title: Tempura content: preserve the natural flavor and texture of the ingredients, care is taken not to overcook tempura. Cooking times range between a few seconds for delicate leaf vegetables, to several minutes for thick items or large "kaki-age" fritters. The bits of batter (known as "tenkasu") are scooped out between batches of tempura, so they do not burn and leave a bad flavor in the oil. A small mesh scoop ("Ami jakushi") is used for this purpose. "Tenkasu" are often reserved as ingredients in other dishes or as a topping. Various seafood and vegetables are commonly used as the ingredients in traditional


title: Tempura content: tempura. The most popular seafood tempura is probably "ebi" (shrimp) tempura. Types of seafood used in tempura includes: Vegetables tempura is called "yasai tempura". The all vegetable tempura might be served as a vegetarian dish. Types of vegetables includes: Cooked bits of tempura are either eaten with dipping sauce, salted without sauce, or used to assemble other dishes. Tempura is commonly served with grated daikon and eaten hot immediately after frying. In Japan, it is often found in bowls of soba or udon soup often in the form of a shrimp, shiso leaf, or fritter. The most common sauce is


title: Tempura content: tentsuyu sauce (roughly three parts "dashi", one part "mirin", and one part "shōyu"). Alternatively, tempura may be sprinkled with sea salt before eating. Mixtures of powdered green tea and salt or "yuzu" and salt are also used. "" is a type of tempura made with mixed vegetable strips, such as onion, carrot, and burdock, and sometimes including shrimp or squid, which are deep fried as small round fritters. Tempura is also used in combination with other foods. When served over "soba" (buckwheat noodles), it is called "tempura soba" or "tensoba". Tempura is also served as a "donburi" dish where tempura


title: Tempura content: shrimp and vegetables are served over steamed rice in a bowl ("tendon") and on top of "udon" soup ("tempura udon"). Earlier Japanese deep-fried food was either simply fried without breading or batter, or fried with rice flour. However, toward the end of the 16th century, a fritter-cooking technique using flour and eggs as a batter was acquired from Portuguese missionaries and merchants from the region of Alentejo, who resided in Nagasaki. It came about as a way to fulfill the fasting and abstinence rules for Catholics surrounding the quarterly ember days (Latin: "Quatuor Tempora"). Hence, the etymology of the word,


title: Tempura content: tempura. In those days, tempura in Nagasaki was deep-fried in lard with a batter consisting of flour, water, eggs, and salt, and unlike the modern version, was eaten without a dipping sauce. In the beginning of the 17th century around the Tokyo Bay area, the raw materials of tempura and its method underwent a remarkable change as the Yatai (food cart) culture gained more popularity. Making the best use of fresh seafood while preserving its delicate taste, tempura used only flour, eggs and water as ingredients and the batter was not flavored. As the batter was mixed minimally in cold


title: Tempura content: water, it avoided the dough-like stickiness caused by the activation of wheat gluten, resulting in the crispy texture which is now characteristic of tempura. It became customary to eat tempura by dipping quickly in a sauce mixed with grated daikon just before it was eaten. Today in Japan the mainstream of tempura recipes basically originate from "Tokyo style (Edo style)" tempura, which was invented at the food stalls along the riverside fish market in the Edo period. There are several factors for the popularization and flourishing of tempura at Tokyo Bay in the Edo period. The abundance of seafood in


title: Tempura content: the Tokyo Bay is the basic factor. In addition, as oil extraction techniques advanced, cooking oil became inexpensive. In those days, serving deep-fried foods indoors was prohibited in Edo due to a possible fire hazard. Traditional Japanese housing was constructed with paper and wood which could catch fire easily from the tempura oil. For that reason, tempura gained popularity as fast food eaten outside at the food stall. Eating tempura in those days was made to be convenient like fast food as tempura was skewered and eaten with a dipping sauce. Tempura has been considered as one of "the Edo


title: Tempura content: Delicacies" along with soba (buckwheat noodles) and sushi which were also food stall take outs. The modern tempura recipe was first published in 1671 in the cook book called "料理献立抄". After the Meiji period, tempura was no longer considered as a fast food item but instead developed as a high-class cuisine. The word "tempura", or the technique of dipping fish and vegetables into a batter and frying them, comes from the word "tempora", a Latin word meaning "times", "time period" used by both Spanish and Portuguese missionaries to refer to the Lenten period or Ember Days ("ad tempora quadragesimae"), Fridays,


title: Tempura content: and other Christian holy days. Ember Days or "quattuor tempora" refer to holy days when Catholics avoid red meat and instead eat fish or vegetables. The idea that the word "tempura" may have been derived from the Portuguese noun "tempero," meaning a condiment or seasoning of any kind, or from the verb "temperar," meaning "to season" is also possible as the Japanese language could easily have assumed the word "tempero" as is, without changing any vowels as the Portuguese pronunciation in this case is similar to the Japanese. There is still today a dish in Portugal very similar to tempura


title: Tempura content: called "peixinhos da horta", "garden fishes", which consists in green beans dipped in a batter and fried. The term "tempura" is thought to have gained popularity in southern Japan; it became widely used to refer to any sort of food prepared using hot oil, including some already existing Japanese foods. Today, the word "tempura" is also commonly used to refer to "satsuma age", a fried fish cake which is made without batter. In Japan, restaurants specializing in tempura are called "tenpura-ya". Many restaurants offer tempura as part of a set meal or a "bento" (lunch box), and it is also


title: Tempura content: a popular ingredient in take-out or convenience store "bento" boxes. The ingredients and styles of cooking and serving tempura vary greatly through the country, with importance being placed on using fresh, seasonal ingredients. Outside Japan (as well as recently in Japan), there are many nontraditional and fusion uses of tempura. Chefs over the world include tempura dishes on their menus, and a wide variety of different batters and ingredients are used, including the nontraditional broccoli, zucchini, asparagus and chuchu. More unusual ingredients may include nori slices, dry fruit such as banana, and ice cream ("tempura"-based fried ice cream). American restaurants


title: Tempura content: are known to serve tempura in the form of various meats, particularly chicken, and cheeses, usually mozzarella. A variation is to use panko (breadcrumbs), which results in a crisper consistency than tempura batter. Using panko in Japan would no longer qualify the dish as tempura. It would become something else called fry or pronounced in Japanese as furai. Tempura (particularly shrimp) is often used as a filling in "makizushi". A more recent variation of tempura sushi has entire pieces of sushi being dipped in batter and tempura-fried. In Bangladesh the blossoms of pumpkins or marrows are often deep fried with


title: Tempura content: a gram of rice flour spice mix creating a Bengali style tempura known as kumro ful bhaja. In Taiwan, tempura as described in the preceding is known as "tiānfùluó" () and can commonly be found on the menu in Japanese restaurants all over the island. A similar-sounding dish, "tiánbúlà" () (lit. sweet, not spicy) is usually sold at night markets; it bears no resemblance whatsoever with tempura, but can be considered a counterpart to Japanese "oden". Tempura A light batter is made of cold water (sometimes sparkling water is used to keep the batter light) and soft wheat flour (cake,


title: "Dublin Castle" content: Dublin Castle Dublin Castle () is a major Irish government complex, conference centre, and tourist attraction. It is located off Dame Street in Dublin, Ireland. Until 1922 it was the seat of the British government's administration in Ireland. Most of the current construction dates from the 18th century, though a castle has stood on the site since the days of King John, the first Lord of Ireland. The Castle served as the seat of English, then later British, government of Ireland under the Lordship of Ireland (1171–1541), the Kingdom of Ireland (1541–1800), and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and


title: "Dublin Castle" content: Ireland (1800–1922). After the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty in December 1921, the complex was ceremonially handed over to the newly formed Provisional Government led by Michael Collins. It now hosts the inauguration of each President of Ireland, and various State receptions. The castle was built by the dark pool ("Dubh Linn") which gave Dublin its name. This pool lies on the lower course of the River Poddle before its confluence with the River Liffey; when the castle was built, the Liffey was much wider, and the castle was effectively defended by both rivers. The Poddle today runs under the


title: "Dublin Castle" content: complex. Dublin Castle has fulfilled a number of roles through its history. Originally built as a defensive fortification for the Norman city of Dublin, it later evolved into an official residence, used by the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland or Viceroy of Ireland, the representative of the Monarch. The second in command in the Dublin Castle administration, the Chief Secretary for Ireland, also had his offices there. Over the years parliament and law courts met at the castle before moving to new purpose-built venues. It also served as the base for a military garrison and later also intelligence services. Upon formation


title: "Dublin Castle" content: of the Free State in 1922, the castle temporarily assumed the role of the Four Courts, whose building had been badly damaged during the Civil War. This arrangement would last for a decade. It was decided in 1938 that the inauguration of the first President of Ireland, Douglas Hyde would take place in the castle, and the complex has been host to this ceremony ever since. The castle is also used for hosting official State visits as well as more informal foreign affairs engagements, State banquets, including that for the visit of Queen Elizabeth II in 2011, and Government policy


title: "Dublin Castle" content: launches. It also acts as the central base for Ireland's hosting of the European Presidency approximately every 10 years. Two dedicated conference facilities, The Hibernia Conference Centre and The Printworks, were installed for the European Presidencies of 1990 and 2013, and are made available for rental by the private sector too. The castle's State Apartments and their associated collection of historic materials form an accredited museum, and the castle complex is also home to a Garda Síochána unit and the Garda Museum, some parts of the Office of Public Works, some functions of the Irish Revenue Commissioners - and the


title: "Dublin Castle" content: Revenue Museum - and the Chester Beatty Library. Dublin Castle was first founded as a major defensive work by Meiler Fitzhenry on the orders of King John of England in 1204, some time after the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169, when it was commanded that a castle be built with strong walls and good ditches for the defence of the city, the administration of justice, and the protection of the King's treasure. Largely complete by 1230, the castle was of typical Norman courtyard design, with a central square without a keep, bounded on all sides by tall defensive walls


title: "Dublin Castle" content: and protected at each corner by a circular tower. Sited to the south-east of Norman Dublin, the castle formed one corner of the outer perimeter of the city, using the River Poddle as a natural means of defence along two of its sides. The city wall directly abutted the castle's northeast Powder Tower, extending north and westwards around the city before rejoining the castle at its southwestern Bermingham Tower. In 1620 the English-born judge Luke Gernon was greatly impressed by the wall: "a huge and mighty wall, foursquare, and of incredible thickness". The Poddle was diverted into the city through


