title: "Boxing at the 2004 Summer Olympics – Featherweight" content: was the boxer who scored the most valid punches by the end of the bout. Boxing at the 2004 Summer Olympics – Featherweight The featherweight boxing competition at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens was held from 16 to 28 August at Peristeri Olympic Boxing Hall. This is limited to those boxers weighing between 54 and 57 kilograms. Like all Olympic boxing events, the competition was a straight single-elimination tournament. This event consisted of 28 boxers who have qualified for the competition through various tournaments held in 2003 and 2004. The competition began with a preliminary round on 16 August,


title: "Jimmy George" content: 1970, Jimmy became a member of the University of Calicut volleyball team. In 1973, he joined St. Thomas College, Pala. Jimmy represented the Kerala University four times from 1973 to 1976. The Kerala team won the All India Inter-University Championship during these four years. He was the captain of the team in 1973. He secured a berth in the Kerala State Team at the age of 16, in 1971, and thereafter he represented the state nine times. In 1976, Jimmy quit medical college to join Kerala Police where he remained a member of the police team until his death. He


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: Pevensey Castle Pevensey Castle is a medieval castle and former Roman Saxon Shore fort at Pevensey in the English county of East Sussex. The site is a Scheduled Monument in the care of English Heritage and is open to visitors. Built around 290 AD and known to the Romans as "Anderitum", the fort appears to have been the base for a fleet called the "Classis Anderidaensis". The reasons for its construction are unclear; long thought to have been part of a Roman defensive system to guard the British and Gallic coasts against Saxon pirates, it has more recently been suggested


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: that "Anderitum" and the other Saxon Shore forts were built by a usurper in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to prevent Rome from reimposing its control over Britain. "Anderitum" fell into ruin following the end of the Roman occupation but was reoccupied in 1066 by the Normans, for whom it became a key strategic bulwark. A stone keep and fortification was built within the Roman walls and faced several sieges. Although its garrison was twice starved into surrender, it was never successfully stormed. The castle was occupied more or less continuously until the 16th century, apart from a possible break in


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: the early 13th century when it was slighted. It had been abandoned again by the late 16th century and remained a crumbling, partly overgrown ruin until it was acquired by the state in 1925. Pevensey Castle was reoccupied between 1940 and 1945, during the Second World War, when it was garrisoned by units from the Home Guard, the British and Canadian armies and the United States Army Air Corps. Machine-gun posts were built into the Roman and medieval walls to control the flat land around Pevensey and guard against the threat of a German invasion. They were left in place


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: after the war and can still be seen today. Pevensey is one of many Norman castles built around the south of England. Pevensey Castle was constructed by the Romans on a spur of sand and clay that stands about above sea level. In Roman times this spur was a peninsula that projected into a tidal lagoon and marshes, making it a strong natural defensive position. A harbour is thought to have been situated near the south wall of the castle, sheltered by a long spit of shingle where the village of Pevensey Bay stands now. A small river, Pevensey Haven,


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: runs along the north side of the peninsula and would originally have discharged into the lagoon, but is now largely silted up. Since Roman times, silting and land reclamation in the Pevensey Levels have pushed the coastline out by about , leaving the castle landlocked. The land between the castle and the sea is now a flat marshland drained by a network of ditches and sewers or field drains. The modern village of Pevensey is situated mostly to the east of the castle, at the end of the ancient peninsula. Castle Road (the B2191) curves around the Roman north wall


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: and connects Pevensey to the nearby village of Westham. A public footpath crosses the interior of the castle, linking the two villages. An area of reclaimed land, formerly part of the Pevensey tidal lagoon but now marshland and fields crossed by the Eastbourne to Hastings railway line, is situated immediately to the south of the castle. The castle occupies an area of about . It has an oval plan on a north-east/south-west alignment, measuring by . Not only is it the largest of the nine Saxon Shore forts but its walls and towers are the largest of any surviving Roman


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: fort of the period. Its shape is unique among Saxon Shore forts and was presumably determined by the contours of the peninsula on which it stands. The castle's curtain wall is built on a massive scale, with ramparts and projecting towers still standing up to high (and probably about high when built) and thick at the base. The north, east and west sections of the curtain wall have survived mostly intact, with the exception of one fallen segment of the north wall; the south wall, which would have adjoined sea or marsh, has almost entirely disappeared. It is faced with


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: ironstone and sandstone, though most of the original facing stones have been robbed out over the centuries; the structure visible now consists mostly of the rubble and sandstone core, bound together with mortar. Bonding courses of tiles run horizontally through the wall. An impression of its original appearance can be gleaned from an area in the north wall which has been excavated down to the still-intact foundations, revealing how it was once faced on both sides with small blocks of stone. The wall originally had a stepped appearance with at least two levels of steps on the interior face, though


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: there is no surviving indication of how the garrison reached the top. At the top of the wall the remains of medieval crenellations can still be seen, which probably replaced Roman originals. The D-shaped towers along the curtain wall are similar to those of several other Saxon Shore forts, although their placement is somewhat unusual. Because the fort was partly surrounded by marshes and water, which provided natural defences, the Romans economised by only building towers on the more vulnerable north-eastern and far western sectors. The towers were probably used to mount artillery weapons such as catapults and heavy crossbows.


