title: "Nonlinear system" content: be simplified into one linear partial differential equation in the case of transient, laminar, one dimensional flow in a circular pipe; the scale analysis provides conditions under which the flow is laminar and one dimensional and also yields the simplified equation. Other methods include examining the characteristics and using the methods outlined above for ordinary differential equations. A classic, extensively studied nonlinear problem is the dynamics of a pendulum under the influence of gravity. Using Lagrangian mechanics, it may be shown that the motion of a pendulum can be described by the dimensionless nonlinear equation where gravity points "downwards" and


title: "Hugo Spadafora" content: Victoriano Lorenzo Brigade, formed by a group of Panamanian fighters to fight against the Anastasio Somoza Debayle regime in Nicaragua. Concerned about the increased Soviet and Cuban influence in the Sandinista regime of Nicaragua and the delay of free elections, Spadafora joined the Sandino Revolutionary Front (FRS) alongside Edén Pastora ("Comandante Zero"), hero of the August 1978 seizure of Somoza's palace. The rise of Manuel Noriega as authoritarian ruler of Panama compelled Spadafora to denounce Noriega's protection of drug trafficking. Spadafora was detained by Noriega's forces when entering Panama from Costa Rica in September 1985, and his decapitated body was


title: "Sports car" content: Sports car A sports car, or sportscar, is a small, usually two-seater automobile designed for spirited performance and nimble handling. The term "sports car" was used in "The Times", London in 1919. According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, USA's first known use of the term was in 1928. Sports cars started to become popular during the 1920s. Sports cars may be spartan or luxurious, but high maneuverability and light weight are requisite. Sports cars are usually aerodynamically shaped (since the 1950s), and have a low center of gravity compared to standard models. Steering and suspension are typically designed for precise control


title: "Sports car" content: at high speeds. Traditionally sports cars were open roadsters, but closed coupés also started to become popular during the 1930s, and the distinction between a sports car and a grand tourer is not absolute. Attributing the definition of 'sports car' to any particular model can be controversial or the subject of debate among enthusiasts. Authors and experts have often contributed their own ideas to capture a definition. A car may be a "sporting" automobile without being a sports car. Performance modifications of regular, production cars, such as sport compacts, sports sedans, muscle cars, pony cars and hot hatches, generally are


title: "Sports car" content: not considered sports cars, yet share traits common to sports cars. Certain models can "appeal to both muscle car and sports car enthusiasts, two camps that rarely acknowledged each other's existences." Some models are called "sports cars" for marketing purposes to take advantage of greater marketplace acceptance and for promotional purposes. High-performance cars of various configurations are grouped as "Sports and Grand tourer cars" or, occasionally, just as "performance cars". The drivetrain and engine layout significantly influences the handling characteristics of an automobile, and is crucially important in the design of a sports car. The front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout (FR) is


title: "Sports car" content: common to sports cars of any era and has survived longer in sports cars than in mainstream automobiles. Examples include the Caterham 7, Mazda MX-5, and the Chevrolet Corvette. More specifically, many such sports cars have a front mid-engine, rear-wheel drive layout (FMR), with the centre of mass of the engine between the front axle and the firewall. In search of improved handling and weight distribution, other layouts are sometimes used. The rear mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout (RMR) is commonly found only in sports cars—the motor is centre-mounted in the chassis (closer to and behind the driver), and powers only the


title: "Sports car" content: rear wheels. Some high-performance sports car manufacturers, such as Ferrari and Lamborghini have preferred this layout. Porsche is one of the few remaining manufacturers using the rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout (RR). The motor's distributed weight across the wheels, in a Porsche 911, provides excellent traction, but the significant mass behind the rear wheels makes it more prone to oversteer in some situations. Porsche has continuously refined the design and in recent years added electronic stability control to counteract these inherent design shortcomings. The front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout (FF) layout which is the most common in sport compacts and hot hatches, and modern


title: "Sports car" content: production cars in general, is not generally used for sports cars. This layout is advantageous for small, light, lower power sports cars, as it avoids the extra weight, increased transmission power loss, and packaging problems of a long driveshaft and longitudinal engine of FR vehicles. However, its conservative handling effect, particularly understeer, and the fact that many drivers believe rear wheel drive is a more desirable layout for a sports car count against it. The Fiat Barchetta, Saab Sonett, and Berkeley cars are sports cars with this layout. Before the 1980s few sports cars used four-wheel drive, which had traditionally


title: "Sports car" content: added a lot of weight. With its improvement in traction, particularly in adverse weather conditions, four-wheel drive is no longer uncommon in high-powered sports cars, e.g. Porsche, Lamborghini, and the Bugatti Veyron. Traditional sports cars were typically two-seat roadsters. Although the first sports cars were derived from fast tourers, and early sporting regulations often demanded four seats (even three-seaters were often produced by coachbuilders), two seats became common from about the mid-1920s. Modern sports cars may also have small back seats that are often really only suitable for luggage or small children; such a configuration is referred to as a


title: "Sports car" content: 2+2 (two full seats + two "occasional" seats). Over the years, some manufacturers of sports cars have sought to increase the practicality of their vehicles by increasing the seating room. One method is to place the driver's seat in the center of the car, which allows two full-sized passenger seats on each side and slightly behind the driver. The arrangement was originally considered for the Lamborghini Miura, but abandoned as impractical because of the difficulty for the driver to enter/exit the vehicle. McLaren used the design in their F1. Another British manufacturer, TVR, took a different approach in their Cerbera


title: "Sports car" content: model. The interior was designed in such a way that the dashboard on the passenger side swept toward the front of the car, which allowed the passenger to sit farther forward than the driver. This gave the rear seat passenger extra room and made the arrangement suitable for three adult passengers and one child seated behind the driver. Some Matra sports cars even had three seats squeezed next to each other. The definition of a sports car is not precise, but from the earliest first automobiles "people have found ways to make them go faster, round corners better, and look


title: "Sports car" content: more beautiful" than the ordinary models inspiring an "emotional relationship" with a car that is fun to drive and use for the sake of driving. The basis for the sports car is traced to the early 20th century touring cars and roadsters. These raced in early rallies, such as the Herkomer Cup, Prinz-Heinrich-Fahrt (Prince Henry Tour), and Monte Carlo. According to historian Richard Hough, "Any history of the sports car must begin with the 60 hp Mércèdes of 1903. In the 60 hp model, described at the time as a fast touring car, Wilhelm Maybach and Paul Daimler combined in


title: "Sports car" content: remarkably successful form a number of features which were to be slavishly imitated, first in Europe and later in America, for almost forty years. These included a pressed-steel chassis, a 4-speed gate change, honeycomb radiator, push-rod-operated overhead inlet valves, low-tension magneto ignition and a remarkably successful suspension arrangement. They were integrated with success to provide a safe and well-balanced machine with a higher performance than any other contemporary production car. The 60 hp Mércèdes looked right from the start and caused a great impression wherever it appeared." When the specially built 90 hp racing car for the 1903 Gordon Bennett


title: "Sports car" content: race was destroyed in a fire, a production 60 hp was famously substituted and driven to victory by Belgian Camille Jenatzy. With a speed limit of 20 mph imposed on public roads in England, there was little incentive for the manufacture of fast production cars there until the advent of the Brooklands track in 1907. Brooklands helped to create a market among enthusiasts in Britain for high-efficiency production cars such as Sunbeam (notably the 12/16 designed by Louis Coatalen), Star, Talbot, Crossley and Straker-Squire. Though the term "sports car" would not be coined until after World War One, the first


title: "Sports car" content: sports cars are considered to be the 3 litre 1910 Prince Henry "(Prinz Heinrich)" Vauxhall 20 hp (tax rating), and the 27/80PS Austro-Daimler designed by Ferdinand Porsche. Porsche's active engineering career spanned the history of the sports car over the first half of the twentieth century, first coming to prominence as chief designer and technical director for the 1910 Prince Henry Austro-Daimler (then Austrian-Daimler). The Prince Henry Vauxhall was designed by L.H. Pomeroy and featured a 3-liter engine that gave 60 hp at 2800 rpm, high performance for the period with reliability, and "torpedo" flush-bonnet coachwork. The Prince Henry Vauxhalls


title: "Sports car" content: were important to the growing popularity of fast motor cars in Britain. Like the 60 hp Mercedes the Prince Henry Austro-Daimler and Vauxhall were production fast touring cars. The Prince Henry Tours (which were similar to modern car rallies) were among the sporting events of the period, bringing renown to successful entrants. Porsche himself drove the Austro-Daimler to victory in the 1910 Prince Henry Tour. The Prince Henry Tours started the evolution of reasonably large and technically advanced production sports cars. Hispano-Suiza's Alfonso XIII is also considered one of the earliest sports cars, developed between 1911 and 1914 from the


title: "Sports car" content: successful Coupe de l'Auto voiturette-race winning Hispano, designed by engineer Marc Birkigt and originally known as the Type 15T or 15/45hp depending on the market. The model was renamed for Spain's King Alfonso XIII, Birkigt’s patron and an enthusiast for the marque, and around 500 were produced, impressive for the time. Another product of the French voiturette (or small car, up to 3-liter) races from 1906 to 1910, was the Bugatti Type 13 which found a small clientele before the Great War and gained prominence in the immediate post-war period. These would shortly be joined by the French DFP (which


title: "Sports car" content: became sporters after tuning by H.M. and W. O. Bentley) and Delage, the Italian Isotta Fraschini, and the Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost. In the U.S., where the type was variously called roadster, speedster, runabout, or raceabout, there was Apperson, Kissel, Marion, Midland, National, Overland, Stoddard-Dayton, and Thomas among small models, while Chadwick, Mercer, Stutz, and Simplex were among large models. After the Great War, Europe returned to manufacturing automobiles from around 1920, the following decade becoming known as the Vintage era and featuring rapid technical advances over the Edwardian traditions. The vintage decade witnessed the adoption of more modern and higher-speed


title: "Sports car" content: engines; the abandonment of taxation on cylinder bore promoted the development of the higher-revolution short-stroke engine. The introduction of leaded fuel allowed for higher compression ratios, further increasing engine power. It was after the first World War that the term 'Sports Car' began to appear in the motor catalogues, although the exact origin of the name is obscure. The demand for high performance motor cars was growing, and as racing cars were not yet exorbitant in price it was practical for some manufacturers, such as Bugatti and Sunbeam, to offer from one basic design this year's racing car and next


