title: "Ford Focus" content: lighting, Bluetooth hands-free phones and voice control for audio, telephone, and climate control systems. Stylistically, the Mk 2 features the same design language found in the Mondeo and Fiesta. Although still recognisable as a Focus, the new car uses styling features from the abandoned B-Proposal for the "original" Focus which never reached production. In 2005, Ford released a MK.II version of Ford's sports division of Focus, the Focus ST. This one produced and could achieve a time of just 6.4 seconds, and a top speed, using a 2.5-litre, five-cylinder turbocharged engine originating from Volvo. 2007–2008 saw a facelifted version introduced,


title: "Ford Focus" content: featuring Ford's Kinetic Design philosophy. Major changes included a new bonnet with more creases, the removal of all mouldings along the doors and sides, new sculpted pull back headlights, and the big trapezoidal lower grille. In 2009, the new Focus RS was launched, with a modified version of the 2.5-litre engine found in the ST. For the North American market, development followed a separate path. Since debuting at the 2007 North American International Auto Show, the restyled 2008–2011 generation was available as a two-door coupe and four-door saloon; the hatchbacks and wagon were discontinued. The interior was redesigned, including new


title: "Ford Focus" content: seats, a new dashboard design with message center on top of the dashboard, ambient lighting, dashboard panels that simulate brushed aluminum, and Ford's voice-controlled Sync audio/Bluetooth system. Also included in the redesign was a support beam behind the dashboard for extra structural rigidity. Though informally considered as the second generation, it was never officially referred to as such by Ford since its platform was the same as the first generation. For the third generation, Ford reunited both international and North American models by releasing the international Mk3 worldwide. The previous North American version was discontinued, and the new model was


title: "Ford Focus" content: launched simultaneously in North America and Europe in early 2011, both having started production late in 2010. In designing the Ford Focus, a group of young designers used what's called the Third Age Suit in order to simulate the physical limitations of an elderly person. The suit, which restricts the wearer's movements, allowed for insights that were implemented into the car's design. Ford unveiled the Ford Focus at the 2010 North American International Auto Show. The car shown was a five-door hatchback model, also debuting a new 2.0-litre direct injection inline-four engine. A five-door station wagon was also made available


title: "Ford Focus" content: at launch. The new generation launched simultaneously in North America and Europe in early 2011, with production having started in late 2010. Production in Asia, Africa, Australia and South America was scheduled to follow later but the plan for Australian production was later dropped and that market and New Zealand were supplied, along with Asia, from a new factory in Thailand where output began in June 2012. This new generation of Focus incorporates a redesigned cabin with new materials and new entertainment technologies. A 2015 model for the Ford Focus has been exhibited on the Ford website. Sharing the same


title: "Ford Focus" content: chassis as the LW MKI Focus, the exterior of the Focus has been updated in the rear to reflect a more modern style, and the front too. The Focus now aligns with the rest of the Ford line-up. Ford previewed the third generation facelifted model at the 2014 Geneva Motor Show. The updated version features a new redesigned front end design, incorporating Ford's new family grille and slimline headlights. The sporty ST and an RS model (now sold globally)—which features an upgraded version of the 2.3-litre engine from the Ford Mustang—will continue Ford's performance range. The RS now has all-wheel


title: "Ford Focus" content: drive. The new 2015 model year update Focus range will be offered with Ford's multi award-winning EcoBoost technology, with a 1.5-litre turbocharged four-cylinder powerplant available in outputs in place of the current older 1.6-litre and 2.0-litre offerings. One of the most anticipated features is the 2016 Ford Focus RS's "Drift" Mode, which will be the first in the Focus line. On April 10, 2018, Ford unveiled the European and Asian-market versions of the fourth-generation Focus, to mark the brand's 20th anniversary. As in the previous generation, the model is available with sedan, hatchback and estate bodystyles. The exterior features a


title: "Ford Focus" content: sportier design, while Ford described its interior as being simpler. The company also emphasized technology featured in the new model, including the Sync 3 infotainment system, FordPass Connect, and the CoPilot360 driver assistance suite. A crossover SUV trim level known as the Active is available with the hatchback and estate bodystyles. The car also has a Vignale luxury trim level, followed after most Ford models in Europe including the Ford Fiesta, Ford Edge, Ford S-Max, and Ford Mondeo Vignale. Ford stated in June 2017 that production of North American models for the next Focus would begin in late 2019, and


title: "Ford Focus" content: that these models would be imported from a Ford facility in China, rather than produced in Michigan. On April 25, 2018, Ford announced that, as part of plans to phase out conventional automobiles from its lineup in North America to focus on its more profitable SUV and truck segments, the Focus Active will be the only model sold in the region. In August 2018 Ford announced the cancellation of plans to import the new Chinese-built Focus SUV to America, citing tariff concerns. As a result, the fourth generation Focus is not available in the United States market. The 2019 Ford


title: "Ford Focus" content: Focus arrived in Australia in November 2018. In Australia, the Focus will be offered with a 1.5L 3-cylinder petrol for lower models and for higher models they will have 1.5L Ecoboost 3-cylinder. All engines send power to the front wheels via either a 6-speed manual, or an 8-speed automatic, which is a new rotary dial for shifting gears like the Ford Fusion, and Ford Expedition. The all-new Focus will make its way to Australia from Ford's Saarlouis factory in Germany, rather than the Rayong plant in Thailand where the current LZ models are sourced and where LW MKII were sourced.


title: "Ford Focus" content: The model line-up is predicted to follow the current line-up with the base 'Trend', ST-Line based 'Sport' and the range topping 'Titanium' variant. A Focus Wagon is not planned to come to Australia for the 2018 model year. Australian models are predicted to follow the current equipment standards, including a standard fit Sync 3. The Trend hatchback will be equipped with 16-inch alloy wheels, electric park brake, climate control, Sync 3 infotainment system, with standard fit navigation, Apple CarPlay and Android Auto, automatic headlights, auto-dimming electrochromatic rear view mirror, as well as rain-sensing automatic wipers. The ST-Line, which replaced the


title: "Ford Focus" content: Sport, is available in both hatchback and estate form, a first for the Australian Focus; it brings a sport ST-Line bodykit, honeycomb front grill, chrome-finished exhaust tips, 17-inch alloys, sports suspension, a flat-bottomed steering wheel with contrast red stitching, metallic pedals, wireless phone charging and dual-zone climate control. The estate bodystyle also adds a cargoblind and roof rails as standard. The top-of-the-line Titanium will be fully decked out with a unique front grille and body styling, LED headlights with LED daytime running lights, automatic highbeam, sequential LED indicators, static bending lights, blind-spot monitoring with rear cross-traffic alert, adaptive cruise control


title: "Ford Focus" content: with stop and go function, evasive steering assist and land centering technology, leather seats and a ten speaker Bang & Olufsen premium audio system. All models are built in Saarlouis, Germany. Safety and driver assistance features equipped on the 2019 Ford Focus which some are also part of the Co-Pilot Driver 360 include: The first Focus World Rally Car made its debut in rallying and the World Rally Championship on the 1999 Monte Carlo Rally with Colin McRae and Simon Jean-Joseph at the wheels of the two cars, replacing, for the first time in a generation, the Escort. It was


title: "Ford Focus" content: immediately on the pace, setting many fastest stage times, but an illegal water pump meant that the two cars were excluded from that event. McRae went on to give the Focus WRC its maiden victory on the Safari Rally in February of the same year, and took victory again in the following rally, the Rally Portugal. The MkI Focus WRC went on to achieve further victories over the years for McRae, Carlos Sainz, and Markko Märtin from then until it was phased out in favour of the MkII offering in late 2005. This car, a winner in both Marcus Grönholm's


title: "Ford Focus" content: and Mikko Hirvonen's hands in the two-car factory BP-Ford World Rally Team that contested the 2006 World Rally Championship season, duly racked up the manufacturers' title, spelling the end of a formidable twenty-seven-year wait for such an honour in this series for the Blue Oval. The team successfully defended the manufacturers' title in the 2007 season. The Focus WRC was used until the 2010 season, when it was announced that the new Fiesta will replace the Focus from 2011 and onwards. All the rally cars are built, prepared, and run for Ford by M-Sport, the motorsport team based in Cockermouth,


title: "Ford Focus" content: Cumbria in Northern England. The team is managed by Malcolm Wilson, a well known former British rally driver. Besides rallies, the Focus has also been used in the SCCA Speed World Challenge Touring Car Series, the TC 2000, resulting champion in 2003, 2005, 2010, and 2012. A Focus was entered into the 2006 Swedish Touring Car Championship season. The Ford Focus ST made its debut in the 2009 British Touring Car Championship season, with Arena Motorsport. During its second season, the car ran on liquefied petroleum gas, taking the first BTCC win for a car powered by this fuel at


title: "Ford Focus" content: Brands Hatch. In 2011, Arena (also known as Team AON) shifted to the newer Focus Mk3, while Motorbase Performance drove the ST version. Both cars had engines, built by the Next Generation Touring Car engine rules. Motorbase continues to compete with the Ford Focus ST. Arena Motorsport entered two Ford Focus Mk3s in the 2012 World Touring Car Championship season for Tom Chilton and James Nash. The best result is 6th place by Nash in the Race of Morocco. In 2008 Ford South Africa entered two modified Focus ST models into Class T (reserved for turbocharged production vehicles) of the


title: "Ford Focus" content: local Bridgestone Production Car Championship (essentially a Touring Car formula). They secured the Class T driver's titles in 2009 and 2011. The car had success in the 2013 China Touring Car Championship, and won its class in the 2014 Liqui Moly Bathurst 12 Hour. The Focus that raced in the 2014 Bathurst 12 Hour was powered by a 5.0 L Ford Coyote V8 engine. Europe 20: Austria, Belgium, Britain, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Romania, Sweden and Switzerland Ford Focus The Ford Focus is a compact car (C-segment in Europe)


title: "Bowers v. Hardwick" content: Court directly overruled its decision in "Lawrence v. Texas", and held that anti-sodomy laws are unconstitutional. In early July 1982, Atlanta police officer Keith Torick issued Michael Hardwick a citation for public drinking after witnessing Hardwick throw a beer bottle into a trash can outside the gay bar where he worked, allegedly observing him violating the city's ordinance that prohibits drinking in public. Due to a clerical error on the citation issued by Torick, Hardwick missed his court date and Torick obtained a warrant for Hardwick's arrest. Hardwick then settled the matter by paying a $50 fine at a court


