title: PLEXIL content: PLEXIL PLEXIL (Plan Execution Interchange Language) is an open source technology for automation, created and currently in development by NASA. PLEXIL is a programming language for representing plans for automation. The PLEXIL Executive is an execution engine that implements PLEXIL and can be interfaced (using a provided software framework) with external systems to be controlled and/or queried. PLEXIL has been used to demonstrate automation technologies targeted at future NASA space missions. Applications of PLEXIL have included control of hardware prototypes (planetary rovers and drills, the Habitat Demonstration Unit, and procedure automation for the International Space Station. The binaries and documentation


title: "Christian K. Wedemeyer" content: Christian K. Wedemeyer Christian Konrad Wedemeyer, FRAS (born 1969) is an American scholar and political and social activist. He is Associate Professor of the History of Religions and Chair of the History of Religions Area at the Divinity School, an associate member of the Department of South Asian Languages and Civilizations, and Assistant Marshal of the University of Chicago. In February 2008, he was elected to a four-year term as Committeeman for the 5th Ward of the City of Chicago, Illinois (Green Party); and he was reappointed for a second term in 2012. In June 2014, he was elected Secretary


title: "Futsal in Libya" content: Futsal in Libya Futsal in Libya is governed by the Libyan Football Federation. It is one of the most popular sports in the country, and is widely played. The Libya national futsal team made their first official appearance at the African Futsal Championship in Egypt in 2000. They have won several titles, including the African Futsal Championship in 2008, the Arab Futsal Championship in 2007, 2008 & the North African Futsal Cup in 2005, 2009 & 2010. Libya reached the finals of the FIFA Futsal World Cup for the first time in 2008. List of Libya national futsal team matches


title: "This Land (album)" content: This Land (album) This Land is the fifth album by Bill Frisell to be released on the Elektra Nonesuch label. It was released in 1994 and features performances by Frisell, Billy Drewes, Curtis Fowlkes, Kermit Driscoll and Joey Baron. The Allmusic review by Glenn Astarita awarded the album 4 stars, stating, "The guitarist's now familiar penchant for constructing climactic opuses framed upon his deft utilization of volume control and often-slithery mode of attack counterbalances the horn sections' pumping notes and harmonious choruses. Essentially, melody is the key throughout these pleasantly arranged pieces, as Frisell makes his axe talk and cry


title: "Tropical Easterly Jet" content: Tropical Easterly Jet The Tropical Easterly Jet is the meteorological term referring to an upper level easterly wind that starts in late June and continues until early September. This strong flow of air that develops in the upper atmosphere during the Asian monsoon is centred on 15°N, 50-80°E and extends from South-East Asia to Africa. The strongest development of the jet is at about 15 km above the Earth's surface with wind speeds of up to 40 m/s over the Indian Ocean. Tropical Easterly Jet(TEJ) comes into existence quickly after the Sub Tropical Jet(STJ) has shifted to the north of


title: "Sukumo Station" content: from Sukumo reopened on 1 November 2005. Sukumo Station Sukumo Station is served by the Tosa Kuroshio Railway Sukumo Line (Station TK47). The elevated station consists of two bay platforms serving two terminating tracks. Stairs and an elevator connect the platforms to the station office on the ground floor. This station has a Midori no Madoguchi ticket office. !colspan=5|Tosa Kuroshio Railway The station opened on 1 October 1997. Services between Sukumo and Nakamura were suspended from 2 March 2005 following a collision. Local services only were resumed from 7 April 2005 between Higashi-Sukumo and Nakamura, and limited express services were


title: "2. deild" content: Clubs in bold were promoted. In bold clubs currently playing in 2. deild. In "italics" the clubs that no longer exist. 2. deild 2. deild, is the third tier of football in the Faroe Islands. It was originally the second tier; however, following a reorganization in 1976, it became a third tier league. The league was founded in 1943 and was named "Meðaldeildin" (The Middle Division): this was 1 year after the founding of the "Meistaradeildin", the original top level Faroe Islands football league. There was no promotion and relegation system at the time, and the two leagues operated separately


title: "Rick Seibold" content: Charts, putting Seibold's first record among the top selling independent albums in the first two quarters of 2008, selling nearly 25,000 units in that time and reaching as high as #27 on January 26. In addition, "That's the Day" reached as high as #3 in Canada, and #18 in the United Kingdom. Seibold released his 2nd EP in April 2009 entitled "New York". It was recorded over a four-month period during the fall and winter months of 2008 in Nashville, Tennessee. After spending more than two months experimenting in his own studio in Nashville, Rick worked with indie producer Cason


title: "Cross of Solomon Islands" content: British Empire, and below the Knight/Dame Grand Cross of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire. The medal, designed by Patrick O'Callaghan, is two inches in overall size and made in silver gilt and enamels. The stright armed cross pattee in silver gilt has linking the four arms the crescent shape symbol of the paramount chiefs. Each such link contains a double headed frigate bird which is cast into the crescent shape. In the centre the shield only of the Solomon Islands Coat-of-Arms in full colour enamels sits on a green enamel background. This is surrounded by a royal


title: "George de Roerich" content: George de Roerich George Nicolas de Roerich (Russian: Юрий Николаевич Рёрих, ; August 16, 1902 in Okulovka, Novgorod Governorate – May 21, 1960 in Moscow) was a prominent 20th century Tibetologist. His name at birth was Yuri Nikolaevich Rerikh. George's work encompassed many areas of Tibetan studies, but in particular he is known for his contributions to Tibetan dialectology, his monumental translation of the "Blue Annals", and his 11-volume Tibetan-Russian-English dictionary (published posthumously). George was the son of the painter and explorer Nicholas Roerich and Helena Roerich. Much of Roerich's early life was spent in Saint Petersburg. His brother, Svetoslav


title: "Dalmatian dog" content: Dalmatian dog The Dalmatian is a breed of medium-sized dog, noted for its unique black or liver spotted coat and mainly used as a carriage dog in its early days. Its roots trace back to Croatia and its historical region of Dalmatia. Today, it is a popular family pet and many dog enthusiasts enter Dalmatians into kennel club competitions. The Dalmatian is a medium sized, well-defined, muscular dog with excellent endurance and stamina. When fully grown, according to the American Kennel Club breed standard, it stands from tall, with males usually slightly larger than females. Both the AKC and The


title: "Dalmatian dog" content: Kennel Club in the UK allows height up to but that isn't ideal. The outline of the dog should be square when viewed from the side: The body is as long from forechest to buttocks as it is tall at the withers, and the shoulders are well-laid back, the stifle is well-bent and the hocks are well-let down. The Dalmatian's feet are round with well-arched toes, and the nails are usually white or the same colour as the dog's spots. The thin ears taper towards the tip and are set fairly high and close to the head. Eye color varies


title: "Dalmatian dog" content: between brown, amber, or blue, with some dogs having one blue eye and one brown eye, or other combinations. Dalmatian puppies are born with plain white coats and their first spots usually appear within 3 to 4 weeks after birth, however spots are visible on their skin. After about a month, they have most of their spots, although they continue to develop throughout life at a much slower rate. Spots usually range in size from 30 to 60 mm, and are most commonly black or brown (liver) on a white background. Other, more rare colors, include blue (a blue-grayish color),


title: "Dalmatian dog" content: brindle, mosaic, tricolor-ed (with tan spotting on the eyebrows, cheeks, legs, and chest), and orange or lemon (dark to pale yellow). Patches of color may appear anywhere on the body, mostly on the head or ears, and usually, consist of a solid color. Patches are visible at birth and are not a group of connected spots and are identifiable by the smooth edge of the patch. The Dalmatian coat is usually short, fine, and dense; however, smooth-coated Dalmatians occasionally produce long-coated offspring. Long-coated Dalmatians are not acceptable in the breed standard, however, these individuals experience much less shedding than their


title: "Dalmatian dog" content: smooth-coated counterparts, which shed considerably year-round. The standard variety's short, stiff hairs often weave into carpet, clothing, upholstery and nearly any other kind of fabric and can be difficult to remove. Weekly grooming with a hound mitt or curry can lessen the amount of hair Dalmatians shed, although nothing can completely prevent shedding. Due to the minimal amount of oil in their coats, Dalmatians lack a dog odor ("dog smell") and stay fairly clean relative to many other dog breeds. Dalmatians usually have litters of six to nine pups, but they have been known to have larger litters on occasion,


title: "Dalmatian dog" content: such as a massive eighteen puppy brood born in January 2009 (all were healthy). Puppies are born without spots, which develop and darken as the pup ages. Dalmatians are a relatively healthy and easy to keep breed. Like other breeds, Dalmatians display a propensity towards certain health problems specific to their breed, such as deafness, allergies and urinary stones. Reputable breeders have their puppies BAER (Brainstem Auditory Evoked Response) tested to ensure the status of the hearing on their pups. The Dalmatian Club of America lists the average lifespan of a Dalmatian at between 11 and 13 years, although some


title: "Dalmatian dog" content: can live as long as 15 to 16 years. Breed health surveys in the US and the UK show an average lifespan of 9.9 and 11.55 years, respectively. In their late teens, both males and females may suffer bone spurs and arthritic conditions. Autoimmune thyroiditis may be a relatively common condition for the breed, affecting 11.6% of dogs. A genetic predisposition for deafness is a serious health problem for Dalmatians; only about 70% have normal hearing. Deafness was not recognized by early breeders, so the breed was thought to be unintelligent. Even after recognizing the problem as a genetic fault,


title: "Dalmatian dog" content: breeders did not understand the dogs' nature, and deafness in Dalmatians continues to be a frequent problem. Researchers now know deafness in albino and piebald animals is caused by the absence of mature melanocytes in the inner ear. This may affect one or both ears. The condition is also common in other canine breeds that share a genetic propensity for light pigmentation. This includes, but is not limited to Bull Terriers, Dogo Argentinos, Poodles, Boxers, Border Collies and Great Danes. Typically, only dogs with bilateral hearing are bred, although those with unilateral hearing, and even dogs with bilateral deafness, make


title: "Dalmatian dog" content: fine pets with appropriate training. The Dalmatian Club of America's position on deaf pups is that they should not be used for breeding, and that humane euthanasia may be considered as an "alternative to placement". Deaf Dalmatian puppies can be difficult to home, due to increased aggression and difficulty in managing behavior. Dalmatians with large patches of colour present at birth may have a lower rate of deafness. Selecting for this trait may reduce the frequency of deafness in the breed. However, patches are a disqualifying factor in Dalmatian breed standards in an effort to preserve the spotted coat (the