title: "Sports car" content: year's sports car. Other designers, such as Cecil Kimber at Morris Garages exercised ingenuity in converting standard touring cars into acceptable sports cars. In the middle of the 1920s the expense of producing competitive specialist racing cars, especially Grand Prix cars, began to escalate; more and more manufacturers turned their attention instead to production for the growing sports car market. In 1923 l'Automobile Club de l'Ouest organised the first Twenty-Four Hour Race on the Circuit de la Sarthé for sports cars, although technically, except for the smallest class, the regulations at the time were for four-seat fast touring cars—two-seat sports


title: "Sports car" content: cars still being an evolving category. "This race, together with the Tourist Trophy Series of Races, organised after the first World War by the R.A.C., appealed to the public imagination and offered to the manufacturers of the more sporting cars an excellent opportunity for boosting sales of their products." The classic Italian road races—the Targa Florio, and the Mille Miglia (first held in 1927)—also captured the public's imagination. In 1921, Ballot premiered its 2LS, with a DOHC two liter, designed by Ernest Henry (formerly of Peugeot's Grand Prix program), capable of ; at most, one hundred were built in four


title: "Sports car" content: years. This was followed by the SOHC 2LT and 2LTS. The same year, Benz built a supercharged 28/95PS four for the Coppa Florio; Max Sailer won. Simson in 1924 offered a Paul Henze-designed DOHC 2 liter four, the Simson Supra Type S, in a long-wheelbase tourer and twin-carburettor sporter; only thirty were sold, against around three hundred of the SOHC model and 750 of the pushrod-six Type R. Duerkopp's Zoller-blown two liter in 1924, as well. There was a clear cleavage by 1925. As four-seaters were more profitable, two-seaters increasingly turned over to specialist manufacturers, led by Alvis, Aston-Martin, and


title: "Sports car" content: Frazer-Nash, with shoestring budgets, fanatic followers, and limited sales (today exemplified by Aston and Morgan): between 1921 and 1939, 350 Astons were built; 323 Frazer-Nashes in the period 1924–39. By the end of the 1920s, AC produced a 2-liter six, the 3.5 liter Nazzaro had a three-valve OHC (until 1922), while French makers Amilcar, Bignan and Samson, and Franco-Spanish Hispano-Suiza, had the typical small four-cylinder sporters and Delage, Hotchkiss, and Chenard-Walcker the large tourers. Benz introduced the powerful Ferdinand Porsche-designed SS and SSK, and Alfa Romeo, the Vittorio Jano-designed 6C. Two companies would offer really reliable sports cars: Austin with


title: "Sports car" content: the Seven and Morris Garages (MG) with the Midget. The Seven would quickly be "rodded" by numerous companies (as the Type 1 would be a generation later), including Bassett and Dingle (Hammersmith, London); in 1928, a Cozette blower was fitted to the Seven Super Sports, while Cecil Kimber fitted an 847 cc Minor engine, and sold more Midgets in the first year than MG's entire previous production. Sandwiched between the Great Depression and the Second World War, the 1930s were a period of decline in importance for sports car manufacturers, although the period was not devoid of advances, for example


title: "Sports car" content: streamlining. Cheap, light-weight family saloons with independent front suspension by firms such as BMW, Citroen and Fiat challenged the standards of road-holding and comfort available from much more expensive sports cars. Powerful, reliable and economical (although softly suspended) American saloons began to be imported to Europe in significant numbers. In turn, inexpensive small sports cars, based on popular touring car chassis and suspension (for example Austin and Wolseley) increased ownership of sports cars while not necessarily advancing limitations in engine output and road-holding inherited from their mass-produced components. The most successful sports car firm, commercially, in the 1930s was Morris


title: "Sports car" content: Garages, who manufactured more sports cars than any other. Cecil Kimber's MG "Midget" evolved from the late-1920s M-Type, through the J-Type and P-Type to the definitive 1936 T-Type which was produced until 1955. The T-Type featured a modern for the period 1292 c.c. push-rod overhead-valve engine with improved performance and less mechanical noise, improved chassis and powerful hydraulic brakes. The competition C-Type was also popular. A six-cylinder range included, in chronological order, the F-Type Magna, K-Type Magnette, L-Type Magna, and N-Type Magnette. From the K-Type the immensely fast K3 competition versions were developed, capable of 110 mph in supercharged form,


title: "Sports car" content: and performing extremely well in the Mille Miglia, Tourist Trophy and 24 Hours of Le Mans. MG's competition department closed due to business concerns in 1935. The decade saw production of some truly remarkable models from Bugatti, culminating in the "Grande Routière-"styled T57 Atlantics, designed by Ettore Bugatti's son Jean, and now among the most valuable cars in the world. Bugatti produced the eight-cylinder T57, which replaced all previous road-going models, in a variety of bodystyles from formal four-door sedans to sporty roadsters and the striking two-door coupés, which were based on the prototype 'Aerolithe' shown at the 1935 Paris


title: "Sports car" content: Motor Show, and said to have been constructed from 'Electron' magnesium alloy (debated by some historians). The T57 was also remarkably successful in sports car races, famously including a version with advanced aerodynamics winning Le Mans in 1937, the first time for a French car in over a decade and 1939 (the final 24 Hours of Le Mans before the second World War). Jean Bugatti, forbidden by his father from racing, was tragically killed in a crash while road testing the Le Mans winning T57 at more than 200 km/h, after the race in 1939, shortly before the outbreak of


title: "Sports car" content: war. Ettore Bugatti was forced by the occupying Nazi regime to sell his company in 1940, and he died of an illness in 1947 leaving over a thousand patents ranging from bicycles to aircraft. The decade following the Second World War saw an "immense growth of interest in the sports car, but also the most important and diverse technical developments [and] very rapid and genuine improvement in the qualities of every modern production car; assisted by new design and manufacturing techniques a consistently higher level of handling properties has been achieved." In Italy, where by far the majority of everyday


title: "Sports car" content: touring models were provided by Fiat, a small but wealthy market segment allowed for the manufacture of a limited number of high-performance models directly allied to contemporary Grand Prix machines. Enzo Ferrari's 1948 166 S was the subject of simple coachwork by Carlo Anderloni of Carrozzeria Touring, called ""Barchetta"" or "Little Boat". In 2017 a 1950 166MM "barchetta" was reported to be up for auction at an expected price of USD $10.4 million. A new concept altogether was the modern "Gran Turismo" class from Italy, which was in effect unknown before the war: sustained high speed motoring from relatively modest


title: "Sports car" content: engine size and compact closed or "berlinetta" coachwork. In Germany the motor industry was devastated by the war, however a small number of manufacturers brought it to prominence once more. In 1948-9 the first Porsche appeared under the aegis of Dr. Ferry Porsche, son of Ferdinand Porsche. In 1957, author John Stanford wrote that the original Porsche 356 was "an 1100-c.c. version of the Volkswagen, itself a [pre-war] Porsche design, differing only in the most elegant, light and low-drag coachwork which has since become familiar. Since then numerous design changes have taken place and except for general layout the car


title: "Sports car" content: has little in common with its parent. All models except the sports-racing "Carerra" and "Spyder" have had an opposed four-cylinder air-cooled engine set behind and driving the rear axle, a four-speed gearbox with Porsche's own excellent synchromesh, and laminated torsion bar suspension to all wheels. The short stroke of the engines has meant exceptionally long life and hard-wearing qualities, and the beautifully profiled coachwork has led to exceptionally refined high performance in view of their modest engine size. This has been progressively increased to the current 1488-c.c. and 1582-c.c. sizes, and the cars are geared to sustain cruising speeds comfortably


title: "Sports car" content: near their top speed, which varies between 90 and 110 mph; the most popular of the series weighs only 16 cwt. As much as any current production car the Porsche represents to the smallest detail the very definite ideas of its designers as to what constitutes agreeable fast motoring. Future historians must see them as among the most important of mid-century production cars." Stanford thought the contemporary German Mercedes 300SL just as remarkable, and it is covered in the accompanying grand tourer article. The 1960s saw launched of a new generation of sports cars, as the market sector continued to


title: "Sports car" content: grow. The Jaguar XK 120 made way for the Jaguar E-Type (a two-seater roadster or 2+2 hardtop coupe) in 1961; this car remained in production for 14 years and earned plaudits for its styling and performance. A second generation Mercedes-Benz SL was launched in 1963, which saw the iconic "gullwing" doors discontinued. Porsche replaced the 356 with the 911 in 1964; the design has been gradually upgraded ever since with several different generation of the 2+2 coupe and 2+2 or two-seater soft top models. A host of less powerful and less expensive sports cars also arrived during this decade, including


title: "Sports car" content: the Alfa Romeo Spider, Fiat Dino, MG B, Sunbeam Tiger and Triumph Spitfire. The Sunbeam Tiger was discontinued in 1967, with the Rootes Group (later Chrysler UK) deciding instead to guide buyers of sportier models to its Sunbeam Rapier four-seater coupe. BMC/British Leyland, which built the MG and Triumph sports cars, launched the Triumph TR7 in 1975, but the falling demand for affordable sports cars saw the demise of both the MG and Triumph sports cars by 1982. Fiat launched the Fiat X1/9, a mid engined two-seater sports car, in 1972 and continued producing it until the end of the


title: "Sports car" content: 1980s. Ford declined to develop an out-and-out sports car and instead decided to launch a four-seater "sports saloon", the Capri, which was designed and priced to compete with ordinary family saloon cars from its launch in 1969, and remained in production until 1986, with two facelifts during the 1970s. General Motors, which built Vauxhall cars in Britain and Opel cars in West Germany, took a similar approach and instead launched coupe models of cars like the Vauxhall Cavalier and Opel Kadett, also producing a four-seater coupe - the Opel Manta - to rival the MG B and Ford Capri. American