title: "Kenny Loggins" content: 2013, shortly after Loggins formed the group Blue Sky Riders with Gary Burr and Georgia Middleman. Loggins was born in Everett, Washington, and is the youngest of three brothers. His mother was Lina (née Massie), a homemaker, and his father, Robert George Loggins, was a salesman. They lived in Detroit and Seattle before settling in Alhambra, California. Loggins attended San Gabriel Mission High School, graduating in 1966. He formed a band called the "Second Helping" that released three singles during 1968 and 1969 on Viva Records. Greg Shaw described the efforts as "excellent punky folk-pop records" that were written by


title: "Antoine Nompar de Caumont" content: term of imprisonment at Chalon-sur-Saône made him change his mind, but when he was set free Louis XIV was still set against the marriage, which is supposed to have taken place secretly. Married or not, Lauzun was openly courting Nicolas Fouquet's daughter, whom he had seen at Pignerol. He was to be restored to his place at court, and to marry Mademoiselle Fouquet, who, however, became Duchess d'Uzès in 1683. In 1685 Lauzun went to England to seek his fortune under James II, whom he had served as Duke of York in Flanders. He rapidly gained great influence at the


title: Sarcoidosis content: as "Candida" or purified protein derivative (PPD). Polyclonal hypergammaglobulinemia is also a fairly common immunologic anomaly seen in sarcoidosis. Lymphadenopathy (swollen glands) is common in sarcoidosis and occurs in 15% of cases. Intrathoracic nodes are enlarged in 75 to 90% of all people; usually this involves the hilar nodes, but the paratracheal nodes are commonly involved. Peripheral lymphadenopathy is very common, particularly involving the cervical (the most common head and neck manifestation of the disease), axillary, epitrochlear, and inguinal nodes. Approximately 75% of cases show microscopic involvement of the spleen, although only in about 5–10% of cases does splenomegaly appear.


title: "Mercedes de Acosta" content: Badajoz, authored the Spanish translations. Composer Joseph Hallman memorialized de Acosta in the song cycle, Raving Beauty, for flute, harp, cello, and soprano. The song cycle was based on the correspondence and ephemera held in the de Acosta collection at the Rosenbach Museum. The work deals with her relationships and correspondences with Greta Garbo, Marlene Dietrich, Isadora Duncan, Igor Stravinsky, and others. Commissioned by the Philadelphia International Festival for the Arts, it has been performed many times, including by the Secret Opera. Mercedes de Acosta Mercedes de Acosta (March 1, 1893 – May 9, 1968) was an American poet, playwright,


title: "Madeleine Carroll" content: 32 Herbert Street (now number 44) in West Bromwich, Staffordshire, daughter of John Carroll, an Irish professor of languages from County Limerick, and Helene, his French wife. She graduated from the University of Birmingham, with a B.A. degree; while at university she appeared in some productions for the Birmingham University Dramatic Society. She was a French mistress at a girls' school in Brighton for a year. Carroll wanted to act and left teaching to look for roles. She got a job in the touring company of Seymour Hicks. She made her stage debut with a touring company in "The Lash".


title: Nyala content: Nyala The lowland nyala or simply nyala ("Tragelaphus angasii"), is a spiral-horned antelope native to southern Africa. It is a species of the family Bovidae and genus "Nyala", also considered to be in the genus "Tragelaphus". It was first described in 1849 by George French Angas. The body length is , and it weighs . The coat is rusty or rufous brown in females and juveniles, but grows a dark brown or slate grey, often tinged with blue, in adult males. Females and young males have ten or more white stripes on their sides. Only males have horns, long and


title: Nyala content: yellow-tipped. It exhibits the highest sexual dimorphism among the spiral-horned antelopes. The nyala is mainly active in the early morning and the late afternoon. It generally browses during the day if temperatures are and during the night in the rainy season. As a herbivore, the nyala feeds upon foliage, fruits and grasses, with sufficient fresh water. A shy animal, it prefers water holes rather than open spaces. The nyala does not show signs of territoriality, and individuals areas can overlap each others. They are very cautious creatures. Old males live alone, but single sex or mixed family groups of up


title: Nyala content: to 10 individuals can be found. These inhabit thickets within dense and dry savanna woodlands. The main predators of the nyala are lion, leopard and Cape hunting dog, while baboons and raptorial birds hunt for the juveniles. Mating peaks during spring and autumn. Males and females are sexually mature at 18 and 11–12 months of age respectively, though they are socially immature until five years old. After a gestational period of seven months, a single calf is born. The nyala's range includes Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland, and Zimbabwe. It has been introduced to Botswana and Namibia, and reintroduced to


title: Nyala content: Swaziland, where it had been extinct since the 1950s. Its population is stable and it has been listed as of Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The principal threats to the species are poaching and habitat loss resulting from human settlement. The males are highly prized as game animals in Africa. The nyala was first described by George French Angas, an English naturalist, in 1849. The scientific name of nyala is "Tragelaphus angasii". The name "angasii" is attributed to Angas, who said that Mr. Gray had named this species after Angas' father, George Fife Angas,


title: Nyala content: Esq. of South Australia. But, according to Article 50.1.1 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, this is insufficient to state Gray as the author. The name "nyala" is the Tsonga name for this antelope, which is likely the source of the English, along with Zulu "inyala". Its first known use was in 1899. The word has a Bantu origin, similar to the Venda word "dzì-nyálà" (nyala buck). The nyala is the second taxon to branch off from the tragelaphine family tree just after the lesser kudu. As the nyala line has remained separate


title: Nyala content: for a considerable amount of time (over 5 million years), it has now been placed in its own monotypic genus "Nyala". "Nyala" was proposed in 1912 by American zoologist Edmund Heller, the one who had also proposed "Ammelaphus" (lesser kudu). but not widely recognized, and was only re-established as a valid genus in 2011 by Peter Grubb and Colin Groves. While Nyala is the accepted genus, it is still considered as a species of "Tragelaphus". In 2005, Sandi Willows-Munro (of the University of KwaZulu-Natal) and colleagues carried out a mitochondrial analysis of the nine "Tragelaphus" species. mtDNA and nDNA data


title: Nyala content: were compared. The results showed that the tribe Tragelaphini is monophyletic with the lesser kudu ("T. imberbis") basal in the phylogeny, followed by the nyala. On the basis of mitochondrial data, studies have estimated that the lesser kudu separated from its sister clade around 13.7 million years ago. On the other hand, the nuclear data shows that lesser kudu and nyala form a clade, and collectively separated from the sister clade 13.8 million years ago. The nyala has 55 male chromosomes and 56 female chromosomes. The Y chromosome has been translocated onto the 14th chromosome, as in other tragelaphids, but


title: Nyala content: no inversion of the Y chromosome occurs. Cranial studies have shown that the mountain nyala and nyala, though sharing a common name, are actually distant relatives. Fossil evidence suggests that the nyala has been a separate species since the end of the Miocene (5.8 million years ago). Genetic evidence suggests that the proto-nyala had some early hybridization with the proto-lesser kudu, but the two have remained separate long after this crossing. The nyala is a spiral-horned and middle-sized antelope, between a bushbuck and a kudu. It is considered the most sexually dimorphic antelope. The nyala is typically between in head-and-body


title: Nyala content: length. The male stands up to , the female is up to tall. Males weigh , while females weigh . Life expectancy of the nyala is about 19 years. The coat is rusty or rufous brown in females and juveniles. But it grows a dark brown or slate grey in adult males, often with a bluish tinge. Females and young males have ten or more white vertical stripes on their sides. Other markings are visible on the face, throat, flanks and thighs. Stripes are very reduced or absent in older males. Both males and females have a white chevron between


title: Nyala content: their eyes, and a long bushy tail white underside. Both sexes have a dorsal crest of hair running right from the back of the head to the end of the tail. Males have another line of hair along the midline of their chest and belly. Only the males have horns. Horns are long and yellow-tipped. There are one or two twists. The spoor is similar to that of the bushbuck, but larger. It is long. The feces resemble round to spherical pellets. The nyala has hairy glands on its feet, which leave their scent wherever it walks. The condition of


title: Nyala content: the nyala often varies between the sexes. According to a study, this can be attributed to the differences in their body sizes. It was noted that during nutritional stress, old adults died in more numbers, of which most were males. During an attempt of blood sampling in the nyala, it was found that Vitamin E levels varied during stress. A study of the helminths from 77 nyalas from four game reserves in Natal revealed the presence of ten nematode species and four nematode genera, a trematode species and paramphistomes (members of superfamily "Paramphistomoidea"), and two cestode genera. The research discovered


title: Nyala content: new parasites that the nyala was host of - namely a "Cooperia rotundispiculum" race, "Gaigeria pachyscelis", a "Gongylonema" species, "Haemonchus vegliai", "Impalaia tuberculata", an "Oesophagostomum" species, a "Setaria" species, "Trichostrongylus deflexus", "Trichostrongylus falculatus", the larval stage of a "Taenia" species, a "Thysaniezia" species and "Schistosoma mattheei". "Ostertagia harrisi" and "C. rotundispiculum" were the most dominant nematodes in the antelope. Another study of 97 blood samples of South African nyalas revealed the presence of tick-borne hemoparasites (blood parasites). The methods used were polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and reverse line blot (RLB) hybridization. The dominant parasites were "Theileria" species, "T. buffeli", "T.


