title: "Parotid gland" content: a pair of mainly serous salivary glands located below and in front of each ear canal, draining their secretions into the vestibule of the mouth through the parotid duct. Each gland lies behind the mandibular ramus and in front of the mastoid process of the temporal bone. The gland can be felt on either side, by feeling in front of each ear, along the cheek, and below the angle of the mandible. The parotid duct, a long excretory duct, emerges from the front of each gland, superficial to the masseter muscle. The duct pierces the buccinator muscle, then opens into


title: "Kon-Tiki expedition" content: Kon-Tiki expedition The "Kon-Tiki" expedition was a 1947 journey by raft across the Pacific Ocean from South America to the Polynesian islands, led by Norwegian explorer and writer Thor Heyerdahl. The raft was named "Kon-Tiki" after the Inca sun god, Viracocha, for whom "Kon-Tiki" was said to be an old name. "" is also the name of Heyerdahl's book; the Academy Award-winning documentary film chronicling his adventures; and the 2012 dramatized feature film nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film. Heyerdahl believed that people from South America could have settled Polynesia in pre-Columbian times. His aim in


title: "Kon-Tiki expedition" content: mounting the "Kon-Tiki" expedition was to show, by using only the materials and technologies available to those people at the time, that there were no technical reasons to prevent them from having done so. Although the expedition carried some modern equipment, such as a radio, watches, charts, sextant, and metal knives, Heyerdahl argued they were incidental to the purpose of proving that the raft itself could make the journey. The "Kon-Tiki" expedition was funded by private loans, along with donations of equipment from the United States Army. Heyerdahl and a small team went to Peru, where, with the help of


title: "Kon-Tiki expedition" content: dockyard facilities provided by the Peruvian authorities, they constructed the raft out of balsa logs and other native materials in an indigenous style as recorded in illustrations by Spanish conquistadores. The trip began on April 28, 1947. Heyerdahl and five companions sailed the raft for 101 days over 6,900 km (4,300 miles) across the Pacific Ocean before smashing into a reef at Raroia in the Tuamotus on August 7, 1947. The crew made successful landfall and all returned safely. Thor Heyerdahl's book about his experience became a bestseller. It was published in Norwegian in 1948 as "The Kon-Tiki Expedition: By


title: "Kon-Tiki expedition" content: Raft Across the South Seas", later reprinted as "Kon-Tiki: Across the Pacific in a Raft". It appeared with great success in English in 1950, also in many other languages. A documentary motion picture about the expedition, also called "Kon-Tiki", was produced from a write-up and expansion of the crew's filmstrip notes and won an Academy Award in 1951. It was directed by Thor Heyerdahl and edited by Olle Nordemar. The voyage was also chronicled in the documentary TV-series "The Kon-Tiki Man: The Life and Adventures of Thor Heyerdahl", directed by Bengt Jonson. The original "Kon-Tiki" raft is now on display


title: "Kon-Tiki expedition" content: in the Kon-Tiki Museum at Bygdøy in Oslo. "Kon-Tiki" had a six-man crew, all of whom were Norwegian except for Bengt Danielsson, a Swede. The expedition also carried a pet parrot named Lorita. The main body of the float was composed of nine balsa tree trunks up to long, in diameter, lashed together with hemp ropes. Cross-pieces of balsa logs long and in diameter were lashed across the logs at intervals to give lateral support. Pine splashboards clad the bow, and lengths of pine thick and wide were wedged between the balsa logs and used as centreboards. The main mast


title: "Kon-Tiki expedition" content: was made of lengths of mangrove wood lashed together to form an A-frame high. Behind the main-mast was a cabin of plaited bamboo long and wide was built about high, and roofed with banana leaf thatch. At the stern was a long steering oar of mangrove wood, with a blade of fir. The main sail was on a yard of bamboo stems lashed together. Photographs also show a top-sail above the main sail, and also a mizzen-sail, mounted at the stern. The raft was partially decked in split bamboo. The main spars were a laminate of wood and reeds and


title: "Kon-Tiki expedition" content: Heyerdahl tested more than twenty different composites before settling on one that proved an effective compromise between bulk and torsional rigidity. No metal was used in the construction. "Kon-Tiki" carried of drinking water in 56 water cans, as well as a number of sealed bamboo rods. The purpose stated by Heyerdahl for carrying modern and ancient containers was to test the effectiveness of ancient water storage. For food "Kon-Tiki" carried 200 coconuts, sweet potatoes, bottle gourds and other assorted fruit and roots. The U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps provided field rations, tinned food and survival equipment. In return, the "Kon-Tiki" explorers


title: "Kon-Tiki expedition" content: reported on the quality and utility of the provisions. They also caught plentiful numbers of fish, particularly flying fish, "dolphin fish", yellowfin tuna, bonito and shark. The expedition carried an amateur radio station with the call sign of LI2B operated by former World War II Norwegian resistance radio operators Knut Haugland and Torstein Raaby. Haugland and Raaby maintained regular communication with a number of American, Canadian, and South American stations that relayed "Kon Tiki's" status to the Norwegian Embassy in Washington, D.C. On August 5, Haugland made contact with a station in Oslo, Norway, away. "Kon Tiki's" transmitters were powered


title: "Kon-Tiki expedition" content: by batteries and a hand-cranked generator and operated on the 40, 20, 10, and 6-meter bands. Each unit was water resistant, used 2E30 vacuum tubes, and provided approximately 6 watts of RF output; the equivalent of a small flashlight. Two British 3-16 MHz Mark II transmitters were also carried on board, as was a VHF transmitter for communicating with aircraft and a hand-cranked Survival radio of the Gibson Girl type for 500 and 8280 kHz. The radio receiver used throughout the voyage, a National Radio Company NC-173, once required a thorough drying out after being soaked when landing in Raratonga.


title: "Kon-Tiki expedition" content: The crew once used a hand-cranked emergency transmitter to send out an "all well, all well" message "just in time to head off a massive rescue attempt". The call sign LI2B was used by Heyerdahl again in 1969–70, when he built a papyrus reed raft and sailed from Morocco to Barbados in an attempt to show a possible link between the civilization of ancient Egypt and the New World. "Kon-Tiki" left Callao, Peru, on the afternoon of April 28, 1947. To avoid coastal traffic it was initially towed out by the Fleet Tug "Guardian Rios" of the Peruvian Navy, then


title: "Kon-Tiki expedition" content: sailed roughly west carried along on the Humboldt Current. The crew's first sight of land was the atoll of Puka-Puka on July 30. On August 4, the 97th day after departure, "Kon-Tiki" reached the Angatau atoll. The crew made brief contact with the inhabitants of Angatau Island, but were unable to land safely. Calculations made by Heyerdahl before the trip had indicated that 97 days was the minimum amount of time required to reach the Tuamotu islands, so the encounter with Angatau showed that they had made good time. On August 7, the voyage came to an end when the


title: "Kon-Tiki expedition" content: raft struck a reef and was eventually beached on an uninhabited islet off Raroia atoll in the Tuamotu group. The team had travelled a distance of around in 101 days, at an average speed of . After spending a number of days alone on the tiny islet, the crew was greeted by men from a village on a nearby island who arrived in canoes, having seen washed-up flotsam from the raft. The crew were taken back to the native village, where they were feted with traditional dances and other festivities. Finally the crew were taken off Raroia to Tahiti by


title: "Kon-Tiki expedition" content: the French schooner "Tamara", with the salvaged "Kon-Tiki" in tow. Heyerdahl believed that the original inhabitants of Easter Island were migrants from Peru. He argued that the monumental statues known as moai resembled sculptures more typical of pre-Columbian Peru than any Polynesian designs. He believed that the Easter Island myth of a power struggle between two peoples called the Hanau epe and Hanau momoko was a memory of conflicts between the original inhabitants of the island and a later wave of Native Americans from the Northwest coast, eventually leading to the annihilation of the Hanau epe and the destruction of


title: "Kon-Tiki expedition" content: the island's culture and once-prosperous economy. Most historians consider that the Polynesians from the west were the original inhabitants and that the story of the Hanau epe is either pure myth, or a memory of internal tribal or class conflicts. In 2011 Professor Erik Thorsby of the University of Oslo presented DNA evidence to the Royal Society which whilst agreeing with the west origin also identified a distinctive but smaller genetic contribution from South America. This result was questioned in 2012 because of the possibility of contamination by South Americans after European contact with the islands. In 2014 further work


title: "Kon-Tiki expedition" content: by a team including Anna-Sapfo Malaspinas (from the Natural History Museum of Denmark) analysed the genomes of 27 native Rapa Nui people and found that their DNA was on average 76 percent Polynesian, 8 percent Native American and 16 percent European. Analysis showed that "although the European lineage could be explained by contact with white Europeans after the island was 'discovered' in 1722 by Dutch sailors, the South American component was much older, dating to between about 1280 and 1495, soon after the island was first colonised by Polynesians in around 1200." In 1954 William Willis sailed alone on a


title: "Kon-Tiki expedition" content: raft "Seven Little Sisters" from Peru to American Samoa, successfully completing the journey. He sailed , which was farther than "Kon-Tiki". In a second great voyage ten years later, he rafted from South America to Australia with a metal raft "Age Unlimited". In 1955, the Czech explorer and adventurer Eduard Ingris attempted to recreate the "Kon-Tiki" expedition on a balsa raft called "Kantuta". His first expedition, "Kantuta I", took place in 1955–1956 and led to failure. In 1959 Ingris built a new balsa raft, "Kantuta II", and tried to repeat the previous expedition. The second expedition was a success. Ingris


title: "Kon-Tiki expedition" content: was able to cross the Pacific Ocean on the balsa raft from Peru to Polynesia. A French seafarer, Éric de Bisschop, committed himself in a project he had had for some years: he built a Polynesian raft in order to cross the eastern Pacific Ocean from Tahiti to Chile (contrary to Thor Heyerdahl's crossing); the "Tahiti-Nui" left Papeete with a crew of five on November 8, 1956. When near the Juan Fernández Islands (Chile) in May 1957, the raft was in a very poor state and they asked for a towing, but it was damaged during the operation and had