title: "Dalmatian dog" content: continual breeding of patched dogs would result in heavily patched Dalmatians with few spots). Blue-eyed Dalmatians are thought to have a greater incidence of deafness than brown-eyed Dalmatians, although a mechanism of association between the two characteristics has yet to be conclusively established. Some kennel clubs discourage the use of blue-eyed dogs in breeding programs. Hip dysplasia is another disease that affects nearly 5% of purebred Dalmatians, causing those to experience limping, fatigue, moderate to severe pain, and trouble standing up. Most Dalmatians who eventually develop hip dysplasia are born with normal hips, but the soft tissues surrounding the joint


title: "Dalmatian dog" content: grow abnormally due to their genetic make-up. The disease may affect both hips, or only the right or left hip, leading afflicted dogs to walk or run with an altered gait. Dalmatians, like humans, can suffer from hyperuricemia. Dalmatians' livers have trouble breaking down uric acid, which can build up in the blood serum (hyperuricemia) causing gout. Uric acid can also be excreted in high concentration into the urine, causing kidney stones and bladder stones. These conditions are most likely to occur in middle-aged males. Males over 10 are prone to kidney stones and should have their calcium intake reduced


title: "Dalmatian dog" content: or be given preventive medication. To reduce the risk of gout and stones, owners should carefully limit the intake of purines by avoiding giving their dogs food containing organ meats, animal byproducts, or other high-purine ingredients. Hyperuricemia in Dalmatians responds to treatment with orgotein, the veterinary formulation of the antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase. Hyperuricemia in Dalmatians (as in all breeds) is inherited, but unlike other breeds, the "normal" gene for uricase is not present in the breed's gene pool. Therefore, there is no possibility of eliminating hyperuricemia among pure-bred Dalmatians. The only possible solution to this problem must then be


title: "Dalmatian dog" content: crossing Dalmatians with other breeds to reintroduce the "normal" uricase gene. This led to the foundation of the Dalmatian-Pointer Backcross Project, which aims to reintroduce the normal uricase gene into the Dalmatian breed. The backcross used a single English Pointer; subsequent breedings have all been to purebred Dalmatians. This project was started in 1973 by Dr. Robert Schaible. The first cross (F1) hybrids did not resemble Dalmatians very closely. The F1s were then crossed back to purebreds. This breeding produced puppies of closer resemblance to the pure Dalmatian. By the fifth generation in 1981, they resembled purebreds so much, Dr.


title: "Dalmatian dog" content: Schaible convinced the AKC to allow two of the hybrids to be registered as purebreds. Then AKC President William F. Stifel stated, "If there is a logical, scientific way to correct genetic health problems associated with certain breed traits and still preserve the integrity of the breed standard, it is incumbent upon the American Kennel Club to lead the way." The Dalmatian Club of America's (DCA) board of directors supported this decision, however it quickly became highly controversial among the club members. A vote by DCA members opposed the registration of the hybrids, causing the AKC to ban registration to


title: "Dalmatian dog" content: any of the dog's offspring. At the annual general meeting of the DCA in May 2006, the backcross issue was discussed again by club members. In June of the same year, DCA members were presented with an opportunity to vote on whether to reopen discussion of the Dalmatian Backcross Project. The results of this ballot were nearly 2:1 in favor of re-examining support of the project by the DCA. This has begun with publication of articles presenting more information both in support of and questioning the need for this project. In July 2011, the AKC agreed to allow registration of


title: "Dalmatian dog" content: backcrossed Dalmatians. In 2010, the UK Kennel Club registered a backcrossed Dalmatian called Ch. Fiacre’s First and Foremost. Several restrictions were imposed on the dog. Although the dog is at least 13 generations removed from the original Pointer cross, its F1 to F3 progeny will be marked on registration certificates with asterisks (which "indicate impure or unverified breeding",) no progeny will be eligible to be exported as pedigrees for the next five years, and all have to be health tested. UK Dalmatian breed clubs have objected to the decision by the Kennel Club. The Dalmatian Heritage Project began in 2005.


title: "Dalmatian dog" content: The goal of the project is to preserve and improve the Dalmatian breed by breeding parent dogs with the following traits: All puppies in the Heritage Project are descendants of Dr. Robert Schaible's parent line. Today, "Dr. Schaible’s line produces the only Dalmatians in the world today that are free of a metabolic defect that can lead to urinary tract problems." The FCI recognized Croatia as its country of origin, citing several historical sources. The first illustrations of the dog have been found in Croatia: an altar painting in Veli Lošinj dating to 1600–1630, and a fresco in Zaostrog. The


title: "Dalmatian dog" content: first documented descriptions of the Dalmatian () trace back to the early 18th century and the archives of the Archdiocese of Đakovo, where the dog was mentioned and described as "Canis Dalmaticus" in the church chronicles from 1719 by Bishop Petar Bakić and then again by church chronicles of Andreas Keczkeméty in 1739. In 1771, Thomas Pennant described the breed in his book "Synopsis of Quadrupeds", writing that the origin of the breed is from Dalmatia, he referred to it as "Dalmatian". The book by Thomas Bewick "A General History of Quadrupeds" published in 1790 refers to the breed as


title: "Dalmatian dog" content: "Dalmatian or Coach Dog". During the Regency period, the Dalmatian became a status symbol trotting alongside the horse-drawn carriages and those with decorative spotting were highly prized. For this reason, the breed earned the epithet 'the Spotted Coach Dog.' The breed was also used to guard the stables at night. The breed had been developed and cultivated chiefly in England. The first unofficial standard for the breed was introduced by an Englishman Vero Shaw in 1882. In 1890 with the formation of the first Dalmatian Club in England the standard became official. When the dog with the distinctive markings was


title: "Dalmatian dog" content: first shown in England in 1862, it was said to have been used as a guard dog and companion to the nomads of Dalmatia. The breed's unique coat became popular and widely distributed over the continent of Europe beginning in 1920. Its unusual markings were often mentioned by the old writers on cynology. The roles of this ancient breed are as varied as their reputed ancestors. They were used as dogs of war, guarding the borders of Dalmatia. To this day, the breed retains a high guarding instinct; although friendly and loyal to those the dog knows and trusts, it


title: "Dalmatian dog" content: is often aloof with strangers and unknown dogs. Dalmatians have a strong hunting instinct and are an excellent exterminator of rats and vermin. In sporting, they have been used as bird dogs, trail hounds, retrievers, or in packs for wild boar or stag hunting. Their dramatic markings and intelligence have made them successful circus dogs throughout the years. Dalmatians are perhaps best known for working for the firefighters for their role as firefighting apparatus escorts and firehouse mascots. Since Dalmatians and horses are very compatible, the dogs were easily trained to run in front of the carriages to help clear


title: "Dalmatian dog" content: a path and quickly guide the horses and firefighters to the fires. Dalmatians are often considered to make good watchdogs, and they may have been useful to fire brigades as guard dogs to protect a firehouse and its equipment. Fire engines used to be drawn by fast and powerful horses, a tempting target for thieves, so Dalmatians were kept in the firehouse as deterrence to theft. Dalmatians are associated with firefighting, particularly in the United States. In the days of horse-drawn fire engines, dogs would guard the horses, who could easily become uncomfortable at the scene of a fire. Dalmatians


title: "Dalmatian dog" content: were a popular breed for this job, due to their natural affinity to horses and history of being used as carriage dogs. This role became redundant once horse-drawn fire engines were replaced with steam and diesel powered ones. Due to its history, the Dalmatian often serves as a mascot for the fire service, and is still chosen by many firefighters as a pet. The Dalmatian is also the mascot of the Pi Kappa Alpha International Fraternity, which has been associated with firefighting. The Dalmatian is also associated, particularly in the United States, with Budweiser beer and the Busch Gardens theme


title: "Dalmatian dog" content: parks, since the Anheuser-Busch company's iconic beer wagon, drawn by a team of Clydesdale horses, is always accompanied by a Dalmatian. The company maintains several teams at various locations, which tour extensively. Dalmatians were historically used by brewers to guard the wagon while the driver was making deliveries. The Dalmatian breed experienced a massive surge in popularity as a result of the 1956 novel "The Hundred and One Dalmatians" written by British author Dodie Smith, and later due to the two Walt Disney films based on the book. The Disney animated film, released in 1961, later spawned a 1996 live-action


title: "Dalmatian dog" content: remake, "101 Dalmatians". In the years following the release of the sequel "102 Dalmatians", the breed suffered greatly at the hands of irresponsible breeders and inexperienced owners. Many well-meaning enthusiasts purchased Dalmatians—often for their children—without educating themselves on the breed and the responsibilities that come with owning such a high-energy dog breed. Dalmatians were abandoned in large numbers by their original owners and left with animal shelters. As a result, Dalmatian rescue organizations sprang up to care for the unwanted dogs and find them new homes. AKC registrations of Dalmatians decreased 90% during the 2000–2010 period. Dalmatian dog The Dalmatian


title: "Sympetrum vicinum" content: Sympetrum vicinum Sympetrum vicinum, the yellow-legged meadowhawk or autumn meadowhawk, is a member of the Libellulidae family and grows to 26–35 mm long. This is a small naiad, with a length of . It is mottled green and brown in color. The abdomen has several large hooks along the top, and the last two abdominal segments have a single, large, rear-facing spine on each side. This species has bigger eyes than other members of this genus. This is a small dragonfly, with a length of . The wings are mostly clear but have a small patch of yellowish to orange


title: "Sympetrum vicinum" content: clouding at the base of each hindwing. Mature males are brownish black on the face and thorax and have a red abdomen, while immature males have a yellow thorax and a yellowish brown abdomen. Females have a brown thorax and a brownish-red abdomen. As its common name implies, the legs of the adults are yellow. You can see this dragonfly in, and around marshes, ponds and slow-moving streams throughout the eastern United States, southern Canada, the Great Plains, and the west coast of North America. This species has two separate populations in North America. One is found from Ontario east