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: Ten towers still survive, though there may originally have been more before the loss of the south wall. The Roman fort had two principal entrances, one on the east side and the other on the west, guarded by clusters of towers. The west gate covered the landward access via the causeway that linked Pevensey to the mainland. A ditch bisected the causeway, which led up to a rectangular gatehouse with a single arch around wide, with a D-shaped tower on each end from which archers could fire along the archway. The main entrance of the Saxon Shore fort at Portchester,


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: built around the same period, had a very similar plan. Nothing now remains of the Roman gatehouse, which was replaced during medieval times, while only a few stones are left of the medieval gatehouse. The east gate, wide, still stands; although what is visible now is principally medieval and 19th century, the Roman original probably did not look much different. A postern gate was set into the north wall next to a section that has now collapsed. It was originally constructed in the form of a narrow curved passageway. Another postern gate may have been set into the collapsed south


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: wall. These suggest that there may have been routes into the fort from across the marshes or access from a harbour, of which no trace remains. The interior of the fort was artificially raised by the Romans, using earth dug from the foundation ditch, to bring it up to the level of the projecting step on the back of the wall. No evidence of significant buildings within the fort has been found by excavators. A number of Roman hearths are situated at regular intervals in the centre of the fort's interior, suggesting that they may have been the site of


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: wooden barrack blocks. The buildings are conjectured to have been largely timber-framed wattle and daub structures which have left little trace. The Normans divided the interior of the old Roman fort into two fortified enclosures, referred to as the inner and outer baileys. The inner bailey of the castle was, in effect, a castle within a castle, consisting of a walled fortification with a tower at each corner, surrounded by a moat and with a keep of unusual design at its eastern extremity, adjoining the old Roman curtain wall. The present stone fortifications of the inner bailey date mainly from


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: the 13th and 14th centuries. They replaced the original wood and earth fortifications of the Norman inner bailey, which occupied a much larger area of the Roman fort's interior. Traces of the Norman bailey's ditch and earthen rampart, which stretched right across the interior of the fort, can still be seen today. The inner bailey protected the castle's most important domestic buildings, while the outer bailey was used for buildings of lesser importance such as a granary for the manor of Pevensey. The inner bailey's moat – which is fed by a spring – was probably over wide when first


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: dug. The moat protected a mid-13th century curtain wall, which is still largely intact, that divides the inner and outer baileys. A wooden bridge around long linked the inner and outer baileys, though the cost of maintaining it prompted its replacement in 1405 with a stone causeway and drawbridge pit that can still be seen today. The principal entrance to the inner bailey was through the early 13th century gatehouse at the end of the entrance bridge, which had two D-shaped towers flanking a vaulted entrance passage. The towers were built on three levels with arrow slits in each level


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: and basements below, which have survived intact. One of the basements can be reached via a spiral staircase; the other can only be accessed through a hole in the tower's floor and may have been used as a prison cell or oubliette. The gatehouse towers were built with open backs, which were probably closed by a wooden wall. Three other towers still stand on the east, north and south sides of the inner bailey's curtain wall. Built in the mid-13th century, they each had three floors which were accessed through separate entrances on each level. Lighting was provided by arrow-slits,


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: and the upper room in each tower, which was the only one to have a fireplace, was probably used as a lodging area. A latrine was also provided. Only the north tower is known to have been completed; however, its vaulted basement was mostly destroyed around 1317 when the roof and floors of the tower collapsed into it. It is not clear whether the south and east towers were ever completed. An estimate written in 1317 reveals that the towers were thatched, lacking castellations and a proper lead roof, but it is not known whether the work itemised in the


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: estimate was ever carried out. The interiors of the towers were substantially modified in 1940. The interior of the inner bailey is now a broad, grassy area dominated by the stump of the keep at its eastern edge, which survives only up to its first floor. Despite the massive nature of the ruins, they preserve little of the original design apart from its unique ground plan. It consisted of a rectangular block measuring about by internally with seven projecting towers, a design found in no other medieval castle. Nothing remains of the interior and the uniqueness of its design makes


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: it difficult to reconstruct its internal layout. Surviving 14th century documents record that it contained a kitchen and a chapel, and had an iron door at its main entrance which was approached up a wooden stair. Like most Norman keeps, the entrance was situated on the first floor; the ground floor lacks any openings and it appears to have been constructed as a solid mass of masonry filled with clay. The near-total destruction of everything above the first floor means that the keep's original height is unknown, but it may have stood to a height of about or so. The


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: keep underwent at least two redesigns in the first half of the 14th century, possibly prompted by damage inflicted in earlier sieges. One of the redesigns involved constructing an adjoining square tower which some have suggested could have been used to mount a catapult; large stone balls, used as catapult ammunition, can still be seen in the inner bailey today. The building was recorded to be dilapidated for much of the 14th century despite repeated repairs, and had fallen into ruin by the 16th century. It was subjected to systematic stone-robbing for centuries; as early as 1591, it was recorded


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: that all the best stones had been "imbeselled and carried away" and that one family had removed no fewer than 677 cartloads of ashlar facing-stone from the keep's walls. A late 18th century engraving shows the remains of the building in a state of collapse and it had completely collapsed by the 1880s. The ruins were largely buried under a great heap of earth and clay that had been deposited sometime in the late medieval or early modern periods, which was not removed until the 1920s. The reason for the construction of this mound over the ruined keep is unclear,


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: but it may have been related to the brief Elizabethan use of the castle as a gun position. A number of other buildings once stood in the inner bailey, though only traces now remain. The interior of the curtain wall was lined with timber-framed domestic buildings such as the great hall, which appears to have been totally rebuilt by Edward I in 1301–02 and possibly on other occasions. The arrangement of these buildings is not known but remains of the fireplaces can still be seen built into the curtain wall. Due to the relatively small space available in the inner


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: bailey, the buildings would have been very narrow. The stone foundations of a small chapel are also visible in the inner bailey. The chapel was first documented in the 13th century and was rebuilt in 1302, either on the existing stone foundations or in the outer bailey in a new location. The castle's water supply was provided by a well situated beside the chapel. It has never been fully dug out, but investigations have revealed that it is lined with stone to a depth of around and with wood beyond that. Pevensey Castle was established as one of the nine