title: Nyala content: bicornis", "Ehrlichia" species, "Anaplasma marginale" and "A. bovis". Ten tick species, two louse species and a louse fly species were recovered in a study of 73 nyalas at Umfolozi, Mkuzi and Ndumu Game Reserves in northeastern KwaZulu-Natal in 1983 and 1984 and an additional six individuals in 1994. It was found that nyalas were hosts to all stages of development in "Boophilus decoloratus", "Rhipicephalus appendiculatus" and "R. muehlensi" and the immature stages of "Amblyomma hebraeum" and "Rhipicephalus maculatus". Adult males served hosts to more number of ticks and lice than adult females did. Also, a trypanosome was isolated from a


title: Nyala content: nyala, wild-caught in Mozambique, which was diagnosed and found as akin to "Trypanosoma vivax", based on biological, morphological and molecular data. The nyala can also suffer from myopathy. In between January 1973 and June 1981, 21 nyalas succumbed to the disease. The main symptoms were stiffness, inability to rise, and failure to suckle in newborns. Necrosis (that is, the premature death of cells in a living tissue) and mineralization were found in the skeletal muscle after a histological analysis. In the juveniles there was acute necrosis of the cardiac muscle. In adults, there was interstitial fibrosis of the cardiac muscle,


title: Nyala content: along with arteriosclerosis. In a report published in 1994 entitled ""Epidemiological observations on spongiform encephalopathies in captive wild animals in the British Isles"" it was noted that spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) had been diagnosed in one nyala captive in a zoo. The nyala was formerly affected by the disease rinderpest, although the viral disease is considered eradicated now. The nyala is active mainly in the early morning and late afternoon. It browses during the day if temperatures are and during the night in rainy season. These antelopes rest in thick bushes during the hot hours of the day. The nyala is


title: Nyala content: very shy and cautious in nature, and like remaining hidden rather than coming out in the open. Most sightings of the nyala in the wild are at water holes. But now-a-days they are becoming less shy and often come out in the sight of tourists. Nyala groups are according to sex or mixed. Herds usually browse and drink water together. Each group consists of two to ten individuals. A study in Zinave National Park at Mozambique showed that 67% of the observations were of groups of one to three nyalas, and the rest of the herds consisted of up to


title: Nyala content: 30 nyalas. It was also seen that herds often broke up and formed again. Generally adult males remain alone. Females often remain near their mothers when they have their offspring, so the relationships in female herds may be considered relatively closer than that of males. Alert and wary in nature, the nyala use a sharp, high, dog-like bark to warn others in a group about danger. This feature is mainly used by females. They also react to the alarm calls of impala, baboon and kudu. The impala has been found to react to the calls of the nyala too. The


title: Nyala content: main predators of nyala are lion, leopard and Cape hunting dog, while baboons and raptorial birds are the predators of juveniles. As a herbivore, the nyala's diet consists of foliage, fruits, flowers and twigs. During the rainy season they feed upon the fresh grass. They need a regular intake of water, and thus choose places with a water source nearby. However, they are adapted to live in areas with only a seasonal availability of water. A study in Zululand showed that the nyala fed mainly in the early morning and the late afternoon. They feed at night during the rainy


title: Nyala content: season. A study made in Mkhuze Game Reserve and Ndumu Game Reserve in Natal, focused on the dietary habits of the impala and the nyala, showed that the amount of dicotyledons in their diets varied seasonally. In the diet of nyala its content was 83.2% and impala's diet contained a lesser figure of 52% dicotyledons. The diet grew richer in fiber content and dietary proteins were less. The reverse occurred in the rainy season. As the rainy season arrived, both the species took to a diet of mainly monocotyledons, and the impala consumed more of them. The diet contained more


title: Nyala content: proteins than fibers. Another study was done to find whether the sexual dimorphism in the nyala influenced its foraging habits. Vegetation surveys were conducted with the end of each feeding bout. It was found that females spent equal periods of time foraging in all the three habitats, but males preferred sand forest more. More differences were noted, as males ate woody species at a greater average height whereas females fed from the low herbaceous layer. It was concluded that the differences resulted from varying nutritional and energetic demands according to their diverse body sizes and differing reproductive strategies. The nyala


title: Nyala content: breeds throughout the year, but mating peaks in spring and autumn. The reason for this is still unknown, but attributed to the photoperiod and the feeding habits of the animal. Females reach sexual maturity at 11 to 12 months of age and males at 18 months (though they are socially immature until five years old). Once sexually mature, a male's seminiferous tubules begin spermatogenesis, that is, the generation of sperm. In a study, males over 14 months old showed active spermatogenesis. Before ovulation, the Graafian follicles reach a length of at least . A female's estrus cycle is about 19


title: Nyala content: days long. Males mate with the female for two days of the cycle, but she allows it for only six hours per cycle. When the male enters a females' herd during mating, he makes a display by raising his white dorsal crest, lowering his horns and moving stiffly. As in many other animals, the males fight over dominance during mating. In a study, the Kidney Fat Indices (KFIs) of impalas and nyalas were studied to understand the influence of social class and reproduction on them. Kidney Fat Index is a technique in which the kidney is removed and weighed with


title: Nyala content: the fat and once again excluding the fat. The resultant difference is the amount of fat on the kidney. The more the fat, the healthier the animal. In rut, the male nyalas had less KFIs, that did not vary much with the season. Pregnant females, both the antelopes nyala and impala, had higher KFIs than the non-pregnant ones. There is a significant increase in corpus luteum in the last third of gestation. Gestation is of seven months. A single calf is born, weighing . Birth takes place generally away from the sight of predators, in places such as a thicket.


title: Nyala content: The calf remains hidden for up to 18 days, and the mother nurses it at regular intervals. The calf remains with its mother until the birth of the next calf, during which males in rut drive it away from the mother. The nyala inhabits dense lowland woodlands and thickets, mainly in southern Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, and eastern South Africa. It chooses places with good quality grasslands as well as provision of fresh water. They also inhabit lush green river country. The nyala's natural range stretches across southeast Africa from the Lower Shire Valley in Malawi through Mozambique and Zimbabwe to


title: Nyala content: eastern South Africa and Swaziland. The geographic distribution of the nyala may be based on the genetic variation. According to a study of the nyala in South Africa, Mozambique, Malawi and Zimbabwe, a great difference was marked among the gene frequencies at three microsatellite loci. Mitochondrial DNA analysis revealed the presence of a unique haplotype in individuals from each location. The conclusions were that the geographic variation in the nyala may be due to a distribution pattern based on the habitat specificity. Today the nyala are found in South African protected areas in the KwaZulu-Natal Game Reserves of Ndumo Game


title: Nyala content: Reserve, uMkuze Game Reserve and Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Game Reserve, and in Kruger National Park. According to statistics of 1999, 10-15% of the nyala occur on private land. Currently efforts are being made to retain the populations of nyala in Gorongosa National Park and Banhine National Park in Mozambique. The nyala also thrive in Lengwe National Park in Malawi. The nyala have never been observed showing signs of territoriality. Territories overlap extensively, let it be of any sex. The home ranges of males are approximately equal to that of females, about 10 km. in area. The major threats to the population of


title: Nyala content: the nyala are poaching, habitat loss, agriculture and cattle grazing. Rinderpest outbreaks have also contributed in population loss. This species is currently of Least Concern, and the population is considered stable by both the IUCN and CITES. As of 1999, the total population of the nyala was around 32,000 individuals. More recent estimates show that South Africa has at least 30,000 nyalas, with 25,000 in KwaZulu-Natal. There are now more than 1,000 on protected areas and ranches in Swaziland. In Mozambique there are not more than 3,000, in Zimbabwe there are over 1,000 while numbers in Malawi have fallen from


title: Nyala content: 3,000 to about 1,500. Namibia has the least population, about 250. Today over 80% of the total population is protected in national parks and sanctuaries, mostly in South African protected areas. These are the Ndumo Game Reserve, uMkuze Game Reserve and Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Game Reserve and Kruger National Park. 10 to 15% occur on private land. They mostly occur in South Africa due to the high demand for adult males as game trophies. Nyala The lowland nyala or simply nyala ("Tragelaphus angasii"), is a spiral-horned antelope native to southern Africa. It is a species of the family Bovidae and genus "Nyala",


title: "Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport" content: an effort to reduce congestion at the airport. Both runways were operated simultaneously especially during peak hours to try and attain this target. MIAL scrapped simultaneous Cross-runway flight operations in mid-2013 after it found that single runway operations were more effective for increasing Aircraft movements per hour. Runway 14/32 is now used only when the main runway is unavailable due to maintenance or other reasons. The construction of new rapid exit taxiways helped in increasing flight handling capacity from 32 movements per hour to 44 in 2012. Issues with utilising 14/32 are: MIAL was considering constructing a second parallel runway


title: "Marjory Stoneman Douglas" content: of the Florida Everglades". It has gone through numerous editions, selling 500,000 copies since its original publication. The "Christian Science Monitor" wrote of it in 1997, "Today her book is not only a classic of environmental literature, it also reads like a blueprint for what conservationists are hailing as the most extensive environmental restoration project ever undertaken anywhere in the world". The downside of the book's impact, according to one writer addressing restoration of the Everglades, is that her metaphor of a River of Grass is so predominant that the complex web of ecosystems within the Everglades is oversimplified. David


title: "Bill Bradley" content: 400,000 more children in Head Start, and increase the availability of food stamps. Although Gore was considered the party favorite, Bradley received a number of high-profile endorsements, including senators Paul Wellstone, Bob Kerrey, and Daniel Patrick Moynihan; former Secretary of Labor Robert Reich; former New York City mayor Ed Koch; former Federal Reserve chairman Paul Volcker; and basketball stars Michael Jordan and Phil Jackson. Bradley and Jackson have been close friends since they were teammates playing for the New York Knicks. Jackson was a vocal supporter of Bradley's run for the presidency and often wore his campaign button in public.


title: CSIRO content: from the CEO of the CSIRO, Megan Clark, which attacked the report's author and threatened him with unspecified punishment. The author of the paper, Clive Spash, was cited in the press as having been bullied and harassed, and later gave a radio interview about this. In the midst of the affair, CSIRO management had considered releasing the paper with edits that Nature reported would be "tiny". Spash claimed the changes actually demanded amounted to censorship and resigned. He later posted on his website a document detailing the text that CSIRO management demanded be deleted; by itself, this document forms a


title: "Lake Annecy" content: Lake Annecy Lake Annecy (French: "Lac d'Annecy") is a perialpine lake in Haute-Savoie in France. It is the third largest lake in France, after the Lac du Bourget and Lac de Grand-Lieu, if the French part of Lake Geneva (which is shared between Switzerland and France) is excluded. It is known as "Europe's cleanest lake" because of strict environmental regulations introduced in the 1960s. It is a popular tourist destination known for its swimming and water sports. The lake was formed about 18,000 years ago, at the time the large alpine glaciers melted. It is fed by many small rivers


title: "Lake Annecy" content: from the surrounding mountains (Ire, Eau morte, Laudon, Bornette and Biolon), and from a powerful underwater source, the Boubioz, which enters at 82 m depth. A cycle path goes partially around Lake Annecy past Sevrier and St Jorioz to Ugine. It has an aim to reach Albertville. The lake is around 14 km long. Lake Annecy Lake Annecy (French: "Lac d'Annecy") is a perialpine lake in Haute-Savoie in France. It is the third largest lake in France, after the Lac du Bourget and Lac de Grand-Lieu, if the French part of Lake Geneva (which is shared between Switzerland and France)


title: "Chewing gum" content: Chewing gum Chewing gum is a soft, cohesive substance designed to be chewed without being swallowed. Modern chewing gum is composed of gum base, sweeteners, softeners/plasticizers, flavors, colors, and, typically, a hard or powdered polyol coating. Its texture is reminiscent of rubber because of the physical-chemical properties of its polymer, plasticizer, and resin components, which contribute to its elastic-plastic, sticky, chewy characteristics. The cultural tradition of chewing gum seems to have developed through a convergent evolution process, as traces of this habit have arisen separately in many of the early civilizations. Each of the early precursors to chewing gum were


