch Lomond area around 5000 years ago, during the neolithic era. They left traces of their presence at several places around the loch, including Balmaha, Luss, and Inchlonaig. A number of crannogs, artificial islands used as dwellings for over five millennia, were built at points in the loch. The Romans had a fort within sight of the loch at Drumquhassle. The crannog known as "The Kitchen", located off the island of Clairinsh, may have later been


title: "Loch Lomond" content: used a place for important meetings by Clan Buchanan whose clan seat had been on Clairinsh since 1225: this usage would be in line with other crannogs such as that at Finlaggan on Islay, used by Clan Donald. During the Early Medieval period viking raiders sailed up Loch Long, hauled their longboats over at the narrow neck of land at Tarbet, and sacked several islands in the loch. The area surrounding the loch later become part of the province of Lennox, which covered much of the area of the later county of Dunbartonshire. Loch Lomond became a popular destination for


title: "Loch Lomond" content: travellers, such that when James Boswell and Samuel Johnson visited the islands of Loch Lomond on the return from their tour of the Western Isles in 1773, the area was already firmly enough established as a destination for Boswell to note that it would be unnecessary to attempt any description. Loch Lomond is one of Scotland's premier boating and watersports venues, with visitors enjoying activities including kayaking, Canadian canoeing, paddle boarding, wake boarding, water skiing and wake surfing. The national park authority has tried to achieve a balance between land-based tourists and loch users, with environmentally sensitive areas subject to


title: "Loch Lomond" content: a strictly enforced speed limit, but the rest of the loch open to speeds of up to . The "Maid of the Loch" was the last paddle steamer built in Britain. Built on the Clyde in 1953, she operated on Loch Lomond for 29 years. She is now being restored at Balloch pier by the Loch Lomond Steamship Company, a charitable organisation, supported by West Dunbartonshire Council. Cruises also operate from Balloch, Tarbet, Inversnaid, Luss and Rowardennan. Loch Lomond Rescue Boat provides 24-hour safety cover on the loch. The rescue boat is a volunteer organisation and a registered charity. The


title: "Loch Lomond" content: national park authority also have other boats on the loch such as "The Brigadier". Police Scotland also operates on the loch using RIBs and jet skis and work in conjunction with the national park authority. The loch has served as the venue for the Great Scottish Swim, which is held each year in August. Fly and coarse fishing on Loch Lomond is regulated by the Loch Lomond Angling Improvement Association (LLAIA), who issue permits to members and visiting anglers. The association employ water bailiffs to monitor the actions of anglers on the loch and ensure angling is carried out in


title: "Loch Lomond" content: accordance with permit conditions. Loch Lomond Golf Club is situated on the south-western shore. It has hosted many international events including the Scottish Open. Another golf club, "The Carrick" has opened on the banks of the Loch adjacent to the Loch Lomond Club. The West Highland Way runs along the eastern bank of the loch, and Inveruglas on the western bank is the terminus of the Cowal Way. The West Loch Lomond Cycle Path runs from Arrochar and Tarbet railway station, at the upper end of the loch, to Balloch railway station, at the south end. The long cycle path


title: "Loch Lomond" content: runs along the west bank. At the southern end of the loch near Balloch is a large visitor and shopping complex named Loch Lomond Shores. As with all land and inland water in Scotland there is a right of responsible access to the loch and the surrounding for those wishing to participate in recreational pursuits such as walking, camping, swimming and canoeing. In 2017 the national park authority introduced byelaws restricting the right to camp along much of the shoreline of Loch Lomond, due to issues such as litter and anti-social behaviour that were blamed on some irresponsible campers. Camping


title: "Loch Lomond" content: is now restricted to designated areas, and campers are required to purchase a permit to camp within these areas between March and October. The byelaws were opposed by groups such as Mountaineering Scotland and Ramblers Scotland, who argued that they would criminalise camping even where it was carried out responsibly, and that the national park authority already had sufficient powers to address irresponsible behaviour using existing laws. The main arterial route along the loch is the A82 road which runs the length of its western shore, following the general route of the Old Military Road. The road runs along the


title: "Loch Lomond" content: shoreline in several places, but generally keeps some distance to the west of the loch in the "lowland" section to the south. Much of the southern section of the road was widened to a high quality single carriageway standard over the 1980s, at an estimated cost of £24 million (£ million as of ), while Luss itself is now bypassed to the west of the village along a single carriageway bypass constructed between 1990 and 1992. At Tarbet, the A83 branches west to Campbeltown while the A82 continues to the north end of the loch. This part of the road


title: "Loch Lomond" content: is currently of a lower standard than the sections further south. It is sandwiched between the shoreline of the loch and the mountains to the west, and it runs generally alongside the West Highland Line. The road narrows to less than in places and causes significant problems for heavy goods vehicles (HGVs), which have to negotiate tight bends and the narrow carriageway width. At Pulpit rock, the road was single-track, with traffic flow controlled by traffic lights for over 30 years. The road was widened in 2015 as part of a £9 million improvement programme, including a new viaduct bringing