title: "Sports car" content: and Japanese carmakers also enjoyed global success with sports cars during the 1960s and 1970s - notable success including the Chevrolet Corvette and Ford Mustang from the States, and Datsun 240Z/260Z and Toyota Celica from Japan. Lotus, the British carmaker which specialised in mostly two-seater sports cars, enjoyed strong sales and cult status during the 1960s and 1970s with cars like the Elan, Eclat and Esprit. Porsche expanded its range of sports cars during the 1970s with the entry-level 924 (a four-cylinder hatchback coupe) in 1976 and the 928 a year later. The 928 was intended to eventually replace the


title: "Sports car" content: 911, but such was the popularity of the 911 that Porsche decided to keep it in production and update it, although the 928 continued into the 1990s. The 924 lasted until 1987, by which time it had been joined by the more powerful 944 - which featured the same basic design. This in turn became the 968 with a restyle in 1991. The company had joined forces in 1969 with Volkswagen to develop a two-seater sports model (available as a coupe or soft top) which was known as the VW-Porsche 914; however, the venture was not successful and the car


title: "Sports car" content: was discontinued in 1976. Despite the demise of sports cars from the likes of MG and Triumph at the beginning of the 1980s, a number of carmakers decided to continue producing cars for this sector of the market. Audi launched the front-wheel drive four-seater Coupe and the four-wheel drive version - the Audi Quattro - in 1980. The Coupe was replaced by a refreshed model in 1988, while the Quattro was replaced two years later. Production of the second generation Coupe/Quattro models ceased in 1995, but Audi returned to the sports car market in 1998 when it unveiled the TT


title: "Sports car" content: coupe and roadster. BMW made a comeback into the sports car sector in 1986 when it was launched the Z1 roadster, but this car was not a strong seller and was discontinued after five years. Its successor, the BMW Z3, unveiled in 1995, was far more successful. Honda had launched the Prelude 2+2 coupe in the late 1970s, and after a slow start for the first generation model, sales increased rapidly following the launch of the second generation model in 1982. In 1990, Honda moved into the supercar market with the NSX, a two-seater mid engined coupe to rival the


title: "Sports car" content: supercars from the likes of Ferrari. Jaguar had replaced the E-Type with the Jaguar XJS in 1975; this model lasted for 21 years in coupe and later soft top form before being replaced by the XK8 in 1996. Ford withdrew from the sports car market at the end of 1986 when the Capri was discontinued after a production run of nearly two decades. There was no direct successor, as Ford Europe was concentrating on higher performance versions of its hatchback and saloon models at the time, but in 1994 Ford made a comeback to this market sector with the American-built


title: "Sports car" content: Probe. However, the Probe was not a strong seller, and was withdrawn from Europe after just three years, having fallen well short of sales targets. In 1997, Ford launched the Puma, a compact 2+2 coupe. Despite selling well, it was withdrawn from production five years later without a replacement. The Probe's replacement, the Cougar (also American-built), was launched in 1998 but withdrawn from Europe after just two years on sale. Lotus built on its successes of the 1960s and 1970s by replacing the Eclat with the Excel in 1983, while the Esprit was drastically restyled in 1987. In 1989, it


title: "Sports car" content: revived the Elan nameplate after an 18-year hiatus on a new two-seater front-wheel drive roadster. However, sales slumped shortly after its much-anticipated launch as a result of the recession and a lack of interest from American buyers, and it was withdrawn from production after just three years; although production was briefly revived soon afterwards under Bugatti ownership. The Elan's successor, the Elise, was launched in 1996 and was more successful. Mazda patented the rotary engine on a succession of cars during the 1970s and 1980s, and most notably succeeded in this format with the Mazda RX-7, a high performance sports


title: "Sports car" content: car available as a coupe or convertible. The first generation model debuted in 1978, but it was the third generation model - launched in 1991 - which was the most successful and highly acclaimed. However, declining popularity meant that it was only sold in its native Japan in the years leading up to its demise in 2002. Mazda had more success globally with the Mazda MX-5 (Miata/Eunos), a small two-seater roadster which was launched in 1989 and has been updated several times since. Two 2+2 coupes, the Mazda MX-3 and Mazda MX-6, were launched in 1991, but were not strong


title: "Sports car" content: sellers and were both discontinued within a few years. Despite the demise of the MG B in 1980, the MG brand survived throughout the decade on higher performance versions of Austin Rover hatchbacks and saloons, but re-appeared in 1992 on the MG RV8 - a restyled version of the MG B. The marque enjoyed a more significant rebirth in 1995 when the MG F - a two-seater mid-engined roadster - was launched, and proved extremely popular. It was updated in 2002 to become the MG TF, and despite the collapse of MG Rover in 2005, it enjoyed a brief revival


title: "Sports car" content: from 2008 under Chinese ownership. Mitsubishi launched its Starion 2+2 coupe in 1982, pitching it against the likes of the Audi Quattro and Porsche 944, and it sold well until it was replaced by the Mitsubishi 3000GT in 1990. Other Mitsubishi sports models, including the Eclipse, were mainly sold only in Japan and the States. Nissan persisted with its range of high performance "Z Cars" during the 1980s, with the original 300ZX in 1983, replacing it in 1989 with a second generation model featuring four-wheel steering. This model lasted until 1996, mainly being sold only in Japan after 1994, and


title: "Sports car" content: with its demise the Nissan Z-Car line was temporarily put on hold. A smaller, less powerful and less expensive coupe, the Silvia, debuted in 1984 and was replaced at the end of the decade by two different models - the new Silvia and the 200SX, with different markets getting one model and others getting the other. The two designs were replaced by a single model in 1993. Porsche continued to develop the iconic 911 during the 1990s, while the 968 (which could be traced back to the 924 of 1976) and 928 were both discontinued halfway through the decade. Porsche


title: "Sports car" content: then filled in the gap at the bottom of its range with the Boxster - a two-seater roadster which featured similar styling to the 911 but was less powerful and less expensive. The range expanded in 1999 with the launch of the more powerful Boxster S. Toyota, having already enjoyed success with its Celica 2+2 coupe, expanded further into the sports car market during the 1980s. The Celica had been developed into a higher performance model - the Celica Supra - which became a separate range in its own right when a new model was launched in 1986, and the


title: "Sports car" content: company moved into the market for two-seater sports cars in 1984 with its MR2, a mid-engined targa-top coupe which proved hugely successful. It was replaced by an all-new model in 1989, which was in production for 11 years until it made way for a new two-seater roadster of the same name at the turn of the year 2000. The Celica continued until 2006, and the MR2 was discontinued a year later; neither model was directly replaced. The Supra lasted until 2002, also without a direct successor, having largely been sold only in its native Japan during its final years. TVR,


title: "Sports car" content: the British maker of sports cars since 1947, reached its apex during the 1990s with models including the Griffith and Cerbera. The Alfa Romeo GTV coupe had been discontinued in 1987. In 1995 Alfa Romeo revived a two-seater sports car, which was mechanically identical to the 2+2 GTV coupe. The Audi TT was launched in 1998, and replaced by an all-new model in 2005. BMW's Z3, launched in 1995, was joined with a coupe model in 1998. Its successor, the Z4, was produced from 2002 until 2016. Fiat had returned to the sports car market during the mid 1990s with


title: "Sports car" content: the 2+2 Fiat Coupe, and also with the Barchetta two-seater roadster. Honda discontinued the Prelude in 2000 after more than 20 years and five generations. The NSX remained in production for 15 years until its demise in 2005. Lotus launched a new version of the Elise in 2001, with an all-new model in 2011. The Esprit continued until 2005. It was effectively replaced the following year by the Europa S and it was discontinued in four years. Having acquired Qvale of Italy in 2001, MG Rover set about developing its own supercar on the Qvale Mangusta floorpan. The result was


title: "Sports car" content: the MG XPower SV, a high performance two-door coupe. A total of 82 examples were reportedly produced and in two years, MG Rover went into liquidation. General Motors moved into the sports car market in 2000 with the Vauxhall VX220/Opel Speedster, a two-seater roadster based on the Lotus Elise chassis. It was discontinued five years later. In 2006, TVR closed its Blackpool factory, two years after coming under Russian ownership. Sports car A sports car, or sportscar, is a small, usually two-seater automobile designed for spirited performance and nimble handling. The term "sports car" was used in "The Times", London


title: Osprey content: Osprey The osprey or more specifically the western osprey ("Pandion haliaetus") — also called sea hawk, river hawk, and fish hawk — is a diurnal, fish-eating bird of prey with a cosmopolitan range. It is a large raptor, reaching more than in length and across the wings. It is brown on the upperparts and predominantly greyish on the head and underparts. The osprey tolerates a wide variety of habitats, nesting in any location near a body of water providing an adequate food supply. It is found on all continents except Antarctica, although in South America it occurs only as a


title: Osprey content: non-breeding migrant. As its other common names suggest, the osprey's diet consists almost exclusively of fish. It possesses specialised physical characteristics and exhibits unique behaviour to assist in hunting and catching prey. As a result of these unique characteristics, it has been given its own taxonomic genus, "Pandion" and family, Pandionidae. Three subspecies are usually recognized; one of the former subspecies, "cristatus", has recently been given full species status and is referred to as the eastern osprey. The osprey was one of the many species described by Carl Linnaeus in his 18th-century work, "Systema Naturae", and named as "Falco haliaeetus".