title: "Kon-Tiki expedition" content: to be abandoned, but they could keep all the equipment aboard. A second "Tahiti-Nui" was built in Constitución, Chile, leaving on April 13, 1958, towards Callao, then towards the Marquesas. It missed its target and after 4 months, the raft began to sink. The crew built a new smaller raft, the "Tahiti Nui III", in the ocean out of the more buoyant parts of the "Tahiti Nui II". They were swept towards Cook Islands where on August 30, the raft went aground and was wrecked at Rakahanga atoll. Éric de Bisschop died in this accident. A Peruvian expedition led by


title: "Kon-Tiki expedition" content: Carlos Caravedo crossed the Pacific Ocean in 1965 in 115 days in a raft named "Tangaroa", of which 18 days were used by the crew to cross Tuamotus, the Tuamotu Archipielago, making "Tangaroa" the only raft that has managed to cross that dangerous archipelago of French Polynesia by its own means. On November 18, 1965, the "Tangaroa" ended its journey on the Fakarava island. Fakarava is where the "Tangaroa" is currently preserved. The 1973 Las Balsas expedition was the first (and so far only) multiple-raft crossing of the Pacific Ocean in recent history. It is the longest-known raft voyage in


title: "Kon-Tiki expedition" content: history. The expedition was led by Spaniard Vital Alsar, who, in 1970, led the La Balsa expedition, only on that occasion with one raft and three companions. The crossing was successful and, at the time, the longest raft voyage in history, until eclipsed in 1973 by Las Balsas. The purpose of the 1973 expedition was three-fold: (1) to prove that the success of 1970 was no accident, (2) to test different currents in the sea, which Alsar maintained ancient mariners knew as modern humans know road maps, and (3) to show that the original expeditions, directed perhaps toward trade or


title: "Kon-Tiki expedition" content: colonisation, may have consisted of small fleets of balsa rafts. In 2006, the Tangaroa Expedition recreated the "Kon-Tiki" voyage using a newly built raft, the "Tangaroa", named after the Māori sea-god Tangaroa. Tangaroa's six-man crew was led by Norwegian Torgeir Higraff and included Olav Heyerdahl, grandson of Thor Heyerdahl, Bjarne Krekvik (captain), Øyvin Lauten (executive officer), Swedish Anders Berg (photographer) and Peruvian Roberto Sala. Tangaroa was launched on the same day that Kon-Tiki had been—April 28—and it reached its destination on July 7, which was 30 days faster than Heyerdahl's Kon-Tiki which had taken 101 days for the voyage. Tangaroa's


title: "Kon-Tiki expedition" content: speed was credited to the proper use of guaras (centerboards). On January 30, 2011, "An-Tiki", a raft modeled after "Kon-Tiki", began a , 70-day journey across the Atlantic Ocean from the Canary Islands to the island of Eleuthera in the Bahamas. The expedition was piloted by four men, aged from 56 to 84 years, led by Anthony Smith. The trip was designed to commemorate the journey in an open boat of survivors from the British steamship "Anglo-Saxon", sunk by the German cruiser "Widder" in 1940. The raft ended its voyage in the Caribbean island of St Maarten, completing its trip


title: "Kon-Tiki expedition" content: to Eleuthera in the following year with Smith and a new crew. On 7 November 2015, two teams with two balsa rafts "Rahiti Tane" and "Tupac Yupanqui" left Lima, Peru for Easter Island. Expedition "Kon-Tiki2" got its name because it had 2 crews from many nations: Norway, Russia, UK, Mexico, New Zealand, Sweden, and Peru. It sought to double down on Heyerdahl's voyage by sailing two rafts from South America to Polynesia and then back. Expedition leader was Torgeir Higraff from Tangaroa Expedition (2006). Øyvin Lauten and Kari Skår Dahl were captains on the first leg, while Signe Meling and


title: "Kon-Tiki expedition" content: Ola Borgfjord were captains on the second leg. The raft reached Easter Island, but did not complete the return. The two rafts were made of 11 balsa logs and 10 crossbeams held together by 2000 meters of natural fiber ropes. Tens of thousands of waves, up to six meters tall, hit the rafts in an El Niño year. This stress for 16 weeks weakened the ropes, but the crew could not replace all of them. On March 3, 2016, all crew members were taken on board the Hokuetsu Ushaka freight ship after 115 days of sailing and 4½ months at


title: "Kon-Tiki expedition" content: sea. A book documenting the voyage and raft was released in 1948 by Thor Heyerdahl, called "". A film documentary about the voyage and raft was released in 1950, called "Kon-Tiki". It won the 1951 Oscar for Best Documentary Feature. "Kon-Tiki" is a 2012 Norwegian historical dramatized feature film about the 1947 "Kon-Tiki" expedition. It stars Pål Sverre Valheim Hagen as Thor Heyerdahl and is directed by Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg. It was the highest-grossing film of 2012 in Norway and the country's most expensive production to date. Kon-Tiki expedition The "Kon-Tiki" expedition was a 1947 journey by raft


title: "Howard Cosell" content: Madison (Jack Klugman) mirrored the real life feuds he had with some of New York's leading sportswriters. He also appeared in the Woody Allen films "Bananas", "Sleeper" and (in a brief cameo) "Broadway Danny Rose". Such was his celebrity that while he never appeared on the show, Cosell's name was frequently used as an all-purpose answer on the popular 1970s game show "Match Game". Cosell also had a cameo in the 1988 movie "Johnny Be Good" featuring Robert Downey Jr., Anthony Michael Hall and Uma Thurman. His particular speech pattern was also imitated by one of the characters in the


title: Selby content: proximity to both York and Leeds. Its popularity as a tourist destination, due to Selby Abbey, has led to a large amount of development and renovation in the town and surrounding area. The residential areas of Selby have also been subject to expansion and development. A significant development called Staynor Hall continues to be developed on the South East of the town, with other developments in the Holmes Lane area, and around the villages of Brayton, Barlby and Thorpe Willoughby. More have been built at various points along the riverfront, the result of an ongoing project to improve an area


title: "Matricaria discoidea" content: Matricaria discoidea Matricaria discoidea, commonly known as pineappleweed, wild chamomile, and disc mayweed is an annual plant native to Northeast Asia where it grows as a common herb of fields, gardens and roadsides. It is in the family Asteraceae. The flowers exude a chamomile/pineapple aroma when crushed. They are edible and have been used in salads (although they may become bitter by the time the plant blooms) and to make herbal tea. Pineapple weed has been used for medicinal purposes, including for relief of gastrointestinal upset, infected sores, fevers, and postpartum anemia. The flower head is cone-shaped, composed of dense-packed


title: "Matricaria discoidea" content: yellowish-green corollas, and lacking ray-florets. The leaves are pinnately dissected and sweet-scented when crushed. The plant grows high. Flowerheads are produced from March to September. The plant grows well in disturbed areas, especially those with poor, compacted soil. It can be seen blooming on footpaths, roadsides, and similar places in spring and early summer. In North America, it can be found from central Alaska down to California and all the way to Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. It has also become common and naturalised in Britain. Matricaria discoidea Matricaria discoidea, commonly known as pineappleweed, wild chamomile, and disc mayweed is an


title: "Hot cross bun" content: Hot cross bun A hot cross bun is a spiced sweet bun made with currants or raisins, marked with a cross on the top, and traditionally eaten on Good Friday in the British Isles, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa and some parts of the Americas. The cake marks the end of Lent and different parts of the hot cross bun have a certain meaning, including the cross representing the crucifixion of Jesus, and the spices inside signifying the spices used to embalm him at his burial. They are now available all year round in some places. Hot cross buns


title: "Hot cross bun" content: may go on sale in the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand as early as New Year's Day or after Christmas. In many historically Christian countries, plain buns made without dairy products (forbidden in Lent until Palm Sunday) are traditionally eaten hot or toasted during Lent, beginning with the evening of Shrove Tuesday (the evening before Ash Wednesday) to midday Good Friday. The ancient Greeks may have marked cakes with a cross. One theory is that the Hot Cross Bun originates from St Albans, where Brother Thomas Rodcliffe, a 14th Century monk at St Albans Abbey, developed a similar recipe


title: "Hot cross bun" content: called an 'Alban Bun' and distributed the bun to the local poor on Good Friday, starting in 1361. In the time of Elizabeth I of England (1592), the London Clerk of Markets issued a decree forbidding the sale of hot cross buns and other spiced breads, except at burials, on Good Friday, or at Christmas. The punishment for transgressing the decree was forfeiture of all the forbidden product to the poor. As a result of this decree, hot cross buns at the time were primarily made in home kitchens. Further attempts to suppress the sale of these items took place


title: "Hot cross bun" content: during the reign of James I of England/James VI of Scotland (1603–1625). The first definite record of hot cross buns comes from a London street cry: "Good Friday comes this month, the old woman runs. With one or two a penny hot cross buns", which appeared in "Poor Robin's Almanac" for 1733. Food historian Ivan Day states, "The buns were made in London during the 18th century. But when you start looking for records or recipes earlier than that, you hit nothing." English folklore includes many superstitions surrounding hot cross buns. One of them says that buns baked and served


title: "Hot cross bun" content: on Good Friday will not spoil or grow mouldy during the subsequent year. Another encourages keeping such a bun for medicinal purposes. A piece of it given to someone ill is said to help them recover. If taken on a sea voyage, hot cross buns are said to protect against shipwreck. If hung in the kitchen, they are said to protect against fires and ensure that all breads turn out perfectly. The hanging bun is replaced each year. In the United Kingdom, the major supermarkets produce variations on the traditional recipe such as toffee, orange-cranberry, and apple-cinnamon. In Australia and


title: "Hot cross bun" content: New Zealand, a chocolate version of the bun has become popular; coffee-flavoured buns are also sold in some Australian bakeries. They generally contain the same mixture of spices, but chocolate chips are used instead of currants. There are also sticky date and caramel versions, as well as mini versions of the chocolate and traditional bun. The not cross bun is a variation on the hot cross bun. It uses the same ingredients but instead of having a "cross" on top, it has a smiley face in reference to it being "not cross" in the sense of not angry. The not


title: "Hot cross bun" content: cross bun was first sold commercially in 2014 by an Australian bakery, Ferguson Plarre Bakehouses, in response to supermarkets selling hot cross buns as early as Boxing Day (26 December). In the Czech Republic, "mazanec" is a similar cake or sweet bread eaten at Easter. It often has a cross marked on top. The traditional method for making the cross on top of the bun is to use shortcrust pastry; however, more recently recipes have recommended a paste consisting of flour and water. Hot cross bun A hot cross bun is a spiced sweet bun made with currants or raisins,