title: "Dublin Castle" content: archways where the walls adjoined the castle, artificially flooding the moat of the fortress's city elevations. One of these archways and part of the wall survive buried underneath the 18th-century buildings, and are open to public inspection. Through the Middle Ages the wooden buildings within the castle square evolved and changed, the most significant addition being the Great Hall built of stone and timber, variously used as Parliament house, court of law and banqueting hall. The building survived until 1673, when it was damaged by fire and demolished shortly afterwards. The Court of Castle Chamber, the Irish counterpart to the


title: "Dublin Castle" content: English Star Chamber, sat in Dublin Castle in a room which was specially built for it about 1570. The Castle sustained severe fire damage in 1684. Extensive rebuilding transformed it from medieval fortress to Georgian palace. No trace of medieval buildings remains above ground level today, with the exception of the great Record Tower (ca. 1228–1230); it is the sole surviving tower of the original fortification, its battlements an early 19th-century addition. United Irishmen General Joseph Holt, a participant in the 1798 Rising, was incarcerated in the Bermingham Tower before being transported to New South Wales in 1799. In 1884


title: "Dublin Castle" content: officers at the Castle were at the centre of a sensational homosexual scandal incited by the Irish Nationalist politician William O'Brien through his newspaper "United Ireland". In 1907 the Irish Crown Jewels were stolen from the Castle. Suspicion fell upon the Officer of Arms, Sir Arthur Vicars, but rumours of his homosexuality and links to socially important gay men in London, may have compromised the investigation. The jewels have never been recovered. At the very beginning of the Easter Rising of 1916 a force of twenty-five Irish Citizen Army members were able to seize the entrance and guard-room of the


title: "Dublin Castle" content: Castle, before reinforcements for the small garrison arrived. During the Anglo-Irish War the Castle was the nerve centre of the British effort against Irish separatism. On the night of Bloody Sunday in 1920, three Irish Republican Army members Dick McKee, Conor Clune and Peadar Clancy, were tortured and killed there. When the Irish Free State came into being in 1922, Dublin Castle ceased to function as the administrative seat. It served for some years as temporary Courts of Justice (the Four Courts, the home of the Irish courts system, had been destroyed in 1922). After the courts vacated the premises,


title: "Dublin Castle" content: the Castle was used for state ceremonies. As President of the Executive Council, Éamon de Valera received credentials there from newly arrived ambassadors to Ireland on behalf of King George V in the 1930s. In 1938, Douglas Hyde was inaugurated as President of Ireland at the Castle. Inaugurations of subsequent presidents took place there in 1945, 1952, 1959, 1966, 1973, 1974, 1976, 1983, 1990, 1997 and 2011. President Erskine Hamilton Childers' lying-in-state took place there in November 1974, as did that of former President Éamon de Valera in September 1975. The state apartments, located in the southern range of buildings


title: "Dublin Castle" content: of the Upper Yard, contain the rooms formerly used by the Lord Lieutenant for personal accommodation and public entertaining during the Castle Season. Today these richly decorated rooms are used by the Irish government for official engagements including policy launches, hosting of State Visit ceremonial, and the inauguration of the President every seven years. The apartments and their collections form an accredited museum. The principal rooms of the state apartment complex include: This is the grandest room of the state apartments, and contains one of the most important decorative interiors in Ireland. Formerly the ballroom of the Lord Lieutenant's administration,


title: "Dublin Castle" content: today the room is used for presidential inaugurations. If a President of Ireland dies in office, such as Erskine H. Childers in 1974, he lies in state here. It is one of the oldest rooms in the castle, dating from the 1740s, though its decoration largely dates from c. 1790, including the most significant painted ceiling in Ireland executed by Vincenzo Valdre (c. 1742–1814). Composed of three panels, the ceiling depicts the coronation of King George III, Saint Patrick introducing Christianity to Ireland, and King Henry II receiving the submission of the Irish chieftains. The state dinner hosted by the


title: "Dublin Castle" content: President of Ireland to welcome Queen Elizabeth II to Ireland was held here on the evening of 18 May 2011. Following the disestablishment of the Church of Ireland in 1871, the Order of St. Patrick, Ireland's order of chivalry, moved its ceremonial home from St. Patrick's Cathedral to St. Patrick's Hall. The banners and hatchment plates of the knights who were living at the time of Irish independence remain in place. Originally built as the Battleaxe Hall in the 1740s, it was converted to a presence chamber around 1790. The regal decoration dates from that time and from alterations in


title: "Dublin Castle" content: the 1830s. It contains a throne built for the visit of King George IV to Ireland in 1821. Built in the 1830s as the principal reception room of the Lord Lieutenant and his household, today this room is reserved in use for the reception of foreign dignitaries. Largely destroyed by fire in 1941, the room was reconstructed with minor modifications in 1964–1968 by the OPW, making use of salvaged and replicated furnishings and fittings. Also called the Picture Gallery, and formerly known as the supper room, this is the oldest room in the castle and largely retains its original decoration,


title: "Dublin Castle" content: having escaped major modification and fire over the years. It dates from Lord Chesterfield's building of the state apartments in the 1740s, and was intended for use as a supper room adjoining St. Patrick's Hall and as a personal dining room. Today the room is still used for dining when conferences take place in St. Patrick's Hall. These former private quarters of the Lord Lieutenant were built as five interconnecting rooms running along the back of the building, adjoining the spine corridor that separates them from the state drawing room. Completely rebuilt in the 1960s following fire in 1941, the


title: "Dublin Castle" content: rooms maintain the original courtly sequence and today are used as ancillary drawing and meeting rooms to the principal apartments. The last dignitary to stay in the royal bedrooms was Margaret Thatcher, who spent a night there with her husband Dennis during one of the European Council meetings held in the 1980s. The most architectural space of the state apartments, this expressive, deeply modelled corridor was originally built c. 1758 to the designs of the Surveyor General, Thomas Eyre. Based on the early 18th century corridor of Edward Lovett Pearce in the former Parliament House on College Green, it features


title: "Dublin Castle" content: a marching procession of vaults and arches which were originally top-lit. Regrettably, an office storey was built over the skylights following complete reconstruction of the corridor in the 1960s as the result of differential settlement with the reconstruction of the adjoining drawing room. The corridor features exact plaster casts of the original arch detailing, and the original doorcases and fireplaces salvaged prior to rebuilding. The castle includes towers at two corners; other towers that once existed are gone without trace. The base of the original Bermingham Tower is one of the few remaining parts of the original castle. At the


title: "Dublin Castle" content: southwest corner of the castle, the tower has a modern upper part. It is unclear which member of the De Bermingham family the tower was named for; perhaps William or Walter or John or Sir Walter. The Record Tower at the southeast corner is another original part of the castle. It hosted the Garda Museum until its 2017 relaunch in the Treasury Building. Dublin Castle is maintained and managed by the Office of Public Works. The complex houses, among other things, some offices of the Revenue Commissioners, including a Stamping Office in a 20th-century building at the end of the


title: "Dublin Castle" content: Castle Yard. Some elements of the Office of Public Works are based in an old stables area. Some functions of the Garda Síochána are also based at the Castle. The complex of buildings is usually open to the public, except during certain state functions. The crypt of the Chapel Royal is now used as an arts centre, and occasional concerts are held in the grounds of the Castle. The castle complex also hosts the Chester Beatty Library, in a purpose-constructed facility, with a café, the Garda Museum, in the Treasury Building, and the Revenue Museum. The former site of the


title: "Dublin Castle" content: "dark pool" on the Poddle was remodeled into a garden, with a water feature that commemorates fallen Gardaí, and a helipad. Dublin Castle has appeared in numerous films including "Barry Lyndon", "Michael Collins", "Becoming Jane" and "The Medallion", as well as the television series "The Tudors", where it doubles as the Vatican in the pilot. Dublin Castle hosts the Heineken Green Energy festival every May bank holiday weekend. Part of Dublin Castle appears on the cover of the Jandek album "Khartoum Variations". Dublin Castle Dublin Castle () is a major Irish government complex, conference centre, and tourist attraction. It is


title: Guanches content: Cambridge Reference Sequence (CRS) which belongs to the European haplogroup H2a2 was 21.12% of the total sample. Meanwhile, the same study Maca-Meyer "et al."(2003) found out that frequencies of haplogroups H/HV/U*/R(-CRS) at 30.98% of the total; also mtDNA haplogroup V was observed at frequencies of 4.23% of the total sample." Y-DNA, or Y-chromosomal, (direct paternal) lineages were not analyzed in this study; however, an earlier study giving the aboriginal y-DNA contribution at 6% was cited by Maca-Meyer et al., but the results were criticized as possibly flawed due to the widespread phylogeography of y-DNA haplogroup E1b1b1b, which may skew determination


title: "Damaged (Black Flag album)" content: him afterward. The most complicated vocal tracks ended up being Dukowski's "What I See", which was supposed to have an improvised speech in the song's bridge but ended up having one written out by Dukowski when Rollins could not come up with anything that he was satisfied with, and "T.V. Party", which featured backing vocals from the entire band. The album was recorded at Unicorn Studios, on Santa Monica Blvd in West Hollywood. The band was living and rehearsing in another part of the building that housed Unicorn Studios prior to the sessions. Drummer Robo was wearing bracelets on his


title: Drosera content: Drosera Drosera, commonly known as the sundews, is one of the largest genera of carnivorous plants, with at least 194 species. These members of the family Droseraceae lure, capture, and digest insects using stalked mucilaginous glands covering their leaf surfaces. The insects are used to supplement the poor mineral nutrition of the soil in which the plants grow. Various species, which vary greatly in size and form, are native to every continent except Antarctica. Both the botanical name (from the Greek δρόσος: "drosos" = "dew, dewdrops") and the English common name (sundew, derived from Latin "ros solis", meaning "dew of