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: Late Roman forts on the British side of the Saxon Shore (Latin: "Litus Saxonicum"). The fort is named as "Anderitum", apparently meaning "great ford", in the "Notitia Dignitatum", a list of Roman "dignities" (i.e. public offices) as of the 5th century. (An alternative spelling of "Anderida" or "Anderita" has also been proposed, but is disfavoured.) The fort was long thought to have been built in the mid-4th century but it has been dated to around 290, based on the dating of wooden piles which were found underpinning the Roman walls in an excavation carried out in 1994. Other Saxon Shore


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: forts were built or reconstructed around this time as part of a systematic programme of improvements to the coastal defences of Roman Britain. The construction of the Saxon Shore forts has been linked to the raids that Saxon and Jute pirates (from what is now northern Germany and mainland Denmark) were mounting against communities along the North Sea and English Channel. An alternative explanation is that "Anderitum" was built to defend Roman Britain from Rome itself. Carausius, a Roman general who commanded the "Classis Britannica" (the Roman fleet based in the English Channel), revolted against Rome in 286 and declared


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: himself emperor of Britain and northern Gaul. He was assassinated in 293 by his treasurer, Allectus, who was himself killed in 296 when the Roman emperor Constantius Chlorus invaded Britain to overthrow the usurper. Coins of both Carausius and Allectus have been discovered buried in the foundations of the fort's walls. A later coin of 330–335 was found under a tower in the 1930s, suggesting that the fort may have undergone a major repair or reconstruction around that time. The usurpers had inherited an existing system of coastal defence – the earlier Saxon Shore forts – and may have decided


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: to augment it with the construction of Pevensey Castle and its close contemporary, "Portus Adurni" (Portchester Castle). "Anderitum" appears to have been a particularly important link in the Saxon Shore forts, which extended from Hampshire to Norfolk and may have been connected by intermediate watchtowers. The "Notitia Dignitatum" mentions a fleet that was presumably based there, the "Classis Anderidaensis". It would probably have acted in coordination with naval units based on the other side of the Channel to intercept pirate ships passing through the Channel. Like the other Saxon Shore forts, "Anderitum's" position at a strategic harbour would have enabled


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: the Romans to control access to the shoreline and prevent invaders from penetrating inland. It was linked by a road built in the late Roman period, probably at the same time as the fort. It is not known how long it took for "Anderitum" to be constructed, but it has been estimated that it took around 160,000 man-days to complete, equivalent to 285 men spending two years building it or 115 men over five years. At least four gangs of builders appear to have worked on the surviving sections of walls; each gang was given a stretch of about at


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: a time to build but executed the work in significantly different styles, for instance using differing numbers of tiled bonding-courses or ironstone facing in particular places. This may simply indicate varying levels of availability of construction materials at the time each segment was built, leading the gangs to use whatever supplies were available at that moment. The amount of construction material required was very large, equating to about of stone and mortar. It is not known how it was transported to the site, but that volume of material would have needed some 600 boat loads or 49,000 wagon loads, requiring


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: 250 wagons pulled by 1,500–2,000 oxen to move it from the quarries to Pevensey. Given the scale of the requirements for land transportation, it seems more likely that the raw materials were instead moved by sea, though even this would have been a significant operation; it has been estimated that 18 vessels would have been needed for a continuous supply operation carried out over a season of 280 days. The curtain wall was not all built at once but was constructed in segments, as can be seen from vertical breaks in the stonework which mark where sections met. The wall


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: is built on top of complex foundations constructed from rubble and timber set into a ditch deep. Oak piles were driven into the trench and packed with flint and clay, above which a horizontal framework of oak beams was set with more flint and clay. The foundation was finally covered over with cement before the walls were built on top. Some of the timbers have survived, allowing archaeologists to date the fort through dendochronology. Other dating evidence was discredited in the 1970s. An excavation in 1906–08 found shattered tiles stamped "HON AUG ANDRIA", which were used to attribute Pevensey Castle's


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: construction to the reign of the early 5th century Emperor Honorius. However, the use of thermoluminescence dating revealed that the tiles had been made around the time of the excavation. It is suspected that Charles Dawson, who has been blamed for the Piltdown Man hoax, was the author of the forged tiles. "Anderitum" is recorded in the "Notitia Dignitatum" as the base of the "praepositus numeri Abulcorum" – an infantry unit or "numerus" of the "limitanei" or border forces. It also mentions army and naval units bearing the fort's name in connection with the "Vicus Julius", in the Roman army


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: in Gaul and stationed at Lutetia (modern Paris). This suggests that by the time the "Notitia" was written, the original garrison had been moved to Gaul and replaced with the "numerus Abulcorum". The "Abulci" are mentioned in connection with the field army in Gaul and in the suppression of the rebellion of Magnentius in Pannonia Secunda in 351. It is not known whether their name is a geographical or functional one but their description by Zosimus suggests that they were an elite body of troops, who served both in the field army and, probably in the form of a single


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: detachment, at "Anderitum". They may have been "foederati", troops raised from allied barbarian tribes and put under the command of a Roman prefect, or perhaps even a single band of warriors with their own leader. Similar "numeri" were recorded in the "Notitia Dignitata" as being stationed in other Saxon Shore forts. Unlike at many other Roman forts, no civilian settlement or "vicus" appears to have been established outside the walls of Pevensey Castle; this was probably because the fort was at the end of a peninsula with limited room for additional construction. When the Roman army retreated from Britain in


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: 410, civilians appear to have moved into the abandoned fort, perhaps for protection against Saxon raiders, and its name continued to be used well into the Saxon period. According to the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", in 477 a Saxon raid drove local people into the forest of "Andreadsleag" (which from another reference seems to have stretched over from the mouth of the River Lympne to Hampshire). Although the history of the fort at this time is unrecorded, archaeological evidence indicates that its inhabitants had wide-ranging trade links that enabled them to import wares from as far afield as Macedonia and Syria. They