title: "Loch Lomond" content: the carriageway width to modern standards. The A811 runs to the south of Loch Lomond between Balloch and Drymen, following the route of another military road at a distance of between 2 and 3 kilometres from the loch. From Drymen the B837 extends north, meeting the eastern shore of the loch at Balmaha where the road terminates. A minor road extends north as far as Rowardennan, a further 11 km away, however beyond this point no road continues along the eastern shore, although there is road access to Inversnaid via another minor road that comes in from Loch Katrine to


title: "Loch Lomond" content: the east via the northern shore of Loch Arklet. As Loch Arklet is over 100 m above Loch Lomond and less than 2 km to the east this road must descend steeply to reach Inversnaid. The West Highland railway line joins the western shore of the loch just north of Arrochar and Tarbet railway station. There is a further station alongside the loch at Ardlui. This line was voted the top rail journey in the world by readers of independent travel magazine "Wanderlust" in 2009, ahead of the iconic Trans-Siberian line in Russia and the Cuzco to Machu Picchu line


title: "Loch Lomond" content: in Peru. The railway system also reaches the loch at Balloch railway station, which is the terminus of the North Clyde Line. Several different operators offer ferry services on the loch. Since 2004 "Loch Lomond Seaplanes" operates an aerial tour service from its seaplane base near Cameron. On 22 April 1940, a BOAC Lockheed Model 14 Super Electra ("Loch Invar", registration G-AFKD) aircraft flying from Perth Airport to Heston Aerodrome in London crashed at Loch Lomond, killing all five passengers and crew. The Loch Sloy Hydro-Electric Scheme is situated on the west bank of Loch Lomond. The facility is operated


title: "Loch Lomond" content: by Scottish and Southern Energy, and is normally in standby mode, ready to generate electricity to meet sudden peaks in demand. It is the largest conventional hydro electric power station in the UK, with an installed capacity of 152.5 MW, and can reach full-capacity within 5 minutes from a standing start. The hydraulic head between Loch Sloy and the outflow into Loch Lomond at Inveruglas is 277 m. The loch is featured in a well-known song which was first published around 1841. The chorus is: The song has been recorded by many performers over the years, including Scottish Celtic rock


title: "Loch Lomond" content: band Runrig. The original author is unknown. One story is that the song was written by a Scottish soldier who awaited death in enemy captivity; in his final letter home, he wrote this song, portraying his home and how much he would miss it. Another tale is that during the Jacobite rising of 1745 a soldier on his way back to Scotland during the 1745–46 retreat from England wrote this song. The "low road" may be a reference to the Celtic belief that if someone died away from his homeland, then the fairies would provide a route of this name


title: "Loch Lomond" content: for his soul to return home. Within this theory, it is possible that the soldier awaiting death may have been writing either to a friend who was allowed to live and return home, or to a lover back in Scotland. Loch Lomond Loch Lomond (; - 'Lake of the Elms') is a freshwater Scottish loch which crosses the Highland Boundary Fault, often considered the boundary between the lowlands of Central Scotland and the Highlands. Traditionally forming part of the boundary between the counties of Stirlingshire and Dunbartonshire, Loch Lomond is split between the council areas of Stirling, Argyll and Bute


title: "Lockheed L-2000" content: This, along with careful shaping of the fuselage, was able to control the shift in the center of pressure caused by the highly swept forward part of the wing developing lift supersonically. The engines were shifted from being buried in the wings to individual pods slung below the wings. The new design was designated L-2000-1 and was 223 ft (70 m) long with a narrow-body 132 in (335.2 cm) wide fuselage to meet aerodynamic requirements, allowing for passenger seating of five abreast seating in coach and a four-abreast arrangement in first-class seating. A typical mixed-class seating layout would equal around


title: Thermostat content: Thermostat A thermostat is a component which senses the temperature of a physical system and performs actions so that the system's temperature is maintained near a desired setpoint. Thermostats are used in any device or system that heats or cools to a setpoint temperature, examples include building heating, central heating, air conditioners, HVAC systems, water heaters, as well as kitchen equipment including ovens and refrigerators and medical and scientific incubators. In scientific literature, these devices are often broadly classified as thermostatically controlled loads (TCLs). Thermostatically controlled loads comprise roughly 50% of the overall electricity demand in the United States. A


title: Thermostat content: thermostat operates as a "closed loop" control device, as it seeks to reduce the error between the desired and measured temperatures. Sometimes a thermostat combines both the sensing and control action elements of a controlled system, such as in an automotive thermostat. The word thermostat is derived from the Greek words θερμός "thermos", "hot" and στατός "statos", "standing, stationary". A thermostat exerts control by switching heating or cooling devices on or off, or by regulating the flow of a heat transfer fluid as needed, to maintain the correct temperature. A thermostat can often be the main control unit for a