title: Drosera content: the sun") refer to the glistening drops of mucilage at the tip of the glandular trichomes that resemble drops of morning dew. Sundews are perennial (or rarely annual) herbaceous plants, forming prostrate or upright rosettes between in height, depending on the species. Climbing species form scrambling stems which can reach much longer lengths, up to in the case of "D. erythrogyne". Sundews have been shown to be able to achieve a lifespan of 50 years. The genus is specialized for nutrient uptake through its carnivorous behavior, for example the pygmy sundew is missing the enzymes (nitrate reductase, in particular) that


title: Drosera content: plants normally use for the uptake of earth-bound nitrates. The genus can be divided into several habits, or growth forms: Although they do not form a single strictly defined growth form, a number of species are often put together in a further group: Sundews are characterised by the glandular tentacles, topped with sticky secretions, that cover their laminae. The trapping and digestion mechanism usually employs two types of glands: stalked glands that secrete sweet mucilage to attract and ensnare insects and enzymes to digest them, and sessile glands that absorb the resulting nutrient soup (the latter glands are missing in


title: Drosera content: some species, such as "D. erythrorhiza"). Small prey, mainly consisting of insects, are attracted by the sweet secretions of the peduncular glands. Upon touching these, the prey become entrapped by sticky mucilage which prevents their progress or escape. Eventually, the prey either succumb to death through exhaustion or through asphyxiation as the mucilage envelops them and clogs their spiracles. Death usually occurs within 15 minutes. The plant meanwhile secretes esterase, peroxidase, phosphatase and protease enzymes. These enzymes dissolve the insect and free the nutrients contained within it. This nutrient mixture is then absorbed through the leaf surfaces to be used


title: Drosera content: by the rest of the plant. All species of sundew are able to move their tentacles in response to contact with edible prey. The tentacles are extremely sensitive and will bend toward the center of the leaf to bring the insect into contact with as many stalked glands as possible. According to Charles Darwin, the contact of the legs of a small gnat with a single tentacle is enough to induce this response. This response to touch is known as thigmonasty, and is quite rapid in some species. The outer tentacles (recently coined as "snap-tentacles") of "D. burmannii" and "D.


title: Drosera content: sessilifolia" can bend inwards toward prey in a matter of seconds after contact, while "D. glanduligera" is known to bend these tentacles in toward prey in tenths of a second. In addition to tentacle movement, some species are able to bend their laminae to various degrees to maximize contact with the prey. Of these, "D. capensis" exhibits what is probably the most dramatic movement, curling its leaf completely around prey in 30 minutes. Some species, such as "D. filiformis", are unable to bend their leaves in response to prey. A further type of (mostly strong red and yellow) emergence has


title: Drosera content: recently been discovered in a few Australian species ("D. hartmeyerorum", "D. indica"). Their function is not known yet, although they may help in attracting prey. The leaf morphology of the species within the genus is extremely varied, ranging from the sessile leaves of "D. erythrorhiza" to the bipinnately divided leaves of "D. binata". While the exact physiological mechanism of the sundew's carnivorous response is not yet known, some studies have begun to shed light on how the plant is able to move in response to mechanical and chemical stimulation to envelop and digest prey. Individual tentacles, when mechanically stimulated, fire


title: Drosera content: action potentials that terminate near the base of the tentacle, resulting in rapid movement of the tentacle towards the center of the leaf. This response is more prominent when marginal tentacles further away from the leaf center are stimulated. The tentacle movement response is achieved through auxin-mediated acid growth. When action potentials reach their target cells, the plant hormone auxin causes protons (H ions) to be pumped out of the plasma membrane into the cell wall, thereby reducing the pH and making the cell wall more acidic. The resulting reduction in pH causes the relaxation of the cell wall protein,


title: Drosera content: expansin, and allows for an increase in cell volume via osmosis and turgor. As a result of differential cell growth rates, the sundew tentacles are able to achieve movement towards prey and the leaf center through the bending caused by expanding cells. Among some drosera species, a second bending response occurs in which non-local, distant tentacles bend towards prey as well as the bending of the entire leaf blade to maximize contact with prey. While mechanical stimulation is sufficient to achieve a localized tentacle bend response, both mechanical and chemical stimuli are required for the secondary bending response to occur.


title: Drosera content: The flowers of sundews, as with nearly all carnivorous plants, are held far above the leaves by a long stem.This physical isolation of the flower from the traps is commonly thought to be an adaptation meant to avoid trapping potential pollinators. The mostly unforked inflorescences are spikes, whose flowers open one at a time and usually only remain open for a short period. Flowers open in response to light intensity (often opening only in direct sunlight), and the entire inflorescence is also helitropic, moving in response to the sun's position in the sky. The radially symmetrical (actinomorphic) flowers are always


title: Drosera content: perfect and have five parts (the exceptions to this rule are the four-petaled "D. pygmaea" and the eight to 12-petaled "D. heterophylla"). Most of the species have small flowers (<1.5 cm or 0.6 in). A few species, however, such as "D. regia" and "D. cistiflora", have flowers or more in diameter. In general, the flowers are white or pink. Australian species display a wider range of colors, including orange ("D. callistos"), red ("D. adelae"), yellow ("D. zigzagia") or metallic violet ("D. microphylla"). The ovary is superior and develops into a dehiscent seed capsule bearing numerous tiny seeds. The pollen grain


title: Drosera content: type is compound, which means four microspores (pollen grains) are stuck together with a protein called callose. The root systems of most "Drosera" are often only weakly developed. Serving mainly to absorb water and to anchor the plant to the ground, the roots are relatively useless for nutrient uptake. A few South African species use their roots for water and food storage. Some species have wiry root systems that remain during frosts if the stem dies. Some species, such as "D. adelae" and "D. hamiltonii", use their roots for asexual propagation, by sprouting plantlets along their length. Some Australian species


title: Drosera content: form underground corms for this purpose, which also serve to allow the plants to survive dry summers. The roots of pygmy sundews are often extremely long in proportion to their size, with a 1-cm (0.4-in) plant extending roots over beneath the soil surface. Some pygmy sundews, such as "D. lasiantha" and "D. scorpioides", also form adventitious roots as supports. "D. intermedia" and "D. rotundifolia" have been reported to form arbuscular mycorrhizae, which penetrate the plant's tissues. The unrooted cladogram to the right shows the relationship between various subgenera and classes as defined by the analysis of Rivadavia "et al." in


title: Drosera content: 2002. The monotypic section "Meristocaulis" was not included in the study, so its place in this system is unclear. More recent studies have placed this group near section "Bryastrum", so it is placed there below. Also of note, the placement of the section "Regiae" in relation to "Aldrovanda" and "Dionaea" is uncertain. Since the section "Drosera" is polyphyletic, it shows up multiple times in the cladogram (*). This phylogenetic study has made the need for a revision of the genus even clearer. Many species of sundews are self-fertile; their flowers will often self-pollinate upon closing. Often, numerous seeds are produced.


title: Drosera content: The tiny black seeds germinate in response to moisture and light, while seeds of temperate species also require cold, damp, stratification to germinate. Seeds of the tuberous species require a hot, dry summer period followed by a cool, moist winter to germinate. Vegetative reproduction occurs naturally in some species that produce stolons or when roots come close to the surface of the soil. Older leaves that touch the ground may sprout plantlets. Pygmy sundews reproduce asexually using specialized scale-like leaves called gemmae. Tuberous sundews can produce offsets from their corms. In culture, sundews can often be propagated through leaf, crown,


title: Drosera content: or root cuttings, as well as through seeds. The range of the sundew genus stretches from Alaska in the north to New Zealand in the south. The centers of diversity are Australia, with roughly 50% of all known species, and South America and southern Africa, each with more than 20 species. A few species are also found in large parts of Eurasia and North America. These areas, however, can be considered to form the outskirts of the generic range, as the ranges of sundews do not typically approach temperate or Arctic areas. Contrary to previous supposition, the evolutionary speciation of


title: Drosera content: this genus is no longer thought to have occurred with the breakup of Gondwana through continental drift. Rather, speciation is now thought to have occurred as a result of a subsequent wide dispersal of its range. The origins of the genus are thought to have been in Africa or Australia. Europe is home to only three species: "D. intermedia", "D. anglica", and "D. rotundifolia". Where the ranges of the two latter species overlap, they sometimes hybridize to form the sterile "D. × obovata". In addition to the three species and the hybrid native to Europe, North America is also home


title: Drosera content: to four additional species; "D. brevifolia" is a small annual native to coastal states from Texas to Virginia, while "D. capillaris", a slightly larger plant with a similar range, is also found in areas of the Caribbean. The third species, "D. linearis", is native to the northern United States and southern Canada. "D. filiformis" has two subspecies native to the East Coast of North America, the Gulf Coast, and the Florida panhandle. This genus is often described as cosmopolitan, meaning it has worldwide distribution. The botanist Ludwig Diels, author of the only monograph of the family to date, called this


title: Drosera content: description an "arrant misjudgment of this genus' highly unusual distributional circumstances ("arge Verkennung ihrer höchst eigentümlichen Verbreitungsverhältnisse")", while admitting sundew species do "occupy a significant part of the Earth's surface ("einen beträchtlichen Teil der Erdoberfläche besetzt")". He particularly pointed to the absence of "Drosera" species from almost all arid climate zones, countless rainforests, the American Pacific Coast, Polynesia, the Mediterranean region, and North Africa, as well as the scarcity of species diversity in temperate zones, such as Europe and North America. Sundews generally grow in seasonally moist or more rarely constantly wet habitats with acidic soils and high levels of


title: Drosera content: sunlight. Common habitats include bogs, fens, swamps, marshes, the tepuis of Venezuela, the wallums of coastal Australia, the fynbos of South Africa, and moist streambanks. Many species grow in association with sphagnum moss, which absorbs much of the soil's nutrient supply and also acidifies the soil, making nutrients less available to plant life. This allows sundews, which do not rely on soil-bound nutrients, to flourish where more dominating vegetation would usually outcompete them. The genus, though, is very variable in terms of habitat. Individual sundew species have adapted to a wide variety of environments, including atypical habitats, such as rainforests,


title: Drosera content: deserts ("D. burmannii" and "D. indica"), and even highly shaded environments (Queensland sundews). The temperate species, which form hibernacula in the winter, are examples of such adaptation to habitats; in general, sundews tend to inhabit warm climates, and are only moderately frost-resistant. Although none of the "Drosera" species in the United States are federally protected, all are listed as threatened or endangered in some states. Additionally, many of the remaining native populations lie on protected land, such as national parks or wildlife preserves. "Drosera" species are protected by law in many European countries, such as Germany, Austria, Switzerland, the Czech


title: Drosera content: Republic, Finland, Hungary, France, and Bulgaria. Currently, the largest threat in Europe and North America is habitat destruction for development projects, as well as the draining of bogs for agricultural uses and peat harvesting. In many regions, this has led to the extirpation of some species from parts of their former range. Reintroduction of plants into such habitats is usually difficult or impossible, as the ecological needs of certain populations is closely tied to their geographical location. Through increased legal protection of bogs and moors, as well as a concentrated effort to renaturalize such habitats, the threat to these plants'


title: Drosera content: survival might be curbed, although most species would remain endangered. The relatively unimpressive image of these plants, as well as their small, low growth, makes them difficult to protect. As part of the landscape, sundews are often overlooked or not recognized at all. In South Africa and Australia, two of the three centers of species diversity, the natural habitats of these plants are undergoing a high degree of pressure from human activities. Expanding population centers (such as Queensland, Perth, and Cape Town) threaten many such habitats, as does the draining of moist areas for agriculture and forestry in rural areas.