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: may have exported timber and iron from the Sussex Weald to pay for such costly goods. In 491, the Chronicle records that the Saxons Aelle and Cissa "besieged "Andredadsceaster" and slew all the inhabitants; there was not even one Briton left there." It is uncertain whether habitation of the fort continued after this event, which is now thought to have happened around 471 rather than the date recorded by the Chronicle (due to a dating error by Gildas, on whose work the Chronicle draws). The fort appears to have been resettled by about the middle of the 6th century by


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: a Saxon community which left evidence of its occupation in the shape of pottery, glass and other items. By the late Anglo-Saxon period, Pevensey had become a well-established fishing port and producer of salt. Whereas the modern village of Pevensey is situated entirely outside the walls, the 11th century village appears to have been situated "within" the Roman walls. At the time of the Norman Conquest it had a population of 52 burgesses with a harbour and saltworks outside the walls. A civilian settlement within the castle walls evidently persisted for some considerable time after the Conquest, as a licence


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: of 1250 refers to the Roman fortress as the "outer wall of the town". "Anderitum" had fallen into ruin by the time of the Norman conquest of England but it still remained a formidable fortification in a very strategic location, offering a natural anchorage near one of the narrowest points of the English Channel. By this time the locality was known as "Pevensey", meaning "River of [a man named] Pefen" (deriving from the Anglo-Saxon personal name "Pefen" plus "eã", "river", presumably a reference to the now largely silted-up Pevensey Haven). When William the Conqueror launched his invasion of England by


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: landing at Pevensey Bay on 28 September 1066, his army sheltered for the night in a temporary fortification situated within the old Roman fort. The Normans dug a ditch across the causeway linking the fort with the mainland and made repairs to the Roman walls to strengthen them. The army left for Hastings the following day, en route to the Battle of Hastings. The Bayeux Tapestry depicts WIlliam's army constructing a castle at "Hestengaceastra", a Latinised rendition of the Saxon placename "Haestingaceaster". As placenames with the suffix "- ceastre" were almost always associated with Roman forts (compare Manchester, Lancaster, Doncaster


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: etc.) and no Roman fort is known to have existed at the modern site of Hastings, it has been suggested that the name actually refers to "Anderitum" – in which case the depiction in the Tapestry may show the construction of the temporary Norman castle within the Roman fortress walls. William's choice of Pevensey as a defensive location may not have been entirely due to practical military reasons. It also had political connotations, implying that the Normans were on a level with the Romans. He followed a similar pattern elsewhere in England, building the Tower of London alongside the still-extant


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: Roman city wall and constructing Colchester Castle on top of the ruins of the Temple of Claudius. Following William's victory at Hastings, the county of Sussex came to be seen by the new regime as being of essential military value. It was both a frontier zone and an essential link between England and Normandy. The existing tenurial arrangements in the county were swept away and replaced by five subdivisions, or rapes, each of which was given to one of William's most important followers. Each rape was associated with a major castle, Pevensey being one of them. In 1067 William left


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: England for Normandy via Pevensey. He also appears to have used the site to distribute lands to his Norman followers, with Pevensey Castle and the surrounding Rape of Penvensey being gifted to his half-brother Robert, Count of Mortain. William's temporary fortification within the Roman walls was expanded to create a permanent Norman castle at Pevensey, probably during Robert's tenure sometime in the 1070s. The Roman walls were further repaired and two enclosures or baileys were created, divided by a ditch and a palisade constructed from timber. Robert also founded a small borough outside the Roman walls which was recorded as


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: having 110 burgesses and a mint by the time the Domesday Book was compiled in 1086. This may have been the original site of the modern village of Pevensey, but it is equally possible that Robert's borough may have been the foundation site of the village of Westham to the west of the castle, whose layout has many similarities to that of other Norman new towns. The Norman castle's defences were put to the test for the first time in the Rebellion of 1088, when Norman barons allied with Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy rebelled against the new king William


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: Rufus. The barons, who were also supported by William the Conqueror's half-brothers Robert of Mortain and Bishop Odo of Bayeux, defended Pevensey Castle against an army led personally by William Rufus. Although the castle's defences were strong enough to resist assaults from land and sea, its defenders were forced to surrender when they ran out of food after six weeks. Robert was allowed to keep the castle but his son William, Count of Mortain was stripped of it, along with his other English estates, after rebelling against Henry I in the early 12th century. Henry re-granted Pevensey Castle to Gilbert


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: I de l'Aigle but continued to use it for his own purposes, as happened in 1101 when he spent the summer at Pevensey to deter a threatened invasion by Duke Robert of Normandy. Pevensey was confiscated again by the Crown under King Stephen, with Gilbert's family also losing the rest of their possessions. It was subsequently re-granted to Gilbert de Clare, 1st Earl of Pembroke, who switched his allegiance to Stephen's cousin and rival, the Empress Matilda, in 1141. Although Gilbert changed his loyalty back to Stephen the following year, he was taken hostage by the king in 1147 after


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: a revolt by Gilbert's uncle, Ranulf de Gernon, 4th Earl of Chester. A promise to surrender the Clare family's castles secured Gilbert's release but as soon as he was freed, he too rebelled. In response, Stephen undertook the second siege of Pevensey Castle with a land and sea blockade. The castle once again proved impervious to direct assault but the garrison was eventually starved out. Gilbert's disloyalty led to the Crown seizing the castle again and taking on the burden of repairing and maintaining it. The expenditure was recorded in still-surviving Treasury accounts which provide a valuable insight into the