title: "Sympetrum vicinum" content: to Nova Scotia, extending south into the U.S. to Texas and Florida. The other population occurs in British Columbia, Washington, and Idaho. Late July to early November Naiads feed on a wide variety of aquatic insects, such as mosquito larvae, other aquatic fly larvae, mayfly larvae, and freshwater shrimp. They will also eat very small fish and tadpoles. The dragonfly will eat almost any soft-bodied flying insect including mosquitoes, flies, small moths, mayflies, and flying ants or termites. The naiads live in the debris of the bottoms of lakes and ponds. They do not actively pursue prey but wait for


title: "Sympetrum vicinum" content: it to pass by, a strategy which affords them protection from other predators. The naiads emerge, or make the transition to adult dragonflies, at night. Adults fly from early August through October. This species flies later in the fall than any other species in the Northwest, with observations as late as October 29 in Idaho, and into November in Washington. The adults of this species hunt flying insects from perches on rocks or bare branches. The Latin name for this genus, Sympetrum, means "with rock" and refers to their habit of basking on rocks to absorb heat early in the


title: "Sympetrum vicinum" content: day. This dragonfly is extremely abundant where it occurs, with large numbers of pairs flying and laying eggs in tandem. The female flies with the male still attached after mating (a position called "in tandem") and lays her eggs near the shoreline of lakes and ponds by dipping the tip of her abdomen on the surface of the water. Large-mouth bass ("Micropterus salmoides") have been observed following mated pairs of dragonflies as they fly just above the surface, and then eating them as they touch the surface to lay eggs. Populations are widespread, abundant, and secure. Sympetrum vicinum Sympetrum vicinum,


title: "Michael McKillop" content: again. He is coached by his father Paddy, who was awarded "Northern Ireland Sports Coach of the Year". McKillop has a personal best in his preferred 800 metres of 1:57.22. In 2012, McKillop was awarded the Whang Youn Dai Achievement Award. McKillop works as a fitness instructor and motivational speaker. Michael McKillop Michael Gerard McKillop (born 27 January 1990 in Ballymena, Northern Ireland) is an Irish middle distance runner. He competes in the T37 disability sport classification, as he has a mild form of cerebral palsy. He won the 800m title at the 2006 IPC Athletics World Championships, clocking just


title: "Bicol River" content: Ragay Hills consists of fine alluvium clay and reworked colluviums. The climate is influenced by the Northeast Monsoon winds and the Pacific trade winds. These Monsoon winds create the low pressure area in the Pacific Ocean, resulting in tropical cyclones that affect the area in November and December. Rainfall occurs throughout the year with low rainfall between January to May and high rainfall between June and December. In the lower basin, mean annual rainfall ranges between 1,850-2,300 mm. The main factors influencing rainfall are the air streams, the inter-tropical convergence zone and topography. The mean temperatures are high throughout the


title: "Climate change in New Zealand" content: reduce carbon emissions by 30 percent below 2005 levels by 2030. The National Party also committed to achieving 90 percent of New Zealand's energy as renewable, alongside investing 4 million dollars into New Zealand becoming closer to a low carbon economy. The National government also focused on transport, committing to invest in public transport, electric vehicles and cycleways to reduce use of non-renewable energy run vehicle use. In the 2017 general election the Green Party leader James Shaw announced that the Green Party was taking “real climate action”, focusing on climate change policy where New Zealand could best adapt to


title: "Amer Khan" content: club where he has trained since he was 13 years old. Amer Khan Amer Khan (born 21 February 1981 in Sheffield) was a light heavyweight boxer based in Sheffield, England. He was a National Amateur champion and an undefeated former Central Area light heavyweight champion. Khan made his debut in 2003, however was largely inactive, making infrequent appearance. Khan beat Darren Stubs to become the BBBofC Central Area light heavyweight champion in 2006, and has been inactive since 2007. He has previously helped in raising funds for the Kashmir earthquake. Outside of boxing, he was an ambulance driver. He's currently


title: "Fortaleza Ozama" content: Fortaleza Ozama The Ozama Fortress () was built in 1502 by the Spanish at the entrance to Santo Domingo's Ciudad Colonial, Dominican Republic, and overlooking the Ozama River. Named after this river, the castle, also referred to as "La Fortaleza" or "The Fortress", is the oldest formal military construction of European origin in the Americas. It was declared by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, together with the other historical monuments of the Ciudad Colonial. An impressive architectural structure of medieval style and design, the Tower of Homage (Spanish: Torre del Homenaje) stands in the center of the grounds. The


title: "Fortaleza Ozama" content: castle was designed to guard the entrance to the port of Santo Domingo and defend the city from seaborne enemies. Construction began in 1502 and it was completed in 1505. The entrance gate on Calle Damas was originally built in 1608, known as the Prevention Gate. The castle was well-built enough to serve as a prison until the 1960s. When the prison was closed, the "Fortaleza" was opened to the public. It is located at the end of Las Damas Street. Fortaleza Ozama The Ozama Fortress () was built in 1502 by the Spanish at the entrance to Santo Domingo's


title: "Zachary Karabell" content: He earned his PhD in history/international relations from Harvard in 1996. His most recent book, "The Leading Indicators: A Short History of the Numbers That Rule Our World", was published by Simon & Schuster in February 2014. His next book will be a two-century history of money, power and the making of America using the firm Brown Brothers Harriman as the narrative arc, to be published by Penguin Press in 2019. Karabell is the author of 11 previous books, including "The Last Campaign: How Harry Truman Won the 1948 Election" (Vintage, 2004), which won the Chicago Tribune Heartland Award for


title: "Labour Party (UK)" content: must embrace a readiness to cooperate with any party which for the time being may be engaged in promoting legislation in the direct interests of labour." This created an association called the Labour Representation Committee (LRC), meant to co-ordinate attempts to support MPs sponsored by trade unions and represent the working-class population. It had no single leader, and in the absence of one, the Independent Labour Party nominee Ramsay MacDonald was elected as Secretary. He had the difficult task of keeping the various strands of opinions in the LRC united. The October 1900 "Khaki election" came too soon for the


title: "Great Depression" content: cadre of Labour, but the vast majority of Labour leaders denounced MacDonald as a traitor for leading the new government. Britain went off the gold standard, and suffered relatively less than other major countries in the Great Depression. In the 1931 British election, the Labour Party was virtually destroyed, leaving MacDonald as Prime Minister for a largely Conservative coalition. The effects on the northern industrial areas of Britain were immediate and devastating, as demand for traditional industrial products collapsed. By the end of 1930 unemployment had more than doubled from 1 million to 2.5 million (20% of the insured workforce),


title: "Medication-associated osteonecrosis of the jaw" content: growth factor (VEGF), so the VEGF is no longer available to bind to the receptors on the surface of normal endothelial cells. Sunitinib is a different example of anti-angiogenic drugs as it inhibits cellular signalling by targeting multiple receptor tyrosine kinases. It reduces blood/ nutrients supply to tumour by inhibiting new blood vessels formation from the cancer cells. Hence, the tumour stops growing or even shrinks. Dentoalveolar surgery is a risk factor for development of BRONJ. Prevention including the maintenance of good oral hygiene, comprehensive dental examination and dental treatment including extraction of teeth of poor prognosis and dentoalveolar surgery


title: "School of Computing (Robert Gordon University)" content: Computing and Engineering. Much of its research is encompassed by SmartWeb, a centre of excellence on intelligent computing technologies and their application to new types of Web-based systems and services. A new £1 million purpose-designed Computing Technologies Research Centre has recently been opened. The School is located in the Sir Ian Wood building (formerly known as Riverside East) at the University's Garthdee campus. School of Computing (Robert Gordon University) The Robert Gordon University's School of Computing Science and Digital Media is one of the four schools in the Faculty of Design and Technology at The Robert Gordon University in Aberdeen,


title: "Name of Greece" content: in his "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography" that foreigners frequently refer to people by a different name (an exonym) from their native one (an endonym). Aristotle was the first to use the name "Graeci" (), in his "Meteorology". He wrote that the area around Dodona and the Achelous River was inhabited by the Selli and a people, who had been called "Graeci" but were called "Hellenes" by his time. From that statement, it is asserted that the name of Graeci was once widely used in Epirus and the rest of the western coast of Greece. It thus became the


title: "Court of King's Bench (England)" content: century much of the criminal jurisdiction had declined, although the court maintained a criminal jurisdiction over all cases in Middlesex, the county where Westminster Hall stood. The King's Bench's main jurisdiction was over "pleas of the crown"; cases which involved the King in some way. With the exception of revenue matters, which were handled by the Exchequer of Pleas, the King's Bench held exclusive jurisdiction over these cases. The Court of King's Bench did act as an appellate body, hearing appeals from the Court of Common Pleas, eyre circuits, assize courts and local courts, but was not a court of


title: "Heath Francis" content: in poverty the chance to grow their incomes safely and effectively. Heath Francis Heath Wesley Francis, OAM (born 16 November 1981 in Newcastle, New South Wales is an Australian athlete who has participated in the 2000, 2004 and 2008 Summer Paralympics. His right arm was amputated at the age of seven as a result of a mincing accident on his family farm in Booral, New South Wales. At the 2008 Beijing Paralympics he became the first arm amputee athlete to win the sprint treble (100m, 200m and 400m events) at a Paralympics, a feat he accomplished 2 years earlier at


title: "Human radiation experiments" content: subjects. The final report issued by the ACHRE can be found at the Department of Energy's website. The Soviet nuclear program involved human experiments on a large scale, including most notably the Totskoye nuclear exercise of 1954 and the experiments conducted at the Semipalatinsk Test Site (1949-1989). As of 1950, there were around 700,000 participants at different levels of the program, half of whom were Gulag prisoners used for radioactivity experiments, as well as the excavation of radioactive ores. Information about the scale, conditions and lethality of those involved in the program is still kept secret by the Russian government


title: "Kłodzko Fortress" content: Kłodzko Fortress Kłodzko Fortress (, ) is a unique fortification complex of the Lower Silesian Voivodeship in southwestern Poland. The fortress once was one of the biggest strongholds in Prussian Silesia, however, in the whole German Empire, it was regarded as a minor one. Now, together with an extensive network of tunnels, it is one of the biggest attractions of the town of Kłodzko, with its underground labyrinth and a repository of different objects, from old fire engines to local glassware. A stronghold on Kłodzko's Castle Hill was mentioned for the first time in the "Chronicle of Bohemians", written by