title: Thermostat content: heating or cooling system, in applications ranging from ambient air control, to such as automotive coolant control. Thermostats are used in any device or system that heats or cools to a setpoint temperature, examples include building heating, central heating, air conditioners, as well as kitchen equipment including ovens and refrigerators and medical and scientific incubators. Thermostats use different types of sensors to measure the temperature. In one form, the mechanical thermostat, a bimetallic strip in the form of a coil directly operates electrical contacts that control the heating or cooling source. Electronic thermostats, instead, use a thermistor or other semiconductor


title: Thermostat content: sensor that requires amplification and processing to control the heating or cooling equipment. A thermostat is an example of a "bang-bang controller" as the heating or cooling equipment output is not proportional to the difference between actual temperature and the temperature setpoint. Instead, the heating or cooling equipment runs at full capacity until the set temperature is reached, then shuts off. Increasing the difference between the thermostat setting and the desired temperature therefore does not change the time to achieve the desired temperature. The rate at which the target system temperature can change is determined both by the capacity of


title: Thermostat content: the heating or cooling equipment to respectively add or remove heat to or from a target system and the capacity of the target system to store heat. To prevent excessively rapid cycling of the equipment when the temperature is near the setpoint, a thermostat can include some hysteresis. Instead of changing from "on" to "off" and vice versa instantly at the set temperature, a thermostat with hysteresis will not switch until the temperature has changed a little past the set temperature point. For example, a refrigerator set to 2°C might not start the cooling compressor until its food compartment's temperature


title: Thermostat content: reaches 3°C, and will keep it running until the temperature has been lowered to 1 °C. This reduces the risk of equipment wear from too frequent switching, although it introduces a target system temperature oscillation of a certain magnitude. To improve the comfort of the occupants of heated or air-conditioned spaces, bimetal sensor thermostats can include an "anticipator" system to slightly warm the temperature sensor while the heating equipment is operating, or to slightly warm the sensor when the cooling system is not operating. When correctly adjusted this reduces any excessive hysteresis in the system and reduces the magnitude of


title: Thermostat content: temperature variations. Electronic thermostats have an electronic equivalent. Early technologies included mercury thermometers with electrodes inserted directly through the glass, so that when a certain (fixed) temperature was reached the contacts would be closed by the mercury. These were accurate to within a degree of temperature. Common sensor technologies in use today include: These may then control the heating or cooling apparatus using: Possibly the earliest recorded examples of thermostat control were built by the Dutch innovator Cornelis Drebbel (1572–1633) around 1620 in England. He invented a mercury thermostat to regulate the temperature of a chicken incubator. This is one


title: Thermostat content: of the first recorded feedback-controlled devices. Modern thermostat control was developed in the 1830s by Andrew Ure (1778–1857), a Scottish chemist, who invented the bi-metallic thermostat. The textile mills of the time needed a constant and steady temperature to operate optimally, so to achieve this Ure designed the bimetallic thermostat, which would bend as one of the metals expanded in response to the increased temperature and cut off the energy supply. Warren S. Johnson (1847–1911) of Wisconsin patented a bi-metal room thermostat in 1883, and two years later filed a patent for the first multi-zone thermostatic control system. Albert Butz


title: Thermostat content: (1849–1905) invented the electric thermostat and patented it in 1886. One of the first industrial uses of the thermostat was in the regulation of the temperature in poultry incubators. Charles Hearson, a British engineer, designed the first modern incubator for eggs that was taken up for use on poultry farms in 1879. The incubators incorporated an accurate thermostat to regulate the temperature so as to precisely simulate the experience of an egg being hatched naturally. This covers only devices which both sense and control using purely mechanical means. Domestic water and steam based central heating systems have traditionally been controlled


title: Thermostat content: by bi-metallic strip thermostats, and this is dealt with later in this article. Purely mechanical control has been localised steam or hot-water radiator bi-metallic thermostats which regulated the individual flow. However, thermostatic radiator valves (TRV) are now being widely used. Purely mechanical thermostats are used to regulate dampers in some rooftop turbine vents, reducing building heat loss in cool or cold periods. Some automobile passenger heating systems have a thermostatically controlled valve to regulate the water flow and temperature to an adjustable level. In older vehicles the thermostat controls the application of engine vacuum to actuators that control water valves


title: Thermostat content: and flappers to direct the flow of air. In modern vehicles, the vacuum actuators may be operated by small solenoids under the control of a central computer. Perhaps the most common example of purely mechanical thermostat technology in use today is the internal combustion engine cooling system thermostat, used to maintain the engine near its optimum operating temperature by regulating the flow of coolant to an air-cooled radiator. This type of thermostat operates using a sealed chamber containing a wax pellet that melts and expands at a set temperature. The expansion of the chamber operates a rod which opens a


title: Thermostat content: valve when the operating temperature is exceeded. The operating temperature is determined by the composition of the wax. Once the operating temperature is reached, the thermostat progressively increases or decreases its opening in response to temperature changes, dynamically balancing the coolant recirculation flow and coolant flow to the radiator to maintain the engine temperature in the optimum range. On many automobile engines, including all Chrysler Group and General Motors products, the thermostat does not restrict flow to the heater core. The passenger side tank of the radiator is used as a bypass to the thermostat, flowing through the heater core.