title: "Winnipeg Fringe Theatre Festival" content: first Executive Director, the festival has three key principles: 1. Festival is non-juried; 2. Artists have freedom to present whatever they want on stage; and 3. 100% of the box office goes directly to the artists. In its first year ticket sales were 14,000 across nine days of performances. That figure was 26,000 in 1989 - year two of the festival. It climbed to 44,709 in 1999 and was over 60,000 in 2001. Chuck McEwen, former director of the Toronto Fringe Festival, is the current executive producer, and has been in charge since 2008. The festival's venues are centred in


title: "Ground truth" content: tactical situation - as opposed to intelligence reports and mission plans. The term appears in the title of the Iraq War documentary film "The Ground Truth" (2006), and also in military publications, for example "Stars and Stripes" saying: "Stripes decided to figure out what the ground truth was in Iraq." The "Oxford English Dictionary" (s.v. "ground truth") records the use of the word "Groundtruth" in the sense of a "fundamental truth" from Henry Ellison's poem "The Siberian Exile's Tale", published in 1833. Ground truth Ground truth is a term used in various fields to refer to information provided by direct


title: "Rose Mofford" content: mayor Skip Rimsza established June 10 as "Rose Mofford Day". In 2017 a new grave marker was unveiled for Mofford's grave, which includes among other things images of her meeting Pope John Paul II in 1987 and Mother Teresa in 1989; those meetings were some of her favorite times as governor. Rose Mofford Rose Perica Mofford (June 10, 1922September 15, 2016) was an American civil servant and politician who led a 51-year career in state government. Beginning her career with the State of Arizona as an office secretary, she worked her way up the ranks to become the state's first


title: "Bibliotheca Alexandrina" content: Bibliotheca Alexandrina The Bibliotheca Alexandrina (; "", ) is a major library and cultural center located on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea in the Egyptian city of Alexandria. It is both a commemoration of the Library of Alexandria that was lost in antiquity, and an attempt to rekindle something of the brilliance that this earlier center of study and erudition represented. The idea of reviving the old library dates back to 1974, when a committee set up by Alexandria University selected a plot of land for its new library, between the campus and the seafront, close to where the


title: "Bibliotheca Alexandrina" content: ancient library once stood. The notion of recreating the ancient library was adopted by other individuals and agencies. One leading supporter of the project was former Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak; UNESCO was also quick to embrace the concept of endowing the Mediterranean region with a center of cultural and scientific excellence. An architectural design competition was organized by UNESCO in 1988 to choose a design worthy of the site and its heritage. The competition was won by Snøhetta, a Norwegian architectural office, from among more than 1,400 entries. The first pledges were made for funding the project at a conference


title: "Bibliotheca Alexandrina" content: held in 1990 in Aswan: USD $65 million, mostly from the MENA states. Construction work began in 1995 and, after some USD $220 million had been spent, the complex was officially inaugurated on 16 October 2002. The Bibliotheca Alexandrina is trilingual, containing books in Classical Arabic, English, and French. In 2010, the library received a donation of 500,000 books from the National Library of France, Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF). The gift makes the Bibliotheca Alexandrina the sixth-largest Francophone library in the world. The BA also is now the largest depository of French books in the Middle East and North


title: "Bibliotheca Alexandrina" content: Africa, surpassing those of Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco, in addition to being the main French library in Africa. The dimensions of the project are vast: the library has shelf space for eight million books, with the main reading room covering on eleven cascading levels. The complex also houses a conference center; specialized libraries for maps, multimedia, the blind and visually impaired, young people, and for children; four museums; four art galleries for temporary exhibitions; 15 permanent exhibitions; a planetarium; and a manuscript restoration laboratory. The library's architecture is equally striking. The main reading room stands beneath a 32-meter-high glass-panelled roof,


title: "Bibliotheca Alexandrina" content: tilted out toward the sea like a sundial, and measuring some 160 m in diameter. The walls are of gray Aswan granite, carved with characters from 120 different human scripts. The collections at the Bibliotheca Alexandrina were donated from all over the world. The Spanish donated documents that detailed their period of Moorish rule. The French also donated, giving the library documents dealing with the building of the Suez Canal. The BA/IA partnership is built with the aims to preserve heritage for future generations and to provide universal access to human knowledge. The BA was the site of the first


title: "Bibliotheca Alexandrina" content: mirror and external backup of the Internet Archive. The Internet Archive donated five million USD to the BA, including: The new Bibliotheca Alexandrina is more than a library. BA hosts book fairs, book launches, ceremonies, cinema, competitions, concerts, conferences, educational courses, exhibitions, festivals, forums, lectures, meetings, performances, presentations, reading activities, round table discussions, seminars, shows, theater, training courses, video-conferences and workshops. Here are some of the areas and exhibits that it comprises: Contains millions of books. The library provides access to print on demand books via the Espresso Book Machine. The Taha Hussein Library contains materials for the blind and


title: "Bibliotheca Alexandrina" content: visually impaired using special software that makes it possible for readers to read books and journals. It is named after Taha Hussein, the Egyptian professor of Arabic and literary critic and one of the leading figures of the Arab Renaissance ("Nahda") in literature, who was himself blinded at the age of three. Contains book collections of Nobel Prize Laureates in Literature from 1901 to present. The Nobel Section was inaugurated by Queen Silvia of Sweden and Queen Sonja of Norway on 24 April 2002. Established in 2001, the BA Antiquities Museum is the first archeological museum to be situated within


title: "Bibliotheca Alexandrina" content: a library. The primary aims of the museum are to promote research, creativity, and cultural awareness. Holding approximately 1,316 artifacts, the Antiquities Museum collection provides a glimpse into Egyptian history from the Pharaonic era to the conquest of Alexander the Great to the Roman civilizations before the advent of Islam across Egypt. The collection includes underwater antiquities from the Mediterranean seabed near the Eastern Harbour and the Bay of Abukir. The museum provides descriptions of artifacts in three languages: English, Arabic, and French. The Manuscript Museum provides visitors and researchers with rare manuscripts and books. Established in 2001, the Manuscript


title: "Bibliotheca Alexandrina" content: Museum contains the world's largest collection of digital manuscripts. It is an academic institution that is affiliated to the Library of Alexandria. The stated aims of the museum are to preserve heritage, foster human cadres in the conservation and restoration of manuscripts, and create a generation of new restorers. The Manuscript Museum operates alongside the Manuscript Center, which provides digital access to more than 6,000 rare books, maps, and documents within the museum's collection. There are three sections housed within the museum: This museum contains many different personal belongings of the Egyptian president Anwar Al Sadat. The collections include some


title: "Bibliotheca Alexandrina" content: of his military robes, his Nobel Prize medal, his copy of the Qur'an, a few of his handwritten letters, pictures of him and his family, and the blood stained military robe he wore the day of his assassination. The museum also contains a recording in his voice of part of the Qur'an and assorted newspaper articles written about him. See History of science The culturama hall consists of a huge 180-degree panoramic interactive computer screen with a diameter of 10 meters that is made up of nine separate flat screens arranged in a semicircle and nine video projectors controlled by


title: "Bibliotheca Alexandrina" content: a single computer. Culturama has enabled the display of information that could never have been displayed clearly using a regular computer display system. It was developed by the Egyptian Center for Documentation of Cultural and Natural Heritage (CULTNAT) and holds its patent in 2007. It displayed 3 periods from the history of Egypt: Virtual Immersive Science and Technology Applications. It uses CAVE Technology. VISTA features several projects including The Digital Assets Repository (DAR) is a system developed at the Bibliotheca Alexandrina (BA) by the International School of Information Science (ISIS) to create and maintain digital library collections and preserve them


title: "Bibliotheca Alexandrina" content: to future generations, as well as providing free public access to the library's digitized collections through a web-based search and browsing facilities via DAR's website. The founding director was Ismail Serageldin till May 2017. He also was chairs the Boards of Directors for each of the BA's affiliated research institutes and museums. Then followed by current manager Dr. Moustafa El Feqy. The Bibliotheca Alexandrina held a variety of symposiums in 2011 in support of the Egyptian community and emphasizing the 2011 Egyptian Revolution, the Egyptian Constitution and Democratic Government in Arab nations. The library also displays a photo gallery of


title: "Bibliotheca Alexandrina" content: the January 25, 2011 revolution and is working to document it in a wide variety of formats. Criticism of the library comes chiefly from two angles. Many allege that the library is a white elephant impossible for modern Egypt to sustain, and serves as little more than a vanity project for the Egyptian government. Furthermore, there are fears that censorship, long the bane of Egyptian academia, would affect the library's collection. In addition, the building's elaborate architecture (which imitates a rising Sun) upset some who believed too much money was being spent on construction rather than the library's actual collection.


title: "Bibliotheca Alexandrina" content: Due to the lack of available funds, the library had only 500,000 books in 2002, low compared to other national libraries. (However, in 2010 the library received an additional 500,000 books from the Bibliothèque nationale de France.) It has been estimated that it will take 80 years to fill the library to capacity at the current level of funding. The library relies heavily on donations to buy books for its collections. Bibliotheca Alexandrina The Bibliotheca Alexandrina (; "", ) is a major library and cultural center located on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea in the Egyptian city of Alexandria.