title: "Kłodzko Fortress" content: Cosmas of Prague. Most probably, it was a complex of wooden buildings, protected with a palisade. Kłodzko itself is located along the strategic route between Wrocław and Prague, and its role as a trading point must have been significant since the early Middle Ages. In 1114, the stronghold was captured and destroyed by Czech troops under prince Soběslav, who at the same time reconquered the whole area. In 1129, Soběslav rebuilt the town and placed a castellan there. Some time around 1300, a spacious castle was built on the hill, which became seat of the Kłodzko County. Gradually, the castle


title: "Kłodzko Fortress" content: grew, a church and a chapel were added and in 1557, Lorenz Krischke, architect at the court of Prince Ernest of Bavaria, built the Lower Castle. In the 16th century, there were five wells in the castle with the oldest one from 1393. In 1622, during the Thirty Years' War, after the long siege, the fortress was captured by the Austrian Army. The city was besieged in June of that year, but for a long time resisted the attackers. Finally, the Austrians brought in two large cannons - the "Wingless Dragon" and the "Black Sow" to fire upon the walls


title: "Kłodzko Fortress" content: of Kłodzko and the city surrendered on October 25. In subsequent years the Austrians modernized the fortress and replaced ancient fortifications with up-to-date bastions. In 1742, during the War of the Austrian Succession the city together with its stronghold was conquered by Prussia under Frederick II. The city itself surrendered on January 14, but the fortress, with 2000 soldiers, held out until April 25, when starvation made further resistance impossible. Out of the initial Austrian garrison of 2000, only 200 survived, "pale as shadows". The Prussians expanded the fortress, making it a defensive one. Major works continued during the Silesian


title: "Kłodzko Fortress" content: Wars, until 1770, however, the fortress was not fully completed 200 years after the Austrians began to modernize it. In the 19th century, the stronghold, which in 1807 was captured by the French Army supported by Bavarian troops became a prison. In early 19th century, due to economic depression, prisoners’ earnings in Glatz were so low that the administration would send a prisoner every Saturday to beg for help in the city. Among prisoners there, was a British Army captain Bertrand Stewart, who in 1911 was accused of espionage and released in 1913. During World War II, the stronghold was


title: "Kłodzko Fortress" content: not only a prisoner-of-war camp, but a sub-camp of the Gross-Rosen concentration camp. In 1945, the stronghold together with the city became part of Poland. The Kłodzko Fortress, its current name, looks like it did 200 years ago with little changes, and it is one of the main tourist attractions of the city. Between May and October, it is open from 9:00 to 19:00 and in the winter, it is open from 9:00 to 16:00. From its top, there are views of the Kłodzko Valley. It is also possible to visit the cellars, with a labyrinth of underground corridors, excavated


title: "Kłodzko Fortress" content: in the 19th century by prisoners of war. The stronghold’s complex covers an area of 17 hectares. Its lower walls are 11 meters thick, and the upper walls are around four meters. According to some sources, it is the largest and the best preserved fortress of its kind in Poland. Kłodzko Fortress Kłodzko Fortress (, ) is a unique fortification complex of the Lower Silesian Voivodeship in southwestern Poland. The fortress once was one of the biggest strongholds in Prussian Silesia, however, in the whole German Empire, it was regarded as a minor one. Now, together with an extensive network


title: "Carl Alford" content: 54 goals for Kettering Town in 18 months, Rushden & Diamonds offer of £85,000, a non-league record, was enough to persuade the Poppies to sell their prize asset and he arrived at Nene Park at the end of March 1996. He made his debut in against promotion rivals Halesowen Town on 30 March 1996, scoring Diamonds goal in the 1–2 defeat. He was dropped after just five games at the start of the 1997/98 season and was loaned to Dover Athletic in February 1998. He was recalled and sold to Stevenage Borough on a free transfer in April. Carl scored


title: "Melitaea didyma" content: Melitaea didyma Melitaea didyma, the spotted fritillary or red-band fritillary, is a butterfly of the family Nymphalidae. "Melitaea didyma" is a medium-sized butterfly with a wingspan reaching . The upperside of the wings is bright orange brown with dark brown drawings arranged in rows, quite variable in quantity and size. Sometimes the color of the females is duller orange, shaded with gray green. The underside of the wings is checkered pale yellow and pale orange. "M. didyma" has seasonal forms and sexual dimorphism. This butterfly flies from March to October depending on the location. This species has two or three


title: "Melitaea didyma" content: generations and overwinters as young caterpillar. The larvae feed on various plants, including "Linaria", "Plantago lanceolata", "Veronica", "Centaurea jacea" and "Digitalis purpurea". It is found in southern and central Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, central Asia and Siberia. It is absent from northern Europe (England, Ireland, Northern France, Germany, Poland and Scandinavia). "Melitaea didyma" prefers flowery and grassy areas, meadows and roadsides. Melitaea didyma Melitaea didyma, the spotted fritillary or red-band fritillary, is a butterfly of the family Nymphalidae. "Melitaea didyma" is a medium-sized butterfly with a wingspan reaching . The upperside of the wings is bright orange brown


title: "Kalangarai Vilakkam" content: Kalangarai Vilakkam Kalangarai Vilakkam () () is a Tamil language psychological thriller film starring M. G. Ramachandran and B. Saroja Devi in the lead roles. It is based on the American film "Vertigo". The film was released on 28 August 1965. A mysterious machination around the Mahabalipuram lighthouse's city... Ravi (MGR), a leading lawyer from Madras with his friend Gopal (V. Gopalakrishnan), a doctor, meet Neela (Saroja Devi), a beautiful girl in Mahabalipuram. Ravi (MGR) falls in love with her. But Ravi sees Neela jumping off a cliff and Gopal pronounces her dead. Heartbroken, Ravi travels with Gopal to get


title: "Miranda Uhl" content: in the world, easily — and I would hate to see her lose an opportunity like this." Miranda Uhl swam two hours a day, six days a week. In middle school, Uhl attended St. Patrick's Catholic School in Gainesville, Florida. She attended St. Francis High School, which is also in Gainesville, Florida. Her hometown is in Alachua, Florida. She attends Florida Atlantic University, where she joined the swim team and is a biology–pre-medical major. Miranda Uhl competed on the 2007 U.S. Parapan American swimming team. She won eight medals at the Parapan Games, five were gold and three were silver.


title: "Copenhagen Distortion" content: At night, Distortion hosts an international festival for modern club music. Distortion Club takes place in nightclubs, regular venues and one-off locations like swimming pools, under bridges, in museums, the Royal Theatre, warehouses etc... Names like Hot Chip, Simian Mobile Disco, Spank Rock, Sebastien Tellier, Diplo & M.I.A. played at Distortion Club events years before they became music heroes of international scope. Admission with single tickets or Distortion Pass. Distortion Ø is the main event of the Distortion week, previously known as The Final Party. With 14.000-15.000 guests over two days, it is the largest event in Northern Europe for


title: "Hubert Lanz" content: the allegations concerning these events, and as the Italians did not present any evidence against him, Lanz convinced the court that he had resisted Hitler's directives and that the massacre did not happen. He claimed that the report to Army Group E reporting the execution of 5,000 soldiers had been a ruse employed to deceive the Army command, in order to hide the fact that he had disobeyed the Führer’s orders. He added that fewer than a dozen officers were shot and the rest of the "Acqui" Division was transported to Piraeus through Patras. His defence also argued that the


title: Nyanatiloka content: (1941) at the large internment camp at Dehradun. In 1946, Nyanatiloka and his German disciples were permitted by the British to return to Sri Lanka, where they again stayed at the Island Hermitage. In 1949 the well known Western Buddhist monks, Nanamoli, Nyanavira were ordained under Nyanatiloka. In December 1950, Nyanatiloka became a citizen of the newly independent Ceylon. For health reasons he moved to the Forest Hermitage in Kandy in 1951. Vappo and Nyanaponika soon followed him. In 1954, Nyanatiloka and his disciple Nyanaponika were the only two Western-born monks invited to participate in the Sixth Buddhist council in


title: "Number Pieces" content: conductor. Number Pieces The term Number Pieces refers to a body of late compositions (40, or 41 if "Seventeen" was actually composed) by John Cage. Each piece is named after the number of performers involved: for instance, "Seven" is a piece for seven performers, "One" (read "One Nine") is the ninth work for one performer, and "1O1" is a piece for an orchestra of 101 musicians. The vast majority of these works were composed using Cage's time bracket technique: the score consists of short fragments (frequently just one note, with or without dynamics) and indications, in minutes and seconds, of


title: "Rudolf Schmid (bishop)" content: Rudolf Schmid (bishop) Rudolf Schmid (26 June 1914 – 24 June 2012) was a German prelate of the Roman Catholic Church. Schmid was born in Schiers, Switzerland in 1914 and was ordained a priest on 26 June 1938, his 24th birthday, with the Augsburg Diocese. He was chaplain in Murnau until 1945. Then he was chaplain in Augsbirg, together with Josef Stimpfle, who was Bishop of Augsburg since 1963. He was appointed Auxiliary Bishop of the Augsburg Diocese on 3 January 1972; he was ordained on 25 March 1972 titular bishop of Dionysiana. Schmid retired from his position of auxiliary


title: "Wilfrid Esteve" content: photojournalism a political action?" organized in 2005 by Visa pour l'image. Wilfrid Esteve Wilfrid Estève (born Carcassonne, France in 1968) is a French photojournalist and portraitist. Since 1995, his work has appeared in publications including ELLE, Libération, Le Monde, Geo France, Marie-Claire, National Geographic France, Paris Match and VSD, and was awarded a "special mention" award in the 2005 Prix Nadar competition, along with other co-authors, for his work 'Photojournalism at the crossroads'. Based on a philosophy of bearing witness and of inquiry, his photographic work concentrates on conflict zones and areas of breaking news, in (West Africa, Europe, and


title: "Bhalobasa Bhalobasa (2008 film)" content: Bhalobasa Bhalobasa (2008 film) Bhalobasa Bhalobasa (translation: "Love Love") is a 2008 Bengali film by Rabi Kinagi. This movie is the second film of both Hiran Chatterjee and Srabanti Chatterjee. After five-week running success prompted producer Ashok Dhanuka added one more song "Bol Raja Chai Kemon Rani" to the film after shooting it right after Kali Puja. This is the first Bengali film which was shot at Salzburg in Austria. This film is the remake of the Telugu film "Bommarillu" directed and co-written by Bhaskar, starring Prakash Raj, Genelia D'Souza and Siddharth Narayan. The film primarily revolves around a father