title: Osprey content: The genus, "Pandion", is the sole member of the family Pandionidae, and used to contain only one species, the osprey ("P. haliaetus"). The genus "Pandion" was described by the French zoologist Marie Jules César Savigny in 1809. Most taxonomic authorities consider the species cosmopolitan and conspecific. A few authorities split the osprey into two species, the western osprey and the eastern osprey. The osprey differs in several respects from other diurnal birds of prey. Its toes are of equal length, its tarsi are reticulate, and its talons are rounded, rather than grooved. The osprey and owls are the only raptors


title: Osprey content: whose outer toe is reversible, allowing them to grasp their prey with two toes in front and two behind. This is particularly helpful when they grab slippery fish. It has always presented something of a riddle to taxonomists, but here it is treated as the sole living member of the family Pandionidae, and the family listed in its traditional place as part of the order Falconiformes. Other schemes place it alongside the hawks and eagles in the family Accipitridae—which itself can be regarded as making up the bulk of the order Accipitriformes or else be lumped with the Falconidae into


title: Osprey content: Falconiformes. The Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy has placed it together with the other diurnal raptors in a greatly enlarged Ciconiiformes, but this results in an unnatural paraphyletic classification. The osprey is unusual in that it is a single living species that occurs nearly worldwide. Even the few subspecies are not unequivocally separable. There are four generally recognised subspecies, although differences are small, and ITIS lists only the first two. To date there have been two extinct species named from the fossil record. "Pandion homalopteron" was named by Stuart L. Warter in 1976 from fossils of Middle Miocene, Barstovian age, found in marine


title: Osprey content: deposits in the southern part of California. The second named species "Pandion lovensis", was described in 1985 by Jonathan J. Becker from fossils found in Florida and dating to the latest Clarendonian and possibly representing a separate lineage from that of "P. homalopteron" and "P. haliaetus". A number of claw fossils have been recovered from Pliocene and Pleistocene sediments in Florida and South Carolina. The oldest recognized family Pandionidae fossils have been recovered from the Oligocene age Jebel Qatrani Formation, of Faiyum, Egypt. However they are not complete enough to assign to a specific genus. Another Pandionidae claw fossil was


title: Osprey content: recovered from Early Oligocene deposits in the Mainz basin, Germany, and was described in 2006 by Gerald Mayr. The genus name "Pandion" derives from the mythical Greek king of Athens and grandfather of Theseus, Pandion II. Although Pandion II was not used to name a bird of prey, Nisus, a king of Megara, was used for the genus. The species name "haliaetus" comes from Ancient Greek "haliaietos" from "hali-" , "sea-" and "aetos" , "eagle". The origins of "osprey" are obscure; the word itself was first recorded around 1460, derived via the Anglo-French "ospriet" and the Medieval Latin "avis prede"


title: Osprey content: "bird of prey," from the Latin "avis praedæ" though the Oxford English Dictionary notes a connection with the Latin "ossifraga" or "bone breaker" of Pliny the Elder. However, this term referred to the Lämmergeier. The osprey is in weight and in length with a wingspan. It is, thus, of similar size to the largest members of the "Buteo" or "Falco" genera. The subspecies are fairly close in size, with the nominate subspecies averaging , "P. h. carolinensis" averaging and "P. h. cristatus" averaging . The wing chord measures , the tail measures and the tarsus is . The upperparts are


title: Osprey content: a deep, glossy brown, while the breast is white and sometimes streaked with brown, and the underparts are pure white. The head is white with a dark mask across the eyes, reaching to the sides of the neck. The irises of the eyes are golden to brown, and the transparent nictitating membrane is pale blue. The bill is black, with a blue cere, and the feet are white with black talons. A short tail and long, narrow wings with four long, finger-like feathers, and a shorter fifth, give it a very distinctive appearance. The sexes appear fairly similar, but the


title: Osprey content: adult male can be distinguished from the female by its slimmer body and narrower wings. The breast band of the male is also weaker than that of the female, or is non-existent, and the underwing coverts of the male are more uniformly pale. It is straightforward to determine the sex in a breeding pair, but harder with individual birds. The juvenile osprey may be identified by buff fringes to the plumage of the upperparts, a buff tone to the underparts, and streaked feathers on the head. During spring, barring on the underwings and flight feathers is a better indicator of


title: Osprey content: a young bird, due to wear on the upperparts. In flight, the osprey has arched wings and drooping "hands", giving it a gull-like appearance. The call is a series of sharp whistles, described as "cheep, cheep" or "yewk, yewk". If disturbed by activity near the nest, the call is a frenzied "cheereek"! One of only six land-birds with a cosmopolitan distribution. The osprey is the second most widely distributed raptor species, after the peregrine falcon. It has a worldwide distribution and is found in temperate and tropical regions of all continents except Antarctica. In North America it breeds from Alaska


title: Osprey content: and Newfoundland south to the Gulf Coast and Florida, wintering further south from the southern United States through to Argentina. It is found in summer throughout Europe north into Ireland, Scandinavia, Finland and Scotland, England, and Wales though not Iceland, and winters in North Africa. In Australia it is mainly sedentary and found patchily around the coastline, though it is a non-breeding visitor to eastern Victoria and Tasmania. There is a gap, corresponding with the coast of the Nullarbor Plain, between its westernmost breeding site in South Australia and the nearest breeding sites to the west in Western Australia. In


title: Osprey content: the islands of the Pacific it is found in the Bismarck Islands, Solomon Islands and New Caledonia, and fossil remains of adults and juveniles have been found in Tonga, where it probably was wiped out by arriving humans. It is possible it may once have ranged across Vanuatu and Fiji as well. It is an uncommon to fairly common winter visitor to all parts of South Asia, and Southeast Asia from Myanmar through to Indochina and southern China, Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines. The worldwide distribution of the species is unusual for land based birds, and only recognised in five


title: Osprey content: other species. Fish make up 99% of the osprey's diet. It typically takes fish weighing and about in length, but the weight can range from to . Virtually any type of fish in that size range are taken. Ospreys have vision that is well adapted to detecting underwater objects from the air. Prey is first sighted when the osprey is above the water, after which the bird hovers momentarily then plunges feet first into the water. Occasionally, the osprey may prey on rodents, rabbits, hares, amphibians, other birds, and small reptiles. The osprey has several adaptations that suit its piscivorous


title: Osprey content: lifestyle : The osprey breeds near freshwater lakes and rivers, and sometimes on coastal brackish waters. Rocky outcrops just offshore are used in Rottnest Island off the coast of Western Australia, where there are 14 or so similar nesting sites of which five to seven are used in any one year. Many are renovated each season, and some have been used for 70 years. The nest is a large heap of sticks, driftwood, turf or seaweed built in forks of trees, rocky outcrops, utility poles, artificial platforms or offshore islets. As wide as 2 meters and weighing about 135 kg,


title: Osprey content: large nests on utility poles may be fire hazards and have caused power outages. Generally, ospreys reach sexual maturity and begin breeding around the age of three to four, though in some regions with high osprey densities, such as Chesapeake Bay in the U.S., they may not start breeding until five to seven years old, and there may be a shortage of suitable tall structures. If there are no nesting sites available, young ospreys may be forced to delay breeding. To ease this problem, posts are sometimes erected to provide more sites suitable for nest building. In some regions ospreys


title: Osprey content: prefer transmission towers as nesting sites, e.g. in East Germany. The platform design developed by one organization, Citizens United to Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries, Inc. has become the official design of the State of New Jersey, U.S. The platform plans and materials list, available online, have been utilized by people from a number of different geographical regions. Osprey-watch.org is the global site for mapping osprey nest locations and logging observations on reproductive success. Ospreys usually mate for life. Rarely, polyandry has been recorded. The breeding season varies according to latitude; spring (September–October) in southern Australia, April to


title: Osprey content: July in northern Australia and winter (June–August) in southern Queensland. In spring the pair begins a five-month period of partnership to raise their young. The female lays two to four eggs within a month, and relies on the size of the nest to conserve heat. The eggs are whitish with bold splotches of reddish-brown and are about and weigh about . The eggs are incubated for about 35–43 days to hatching. The newly hatched chicks weigh only , but fledge in 8–10 weeks. A study on Kangaroo Island, South Australia, had an average time between hatching and fledging of 69


title: Osprey content: days. The same study found an average of 0.66 young fledged per year per occupied territory, and 0.92 young fledged per year per active nest. Some 22% of surviving young either remained on the island or returned at maturity to join the breeding population. When food is scarce, the first chicks to hatch are most likely to survive. The typical lifespan is 7–10 years, though rarely individuals can grow to as old as 20–25 years. The oldest European wild osprey on record lived to be over thirty years of age. In North America, great horned owls ("Bubo virginianus"), golden eagles


title: Osprey content: ("Aquila chrysaetos"), and bald eagles ("Haliaeetus leucocephalus") are the only major predators of ospreys, capable of taking both nestlings and adults. However, kleptoparasitism by bald eagles, where the larger raptor steals the osprey's catch, is more common than predation. The white-tailed eagle ("Haliaeetus albicilla"), which is very similar to the bald eagle, may harass or prey on the osprey in Eurasia. Raccoons ("Procyon lotor") can be a serious threat to nestlings or eggs if they can access the nest. Endoparasitic trematodes ("Scaphanocephalus expansus" and "Neodiplostomum" spp.) have been recorded in wild ospreys. European breeders winter in Africa. American and Canadian


title: Osprey content: breeders winter in South America, although some stay in the southernmost U.S. states such as Florida and California. Some ospreys from Florida migrate to South America. Australasian ospreys tend not to migrate. Studies of Swedish ospreys showed that females tend to migrate to Africa earlier than the males. More stopovers are made during their autumn migration. The variation of timing and duration in autumn was more variable than in spring. Although migrating predominantly in the day, they sometimes fly in the dark hours particularly in crossings over water and cover on average per day with a maximum of per day.


title: Osprey content: European birds may also winter in South Asia, indicated by an osprey tagged in Norway being monitored in western India. Swedish ospreys have a significantly higher mortality rate during migration seasons than during stationary periods, with more than half of the total annual mortality occurring during migration. These deaths can also be categorized into spatial patterns: Spring mortality occurs mainly in Africa, which can be traced to crossing the Sahara desert. Mortality can also occur through mishaps with human utilities, such as nesting near electrical wiring or collisions with aircraft. The osprey has a large range, covering in just Africa


title: Osprey content: and the Americas, and has a large global population estimated at 460,000 individuals. Although global population trends have not been quantified, the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e., declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations), and for these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern. There is evidence for regional decline in South Australia where former territories at locations in the Spencer Gulf and along the lower Murray River have been vacant for decades. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the


title: Osprey content: main threats to osprey populations were egg collectors and hunting of the adults along with other birds of prey, but osprey populations declined drastically in many areas in the 1950s and 1960s; this appeared to be in part due to the toxic effects of insecticides such as DDT on reproduction. The pesticide interfered with the bird's calcium metabolism which resulted in thin-shelled, easily broken or infertile eggs. Possibly because of the banning of DDT in many countries in the early 1970s, together with reduced persecution, the osprey, as well as other affected bird of prey species, have made significant recoveries.