title: "Rusty Schweickart" content: Rusty Schweickart Russell Louis "Rusty" Schweickart (also Schweikart; born October 25, 1935) is an American aeronautical engineer, and a former NASA astronaut, research scientist, U.S. Air Force fighter pilot, as well as a former business executive and government executive. Selected in 1963 for NASA's third astronaut group, he is best known as the Lunar Module Pilot on the 1969 Apollo 9 mission, the first manned flight test of the lunar module, on which he performed the first in-space test of the portable life support system used by the Apollo astronauts who walked on the Moon. As backup Commander of the


title: "Greenwich foot tunnel" content: Greenwich foot tunnel The Greenwich Foot Tunnel crosses beneath the River Thames in East London, linking Greenwich (Royal Borough of Greenwich) on the south bank with the Isle of Dogs (London Borough of Tower Hamlets) on the north. The tunnel was designed by civil engineer Sir Alexander Binnie for London County Council and constructed by contractor John Cochrane & Co. The project started in June 1899 and the tunnel opened on 4 August 1902. The tunnel replaced an expensive and sometimes unreliable ferry service allowing workers living south of the Thames to reach their workplaces in the London docks and


title: "Greenwich foot tunnel" content: shipyards in or near the Isle of Dogs. Its creation owed much to the efforts of working-class politician Will Crooks, who had worked in the docks and, after chairing the LCC's Bridges Committee responsible for the tunnel, later served as Labour MP for Woolwich. The entrance shafts at both ends are beneath glazed domes. Lifts, installed in 1904, were upgraded in 1992 and again in 2012, and helical staircases allow pedestrians to access the sloping, tile-lined tunnel. The cast-iron tunnel is long, deep and has an internal diameter of about . The cast-iron rings are coated with concrete and surfaced


title: "Greenwich foot tunnel" content: with some 200,000 white glazed tiles. The northern end was damaged by bombs during the Second World War and repairs included a thick steel and concrete inner lining that reduces the diameter substantially for a short distance. The North tower has 87 steps, and the South tower has 100. The tunnel links with Because of its depth and location, the tunnel remains cool even on hot days. A notice at the tunnel entrance states that the tunnel is private property and not a public right of way. Ordnance Survey maps do not show a right of way on the route


title: "Greenwich foot tunnel" content: of the tunnel. The tunnel is accessible by spiral staircases and large lifts that were refurbished between 2010 and 2012. The tunnel is also part of the UK's National Cycle Route 1 linking Inverness and Dover. As of October 2017, cyclists are required to dismount and push their bikes through the tunnel although plans to remove this requirement have been considered. A National Trail, the Thames Path, uses the tunnel to rejoin the southbound part of the path. Before recent renovations, the attendant-operated lift service was only open from 7 am to 7 pm on weekdays and Saturdays, and 10


title: "Greenwich foot tunnel" content: am to 5.30 pm on Sundays, with no service on Christmas Day or Boxing Day. Staff shortages and other problems meant that even during these times the lifts were often unavailable. Since 1999, if the lift was not functioning, anyone unable to use the stairs could take the Docklands Light Railway between Island Gardens DLR station (close to the northern end of the tunnel) and Cutty Sark DLR station, close to the southern end. However, non-folding bicycles are not permitted on the Docklands Light Railway system at peak times. Greenwich Council started work to upgrade the tunnel on 19 April


title: "Greenwich foot tunnel" content: 2010, intending to reduce leakage, improve drainage and install new lifts, CCTV, communication facilities and signage. Completion was planned for March 2011 but this slipped to September 2011. The tunnel was supposed to be accessible throughout most of the renovations, but it closed completely in February 2011. Stair use was soon regained but lifts remained out of service until early 2012, and remained subject to occasional brief closures during 2012. In October 2012 Greenwich Council acknowledged that the upgrade work had not been completed on time and had run over budget. The work was finally completed and included new customer-operated


title: "Greenwich foot tunnel" content: lifts with surface level availability signs, CCTV coverage, upgraded lighting and renewal or replacement of vital structural components. The 'Friends of Greenwich and Woolwich foot tunnels' (FOGWOFT) was established in September 2013. Following encouragement from FOGWOFT and information from the Institution of Civil Engineers, on 5 July 2016 an interpretative plaque was unveiled near the tunnel's Greenwich entrance by the deputy leader of Royal Borough of Greenwich council. In 2016 the Ethos Active Mobility system was installed in the tunnel to monitor and actively manage tunnel usage. The system uses computer vision to count and measure the speed of bicycles


title: "Greenwich foot tunnel" content: and pedestrians, and displays messages on electronic signs to encourage considerate behaviour. The system has also been installed in the Woolwich foot tunnel and aims to make urban shared spaces safer and more pleasant to use for all. The system displays two messages: "No cycling allowed" (in red text) during busy periods, and "Please consider pedestrians" (in green text) during quiet periods. As of March 2017 this system is still in its trial phase, and cycling in the tunnel is still not permitted and will not be until the bylaws are changed. Despite this there are still many who cycle


title: "Greenwich foot tunnel" content: through the tunnel. Greenwich foot tunnel The Greenwich Foot Tunnel crosses beneath the River Thames in East London, linking Greenwich (Royal Borough of Greenwich) on the south bank with the Isle of Dogs (London Borough of Tower Hamlets) on the north. The tunnel was designed by civil engineer Sir Alexander Binnie for London County Council and constructed by contractor John Cochrane & Co. The project started in June 1899 and the tunnel opened on 4 August 1902. The tunnel replaced an expensive and sometimes unreliable ferry service allowing workers living south of the Thames to reach their workplaces in the


title: "Greenwich Park" content: Greenwich Park Greenwich Park is a former hunting park in Greenwich and one of the largest single green spaces in south-east London. One of the Royal Parks of London, and the first to be enclosed (in 1433), it covers , and is part of the Greenwich World Heritage Site. It commands fine views over the River Thames, the Isle of Dogs and the City of London (Simon Jenkins rated the view of the Royal Hospital with Canary Wharf in the distance as one of the top ten in England). The park is open year-round. It is listed Grade I on


title: "Greenwich Park" content: the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens. The estate of some was originally owned by the Abbey of St. Peter at Ghent, but reverted to the Crown in 1427 and was given by Henry VI to his uncle Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester. He built a house by the river, Bella Court, and a small castle, called Greenwich Castle as well as Duke Humphrey’s Tower, on the hill. The former evolved first into the Tudor Palace of Placentia and then into the Queen's House and Greenwich Hospital. Greenwich Castle, by now in disrepair, was chosen for the site of the Royal


title: "Greenwich Park" content: Observatory by Charles II in 1675. In the 15th century the park was mostly heathland and probably used for hawking. In the next century, deer were introduced by Henry VIII for hunting, and a small collection of deer is maintained today in an area to the south east. James I enclosed the park with a brick wall, twelve feet high and two miles (3 km) long at a cost of £2000, much of which remains and defines the modern boundary. A small section of the boundary wall in the southwest corner of the park was formerly part of Montagu House,


title: "Greenwich Park" content: one time residence of Caroline of Brunswick, demolished in 1815, though Queen Caroline's bath (c. 1806) is preserved inside the park. In the 17th century, the park was landscaped, possibly by André Le Nôtre who is known at least to have designed plans for it. The public were first allowed into the park during the 18th century. Samuel Johnson visited the park in 1763 and commented "Is it not fine?". The famous hill upon which the observatory stands was used on public holidays for mass ‘tumbling’. In the 1830s a railway was nearly driven through the middle of the lower


title: "Greenwich Park" content: park on a viaduct but the scheme was defeated by intense local opposition. However, the London and Greenwich Railway was later extended beneath the ground via a cut-and-cover tunnel link between Greenwich and Maze Hill which opened in 1878 (the tunnel alignment is on the north side of the northern side of the park's boundary wall, running beneath the gardens of the National Maritime Museum and Queen's House). In 1888 the park got a station of its own when Greenwich Park railway station was opened. The station was not successful, with most passengers preferring the older Greenwich station, and in


title: "Greenwich Park" content: 1917 Greenwich Park station and the associated line closed. Greenwich Park was used for outdoor London scenes including representing the street, Constitution Hill in the 2009 film "The Young Victoria" starring Emily Blunt and Rupert Friend. The park is roughly rectangular in plan with sides 1000 metres by 750 metres and oriented with the long sides lying NNW to SSE. In what follows this direction is taken to be N to S for ease of exposition. It is located at grid reference . The park is on two levels with a number of dips and gullies marking the transition between


title: "Greenwich Park" content: them. The lower level (closest to the Museum, Queen's House and, beyond them, the Thames) lies to the north; from there a steep walk uphill reveals the southern part - a flat expanse that is, essentially, an enclosed extension of the plateau of Blackheath. Roughly in the centre, on the top of the hill, is the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. At the northern edge is the National Maritime Museum and Queen's House, and beyond those Greenwich Hospital. To the east is Vanbrugh Castle. To the south is Blackheath and in the south western corner is the Ranger's House, looking out over


title: "Greenwich Park" content: the heath. To the west lie the architecturally fine streets of Chesterfield Walk and Croom’s Hill (Pevsner 1983). The Observatory is on the top of the hill. Outside is a statue of General James Wolfe in a small plaza from which there are majestic views across to the former Greenwich Hospital (the Old Royal Naval College and now the University of Greenwich) and then towards the river, the skyscrapers of Canary Wharf, the City of London to the northwest and the Millennium Dome to the north. On the lower level of the park there is a popular children's playground (north-east


title: "Greenwich Park" content: corner, close to Maze Hill railway station) and an adjacent boating lake. There is also a herb garden (close by entrance to Greenwich town centre). On the upper level, there is an extensive flower garden complete with large duck pond, a rose garden, a cricket pitch, many 17th-century sweet chestnut trees with gnarled, swirling trunks, tennis courts, a bandstand, Roman remains, an ancient oak tree (the 'Queens Oak', associated with Queen Elizabeth I) and an enclosure ('The Wilderness') housing some wild deer. Nestling just behind the Observatory is the garden of the former Astronomer Royal, a peaceful secluded space which


title: "Greenwich Park" content: is good for picnics and also sometimes used by theatre groups ("Midsummer Night's Dream", etc.). On the opposite side (i.e., just south of the Wolfe statue) is the Park Café. There is another, smaller café by the north west gate, and a snack bar in the children's playground. It is possible to park (pay and display) in areas along the main roads entering from Blackheath. Cycle routes criss-cross the park (as do runners, roller-bladers, dog-walkers, etc.), but other road traffic (cars and motor-cycles only) can only use the park road linking Blackheath and Greenwich at peak periods on weekdays. During


title: "Greenwich Park" content: the London 2012 Summer Olympics, Greenwich Park was the venue for the Olympic equestrian events and for the riding and running parts of the modern pentathlon events. It was also the venue for the Paralympic equestrian events. The use of Greenwich Park for Olympic equestrian events caused some tension between the London Organising Committee for the Olympic and Paralympic Games 2012 (LOCOG) and some local area residents. A community action group, NOGOE (No to Greenwich Olympic Equestrian Events), believed Greenwich Park was not a suitable venue for the events and started an (ultimately unsuccessful) petition to get the equestrian events


title: "Greenwich Park" content: relocated; by February 2009 this had gathered over 12,000 signatures. The park also staged the start of the final stage of the 2006 Tour of Britain cycle race (3 September). One of three start points for London Marathon, the 'red start', is located in southern Greenwich Park, close to Charlton Way. The London Half-Marathon, Run to the Beat, passed through the park from 2008 to 2012; in 2013, the last running of the 13.1-mile event started and finished in the park. Be Military Fit runs classes in the park when daylight permits. Greenwich Park Greenwich Park is a former hunting