title: "John White (1699–1769)" content: John White (1699–1769) John White (2 December 1699 – 7 September, 1769) was an English politician. John White was the son and heir of Thomas White of Tuxford and Wallingwells and his wife Bridget. He succeeded to his father’s estates, including Wallingwells in Nottinghamshire, at the age of 33 in 1732. A portrait of him as a young man show him as handsome, similar in looks to Prince Charles Edward Stuart. John was an influential politician of his day. He was elected MP for East Retford in 1733, a seat he held until 1768. He was strongly Whig in his


title: "Simon Richardson (Welsh cyclist)" content: Richardson cycled powered only by his right leg, riding an adapted bike. He made his debut in the Welsh national team in 2006, competing at the Welsh Grand Prix and entered the road race and time trial, finishing seventh and fifth respectively. He later competed at the Para-Cycling Europa Cup held in 2007 which was held in Germany where he placed seventh. Richardson is coached by Courtney Rowe and trains at the Wales National Velodrome, which is situated in the Newport International Sports Village. His development is organised through the Disability Sport Wales Performance Programme. It was announced on 31


title: "Umberto Piersanti" content: between 1960-1980. He was a nominee for the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2005. Umberto Piersanti Umberto Piersanti (born February 26, 1941) is an Italian poet, prose writer, professor of sociology of the literature at the University of Urbino, in Italy, and editor of the literary revue "Pelagos". He was born in Urbino. During his writing career, Piersanti published many poetry books, some novels and essays. He made his debut in 1967 with the collection of poems "La breve stagione"; the melancholy preponderated in his juvenile poems, with Apennine nature, transformed into a mythical and classic place. In "Nascere nel


title: "32nd Indiana Infantry Regiment" content: Battle of Resaca (May 14–15); the Battle of Adairsville (May 17); the advance on Dallas (May 22–25); in battles around New Hope Church, Dallas, and Allatoona Hills (May 25–June 5); and at the Battle of Pickett's Mill (May 27). The 32nd Indiana also fought at the Battle of Marietta (June 10–July 2), the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain (June 27), and the Battle of Peachtree Creek (July 19–20), before taking part in the Battle of Atlanta (July 22–August 25, 1864). On August 2, 1864, the regiment's three-year enlisted men were ordered to Indiana, where they were scheduled to muster out of


title: "Sea anemone" content: Sea anemone Sea anemones are a group of marine, predatory animals of the order Actiniaria. They are named after the anemone, a terrestrial flowering plant, because of the colourful appearance of many. Sea anemones are classified in the phylum Cnidaria, class Anthozoa, subclass Hexacorallia. As cnidarians, sea anemones are related to corals, jellyfish, tube-dwelling anemones, and "Hydra". Unlike jellyfish, sea anemones do not have a medusa stage in their life cycle. A typical sea anemone is a single polyp attached to a hard surface by its base, but some species live in soft sediment and a few float near the


title: "Sea anemone" content: surface of the water. The polyp has a columnar trunk topped by an oral disc with a ring of tentacles and a central mouth. The tentacles can be retracted inside the body cavity or expanded to catch passing prey. They are armed with cnidocytes (stinging cells). In many species, additional nourishment comes from a symbiotic relationship with single-celled dinoflagellates, zooxanthellae or with green algae, zoochlorellae, that live within the cells. Some species of sea anemone live in association with hermit crabs, small fish or other animals to their mutual benefit. Sea anemones breed by liberating sperm and eggs through the


title: "Sea anemone" content: mouth into the sea. The resulting fertilized eggs develop into planula larvae which, after being planktonic for a while, settle on the seabed and develop directly into juvenile polyps. Sea anemones also breed asexually, by breaking in half or into smaller pieces which regenerate into polyps. Sea anemones are sometimes kept in reef aquariums; the global trade in marine ornamentals for this purpose is expanding and threatens sea anemone populations in some localities, as the trade depends on collection from the wild. A typical sea anemone is a sessile polyp attached at the base to the surface beneath it by


title: "Sea anemone" content: an adhesive foot, called a basal or pedal disc, with a column-shaped body topped by an oral disc. Most are from in diameter and in length, but they are inflatable and vary greatly in dimensions. Some are very large; "Urticina columbiana" and "Stichodactyla mertensii" can both exceed a metre in diameter and "Metridium farcimen" a metre in length. Some species burrow in soft sediment and lack a basal disc, having instead a bulbous lower end, the physa, which anchors them in place. The column or trunk is generally more or less cylindrical and may be plain and smooth or may


title: "Sea anemone" content: bear specialist structures; these include solid papillae (fleshy protuberances), adhesive papillae, cinclides (slits) and small protruding vesicles. In some species the part immediately below the oral disc is constricted and is known as the capitulum. When the animal contracts, the oral disc, tentacles and capitulum fold inside the pharynx and are held in place by a strong sphincter muscle part way up the column. There may be a fold in the body wall, known as a parapet, at this point, and this parapet covers and protects the anemone when it is retracted. The oral disc has a central mouth, usually


title: "Sea anemone" content: slit-shaped, surrounded by one or more whorls of tentacles. The ends of the slit lead to grooves in the wall of the pharynx known as siphonoglyphs; there are usually two of these grooves, but some groups have a single one. The tentacles are generally tapered and often tipped by a pore, but in some species they are branched, club-tipped, or reduced to low knobs. The tentacles are armed with many cnidocytes, cells that are both defensive and used to capture prey. Cnidocytes contain stinging nematocysts, capsule-like organelles capable of everting suddenly, giving the phylum Cnidaria its name. Each nematocyst contains


title: "Sea anemone" content: a small venom vesicle filled with actinotoxins, an inner filament, and an external sensory hair. A touch to the hair mechanically triggers a cell explosion, which launches a harpoon-like structure that attaches to the organism that triggered it, and injects a dose of venom in the flesh of the aggressor or prey. At the base of the tentacles in some species lie acrorhagi, elongated inflatable tentacle-like organs armed with cnidocytes, that can flail around and fend off other encroaching anemones; one or both anemones can be driven off or suffer injury in such battles. The venom is a mix of


title: "Sea anemone" content: toxins, including neurotoxins, that paralyzes the prey so the anemone can move it to the mouth for digestion inside the gastrovascular cavity. Actinotoxins are highly toxic to prey species of fish and crustaceans. However, Amphiprioninae (clownfish), small banded fish in various colours, are not affected by their host anemone's sting and shelter themselves from predators among its tentacles. Several other species have similar adaptions and are also unaffected (see "Symbiotic relationships"). Most sea anemones are harmless to humans, but a few highly toxic species (notably "Actinodendron arboreum", "Phyllodiscus semoni" and "Stichodactyla" spp.) have caused severe injuries and are potentially lethal.


title: "Sea anemone" content: Sea anemones have what can be described as an incomplete gut; the gastrovascular cavity functions as a stomach and possesses a single opening to the outside, which operates as both a mouth and anus. Waste and undigested matter is excreted through this opening. The mouth is typically slit-like in shape, and bears a groove at one or both ends. The groove, termed a "siphonoglyph", is ciliated, and helps to move food particles inwards and circulate water through the gastrovascular cavity. The mouth opens into a flattened pharynx. This consists of an in-folding of the body wall, and is therefore lined


title: "Sea anemone" content: by the animal's epidermis. The pharynx typically runs for about one third the length of the body before opening into the gastrovascular cavity that occupies the remainder of the body. The gastrovascular cavity itself is divided into a number of chambers by mesenteries radiating inwards from the body wall. Some of the mesenteries form complete partitions with a free edge at the base of the pharynx, where they connect, but others reach only partway across. The mesenteries are usually found in multiples of twelve, and are symmetrically arranged around the central lumen. They have stomach lining on both sides, separated


title: "Sea anemone" content: by a thin layer of mesoglea, and include filaments of tissue specialised for secreting digestive enzymes. In some species, these filaments extend below the lower margin of the mesentery, hanging free in the gastrovascular cavity as thread-like acontial filaments. These acontia are armed with nematocysts and can be extruded through cinclides, blister-like holes in the wall of the column, for use in defence. A primitive nervous system, without centralization, coordinates the processes involved in maintaining homeostasis, as well as biochemical and physical responses to various stimuli. There are two nerve nets, one in the epidermis and one in the gastrodermis;


title: "Sea anemone" content: these unite at the pharynx, the junctions of the septa with the oral disc and the pedal disc, and across the mesogloea. No specialized sense organs are present but sensory cells include nematocytes and chemoreceptors. The muscles and nerves are much simpler than those of most other animals, although more specialised than in other cnidarians, such as corals. Cells in the outer layer (epidermis) and the inner layer (gastrodermis) have microfilaments that group into contractile fibers. These fibers are not true muscles because they are not freely suspended in the body cavity as they are in more developed animals. Longitudinal


title: "Sea anemone" content: fibres are found in the tentacles and oral disc, and also within the mesenteries, where they can contract the whole length of the body. Circular fibers are found in the body wall and, in some species, around the oral disc, allowing the animal to retract its tentacles into a protective sphincter. Since the anemone lacks a rigid skeleton, the contractile cells pull against the fluid in the gastrovascular cavity, forming a hydrostatic skeleton. The anemone stabilizes itself by flattening its pharynx which acts as a valve, keeping the gastrovascular cavity at a constant volume and making it rigid. When the


title: "Sea anemone" content: longitudinal muscles relax, the pharynx opens and the cilia lining the siphonoglyphs beat, wafting water inwards and refilling the gastrovascular cavity. In general, the sea anemone inflates its body to extend its tentacles and feed, and deflates it when resting or disturbed. The inflated body is also used to anchor the animal inside a crevice, burrow or tube. Unlike other cnidarians, anemones (and other anthozoans) entirely lack the free-swimming medusal stage of their lifecycle; the polyp produces eggs and sperm, and the fertilized egg develops into a planula larva which develops directly into another polyp. Both sexual and asexual reproduction


title: "Sea anemone" content: can occur. The sexes in sea anemones are separate in some species, while other species are sequential hermaphrodites, changing sex at some stage in their life. The gonads are strips of tissue within the mesenteries. In sexual reproduction, males may release sperm to stimulate females to release eggs, and fertilization occurs, either internally in the gastrovascular cavity or in the water column. The eggs and sperm, or the larvae, are ejected through the mouth. In many species the eggs and sperm rise to the surface where fertilisation occurs. The fertilized egg develops into a planula larva, which drifts for a