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: development of the castle during the later medieval period. In the 1180s the defences appear to have been a combination of stone walls (the old Roman structure) with Norman modifications, plus earthworks and timber palisades. They were maintained in part by some of the local manors, which were under a feudal obligation called "heckage" that required them to repair and keep up sections of the palisades. Pevensey Castle appears to have acquired its first major new stone buildings in the 1190s. Their construction may be indicated by a series of substantial payments for works at the castle during the reign


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: of Richard I. The keep and gatehouse may have been constructed under Richard, though mentions from 1130 of "the Tower of Pevensey" suggest that there may have been an earlier stone building on the site, or that the keep was constructed at this earlier date. Whenever it was built, it was probably destroyed by about 1216 when Richard's successor John fought off an invasion led by Prince Louis of France. The French invasion during the First Barons' War forced John to order the slighting of Pevensey Castle, as he did not have enough men to garrison it and could not


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: afford it to fall into French hands. A subsequent rebuilding saw the timber palisades of the inner bailey replaced by stone walls and towers. Exactly when this happened is unclear, but it may have been under Peter of Savoy, the Earl of Richmond, who was granted the castle by Henry III in 1246. There is no record of the rebuilding but in 1254 Peter ended the feudal requirement to maintain the palisades and replaced it with cash payments. This probably reflected the replacement of the palisades with the stone walls and towers visible today. The castle faced a lengthy siege


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: only a decade later during the Second Barons' War from the rebel baron Simon de Montfort, following Henry's defeat in the Battle of Lewes. Defeated members of the royalist army fled to Pevensey, pursued by de Montford's forces, but the garrison refused an invitation to surrender and endured over a year of besiegement. Their adversaries were unable to stop supplies reaching the castle despite digging a ditch to cut it off from the mainland; its garrison raided the surrounding countryside and sought to obtain fresh supplies of men and weapons by sea in December 1264. The costly and ineffective siege


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: was eventually lifted in July 1265. It caused significant damage to the castle, with the Roman wall toppled on the south side. The parish churches at Pevensey and Westham also suffered damage, which the attackers may have caused in using them as siege castles (temporary fortresses and artillery platforms). Peter continued to control Pevensey Castle after de Montford's defeat and death at the Battle of Evesham in August 1265. It became Crown property after Peter's death, when Henry III's queen Eleanor of Provence acquired the castle. It remained with the Crown for another century under the control of several queens


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: consort, including Edward II's wife Isabella and Edward III's wife Philippa, who were responsible for appointing the castle's Constables. By this time, the silting of Pevensey Bay was evidently having an effect on the garrison's ability to resupply via the sea. Accounts from 1288 indicate that seaborne access was becoming increasingly difficult, causing problems in unloading goods. However, it continued to play a significant role in the defence of the south coast against French raids and was occupied through much of the 14th century by a garrison consisting of between twenty and thirty men. These usually comprised ten men-at-arms, twenty


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: archers and a watchman, who were supplied with provisions and armour. The Duke of Lancaster, John of Gaunt, refused to garrison it in 1377 five years after he took possession of the castle, asserting that he was wealthy enough to rebuild it if a French attack destroyed it. His actions attracted public hostility which culminated during the Peasants' Revolt of 1381 when a mob attacked the castle, burnt its court rolls and abused the steward. The castle underwent repeated repair work during the 14th century, though poor maintenance and corruption appears to have caused its fabric to deteriorate rapidly. The


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: main buildings of the inner bailey were totally reconstructed in 1301 but were reported to be in a ruinous condition only five years later. The castle's constable, Roger de Levelande, was accused of illicitly asset-stripping the castle by breaking up and selling the wooden bridge that connected it to the mainland. Some "wardens" were also accused of burning the timbers of a disused barn. It was estimated that the resulting damage and the ongoing structural deterioration to the curtain wall would cost over £1,000 to repair. Around 1325, the keep was partly demolished and rebuilt. It is possible that by


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: this time the Roman curtain wall was in such a poor state that it was no longer considered part of the castle defences. Various late 13th and early 14th century records describe how sections of the wall had fallen down or been destroyed in sieges. The collapse of the wall on the north-west side is thought to have occurred by no later than the middle of the 13th century, and this event may have made the outer bailey indefensible thereafter. Pevensey Castle was besieged again for the fourth and last time in its history in 1399. By this time it


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: was controlled by Sir John Pelham, one of Gaunt's retainers, who had been appointed to the Constableship in 1394. Pelham supported Gaunt's son, Henry Bolingbroke – the later Henry IV – in his rebellion against Richard II. The king's forces besieged the castle, trapping Pelham and the garrison inside. In a letter sent to Bolingbroke, Pelham wrote: The siege failed, Bolingbroke was crowned and the new king granted the Castle and Honour of Pevensey to Pelham as a reward for his loyalty. The Lancastrian kings subsequently used the castle as a prison for high-ranking nobles. Its inmates included King James


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: I of Scotland, who was captured while en route to France in 1405, and Edward of Norwich, 2nd Duke of York, who was held at Pevensey after becoming involved in a plot against Henry IV. On his death, Edward bestowed £20 in his will to Thomas Playsted, apparently one of his jailers, "for the kindness he showed me when I was in ward at Pevensey." Henry IV's second wife Joan of Navarre was imprisoned by Joan's stepson Henry V on charges of plotting to kill him through witchcraft; she was held at Pevensey between December 1419 and March 1420 before


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: being moved to Leeds Castle and eventually released in 1422. When the Tudor dynasty took over the castle was abandoned, and by 1573 it was recorded to be in ruins. Elizabeth I ordered the castle's remains to be "utterlye raysed", but her order was not enforced and it remained standing. In 1587, the castle was reoccupied – though not rebuilt – to serve as a gun position against the threat of a Spanish invasion. A U-shaped earth emplacement was built in the outer bailey, facing south over the collapsed section of the Roman wall. Two iron demi-culverin cannons were installed