title: Dunnock content: Dunnock The dunnock ("Prunella modularis") is a small passerine, or perching bird, found throughout temperate Europe and into Asia. Dunnocks have also been successfully introduced into New Zealand. It is by far the most widespread member of the accentor family, which otherwise consists of mountain species. Other common names of the dunnock include the hedge accentor, hedge sparrow, or hedge warbler. The name "dunnock" comes English "dun" (dingy brown, dark-coloured) and the diminutive "ock", and "accentor" is from post-classical Latin and means a person who sings with another. The genus name "Prunella" is from the German "Braunelle", "dunnock", a diminutive


title: Dunnock content: of "braun", "brown", and the specific "modularis" is from Latin "modulus", "melody". A European robin-sized bird, the dunnock typically measures 13.5–14 cm in length. It possesses a streaked back, somewhat resembling a small house sparrow. Like that species, the dunnock has a drab appearance which may have evolved to avoid predation. It is brownish underneath, and has a fine pointed bill. Adults have a grey head, and both sexes are similarly coloured. Unlike any similar sized small brown bird, Dunnocks exhibit frequent wing flicking, especially when engaged in territorial disputes or when competing for mating rights. Dunnocks are native to


title: Dunnock content: large areas of Eurasia, inhabiting much of Europe including Lebanon, northern Iran, and the Caucasus. They are the only commonly found accentor in lowland areas, all the others inhabit upland areas Dunnocks were successfully introduced into New Zealand during the 19th century, and are now widely distributed around the country and some offshore islands. Favourite habitats include woodlands, shrubs, gardens, and hedgerows where they typically feed on the ground often seeking out detritivores as food. The main call of the dunnock is a shrill, persistent "tseep" along with a high trilling note, which betrays the bird's otherwise inconspicuous presence. The


title: Dunnock content: song is rapid, thin and tinkling, a sweet warble which can be confused with that of the Eurasian wren, but is shorter and weaker. Dunnocks are territorial and may engage in conflict with other birds that encroach upon their nests. Males sometimes share a territory and exhibit a strict dominance hierarchy. Nevertheless, this social dominance is not translated into benefits to the alpha male in terms of reproduction, since parternity is usually equally shared between males of the group. Furthermore, members of a group are rarely related, and so competition can result. Female territorial ranges are almost always exclusive. However,


title: Dunnock content: sometimes, multiple males will cooperate to defend a single territory containing multiple females. Males exhibit a strong dominance hierarchy within groups: older birds tend to be the alpha males and first-year birds are usually the betas. Studies have found that close male relatives almost never share a territory. The male’s ability to access females generally depends on female range size, which is affected by the distribution of food. When resources are distributed in dense patches, female ranges tend to be small and easy for males to monopolize. Subsequent mating systems, as discussed below, reflect high reproductive success for males and


title: Dunnock content: relatively lower success for females. In times of scarcity, female territories expand to accommodate the lack of resources, causing males to have a more difficult time monopolizing females. Hence, females gain a reproductive advantage over males in this case. The dunnock possesses variable mating systems. Females are often polyandrous, breeding with two or more males at once, which is quite rare among birds. This multiple mating system leads to the development of sperm competition amongst the male suitors. DNA fingerprinting has shown that chicks within a brood often have different fathers, depending on the success of the males at monopolising


title: Dunnock content: the female. Males try to ensure their paternity by pecking at the cloaca of the female to stimulate ejection of rival males' sperm. Dunnocks take just one-tenth of a second to copulate and can mate more than 100 times a day. Males provide parental care in proportion to their mating success, so two males and a female can commonly be seen provisioning nestlings at one nest. Other mating systems also exist within dunnock populations, depending on the ratio of male to females and the overlap of territories. When only one female and one male territory overlap, monogamy is preferred. Sometimes,


title: Dunnock content: two or three adjacent female territories overlap one male territory, and so polygyny is favored, with the male monopolising several females. Polygynandry also exists, in which two males jointly defend a territory containing several females. Polyandry, though, is the most common mating system of dunnocks found in nature. Depending on the population, males generally have the best reproductive success in polygynous populations, while females have the advantage during polyandry. Studies have illustrated the fluidity of dunnock mating systems. When given food in abundance, female territory size is reduced drastically. Consequently, males can more easily monopolise the females. Thus, the mating


title: Dunnock content: system can be shifted from one that favours female success (polyandry), to one that promotes male success (monogamy, polygynandry, or polygyny). The dunnock builds a neat nest (predominantly from twigs and moss and lined with soft materials such as wool or feathers), low in a bush or conifer, where adults typically lay three to five unspotted blue eggs. Broods, depending on the population, can be raised by a lone female, multiple females with the part-time help of a male, multiple females with full-time help by a male, or by multiple females and multiple males. In pairs, the male and the


title: Dunnock content: female invest parental care at similar rates. However, in trios, the female and alpha male invest more care in chicks than does the beta male. In territories in which females are able to escape from males, both the alpha and beta males share provisioning equally. This last system represents the best case scenario for females, as it helps to ensure maximal care and the success of the young. A study has found that males tend to not discriminate between their own young and those of another male in polyandrous or polygynandrous systems. However, they do vary their feeding depending on


title: Dunnock content: the certainty of paternity. If a male has greater access to a female, and therefore a higher chance of a successful fertilisation, during a specific mating period, it would provide more care towards the young. Dunnock The dunnock ("Prunella modularis") is a small passerine, or perching bird, found throughout temperate Europe and into Asia. Dunnocks have also been successfully introduced into New Zealand. It is by far the most widespread member of the accentor family, which otherwise consists of mountain species. Other common names of the dunnock include the hedge accentor, hedge sparrow, or hedge warbler. The name "dunnock" comes


title: "Eurasian treecreeper" content: Eurasian treecreeper The Eurasian treecreeper or common treecreeper ("Certhia familiaris") is a small passerine bird also known in the British Isles, where it is the only living member of its genus, simply as treecreeper. It is similar to other treecreepers, and has a curved bill, patterned brown upperparts, whitish underparts, and long stiff tail feathers which help it creep up tree trunks. It can be most easily distinguished from the similar short-toed treecreeper, which shares much of its European range, by its different song. The Eurasian treecreeper has nine or more subspecies which breed in different parts of its range


title: "Eurasian treecreeper" content: in temperate Eurasia. This species is found in woodlands of all kinds, but where it overlaps with the short-toed treecreeper in western Europe it is more likely to be found in coniferous forests or at higher altitudes. It nests in tree crevices or behind bark flakes, and favours introduced giant sequoia as nest sites where they are available. The female typically lays five or six pink-speckled white eggs in the lined nest, but eggs and chicks are vulnerable to attack by woodpeckers and mammals, including squirrels. The Eurasian treecreeper is insectivorous and climbs up tree trunks like a mouse, to


title: "Eurasian treecreeper" content: search for insects which it picks from crevices in the bark with its fine curved bill. It then flies to the base of another tree with a distinctive erratic flight. This bird is solitary in winter, but may form communal roosts in cold weather. Similar in appearance, all treecreepers are small birds with streaked and spotted brown upperparts, rufous rumps and whitish underparts. They have long decurved bills, and long rigid tail feathers that provide support as they creep up tree trunks looking for insects. The Eurasian treecreeper is long and weighs 7.0–12.9 g (0.25–0.46 oz). It has warm brown


title: "Eurasian treecreeper" content: upperparts intricately patterned with black, buff and white, and a plain brown tail. Its belly, flanks and vent area are tinged with buff. The sexes are similar, but the juvenile has duller upperparts than the adult, and its underparts are dull white with dark fine spotting on the flanks. The contact call is a very quiet, thin and high-pitched "sit", but the most distinctive call is a penetrating "tsree", with a vibrato quality, sometimes repeated as a series of notes. The male's song begins with "srrih, srrih" followed in turn by a few twittering notes, a longer descending ripple, and


title: "Eurasian treecreeper" content: a whistle that falls and then rises. The range of the Eurasian treecreeper overlaps with that of several other treecreepers, which can present local identification problems. In Europe, the Eurasian treecreeper shares much of its range with the short-toed treecreeper. Compared to that species, it is whiter below, warmer and more spotted above, and has a whiter supercilium and slightly shorter bill. Visual identification, even in the hand, may be impossible for poorly marked birds. A singing treecreeper is usually identifiable, since short-toed treecreeper has a distinctive series of evenly spaced notes sounding quite different from the song of Eurasian


title: "Eurasian treecreeper" content: treecreeper; however, both species have been known to sing the other's song. Three Himalayan subspecies of Eurasian treecreeper are now sometimes given full species status as Hodgson's treecreeper, for example by BirdLife International, but if they are retained as subspecies of Eurasian, they have to be distinguished from three other South Asian treecreepers. The plain tail of Eurasian treecreeper differentiates it from bar-tailed treecreeper, which has a distinctive barred tail pattern, and its white throat is an obvious difference from brown-throated treecreeper. Rusty-flanked treecreeper is more difficult to separate from Eurasian, but has more contrasting cinnamon, rather than buff, flanks.