title: Osprey content: In South Australia, nesting sites on the Eyre Peninsula and Kangaroo Island are vulnerable to unmanaged coastal recreation and encroaching urban development. The Roman writer Pliny the Elder reported that parent ospreys made their young fly up to the sun as a test, and dispatched any that failed. Another odd legend regarding this fish-eating bird of prey, derived from the writings of Albertus Magnus and recorded in Holinshed's "Chronicles", was that it had one webbed foot and one taloned foot. There was a medieval belief that fish were so mesmerised by the osprey that they turned belly-up in surrender, and


title: Osprey content: this is referenced by Shakespeare in Act 4 Scene 5 of "Coriolanus": I think he'll be to Rome
 As is the osprey to the fish, who takes it
 By sovereignty of nature. In Buddhism, the osprey is sometimes represented as the "King of Birds", especially in " 'The Jātaka: Or, Stories of the Buddha’s Former Births' ", no. 486. The osprey is mentioned in the famous Chinese folk poem "guan guan ju jiu" (關關雎鳩); "ju jiu" 雎鳩 refers to the osprey, and "guan guan" (關關) to its voice. In the poem, the osprey is considered to be an icon of


title: Osprey content: fidelity and harmony between wife and husband, due to its highly monogamous habits. Some commentators have claimed that "ju jiu" in the poem is not the osprey but the mallard duck, since the osprey cannot make the sound "guan guan". So-called "osprey" plumes were an important item in the plume trade of the late 19th century and used in hats including those used as part of the army uniform. Despite their name, these plumes were actually obtained from egrets. The Irish poet William Butler Yeats used a grey wandering osprey as a representation of sorrow in "The Wanderings of Oisin


title: Osprey content: and Other Poems" (1889). In heraldry, the osprey is typically depicted as a white eagle, often maintaining a fish in its talons or beak, and termed a "sea-eagle." It is historically regarded as a symbol of vision and abundance; more recently it has become a symbol of positive responses to nature, and has been featured on more than 50 international postage stamps. The cap badge of Rhodesia's Selous Scouts (1973-1980) was a stylized osprey. In 1994, the osprey was declared the provincial bird of Nova Scotia, Canada. It is also the official bird of Södermanland, Sweden. The osprey is used


title: Osprey content: as a brand name for various products and sports teams. Examples include: the Ospreys (a Welsh Rugby team); the Richard Stockton College Ospreys (a NCAA Division III intercollegiate athletics team of the U.S. State of New Jersey); the first college in the nation (and the only one for many years) to adopt the osprey as its mascot and athletic team name, North Florida Ospreys (a NCAA Division I intercollegiate athletics team), the Missoula Osprey (a minor league baseball team); the Seattle Seahawks (an American football team of the National Football League); the Wagner Seahawks (a NCAA Division I intercollegiate athletics


title: Osprey content: team); the Cold Spring Harbor Seahawks (a High school football team in Cold Spring Harbor, New York); the Peninsula High School Seahawks (a High School Football Team in Gig Harbor, Washington); and the St. Mary's College of Maryland Seahawks (a NCAA Division III intercollegiate athletics team). Examples of the osprey used as a mascot include: Ozzie Osprey (of the University of North Florida); Talon the Osprey of New Jersey's Stockton University; Sammy the Seahawk (of University of North Carolina Wilmington); the Wells International Seahawks (of Bangkok, Thailand); the Salve Regina Seahawks (of Newport, Rhode Island); the LA Harbor College Seahawks


title: Osprey content: (of South Bay); and Rowdy the Riverhawk (of the University of Massachusetts Lowell). Osprey The osprey or more specifically the western osprey ("Pandion haliaetus") — also called sea hawk, river hawk, and fish hawk — is a diurnal, fish-eating bird of prey with a cosmopolitan range. It is a large raptor, reaching more than in length and across the wings. It is brown on the upperparts and predominantly greyish on the head and underparts. The osprey tolerates a wide variety of habitats, nesting in any location near a body of water providing an adequate food supply. It is found on


title: "Eurocopter HH-65 Dolphin" content: circular housing at the base of the helicopter's tail fin. Certified for single-pilot instrument flight rules (IFR) operation, the HH-65A was the first helicopter certified with a four-axis autopilot, allowing for hands-off hover over a pre-determined location. The Dolphin is primarily a Short Range Recovery (SRR) aircraft. There are now a total of 102 Dolphins in the Coast Guard Fleet. The fleet has home ports in 17 cities on the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, Hawaii, and the Great Lakes region. The Dolphin is usually deployed from shore but it can be deployed from medium and high endurance


title: Ambulance content: Ambulance An ambulance is a vehicle which can transport medical patients to treatment, and in some instances will also provide out-of-hospital medical care to the patient. Ambulances are used to respond to medical emergencies by the emergency medical services. For this purpose, they are generally equipped with flashing warning lights and sirens. They can rapidly transport paramedics and other responders to the scene, carry equipment for administering emergency care and transport patients to hospital or other definitive care. Most ambulances use a design based on vans or pick-up trucks. Others take the form of motorcycles, cars, buses, aircraft and boats


title: Ambulance content: (see below: Vehicle types). Generally, vehicles count as an ambulance if they can transport patients. However, it varies by jurisdiction as to whether a non-emergency patient transport vehicle (also called an ambulette) is counted as an ambulance. These vehicles are not usually (although there are exceptions) equipped with life-support equipment, and are usually crewed by staff with fewer qualifications than the crew of emergency ambulances. Conversely, EMS agencies may also have emergency response vehicles that cannot transport patients. These are known by names such as nontransporting EMS vehicles, fly-cars or response vehicles. The term "ambulance" comes from the Latin word


title: Ambulance content: ""ambulare"" as meaning "to walk or move about" which is a reference to early medical care where patients were moved by lifting or wheeling. The word originally meant a moving hospital, which follows an army in its movements. Ambulances (Ambulancias in Spanish) were first used for emergency transport in 1487 by the Spanish forces during the siege of Málaga by the Catholic Monarchs against the Emirate of Granada. During the American Civil War vehicles for conveying the wounded off the field of battle were called ambulance wagons. Field hospitals were still called ambulances during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 and


title: Ambulance content: in the Serbo-Turkish war of 1876 even though the wagons were first referred to as ambulances about 1854 during the Crimean War. The history of the ambulance begins in ancient times, with the use of carts to transport incurable patients by force. Ambulances were first used for emergency transport in 1487 by the Spanish, and civilian variants were put into operation during the 1830s. Advances in technology throughout the 19th and 20th centuries led to the modern self-powered ambulances. Ambulances can be grouped into types depending on whether or not they transport patients, and under what conditions. In some cases,


title: Ambulance content: ambulances may fulfil more than one function (such as combining emergency ambulance care with patient transport In the US, there are four types of ambulances. There are Type I, Type II, Type III and Type IV. Type I is based upon a heavy truck chassis and is used primarily for Advanced Life Support and rescue work. Type II is a van based ambulance with few modifications except for a raised roof and is used for basic life support and transfer of patients. Type III is a van chassis but with a custom-made rear compartment and has the same uses as


title: Ambulance content: Type I ambulances. Type IV is for smaller ad hoc patient transfer that use smaller utility vehicles in which passenger vehicles and trucks would have difficulty in traversing, such as large industrial complexes, commercial venues, and special events with large crowds; they generally do not fall under Federal Regulations. Ambulances can be based on many types of vehicle although emergency and disaster conditions may lead to other vehicles serving as makeshift ambulances: Ambulance design must take into account local conditions and infrastructure. Maintained roads are necessary for road going ambulances to arrive on scene and then transport the patient to


title: Ambulance content: a hospital, though in rugged areas four-wheel drive or all-terrain vehicles can be used. Fuel must be available and service facilities are necessary to maintain the vehicle. Methods of summoning (e.g. telephone) and dispatching ambulances usually rely on electronic equipment, which itself often relies on an intact power grid. Similarly, modern ambulances are equipped with two-way radios or cellular telephones to enable them to contact hospitals, either to notify the appropriate hospital of the ambulance's pending arrival, or, in cases where physicians do not form part of the ambulance's crew, to confer with a physician for medical oversight. Ambulances often


title: Ambulance content: have two manufacturers. The first is frequently a manufacturer of light or medium trucks or full-size vans (or in some places, cars) such as Mercedes-Benz, Nissan, Toyota, or Ford. The second manufacturer (known as second stage manufacturer) purchases the vehicle (which is sometimes purchased incomplete, having no body or interior behind the driver's seat) and turns it into an ambulance by adding bodywork, emergency vehicle equipment, and interior fittings. This is done by one of two methods – either coachbuilding, where the modifications are started from scratch and built on to the vehicle, or using a modular system, where a


title: Ambulance content: pre-built 'box' is put on to the empty chassis of the ambulance, and then finished off. Modern ambulances are typically powered by internal combustion engines, which can be powered by any conventional fuel, including diesel, gasoline or liquefied petroleum gas, depending on the preference of the operator and the availability of different options. Colder regions often use gasoline-powered engines, as diesels can be difficult to start when they are cold. Warmer regions may favor diesel engines, as they are thought to be more efficient and more durable. Diesel power is sometimes chosen due to safety concerns, after a series of


title: Ambulance content: fires involving gasoline-powered ambulances during the 1980s. These fires were ultimately attributed in part to gasoline's higher volatility in comparison to diesel fuel. The type of engine may be determined by the manufacturer: in the past two decades, Ford would only sell vehicles for ambulance conversion if they are diesel-powered. Beginning in 2010, Ford will sell its ambulance chassis with a gasoline engine in order to meet emissions requirements. Many regions have prescribed standards which ambulances should, or must, meet in order to be used for their role. These standards may have different levels which reflect the type of patient


title: Ambulance content: which the ambulance is expected to transport (for instance specifying a different standard for routine patient transport than high dependency), or may base standards on the size of vehicle. For instance, in Europe, the European Committee for Standardization publishes the standard CEN 1789, which specifies minimum compliance levels across the build of ambulance, including crash resistance, equipment levels, and exterior marking. In the United States, standards for ambulance design have existed since 1976, where the standard is published by the General Services Administration and known as KKK-1822-A. This standard has been revised several times, and is currently in version 'F'