title: "Sea anemone" content: while before sinking to the seabed and undergoing metamorphosis into a juvenile sea anemone. Some larvae preferentially settle onto certain suitable substrates, The mottled anemone ("Urticina crassicornis") for example, settles onto green algae, perhaps attracted by a biofilm on the surface. The brooding anemone ("Epiactis prolifera") is gynodioecious, starting life as a female and later becoming hermaphroditic, so that populations consist of females and hermaphrodites. As a female, the eggs can develop parthenogenetically into female offspring without fertilisation, and as a hermaphrodite, the eggs are routinely self-fertilised. The larvae emerge from the anemone's mouth and tumble down the column, lodging


title: "Sea anemone" content: in a fold near the pedal disc. Here they develop and grow, remaining for about three months before crawling off to start independent lives. Sea anemones have great powers of regeneration and can reproduce asexually, by budding, fragmentation, or by longitudinal or transverse binary fission. Some species such as certain "Anthopleura" divide longitudinally, pulling themselves apart, resulting in groups of individuals with identical colouring and markings. Transverse fission is less common, but occurs in "Anthopleura stellula" and "Gonactinia prolifera", with a rudimentary band of tentacles appearing halfway up the column before it splits horizontally. Some species can also reproduce by


title: "Sea anemone" content: pedal laceration. In this process, a ring of material may break off from the pedal disc at the base of the column which then fragments, the pieces regenerating into new clonal individuals. Alternatively, fragments detach separately as the animal creeps across a surface. In "Metridium dianthus", fragmentation rates were higher in individuals living among live mussels than among dead shells, and all the new individuals had tentacles within three weeks. The sea anemone "Aiptasia diaphana" displays sexual plasticity. Thus asexually produced clones derived form a single founder individual can contain both male and female individuals (ramets). When eggs and sperm


title: "Sea anemone" content: (gametes) are formed, they can produce zygotes derived from “selfing” (within the founding clone) or out-crossing, that then develop into swimming planula larvae. Anemones tend to grow and reproduce relatively slowly, the magnificent sea anemone ("Heteractis magnifica") for example, may live for hundreds of years, with one individual surviving in captivity for eighty years. A sea anemone is capable of changing its shape dramatically. The column and tentacles have longitudinal, transverse and diagonal sheets of muscle and can lengthen and contract, as well as bend and twist. The gullet and mesenteries can evert (turn inside out), or the oral disc


title: "Sea anemone" content: and tentacles can retract inside the gullet, with the sphincter closing the aperture; during this process, the gullet folds transversely and water is discharged through the mouth. Although some species of sea anemone burrow in soft sediment, the majority are mainly sessile, attaching to a hard surface with their pedal disc, and tend to stay in the same spot for weeks or months at a time. They can move however, being able to creep around on their bases; this gliding can be seen with time-lapse photography but the motion is so slow as to be almost imperceptible to the naked


title: "Sea anemone" content: eye. The process resembles the locomotion of a gastropod mollusc, a wave of contraction moving from the functionally posterior portion of the foot towards the front edge, which detaches and moves forwards. Sea anemones can also cast themselves loose from the substrate and drift to a new location. "Gonactinia prolifera" is unusual in that it can both walk and swim; walking is by making a series of short, looping steps, rather like a caterpillar, attaching its tentacles to the substrate and drawing its base closer; swimming is done by rapid movements of the tentacles beating synchronously like oar strokes. "Stomphia


title: "Sea anemone" content: coccinea" can swim by flexing its column, and the sea onion anemone inflates and casts itself loose, adopting a spherical shape and allowing itself to be rolled about by the waves and currents. There are no truly pelagic sea anemones, but some stages in the life cycle post-metamorphosis are able, in response to certain environmental factors, to cast themselves off and have a free-living stage that aids in their dispersal. The sea onion "Paranthus rapiformis" lives on subtidal mud flats and burrows into the sediment, holding itself in place by expanding its basal disc to form an anchor. If it


title: "Sea anemone" content: gets washed out of its burrow by strong currents, it contracts into a pearly glistening ball which rolls about. Tube-dwelling anemones which live in parchment-like tubes, are in the anthozoan subclass Ceriantharia, and are only distantly related to sea anemones. Sea anemones are typically predators, ensnaring prey of suitable size that comes within reach of their tentacles and immobilizing it with the aid of their nematocysts. The prey is then transported to the mouth and thrust into the pharynx. The lips can stretch to aid in prey capture and can accommodate larger items such as crabs, dislodged molluscs and even


title: "Sea anemone" content: small fish. "Stichodactyla helianthus" is reported to trap sea urchins by enfolding them in its carpet-like oral disc. A few species are parasitic on other marine organisms. One of these is "Peachia quinquecapitata", the larvae of which develop inside the medusae of jellyfish, feeding on their gonads and other tissues, before being liberated into the sea as free-living, juvenile anemones. Although not plants and therefore incapable of photosynthesis themselves, many sea anemones form an important facultative mutualistic relationship with certain single-celled algae species that reside in the animals' gastrodermal cells, especially in the tentacles and oral disc. These algae may


title: "Sea anemone" content: be either zooxanthellae, zoochlorellae or both. The sea anemone benefits from the products of the algae's photosynthesis, namely oxygen and food in the form of glycerol, glucose and alanine; the algae in turn are assured a reliable exposure to sunlight and protection from micro-feeders, which the sea anemones actively maintain. The algae also benefit by being protected by the sea anemone's stinging cells, reducing the likelihood of being eaten by herbivores. In the aggregating anemone ("Anthopleura elegantissima"), the colour of the anemone is largely dependent on the proportions and identities of the zooxanthellae and zoochlorellae present. The hidden anemone ("Lebrunia


title: "Sea anemone" content: coralligens") has a whorl of seaweed-like pseudotentacles, rich in zooxanthellae, and an inner whorl of tentacles. A daily rhythm sees the pseudotentacles spread widely in the daytime for photosynthesis, but they are retracted at night, at which time the tentacles expand to search for prey. Several species of fish and invertebrates live in symbiotic or commensal relationships with sea anemones, most famously the clownfish. The symbiont receives the protection from predators provided by the anemone's stinging cells, and the anemone utilises the nutrients present in its faeces. Other animals that associate with sea anemones include cardinalfish (such as Banggai cardinalfish),


title: "Sea anemone" content: juvenile threespot dascyllus, incognito (or anemone) goby, juvenile painted greenling, various crabs (such as "Inachus phalangium", "Mithraculus cinctimanus" and "Neopetrolisthes"), shrimp (such as certain "Alpheus", "Lebbeus", "Periclimenes" and "Thor"), opossum shrimp (such as "Heteromysis" and "Leptomysis"), and various marine snails. Two of the more unusual relationships are those between certain anemones (such as "Adamsia", "Calliactis" and "Neoaiptasia") and hermit crabs or snails, and "Bundeopsis" or "Triactis" anemones and "Lybia" boxing crabs. In the former, the anemones live on the shell of the hermit crab or snail. In the latter, the small anemones are carried in the claws of the boxing


title: "Sea anemone" content: crab. Sea anemones are found in both deep oceans and shallow coastal waters worldwide. The greatest diversity is in the tropics although there are many species adapted to relatively cold waters. The majority of species cling on to rocks, shells or submerged timber, often hiding in cracks or under seaweed, but some burrow into sand and mud, and a few are pelagic. Sea anemones and their attendant anemone fish can make attractive aquarium exhibits and both are often harvested from the wild as adults or juveniles. These fishing activities significantly impact the populations of anemones and anemone fish by drastically


title: "Sea anemone" content: reducing the densities of each in exploited areas. Besides their collection from the wild for use in reef aquaria, sea anemones are also threatened by alterations to their environment. Those living in shallow water coastal locations are affected directly by pollution and siltation, and indirectly by the effect these have on their photosynthetic symbionts and the prey on which they feed. In southern Italy and southwestern Spain, the snakelocks anemone ("Anemonia viridis") is consumed as a delicacy. The whole animal is marinated in vinegar, then coated in a batter similar to that used to make calamari and deep-fried in olive


title: "Sea anemone" content: oil. Most Actiniaria do not form hard parts that can be recognized as fossils, but a few fossils of sea anemones do exist; "Mackenzia", from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of Canada, is the oldest fossil identified as a sea anemone. Sea anemones, order Actiniaria, are classified in the phylum Cnidaria, class Anthozoa, subclass Hexacorallia. Rodriguez et al. proposed a new classification for the Actiniaria based on extensive DNA results. Suborders and Superfamilies included in Actiniaria are: Anthozoa contains three subclasses: Hexacorallia, which contains the Actiniaria; Octocorallia; and Ceriantharia. These are monophyletic, but the relationships within the subclasses remain unresolved.


title: "Sea anemone" content: The relationships of higher-level taxa in Carlgren's classification are re-interpreted as follows: Sea anemone Sea anemones are a group of marine, predatory animals of the order Actiniaria. They are named after the anemone, a terrestrial flowering plant, because of the colourful appearance of many. Sea anemones are classified in the phylum Cnidaria, class Anthozoa, subclass Hexacorallia. As cnidarians, sea anemones are related to corals, jellyfish, tube-dwelling anemones, and "Hydra". Unlike jellyfish, sea anemones do not have a medusa stage in their life cycle. A typical sea anemone is a single polyp attached to a hard surface by its base, but


title: "Mask and Bauble Dramatic Society" content: Mask and Bauble Dramatic Society The Mask and Bauble Dramatic Society of Georgetown University is the oldest continuously running collegiate theatre troupe in the United States. Today, the Society is one of five theatre groups on the Georgetown campus and is entirely student-run. In its 166th Season, the group continues to provide an opportunity for students to develop artistic, technical, and administrative skills, while performing high-quality theatre. Mask and Bauble produces four main stage shows annually, including the Donn B. Murphy One Acts Festival, which focuses on student-written work. All shows are directed, produced, designed, and performed by students. Mask


title: Rodent content: Rodent Rodents (from Latin "rodere", "to gnaw") are mammals of the order Rodentia, which are characterized by a single pair of continuously growing incisors in each of the upper and lower jaws. About 40% of all mammal species are rodents (2,277 species); they are found in vast numbers on all continents except Antarctica. They are the most diversified mammalian order and live in a variety of terrestrial habitats, including human-made environments. Species can be arboreal, fossorial (burrowing), or semiaquatic. Well-known rodents include mice, rats, squirrels, prairie dogs, chipmunks, porcupines, beavers, guinea pigs, hamsters, gerbils and capybaras. Other animals such as