title: Drosera content: The droughts that have been sweeping Australia over the last 10 years also pose a threat to many species by drying up previously moist areas. Those species endemic to a very limited area are often most threatened by the collection of plants from the wild. "D. madagascariensis" is considered endangered in Madagascar because of the large-scale removal of plants from the wild for exportation; 10 - 200 million plants are harvested for commercial medicinal use annually. Sundews were used as medicinal herbs as early as the 12th century, when an Italian doctor from the School of Salerno, Matthaeus Platearius, described


title: Drosera content: the plant as an herbal remedy for coughs under the name "herba sole". It has been used commonly in cough preparations in Germany and elsewhere in Europe. Sundew tea was especially recommended by herbalists for dry coughs, bronchitis, whooping cough, asthma and "bronchial cramps". A modern study has shown that "Drosera" exhibits antitussive properties. Culbreth's 1927 "Materia Medica" listed "D. rotundifolia", "D. anglica" and "D.linearis" as being used as stimulants and expectorants, and "of doubtful efficacy" for treating bronchitis, whooping cough, and tuberculosis. Sundews have also been used as an aphrodisiac and to strengthen the heart, as well as to


title: Drosera content: treat sunburn, toothache, and prevent freckles. They are still used today in some 200-300 registered medications, usually in combination with other herbal ingredients. Today, "Drosera" is usually used to treat ailments such as asthma, coughs, lung infections, and stomach ulcers. Medicinal preparations are primarily made using the roots, flowers, and fruit-like capsules. Since all native sundews species are protected in many parts of Europe and North America, extracts are usually prepared using cultivated fast-growing sundews (specifically "D. rotundifolia", "D. intermedia", "D. anglica", "D. ramentacea" and "D. madagascariensis") or from plants collected and imported from Madagascar, Spain, France, Finland and the


title: Drosera content: Baltics. Because of their carnivorous nature and the beauty of their glistening traps, sundews have become favorite ornamental plants; however, the environmental requirements of most species are relatively stringent and can be difficult to meet in cultivation. As a result, most species are unavailable commercially. A few of the hardiest varieties, however, have made their way into the mainstream nursery business and can often be found for sale next to Venus flytraps. These most often include "D. capensis", "D. aliciae", and "D. spatulata". Cultivation requirements vary greatly by species. In general, though, sundews require high environmental moisture content, usually in


title: Drosera content: the form of a constantly moist or wet soil substrate. Most species also require this water to be pure, as nutrients, salts, or minerals in their soil can stunt their growth or even kill them. Commonly, plants are grown in a soil substrate containing some combination of dead or live sphagnum moss, sphagnum peat moss, sand, and/or perlite, and are watered with distilled, reverse osmosis, or rain water. The mucilage produced by "Drosera" has remarkable elastic properties and has made this genus a very attractive subject in biomaterials research. In one recent study, the adhesive mucilages of three species ("D.


title: Drosera content: binata", "D. capensis", and "D. spatulata") were analyzed for nanofiber and nanoparticle content. Using atomic force microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, researchers were able to observe networks of nanofibers and nanoparticles of various sizes within the mucilage residues. In addition, calcium, magnesium, and chlorine – key components of biological salts - were identified. These nanoparticles are theorized to increase the viscosity and stickiness of the mucilage, in turn increasing the effectiveness of the trap. More importantly for biomaterials research, however, is the fact that, when dried, the mucin provides a suitable substrate for the attachment of living


title: Drosera content: cells. This has important implications for tissue engineering, especially because of the elastic qualities of the adhesive. Essentially, a coating of "Drosera" mucilage on a surgical implant, such as a replacement hip or an organ transplant, could drastically improve the rate of recovery and decrease the potential for rejection, because living tissue can effectively attach and grow on it. The authors also suggest a wide variety of applications for "Drosera" mucin, including wound treatment, regenerative medicine, or enhancing synthetic adhesives. Also of note, because this mucilage can stretch to nearly a million times its original size and is readily available


title: Drosera content: for use, it can be an extremely cost-efficient source of biomaterial. The corms of the tuberous sundews native to Australia are considered a delicacy by the Australian Aborigines. Some of these corms were also used to dye textiles, while another purple or yellow dye was traditionally prepared in the Scottish Highlands using "D. rotundifolia". A sundew liqueur is also still produced using a recipe from the 14th century. It is made using fresh leaves from mainly "D. capensis", "D. spatulata", and "D. rotundifolia". Several chemical compounds with potential biological activities are found in sundews, including flavonoids (kaempferol, myricetin, quercetin and


title: Drosera content: hyperoside), quinones (plumbagin, hydroplumbagin glucoside and rossoliside (7–methyl–hydrojuglone–4–glucoside)), and other constituents such as carotenoids, plant acids (e.g. butyric acid, citric acid, formic acid, gallic acid, malic acid, propionic acid), resin, tannins and ascorbic acid (vitamin C). Much of the content of this article comes from (retrieved April 30, 2006). Drosera Drosera, commonly known as the sundews, is one of the largest genera of carnivorous plants, with at least 194 species. These members of the family Droseraceae lure, capture, and digest insects using stalked mucilaginous glands covering their leaf surfaces. The insects are used to supplement the poor mineral nutrition of


title: "James M. Cox" content: banned the German language from being taught until the eighth grade, even in private schools. Cox claimed that teaching German was "a distinct menace to Americanism, and part of a plot formed by the German government to make the school children loyal to it." Legislation restricting the teaching of foreign languages was declared unconstitutional in Meyer v. Nebraska. A capable and well-liked progressive reformer, Cox was nominated for the presidency by the Democratic party at the 1920 Democratic convention in San Francisco defeating A. Mitchell Palmer and William Gibbs McAdoo on the forty-fourth ballot. Cox conducted an activist campaign visiting


title: Alkaptonuria content: In the longer term, the involvement of the spinal joints leads to reduced movement of the rib cage and can affect breathing. Bone mineral density may be affected, increasing the risk of bone fractures, and rupture of tendons and muscles may occur. Valvular heart disease, mainly calcification and regurgitation of the aortic and mitral valves, may occur, and in severe and progressive cases, valve replacement may be necessary. Irregularities in the heart rhythm and heart failure affect a significant proportion of people with alkaptonuria (40% and 10%, respectively). Hearing loss affects 40% of people. Also, a propensity to developing kidney


title: Pisco content: grouped into two categories based in aromatic expressiveness: Muscat types (Pink Muscat, Muscat of Alexandria) are very fragrant, while Pedro Jiménez, Moscatel de Asturia and Torontel are more subtle. The "Special" and "Reserve" variations are very similar in flavor and color, both being subtly sweet and of a clear birch to transparent color. The flavor is much stronger than regular pisco with aromatic refreshing tones. Chile has taken steps to have a clean and environmentally friendly production of pisco. In order to crack down on pollution, and to increase competitiveness, the National Council for Clean Production agreed with the pisco


title: "San Francisco Symphony" content: in D Minor" by César Franck (the first recorded was Maurice Ravel's "La Valse"); his last was of "Siegfried Idyll" by Richard Wagner and "Death and Transfiguration" by Richard Strauss. Some of the recordings have been re-released on LPs and compact discs, as well as internationally via the Pierre Monteux Edition from RCA. A substantial selection of Monteux's live broadcasts on "The Standard Hour" have been released by the Music & Arts label. Enrique Jordá made several stereo recordings for RCA in 1957 and 1958, and an album for CRI in 1962. Jorda's recording of Rachmaninoff's second piano concerto, with


title: "M1 Garand" content: M1 Garand The M1 Garand is a .30 caliber semi-automatic rifle that was the standard U.S. service rifle during World War II and the Korean War and also saw limited service during the Vietnam War. Most M1 rifles were issued to U.S. forces, though many hundreds of thousands were also provided as foreign aid to American allies. The Garand is still used by drill teams and military honor guards. It is also widely used by civilians for hunting, target shooting, and as a military collectible. The M1 rifle was named after its Canadian-American designer, John Garand. It was the first


title: "M1 Garand" content: standard-issue semi-automatic military rifle. By all accounts the M1 rifle served with distinction. General George S. Patton called it "the greatest battle implement ever devised". The M1 replaced the bolt action M1903 Springfield as the standard U.S. service rifle in the mid 1930s, and was itself replaced by the selective fire M14 rifle in the late 1950s. Although the name "Garand" is frequently pronounced , the preferred pronunciation is (to rhyme with "errand"), according to experts and people who knew John Garand, the weapon's designer. Frequently referred to as the "Garand" or "M1 Garand" by civilians, its official designation when


title: "M1 Garand" content: it was the issue rifle in the U.S. Army and the U.S. Marine Corps was "U.S. Rifle, Caliber .30, M1" or just "M1" and Garand was not mentioned. French Canadian-born Garand went to work at the United States Army's Springfield Armory and began working on a .30 caliber primer actuated blowback Model 1919 prototype. In 1924, twenty-four rifles, identified as "M1922s", were built at Springfield. At Fort Benning during 1925, they were tested against models by Berthier, Hatcher-Bang, Thompson, and Pedersen, the latter two being delayed blowback types. This led to a further trial of an improved "M1924" Garand against