title: "Eurasian treecreeper" content: The North American brown creeper has never been recorded in Europe, but an autumn vagrant would be difficult to identify, since it would not be singing, and the American species' call is much like that of Eurasian treecreeper. In appearance, brown creeper is more like short-toed than Eurasian, but a vagrant might still not be possible to identify with certainty given the similarities between the three species. The Eurasian treecreeper was first described under its current scientific name by Linnaeus in his "Systema naturae" in 1758. The binomial name is derived from Ancient Greek "kerthios", a small tree-dwelling bird described


title: "Eurasian treecreeper" content: by Aristotle and others, and Latin "familiaris", familiar or common. This species is one of a group of very similar typical treecreeper species, all placed in the single genus "Certhia". Eight species are currently recognised, in two evolutionary lineages: a Holarctic radiation, and a southern Asian group. The Holarctic group has a more warbling song, always (except in "C. familiaris" from China) starting or ending with a shrill "sreeh". Species in the southern group, in contrast, have a faster-paced trill without the "sreeh" sound. All the species have distinctive vocalizations and some subspecies have been elevated to species on the


title: "Eurasian treecreeper" content: basis of their calls. The Eurasian treecreeper belongs to the northern group, along with the North American brown creeper, "C. americana", the short-toed treecreeper, "C. brachydactyla", of western Eurasia, and, if it is considered a separate species, Hodgson's treecreeper, "C. hodgsoni", from the southern rim of the Himalayas. The brown creeper has sometimes been considered to be a subspecies of Eurasian treecreeper, but has closer affinities to short-toed treecreeper, and is normally now treated as a full species. Hodgson's treecreeper is a more recent proposed split following studies of its cytochrome "b" mtDNA sequence and song structure that indicate that


title: "Eurasian treecreeper" content: it may well be a distinct species from "C. familiaris". There are nine to twelve subspecies of Eurasian treecreeper, depending on the taxonomic view taken, which are all very similar and often interbreed in areas where their ranges overlap. There is a general cline in appearance from west to east across Eurasia, with subspecies becoming greyer above and whiter below, but this trend reverses east of the Amur River. The currently recognised subspecies are as follows: The Eurasian treecreeper is the most widespread member of its genus, breeding in temperate woodlands across Eurasia from Ireland to Japan. It prefers mature


title: "Eurasian treecreeper" content: trees, and in most of Europe, where it shares its range with short-toed treecreeper, it tends to be found mainly in coniferous forest, especially spruce and fir. However, where it is the only treecreeper, as in European Russia, or the British Isles, it frequents broadleaved or mixed woodland in preference to conifers. It is also found in parks and large gardens. The Eurasian treecreeper breeds down to sea level in the north of its range, but tends to be a highland species further south. In the Pyrenees it breeds above , in China from and in southern Japan from .


title: "Eurasian treecreeper" content: The breeding areas have July isotherms between 14–16 °C and and 72–73 °F). The Eurasian treecreeper is non-migratory in the milder west and south of its breeding range, but some northern birds move south in winter, and individuals breeding on mountains may descend to a lower altitude in winter. Winter movements and post-breeding dispersal may lead to vagrancy outside the normal range. Wintering migrants of the Asian subspecies have been recorded in South Korea and China, and the nominate form has been recorded west of its breeding range as far as Orkney, Scotland. The Eurasian treecreeper has also occurred as


title: "Eurasian treecreeper" content: a vagrant to the Channel Islands (where the short-toed is the resident species), Majorca and the Faroe Islands. This species has an extensive range of about 10 million km (3.8 million square miles). It has a large population, including an estimated 11–20 million individuals in Europe alone. Population trends have not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern. It is common through much of its


title: "Eurasian treecreeper" content: range, but in the northernmost areas it is rare, since it is vulnerable to hard winters, especially if its feeding is disrupted by an ice glaze on the trees or freezing rain. It is also uncommon in Turkey and the Caucasus. In the west of its range it has spread to the Outer Hebrides in Scotland, pushed further north in Norway, and first bred in the Netherlands in 1993. The Eurasian treecreeper breeds from the age of one year, nesting in tree crevices or behind bark flakes. Where present, the introduced North American giant sequoia is a favourite nesting tree,


title: "Eurasian treecreeper" content: since a nest cavity can be easily hollowed out in its soft bark. Crevices in buildings or walls are sometimes used, and artificial nest boxes or flaps may be preferred in coniferous woodland. The nest has a base of twigs, pine needles, grass or bark, and a lining of finer material such as feathers, wool, moss, lichen or spider web. In Europe, the typical clutch of five–six eggs is laid between March and June, but in Japan three–five eggs are laid from May to July. The eggs are white with very fine pinkish speckles mainly at the broad end, measure


title: "Eurasian treecreeper" content: and weigh of which 6% is shell. The eggs are incubated by the female alone for 13–17 days until the altricial downy chicks hatch; they are then fed by both parents, but brooded by the female alone, for a further 15–17 days to fledging. Juveniles return to the nest for a few nights after fledging. About 20% of pairs, mainly in the south and west, raise a second brood. Predators of treecreeper nests and young include the great spotted woodpecker, red squirrel, and small mustelids, and predation is about three times higher in fragmented landscapes than in solid blocks of


title: "Eurasian treecreeper" content: woodland (32.4% against 12.0% in less fragmented woodlands). The predation rate increases with the amount of forest edge close to a nest site, and also the presence of nearby agricultural land, in both cases probably because of a higher degree of mustelid predation. This species is parasitised in the nest by the moorhen flea, "Dasypsyllus gallinulae". The juvenile survival rate of this species is unknown, but 47.7% of adults survive each year. The typical lifespan is two years, but the maximum recorded age is eight years and ten months. The Eurasian treecreeper typically seeks invertebrate food on tree trunks, starting


title: "Eurasian treecreeper" content: near the tree base and working its way up using its stiff tail feathers for support. Unlike a nuthatch, it does not come down trees head first, but flies to the base of another nearby tree. It uses its long thin bill to extract insects and spiders from crevices in the bark. Although normally found on trees, it will occasionally hunt prey items on walls, bare ground, or amongst fallen pine needles, and may add some conifer seeds to its diet in the colder months. The female Eurasian treecreeper forages primarily on the upper parts of the tree trunks, while


title: "Eurasian treecreeper" content: the male uses the lower parts. A study in Finland found that if a male disappears, the unpaired female will forage at lower heights, spend less time on each tree and have shorter foraging bouts than a paired female. This bird may sometimes join mixed-species feeding flocks in winter, but it does not appear to share the resources found by accompanying tits and goldcrests, and may just be benefiting from the extra vigilance of a flock. Wood ants share the same habitat as the treecreeper, and also feed on invertebrates on tree trunks. The Finnish researchers found that where the


title: "Eurasian treecreeper" content: ants have been foraging, there are fewer arthropods, and male treecreepers spent a shorter time on spruce trunks visited by ants. As a small woodland bird with cryptic plumage and a quiet call, the Eurasian treecreeper is easily overlooked as it hops mouse-like up a vertical trunk, progressing in short hops, using its stiff tail and widely splayed feet as support. Nevertheless, it is not wary, and is largely indifferent to the presence of humans. It has a distinctive erratic and undulating flight, alternating fluttering butterfly-like wing beats with side-slips and tumbles. Migrating birds may fly by day or night,


title: "Eurasian treecreeper" content: but the extent of movements is usually masked by resident populations. It is solitary in winter, but in cold weather up to a dozen or more birds will roost together in a suitable sheltered crevice. Eurasian treecreeper The Eurasian treecreeper or common treecreeper ("Certhia familiaris") is a small passerine bird also known in the British Isles, where it is the only living member of its genus, simply as treecreeper. It is similar to other treecreepers, and has a curved bill, patterned brown upperparts, whitish underparts, and long stiff tail feathers which help it creep up tree trunks. It can be


title: "Austin Motor Company" content: Austin weathered the worst of the depression and remained profitable through the 1930s, producing a wider range of cars which was steadily updated by the introduction of all-steel bodies, Girling brakes, and synchromesh gearboxes. However, all the engines retained the same side-valve conformation. Deputy chairman Ernest Payton became chairman in 1941 on the death of Lord Austin. In 1938 Leonard Lord joined the company board and became chairman in 1946 on the death of Ernest Payton. In the early 1930s, Datsun built cars infringing Austin patents. From 1934, Datsun began to build Sevens under licence and this operation became the


title: Secularization content: modern societies becomes restricted. In secularized societies faith lacks cultural authority, and religious organizations have little social power. Secularization has many levels of meaning, both as a theory and a historical process. Social theorists such as Karl Marx, Sigmund Freud, Max Weber, and Émile Durkheim, postulated that the modernization of society would include a decline in levels of religiosity. Study of this process seeks to determine the manner in which, or extent to which religious creeds, practices and institutions are losing social significance. Some theorists argue that the secularization of modern civilization partly results from our inability to adapt broad


title: "Northern hawk-owl" content: Northern hawk-owl The northern hawk-owl ("Surnia ulula") is a medium sized true owl of the northern latitudes. It is non-migratory and usually stays within its breeding range, though it sometimes irrupts southward. It is one of the few owls that is neither nocturnal nor crepuscular, being active only during the day. This is the only living species in the genus "Surnia" of the family Strigidae, the "typical" owls (as opposed to barn owls, Tytonidae). The species is sometimes called simply the hawk owl; however, many species of owls in the genus "Ninox" are also called "hawk owls". The genus name


title: "Northern hawk-owl" content: "Surnia" appears to be a word made up by A. M. C. Duméril, the creator of the genus, and "ulula" is Latin for a screech owl. Male northern hawk-owls are generally long and weigh . Females are slightly bigger with a length of and a mass of about . Both male and female have similar wingspans of about . The northern hawk-owl plumage is relatively dark brown with an off-white spotting pattern on all dorsal parts of the body with the exception of the back of the neck which boasts a black v-shaped pattern. The underbelly is generally white or


title: "Northern hawk-owl" content: off-white which continues to the toes with brown bands on the breast and stomach. It also boasts a long tail with brown banding. The northern hawk-owl has a smokey white face with a black border, a flat head, yellow eyes and a yellow curved beak. The northern hawk-owl has been said to resemble a hawk in appearance and in behavior. In North America, its appearance in flight is often considered similar to a Cooper's hawk ("Accipiter cooperii"). It has been suggested that this may be because the hawk-owl may partially fill an important diurnal niche similar to that of day


title: "Northern hawk-owl" content: hunters such as hawks. "S. ulula" has a variety of calls used by the different sexes in different situations. When attracting a mate the male usually lets out a rolled whistle of "ulululululululul" and a sound similar to "tu-wita-wit, tiwita-tu-wita, wita," when perching at a potential nest site. The female’s call is usually less constant and more shrill. When alerting to danger, the northern hawk-owl lets out a sound similar to "rike, rike, rike, rike". It also releases a high pitched scream followed by a "yip" when an intruder is near to the nest. To warn of impending dangers to


title: "Northern hawk-owl" content: a fledgling, the hawk-owl will let out a noise similar to "ki ki kikikikiki". Calls can vary in length from 15 s to 2 min. Three subspecies exist across the northern holarctic. The North American subspecies "S. u. caparoch" spans from eastern Alaska through Canada to Newfoundland and in some areas extends south into northern United States. The other two subspecies are found in Eurasia: "S. u. tianschanica" breeds in central Asia reaching Xinjiang (China) and "S. u. ulula" resides across Eurasia reaching Siberia at its most eastern range. Occasionally, "S. u. caparoch" can extend its territory as far south