title: Thermostat content: This prevents formation of steam pockets before the thermostat opens, and allows the heater to function before the thermostat opens. Another benefit is that there is still some flow through the radiator if the thermostat fails. A thermostatic mixing valve uses a wax pellet to control the mixing of hot and cold water. A common application is to permit operation of an electric water heater at a temperature hot enough to kill "Legionella" bacteria (above ), while the output of the valve produces water that is cool enough to not immediately scald (). A wax pellet driven valve can be


title: Thermostat content: analyzed through graphing the wax pellet's hysteresis which consists of two thermal expansion curves; extension (motion) vs. temperature increase, and contraction (motion) vs. temperature decrease. The spread between the up and down curves visually illustrate the valve's hysteresis; there is always hysteresis within wax driven valves due to the phase change between solids and liquids. Hysteresis can be controlled with specialized blended mixes of hydrocarbons; tight hysteresis is what most desire, however some applications require broader ranges. Wax pellet driven valves are used in anti scald, freeze protection, over-temp purge, solar thermal, automotive, and aerospace applications among many others. Thermostats


title: Thermostat content: are sometimes used to regulate gas ovens. It consists of a gas-filled bulb connected to the control unit by a slender copper tube. The bulb is normally located at the top of the oven. The tube ends in a chamber sealed by a diaphragm. As the thermostat heats up, the gas expands applying pressure to the diaphragm which reduces the flow of gas to the burner. A pneumatic thermostat is a thermostat that controls a heating or cooling system via a series of air-filled control tubes. This "control air" system responds to the pressure changes (due to temperature) in the


title: Thermostat content: control tube to activate heating or cooling when required. The control air typically is maintained on "mains" at 15-18 psi (although usually operable up to 20 psi). Pneumatic thermostats typically provide output/ branch/ post-restrictor (for single-pipe operation) pressures of 3-15 psi which is piped to the end device (valve/ damper actuator/ pneumatic-electric switch, etc.). The pneumatic thermostat was invented by Warren Johnson in 1895 soon after he invented the electric thermostat. In 2009, Harry Sim was awarded a patent for a pneumatic-to-digital interface that allows pneumatically controlled buildings to be integrated with building automation systems to provide similar benefits as


title: Thermostat content: direct digital control (DDC). A wax pellet driven valve can be analyzed by graphing the wax pellet's hysteresis which consists of two thermal expansion curves; extension (motion) vs. temperature increase, and contraction (motion) vs. temperature decrease. The spread between the up and down curves visually illustrate the valve's hysteresis; there is always hysteresis within wax driven technology due to the phase change between solids and liquids. Hysteresis can be controlled with specialized blended mixes of hydrocarbons; tight hysteresis is what most desire, however specialized engineering applications require broader ranges. Wax pellet driven valves are used in anti scald, freeze protection,


title: Thermostat content: over-temp purge, solar thermal, automotive, and aerospace applications among many others. Water and steam based central heating systems have traditionally had overall control by wall-mounted bi-metallic strip thermostats. These sense the air temperature using the differential expansion of two metals to actuate an on/off switch. Typically the central system would be switched on when the temperature drops below the setpoint on the thermostat, and switched off when it rises above, with a few degrees of hysteresis to prevent excessive switching. Bi-metallic sensing is now being superseded by electronic sensors. A principal use of the bi-metallic thermostat today is in individual


title: Thermostat content: electric convection heaters, where control is on/off, based on the local air temperature and the setpoint desired by the user. These are also used on air-conditioners, where local control is required. The illustration is the interior of a common two wire heat-only household thermostat, used to regulate a gas-fired heater via an electric gas valve. Similar mechanisms may also be used to control oil furnaces, boilers, boiler zone valves, electric attic fans, electric furnaces, electric baseboard heaters, and household appliances such as refrigerators, coffee pots and hair dryers. The power through the thermostat is provided by the heating device and


title: Thermostat content: may range from millivolts to 240 volts in common North American construction, and is used to control the heating system either directly (electric baseboard heaters and some electric furnaces) or indirectly (all gas, oil and forced hot water systems). "Due to the variety of possible voltages and currents available at the thermostat, caution must be taken when selecting a replacement device." Not shown in the illustration is a separate bimetal thermometer on the outer case to show the actual temperature at the thermostat. As illustrated in the use of the thermostat above, all of the power for the control system


title: Thermostat content: is provided by a thermopile which is a combination of many stacked thermocouples, heated by the pilot light. The thermopile produces sufficient electrical power to drive a low-power gas valve, which under control of one or more thermostat switches, in turn controls the input of fuel to the burner. This type of device is generally considered obsolete as pilot lights can waste a surprising amount of gas (in the same way a dripping faucet can waste a large amount of water over an extended period), and are also no longer used on stoves, but are still to be found in