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: and were in place at the time of the Spanish Armada in 1588, although the Armada failed and they were never used in anger. One of the guns, marked with a Tudor rose and the initials E.R. ("Elizabeth Regina"), has been preserved and can be seen in the inner bailey of the castle mounted on a replica carriage. Although the cannon was recorded at the time as being only "of small value" it is now one of only a few cast-iron cannons to have survived from the Elizabethan period. It was almost certainly manufactured locally in the Sussex Weald. Pevensey


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: Castle remained abandoned and crumbling from the end of the 16th century to the first quarter of the 20th. It was nearly demolished during the period of the English Commonwealth in the 17th century when Oliver Cromwell's Parliamentary Commissioners sold it for £40 to a builder, John Warr of Westminster, who planned to quarry it for its stones. Very little work took place, however, and the Crown reacquired the castle in 1660. It was restored to the possession of the Pelham family, until in 1730 the Duke of Newcastle resigned it to Spencer Compton, 1st Earl of Wilmington. It was


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: subsequently acquired by the House of Cavendish. In 1925 its last private owner, the 9th Duke of Devonshire, gave the castle to the state as a historic monument and it underwent repairs and some reconstruction under the supervision of the Ministry of Works. It acquired a fresh military significance in 1940 when Pevensey's exposed shoreline and flat hinterland became a possible target area for a German invasion after the fall of France. It was reoccupied by the military for the first time in over 400 years, with British and Canadian troops garrisoning it from May 1940, and Americans later. The


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: towers of the inner bailey were converted into troop accommodation by lining the walls with bricks and laying wooden floors. New perimeter defences were constructed; machine-gun posts were built into the walls, disguised to look like part of the original structure, and an anti-tank blockhouse was built in the entrance of the Roman west gate. The main and postern gates of the inner bailey were blocked by concrete and brick walls, and anti-tank cubes were installed along the areas where the Roman curtain wall had collapsed. The main concern was that an invader could have captured the castle and used


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: its interior as a strongpoint. It was intended that the new defensive measures at the castle would make it "100% tank-proof" and that an enemy would not be able to approach within of it. The United States Army Air Corps also used it as a radio direction centre from early 1944. In 1945 the castle was returned to civilian control. The blockhouse and obstructions were demolished but it was decided to leave the machine-gun posts in place to illustrate the most recent chapter in the castle's history. The castle is now managed by English Heritage and is open to the


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: public. Pevensey Castle has been the subject of a number of excavations and archaeological investigations over the past 300 years. The first recorded excavation on the site took place in 1710, when the vicar of Pevensey sought to dig a channel from the castle's moat, within the outer bailey, to convey water to the village. The project necessitated digging under the Roman curtain wall. This revealed how the wall had been constructed, resting on a foundation of rubble-packed oak piles and beams which were described as exhibiting "no symptoms of decay, and even the leaves of some brushwood which had


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: been thrown in were found equally well preserved." The Sussex Archaeological Society, now the oldest archaeological society in England, was founded within the castle's walls on 9 July 1846. Six years later, two antiquarians, Mark Antony Lower and Charles Roach Smith, were granted permission by the Duke of Devonshire to carry out an excavation of the castle with the support of sponsors and the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway, which provided free transport. The excavations concentrated on the Roman west gate and north postern, with some small trial trenches dug elsewhere on the site. They began in August 1852


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: and continued until November, unearthing several 4th century Roman coins, numerous stone catapult balls and the foundations of the chapel in the inner bailey. The castle well was also discovered around the same time by the castle's custodian. Further excavations were carried out by Louis Salzmann between 1906 and 1908, concentrating on the north-west sector of the Roman fort, the east gate and the north postern. Harry Sands undertook the clearing of debris around the medieval castle keep in 1906 and more extensive excavations in 1910. Further clearing work took place under the supervision of the Ministry of Works in


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: 1926 following the acquisition of the castle by the state. In 1936 Frank Cottrill carried out an eight-month excavation in the area of the outer bailey. B. W. Pearce excavated outside the Roman west gate in 1938 and cleared the moat of debris the following year. The Second World War ended any further work, and it was not until 1964 that limited exploration by Stuart Rigold took place outside the south-east postern of the inner bailey. In 1993–95, a team from the University of Reading led by Professor Michael Fulford carried out a series of excavations in the area of


title: "Pevensey Castle" content: the keep and on the Roman fortress's east side. Pevensey Castle Pevensey Castle is a medieval castle and former Roman Saxon Shore fort at Pevensey in the English county of East Sussex. The site is a Scheduled Monument in the care of English Heritage and is open to visitors. Built around 290 AD and known to the Romans as "Anderitum", the fort appears to have been the base for a fleet called the "Classis Anderidaensis". The reasons for its construction are unclear; long thought to have been part of a Roman defensive system to guard the British and Gallic coasts


title: "Lars Eric Mattsson" content: (ex-Lion’s Share/Section A etc…), Vitalij Kuprij etc…but Lars biggest challenge this far was the progressive metal concept album/metal opera 'War' which was released in 2005 and which features: Mark Boals (Yngwie Malmsteen), Vitalij Kuprij, Lance King, Rene Janssen(Ayreon), Benny Jansson (Tears of Anger/Beyond Twilight) etc... The same year also saw the first instrumental release in 10 years in the guise of the eclectic "Earthbound". Mattsson found a new vein of creativity and by 2006 had completed "Book Of Reflections II : Unfold The Future" with vocals by Martin LeMar (Tomorrow's Eve) and Björn Jansson (Ride The Sky / Tears Of