title: "M1 Garand" content: the Thompson, ultimately producing an inconclusive report. As a result, the Ordnance Board ordered a .30-06 Garand variant. In March 1927, the cavalry board reported trials among the Thompson, Garand, and 03 Springfield had not led to a clear winner. This led to a gas-operated .276 (7 mm) model (patented by Garand on 12 April 1930). In early 1928, both the infantry and cavalry boards ran trials with the .276 Pedersen T1 rifle, calling it "highly promising" (despite its use of waxed ammunition, shared by the Thompson). On 13 August 1928, a semiautomatic rifle board (SRB) carried out joint Army,


title: "M1 Garand" content: Navy, and Marine Corps trials between the .30 Thompson, both cavalry and infantry versions of the T1 Pedersen, "M1924" Garand, and .256 Bang, and on 21 September, the board reported no clear winner. The .30 Garand, however, was dropped in favor of the .276. Further tests by the SRB in July 1929, which included rifle designs by Browning, Colt–Browning, Garand, Holek, Pedersen, Rheinmetall, Thompson, and an incomplete one by White, led to a recommendation that work on the (dropped) .30 gas-operated Garand be resumed, and a T1E1 was ordered 14 November 1929. Twenty gas-operated .276 T3E2 Garands were made and


title: "M1 Garand" content: competed with T1 Pedersen rifles in early 1931. The .276 Garand was the clear winner of these trials. The .30 caliber Garand was also tested, in the form of a single T1E1, but was withdrawn with a cracked bolt on 9 October 1931. A 4 January 1932 meeting recommended adoption of the .276 caliber and production of approximately 125 T3E2s. Meanwhile, Garand redesigned his bolt and his improved T1E2 rifle was retested. The day after the successful conclusion of this test, Army Chief of Staff General Douglas MacArthur personally disapproved any caliber change, in part because there were extensive existing


title: "M1 Garand" content: stocks of .30 M1 ball ammunition. On 25 February 1932, Adjutant General John B. Shuman, speaking for the Secretary of War, ordered work on the rifles and ammunition in .276 caliber cease immediately and completely, and all resources be directed toward identification and correction of deficiencies in the Garand .30 caliber. On 3 August 1933, the T1E2 became the "semi-automatic rifle, caliber 30, M1". In May 1934, 75 M1s went to field trials; 50 went to infantry, 25 to cavalry units. Numerous problems were reported, forcing the rifle to be modified, yet again, before it could be recommended for service


title: "M1 Garand" content: and cleared for procurement on 7 November 1935, then standardized 9 January 1936. The first production model was successfully proof-fired, function-fired, and fired for accuracy on July 21, 1937. Production difficulties delayed deliveries to the Army until September 1937. Machine production began at Springfield Armory that month at a rate of ten rifles per day, and reached an output of 100 per day within two years. Despite going into production status, design issues were not at an end. The barrel, gas cylinder, and front sight assembly were redesigned and entered production in early 1940. Existing "gas-trap" rifles were recalled and


title: "M1 Garand" content: retrofitted, mirroring problems with the earlier M1903 Springfield rifle that also had to be recalled and reworked approximately three years into production and foreshadowing rework of the M16 rifle at a similar point in its development. Production of the Garand increased in 1940 despite these difficulties, reaching 600 a day by 10 January 1941, and the Army was fully equipped by the end of 1941. Following the outbreak of World War II in Europe, Winchester was awarded an "educational" production contract for 65,000 rifles, with deliveries beginning in 1943. The M1 Garand was made in large numbers during World War


title: "M1 Garand" content: II; approximately 5.4 million were made. They were used by every branch of the United States military. By all accounts the M1 rifle served with distinction. General George S. Patton called it "the greatest battle implement ever devised." The impact of faster-firing infantry small arms in general soon stimulated both Allied and Axis forces to greatly increase their issue of semi- and fully automatic firearms then in production, as well as to develop new types of infantry firearms. Much of the M1 inventory in the post-World War II period underwent arsenal repair or rebuilding. While U.S. forces were still engaged


title: "M1 Garand" content: in the Korean War, the Department of Defense determined a need for additional production of the Garand. Springfield Armory ramped up production, but two new contracts were awarded. During 1953–56, M1s were produced by International Harvester and Harrington & Richardson in which International Harvester alone produced a total of 337,623 M1 Garands. A final, very small lot of M1s was produced by Springfield Armory in early 1957, using finished components already on hand. Beretta also produced Garands using Winchester tooling. The British Army looked at the M1 as a possible replacement for its bolt-action Lee–Enfield No.1 Mk III, but it


title: "M1 Garand" content: was rejected when rigorous testing suggested that it was an unreliable weapon in muddy conditions. However, surplus M1 rifles were provided as foreign aid to American allies; including South Korea, West Germany, Italy, Japan, Denmark, Greece, Turkey, Iran, South Vietnam, the Philippines, etc. Most Garands shipped to allied nations were predominantly manufactured by International Harvester Corporation during the period of 1953-56, and second from Springfield Armory from all periods. Some Garands were still being used by the United States into the Vietnam War in 1963; despite the M14's official adoption in 1957, it was not until 1965 that the changeover


title: "M1 Garand" content: from the M1 Garand was completed in the active-duty component of the army (with the exception of the sniper variants, which were introduced in World War II and saw action in Korea and Vietnam). The Garand remained in service with the Army Reserve, Army National Guard and the Navy, well into the early 1970s or longer. The South Korean army was using M1 Garands in the Vietnam War as late as 1966. Due to widespread United States military assistance as well their durability, M1 Garands have also been turning up in recent conflicts such as with the insurgencies in Iraq


title: "M1 Garand" content: and Afghanistan. Some military drill teams still use the M1 rifle, including the U.S. Marine Corps Silent Drill Team, the United States Air Force Academy Cadet Honor Guard, the U.S. Air Force Auxiliary, almost all Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) and some Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps (JROTC) teams of all branches of the U.S. military. The M1 rifle is a .30 caliber, gas-operated, 8 shot clip-fed, semi-automatic rifle. It is long and it weighs about . The M1's safety catch is located at the front of the trigger guard. It is engaged when it is pressed rearward into the


title: "M1 Garand" content: trigger guard, and disengaged when it is pushed forward and is protruding outside of the trigger guard. The M1 Garand was designed for simple assembly and disassembly to facilitate field maintenance. It can be field stripped (broken down) without tools in just a few seconds. The rifle had an iron sight line consisting of rear receiver aperture sight protected by sturdy "ears" calibrated for in increments. The bullet drop compensation was set by turning the range knob to the appropriate range setting. The bullet drop compensation/range knob can be fine adjusted by setting the rear sight elevation pinion. The elevation


title: "M1 Garand" content: pinion can be fine adjusted in approximately 1 MOA increments. The aperture sight was also able to correct for wind drift operated by turning a windage knob that moved the sight in approximately 1 MOA increments. The windage lines on the receiver to indicate the windage setting were 4 MOA apart. The front sighting element consisted of a wing guards protected front post. During World War II the M1 rifle's semiautomatic operation gave United States infantrymen a significant advantage in firepower and shot-to-shot recovery time over enemy infantrymen armed primarily with bolt-action rifles. The semi-automatic operation and reduced recoil allowed


title: "M1 Garand" content: soldiers to fire 8 rounds as quickly as they could pull the trigger, without having to move their hands on the rifle and therefore disrupt their firing position and point of aim. The Garand's fire rate, in the hands of a trained soldier, averaged 40–50 accurate shots per minute at a range of 300 yards (270 m). "At ranges over 500 yards (460 m), a battlefield target is hard for the average rifleman to hit. Therefore, 500 yards (460 m) is considered the maximum effective range, even though the rifle is accurate at much greater ranges." The M1 rifle is


title: "M1 Garand" content: fed by an "en bloc" clip which holds eight rounds of .30-06 Springfield ammunition. When the last cartridge is fired, the rifle ejects the clip and locks the bolt open. The M1 is now ready to reload. Once the clip is inserted, the bolt snaps forward on its own as soon as thumb pressure is released from the top round of the clip, chambering a round and leaving it ready to fire. Although it is not absolutely necessary, the preferred method is to place the back of the right hand against the operating rod handle and press the clip home


title: "M1 Garand" content: with the right thumb; this releases the bolt, but the hand restrains the bolt from slamming closed on the operator's thumb (resulting in "M1/Garand thumb"); the hand is then quickly withdrawn, the operating rod moves forward and the bolt closes with sufficient force to go fully to battery. Thus, after the clip has been pressed into position in the magazine, the operating rod handle should be released, allowing the bolt to snap forward under pressure from the operating rod spring. The operating rod handle may be smacked with the palm to ensure the bolt is closed. Contrary to widespread misconception,


title: "M1 Garand" content: partially expended or full clips can be easily ejected from the rifle by means of the clip latch button. It is also possible to load single cartridges into a partially loaded clip while the clip is still in the magazine, but this requires both hands and a bit of practice. In reality, this procedure was rarely performed in combat, as the danger of loading dirt along with the cartridges increased the chances of malfunction. Instead, it was much easier and quicker to simply manually eject the clip, and insert a fresh one, which is how the rifle was originally designed


title: "M1 Garand" content: to be operated. Later, special clips holding two or five rounds became available on the civilian market, as well as a single-loading device which stays in the rifle when the bolt locks back. In battle, the manual of arms called for the rifle to be fired until empty, and then recharged quickly. Due to the well-developed logistical system of the U.S. military at the time, this wastage of ammunition was generally not critical, though this could change in the case of units that came under intense fire or were flanked or surrounded by enemy forces. The Garand's en-bloc clip system


title: "M1 Garand" content: proved particularly cumbersome when using the rifle to launch grenades, requiring removal of an often partially loaded clip of ball ammunition and replacement with a full clip of blank cartridges. By modern standards, the M1's feeding system is archaic, relying on clips to feed ammunition, and is the principal source of criticism of the rifle. Officials in Army Ordnance circles demanded a fixed, non-protruding magazine for the new service rifle. At the time, it was believed that a detachable magazine on a general-issue service rifle would be easily lost by U.S. soldiers (a criticism made of British soldiers and the


title: "M1 Garand" content: Lee–Enfield 50 years previously), would render the weapon too susceptible to clogging from dirt and debris (a belief that proved unfounded with the adoption of the M1 Carbine), and that a protruding magazine would complicate existing manual-of-arms drills. As a result, inventor John Garand developed an "en bloc" clip system that allowed ammunition to be inserted from above, clip included, into the fixed magazine. While this design provided the requisite flush-mount magazine, the clip system increased the rifle's weight and complexity, and made only single loading ammunition possible without a clip. Ejection of an empty clip created a distinctive metallic


title: "M1 Garand" content: "pinging" sound. In World War II, reports arose in which German and Japanese infantry were making use of this noise in combat to alert them to an empty M1 rifle in order to 'get the drop' on their American enemies. The information was taken seriously enough that U.S. Army's Aberdeen Proving Ground began experiments with clips made of various plastics in order to soften the sound, though no improved clips were ever adopted. According to former German soldiers, the sound was inaudible during engagements and not particularly useful when heard, as other squad members might have been nearby ready to


title: "M1 Garand" content: fire. Due to the often intense deafening noise of combat and gunfire it is highly unlikely any U.S. servicemen were killed as a result of the ping noise; however some soldiers still took the issue very seriously. Garand's original design for the M1 used a complicated gas system involving a special muzzle extension gas trap, later dropped in favor of a simpler drilled gas port. Because most of the older rifles were retrofitted, pre-1939 "gas-trap" M1s are very rare today and are prized collector's items. In both systems, expanding gases from a fired cartridge are diverted into the gas cylinder.