title: Ambulance content: change #10, known as KKK-A-1822F, although not all states have adopted this version. The National Fire Protection Association has also published a design standard, NFPA 1917, which some administrations are considering switching to if KKK-A-1822F is withdrawn.. The Commission on Accreditation of Ambulance Services (CAAS) has published its Ground Vehicle Standard for Ambulances effective July 2016. This standard is similar to the KKK-A-1822F and NFPA 1917-2016 specifications. The move towards standardisation is now reaching countries without a history of prescriptive codes, such as India, which approved its first national standard for ambulance construction in 2013. Ambulances, like other emergency vehicles,


title: Ambulance content: are required to operate in most weather conditions, including those during which civilian drivers often elect to stay off the road. Also, the ambulance crew's responsibilities to their patient often preclude their use of safety devices such as seat belts. Research has shown that ambulances are more likely to be involved in motor vehicle collisions resulting in injury or death than either fire trucks or police cars. Unrestrained occupants, particularly those riding in the patient-care compartment, are particularly vulnerable. When compared to civilian vehicles of similar size, one study found that on a per-accident basis, ambulance collisions tend to involve


title: Ambulance content: more people, and result in more injuries. An 11-year retrospective study concluded in 2001 found that although most fatal ambulance crashes in the United States occurred during emergency runs, they typically occurred on improved, straight, dry roads, during clear weather. Furthermore, paramedics are also at risk in ambulances while helping patients, as 27 paramedics died during ambulance trips in the US between 1991 and 2006. In addition to the equipment directly used for the treatment of patients, ambulances may be fitted with a range of additional equipment which is used in order to facilitate patient care. This could include: In


title: Ambulance content: parts of the world which lack a high level of infrastructure, ambulances are designed to meet local conditions, being built using intermediate technology. Ambulances can also be trailers, which are pulled by bicycles, motorcycles, tractors, or animals. Animal-powered ambulances can be particularly useful in regions that are subject to flooding. Motorcycles fitted with sidecars (or motorcycle ambulances) are also used, though they are subject to some of the same limitations as more traditional over-the-road ambulances. The level of care provided by these ambulances varies between merely providing transport to a medical clinic to providing on-scene and continuing care during transport.


title: Ambulance content: The design of intermediate technology ambulances must take into account not only the operation and maintenance of the ambulance, but its construction as well. The robustness of the design becomes more important, as does the nature of the skills required to properly operate the vehicle. Cost-effectiveness can be a high priority. Emergency ambulances are highly likely to be involved in hazardous situations, including incidents such as a road traffic collision, as these emergencies create people who are likely to be in need of treatment. They are required to gain access to patients as quickly as possible, and in many countries,


title: Ambulance content: are given dispensation from obeying certain traffic laws. For instance, they may be able to treat a red traffic light or stop sign as a yield sign ('give way'), or be permitted to break the speed limit. Generally, the priority of the response to the call will be assigned by the dispatcher, but the priority of the return will be decided by the ambulance crew based on the severity of the patient's illness or injury. Patients in significant danger to life and limb (as determined by triage) require urgent treatment by advanced medical personnel, and because of this need, emergency


title: Ambulance content: ambulances are often fitted with passive and active visual and/or audible warnings to alert road users. The passive visual warnings are usually part of the design of the vehicle, and involve the use of high contrast patterns. Older ambulances (and those in developing countries) are more likely to have their pattern painted on, whereas modern ambulances generally carry retro-reflective designs, which reflects light from car headlights or torches. Popular patterns include 'checker board' (alternate coloured squares, sometimes called 'Battenburg', named after a type of cake), chevrons (arrowheads – often pointed towards the front of the vehicle if on the side,


title: Ambulance content: or pointing vertically upwards on the rear) or stripes along the side (these were the first type of retro-reflective device introduced, as the original reflective material, invented by 3M, only came in tape form). In addition to retro-reflective markings, some services now have the vehicles painted in a bright (sometimes fluorescent) yellow or orange for maximum visual impact, though classic white or red are also common. Fire department-operated ambulances are often painted red to match the fire apparatuses. Another passive marking form is the word "ambulance" (or local language variant) spelled out in reverse on the front of the vehicle.


title: Ambulance content: This enables drivers of other vehicles to more easily identify an approaching ambulance in their rear view mirrors. Ambulances may display the name of their owner or operator, and an emergency telephone number for the ambulance service. Ambulances may also carry an emblem (either as part of the passive warning markings or not), such as a Red Cross, Red Crescent or Red Crystal (collective known as the Protective Symbols). These are symbols laid down by the Geneva Convention, and all countries signatory to it agree to restrict their use to either (1) Military Ambulances or (2) the national Red Cross


title: Ambulance content: or Red Crescent society. Use by any other person, organization or agency is in breach of international law. The protective symbols are designed to indicate to all people (especially combatants in the case of war) that the vehicle is neutral and is not to be fired upon, hence giving protection to the medics and their casualties, although this has not always been adhered to. In Israel, Magen David Adom, the Red Cross member organization use a red Star of David, but this does not have recognition beyond Israeli borders, where they must use the Red Crystal. The Star of Life


title: Ambulance content: is widely used, and was originally designed and governed by the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, because the Red Cross symbol is legally protected by both National and international law Ambulance services that have historical origins such as the Order of St John, the Order of Malta Ambulance Corps and Malteser International often use the Maltese cross to identify their ambulances. This is especially important in countries such as Australia, where St. John Ambulance operate one state and one territory ambulance service, and all of Australia's other ambulance services use variations on a red Maltese cross. Fire service operated


title: Ambulance content: ambulances may display the Cross of St. Florian (often incorrectly called a Maltese cross) as this cross is frequently used as a fire department logo (St. Florian being the patron saint of firefighters). The active visual warnings are usually in the form of flashing lights. These flash in order to attract the attention of other road users as the ambulance approaches, or to provide warning to motorists approaching a stopped ambulance in a dangerous position on the road. Common colours for ambulance warning beacons are blue, red, amber, and white (clear). However the colours may vary by country and sometimes


title: Ambulance content: by operator. There are several technologies in use to achieve the flashing effect. These include flashing a light bulb or LED, flashing or rotating halogen, and strobe lights, which are usually brighter than incandescent lights. Each of these can be programmed to flash singly or in groups, and can be programmed to flash in patterns (such as a left -> right pattern for use when the ambulance is parked on the left hand side of the road, indicating to other road users that they should move to the right (away from the ambulance)). Incandescent and LED lights may also be


title: Ambulance content: programmed to burn steadily, without flashing, which is required in some provinces. Emergency lights may simply be mounted directly on the body, or may be housed in special fittings, such as in a lightbar or in special flush-mount designs (as seen on the Danish ambulance to the right), or may be hidden in a host light (such as a headlamp) by drilling a hole in the host light's reflector and inserting the emergency light. These hidden lights may not be apparent until they are activated. Additionally, some of the standard lights fitted to an ambulance (e.g. headlamps, tail lamps) may


title: Ambulance content: be programmed to flash. Flashing headlights (typically the high beams, flashed alternately) are known as a wig-wag. Additional white lights may be placed strategically around the vehicle to illuminate the area around it when it is dark, almost always at the rear for loading and unloading stretchers and often at the sides as well. In areas very far North or South where there are times of year with long periods of darkness, additional driving lights at the front are often fitted as well to increase visibility for the driver. In order to increase safety, it is best practice to have


title: Ambulance content: 360° coverage with the active warnings, improving the chance of the vehicle being seen from all sides. In some countries, such as the United States, this may be mandatory. The roof, front grille, sides and rear of the body, and front fenders are common places to mount emergency lights. A certain balance must be made when deciding on the number and location of lights: too few and the ambulance may not be noticed easily, too many and it becomes a massive distraction for other road users more than it is already, increasing the risk of local accidents. See also Emergency


title: Ambulance content: vehicle equipment. In addition to visual warnings, ambulances can be fitted with audible warnings, sometimes known as sirens, which can alert people and vehicles to the presence of an ambulance before they can be seen. The first audible warnings were mechanical bells, mounted to either the front or roof of the ambulance. Most modern ambulances are now fitted with electronic sirens, producing a range of different noises which ambulance operators can use to attract more attention to themselves, particularly when proceeding through an intersection or in heavy traffic. The speakers for modern sirens can be integral to the lightbar, or


title: Ambulance content: they may be hidden in or flush to the grill to reduce noise inside the ambulance that may interfere with patient care and radio communications. Ambulances can additionally be fitted with airhorn audible warnings to augment the effectiveness of the siren system, or may be fitted with extremely loud two-tone airhorns as their primary siren. A recent development is the use of the RDS system of car radios. The ambulance is fitted with a short range FM transmitter, set to RDS code 31, which interrupts the radio of all cars within range, in the manner of a traffic broadcast, but


title: Ambulance content: in such a way that the user of the receiving radio is unable to opt out of the message (as with traffic broadcasts). This feature is built into every RDS radio for use in national emergency broadcast systems, but short range units on emergency vehicles can prove an effective means of alerting traffic to their presence. It is, however, unlikely that this system could replace audible warnings, as it is unable to alert pedestrians, those not using a compatible radio or even have it turned off. The cost of an ambulance ride may be paid for from several sources, and


title: Ambulance content: this will depend on the type of service being provided, by whom, and possibly who to. There are differing levels of qualification that the ambulance crew may hold, from holding no formal qualification to having a fully qualified doctor on board. Most ambulance services require at least two crew members to be on every ambulance (one to drive, and one to attend the patient). It may be the case that only the attendant need be qualified, and the driver might have no medical training. In some locations, an advanced life support ambulance may be crewed by one paramedic and one


title: Ambulance content: EMT-Basic. Common ambulance crew qualifications are: Military ambulances have historically included vehicles based on civilian designs and at times also included armored, but unarmed, vehicles ambulances based upon armoured personnel carriers (APCs). In the Second World War vehicles such as the Hanomag Sd Kfz 251 halftrack were pressed into service as ad hoc ambulances, and in more recent times purpose built AFVs such as the U.S. M1133 Medical Evacuation Vehicle serve the exclusive purpose of armored medical vehicles. Civilian based designs may be painted in appropriate colours, depending on the operational requirements (i.e. camouflage for field use, white for United


title: Ambulance content: Nations peacekeeping, etc.). For example, the British Royal Army Medical Corps has a fleet of white ambulances, based on production trucks. Military helicopters have also served both as ad hoc and purpose-built air ambulances, since they are extremely useful for MEDEVAC. In terms of equipment, military ambulances are barebones, often being nothing more than a box on wheels with racks to place manual stretchers, though for the operational conditions and level of care involved this is usually sufficient. Since laws of war demand ambulances be marked with one of the Emblems of the Red Cross not to mount offensive weapons,


title: Ambulance content: military ambulances are often unarmed. It is a generally accepted practice in most countries to classify the personnel attached to military vehicles marked as ambulances as non-combatants; however, this application does not always exempt medical personnel from catching enemy fire—accidental or deliberate. As a result, medics and other medical personnel attached to military ambulances are usually put through basic military training, on the assumption that they may have to use a weapon. The laws of war do allow non-combatant military personnel to carry individual weapons for protecting themselves and casualties. However, not all militaries exercise this right to their personnel.