title: Thermostat content: many gas water heaters and gas fireplaces. Their poor efficiency is acceptable in water heaters, since most of the energy "wasted" on the pilot still represents a direct heat gain for the water tank. The Millivolt system also makes it unnecessary for a special electrical circuit to be run to the water heater or furnace; these systems are often completely self-sufficient and can run without any external electrical power supply. For tankless "on demand" water heaters, pilot ignition is preferable because it is faster than hot-surface ignition and more reliable than spark ignition. Some programmable thermostats - those that offer


title: Thermostat content: simple "millivolt" or "two-wire" modes - will control these systems. The majority of modern heating/cooling/heat pump thermostats operate on low voltage (typically 24 volts AC) control circuits. The source of the 24 volt AC power is a control transformer installed as part of the heating/cooling equipment. The advantage of the low voltage control system is the ability to operate multiple electromechanical switching devices such as relays, contactors, and sequencers using inherently safe voltage and current levels. Built into the thermostat is a provision for enhanced temperature control using anticipation. A heat anticipator generates a small amount of additional heat to


title: Thermostat content: the sensing element while the heating appliance is operating. This opens the heating contacts slightly early to prevent the space temperature from greatly overshooting the thermostat setting. A mechanical heat anticipator is generally adjustable and should be set to the current flowing in the heating control circuit when the system is operating. A cooling anticipator generates a small amount of additional heat to the sensing element while the cooling appliance is not operating. This causes the contacts to energize the cooling equipment slightly early, preventing the space temperature from climbing excessively. Cooling anticipators are generally non-adjustable. Electromechanical thermostats use resistance


title: Thermostat content: elements as anticipators. Most electronic thermostats use either thermistor devices or integrated logic elements for the anticipation function. In some electronic thermostats, the thermistor anticipator may be located outdoors, providing a variable anticipation depending on the outdoor temperature. Thermostat enhancements include outdoor temperature display, programmability, and system fault indication. While such 24 volt thermostats are incapable of operating a furnace when the mains power fails, most such furnaces require mains power for heated air fans (and often also hot-surface or electronic spark ignition) rendering moot the functionality of the thermostat. In other circumstances such as piloted wall and "gravity" (fanless)


title: Thermostat content: floor and central heaters the low voltage system described previously may be capable of remaining functional when electrical power is unavailable. There are no standards for wiring color codes, but convention has settled on the following terminal codes and colors. In all cases, the manufacturer's instructions should be considered definitive. Line voltage thermostats are most commonly used for electric space heaters such as a baseboard heater or a direct-wired electric furnace. If a line voltage thermostat is used, system power (in the United States, 120 or 240 volts) is directly switched by the thermostat. With switching current often exceeding 40


title: Thermostat content: amperes, using a low voltage thermostat on a line voltage circuit will result at least in the failure of the thermostat and possibly a fire. Line voltage thermostats are sometimes used in other applications, such as the control of fan-coil (fan powered from line voltage blowing through a coil of tubing which is either heated or cooled by a larger system) units in large systems using centralized boilers and chillers, or to control circulation pumps in hydronic heating applications. Some programmable thermostats are available to control line-voltage systems. Baseboard heaters will especially benefit from a programmable thermostat which is capable


title: Thermostat content: of continuous control (as are at least some Honeywell models), effectively controlling the heater like a lamp dimmer, and gradually increasing and decreasing heating to ensure an extremely constant room temperature (continuous control rather than relying on the averaging effects of hysteresis). Systems which include a fan (electric furnaces, wall heaters, etc.) must typically use simple on/off controls. Newer digital thermostats have no moving parts to measure temperature and instead rely on thermistors or other semiconductor devices such as a resistance thermometer (resistance temperature detector). Typically one or more regular batteries must be installed to operate it, although some so-called


title: Thermostat content: "power stealing" digital thermostats use the common 24 volt AC circuits as a power source, but will not operate on thermopile powered "millivolt" circuits used in some furnaces. Each has an LCD screen showing the current temperature, and the current setting. Most also have a clock, and time-of-day and even day-of-week settings for the temperature, used for comfort and energy conservation. Some advanced models have touch screens, or the ability to work with home automation or building automation systems. Digital thermostats use either a relay or a semiconductor device such as triac to act as a switch to control the


title: Thermostat content: HVAC unit. Units with relays will operate millivolt systems, but often make an audible "click" noise when switching on or off. HVAC systems with the ability to modulate their output can be combined with thermostats that have a built-in PID controller to achieve smoother operation. There are also modern thermostats featuring adaptive algorithms to further improve the inertia prone system behaviour. For instance, setting those up so that the temperature in the morning at 7 a.m. should be 21 °C (69.8 °F), makes sure that at that time the temperature will be 21 °C (69.8 °F), where a conventional thermostat