title: Rodent content: rabbits, hares, and pikas, whose incisors also grow continually, were once included with them, but are now considered to be in a separate order, the Lagomorpha. Nonetheless, Rodentia and Lagomorpha are sister groups, sharing a most recent common ancestor and forming the clade of Glires. Most rodents are small animals with robust bodies, short limbs, and long tails. They use their sharp incisors to gnaw food, excavate burrows, and defend themselves. Most eat seeds or other plant material, but some have more varied diets. They tend to be social animals and many species live in societies with complex ways of


title: Rodent content: communicating with each other. Mating among rodents can vary from monogamy, to polygyny, to promiscuity. Many have litters of underdeveloped, altricial young, while others are precocial (relatively well developed) at birth. The rodent fossil record dates back to the Paleocene on the supercontinent of Laurasia. Rodents greatly diversified in the Eocene, as they spread across continents, sometimes even crossing oceans. Rodents reached both South America and Madagascar from Africa and were the only terrestrial placental mammals to reach and colonize Australia. Rodents have been used as food, for clothing, as pets, and as laboratory animals in research. Some species, in


title: Rodent content: particular, the brown rat, the black rat, and the house mouse, are serious pests, eating and spoiling food stored by humans, and spreading diseases. Accidentally introduced species of rodents are often considered to be invasive and have caused the extinction of numerous species, such as island birds, previously isolated from land-based predators. The distinguishing feature of the rodents is their pairs of continuously growing, razor-sharp, open-rooted incisors. These incisors have thick layers of enamel on the front and little enamel on the back. Because they do not stop growing, the animal must continue to wear them down so that they


title: Rodent content: do not reach and pierce the skull. As the incisors grind against each other, the softer dentine on the rear of the teeth wears away, leaving the sharp enamel edge shaped like the blade of a chisel. Most species have up to 22 teeth with no canines or anterior premolars. A gap, or diastema, occurs between the incisors and the cheek teeth in most species. This allows rodents to suck in their cheeks or lips to shield their mouth and throat from wood shavings and other inedible material, discarding this waste from the sides of their mouths. Chinchillas and guinea


title: Rodent content: pigs have a high-fiber diet; their molars have no roots and grow continuously like their incisors. In many species, the molars are relatively large, intricately structured, and highly cusped or ridged. Rodent molars are well equipped to grind food into small particles. The jaw musculature is strong. The lower jaw is thrust forward while gnawing and is pulled backwards during chewing. Rodent groups differ in the arrangement of the jaw muscles and associated skull structures, both from other mammals and amongst themselves. The Sciuromorpha, such as the eastern grey squirrel, have a large deep masseter, making them efficient at biting


title: Rodent content: with the incisors. The Myomorpha, such as the brown rat, have enlarged temporalis muscles, making them able to chew powerfully with their molars. The Hystricomorpha, such as the guinea pig, have larger superficial masseter muscles and smaller deep masseter muscles than rats or squirrels, possibly making them less efficient at biting with the incisors, but their enlarged internal pterygoid muscles may allow them to move the jaw further sideways when chewing. The cheek pouch is a specific morphological feature used for storing food and is evident in particular subgroups of rodents like kangaroo rats, hamsters, chipmunks and gophers which have


title: Rodent content: two bags that may range from the mouth to the front of the shoulders. True mice and rats do not contain this structure but their cheeks are elastic due to a high degree of musculature and innervation in the region. While the largest species, the capybara, can weigh as much as , most rodents weigh less than . The smallest rodent is the Baluchistan pygmy jerboa, which averages only in head and body length, with adult females weighing only . Rodents have wide-ranging morphologies, but typically have squat bodies and short limbs. The fore limbs usually have five digits, including


title: Rodent content: an opposable thumb, while the hind limbs have three to five digits. The elbow gives the forearms great flexibility. The majority of species are plantigrade, walking on both the palms and soles of their feet, and have claw-like nails. The nails of burrowing species tend to be long and strong, while arboreal rodents have shorter, sharper nails. Rodent species use a wide variety of methods of locomotion including quadrupedal walking, running, burrowing, climbing, bipedal hopping (kangaroo rats and hopping mice), swimming and even gliding. Scaly-tailed squirrels and flying squirrels, although not closely related, can both glide from tree to tree


title: Rodent content: using parachute-like membranes that stretch from the fore to the hind limbs. The agouti is fleet-footed and antelope-like, being digitigrade and having hoof-like nails. The majority of rodents have tails, which can be of many shapes and sizes. Some tails are prehensile, as in the Eurasian harvest mouse, and the fur on the tails can vary from bushy to completely bald. The tail is sometimes used for communication, as when beavers slap their tails on the water surface or house mice rattle their tails to indicate alarm. Some species have vestigial tails or no tails at all. In some species,


title: Rodent content: the tail is capable of regeneration if a part is broken off. Rodents generally have well-developed senses of smell, hearing, and vision. Nocturnal species often have enlarged eyes and some are sensitive to ultraviolet light. Many species have long, sensitive whiskers or vibrissae for touch or "whisking". Some rodents have cheek pouches, which may be lined with fur. These can be turned inside out for cleaning. In many species, the tongue cannot reach past the incisors. Rodents have efficient digestive systems, absorbing nearly 80% of ingested energy. When eating cellulose, the food is softened in the stomach and passed to


title: Rodent content: the cecum, where bacteria reduce it to its carbohydrate elements. The rodent then practices coprophagy, eating its own fecal pellets, so the nutrients can be absorbed by the gut. Rodents therefore often produce a hard and dry fecal pellet. In many species, the penis contains a bone, the baculum; the testes can be located either abdominally or at the groin. Sexual dimorphism occurs in many rodent species. In some rodents, males are larger than females, while in others the reverse is true. Male-bias sexual dimorphism is typical for ground squirrels, kangaroo rats, solitary mole rats and pocket gophers; it likely


title: Rodent content: developed due to sexual selection and greater male-male combat. Female-bias sexual dimorphism exists among chipmunks and jumping mice. It is not understood why this pattern occurs, but in the case of yellow-pine chipmunks, males may have selected larger females due to their greater reproductive success. In some species, such as voles, sexual dimorphism can vary from population to population. In bank voles, females are typically larger than males, but male-bias sexual dimorphism occurs in alpine populations, possibly because of the lack of predators and greater competition between males. One of the most widespread groups of mammals, rodents can be found


title: Rodent content: on every continent except Antarctica. They are the only terrestrial placental mammals to have colonized Australia and New Guinea without human intervention. Humans have also allowed the animals to spread to many remote oceanic islands (e.g., the Polynesian rat). Rodents have adapted to almost every terrestrial habitat, from cold tundra (where they can live under snow) to hot deserts. Some species such as tree squirrels and New World porcupines are arboreal, while some, such as gophers, tuco-tucos, and mole rats, live almost completely underground, where they build complex burrow systems. Others dwell on the surface of the ground, but may


title: Rodent content: have a burrow into which they can retreat. Beavers and muskrats are known for being semiaquatic, but the rodent best-adapted for aquatic life is probably the earless water rat from New Guinea. Rodents have also thrived in human-created environments such as agricultural and urban areas. Though some species are common pests for humans, rodents also play important ecological roles. Some rodents are considered keystone species and ecosystem engineers in their respective habitats. In the Great Plains of North America, the burrowing activities of prairie dogs play important roles in soil aeration and nutrient redistribution, raising the organic content of the


title: Rodent content: soil and increasing the absorption of water. They maintain these grassland habitats, and some large herbivores such as bison and pronghorn prefer to graze near prairie dog colonies due to the increased nutritional quality of forage. Extirpation of prairie dogs can also contribute to regional and local biodiversity loss, increased seed depredation, and the establishment and spread of invasive shrubs. Burrowing rodents may eat the fruiting bodies of fungi and spread spores through their feces, thereby allowing the fungi to disperse and form symbiotic relationships with the roots of plants (which usually cannot thrive without them). As such, these rodents


title: Rodent content: may play a role in maintaining healthy forests. In many temperate regions, beavers play an essential hydrological role. When building their dams and lodges, beavers alter the paths of streams and rivers and allow for the creation of extensive wetland habitats. One study found that engineering by beavers leads to a 33 percent increase in the number of herbaceous plant species in riparian areas. Another study found that beavers increase wild salmon populations. Most rodents are herbivorous, feeding exclusively on plant material such as seeds, stems, leaves, flowers, and roots. Some are omnivorous and a few are predators. The field


title: Rodent content: vole is a typical herbivorous rodent and feeds on grasses, herbs, root tubers, moss, and other vegetation, and gnaws on bark during the winter. It occasionally eats invertebrates such as insect larvae. The plains pocket gopher eats plant material found underground during tunneling, and also collects grasses, roots, and tubers in its cheek pouches and caches them in underground larder chambers. The Texas pocket gopher avoids emerging onto the surface to feed by seizing the roots of plants with its jaws and pulling them downwards into its burrow. It also practices coprophagy. The African pouched rat forages on the surface,


title: Rodent content: gathering anything that might be edible into its capacious cheek pouches until its face bulges out sideways. It then returns to its burrow to sort through the material it has gathered and eats the nutritious items. Agouti species are one of the few animal groups that can break open the large capsules of the Brazil nut fruit. Too many seeds are inside to be consumed in one meal, so the agouti carries some off and caches them. This helps dispersal of the seeds as any that the agouti fails to retrieve are distant from the parent tree when they germinate.