title: "M1 Garand" content: Here, the gases meet a long-stroke piston attached to the operating rod, which is pushed rearward by the force of this high-pressure gas. Then, the operating rod engages a rotating bolt inside the receiver. The bolt is attached to the receiver via two locking lugs, which rotate, unlock, and initiate the ejection of the spent cartridge and the reloading cycle when the rifle is discharged. The operating rod (and subsequently the bolt) then returns to its original position. The M1 Garand was one of the first self-loading rifles to use stainless steel for its gas tube, in an effort to


title: "M1 Garand" content: prevent corrosion. As the stainless metal could not be parkerized, the gas tubes were given a stove-blackening that frequently wore off in use. Unless the gas tube could be quickly repainted, the resultant gleaming muzzle could make the M1 Garand and its user more visible to the enemy in combat. Several accessories were used with the Garand rifle. Several different styles of bayonets fit the rifle: the M1905 and M1942, both with 16-inch (406 mm) blades; the Model 1905E1 with shortened 10-inch (254 mm) blade; the M1 with 10-inch (254 mm) blade; and the M5 bayonet with 6.75-inch (171 mm)


title: "M1 Garand" content: blade. Also available was the M7 grenade launcher that fitted onto the end of the barrel. It was sighted using the M15 sight, which fit just forward of the trigger. A cleaning tool, oiler and greasepots could be stored in two cylindrical compartments in the buttstock for use in the field. Because of the limitations of the Garand's clip-loading magazine, the rifle proved less than ideal for use in launching 22 mm rifle grenades, and the M1903 Springfield was retained for use in that role long after grenade launchers for the Garand became available. The M1907 two-piece leather rifle sling


title: "M1 Garand" content: was the most common type of sling used with the weapon through World War II. In 1943 a khaki canvas sling was introduced that gradually became more common. Another accessory was the "winter trigger", developed during the Korean War. It consisted of a small mechanism installed on the trigger guard, allowing the soldier to remotely pull the trigger by depressing a lever just behind the guard. This enabled the shooter to fire his weapon while using winter gloves, which could get "stuck" on the trigger guard or not allow for proper movement of the finger. Most variants of the Garand,


title: "M1 Garand" content: save the sniper variants, never saw active duty. The sniper versions were modified to accept scope mounts, and two versions (the M1C, formerly M1E7, and the M1D, formerly M1E8) were produced, although not in significant quantities during World War II. The only difference between the two versions is the mounting system for the telescopic sight. In June 1944, the M1C was adopted as a standard sniper rifle by the U.S. Army to supplement the venerable M1903A4. Wartime production was 7,971 M1Cs. The procedure required to install the M1C-type mounts through drilling/tapping the hardened receiver reduced accuracy by warping the receiver.


title: "M1 Garand" content: Improved methods to avoid reduction of accuracy were inefficient in terms of tooling and time. This resulted in the development of the M1D, which utilized a simpler, single-ring Springfield Armory mount attached to the barrel rather than the receiver. The M1C was first widely used during the Korean War. Korean War production was 4,796 M1Cs and 21,380 M1Ds; although few M1Ds were completed in time to see combat. The U.S. Marine Corps adopted the M1C as their official sniper rifle in 1951. This USMC 1952 Sniper's Rifle or MC52 was an M1C with the commercial Stith Bear Cub scope manufactured


title: "M1 Garand" content: by the Kollmorgen Optical Company under the military designation: Telescopic Sight - Model 4XD-USMC. The Kollmorgen scope with a slightly modified Griffin & Howe mount was designated MC-1. The MC52 was also too late to see extensive combat in Korea, but it remained in Marine Corps inventories until replaced by bolt-action rifles during the Vietnam War. The U.S. Navy has also used the Garand, rechambered for the 7.62×51mm NATO round. The detachable M2 conical flash hider adopted 25 January 1945 slipped over the muzzle and was secured in place by the bayonet lug. A T37 flash hider was developed later.


title: "M1 Garand" content: Flash hiders were of limited utility during low-light conditions around dawn and dusk, but were often removed as potentially detrimental to accuracy. Two interesting variants, meant for tank crews, that never saw service were the M1E5 and T26 (popularly known as the "Tanker Garand"). The M1E5 is equipped with a shorter 18-inch (457 mm) barrel and a folding buttstock, while the T26 uses a shorter 18-inch (457 mm) barrel and a standard buttstock. The "Tanker" name was also used after the war as a marketing gimmick for commercially modified Garands. The T26 arose from requests by various Army combat commands


title: "M1 Garand" content: for a shortened version of the standard M1 rifle for use in jungle or mobile warfare. In July 1945 Col. William Alexander, former staff officer for Gen. Simon Buckner and a new member of the Pacific Warfare Board, requested urgent production of 15,000 carbine-length M1 rifles for use in the Pacific theater. To emphasize the need for rapid action, he requested the Ordnance arm of the U.S. 6th Army in the Philippines to make up 150 18" barreled M1 rifles for service trials, sending another of the rifles by special courier to U.S. Army Ordnance officials at Aberdeen as a


title: "M1 Garand" content: demonstration that the M1 could be easily modified to the new configuration. Although the T26 was never approved for production, at least one 18" barreled M1 rifle was used in action in the Philippines by troopers in the 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment (503rd PIR). Another variant that never saw duty was the T20E2. It was an experimental gas-operated, selective fire rifle with a slightly longer receiver than the M1 and modified to accept 20-round Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR) magazines. The rifle was machined and tapped on the left side of the receiver for a scope mount, and included the same


title: "M1 Garand" content: hardware for mounting a grenade launcher as the M1. The bolt had a hold open device on the rear receiver bridge, as well as a fire selector similar to the M14. Full automatic fire was achieved by a connector assembly which was actuated by the operating rod handle. This, in turn, actuated a sear release or trip which, with the trigger held to the rear, disengaged the sear from the hammer lugs immediately after the bolt was locked. In automatic firing, the cyclic rate of fire was 700 rpm. When the connector assembly was disengaged, the rifle could only be


title: "M1 Garand" content: fired semi-automatically and functioned in a manner similar to the M1 rifle. The T20 had an overall length of 48 1/4", a barrel length of 24", and weighed 9.61 lbs. without accessories and 12.5 lbs. with bipod and empty magazine. It was designated as limited procurement in May, 1945. Due to the cessation of hostilities with Japan, the number for manufacture was reduced to 100. The project was terminated in March 1948. Demilitarized models are rendered permanently inoperable. Their barrels have been drilled out to destroy the rifling. A steel rod is then inserted into the barrel and welded at


title: "M1 Garand" content: both ends. Sometimes, their barrels are also filled with molten lead or solder. Their gas ports or operating system are also welded closed. Their barrels are then welded to their receivers to prevent replacement. Their firing pin holes are welded closed on the bolt face. As a result, they cannot be loaded with, much less fire live ammunition. However, they may still be used for demonstration or instructional purposes. The Type 4 Rifle, often referred to as the Type 5 Rifle, (Japanese: 四式自動小銃 "Yon-shiki jidousyoujyuu") was a Japanese experimental semi-automatic rifle. It was a copy of the American M1 Garand


title: "M1 Garand" content: but with an integral 10-round magazine and chambered for the Japanese 7.7×58mm Arisaka cartridge. Where the Garand used an en-bloc clip, the Type 4's integral magazine was charged with two 5-round stripper clips and the rifle also used Japanese style tangent sights. The Type 4 had been developed alongside several other experimental semi-automatic rifles. However, none of the rifles entered into service before the end of World War II, with only 250 being made and many others were never assembled. There were several problems with jamming and feed systems, which also delayed its testing. During the 1950s, Beretta produced Garands


title: "M1 Garand" content: in Italy at the behest of NATO, by having the tooling used by Winchester during World War II shipped to them by the U.S. government. These rifles were designated "Model 1952" in Italy. Using this tooling, Beretta developed the BM59 series of rifles. The BM59, which was essentially a rechambered 7.62×51mm NATO caliber M1 fitted with a removable 20-round magazine, folding bipod and a combined flash suppressor/rifle grenade launcher. The BM59 is capable of selective fire. These rifles would also be produced under license in Indonesia as the "SP-1" series. The M14 rifle, officially the United States Rifle, 7.62 mm,


title: "M1 Garand" content: M14, is an American selective fire automatic rifle that fires 7.62×51mm NATO (.308 Winchester) ammunition. The M14 rifle is basically an improved select-fire M1 Garand with a 20-round magazine. The M14 rifle incorporated features of both the M1 rifle and the M1 Carbine, including the latter's short stroke piston design originally developed by Winchester Arms. Designed by L. James Sullivan and William B. Ruger, and produced by Sturm, Ruger & Co. the Mini-14 rifle employs an investment cast, heat-treated receiver and a version of the M1/M14 rifle locking mechanism. Although the Mini-14 looks like the M14, it utilizes a reduced-size