title: Thermostat content: would just start working at that time. The algorithms decide at what time the system should be activated in order to reach the desired temperature at the desired time. Other thermostat used for process/industrial control where ON/OFF control is not suitable the PID control can also makes sure that the temperature is very stable (for instance, by reducing overshoots by fine tuning PID constants for set value(SV) or maintaining temperature in a band by deploying hysteresis control.) Most digital thermostats in common residential use in North America and Europe are programmable thermostats, which will typically provide a 30% energy savings


title: Thermostat content: if left with their default programs; adjustments to these defaults may increase or reduce energy savings. The programmable thermostat article provides basic information on the operation, selection and installation of such a thermostat. With non-zoned (typical residential, one thermostat for the whole house) systems, when the thermostat's R (or Rh) and W terminals are connected, the furnace will go through its start-up procedure and produce heat. With zoned systems (some residential, many commercial systems — several thermostats controlling different "zones" in the building), the thermostat will cause small electric motors to open valves or dampers and start the furnace or


title: Thermostat content: boiler if it's not already running. Most programmable thermostats will control these systems. Depending on what is being controlled, a forced-air air conditioning thermostat generally has an external switch for heat/off/cool, and another on/auto to turn the blower fan on constantly or only when heating and cooling are running. Four wires come to the centrally-located thermostat from the main heating/cooling unit (usually located in a closet, basement, or occasionally in the attic): One wire, usually red, supplies 24 volts AC power to the thermostat, while the other three supply control signals from the thermostat, usually white for heat, yellow for


title: Thermostat content: cooling, and green to turn on the blower fan. The power is supplied by a transformer, and when the thermostat makes contact between the 24 volt power and one or two of the other wires, a relay back at the heating/cooling unit activates the corresponding heat/fan/cool function of the unit(s). A thermostat, when set to "cool", will only turn on when the ambient temperature of the surrounding room is above the set temperature. Thus, if the controlled space has a temperature normally above the desired setting when the heating/cooling system is off, it would be wise to keep the thermostat


title: Thermostat content: set to "cool", despite what the temperature is outside. On the other hand, if the temperature of the controlled area falls below the desired degree, then it is advisable to turn the thermostat to "heat". The heat pump is a refrigeration based appliance which reverses refrigerant flow between the indoor and outdoor coils. This is done by energizing a reversing valve (also known as a "4-way" or "change-over" valve). During cooling, the indoor coil is an evaporator removing heat from the indoor air and transferring it to the outdoor coil where it is rejected to the outdoor air. During heating,


title: Thermostat content: the outdoor coil becomes the evaporator and heat is removed from the outdoor air and transferred to the indoor air through the indoor coil. The reversing valve, controlled by the thermostat, causes the change-over from heat to cool. Residential heat pump thermostats generally have an "O" terminal to energize the reversing valve in cooling. Some residential and many commercial heat pump thermostats use a "B" terminal to energize the reversing valve in heating. The heating capacity of a heat pump decreases as outdoor temperatures fall. At some outdoor temperature (called the balance point) the ability of the refrigeration system to


title: Thermostat content: transfer heat into the building falls below the heating needs of the building. A typical heat pump is fitted with electric heating elements to supplement the refrigeration heat when the outdoor temperature is below this balance point. Operation of the supplemental heat is controlled by a second stage heating contact in the heat pump thermostat. During heating, the outdoor coil is operating at a temperature below the outdoor temperature and condensation on the coil may take place. This condensation may then freeze onto the coil, reducing its heat transfer capacity. Heat pumps therefore have a provision for occasional defrost of


title: Thermostat content: the outdoor coil. This is done by reversing the cycle to the cooling mode, shutting off the outdoor fan, and energizing the electric heating elements. The electric heat in defrost mode is needed to keep the system from blowing cold air inside the building. The elements are then used in the "reheat" function. Although the thermostat may indicate the system is in defrost and electric heat is activated, the defrost function is not controlled by the thermostat. Since the heat pump has electric heat elements for supplemental and reheats, the heat pump thermostat provides for use of the electric heat


title: Thermostat content: elements should the refrigeration system fail. This function is normally activated by an "E" terminal on the thermostat. When in emergency heat, the thermostat makes no attempt to operate the compressor or outdoor fan. The thermostat should not be located on an outside wall or where it could be exposed to direct sunlight at any time during the day. It should be located away from the room's cooling or heating vents or device, yet exposed to general airflow from the room(s) to be regulated. An open hallway may be most appropriate for a single zone system, where living rooms and


title: Thermostat content: bedrooms are operated as a single zone. If the hallway may be closed by doors from the regulated spaces then these should be left open when the system is in use. If the thermostat is too close to the source controlled then the system will tend to "short a cycle", and numerous starts and stops can be annoying and in some cases shorten equipment life. A multiple zoned system can save considerable energy by regulating individual spaces, allowing unused rooms to vary in temperature by turning off the heating and cooling. It has been reported that many thermostats in office