title: "Chewing gum" content: derived from natural growths local to the region and were chewed purely out the instinctual desire to masticate. Early chewers did not necessarily desire to derive nutritional benefits from their chewable substances, but at times sought taste stimuli and teeth cleaning or breath-freshening capabilities. Chewing gum in many forms has existed since the Neolithic period. 6,000-year-old chewing gum made from birch bark tar, with tooth imprints, has been found in Kierikki in Finland. The tar from which the gums were made is believed to have antiseptic properties and other medicinal benefits. It is chemically similar to petroleum tar and is


title: "Chewing gum" content: in this way different from most other early gum. The Mayans and Aztecs were the first to exploit the positive properties of gum, they used chicle, a natural tree gum, as a base for making a gum-like substance and to stick objects together in everyday use. Forms of chewing gums were also chewed in Ancient Greece. The Ancient Greeks chewed mastic gum, made from the resin of the mastic tree. Mastic gum, like birch bark tar, has antiseptic properties and is believed to have been used to maintain oral health. Both chicle and mastic are tree resins. Many other cultures


title: "Chewing gum" content: have chewed gum-like substances made from plants, grasses, and resins. Although chewing gum can be traced back to civilizations around the world, the modernization and commercialization of this product mainly took place in the United States. The American Indians chewed resin made from the sap of spruce trees. The New England settlers picked up this practice, and in 1848, John B. Curtis developed and sold the first commercial chewing gum called The State of Maine Pure Spruce Gum. In this way, the industrializing West, having forgotten about tree gums, rediscovered chewing gum through the First Americans. Around 1850 a gum


title: "Chewing gum" content: made from paraffin wax, which is a petroleum product, was developed and soon exceeded the spruce gum in popularity. To sweeten these early gums, the chewer would often make use of a plate of powdered sugar, which they would repeatedly dip the gum into to maintain sweetness. William Semple filed an early patent on chewing gum, patent number 98,304, on December 28, 1869. The first flavored chewing gum was created in the 1860s by John Colgan, a Louisville, Kentucky pharmacist. Colgan mixed with powdered sugar the aromatic flavoring tolu, a powder obtained from an extract of the balsam tree ("Myroxylon"),


title: "Chewing gum" content: creating small sticks of flavored chewing gum he named "Taffy Tolu". Colgan also lead the way in the manufacturing and packaging of chicle-based chewing gum, derived from "Manilkara chicle", a tropical evergreen tree. He licensed a patent for automatically cutting chips of chewing gum from larger sticks: US 966,160 "Chewing Gum Chip Forming Machine" August 2, 1910 and a patent for automatically cutting wrappers for sticks of chewing gum: US 913,352 "Web-cutting attachment for wrapping-machines" February 23, 1909 from Louisville, Kentucky inventor James Henry Brady, an employee of the Colgan Gum Company. Modern chewing gum was first developed in the


title: "Chewing gum" content: 1860s when chicle was brought from Mexico by the former President, General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, to New York, where he gave it to Thomas Adams for use as a rubber substitute. Chicle did not succeed as a replacement for rubber, but as a gum, which was cut into strips and marketed as Adams New York Chewing Gum in 1871. Black Jack (1884), which is flavored with licorice, Chiclets (1899), and Wrigley's Spearmint Gum were early popular gums that quickly dominated the market and are all still around today. Chewing gum gained worldwide popularity through American GIs in WWII,


title: "Chewing gum" content: who were supplied chewing gum as a ration and traded it with locals. Synthetic gums were first introduced to the U.S. after chicle no longer satisfied the needs of making good chewing gum. By the 1960s, US manufacturers had switched to butadiene-based synthetic rubber, as it was cheaper to manufacture. Gum base composition is considered proprietary information known by select individuals within each gum-manufacturing company. Information about the other components of chewing gum are more accessible to the public and they are listed in Table 2. Table 2: Common Ingredients in the Formulation of Modern Chewing Gum Gum base is


title: "Chewing gum" content: made of polymers, plasticizers, and resins. Polymers, including elastomers, are responsible for the stretchy and sticky nature of chewing gum. Plasticizers improve flexibility and reduce brittleness, contributing to the plastic and elastic nature of gum. The interactions of plasticizers within gum base are governed by solubility parameters, molecular weight, and chemical structure. Resins compose the hydrophobic portion of the gum base, responsible for its chewiness. Although the exact ingredients and proportions used in each brand's gum base are trade secrets within the gum industry, Table 3 lists all of the natural and synthetic gum base components approved for use in


title: "Chewing gum" content: the United States, demonstrating some examples of key gum base components. Table 3: Gum Base Ingredients Approved for Use by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2016) First, gum base is previously prepared through a melting and straining or filtering process. The formulation for gum base is proprietary information known to few individuals within each gum-producing company. Next, other ingredients such as nutritive and non-nutritive sweeteners and flavors are added to the gum base until the warm mixture thickens like dough. The gum base mixture is heated during this mixing process in order to increase the entropy of the polymers


title: "Chewing gum" content: to achieve a more uniform dispersion of ingredients. Then, extrusion technology is implemented to smooth, form, and shape the gum. Next, the gum goes through a shaping process that is determined by gum type and consumer demand. For example, cut and wrap (chunk or cube) pieces are severed straight out of the extruder using a vertical cutter. Sheeting is a technique often used for stick, slab and tab gums. Next, gum is either conditioned by being sprinkled with a powdered polyol or coated via the application of subsequent layers of coating using temperature controlled coating basins before it is sent


title: "Chewing gum" content: to packaging. Chewing gum can come in a variety of formats ranging from 1.4 to 6.9 grams per piece, and products can be differentiated by the consumers’ intent to form bubbles or the sugar/sugarless dichotomy. Chewing gum typically comes in three formats: tablets, coated pellets, and sticks/ slabs. Bubble gum typically come in three formats as well: tablets, hollow balls, and cubes or chunks. Stick, slab, and tab gums typically come in packs of about five to 17 sticks or more, and their medium size allows for softer texture. Pellet gums, or "dragée" gums, are pillow shaped pieces that are


title: "Chewing gum" content: almost always coated. Packaging of pellet gums can vary from boxes to bottles to blister packs. The coating of pellet gum allows for the opportunity for multiple flavor sensations, since coating is done in a layering process and different flavor attributes can be added to various layers. Cube or chunk gums, which are typically intended for bubble blowing, are called cut and wrap gums as they are typically severed from continuous strands of extruded gum and packaged directly. Chewing gum is rather shelf stable because of its non-reactive nature and low moisture content. The water activity of chewing gum ranges


title: "Chewing gum" content: from 0.40 to 0.65. The moisture content of chewing gum ranges from three to six percent. In fact, chewing gum retains its quality for so long that, in most countries, it is not required by law to be labeled with an expiration date. If chewing gum remains in a stable environment, over time the gum may become brittle or lose some of its flavor, but it will never be unsafe to eat. If chewing gum is exposed to moisture, over time water migration may occur, making the gum soggy. In lollipops with a gum center, water migration can lead to


title: "Chewing gum" content: the end of the product’s shelf life, causing the exterior hard candy shell to soften and the interior gum center to harden. The physical and chemical properties of chewing gum impact all aspects of this product, from manufacturing to sensory perception during mastication. The polymers that make up the main component of chewing gum base are hydrophobic. This property is essential because it allows for retention of physical properties throughout the mastication process. Because the polymers of gum repel water, the water-based saliva system in a consumer’s mouth will dissolve the sugars and flavorings in chewing gum, but not the


title: "Chewing gum" content: gum base itself. This allows for gum to be chewed for a long period of time without breaking down in the mouth like conventional foods. Chewing gum can be classified as a product containing a liquid phase and a crystalline phase, providing gum with its characteristic balance of plastic and elastic properties. While hydrophobic polymers beneficially repel water and contribute to chewiness, they also detrimentally attract oil. The stickiness of gum results from this hydrophobic nature, as gum can form bonds and stick when it makes contact with oily surfaces such as sidewalks, skin, hair, or the sole of one’s


title: "Chewing gum" content: shoe. To make matters worse, unsticking the gum is a challenge because the long polymers of the gum base stretch, rather than break. The sticky characteristic of gum may be problematic during processing if the gum sticks to any machinery or packaging materials during processing, impeding the flow of product. Aside from ensuring that the machinery is free from lipid-based residues, this issue can be combatted by the conditioning and coating of gum toward the end of the process. By adding either a powder or a coating to the exterior of the gum product, the hydrophobic gum base binds to


title: "Chewing gum" content: the added substance instead of various surfaces with which it may come in contact. Bubblegum bubbles are formed when the tension and elasticity of gum polymers acts against the constant and equally dispersed pressure of air being directed into the gum bolus. Bubble gum bubbles are circular because pressure from the focused air being directed into the bolus acts equally on all of the interior surfaces of the gum cud, uniformly pushing outward on all surfaces as the polymers extend. As the bubble expands, the polymers of the gum base stretch and the surface of the bubble begins to thin.