title: "Northern hawk-owl" content: as northern Minnesota and many other states in the northern United States including more central states such as West Virginia, New York, and South Dakota. These southern forays into the northern United States are rare and generally occur during winter, or following an explosion in a population of prey. "S. u. caparoch" can occasionally be found in more southern areas such as Great Britain, southern Russia and Scandinavia, following explosions of prey. Northern hawk-owls are unevenly distributed and highly variable throughout the boreal forest. They live mostly in open coniferous forests, or coniferous forests mixed with deciduous species such as


title: "Northern hawk-owl" content: larch, birch, poplar, and willow. They are found in muskegs, clearings, swamp valleys, meadows, or recently burnt areas, and generally avoid dense spruce-fir forests. Winter habitat is usually the same as breeding habitat. The northern hawk-owl generally starts its mating rituals at the beginning of March. After calling and pairing is complete the northern hawk-owl will build a nest and start to lay eggs. On average the northern hawk-owl will lay 3–11 eggs per brood. The nest sites are usually the tops of hollow stumps of old dead spruce trees. These nesting sites are usually above ground for the North


title: "Northern hawk-owl" content: American "S. u. caparoch" and approximately above ground for the Eurasian "S. u. ulala". The specific dates of egg appearance can be quite variable depending on locality. In central Canada eggs are usually laid from March 30 to the 5th of June. On Newfoundland the appearance of eggs occurs later, between May 9 and June 11. In Finland however, eggs can be found anywhere between the 30th of March to the 23rd of June. For the most part the female northern hawk-owl does the incubating of the eggs whilst the male forages for food. Once the chicks have hatched their


title: "Northern hawk-owl" content: roles shift drastically. At about two weeks into the chicks' lives the female starts to leave the nest for long spans of time (5 hours or more). This span of time is presumably when the female hunts. The male however, will guard the nest diligently until the chicks leave. When predators (usually other raptors) fly nearby, the male will sometimes chase them away from the nest if he feels it is necessary. Once the owlets have grown to a size which allows less parental supervision, they will leave the nest. This occurs on average after their 21st day, and can


title: "Northern hawk-owl" content: begin as early as mid-June. After this the female will provide most of the care. However, the male will remain close and will still feed his young on occasion. The northern hawk-owl has also been known to nest on cliffsides. It has little fear of humans, and will attack if the young are approached too closely. The northern hawk-owl feeds on a variety of prey, which can include small rodents to mammals more robust in size, and a variety of birds, a typical diet for many boreal owls. In Eurasia the northern hawk-owl is known to feed primarily on voles


title: "Northern hawk-owl" content: from the Microtus family. These voles usually follow a 3–4 year cycle of abundance. Therefore, "S. u. ulula" numbers are affected negatively when the numbers of voles are lowest. In North America the subspecies "S. u. caparoch" also feeds upon microtine voles, but its population is primarily based on the ten year cycling of the snowshoe hare ("Lepus americanus"). In Eurasia the northern hawk-owl's biomass consists of about 94% microtine voles, whereas in North America the percentage of biomass contributed by voles can be as low as 20%. Juvenile hares are considerably more important at 40–50%. Other animals that are


title: "Northern hawk-owl" content: important prey items for the northern hawk-owl include the red squirrel ("Sciurus vulgaris") which has been documented to contribute as much as 20% to the hawk-owl’s biomass. A long list of others include mice, rats, voles, lemmings, the short-tail weasel ("Mustela erminea"), partridge, spruce grouse ("Falcipennis canadensis"), doves, pileated woodpeckers ("Dryocopus pileatus"), sparrows, jays, robins, starlings, buntings, grackles, and finches. In the winter, feeding strategies change; where in summer the main source of food is mammals, in the winter a bigger portion of the hawk-owl’s biomass consists of ground dwelling birds, such as the ptarmigan and the grouse. The northern


title: "Northern hawk-owl" content: hawk-owl is a partially diurnal hunter, although it has been recorded hunting at varying times and does not appear to have a preferred hunting time. Whether the bird resides in Eurasia or North America, the strategy is usually similar. The northern hawk-owl will perch and scour the immediate area for prey. As these owls are considered a search-oriented species they likely do not stay put for long if the site is not producing prey. The hawk-owl prefers open, forest-type environments when perching. These environments include sphagnum bogs and partially deforested areas. The preferred perching tree of the northern hawk-owl is


title: "Northern hawk-owl" content: the spruce tree. When the hawk-owl attacks, it goes from a horizontal posture into a gliding dive. If the prey is further away, the bird will flap its wings a few times during the dive to increase distance. The hawk-owl has exceptional hearing and can plunge into snow to capture rodents below the surface. The type of prey the hawk-owl catches will determine its eating strategy. For mammalian prey the ritual is generally the same: the northern hawk-owl will eviscerate its prey, eats the head first (especially for prey like the red squirrel, whose head is fairly large), and then—when


title: "Northern hawk-owl" content: tackling larger prey—it will eat the organs and cache the remains; with smaller prey, the owl will simply swallow the body whole. Northern hawk-owls are the only representative of the genus "Surnia", and no known fossil relatives exist. When the nearest relatives of the northern hawk-owl were unknown, Voous and Cameron (1989) initially noted similarities with the "Glaucidium" owls based on ear morphology and facial characteristics. In 1991, Schmutz and Moker first reported the karyotype of the northern hawk-owl and found it to resemble considerably that of the genus "Athene". Maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood phylogenetic trees created from nucleotide


title: "Northern hawk-owl" content: sequencing of the cytochrome b gene demonstrated that "Surnia" and "Glaucidium" form a paraphyletic group. Due to its low density occurrence, sporadic fluctuations, and remote breeding locations,the northern hawk-owl is one of the least studied and poorly understood birds in North America. As a result, it is almost impossible to properly estimate its numbers. In Yukon, northern hawk-owl densities were estimated to be between zero and six pairs per . Despite these low densities, the North American population is thought to be fairly large given that they occur throughout the boreal forest. Duncan and Harris (1997) estimated that this population


title: "Northern hawk-owl" content: contains between 10 000 and 50 000 pairs. Populations are known to fluctuate with cycles of small rodents and irruptions are known to occur in sub-boreal regions throughout the world. In Scandinavia, populations have been reported to vary from a few hundred birds in certain years to over 4000 birds in others and even up to 10 000 breeding pairs in optimal years. Irruptions can be used as indicators of small mammal abundance and in eastern North America, southern irruptions have been linked with low densities of red-backed voles in the high boreal forest. In North America, over 50% of


title: "Northern hawk-owl" content: the northern hawk-owls' breeding territory occurs in non-commercial boreal forests and as long as nothing threatens their northern habitats, no known factors challenge their existence. However, it is unknown what effects modern forestry would have on population levels because although it would decrease nesting localities, it would simultaneously create ideal habitat for Microtus prey. Fire suppression by humans is believed to negatively affect northern hawk-owl populations by reducing open areas for hunting and dead wood to nest in. The status and conservation of this species is uncertain. A report by the Committee On the Status of Endangered Wildlife In Canada


title: "Northern hawk-owl" content: (COSEWIC) recommended that no designation be assigned for the northern hawk-owl. Compared to the nineteenth century, southern irruptions in the New and Old World appear to have declined. Also, North American populations seem to be declining, although no proper documentation exists to confirm this trend. In Canada, it was ranked 85th overall to set conservation, research, or monitoring priorities. Downes et al. (2000) considered the hawk-owl to be of medium concern, but with a high priority to improve monitoring. The northern hawk-owl is considered a falconry bird in Ontario, and may be used to hunt small game with a proper


title: "Northern hawk-owl" content: license. Northern hawk-owl The northern hawk-owl ("Surnia ulula") is a medium sized true owl of the northern latitudes. It is non-migratory and usually stays within its breeding range, though it sometimes irrupts southward. It is one of the few owls that is neither nocturnal nor crepuscular, being active only during the day. This is the only living species in the genus "Surnia" of the family Strigidae, the "typical" owls (as opposed to barn owls, Tytonidae). The species is sometimes called simply the hawk owl; however, many species of owls in the genus "Ninox" are also called "hawk owls". The genus


title: Sosumi content: development of System 7, the two Apples concluded a settlement agreement from an earlier dispute when Apple added a sound synthesis chip to its IIgs machine. As a result, Apple Computer was prohibited from using their trademark on "creative works whose principal content is music". When new sounds for System 7 were created, the sounds were reviewed by Apple's Legal Department who objected that the new sound alert "chime" had a name that was "too musical," under the recent settlement. The creator of the new sound alerts for System 7, Jim Reekes, had grown frustrated with the legal scrutiny and


title: "Michael Spivak" content: Michael Spivak Michael David Spivak (born May 25, 1940) is an American mathematician specializing in differential geometry, an expositor of mathematics, and the founder of Publish-or-Perish Press. Spivak is the author of the five-volume "A Comprehensive Introduction to Differential Geometry". In 1964 Spivak received a Ph.D. from Princeton University under the supervision of John Milnor. In 1985 Spivak received the Leroy P. Steele Prize. Spivak was born in Queens, New York. Spivak has lectured on elementary physics. Spivak's most recent book, "Physics for Mathematicians: Mechanics I", which contains the material that these lectures stemmed from and more, was published on


title: "Downtown Houston" content: business district of Houston ever." Hotel operators in Downtown reacted favorably, predicting that the move would cause an increase in occupancy rates in their hotels. In 2008 Continental renewed its lease in the building. Before the lease renewal, rumors spread stating that the airline would relocate its headquarters to office space outside of Downtown. Steven Biegel, the senior vice president of Studley Inc. and a representative of office building tenants, said that if Continental's space went vacant, the vacancy would not have had a significant impact in the Downtown Houston submarket as there is not an abundance of available space,


title: Megalith content: Megalith A megalith is a large stone that has been used to construct a structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. The word megalithic describes structures made of such large stones without the use of mortar or concrete, representing periods of prehistory characterised by such constructions. For later periods, the word "monolith", with an overlapping meaning, is more likely to be used. The word "megalith" comes from the Ancient Greek ' (transliteration "mégas", meaning "great") and ' (transliteration "líthos" meaning "stone"). "Megalith" also denotes one or more rocks hewn in definite shapes for special purposes. It has