title: Thermostat content: buildings are non-functional dummy devices, installed to give tenants' employees an illusion of control. These dummy thermostats are in effect a type of placebo button. However, these thermostats are often used to detect the temperature in the zone, even though their controls are disabled. This function is often referred to as "lockout". Thermostat A thermostat is a component which senses the temperature of a physical system and performs actions so that the system's temperature is maintained near a desired setpoint. Thermostats are used in any device or system that heats or cools to a setpoint temperature, examples include building heating,


title: "John Aislabie" content: Under the patronage of Robert Harley he was appointed a Lord of the Admiralty from 1710 in the Tory administration. This proved a precarious appointment as Aislabie's Whig sympathies manifested in votes against the government. When the Whigs returned to office in 1714, Aislabie was made Treasurer of the Navy. He became an ally of the Earl of Sunderland who became, in effect, Prime Minister in 1718. Sunderland appointed Aislabie as Chancellor of the Exchequer. When in 1719 the South Sea Company proposed a deal whereby it would take over the national debt in exchange for government bonds, Aislabie was


title: "Blank verse" content: the content of his plays in unrhymed iambic pentameter, and John Milton, whose "Paradise Lost" is written in blank verse. Miltonic blank verse was widely imitated in the 18th century by such poets as James Thomson (in "The Seasons") and William Cowper (in "The Task"). Romantic English poets such as William Wordsworth, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and John Keats used blank verse as a major form. Shortly afterwards, Alfred, Lord Tennyson became particularly devoted to blank verse, using it for example in his long narrative poem "The Princess", as well as for one of his most famous poems: "Ulysses". Among American


title: "O. G. S. Crawford" content: one flight in February 1918, Crawford's aircraft was shot at and forced to land in German-held territory; he and his co-pilot were taken as prisoners of war. He was initially imprisoned at Landshut in Bavaria, from where he tried to escape by swimming down the River Isar; the river current proved too strong and he was soon recaptured. He was then transferred to Holzminden prisoner-of-war camp, where he was aware of an escape plan involving tunnelling out of the camp, but did not take part. Instead he spent much of his time working on "Man and his Past" and reading


title: "Vending machine" content: Vending machine A vending machine is an automated machine that provides items such as snacks, beverages, cigarettes and lottery tickets to consumers after money, a credit card, or specially designed card is inserted into the machine. The first modern vending machines were developed in England in the early 1880s and dispensed postcards. Vending machines exist in many countries, and in more recent times, specialized vending machines that provide less common products compared to traditional vending machine items have been created and provided to consumers. The earliest known reference to a vending machine is in the work of Hero of Alexandria,


title: "Vending machine" content: an engineer and mathematician in first-century Roman Egypt. His machine accepted a coin and then dispensed holy water. When the coin was deposited, it fell upon a pan attached to a lever. The lever opened a valve which let some water flow out. The pan continued to tilt with the weight of the coin until it fell off, at which point a counterweight snapped the lever up and turned off the valve. Coin-operated machines that dispensed tobacco were being operated as early as 1615 in the taverns of England. The machines were portable and made of brass. An English bookseller,


title: "Vending machine" content: Richard Carlile, devised a newspaper dispensing machine for the dissemination of banned works in 1822. Simeon Denham was awarded British Patent no. 706 for his stamp dispensing machine in 1867, the first fully automatic vending machine. The first modern coin-operated vending machines were introduced in London, England in the early 1880s, dispensing postcards. The machine was invented by Percival Everitt in 1883 and soon became a widespread feature at railway stations and post offices, dispensing envelopes, postcards, and notepaper. The Sweetmeat Automatic Delivery Company was founded in 1887 in England as the first company to deal primarily with the installation


title: "Vending machine" content: and maintenance of vending machines. In 1893, Stollwerck, a German chocolate manufacturer, was selling its chocolate in 15,000 vending machines. It set up separate companies in various territories to manufacture vending machines to sell not just chocolate, but cigarettes, matches, chewing gum and soap products. The first vending machine in the U.S. was built in 1888 by the Thomas Adams Gum Company, selling gum on New York City train platforms. The idea of adding games to these machines as a further incentive to buy came in 1897 when the Pulver Manufacturing Company added small figures, which would move around whenever


title: "Vending machine" content: somebody bought some gum from their machines. This idea spawned a whole new type of mechanical device known as the "trade stimulators". Internal communication in vending machines is typically based on the MDB standard, supported by National Automatic Merchandising Association (NAMA) and European Vending & Coffee Service Association (EVA). After payment has been tendered, a product may become available by: Some products need to be prepared to become available. For example, tickets are printed or magnetized on the spot, and coffee is freshly concocted. One of the most common form of vending machine, the snack machine, often uses a metal


title: "Vending machine" content: coil which when ordered rotates to release the product. The main example of a vending machine giving access to all merchandise after paying for one item is a newspaper vending machine (also called vending box) found mainly in the U.S. and Canada. It contains a pile of identical newspapers. After a sale the door automatically returns to a locked position. A customer could open the box and take all of the newspapers or, for the benefit of other customers, leave all of the newspapers outside of the box, slowly return the door to an unlatched position, or block the door