title: Ambulance content: Recently, the Israeli Defense Forces has modified a number of its Merkava main battle tanks with ambulance features in order to allow rescue operations to take place under heavy fire in urban warfare. The modifications were made following a failed rescue attempt in which Palestinian gunmen killed two soldiers who were providing aid for a Palestinian woman in Rafah. Since M-113 armored personnel carriers and regular up-armored ambulances are not sufficiently protected against anti-tank weapons and improvised explosive devices, it was decided to use the heavily armored Merkava tank. Its rear door enables the evacuation of critically wounded soldiers. Israel


title: Ambulance content: did not remove the Merkava's weaponry, claiming that weapons were more effective protection than emblems since Palestinian militants would disregard any symbols of protection and fire at ambulances anyway. For use as ground ambulances and treatment & evacuation vehicles, the United States military currently employs the M113, the M577, the M1133 Stryker Medical Evacuation Vehicle (MEV), and the RG-33 Heavily Armored Ground Ambulance (HAGA) as treatment and evacuation vehicles, with contracts to incorporate the newly designed M2A0 Armored Medical Evacuation Vehicle (AMEV), a variant of the M2 Bradley Fighting Vehicle (formerly known as the ATTV). Some navies operate ocean-going hospital


title: Ambulance content: ships to lend medical assistance in high casualty situations like wars or natural disasters. These hospital ships fulfill the criteria of an ambulance (transporting the sick or injured), although the capabilities of a hospital ship are more on par with a Mobile Army Surgical Hospital. In line with the laws of war, these ships can display a prominent Red Cross or Red Crescent to confer protection under the appropriate Geneva convention. However, this designation has not always protected hospital ships from enemy fire. When an ambulance is retired, it may be donated or sold to another EMS provider. Alternately, it


title: Ambulance content: may be adapted into a storage and transport vehicle for crime scene identification equipment, a command post at community events, or support vehicle, such as a logistics unit. Others are refurbished and resold, or may just have their emergency equipment removed to be sold to private businesses or individuals, who then can use them as small recreational vehicles. They may also have a perfectly serviceable body or vehicle (or both) separated from the other and reused. Toronto City Council has begun a "Caravan of Hope" project to provide retired Toronto ambulances a second life by donating them to the people


title: Ambulance content: of El Salvador. Since laws in Ontario require ambulances to be retired after just four and a half years in service, the City of Toronto decommissions and auctions 28 ambulances each year. Ambulance An ambulance is a vehicle which can transport medical patients to treatment, and in some instances will also provide out-of-hospital medical care to the patient. Ambulances are used to respond to medical emergencies by the emergency medical services. For this purpose, they are generally equipped with flashing warning lights and sirens. They can rapidly transport paramedics and other responders to the scene, carry equipment for administering emergency


title: "Hogan's Heroes" content: received nominations in the same category in 1966, 1967 and 1970. The series' other nominations were for comedy series in 1966, 1967 and 1968; Bob Crane for actor in a comedy series in 1966 and 1967; Nita Talbot for supporting actress in a comedy in 1968; and Gordon Avil for cinematography in 1968. Note: The highest average rating for the series is in bold text. CBS DVD (distributed by Paramount) has released all six seasons of "Hogan's Heroes" on DVD in Region 1 & 4. The series was previously released by Columbia House as individual discs, each with five or


title: "Johnny Young" content: his marriage was in trouble. On 9 March 1990, Young was inducted into the "TV Week" Logie Awards' Hall of Fame for "an outstanding and sustained contribution to Australian television." From 24 October 2006, weekly magazine "New Idea" featured articles on Byrne's autobiography, "Not Quite Ripe", which alleged that from the age of 12 she was introduced to sex, drugs and alcohol on "Young Talent Time". The claims were vigorously denied by Young, he stated that Byrne was already 14 when she started and that drugs were not available on set, "Any drug-taking Debra did, she certainly didn't do it


title: Hysteresis content: As the drop is tilted, the downhill side will be in a state of imminent wetting while the uphill side will be in a state of imminent dewetting. As the tilt increases the downhill contact angle will increase and represents the advancing contact angle while the uphill side will decrease; this is the receding contact angle. The values for these angles just prior to the drop releasing will typically represent the advancing and receding contact angles. The difference between these two angles is the contact angle hysteresis. The second method is often referred to as the add/remove volume method. When


title: "Little Richard" content: guitarist and co-songwriter Angus Young was first inspired to play guitar after listening to Little Richard's music, and rhythm guitarist and co-writer Malcolm Young derived his signature sound from playing his guitar like Little Richard's piano. Later performers such as Mystikal, André "André 3000" Benjamin of Outkast and Bruno Mars were cited by critics as having emulated Little Richard's style in their own works. Mystikal's rap vocal delivery was compared to Little Richard's. André 3000's vocals in Outkast's hit, "Hey Ya!", were compared to an "indie rock Little Richard". Bruno Mars admitted Little Richard was one of his earliest influences.


title: "George Jeffreys, 1st Baron Jeffreys" content: perjured evidence of Titus Oates. These condemnations were remembered against him in 1685 when he secured the conviction of Oates for his perjury at the same trials. Charles II created him a baronet in 1681, and two years later, he was Chief Justice of the King's Bench and a member of the Privy Council. Jeffreys became Lord Chief Justice in 1683 and presided over the trial of Algernon Sidney, who had been implicated in the Rye House Plot. Sidney was convicted and executed: Jeffreys' conduct of the trial caused some unease, in particular his ruling that while two witnesses were


title: "Mexican peso" content: The $20, $50 and $100 coins are rarely seen in circulation due to the wide use of the lighter banknotes of the same denominations as well as their metal value. The first banknotes issued by the Mexican state were produced in 1823 by Emperor Agustin de Iturbide in denominations of 1, 2 and 10 pesos. Similar issues were made by the republican government later that same year. Ten-pesos notes were also issued by Emperor Maximilian in 1866 but, until the 1920s, banknote production lay entirely in the hands of private banks and local authorities. In 1920, the Monetary Commission ("Comisión


title: "Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King" content: over land, typically being equipped with self-sealing fuel tanks, multiple machine guns and heavy armor when performing such missions. Due to the type's greater range and the safety of having two engines, it was often used during rescue sorties into North Vietnam to retrieve downed aircrew. The Sea King was also used for medical evacuations and disaster relief efforts. The SH-3 was the primary helicopter for retrieving manned space capsules starting with Mercury-Atlas 7 in May 1962. "Helicopter 66" was the primary recovery vehicle for Apollo missions 8 and 10 to 13. In February 1971, an SH-3A, operating from the


title: "Ismail Ibn Sharif" content: relations with France and Spain and the departure of the French and Spanish merchants and consuls from Morocco in 1718. The French diplomats considered Moulay Ismail extremely greedy. They complained that he undertook negotiations and made agreements solely in order to receive presents, denying whatever they had proposed once he had gotten what he wanted. Despite Ismail's conquest of Tangiers in 1684, the British supported him against the Spanish and signed several treaties of friendship and commerce. The British participated in the blockade of the Spanish port of Ceuta in 1704, during Ismail's siege of the city. After the break


title: "Harry Nilsson" content: marketing campaign for the album. However, the death of Elvis Presley caused RCA to ignore everything except meeting demand for Presley's back catalog, and the promised marketing push never happened. This, combined with RCA releasing a "Nilsson Greatest Hits" collection without consulting him, prompted Nilsson to leave the label. Nilsson's 1970s London flat, at Flat 12, 9 Curzon Place on the edge of Mayfair, was a two-bedroom apartment decorated by the ROR ("Ringo or Robin") design company owned by Starr and interior designer Robin Cruikshank. Nilsson cumulatively spent several years at the flat, which was located near Apple Records, the


title: "St Ives, Cambridgeshire" content: first and third Saturday every month. The Michaelmas Fair takes over for three days from the second Monday in October, and there is a carnival which is the biggest public gathering in Huntingdonshire. The town has a mixture of shops, bars, coffee lounges, a department store and other amenities. As an important market town, St Ives always needed large numbers of public houses, many of which were bawdy houses: 64 in 1838 (1 for every 55 inhabitants), 60 in 1861, 48 in 1865 and 45 in 1899, although only five of these made the owners a living. As livestock sales


title: "Savoy-style Lindy Hop" content: the 1930s and 40s. Lindy Hop historians see clear differences between the Lindy Hop of the early years of its development (the late 1920s) and dancers such as "Shorty" George Snowden, dancers of the 1930s (such as Manning), and then between individual dancers during these periods. Lennart Westerlund - a key member of The Rhythm Hot Shots and authoritative Lindy Hop historian - described the differences in styles between Manning and Al Minns, the dancer he worked with in the earliest years of the Lindy Hop revival. Al Minns and Leon James are often considered authoritative figures in the academic


title: "Jaguar Cars" content: 1999, Ford decided that Jaguar would be the corporation's Formula One entry. Ford bought out the Milton Keynes-based Stewart Grand Prix team and rebranded it as Jaguar Racing for the 2000 season. The Jaguar F1 program was not a success however, achieving only two podium finishes in five seasons of competition between and . At the end of 2004, with costs mounting and Ford's profits dwindling, the F1 team was seen as an unneeded expense and was sold to Red Bull energy drinks owner Dietrich Mateschitz, and it became Red Bull Racing. On 15 December 2015, it was announced that