title: "Shark Island (band)" content: bands at that time. In 1985, Sharks changed their name to "Shark Island". In the tradition of Van Halen, Mötley Crüe and other Los Angeles bands, Shark Island became the house band at the world-famous Gazzari's on the Sunset Strip. Owner Bill Gazzari even helped produce a cover of the Frank Sinatra song "New York, New York" which appeared on the band's independently released album, "S'cool Buss", in 1986. The line-up now included Richard Black on lead vocals, Spencer "Burner" Sercombe on guitar/vocals, Walt Woodward III (ex-Rachel, Americade) on drums/vocals, Tom Rucci on bass/vocals/keyboards and Michael Guy on guitar/bass. Rick


title: "Juice Plus" content: Safety Associates, the owner of Juice Plus, claim that it is “the next best thing to eating fruits and vegetables”, containing the “nutritional essence of 17 different fruits, vegetables, and grains” with key phytonutrients and that the product is absorbed by the body, reduces oxidative stress, promotes cardiovascular wellness, supports a healthy immune system, and helps protect DNA. Multiple studies have produced conflicting results as to the truth of these claims. Doubts have been raised about the advertised benefits of Juice Plus by Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, University of California Berkeley, Center for Science in the Public Interest, and other


title: Dog content: Dog The domestic dog ("Canis lupus familiaris" when considered a subspecies of the wolf or "Canis familiaris" when considered a distinct species) is a member of the genus "Canis" (canines), which forms part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore. The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa as modern wolves are not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated, which implies that the direct ancestor of the dog is extinct. The dog was the first species to be domesticated and has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory


title: Dog content: capabilities, and physical attributes. Their long association with humans has led dogs to be uniquely attuned to human behavior and they are able to thrive on a starch-rich diet that would be inadequate for other canid species. Dogs vary widely in shape, size and colors. Dogs perform many roles for humans, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, assisting police and military, companionship and, more recently, aiding disabled people and therapeutic roles. This influence on human society has given them the sobriquet "man's best friend". In 1999, a study of mitochondrial DNA indicated that the domestic dog may have originated


title: Dog content: from multiple grey wolf populations, with the dingo and New Guinea singing dog "breeds" having developed at a time when human populations were more isolated from each other. In the third edition of "Mammal Species of the World" published in 2005, the mammalogist listed under the wolf "Canis lupus" its wild subspecies, and proposed two additional subspecies: ""familiaris" Linneaus, 1758 [domestic dog]" and ""dingo" Meyer, 1793 [domestic dog]". Wozencraft included "hallstromi" - the New Guinea singing dog - as a taxonomic synonym for the dingo. Wozencraft referred to the mDNA study as one of the guides in forming his decision.


title: Dog content: The inclusion of "familiaris" and "dingo" under a "domestic dog" clade has been noted by other mammalogists. This classification by Wozencraft is debated among zoologists. The origin of the domestic dog is not clear. It is known that the dog was the first domesticated species. The domestic dog is a member of the genus "Canis" (canines), which forms part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore. The closest living relative of the dog is the gray wolf and there is no evidence of any other canine contributing to its genetic lineage. The dog and the


title: Dog content: extant gray wolf form two sister clades, with modern wolves not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated. The archaeological record shows the first undisputed dog remains buried beside humans 14,700 years ago, with disputed remains occurring 36,000 years ago. These dates imply that the earliest dogs arose in the time of human hunter-gatherers and not at the dawn of agriculture. Where the genetic divergence of dog and wolf took place remains controversial, with the most plausible proposals spanning Western Europe, Central Asia, and East Asia. This has been made more complicated by the most recent proposal that


title: Dog content: fits the available evidence, which is that an initial wolf population split into East and West Eurasian wolves, these were then domesticated independently before going extinct into two distinct dog populations between 14,000-6,400 years ago, and then the Western Eurasian dog population was partially and gradually replaced by East Asian dogs that were brought by humans at least 6,400 years ago. Domestic dogs have been selectively bred for millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes. Modern dog breeds show more variation in size, appearance, and behavior than any other domestic animal. Dogs are predators and scavengers, and like


title: Dog content: many other predatory mammals, the dog has powerful muscles, fused wrist bones, a cardiovascular system that supports both sprinting and endurance, and teeth for catching and tearing. Dogs are highly variable in height and weight. The smallest known adult dog was a Yorkshire Terrier, that stood only at the shoulder, in length along the head-and-body, and weighed only . The largest known dog was an English Mastiff which weighed and was from the snout to the tail. The tallest dog is a Great Dane that stands at the shoulder. The dog's senses include vision, hearing, sense of smell, sense of


title: Dog content: taste, touch and sensitivity to the earth's magnetic field. Another study suggested that dogs can see the earth's magnetic field. The coats of domestic dogs are of two varieties: "double" being common with dogs (as well as wolves) originating from colder climates, made up of a coarse guard hair and a soft down hair, or "single", with the topcoat only. Domestic dogs often display the remnants of countershading, a common natural camouflage pattern. A countershaded animal will have dark coloring on its upper surfaces and light coloring below, which reduces its general visibility. Thus, many breeds will have an occasional


title: Dog content: "blaze", stripe, or "star" of white fur on their chest or underside. Regarding coat appearance or health, the coat can be maintained or affected by multiple nutrients present in the diet, see Coat (dog) for more information. There are many different shapes for dog tails: straight, straight up, sickle, curled, or cork-screw. As with many canids, one of the primary functions of a dog's tail is to communicate their emotional state, which can be important in getting along with others. In some hunting dogs, however, the tail is traditionally docked to avoid injuries. In some breeds, such as the Braque


title: Dog content: du Bourbonnais, puppies can be born with a short tail or no tail at all. Despite their close genetic relationship and the ability to inter-breed, there are a number of diagnostic features to distinguish the gray wolves from domestic dogs. Domesticated dogs are clearly distinguishable from wolves by starch gel electrophoresis of red blood cell acid phosphatase. The tympanic bullae are large, convex and almost spherical in gray wolves, while the bullae of dogs are smaller, compressed and slightly crumpled. Compared with equally sized wolves, dogs tend to have 20% smaller skulls and 30% smaller brains. The teeth of gray