title: "Chewing gum" content: When the force of the air being blown into the bubble exceeds the force that the polymers can withstand, the polymers overextend and the bubble pops. Due to the elastic attributes of chewing gum, the deflated bubble recoils and the wad of gum is ready to continue being chewed. Gum bases with higher molecular weights are typically used in gums intended to meet bubble-forming expectations. Higher molecular weight gum bases include longer polymers that are able to stretch further, and thus are able to form larger bubbles that retain their shape for a longer time. Flavor delivery is extended throughout


title: "Chewing gum" content: the mastication process by timed release of different flavor components due to the physical-chemical properties of many of chewing gum’s ingredients. Entropy is a key player in the process of flavor delivery; because some gum components are more soluble in saliva than gum base and because over time flavor components desire to increase their entropy by becoming dispersed in the less ordered system of the mouth than in the more ordered system of the gum bolus, flavor delivery occurs. During the first three to four minutes of the chew, bulking agents such as sugar or sorbitol and maltitol have the


title: "Chewing gum" content: highest solubility and, therefore, are chewed out first. As these components dissolve in the consumers’ saliva and slide down the esophagus, they are no longer retained in the gum base or perceived by the chewer. During the next phase of the chew in the four to six minute range, intense sweeteners and some acids are dissolved and chewed out. These components last slightly longer than the bulking agents because they have a slightly lower solubility. Next, encapsulated flavors are released during either 10-15 minute into the chew or after 30–45 minutes. Encapsulated flavors remain incorporated in the gum base longer


title: "Chewing gum" content: because the molecules that they are encapsulated in are more easily held within the gum matrix. Finally, during the last phase of the chew, softeners such as corn syrup and glycerin and other textural modifiers are dissolved, resulting in a firming up of the gum and the end of the chew. Studies have shown that gum flavor is perceived better in the presence of sweetener. Companies have started to create chemical systems in gum so that the sweetener and flavor release together in a controlled manner during chewing. A cooling sensation is achieved through the chemical phenomenon of the negative


title: "Chewing gum" content: enthalpy of dissolution that occurs with bulk sweeteners, such as the sugar alcohols. The enthalpy of dissolution refers to the overall amount of heat that is absorbed or released in the dissolving process. Because the bulk sweeteners absorb heat as they dissolve and have a negative enthalpy, they yield a cooling sensation as they are dissolved in a consumer’s saliva. A review about the cognitive advantages of chewing gum by Onyper et al. (2011) found strong evidence of improvement for the following cognitive domains: working memory, episodic memory and speed of perception. However the improvements were only evident when chewing


title: "Chewing gum" content: took place prior to cognitive testing. The precise mechanism by which gum chewing improves cognitive functioning is however not well understood. The researchers did also note that chewing-induced arousal could be masked by the distracting nature of chewing itself, which they named "dual-process theory", which in turn could explain some of the contradictory findings by previous studies. They also noticed the similarity between mild physical exercise such as pedaling a stationary bike and chewing gum. It has been demonstrated that mild physical exercise leads to little cognitive impairment during the physical task accompanied by enhanced cognitive functioning afterwards. Furthermore, the


title: "Chewing gum" content: researchers noted that no improvement could be found for verbal fluency, which is in accordance with previous studies. This finding suggests that the effect of chewing gum is domain specific. The cognitive improvements after a period of chewing gum have been demonstrated to last for 15–20 minutes and decline afterwards. Sugar-free gum sweetened with xylitol has been shown to reduce cavities and plaque. The sweetener sorbitol has the same benefit, but is only about one-third as effective as xylitol. Other sugar substitutes, such as maltitol, aspartame and acesulfame K, have also been found to not cause tooth decay. Xylitol is


title: "Chewing gum" content: specific in its inhibition of "Streptococcus mutans", bacteria that are significant contributors to tooth decay. Xylitol inhibits "Streptococcus mutans" in the presence of other sugars, with the exception of fructose. Xylitol is a safe sweetener that benefits teeth and saliva production because, unlike most sugars, it is not fermented to acid. Daily doses of xylitol below 3.44 grams are ineffective and doses above 10.32 grams show no additional benefit. Other active ingredients in chewing gum include fluoride, which strengthens tooth enamel, and p-chlorbenzyl-4-methylbenzylpiperazine, which prevents travel sickness. Chewing gum also increases saliva production. Food and sucrose have a demineralizing effect


title: "Chewing gum" content: upon enamel that has been reduced by adding calcium lactate to food. Calcium lactate added to toothpaste has reduced calculus formation. One study has shown that calcium lactate enhances enamel remineralization when added to xylitol-containing gum, but another study showed no additional remineralization benefit from calcium lactate or other calcium compounds in chewing-gum. Other studies indicated that the caries preventive effect of chewing sugar-free gum is related to the chewing process itself rather than being an effect of gum sweeteners or additives, such as polyols and carbamide. A study investigated the in situ effect of casein phosphopeptide–amorphous calcium phosphate (CPP–ACP)


title: "Chewing gum" content: found that its incorporation into a sugar-free gum increases the remineralization / protection of eroded enamel surface significantly. Gum chewing is regarded as a helpful way to cure halitosis (bad breath). Chewing gum not only helps to add freshness to breath but can aid in removing food particles and bacteria associated with bad breath from teeth. It does this by stimulating saliva, which essentially washes out the mouth. Chewing sugar-free gum for 20 minutes after a meal helps prevent tooth decay, according to the American Dental Association, because the act of chewing the sugar-free gum produces saliva to wash away


title: "Chewing gum" content: bacteria, which protects teeth. Chewing gum after a meal replaces brushing and flossing, if that's not possible, to prevent tooth decay and increase saliva production. Chewing gum can also help with the lack of saliva or xerostomia since it naturally stimulates saliva production. Saliva is made of chemicals, such as organic molecules, inorganic ions and macromolecules. 0.5% of saliva deals with dental health, since tooth enamel is made of calcium phosphate, those inorganic ions in saliva help repair the teeth and keep them in good condition. The pH of saliva is neutral, which having a pH of 7 allows it


title: "Chewing gum" content: to remineralize tooth enamel. Falling below a pH of 5.5 (which is acidic) causes the saliva to demineralize the teeth. Masumoto et al. looked at the effects of chewing gum after meals following an orthodontic procedure, to see if chewing exercises caused subjects pain or discomfort, or helped maintain a large occlusal contact area. 35 adult volunteers chewed gum for 10 to 15 minutes before or after three meals each day for 4 weeks. 90% of those questioned said that the gum felt "quite hard", and half reported no discomfort. Several randomized controlled studies have investigated the use of chewing


title: "Chewing gum" content: gum in reducing the duration of post-operative ileus following abdominal and specifically gastrointestinal surgery. A systematic review of these suggests gum chewing, as a form of "sham feeding", is a useful treatment therapy in open abdominal or pelvic surgery, although the benefit is less clear when laparoscopic surgical techniques are used. Chewing gum after a colon surgery helps the patient recover sooner. If the patient chews gum for fifteen minutes for at least four times per day, it will reduce their recovery time by a day and a half. The average patient took 0.66 fewer days to pass gas and


title: "Chewing gum" content: 1.10 fewer days to have a bowel movement. Saliva flow and production is stimulated when gum is chewed. Gum also gets digestive juices flowing and is considered "sham feeding". Sham feeding is the role of the central nervous system in the regulation of gastric secretion. Chewing gum is used as a novel approach for the treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). One hypothesis is that chewing gum stimulates the production of more bicarbonate-containing saliva and increases the rate of swallowing. After the saliva is swallowed, it neutralizes acid in the esophagus. In effect, chewing gum exaggerates one of the normal


title: "Chewing gum" content: processes that neutralize acid in the esophagus. However, chewing gum is sometimes considered to contribute to the development of stomach ulcers. It stimulates the stomach to secrete acid and the pancreas to produce digestive enzymes that aren't required. In some cases, when consuming large quantities of gum containing sorbitol, gas and/or diarrhea may occur. Controversy arises as to health concerns surrounding the questionable classification of gum as food, particularly in regard to some alternative uses for gum base ingredients. According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), chewing gum is considered a food, as the term “food” means “a


title: "Chewing gum" content: raw, cooked, or processed edible substance, ice, beverage, or ingredient used or intended for use or for sale in whole or in part for human consumption, or chewing gum”. Chewing gum is defined as a food of minimal nutritional value. However, many of the ingredients in gum base have uses in inedible products, which raises concern in some consumers. Polyethylene, one of the most popular components of gum base, belongs to a common group of plastics and is used in products from plastic bags to hula hoops. Polyvinyl acetate is a sticky polymer found in white glue. Butyl rubber is


title: "Chewing gum" content: typically used in caulking and the lining of car tires, in addition to its role in gum base. Paraffin wax is a byproduct of refined petroleum. Concern has arisen about the possible carcinogenicity of the vinyl acetate (acetic acid ethenyl ester) used by some manufacturers in their gum bases. Currently, the ingredient can be hidden in the catch-all term "gum base". The Canadian government at one point classified the ingredient as a "potentially high hazard substance." However, on January 31, 2010, the Government of Canada's final assessment concluded that exposure to vinyl acetate is not considered to be harmful to


title: "Chewing gum" content: human health. This decision under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA) was based on new information received during the public comment period, as well as more recent information from the risk assessment conducted by the European Union. Various myths hold that swallowed gum will remain in a human's stomach for up to seven years, as it is not digestible. According to several medical opinions, there seems to be little truth behind the tale. In most cases, swallowed gum will pass through the system as quickly as any other food. There have been cases where swallowing gum has resulted in complications


title: "Chewing gum" content: in young children requiring medical attention. A 1998 paper describes a four-year-old boy being referred with a two-year history of constipation. The boy was found to have "always swallowed his gum after chewing five to seven pieces each day", being given the gum as a reward for good behavior, and the build-up resulted in a solid mass which could not leave the body. A 1½-year-old girl required medical attention when she swallowed her gum and four coins, which got stuck together in her esophagus. A bezoar is formed in the stomach when food or other foreign objects stick to gum


title: "Chewing gum" content: and build up, causing intestinal blockage. As long as the mass of gum is small enough to pass out of the stomach, it will likely pass out of the body easily, but it is recommended that gum not be swallowed or given to young children who do not understand not to swallow it. Adults have choked to death on chewing gum in rare cases. A 2012 report describes a 42-year-old woman who fell on the stairs while chewing gum. Due to the impact, the gum fell into the pharynx and was inhaled into the larynx, causing complete blockage and resulting


title: "Chewing gum" content: in the woman's death by asphyxiation. Chewing gum is not water-soluble and unlike other confectionery is not fully consumed. There has been much effort at public education and investment aimed at encouraging responsible disposal. Despite this it is commonly found stuck underneath benches, tables, handrails and escalators. It is extremely difficult and expensive to remove once "walked in" and dried. Gum bonds strongly to asphalt and rubber shoe soles because they are all made from polymeric hydrocarbons. It also bonds strongly with concrete paving. Removal is generally achieved by steam jet and scraper but the process is slow and labour-intensive.