title: Rodent content: Other nut-bearing trees tend to bear a glut of fruits in the autumn. These are too numerous to be eaten in one meal and squirrels gather and store the surplus in crevices and hollow trees. In desert regions, seeds are often available only for short periods. The kangaroo rat collects all it can find and stores them in larder chambers in its burrow. A strategy for dealing with seasonal plenty is to eat as much as possible and store the surplus nutrients as fat. Marmots do this, and may be 50% heavier in the autumn than in the spring. They


title: Rodent content: rely on their fat reserves during their long winter hibernation. Beavers feed on the leaves, buds, and inner bark of growing trees, as well as aquatic plants. They store food for winter use by felling small trees and leafy branches in the autumn and immersing them in their pond, sticking the ends into the mud to anchor them. Here, they can access their food supply underwater even when their pond is frozen over. Although rodents have been regarded traditionally as herbivores, a number of species opportunistically include insects, fish, or meat in their diets and more specialized forms rely on


title: Rodent content: such foods. A functional-morphological study of the rodent tooth system supports the idea that primitive rodents were omnivores rather than herbivores. Studies of the literature show that numerous members of the Sciuromorpha and Myomorpha, and a few members of the Hystricomorpha, have either included animal matter in their diets or been prepared to eat such food when offered it in captivity. Examination of the stomach contents of the North American white-footed mouse, normally considered to be herbivorous, showed 34% animal matter. More specialized carnivores include the shrewlike rats of the Philippines, which feed on insects and soft-bodied invertebrates, and the


title: Rodent content: Australian water rat, which devours aquatic insects, fish, crustaceans, mussels, snails, frogs, birds' eggs, and water birds. The grasshopper mouse from dry regions of North America feeds on insects, scorpions, and other small mice, and only a small part of its diet is plant material. It has a chunky body with short legs and tail, but is agile and can easily overpower prey as large as itself. Rodents exhibit a wide range of types of social behavior ranging from the mammalian caste system of the naked mole-rat, the extensive "town" of the colonial prairie dog, through family groups to the


title: Rodent content: independent, solitary life of the edible dormouse. Adult dormice may have overlapping feeding ranges, but they live in individual nests and feed separately, coming together briefly in the breeding season to mate. The pocket gopher is also a solitary animal outside the breeding season, each individual digging a complex tunnel system and maintaining a territory. Larger rodents tend to live in family units where parents and their offspring live together until the young disperse. Beavers live in extended family units typically with a pair of adults, this year's kits, the previous year's offspring, and sometimes older young. Brown rats usually


title: Rodent content: live in small colonies with up to six females sharing a burrow and one male defending a territory around the burrow. At high population densities, this system breaks down and males show a hierarchical system of dominance with overlapping ranges. Female offspring remain in the colony while male young disperse. The prairie vole is monogamous and forms a lifelong pair bond. Outside the breeding season, prairie voles live in close proximity with others in small colonies. A male is not aggressive towards other males until he has mated, after which time he defends a territory, a female, and a nest


title: Rodent content: against other males. The pair huddles together, grooms one another, and shares nesting and pup-raising responsibilities. Among the most social of rodents are the ground squirrels, which typically form colonies based on female kinship, with males dispersing after weaning and becoming nomadic as adults. Cooperation in ground squirrels varies between species and typically includes making alarm calls, defending territories, sharing food, protecting nesting areas, and preventing infanticide. The black-tailed prairie dog forms large towns that may cover many hectares. The burrows do not interconnect, but are excavated and occupied by territorial family groups known as coteries. A coterie often consists


title: Rodent content: of an adult male, three or four adult females, several nonbreeding yearlings, and the current year's offspring. Individuals within coteries are friendly with each other, but hostile towards outsiders. Perhaps the most extreme examples of colonial behavior in rodents are the eusocial naked mole rat and Damaraland mole rat. The naked mole rat lives completely underground and can form colonies of up to 80 individuals. Only one female and up to three males in the colony reproduce, while the rest of the members are smaller and sterile, and function as workers. Some individuals are of intermediate size. They help with


title: Rodent content: the rearing of the young and can take the place of a reproductive if one dies. The Damaraland mole rat is characterized by having a single reproductively active male and female in a colony where the remaining animals are not truly sterile, but become fertile only if they establish a colony of their own. Rodents use scent marking in many social contexts including inter- and intra-species communication, the marking of trails and the establishment of territories. Their urine provides genetic information about individuals including the species, the sex and individual identity, and metabolic information on dominance, reproductive status and health.


title: Rodent content: Compounds derived from the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) are bound to several urinary proteins. The odor of a predator depresses scent-marking behavior. Rodents are able to recognize close relatives by smell and this allows them to show nepotism (preferential behavior toward their kin) and also avoid inbreeding. This kin recognition is by olfactory cues from urine, feces and glandular secretions. The main assessment may involve the MHC, where the degree of relatedness of two individuals is correlated to the MHC genes they have in common. In non-kin communication, where more permanent odor markers are required, as at territorial borders, then


title: Rodent content: non-volatile major urinary proteins (MUPs), which function as pheromone transporters, may also be used. MUPs may also signal individual identity, with each male house mouse ("Mus musculus") excreting urine containing about a dozen genetically encoded MUPs. House mice deposit urine, which contains pheromones, for territorial marking, individual and group recognition, and social organization Territorial beavers and red squirrels investigate and become familiar with the scents of their neighbors and respond less aggressively to intrusions by them than to those made by non-territorial "floaters" or strangers. This is known as the "dear enemy effect". Many rodent species, particularly those that are


title: Rodent content: diurnal and social, have a wide range of alarm calls that are emitted when they perceive threats. There are both direct and indirect benefits of doing this. A potential predator may stop when it knows it has been detected, or an alarm call can allow conspecifics or related individuals to take evasive action. Several species, for example prairie dogs, have complex anti-predator alarm call systems. These species may have different calls for different predators (e.g. aerial predators or ground-based predators) and each call contains information about the nature of the precise threat. The urgency of the threat is also conveyed


title: Rodent content: by the acoustic properties of the call. Social rodents have a wider range of vocalizations than do solitary species. Fifteen different call-types have been recognized in adult Kataba mole rats and four in juveniles. Similarly, the common degu, another social, burrowing rodent, exhibits a wide array of communication methods and has an elaborate vocal repertoire comprising fifteen different categories of sound. Ultrasonic calls play a part in social communication between dormice and are used when the individuals are out of sight of each other. House mice use both audible and ultrasonic calls in a variety of contexts. Audible vocalizations can


title: Rodent content: often be heard during agonistic or aggressive encounters, whereas ultrasound is used in sexual communication and also by pups when they have fallen out of the nest. Laboratory rats (which are brown rats, "Rattus norvegicus") emit short, high frequency, ultrasonic vocalizations during purportedly pleasurable experiences such as rough-and-tumble play, when anticipating routine doses of morphine, during mating, and when tickled. The vocalization, described as a distinct "chirping", has been likened to laughter, and is interpreted as an expectation of something rewarding. In clinical studies, the chirping is associated with positive emotional feelings, and social bonding occurs with the tickler, resulting


title: Rodent content: in the rats becoming conditioned to seek the tickling. However, as the rats age, the tendency to chirp declines. Like most rat vocalizations, the chirping is at frequencies too high for humans to hear without special equipment, so bat detectors have been used for this purpose. Rodents, like all placental mammals except primates, have just two types of light receptive cones in their retina, a short wavelength "blue-UV" type and a middle wavelength "green" type. They are therefore classified as dichromats; however, they are visually sensitive into the ultraviolet (UV) spectrum and therefore can see light that humans can not.


title: Rodent content: The functions of this UV sensitivity are not always clear. In degus, for example, the belly reflects more UV light than the back. Therefore, when a degu stands up on its hind legs, which it does when alarmed, it exposes its belly to other degus and ultraviolet vision may serve a purpose in communicating the alarm. When it stands on all fours, its low UV-reflectance back could help make the degu less visible to predators. Ultraviolet light is abundant during the day but not at night. There is a large increase in the ratio of ultraviolet to visible light in


title: Rodent content: the morning and evening twilight hours. Many rodents are active during twilight hours (crepuscular activity), and UV-sensitivity would be advantageous at these times. Ultraviolet reflectivity is of dubious value for nocturnal rodents. The urine of many rodents (e.g. voles, degus, mice, rats) strongly reflects UV light and this may be used in communication by leaving visible as well as olfactory markings. However, the amount of UV that is reflected decreases with time, which in some circumstances can be disadvantageous; the common kestrel can distinguish between old and fresh rodent trails and has greater success hunting over more recently marked routes.


title: Rodent content: Vibrations can provide cues to conspecifics about specific behaviors being performed, predator warning and avoidance, herd or group maintenance, and courtship. The Middle East blind mole rat was the first mammal for which seismic communication was documented. These fossorial rodents bang their head against the walls of their tunnels. This behavior was initially interpreted as part of their tunnel building behavior, but it was eventually realized that they generate temporally patterned seismic signals for long-distance communication with neighboring mole rats. Footdrumming is used widely as a predator warning or defensive action. It is used primarily by fossorial or semi-fossorial rodents.


title: Rodent content: The banner-tailed kangaroo rat produces several complex footdrumming patterns in a number of different contexts, one of which is when it encounters a snake. The footdrumming may alert nearby offspring but most likely conveys that the rat is too alert for a successful attack, thus preventing the snake's predatory pursuit. Several studies have indicated intentional use of ground vibrations as a means of intra-specific communication during courtship among the Cape mole rat. Footdrumming has been reported to be involved in male-male competition; the dominant male indicates its resource holding potential by drumming, thus minimizing physical contact with potential rivals. Some


title: Rodent content: species of rodent are monogamous, with an adult male and female forming a lasting pair bond. Monogamy can come in two forms; obligate and facultative. In obligate monogamy, both parents care for the offspring and play an important part in their survival. This occurs in species such as California mice, oldfield mice, Malagasy giant rats and beavers. In these species, males usually mate only with their partners. In addition to increased care for young, obligate monogamy can also be beneficial to the adult male as it decreases the chances of never finding a mate or mating with an infertile female.


title: Rodent content: In facultative monogamy, the males do not provide direct parental care and stay with one female because they cannot access others due to being spatially dispersed. Prairie voles appear to be an example of this form of monogamy, with males guarding and defending females within their vicinity. In polygynous species, males will try to monopolize and mate with multiple females. As with monogamy, polygyny in rodents can come in two forms; defense and non-defense. Defense polygyny involves males controlling territories that contain resources that attract females. This occurs in ground squirrels like yellow-bellied marmots, California ground squirrels, Columbian ground squirrels


title: Rodent content: and Richardson's ground squirrels. Males with territories are known as "resident" males and the females that live within the territories are known as "resident" females. In the case of marmots, resident males do not appear to ever lose their territories and always win encounters with invading males. Some species are also known to directly defend their resident females and the ensuing fights can lead to severe wounding. In species with non-defense polygyny, males are not territorial and wander widely in search of females to monopolize. These males establish dominance hierarchies, with the high-ranking males having access to the most females.