title: "M1 Garand" content: operating system, a different gas system and is chambered for the smaller .223 cartridge. In 1982, years after the closure of the U.S. Springfield Armory, a commercial firm - Springfield Armory, Inc. - began production of the M1 Rifle using a cast, heat-treated receiver with serial numbers in the 7,000,000+ range, along with commercially produced barrels (marked Geneseo, IL) and G.I. military surplus parts. United States citizens meeting certain qualifications may purchase U.S. military surplus M1 rifles through the Civilian Marksmanship Program (CMP). The CMP is run by the Corporation for the Promotion of Rifle Practice and Firearms Safety (CPRPFS),


title: "M1 Garand" content: a not-for-profit corporation chartered by the United States Congress in 1996 to instruct citizens in marksmanship and promote practice and safety in the use of firearms. The group holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code. From 1903 to 1996, the CMP was sponsored by the Office of the Director of Civilian Marksmanship (DCM), a position first within the Department of War and later in the Department of the Army. The DCM was normally an active-duty Army colonel. In 2009, an effort by the South Korean government to export about 850,000 firearms to the United States,


title: "M1 Garand" content: including 87,000 M1 rifles, for eventual sale to civilians, was initially approved by the Obama administration, but it later blocked the sale in March 2010. A State Department spokesman said the administration's decision was based on concerns that the guns could fall into the wrong hands and be used for criminal activity. However, in January 2012, the U.S. and South Korea agreed on the sale of 87,000 M1 Garand rifles, and the South Korean government entered into discussion with U.S. civilian arms dealers. Korea has a record of selling tens of thousands of M1 Garand rifles to the U.S. civilian


title: "M1 Garand" content: market between 1986 and 1994. In 2018, the CMP reported they had received a shipment of some 90-plus thousand M1 Garand rifles from the Philippine Islands and also stated plans to restore many of those rifles for civilian sale. In August 2013, the Obama administration banned future private importation of all U.S. made weapons, including the M1 Garand Note, that this action did not preclude the return of surplus U.S. weapons, including M1 Garands, previously loaned by the U.S. to friendly nations, to the custody of the U.S. Government; in recent years, the CMP has received most of its surplus


title: "M1 Garand" content: weapons through such returns from foreign countries. However, all civilian and military firearms imported into the U.S. after January 30, 2002, are required by federal law to have the name of the importer conspicuously stamped on the barrel, slide, or receiver of each weapon. This requirement significantly lowers a military weapon's value relative to those without the importation markings as they distract from its original state. Military surplus Garands and post-war copies made for the civilian market are popular among enthusiasts around the world. In 2013, John F. Kennedy's personal M1 Garand was auctioned by Rock Island Auction Company and


title: "M1 Garand" content: sold for $149,500. This rifle was acquired by Kennedy in 1959 from the Director of Civilian Marksmanship and has the serial number 6086970. M1 Garand The M1 Garand is a .30 caliber semi-automatic rifle that was the standard U.S. service rifle during World War II and the Korean War and also saw limited service during the Vietnam War. Most M1 rifles were issued to U.S. forces, though many hundreds of thousands were also provided as foreign aid to American allies. The Garand is still used by drill teams and military honor guards. It is also widely used by civilians for


title: "Lost in Space" content: humor, including fanciful space hippies, more pirates, off-beat inter-galactic zoos, ice princesses and "Lost in Space"'s beauty pageant. During the first two seasons, episodes concluded in a "live action freeze" anticipating the following week, with the cliff-hanger caption, "To be continued next week! Same time — same channel!" For the third season, the episode would conclude, immediately followed with a vocal "teaser" from the Robot (Dick Tufeld), warning viewers to "Stay tuned for scenes from next week's exciting adventure!", which would highlight the next episode, followed by the closing credits. After cancellation, the show was successful in reruns and in


title: "Richard Leakey" content: in that year. Their intent was to 'Kenyanise' and improve the National Museum. They offered the museum 5000 pounds, 1/3 of its yearly budget, if it would place Leakey in a responsible position. He was given an observer's seat on the board of directors. Joel Ojal, the government official in charge of the museum, and a member of the Associates, directed the chairman of the board to start placing Kenyans on it. Plans for the museum had not matured when Louis, intentionally or not, found a way to remove his confrontational son from the scene. Louis attended a lunch with


title: Sink content: Sink A sink — also known by other names including sinker, washbowl, hand basin and wash basin—is a bowl-shaped plumbing fixture used for washing hands, dishwashing, and other purposes. Sinks have taps (faucets) that supply hot and cold water and may include a spray feature to be used for faster rinsing. They also include a drain to remove used water; this drain may itself include a strainer and/or shut-off device and an overflow-prevention device. Sinks may also have an integrated soap dispenser. Many sinks, especially in kitchens, are installed adjacent to or inside a counter. When a sink becomes clogged,


title: Sink content: a person will often resort to use a chemical drain cleaner or a plunger, though most professional plumbers will remove the clog with a "drain auger" (often called a "plumber's snake"). The washstand was a bathroom sink made in the United States in the late 18th century. The washstands were small tables on which were placed a pitcher and a deep bowl, following the English tradition. Sometimes the table had a hole where the large bowl rested, which led to the making of dry sinks. From about 1820 to 1900 the dry sink evolved by the addition of a wooden


title: Sink content: cabinet with a trough built on the top, lined with zinc or lead. This is where the bowls or buckets for water were kept. Splashboards were sometimes added to the back wall, as well as shelves and drawers, the more elaborate designs usually placed in the kitchen. Sinks are made of many different materials. These include: Stainless steel is commonly used in kitchens and commercial applications because it represents a good trade-off between cost, usability, durability, and ease of cleaning. Most stainless steel sinks are made by drawing a sheet of stainless steel over a die. Some very deep sinks


title: Sink content: are fabricated by welding. Stainless steel sinks will not be damaged by hot or cold objects and resist damage from impacts. One disadvantage of stainless steel is that, being made of thin metal, they tend to be noisier than most other sink materials, although better sinks apply a heavy coating of vibration-damping material to the underside of the sink. Enamel over cast iron is a popular material for kitchen and bathroom sinks. Heavy and durable, these sinks can also be manufactured in a very wide range of shapes and colors. Like stainless steel, they are very resistant to hot or


title: Sink content: cold objects, but they can be damaged by sharp impacts and once the glass surface is breached, the underlying cast iron will often corrode, spalling off more of the glass. Aggressive cleaning will dull the surface, leading to more dirt accumulation. Enamel over steel is a similar-appearing but far less rugged and less cost-effective alternative. Solid ceramic sinks have many of the same characteristics as enamel over cast iron, but without the risk of surface damage leading to corrosion. Plastic sinks come in several basic forms: Soapstone sinks were once common, but today tend to be used only in very-high-end


title: Sink content: applications or applications that must resist caustic chemicals that would damage more-conventional sinks. Wood sinks are from the early days of sinks and baths were made from natural teak with no additional finishing. Teak is chosen because of its natural waterproofing properties – it has been used for hundreds of years in the marine industry for this reason. Teak also has natural antiseptic properties, which is a bonus for its use in baths and sinks. Glass sinks: A current trend in bathroom design is the handmade glass sink (often referred to as a vessel sink) which has become fashionable for


title: Sink content: wealthy homeowners. Stone sinks have been used for ages. Some of the more popular stones used are: marble, travertine, onyx, granite, and soap stone on high end sinks. Glass, concrete, and terrazzo sinks are usually designed for their aesthetic appeal and can be obtained in a wide variety of unusual shapes and colors such as floral shapes. Concrete and terrazzo are occasionally also used in very-heavy-duty applications such as janitorial sinks. "Self-rimming" ("top-mount") sinks sit in appropriately shaped holes roughly cut in the countertop (or substrate material) using a jigsaw or other cutter appropriate to the material at hand and


title: Sink content: are suspended by their rim. The rim then inherently forms a fairly close seal with the top surface of the countertop, especially when the sink is clamped into the hole from below. "Bottom-mount" or "under-mount" sinks are installed below the countertop surface. The edge of the countertop material is exposed at the hole created for the sink (and so must be a carefully finished edge rather than a rough cut). The sink is then clamped to the bottom of the material from below. Especially for bottom-mount sinks, silicone-based sealants are usually used to assure a waterproof joint between the sink


title: Sink content: and the countertop material. Advantages of an undermount sink include superior ergonomics and a contemporary look; disadvantages include extra cost in both the sink and the counter top. Also, no matter how carefully the cut out is made, the result is either a small ledge or overhang at the interface with the sink. This can create an environment for catching dirt and allowing germs to grow. Solid-surface plastic materials allow sinks to be made of the same plastic material as the countertop. These sinks can then easily be glued to the underside of the countertop material and the joint sanded


title: Sink content: flat, creating the usual invisible joint and completely eliminating any dirt-catching seam between the sink and the countertop. In a similar fashion, for stainless steel, a sink may be welded into the countertop; the joint is then ground to create a finished, concealed appearance. A "butler's sink" is a rectangular ceramic sink with a rounded rim which is set into a work surface. There are generally two kinds of butler's sinks: The London sink and the Belfast sink. In 2006, both types of sinks usually were across and front-to-back, with a depth of . London sinks were originally shallower than


title: Sink content: Belfast sinks. (One plumbing guide in 1921 suggested that the Belfast sink was deep.) Some believe this was because London had less access to fresh water (and thus a greater need to conserve water), but this theory is now contested. It is more likely the two sinks had different roles within the household. But that difference usually does not exist in the modern era, and both sinks are now shallow. The primary difference both in the past and today between a Belfast and London sink is that the Belfast sink is fitted with an overflow weir which prevented water from


title: Sink content: spilling over the sink's edge by draining it away and down into the wastewater plumbing. A "farmer's sink" is a deep sink that has a finished front. Set onto a countertop, the finished front of the sink remains exposed. This style of sink requires very little "reach-over" to access the sink. A "vessel sink" is a free-standing sink, generally finished and decorated on all sides, that sits directly on the surface of the furniture on which it is mounted. These sinks have become increasingly popular with bathroom designers because of the large range of materials, styles and finishes which they