title: "Vending machine" content: from fully closing, each of which are frequently discouraged, sometimes by a security clamp. The success of such machines is predicated on the assumption that the customer will be honest (hence the nickname "honor box"), and need only one copy. A change machine is a vending machine that accepts large denominations of currency and returns an equal amount of currency in smaller bills or coins. Typically these machines are used to provide coins in exchange for paper currency, in which case they are also often known as bill changers. In the past, cigarettes were commonly sold in the United States


title: "Vending machine" content: through these machines, but this is increasingly rare due to concerns about underage buyers. Sometimes a pass has to be inserted in the machine to prove one's age before a purchase can be made. In the United Kingdom, legislation banning them outright came into effect on 1 October 2011. In Germany, Austria, Italy, Czech Republic and Japan, cigarette machines are still common. Since 2007, however, age verification has been mandatory in Germany and Italy - buyers must be 18 or over. The various machines installed in pubs and cafés, other publicly accessible buildings and on the street accept one or


title: "Vending machine" content: more of the following as proof of age: the buyer's identity card, bank debit card (smart card) or European Union driver's license. In Japan, age verification has been mandatory since 1 July 2008 via the Taspo card, issued only to persons aged 20 or over. The Taspo card uses RFID, stores monetary value, and is contactless. A birth control machine is a vending machine for the sale of birth control, such as condoms or emergency contraception. Condom machines are often placed in public toilets, subway stations, airports or schools as a public health measure to promote safe sex. Many pharmacies


title: "Vending machine" content: also keep one outside, for after-hours access. Rare examples exist that dispense female condoms or the morning after pill. Various types of food and snack vending machines exist in the world. Food vending machines that provide shelf-stable foods such as chips, cookies, cakes and other such snacks are common. Some food vending machines are refrigerated or frozen, such as for chilled soft drinks and ice cream treats, and some machines provide hot food. Some unique food vending machines exist that are specialized and less common, such as the French fry vending machine and hot pizza vending machines, such as Let's


title: "Vending machine" content: Pizza. The profit margins in the bulk candy business can be quite high – gumballs, for instance, can be purchased in bulk for around 2 cents per piece and sold for 25 cents in gumball machines in the U.S., and other countries. Gumballs and candy have a relatively long shelf life, enabling vending machine operators to manage many machines without too much time or cost involved. In addition, the machines are typically inexpensive compared to soft drink or snack machines, which often require power and sometimes refrigeration to work. Many operators donate a percentage of the profits to charity so


title: "Vending machine" content: that locations will allow them to place the machines for free. Bulk vending may be a more practical choice than soft drink/snack vending for an individual who also works a full-time job, since the restaurants, retail stores, and other locations suitable for bulk vending may be more likely to be open during the evening and on weekends than venues such as offices that host soft drink and snack machines. The Bulk vending Machines of today provide many different vending choices with the use of adjustable gumball and candy wheels. Adjustable gumball wheels allow an operator to not only offer the


title: "Vending machine" content: traditional 1-inch gumball, but they can also vend toy capsules, bouncy balls and larger gumballs. Adjustable candy wheels on the other hand allow an operator to offer a variety of pressed candies, jelly candy, and even nuts. A full-line vending company may set up several types of vending machines that sell a wide range of products. Products may include candy, cookies, chips, fresh fruit, milk, cold food, coffee and other hot drinks, bottles, cans of soda, and even frozen products like ice cream. These products can be sold from machines that include hot coffee, snack, cold food, 20-oz. bottle machines,


title: "Vending machine" content: and glass-front bottle machines. In the United States, almost all machines accept bills with more and more machines accepting $5 bills. This is an advantage to the vendor because it virtually eliminates the need for a bill changer. Larger corporations with cafeterias will often request full line vending with food service. A newspaper vending machine or newspaper rack is a vending machine designed to distribute newspapers. Newspaper vending machines are used worldwide, and they can be one of the main distribution methods for newspaper publishers. According to the Newspaper Association of America, in recent times in the United States, circulation


title: "Vending machine" content: via newspaper vending machines has dropped significantly: in 1996, around 46% of single-sale newspapers were sold in newspaper boxes, and in 2014, only 20% of newspapers were sold in the boxes. A photo booth is a vending machine or modern kiosk that contains an automated, usually coin-operated, camera and film processor. Today, the vast majority of photo booths are digital. Traditionally, photo booths contain a seat or bench designed to seat the one or two patrons being photographed. The seat is typically surrounded by a curtain of some sort to allow for some privacy and help avoid outside interference during


title: "Vending machine" content: the photo session. Once the payment is made, the photo booth will take a series of photographs and the customer is then provided with prints. Older photo booth vending machines used film and involved the process of developing the film using liquid chemicals. A stamp vending machine is a mechanical, electrical or electro-mechanical device which can be used to automatically vend postage stamps to users in exchange for a pre-determined amount of money, normally in coin. A ticket machine is a vending machine that produces tickets. For instance, ticket machines dispense train tickets at railway stations, transit tickets at metro