title: "Japanese festivals" content: New Year's celebration, Koshōgatsu, literally means "Small New Year" and starts with the first full moon of the year (around January 15). The main events of Koshōgatsu are rites and practices praying for a bountiful harvest. Date: March 3 Other Names: Sangatsu Sekku (3rd month Festival), Momo Sekku (Peach Festival), Joshi no Sekku (Girls' Festival) Information: This is the day when families pray for the happiness and prosperity of their girls and to help ensure that they grow up healthy and beautiful. The celebration takes place both inside the home and at the seashore. Both parts are meant to ward


title: "Japanese festivals" content: the end of the month now. The house is then decorated in the traditional fashion: A sacred rope of straw (shimenawa) with dangling white paper strips (shide) is hung over the front door to prevent evil spirits from entering and to show the presence of the toshigami. It is also customary to place kadomatsu, an arrangement of tree sprigs, beside the entrance way. A special altar, known as toshidana ("year shelf"), is piled high with kagamimochi (flat, round rice cakes), sake (rice wine), persimmons, and other foods in honor of the toshigami. A fair is traditionally held in late December


title: "Dusty Springfield" content: Away". Though it was critically appreciated, it did not sell well in the US – it reached the top 40 in the UK. In November 1968, a similar fate befell "Dusty... Definitely", which was not issued in the US, it reached the UK top 30. Her choice of material ranged from the rolling "Ain't No Sun Since You've Been Gone" to the aching emotion of "I Think It's Gonna Rain Today". In that same year, Springfield had a UK No. 4 hit, "I Close My Eyes and Count to Ten", which was written by Clive Westlake. Its flipside, "No Stranger


title: "Miso soup" content: Miso soup Miso soup is one of the two basic soup types of Japanese cuisine – the other one is suimono (clear soup). The choice of miso paste for the miso soup defines a great deal of its character and flavor. Miso pastes (a traditional Japanese seasoning produced by fermenting soybeans with salt and the fungus "Aspergillus oryzae", known in Japanese as kōjikin (麹菌), and sometimes rice, barley, or other ingredients) can be categorized into red ("akamiso"), white ("shiromiso"), or mixed ("awase"). There are many variations within these themes, including regional variations, such as Shinshū miso or Sendai miso. A


title: "Miso soup" content: miso paste that has been fermented for a longer period of time, such as a red miso, gives the miso soup a stronger, deeper flavor. A miso paste that has been fermented for a shorter period of time, such as a white miso, provides a lighter, sweeter flavor. More than 80% of Japan's total annual production of miso goes into miso soup, and 75% of all Japanese people consume miso soup at least once a day. The most common "dashi" soup stocks for miso soup are made of niboshi (dried baby sardines), kombu (dried kelp), katsuobushi (thin shavings of dried


title: "Miso soup" content: and smoked bonito, aka skipjack tuna), or hoshi-shiitake (dried shiitake). The kombu can also be used in combination with katsuobushi or hoshi-shiitake. The kelp and/or shiitake dashi serve as a vegetarian soup stock. Outside Japan, American or European style miso soup is sometimes made by dissolving miso in a Western vegetable stock. The stock might include ingredients such as "negi", carrot, potato and "daikon" radish. In some versions of the dish, chicken stock, Western-style fish stock, and other non-"dashi" bases can even be used, but there is some debate over whether or not miso soups made using these non-traditional bases


title: "Miso soup" content: count as true "misoshiru". Christian Japanese refugees who came to the Philippines during the Edo period brought along miso soup. According to Japanese custom, the solid ingredients are chosen to reflect the seasons and to provide contrasts of color, texture, and flavor. Thus negi and tofu, a strongly flavored ingredient mixed with a delicately flavored ingredient, are often combined. Ingredients that float, such as wakame seaweed, and ingredients that sink, such as potatoes, are also combined. Ingredients may include mushrooms, potatoes, seaweed, onion, shrimp, fish, clams, and sliced daikon. Nearly any Japanese ingredient is added to some type of "misoshiru".


title: "Miso soup" content: However, "misoshiru" does not typically contain many ingredients beyond the stock and miso. If pork is added to miso soup, it is called "tonjiru", meaning "pork soup". Miso soup can be prepared in several ways, depending on the chef and the style of soup. Japanese recipes usually call for most vegetables and meats to be cooked in the simmering "dashi", particularly mushrooms, daikon, carrots, potatoes, tofu, and fish. The miso is suspended separately in some dashi stock removed from the simmering mix, to keep the miso paste from cooking, which alters the flavour, kills beneficial bacteria, and reduces the health


title: "Miso soup" content: benefits of biologically active miso paste. When the vegetables are cooked, the stock is removed from heat, the miso suspension is added and mixed into the soup, any uncooked ingredients are added, and the dish is served. In Japan, miso soup and white rice make up the central dishes of the traditional Japanese breakfast. The soup has been a favorite of commoners and royalty alike for many centuries, but there are also many other dishes involving breakfast. They are all quite small, some include egg, fish, and nattō which is a fermented soy bean. The soup is usually served in


title: "Miso soup" content: lacquer bowls with lids and drunk directly from the bowl, though the solid ingredients are eaten with chopsticks. The bowl sometimes has a lid to keep heat and aroma in as well as to improve the presentation. Instant miso soup is available in single-serving packets. It is usually sold in dehydrated powder and paste forms, though it sometimes also sold freeze dried. It generally contains dried toppings such as wakame and tofu with soy beans that reconstitute rapidly on the addition of hot water. These are popular in the Japanese workplace, where miso soup can be made with lunch as


title: "Miso soup" content: easily as green tea and using the same water. Instant miso soup is available in many grocery stores outside Japan. It has a shelf life of 3 to 12 months. "Wappani" ( is a miso-soup-based dish unique to Awashima island off the coast of Niigata, Japan. A cedar flask (""wappa"") is filled with miso soup, fish and vegetables and it is heated by dropping in hot rocks, which quickly bring it to a simmer. Hot rocks retain their heat for hours after being taken from the fire, so a hot meal can be prepared without the use of fire. In


title: "Miso soup" content: 2003, researchers at Japan's National Cancer Centre suggested that "eating three or more bowls of the Japanese delicacy Miso soup every day could cut women's risk of developing breast cancer". Miso soup also tends to be low in calories, but is filling because of the high protein content. Miso soup Miso soup is one of the two basic soup types of Japanese cuisine – the other one is suimono (clear soup). The choice of miso paste for the miso soup defines a great deal of its character and flavor. Miso pastes (a traditional Japanese seasoning produced by fermenting soybeans with


title: "Japanese tea ceremony" content: to avoid causing disturbance. Shuffling forces one to slow down, to maintain erect posture, and to walk quietly, and helps one to maintain balance as the combination of tabi and tatami makes for a slippery surface; it is also a function of wearing kimono, which restricts stride length. One must avoid walking on the joins between mats, one practical reason being that that would tend to damage the tatami. Therefore, tea students are taught to step over such joins when walking in the tea room. The placement of tatami in tea rooms differs slightly from the normal placement in regular


title: Shibuya content: Bandai Visual moved to Shibuya. In March 1990 the headquarters moved to Shinjuku. A.D. Vision - Tokyo, Y.K., the Japanese subsidiary of A.D. Vision, was in Shibuya. Acclaim Entertainment once had its Tokyo office in the Nomora Building. The Japanese subsidiary of Titus Interactive, Titus Japan K.K., had its head office on the eighth floor of the Kotubuki Dogenzaka Building in Dōgenzaka. The former animation studio; Group TAC was also located here. Square Enix had its headquarters in Yoyogi before moving to Shinjuku ward in 2012. The Shibuya Ward (The Shibuya City) operates public elementary and junior high schools, while


title: "Pillar of Eliseg" content: use as a burial site. The second phase of construction consisted of a raising in height of the cairn and contained a large cist considered as Early Bronze Age, however, no human remains were found. A further cist was found in this phase which contained some 7 kg of cremated bone, which represents numerous adult, juvenile and infant burials. A flint knife and a bone pin were also recovered. The final phase of construction appeared to be relatively modern and probably subsequent to the re-erection of the cross. Pillar of Eliseg The Pillar of Eliseg — also known as Elise's


title: "1994 FIFA World Cup" content: entrants in the tournament: Greece, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, as well as two countries that were formed at the end of the Cold War: Russia, following the breakup of the Soviet Union, and for the first time since 1938, a newly reunified Germany took part in the tournament, following Germany reunification in October 1990, a few months after West Germany's victory in the 1990 World Cup. Three teams, one African, one Asian, and one European, made their debuts at the 1994 tournament. Nigeria qualified from the African zone alongside Cameroon and Morocco as CAF was granted three spots as a result


title: Tempura content: Tempura A light batter is made of cold water (sometimes sparkling water is used to keep the batter light) and soft wheat flour (cake, pastry or all-purpose flour). Eggs, baking soda or baking powder, starch, oil, and/or spices may also be added. Tempura batter is traditionally mixed in small batches using chopsticks for only a few seconds, leaving lumps in the mixture that, along with the cold batter temperature, result in the unique fluffy and crisp tempura structure when cooked. The batter is often kept cold by adding ice, or by placing the bowl inside a larger bowl with ice


title: Tempura content: in it. Overmixing the batter will result in activation of wheat gluten, which causes the flour mixture to become soft and dough-like when fried. Specially formulated tempura flour is available in worldwide supermarkets. This is generally light (low-gluten) flour, and occasionally contains leaveners such as baking powder. Tempura generally does not use breadcrumbs (panko) in the coating. Generally, fried foods which are coated with breadcrumbs are considered to be "furai", Japanese-invented Western-style deep fried foods, such as "tonkatsu" or "ebi furai" (fried prawn). Thin slices or strips of vegetables or seafood are dipped in the batter, then briefly deep-fried in


title: Tempura content: hot oil. Vegetable oil or canola oil are most common; however, tempura was traditionally cooked using sesame oil. Many specialty shops still use sesame oil or tea seed oil, and it is thought certain compounds in these oils help to produce light, crispier batter. When cooking shellfish, squid, or hard-skinned watery vegetables, such as bell pepper or eggplant, the skin is usually scored with a knife to prevent the ingredients from bursting during cooking, which can cause serious burns from splashing oil. Oil temperature is generally kept between 160 and 180 degrees Celsius (320–356 F), depending on the ingredient. To