title: "Chewing gum" content: Most external urban areas with high pedestrian traffic show high incidence of casual chewing gum discard. In 2000 a study on Oxford Street, one of London’s busiest shopping streets, showed that a quarter of a million black or white blobs of chewing gum were stuck to its pavement. Gum removal from city streets, or even famous landmarks, can be a costly effort; in Rome, 15,000 pieces of chewed gum are discarded on a daily basis and the removal of each piece costs the city one euro. However, likely as a consequence of Singapore's ban, Singapore's pavements are, perhaps uniquely amongst


title: "Chewing gum" content: modern cities, free of gum. Various teams of researchers have developed gum that is less adhesive and degrades within days or weeks. One example, Rev7 Gum, was briefly for sale from 2010 to 2012. Many schools do not allow chewing gum because students often dispose of it inappropriately (leaving it under desks and chairs, behind vending machines, etc.). The chewing may also pose a distraction to class, and the gum might carry diseases or bacteria from other students. The Singapore government outlawed chewing gum in 1992 citing the danger of discarded gum being wedged in the sliding doors of underground


title: "Chewing gum" content: trains and general cleanliness. However, in 2004 the government allowed sugarless gum to be sold in pharmacies if a doctor or dentist prescribed it due to the Singapore–United States Free Trade Agreement. In 2018, the BBC published a news article on British designer Anna Bullus, who created a method of collecting and recycling chewing gum into plastic, noting that litter from chewing gum is the second most common form of litter, second only to cigarette litter. She uses a Worcester recycling plant to make old chewing gum into plastic. She then uses that plastic at a plastic moulding specialist, Amber


title: "Chewing gum" content: Valley, in Leicester to make plastic objects. Known objects made are collection containers for more chewing gum, shoe soles, rubber boots, and plastic cups. Her company advertises itself as the "first company in the world to recycle and process chewing gum into a range of new compounds that can be used in the rubber and plastics industry". The company is called Gum-tec, and the collection containers are dubbed "gumdrops". Advertised products on the website are pencils, coffee mugs, guitar picks, a "bicycle spoke", rulers, sports cones, frisbees, boomerangs, door stops, "meal mates", lunch-boxes, and combs. Chewing gum Chewing gum is


title: "United States Government Publishing Office" content: red brick building that houses the GPO was erected in 1903 and is unusual in being one of the few large, red brick government structures in a city where most government buildings are mostly marble and granite. (The Smithsonian Castle and the Pension Building, now the National Building Museum, are other exceptions.) An additional structure was attached to its north in later years. The activities of GPO are defined in the public printing and documents chapters of Title 44 of the United States Code. The Director (formerly the Public Printer), who serves as the head of GPO, is appointed by


title: "Eric Avery" content: Bear, in 1994. He was once suggested as the replacement bassist for Tool by former Jane's Addiction and then-current Tool manager Ted Gardner. Eric declined the invitation, saying he wanted to concentrate on Polar Bear. As seen in the film "Some Kind of Monster", Avery auditioned for Metallica, after the departure of bassist Jason Newsted. The role didn't quite fit Avery and the band went with Ozzy Osbourne and Suicidal Tendencies bassist Robert Trujillo. Avery toured with the band Garbage to promote 2005's "Bleed Like Me". Avery has also performed with Peter Murphy, on tour and on 2004's "Unshattered". Avery


title: Zugspitze content: Zugspitze The Zugspitze, (; Southern Bavarian: "Zugspitz") at 2,962 m (9,718 ft) above sea level, is the highest peak of the Wetterstein Mountains as well as the highest mountain in Germany. It lies south of the town of Garmisch-Partenkirchen, and the Austria–Germany border runs over its western summit. South of the mountain is the "Zugspitzplatt", a high karst plateau with numerous caves. On the flanks of the Zugspitze are three glaciers, including the two largest in Germany: the Northern Schneeferner with an area of 30.7 hectares and the Höllentalferner with an area of 24.7 hectares. The third is the Southern


title: Zugspitze content: Schneeferner which covers 8.4 hectares. The Zugspitze was first climbed on 27 August 1820 by Josef Naus, his survey assistant, Maier, and mountain guide, Johann Georg Tauschl. Today there are three normal routes to the summit: one from the Höllental valley to the northeast; another out of the Reintal valley to the southeast; and the third from the west over the Austrian Cirque ("Österreichische Schneekar"). One of the best known ridge routes in the Eastern Alps runs along the knife-edged Jubilee Ridge ("Jubiläumsgrat") to the summit, linking the Zugspitze, the Hochblassen and the Alpspitze. For mountaineers there is plenty of


title: Zugspitze content: nearby accommodation. On the western summit of the Zugspitze itself is the Münchner Haus and on the western slopes is the Wiener-Neustädter Hut. Three cable cars run to the top of the Zugspitze. The first, the Tyrolean Zugspitze Cable Car, was built in 1926 by the German company "Adolf Bleichert & Co" and terminated on an arête below the summit at 2.805 m.a.s.l, the so-called Kammstation, before the terminus was moved to the actual summit at 2.951 m.a.s.l. in 1991. A rack railway, the Bavarian Zugspitze Railway, runs inside the northern flank of the mountain and ends on the "Zugspitzplatt",


title: Zugspitze content: from where a second cable car takes passengers to the top. The rack railway and the Eibsee Cable Car, the third cableway, transport an average of 500,000 people to the summit each year. In winter, nine ski lifts cover the ski area on the "Zugspitzplatt". The weather station, opened in 1900, and the research station in the Schneefernerhaus are mainly used to conduct climate research. The Zugspitze belongs to the Wetterstein range of the Northern Limestone Alps. The Austria–Germany border goes right over the mountain. There used to be a border checkpoint at the summit but, since Germany and Austria


title: Zugspitze content: are now both part of the Schengen zone, the border crossing is no longer manned. The exact height of the Zugspitze was a matter of debate for quite a while. Given figures ranged from , but it is now generally accepted that the peak is above sea level as a result of a survey carried out by the Bavarian State Survey Office. The lounge at the new café is named "2962" for this reason. At (eastern peak) the Zugspitze is the highest mountain of the Zugspitze massif. This height is referenced to the Amsterdam Gauge and is given by the


title: Zugspitze content: Bavarian State Office for Survey and Geoinformation. The same height is recorded against the Trieste Gauge used in Austria, which is 27 cm lower. Originally the Zugspitze had three peaks: the east, middle and west summits ("Ost-, Mittel-" and "Westgipfel"). The only one that has remained in its original form is the east summit, which is also the only one that lies entirely on German territory. The middle summit fell victim to one of the cable car summit stations in 1930. In 1938 the west summit was blown up to create a building site for a planned flight control room


title: Zugspitze content: for the "Wehrmacht". This was never built however. Originally the height of the west summit was given as . The mountain rises eleven kilometres southwest of Garmisch-Partenkirchen and just under six kilometres east of Ehrwald. The border between Germany and Austria runs over the west summit; thus the Zugspitze massif belongs to the German state of Bavaria and the Austrian state of Tyrol. The municipalities responsible for it are Grainau and Ehrwald. To the west the Zugspitze massif drops into the valley of the River Loisach, which flows around the massif towards the northeast in a curve whilst, in the


title: Zugspitze content: east, the streams of "Hammersbach" and Partnach have their source. To the south the "Gaistal" valley and its river, the Leutascher Ache, separate the Wetterstein Mountains from the Mieming Chain. To the north at the foot of the Zugspitze is the lake of Eibsee. The next highest mountain in the area is the Acherkogel () in the Stubai Alps, which gives the Zugspitze a topographic isolation value of 24.6 kilometres. The reference point for the prominence is the Parseierspitze (). In order to climb it from the Zugspitze, a descent to the Fern Pass () is required, so that the


title: Zugspitze content: prominence is . The massif of the Zugspitze has several other peaks. To the south the "Zugspitzplatt" is surrounded in an arc by the "Zugspitzeck" () and Schneefernerkopf (), the Wetterspitzen (), the Wetterwandeck (), the Plattspitzen () and the "Gatterlköpfen" (). The massif ends in the "Gatterl" (), a wind gap between it and the Hochwanner. Running eastwards away from the Zugspitze is the famous Jubilee Ridge or "Jubiläumsgrat" over the Höllentalspitzen towards the Alpspitze and Hochblassen. The short crest of the "Riffelwandkamm" runs northeast over the summits of the Riffelwandspitzen () and the "Riffelköpfe" (), to the Riffel


title: Zugspitze content: wind gap ("Riffelscharte", ). From here the ridge of the "Waxensteinkamm" stretches away over the Riffelspitzen to the Waxenstein. The "Platt" or "Zugspitzplatt" is a plateau below the summit of the Zugspitze to the south and southeast which lies at a height of between . It forms the head of the Reintal valley and has been shaped by a combination of weathering, karstification and glaciation. The area contains roches moutonnées, dolines and limestone pavements as a consequence of the ice ages. In addition moraines have been left behind by various glacial periods. The "Platt" was completely covered by a glacier


title: Zugspitze content: for the last time at the beginning of the 19th century. Today 52% of it consists of scree, 32% of bedrock and 16% of vegetation-covered soils, especially in the middle and lower areas. From a climatic perspective the Zugspitze lies in the temperate zone and its prevailing winds are Westerlies. As the first high orographic obstacle to these Westerlies in the Alps, the Zugspitze is particularly exposed to the weather. It is effectively the north barrier of the Alps ("Nordstau der Alpen"), against which moist air masses pile up and release heavy precipitation. At the same time the Zugspitze acts


title: Zugspitze content: as a protective barrier for the Alpine ranges to the south. By contrast, Föhn weather conditions push in the other direction against the massif, affecting the region for about 60 days per year. These warm, dry air masses stream from south to north and can result in unusually high temperatures in winter. Nevertheless, frost dominates the picture on the Zugspitze with an average of 310 days per year. For the decades from 1961 to 1990 – designated by the World Meteorological Organization as the "normal period" – the average annual precipitation on the Zugspitze was 2,003.1 mm; the wettest month


title: Zugspitze content: being April with 199 mm, and the driest, October with 108.8 mm. By comparison the values for 2009 were 2,070.8 mm, the wettest month being March with 326.2 mm and the driest, January, with 56.4 mm. The average temperature in the normal period was −4.8 Celsius, with July and August being the warmest at 2.2 °C and February, the coldest, with −11.4 °C. By comparison the average temperature in 2009 was −4.2 °C, the warmest month was August at 5.3 °C and the coldest was February at −13.5 °C. The average sunshine during the normal period was 1,846.3 hours per


title: Zugspitze content: year, the sunniest month being October with 188.8 hours and the darkest being December with 116.1 hours. In 2009 there were 1,836.3 hours of sunshine, the least occurring in February with just 95.4 hours and the most in April with 219 hours. In 2009, according to the weather survey by the German Met Office, the Zugspitze was the coldest place in Germany with a mean annual temperature of −4.2 °C. The lowest measured temperature on the Zugspitze was −35.6 °C on 14 February 1940. The highest temperature occurred on 5 July 1957 when the thermometer reached 17.9 °C. A squall


title: Zugspitze content: on 12 June 1985 registered 335 km/h, the highest measured wind speed on the Zugspitze. In April 1944 meteorologists recorded a snow depth of 8.3 metres. Nowadays, snow completely melts during summer, but in the past snow might resist the summer months, the last case when the snow failed to melt during the whole summer season was in 2000. All mountain-building strata consists of sedimentary rocks of the Mesozoic era, that were originally laid down on the seabed. The base of the mountain comprises muschelkalk beds; its upper layers are made of Wetterstein limestone. With steep rock walls up to