title: Megalith content: been used to describe buildings built by people from many parts of the world living in many different periods. A variety of large stones are seen as megaliths, with the most widely known megaliths not being tombs. The construction of these structures took place mainly in the Neolithic period (though earlier Mesolithic examples are known) and continued into the Chalcolithic period and the Bronze Age. At a number of sites in eastern Turkey, large ceremonial complexes from the 9th millennium BC have been discovered. They belong to the incipient phases of agriculture and animal husbandry. Large circular structures involving carved


title: Megalith content: megalithic orthostats are a typical feature; e.g. at Nevalı Çori and Göbekli Tepe. Although these structures are the most ancient megalithic structures known so far, it is not clear that any of the European Megalithic traditions (see below) are actually derived from them. At Göbekli Tepe, four stone circles have been excavated from an estimated 20. Some measure up to 30 metres across. As well as human figures, the stones carry a variety of carved reliefs depicting boars, foxes, lions, birds, snakes and scorpions. Dolmens and standing stones have been found in large areas of the Middle East starting at


title: Megalith content: the Turkish border in the north of Syria close to Aleppo, southwards down to Yemen. They can be encountered in Lebanon, Syria, Iran, Israel, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia. The largest concentration can be found in southern Syria and along the Jordan Rift Valley, however they are being threatened with destruction. They date from the late Chalcolithic/Early Bronze Age. Megaliths have also been found on Kharg Island and pirazmian in Iran, at Barda Balka in Iraq. A semicircular arrangement of megaliths was found in Israel at Atlit Yam, a site that is now under the sea. It is a very early


title: Megalith content: example, dating from the 7th millennium BC. The most concentrated occurrence of dolmens in particular is in a large area on both sides of the Jordan Rift Valley, with greater predominance on the eastern side. They occur first and foremost on the Golan Heights, the Hauran, and in Jordan, which probably has the largest concentration of dolmen in the Middle East. In Saudi Arabia, only very few dolmen have been identified so far in the Hejaz. They seem, however, to re-emerge in Yemen in small numbers, and thus could indicate a continuous tradition related to those of Somalia and Ethiopia.


title: Megalith content: The standing stone has a very ancient tradition in the Middle East, dating back from Mesopotamian times. Although not always 'megalithic' in the true sense, they occur throughout the Orient, and can reach 5 metres or more in some cases (such as Ader in Jordan). This phenomenon can also be traced through many passages from the Old Testament, such as those related to Jacob, the grandson of Abraham, who poured oil over a stone that he erected after his famous dream in which angels climbed to heaven (Genesis 28:10-22). Jacob is also described as putting up stones at other occasions,


title: Megalith content: whereas Moses erected twelve pillars symbolizing the tribes of Israel. The tradition of venerating (standing) stones continued in Nabatean times and is reflected in, e.g., the Islamic rituals surrounding the Kaaba and nearby pillars. Related phenomena, such as cupholes, rock-cut tombs and circles also occur in the Middle East. The most common type of megalithic construction in Europe is the portal tomb – a chamber consisting of upright stones (orthostats) with one or more large flat capstones forming a roof. Many of these, though by no means all, contain human remains, but it is debatable whether use as burial sites


title: Megalith content: was their primary function. The megalithic structures of Malta are believed to be the oldest in Europe, in particular Skorba Temples. Though generally known as "dolmens", the term most accepted by archaeologists is "portal tomb". However many local names exist, such as "anta" in Galicia and Portugal, "stazzone" in Sardinia, "hunebed" in the Netherlands, "Hünengrab" in Germany, "dysse" in Denmark, and "cromlech" in Wales. It is assumed that most portal tombs were originally covered by earthen mounds. The second-most-common tomb type is the passage grave. It normally consists of a square, circular, or cruciform chamber with a slabbed or corbelled


title: Megalith content: roof, accessed by a long, straight passageway, with the whole structure covered by a circular mound of earth. Sometimes it is also surrounded by an external stone kerb. Prominent examples include the sites of Brú na Bóinne and Carrowmore in Ireland, Maes Howe in Orkney, and Gavrinis in France. The third tomb type is a diverse group known as gallery graves. These are axially arranged chambers placed under elongated mounds. The Irish court tombs, British long barrows, and German "Steinkisten" belong to this group. Another type of megalithic monument, the single standing stone, or menhir as it is known in


title: Megalith content: France, is very common throughout Europe, where some 50,000 examples have been noted. Some of these are thought to have an astronomical function as a marker or foresight. In some areas, long and complex alignments of such stones exist, the largest known example being located at Carnac in Brittany, France. In parts of Britain and Ireland a relatively common type of megalithic construction is the stone circle, of which examples include Stonehenge, Avebury, Ring of Brodgar and Beltany. These, too, display evidence of astronomical alignments, both solar and lunar. Stonehenge, for example, is famous for its solstice alignment. Examples of


title: Megalith content: stone circles are also found in the rest of Europe. The circle at Lough Gur, near Limerick in Ireland has been dated to the Beaker period, approximately contemporaneous with Stonehenge. The stone circles are assumed to be of later date than the tombs, straddling the Neolithic and the Bronze Ages. Megalithic tombs are aboveground burial chambers, built of large stone slabs (megaliths) laid on edge and covered with earth or other, smaller stones. They are a type of chamber tomb, and the term is used to describe the structures built across Atlantic Europe, the Mediterranean, and neighbouring regions, mostly during


title: Megalith content: the Neolithic period, by Neolithic farming communities. They differ from the contemporary long barrows through their structural use of stone. There is a huge variety of megalithic tombs. The free-standing single chamber dolmens and portal dolmens found in Brittany, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Netherlands, Sweden, Wales, and elsewhere consist of a large flat stone supported by three, four, or more standing stones. They were covered by a stone cairn or earth barrow. In Italy, dolmens can be found especially in Sardinia. There are more than 100 dolmen dating to the Neolithic (3500–2700 BC) and the most famous is called "Dolmen di


title: Megalith content: Sa Coveccada" (near Mores ). During the Bronze Age, the Nuragic civilization built c. 800 Giants' grave, a type of megalithic gallery grave that can be found throughout Sardinia with different structures. The earliest megalithic tombs in Sardinia are the circular graves of the so-called Arzachena culture, also found in Corsica, southern France and eastern Spain. Dolmen are also in Apulia and in Sicily. In this latter region, they are small structures located in Mura Pregne "(Palermo)", Sciacca "(Agrigento)", Monte Bubbonia "(Caltanissetta)", Butera "(Caltanissetta)", Cava Lazzaro "(Siracusa)", Cava dei Servi "(Ragusa)", Avola "(Siracusa)", Argimusco in Montalbano Elicona (Messina). Dating to


title: Megalith content: the early Bronze Age (2200–1800 BC), the prehistoric Sicilian buildings were covered by a circular mound of earth. In the dolmen of "Cava dei Servi", the archaeologists found numerous human bone fragments and some splinters of Castelluccian ceramics "(Early Bronze Age)" which confirmed the burial purpose of the artefact. Examples with outer areas, not used for burial, are also known. The Court Cairns of southwest Scotland and northern Ireland, the Severn-Cotswold tombs of southwest England and the Transepted gallery graves of the Loire region in France share many internal features, although the links between them are not yet fully understood.


title: Megalith content: That they often have antechambers or forecourts is thought to imply a desire on the part of the builders to emphasize a special ritual or physical separation of the dead from the living. The Passage graves of Orkney, Ireland's Boyne Valley, and north Wales are even more complex and impressive, with cross-shaped arrangements of chambers and passages. The workmanship on the stone blocks at Maeshowe for example is unknown elsewhere in northwest Europe at the time. Megalithic tombs appear to have been used by communities for the long-term deposition of the remains of their dead, and some seem to have


title: Megalith content: undergone alteration and enlargement. The organization and effort required to erect these large stones suggest that the societies concerned placed great emphasis on the proper treatment of their dead. The ritual significance of the tombs is supported by the presence of megalithic art carved into the stones at some sites. Hearths and deposits of pottery and animal bone found by archaeologists around some tombs also implies that some form of burial feast or sacrificial rites took place there. Further examples of megalithic tombs include the stalled cairn at Midhowe in Orkney and the passage grave at Bryn Celli Ddu on


title: Megalith content: Anglesey. There are also extensive grave sites with up to 60 megaliths at Louisenlund and Gryet on the Danish island of Bornholm. Despite its name, the Stone Tomb in Ukraine was not a tomb but rather a sanctuary. In association with the megalithic constructions across Europe, there are often large earthworks of various designs – ditches and banks (like the Dorset Cursus), broad terraces, circular enclosures known as henges, and frequently artificial mounds such as Silbury Hill in England and Monte d'Accoddi in Sardinia (the prehistoric step pyramid) . A lot of spirals are found through of Sardinia: the best


title: Megalith content: known is "Perda Pinta" of Mamoiada. It seems that spirals were an important motif for the megalith builders (see Megalithic Temples of Malta). They have been found carved into megalithic structures all over Europe, along with other symbols such as lozenges, eye-patterns, zigzags in various configurations, and cup and ring marks. While not a written script in the modern sense of the term, these symbols are considered to have conveyed meaning to their creators, and are remarkably consistent across the whole of Europe. In Europe megaliths are, in general, constructions erected during the Neolithic or late stone age and Chalcolithic


title: Megalith content: or Copper Age (4500–1500 BC). The megalithic structures of Malta are believed to be the oldest in Europe. Perhaps the most famous megalithic structure is Stonehenge in England. In Sardinia, in addition to dolmens, menhirs and circular graves there are also more than 8000 megalithic structure made by a Nuragic civilisation, called Nuraghe: buildings similar to towers (sometimes with really complex structures) made using only rocks. They are often near giant's grave or the other megalithic monuments. The French Comte de Caylus was the first to describe the Carnac stones. Pierre Jean-Baptiste Legrand d'Aussy introduced the terms "menhir" and "dolmen",


title: Megalith content: both taken from the Breton language, into antiquarian terminology. He mistakenly interpreted megaliths as gallic tombs. In Britain, the antiquarians Aubrey and Stukeley conducted early research into megaliths. In 1805, Jacques Cambry published a book called "Monuments celtiques, ou recherches sur le culte des Pierres, précédées d'une notice sur les Celtes et sur les Druides, et suivies d'Etymologie celtiques", where he proposed a Celtic stone cult. This unproven connection between druids and megaliths has haunted the public imagination ever since. In Belgium, there are the Wéris megaliths at Wéris, a little town situated in the Ardennes. In the Netherlands, megalithic