title: Sink content: can show to good advantage. Pottery is made by a blend of clays, fillers and fluxes being fused together during the firing process. There are high fire clays and glazes which are heated to over 1200 °C (2200 °F) and are extremely resistant to fading, staining, burning, scratching and acid attack. Low fire clays, fired below 1200 °C, most often used by large commercial manufacturers and third world producers, while durable, are susceptible to scratching and wear over time. The clay body is first bisqued to about 1000 °C (1900 °F). In the second firing a white or coloured glaze


title: Sink content: is applied and is melted by heat which chemically and physically fuses the glass (glaze) to the clay body during the same firing process. Due to the firing process and natural clays used, it is normal for the product to vary in size and shape, and +/- 5 mm is normal. Some public restrooms feature "automatic sinks", which use a motion-sensing valve to detect the user's hands moving beneath the tap. They then turn the water on. Also, some kitchen sinks have mini sprays for multiple purposes. Sinks, especially those made of stainless steel, can be fitted with an integrated


title: Sink content: drainboard, allowing for the draining of washed dishes. There are many different shapes and sizes of sinks. Sink A sink — also known by other names including sinker, washbowl, hand basin and wash basin—is a bowl-shaped plumbing fixture used for washing hands, dishwashing, and other purposes. Sinks have taps (faucets) that supply hot and cold water and may include a spray feature to be used for faster rinsing. They also include a drain to remove used water; this drain may itself include a strainer and/or shut-off device and an overflow-prevention device. Sinks may also have an integrated soap dispenser. Many


title: "Michigan Terminal System" content: of MTS, the standalone TSS DASDI and DUMP/RESTORE utilities rather than MTS itself were used to create the one-disk starter system. There were also less formal "redistributions" where individual sites would send magnetic tapes containing new or updated work to a coordinating site. That site would copy the material to a common magnetic tape (RD1, RD2, ...), and send copies of the tape out to all of the sites. The contents of most the redistribution tapes seem to have been lost. Today, complete materials from the six full and the ten partial MTS distributions as well as from two redistributions


title: "Brandi Chastain" content: the team finish second in the regular season with a record securing a berth to the playoffs. The team eventually won the league's championship title after defeating the Atlanta Beat in penalty kicks. Chastain started in all 19 games in which she played during the regular season, scored 2 goals, and provided 5 assists. During the playoffs, she started in both games and scored two goals. The CyberRays finished in fifth place during the 2002 season with a record. Chastain started in all 18 games in which she played, scored 4 goals, and provided 3 assists. During the 2003 season,


title: Academy content: anything from schools to learned societies to funding agencies to private industry associations. National academies are bodies for scientists, artists or writers that are usually state-funded and often are given the role of controlling much of the state funding for research into their areas, or other forms of funding. Some use different terms in their name – the British Royal Society for example. The membership typically comprises distinguished individuals in the relevant field, who may be elected by the other members, or appointed by the government. They are essentially not schools or colleges, though some may operate teaching arms. The


title: Millennials content: end the generation in the late 1990s or early 2000s. United States Census Bureau defines the millennial generation as those born from 1982–2000. Goldman Sachs, Resolution Foundation, all use 1980–2000. SYZYGY, a digital service agency partially owned by WPP, uses 1981–1998. The Asia Business Unit of Corporate Directions, Inc describes millennials as born between 1981–2000, The United States Chamber of Commerce uses 1980–1999. The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary describes millennials as those born roughly between the 1980s and 1990s. A 2013 "Time" magazine cover story used 1980 or 1981 as start dates. Demographers William Straus and Neil Howe who are widely


title: "Bobbin lace" content: Bobbin lace Bobbin lace is a lace textile made by braiding and twisting lengths of thread, which are wound on bobbins to manage them. As the work progresses, the weaving is held in place with pins set in a lace pillow, the placement of the pins usually determined by a pattern or pricking pinned on the pillow. Bobbin lace is also known as pillow lace, because it was worked on a pillow, and bone lace, because early bobbins were made of bone or ivory. Bobbin lace is one of the two major categories of handmade laces, the other being needlelace,


title: "Bobbin lace" content: derived from earlier cutwork and reticella. A will of 1493 by the Milanese Sforza family mentions lace created with twelve bobbins. Bobbin lace evolved from passementerie or braid-making in 16th-century Italy. Genoa was famous for its braids, hence it is not surprising to find bobbin lace developed in the city. It traveled along with the Spanish troops through Europe. Coarse "passements" of gold and silver-wrapped threads or colored silks gradually became finer, and later bleached linen yarn was used to make both braids and edgings. The making of bobbin lace was easier to learn than the elaborate cutwork of the


title: "Bobbin lace" content: 16th century, and the tools and materials for making linen bobbin lace were inexpensive. There was a ready market for bobbin lace of all qualities, and women throughout Europe soon took up the craft which earned a better income than spinning, sewing, weaving or other home-based textile arts. Bobbin lace-making was established in charity schools, almshouses, and convents. In the 17th century, the textile centers of Flanders and Normandy eclipsed Italy as the premiere sources for fine bobbin lace, but until the coming of mechanization hand-lacemaking continued to be practiced throughout Europe, suffering only in those periods of simplicity when


title: "Bobbin lace" content: lace itself fell out of fashion. Bobbin lace may be made with coarse or fine threads. Traditionally it was made with linen, silk, wool, or, later, cotton threads, or with precious metals. Today it is made with a variety of natural and synthetic fibers and with wire and other filaments. Elements of bobbin lace may include toile or "toilé" (clothwork), "réseau" (the net-like ground of continuous lace), fillings of part laces, tapes, gimp, picots, tallies, ribs and rolls. Not all styles of bobbin lace include all these elements. Many styles of lace were made in the heyday of lacemaking (approximately


title: "Bobbin lace" content: the 16th–18th centuries) before machine-made lace became available. The advent of machine-made lace at first pushed lace-makers into more complicated designs beyond the capabilities of early machines, then simpler designs so they could compete on price, and finally pushed them out of business almost entirely. The resurgence of lace-making is a recent phenomenon and is mostly done as a hobby. Lacemaking groups still meet in regions as varied as Devonshire, England and Orange County, California. In the European towns where lace was once a major industry, especially in Belgium, England, Spain (Camariñas and Almagro), northern and centre Portugal, France and


title: "Bobbin lace" content: Slovenia lacemakers still demonstrate the craft and sell their wares, though their customer base has shifted from the wealthy nobility to the curious tourist. Still new types of lace are being developed such as the 3D Rosalibre and a colored version of Milanese lace by borrowing rolls from Duchesse lace to store various shades and colors. Other artists are giving grounds a major role by distorting and varying stitches, pin distances and thread sizes or colours. The variations are explored by experimentation and mathematics and algorithms. The lace maintaining its shape without stiffening is no longer a requirement. Inspiring journals,


title: "Bobbin lace" content: guilds and foundations show that old techniques with a new twist can challenge young people to create works that can definitely classify as art. A Dutch design graduate in 2006 discovered bobbin lace was a technique to make a fancy fence. The first fences became museum pieces. The fences are now produced in Bangalore by concrete rebar plaiters. The major tools to make bobbin lace are a pillow, bobbins, pins and prickings. The part laces also require a crochet hook, very fine types of lace require very fine hooks. There are different types of pillows and bobbins linked to areas,


title: "Bobbin lace" content: eras and type of lace. The pillows must be firm, or otherwise the pins will wobble. The pillows were traditionally stuffed with straw, but nowadays polystyrene (styrofoam) is generally used. An early type of pillow can be seen in The Lace-Maker by Caspar Netscher. The pillow has a wooden frame, and is slightly sloping. The lace-maker rests it on her lap. The bolster or cylindrical pillow was much cheaper to make as it is just a fabric bag stuffed with straw. It was used in Bedfordshire lace. It needs a stand as it does not have a flat bottom. Usually


title: "Bobbin lace" content: the bolster had the pattern pinned round the cylinder, so by turning the pillow, the lace could be as long as was needed. However, Maltese lacemakers used the pillow the other way. They had a long thin pillow, which they rested against something. Then they worked the lace down the length of the pillow. This problem (of the lace needing to be longer than the pillow) is solved in a different way by the roller pillow, which has a small roller, for working the lace, set into a larger area, where the bobbins are laid. This means that the pattern


title: "Bobbin lace" content: can be pinned round the roller, but the pillow has a flat bottom. The cheapest modern pillow is domed and made of polystyrene (styrofoam). It is often called a cookie pillow, because of its shape. Another modern pillow is a block pillow, with a frame which holds covered polystyrene blocks. The blocks can be moved around as the lace progresses, to keep the lace being worked on at the centre of the pillow. Lacemaking is considered a folk art with technique and materials varying widely across the globe. Most lacemakers belong to regional guilds within their country of origin. Guilds


title: "Bobbin lace" content: can be devoted to one kind of lace, often that which developed locally, or may include makers of all kinds. In the United States, most guilds are organized within chapters of the International Organization of Lace, Inc which also includes Canadian lace guilds. IOLI has one of the largest libraries of lace related materials and is available to all dues paying members. IOLI hosts a rotating annual conference for lacemakers of all abilities. Internationally, the Organisation Internationale de la Dentelle au Fuseau et à l'Aiguille (International Bobbin and Needle Lace Organization) is the primary governing and networking body for lacemakers.


title: "Bobbin lace" content: OIFDA organizes annual global congresses, regional fairs, and local gatherings to promote the appreciation and knowledge of lacemaking. Bobbin lace Bobbin lace is a lace textile made by braiding and twisting lengths of thread, which are wound on bobbins to manage them. As the work progresses, the weaving is held in place with pins set in a lace pillow, the placement of the pins usually determined by a pattern or pricking pinned on the pillow. Bobbin lace is also known as pillow lace, because it was worked on a pillow, and bone lace, because early bobbins were made of bone


title: "James B. Weaver" content: He was nominated on the first ballot, easily besting his closest rival, Senator James H. Kyle of South Dakota. Weaver accepted the nomination and promised to "visit every state in the Union and carry the banner of the people into the enemy's camp". The vice presidential nomination went to James G. Field, a Confederate veteran and former Attorney General of Virginia. The platform adopted in Omaha was ambitious for its time, calling for a graduated income tax, public ownership of the railroads, telegraph, and telephone systems, government-issued currency, and the unlimited coinage of silver (the idea that the United States