title: Zugspitze content: 800 metres high, it is this Wetterstein limestone from the Upper Triassic that is mainly responsible for the rock faces, arêtes, pinnacles and the summit rocks of the mountain. Due to the frequent occurrence of marine coralline algae in the Wetterstein limestone it can be deduced that this rock was at one time formed in a lagoon. The colour of the rock varies between grey-white and light grey to speckled. In several places it contains lead and zinc ore. These minerals were mined between 1827 and 1918 in the Höllental valley. The dark grey, almost horizontal and partly grass-covered layers


title: Zugspitze content: of muschelkalk run from the foot of the Great Riffelwandspitze to the Ehrwalder Köpfe. From the appearance of the north face of the Zugspitze it can be seen that this massif originally consisted of two mountain ranges that were piled on top of one another. The flora on the Zugspitze is not particularly diverse due to the soil conditions, nevertheless the vegetation, especially in the meadows of "Schachen", the "Tieferen Wies" near Ehrwald, and in the valleys of Höllental, Gaistal and Leutaschtal is especially colourful. The shaded and moist northern slopes of the massif like, for example, the Wettersteinwald, are


title: Zugspitze content: some of the most species-rich environments on the Zugspitze. The mountain pine grows at elevations of up to 1,800 metres. The woods lower down consist mainly of spruce and fir, but honeysuckle, woodruff, poisonous herb paris, meadow-rue and speedwell also occur here. Dark columbine, alpine clematis, blue and yellow monkshood, stemless carline thistle, false aster, golden cinquefoil, round-leaved saxifrage, wall hawkweed, alpine calamint and alpine forget-me-not flower in the less densely wooded places, whilst cinquefoil, sticky sage, butterbur, alpenrose, Turk's cap lily and fly orchid thrive on the rocky soils of the mountain forests. Lily of the valley and daphne


title: Zugspitze content: also occur, especially in the Höllental, in Grainau and by the Eibsee. To the south the scene changes to larch (mainly in the meadow of "Ehrwalder Alm" and the valleys of Gaistal and Leutaschtal) and pine forests and into mixed woods of beech and sycamore. Here too, mountain pine grows at the higher elevations of over 2,000 metres. Relatively rare in the entire Zugspitze area are trees like the lime, birch, rowan, juniper and yew. The most varied species of moss, that often completely cover limestone rocks in the open, occur in great numbers. Bilberry, cranberry and cowberry are restricted


title: Zugspitze content: to dry places and lady's slipper orchid occurs in sheltered spots. Below the Waxenstein are fields with raspberries and occasionally wild strawberries too. The alpine poppy and purple mountain saxifrage both thrive up to a very great height. On the scree slopes there are penny-cress and mouse-ear chickweed as well as mountain avens, alpine toadflax, mint and . Following snowmelt dark stonecrop and snow gentian are the first to appear, their seeds beginning to germinate as early as August. Other well-known alpine plants like edelweiss, gentians and, more rarely, cyclamen also flower on the Zugspitze. The rocks around the Zugspitze


title: Zugspitze content: are a habitat for chamois, whilst marmots are widespread on the southern side of the massif. At the summit there are frequently alpine choughs, drawn there by people feeding them. Somewhat lower down the mountain there are mountain hare and the hazel dormouse. Alpine birds occurring on the Zugspitze include the golden eagle, rock ptarmigan, snow finch, alpine accentor and brambling. The crag martin which has given its name to the "Schwalbenwand" ("Swallows' Wall") at Kreuzeck is frequently encountered. The basins of Mittenwald and Seefeld, as well as the Fern Pass are on bird migration routes. The viviparous lizard inhabits


title: Zugspitze content: rocky terrain, as does the black alpine salamander known locally as the "Bergmandl", which can be seen after rain showers as one is climbing. Butterflies like Apollo, Thor's fritillary, gossamer-winged butterfly, geometer moth, ringlet and skipper may be seen on the west and south sides of the Zugspitze massif, especially in July and August. The woods around the Zugspitze are home to red deer, red squirrel, weasel, capercaillie, hazel grouse and black grouse. On the glaciers live glacier fleas ("Desoria saltans") and water bears. Three of Germany's five glaciers are found on the Zugspitze massif: the Höllentalferner the Southern and


title: Zugspitze content: Northern Schneeferner. The Höllentalferner lies northeast of the Zugspitze in a cirque below the Jubilee Ridge ("Jubiläumsgrat") to the south and the Riffelwandspitzen peaks to the west and north. It has a northeast aspect. Its accumulation zone is formed by a depression, in which large quantities of avalanche snow collect. To the south the "Jubiläumsgrat" shields the glacier from direct sunshine. These conditions meant that the glacier only lost a relatively small area between 1981 and 2006. In recent times the Höllentalferner reached its greatest around 1820 with an area of 47 hectares. Thereafter its area reduced continually until the


title: Zugspitze content: period between 1950 and 1981 when it grew again, by 3.1 hectares to 30.2 hectares. Since then the glacier has lost (as at 2006) an area of 5.5 hectares and now has an area of 24.7 hectares. In 2006 the glacier head was at 2,569 m and its lowest point at 2,203 metres. Southwest of the Zugspitze, between the "Zugspitzeck" and Schneefernerkopf, is the Northern Schneeferner which has an eastern aspect. With an area of 30.7 hectares (2006) it is the largest German glacier. Around 1820 the entire "Zugspitzplatt" was glaciated, but of this Platt Glacier ("Plattgletscher") only the Northern


title: Zugspitze content: and Southern Schneeferner remain. The reason for the relatively constant area of the Northern Schneeferner in recent years, despite the lack of shade, is the favourable terrain that results in the glacier tending to grow or shrink in depth rather than area. In the recent past the glacier has also been artificially fed by the ski region operators, using piste tractors to heap large quantities of snow onto the glacier in order to extend the skiing season. At the beginning of the 1990s, ski slope operators began to cover the Northern Schneeferner in summer with artificial sheets in order to


title: Zugspitze content: protect it from sunshine. The Northern Schneeferner reached its last high point in 1979, when its area grew to 40.9 hectares. By 2006 it had shrunk to 30.7 hectares. The glacier head then lay at 2,789 m and the foot at 2,558 metres. The Southern Schneeferner is surrounded by the peaks of the Wetterspitzen and the Wetterwandeck. It is also a remnant of the once great "Platt Glacier". Today, the Southern Schneeferner extends up as far as the arête and therefore has no protection from direct sunshine. It has also been divided into two basins by a ridge of rock


title: Zugspitze content: that has appeared as the snow has receded. It is a matter of debate whether the Southern Schneeferner should still be classified as a glacier. The Southern Schneeferner also reached its last high point in 1979, when it covered an area of 31.7 hectares. This had shrunk by 2006 to just 8.4 hectares however. The highest point of the glacier lies at an elevation of 2,665 metres and the lowest at 2,520 metres. Below the "Zugspitzplatt" chemical weathering processes have created a large number of caves and abîmes in the Wetterstein limestone. In the 1930s the number of caves was


title: Zugspitze content: estimated at 300. By 1955 62 caves were known to exist and by 1960 another 47 had been discovered. The first cave explorations here took place in 1931. Other, largest exploratory expeditions took place in 1935 and 1936 as well as between 1955 and 1968. During one expedition, in 1958, the Finch Shaft ("Finkenschacht") was discovered. It is 131 metres deep, 260 metres long and has a watercourse. There is a theory that this watercourse could be a link to the source of the River Partnach. From the early 14th century, geographic names from the Wetterstein Mountains began to be


title: Zugspitze content: recorded in treaties and on maps, and this trend intensified in the 15th century. In 1536 a border treaty dating to 1500 was refined in that its course was specified as running over a "Schartten" ("wind gap" or "col"). In the 17th century the reference to this landmark in the treaty was further clarified as ""now known as the Zugspüz"" ("jetzt Zugspüz genant"). The landmark referred to was a wind gap on the summit of the Zugspitze and is used time and again in other sources. During the Middle Ages "Scharte" was a common name for the Zugspitze. The Zugspitze


title: Zugspitze content: was first mentioned by name in 1590. In a description of the border between the County of Werdenfels and Austria, it states that the same border runs ""from the Zugspitz and over the Derle"" ("von dem Zugspitz und über den Derle"") and continues to a bridge over the River Loisach. Another border treaty in 1656 states: ""The highest Wetterstein or Zugspitz"" (""Der höchste Wetterstain oder Zugspitz""). There is also a map dating to the second half of the 18th century that shows ""the Reintal in the County of Werdenfels"". It covers the Reintal valley from the Reintaler Hof to the


title: Zugspitze content: "Zugspitzplatt" and shows prominent points in the surrounding area, details of tracks and roads and the use pasture use. This includes a track over the then much larger Schneeferner glacier to the summit region of the Zugspitze. However the map does not show any obvious route to the summit itself. The name of the Zugspitze is probably derived from its "Zugbahnen" or avalanche paths. In winter avalanches sweep down from the upper slopes of the massif into the valley and leave behind characteristic avalanche remnants in the shape of rocks and scree. Near the Eibsee lake there are several plots


title: Zugspitze content: of land with the same root: "Zug", "Zuggasse", "Zugstick", "Zugmösel" or "Zugwankel". Until the 19th century the name "der Zugspitz" (male gender) was commonplace. It was described as "die Zugspitze" (female gender) for the first time on a map printed in 1836. The spelling "Zugspitz" is still used in the Bavarian dialect. Since 1851 there has been a summit cross on the top of Zugspitze. The driving force behind the erection of a cross on the summit was the priest, Christoph Ott. He was a keen meteorologist and whilst observing conditions from the Hoher Peißenberg mountain he saw the Zugspitze


title: Zugspitze content: in the distance and was exercised by the fact that ""the greatest prince of the Bavarian mountains raised its head into the blue air towards heaven, bare and unadorned, waiting for the moment when patriotic fervour and courageous determination would see that his head too was crowned with dignity."" As a result, he organised an expedition from 11 to 13 August 1851 with the goal of erecting a summit cross on the Zugspitze. Twenty eight bearers were led through the gorge of the Partnachklamm and the Reintal valley under the direction of forester, Karl Kiendl, up to the Zugspitze. The


title: Zugspitze content: undertaking, which cost 610 Gulden and 37 Kreuzer, was a success. As a result, a 28-piece, 14 foot high, gilded iron cross now stood on the West Summit. Ott himself did not climb the Zugspitze until 1854. After 37 years the cross had to be taken down after suffering numerous lightning strikes; its support brackets were also badly damaged. In the winter of 1881–1882 it was therefore brought down into the valley and repaired. On 25 August 1882 seven mountain guides and 15 bearers took the cross back to the top. Because an accommodation shed had been built on the


title: Zugspitze content: West Summit, the team placed the cross on the East Summit. There it remained for about 111 years, until it was removed again on 18 August 1993. This time the damage was not only caused by the weather, but also by American soldiers who used the cross as target practice in 1945, at the end of the Second World War. Because the summit cross could no longer be repaired, a replica was made that was true to the original cross. After two months the rack railway carried the new cross on 12 October to the "Zugspitzplatt", from where it was


title: Zugspitze content: flown to the summit by helicopter. The new cross has a height of 4.88 metres. It was renovated and regilded in 2009 for 15,000 euros and, since 22 April 2009, has stood once again on the East Summit. The first recorded ascent to the summit was accomplished by a team of land surveyors on 27 August 1820. The team was led by Lieutenant Josef Naus, who was accompanied by two men named Maier and G. Deutschl. However, local people had conquered the peak over 50 years earlier, according to a 1770 map discovered by the Alpenverein. In 1854, the northern


title: Zugspitze content: part of the Zugspitze was given to Bavaria as a present by Emperor of Austria and Apostolic King of Hungary Franz Joseph I as a marriage present to his wife Princess Elisabeth ("Sissi"). Since then the Zugspitze is the highest mountain of Bavaria and later of Germany. On 7 January 1882 the first successful winter assault on the Zugspitze was accomplished by F. Kilger, H. and J. Zametzer and H. Schwaiger. Pilot, Frank Hailer, caused a stir on 19 March 1922, when he landed a plane with skids on the Schneeferner glacier. On 29 April 1927 Ernst Udet succeeded in


title: Zugspitze content: taking off from the Schneeferner with a glider; he landed at Lermoos after a 25-minute flight. The glider had been disassembled into individual parts and transported up the Zugspitze by cable car. In the winter of 1931/32, a post office was set up on the Zugspitze by the German Imperial Post Office or "Reichspost". It still exists today in the "Sonnalpin" restaurant and has the postal address: "82475 Zugspitze". In 1931, four years after the first glider flight, the first balloon took off from the Zugspitze In April 1933, the mountain was occupied by of 24 storm troopers, who hoisted


title: Zugspitze content: a swastika flag on top the tower on the weather station. A month later, SA and SS deployed on the Schneeferner in the shape of a swastika. On 20 April 1945 the US Air Force dropped bombs on the Zugspitze that destroyed the valley station of the Tyrolean Zugspitze Railway and the hotel on the ridge. After the war the Allies seized the railway and Schneefernerhaus. Shortly after World War II the US military took over the Schneefernerhaus (as the hotel at the top was then called) for the exclusive use of US military and civilian employees. Room rates, including


title: Zugspitze content: meals, were US $1 per day. Ski lessons were available, taught by Austrians and Germans, at a cost of US $0.25 per hour. In 1948, the German Federal Post Office ("Deutsche Bundespost") began operating a microwave radio station at the summit. In September of that year, three artistes walked a steel tightrope stretched between the East and West Summits. Two members of the Traber family traversed the same route in 1953 on a tightrope on a motorcycle. Since 1953, an annual Gatterl Mass ("Gatterlmesse") has been held on the "Gatterl" mountain to commemorate the four members of the Bavarian Border


title: Zugspitze content: Police who died in an avalanche in 1952 as well as all those who have died on the Zugspitze. In 1962 a fire destroyed the ridge hotel by the mountain station of the Tyrolean Zugspitze Railway. The 1976 Friuli earthquake was also felt particularly strongly on the Zugspitze: the duty meteorologist feared that the observation tower might collapse. In 1981 a chapel was founded on the Zugspitze, which was consecrated by the Archbishop of Munich and Freising, Joseph Ratzinger, in October on the feast of Visitation. On 25 March, an automated teller machine was installed at the summit station; it


title: Zugspitze content: has since been removed. In 1995, a 450 square metre exhibition area was opened at the summit, in which artists present their work for six months, before the exhibition is changed. In 1995, the border between Germany and Austria at the summit was opened. Since 2000, the Zugspitze extreme mountain run has been held annually. In July 2008 there were repercussions in the media when, as the result of a sudden drop in temperature, two participants died of exhaustion and hypothermia At the end of August 2009 the Swiss, Freddy Nock, walked along a cable of the Zugspitze Glacier Cable


title: Zugspitze content: Car from the "Zugspitzplatt" to the summit. He covered the 995 metre long, up to 56% steep route (which had a height difference of 348 metres) unsecured in 50 minutes. There are several theories about the first ascent of the Zugspitze. The chronological table on an 18th-century map describes the route ""along the path to the Zugspitze"" (""ybers blath uf Zugspitze"") and gives a realistic duration of 8.5 hours, so that it is reasonable to deduce that the summit had been climbed before 1820. The historian, Thomas Linder, believes that goatherds or hunters had at the very least penetrated to


title: Zugspitze content: the area of the summit. It is also conceivable that smugglers used routes over the Zugspitze summit. As early as 1804 cartographic surveys had taken place in the area for the County of Werdenfels. There is speculation that, in the course of this work, the royal engineer and geographer, Alois von Coulon, had reached the summit. Since Coulon worked for the Topographical Bureau, it is unlikely that his ascent would not have been noted. The first recorded ascent of the Zugspitze was achieved on 27 August 1820 by Lieutenant Josef Naus and mountain guide, Johann Georg Tauschl together with Naus'


title: Zugspitze content: survey assistant and batman (servant), Maier. As early as 21 July Naus, an officer in the Bavarian Army, had asked about the route through the Reintal valley to the Northern Schneeferner. The lieutenant was taking part in a survey exercise by the Royal Bavarian Topographic Bureau ("Königlich Bairischen Topographischen Bureau") for the Atlas of Bavaria ("Atlas von Bayern") in the Werdenfelser Land. On 26 August, the three of them climbed in a group together with Captain Jetze and Lieutenant Antlischek up to the shepherd's hut of "Angerhütte". On 27 August around 4 in the morning, Naus, Tauschl and Maier set


title: Zugspitze content: off for the "Zugspitzplatt" and Zugspitze summit. From the Schneeferner glacier they attempted to reach the West Summit along the west ridge. Their first attempt failed, but a second was successful and they finally reached the West Summit around 11:45 am, where they left behind a "bergstock" and cloth to mark their success. A thunderstorm and snowfall forced them to climb down again quickly. On 28 August they returned to the shepherd's hut at about 3 in the morning. The mountain guide, Tauschl, was given payment of two gulden and 42 kreuzer. In 1823, Simon Resch and the sheep "Toni"


title: Zugspitze content: became the first to reach the East Summit. Simon Resch was also led the second ascent of the East Summit on 18 September 1834 with his son, Johann, and the mountain guide, Johann Barth. Because Resch's first ascent had been doubted, this time a fire was lit on the summit. On the 27th the summit was climbed for a third time by royal forester's assistants, Franz Oberst and Schwepfinger, along with Johann Barth. Oberst erected a flagpole on the summit with a Bavarian flag that was visible from the valley. The first ascent from Austria took place in August 1837.


title: Zugspitze content: The surveyors, Joseph Feuerstein and Joseph Sonnweber, climbed to the West Summit from Ehrwald and left behind a signal pole with their initials on it. The West Summit was conquered for the third time on 10 September 1843 by the shepherd Peter Pfeifer. He was asked about the route by a group of eight climbers who later reached the summit at the behest of Bavaria's Crown Princess Marie. She had the route checked in preparation for her own ascent of the Zugspitze. On 22 September 1853, Karoline Pitzner became the first woman on the Zugspitze. The first crossing from the


title: Zugspitze content: West to the East Summit was achieved in 1857 by Dr. Härtringer from Munich and mountain guide, Joseph Ostler. The Irish brother, Trench, and Englishman, Cluster, succeeded in climbing the West Summit on 8 July 1871 through the Austrian Cirque ("Österreichische Schneekar") under the guidance of brothers, Joseph and Joseph Sonnweber. The route through the Höllental valley to the Zugspitze was first used on 26 September 1876 by Franz Tillmetz and Franz Johannes with guides, Johann and Joseph Dengg. The first winter ascent of the West Summit took place on 7 Januar 1882; the climbers being Ferdinand Kilger, Heinrich Schwaiger,


title: Zugspitze content: Josef and Heinrich Zametzer and Alois Zott. The Jubilee Arête ("Jubiläumsgrat") was first crossed in its entirety on 2 September 1897 by Ferdinand Henning. The number of climbers on the Zugspitze rose sharply year on year. If the summit had been climbed 22 times in 1854, by 1899 it had received 1,600 ascents. Before the construction of a cable car in 1926 there had already been over 10,000 ascents. The easiest of the normal routes runs through the Reintal valley and is that followed during the first ascent. At the same time it is also the longest climb. Its start


title: Zugspitze content: point is the ski stadium () at Garmisch-Partenkirchen. The route runs through the gorge of the Partnachklamm and along the Partnach river to the Bock Hut (), where the Reintal begins. Above the Partnach, which has meanwhile sunk underground, the route runs up to the Reintalanger Hut (). From there the climb is relatively gentle to start with, but then becomes steeper. From the hut the track runs through the "Brunntal" up to the Knorr Hut (), which stands on the eastern rim of the "Zugspitzplatt". Here it meets the alternative route from Ehrwald via the Gaistal and the "Gatterl"


title: Zugspitze content: at the Reintal Way. The route now runs over the "Zugspitzplatt" towards the Northern Schneeferner. The protected section of the climb to the Zugspitze summit begins above the "Sonn-Alpin" restaurant at "Point 2815". The route climbs through a height of 2,232 metres and the true duration is between eight and ten hours. The ascent starts in Hammersbach () through the Höllental along the "Hammersbach" stream. The path runs through the Höllental Gorge ("Höllentalklamm") and was built from 1902 to 1905. Twelve tunnels were driven in the rock of the 1,026 metre long gorge with a total length of 288 metres.


title: Zugspitze content: Another 569 metres of path was dynamited into the rock in the shape of a half profile, whilst 120 metres was led over footbridges and 49 metres over scree. The construction costs came to a total of 57,000 gold marks. Each year around 60,000 people pass through the gorge. The gorge can also be circumnavigated over the "Stangensteig" path. After the gorge the route heads for the Höllentalanger Hut (), after which it crosses the "Höllentalanger" stream. Above that the "Brett" is crossed on steel pins fixed to a rock face. Crossing the "Grünen Buckel" the trail runs up to