title: Dog content: wolves are also proportionately larger than those of dogs. Dogs have a more domed forehead and a distinctive "stop" between forehead and nose. The temporalis muscle that closes the jaws is more robust in wolves. Wolves do not have dewclaws on their back legs, unless there has been admixture with dogs that had them. Most dogs lack a functioning pre-caudal gland and enter estrus twice yearly, unlike gray wolves which only do so once a year. So-called primitive dogs such as Dingoes and Basenjis retain the yearly estrus cycle. Dogs generally have brown eyes and wolves almost always have amber


title: Dog content: or light colored eyes. The skin of domestic dogs tends to be thicker than that of wolves, with some Inuit tribes favoring the former for use as clothing due to its greater resistance to wear and tear in harsh weather. The paws of a dog are half the size of those of a wolf, and their tails tend to curl upwards, another trait not found in wolves. The dog has developed into hundreds of varied breeds, and shows more behavioral and morphological variation than any other land mammal. For example, height measured to the withers ranges from a in the


title: Dog content: Chihuahua to in the Irish Wolfhound; color varies from white through grays (usually called "blue") to black, and browns from light (tan) to dark ("red" or "chocolate") in a wide variation of patterns; coats can be short or long, coarse-haired to wool-like, straight, curly, or smooth. It is common for most breeds to shed their coat. There are many household plants that are poisonous to dogs (and other mammals) including begonia, Poinsettia and aloe vera. Some breeds of dogs are prone to certain genetic ailments such as elbow and hip dysplasia, blindness, deafness, pulmonic stenosis, cleft palate, and trick knees.


title: Dog content: Two serious medical conditions particularly affecting dogs are pyometra, affecting unspayed females of all types and ages, and gastric dilatation volvulus (bloat), which affects the larger breeds or deep-chested dogs. Both of these are acute conditions, and can kill rapidly. Dogs are also susceptible to parasites such as fleas, ticks, mites, hookworms, tapeworms, roundworms, and heartworms (roundworm species that lives in the heart of dogs), keeps it from beating properly, and will eventually lead to death. A number of common human foods and household ingestibles are toxic to dogs, including chocolate solids (theobromine poisoning), onion and garlic (thiosulphate, sulfoxide or


title: Dog content: disulfide poisoning), grapes and raisins, macadamia nuts, xylitol, as well as various plants and other potentially ingested materials. The nicotine in tobacco can also be dangerous. Dogs can be exposed to the substance by scavenging garbage or ashtrays; eating cigars and cigarettes. Signs can be vomiting of large amounts (e.g., from eating cigar butts) or diarrhea. Some other signs are abdominal pain, loss of coordination, collapse, or death. Dogs are susceptible to theobromine poisoning, typically from ingestion of chocolate. Theobromine is toxic to dogs because, although the dog's metabolism is capable of breaking down the chemical, the process is so


title: Dog content: slow that for some dogs even small amounts of chocolate can be fatal, especially dark chocolate. Dogs are also vulnerable to some of the same health conditions as humans, including diabetes, dental and heart disease, epilepsy, cancer, hypothyroidism, and arthritis. In 2013, a study found that mixed breeds live on average 1.2 years longer than pure breeds, and that increasing body-weight was negatively correlated with longevity (i.e. the heavier the dog the shorter its lifespan). The typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among breeds, but for most the median longevity, the age at which half the dogs in a population


title: Dog content: have died and half are still alive, ranges from 10 to 13 years. Individual dogs may live well beyond the median of their breed. The breed with the shortest lifespan (among breeds for which there is a questionnaire survey with a reasonable sample size) is the Dogue de Bordeaux, with a median longevity of about 5.2 years, but several breeds, including Miniature Bull Terriers, Bloodhounds, and Irish Wolfhounds are nearly as short-lived, with median longevities of 6 to 7 years. The longest-lived breeds, including Toy Poodles, Japanese Spitz, Border Terriers, and Tibetan Spaniels, have median longevities of 14 to 15


title: Dog content: years. The median longevity of mixed-breed dogs, taken as an average of all sizes, is one or more years longer than that of purebred dogs when all breeds are averaged. The longest-lived dog was "Bluey", who died in 1939 at age 29.5 years of age. In domestic dogs, sexual maturity begins to happen around age six to twelve months for both males and females, although this can be delayed until up to two years old for some large breeds. This is the time at which female dogs will have their first estrous cycle. They will experience subsequent estrous cycles semiannually,


title: Dog content: during which the body prepares for pregnancy. At the peak of the cycle, females will come into estrus, being mentally and physically receptive to copulation. Because the ova survive and are capable of being fertilized for a week after ovulation, it is possible for more than one male to sire the same litter. Fertilization typically occurs 2–5 days after ovulation; 14–16 days after ovulation, the embryo attaches to the uterus, and after 7-8 more days the heart beat is detectable. Dogs bear their litters roughly 58 to 68 days after fertilization, with an average of 63 days, although the length


title: Dog content: of gestation can vary. An average litter consists of about six puppies, though this number may vary widely based on the breed of dog. In general, toy dogs produce from one to four puppies in each litter, while much larger breeds may average as many as twelve. Some dog breeds have acquired traits through selective breeding that interfere with reproduction. Male French Bulldogs, for instance, are incapable of mounting the female. For many dogs of this breed, the female must be artificially inseminated in order to reproduce. Neutering refers to the sterilization of animals, usually by removal of the male's


title: Dog content: testicles or the female's ovaries and uterus, in order to eliminate the ability to procreate and reduce sex drive. Because of the overpopulation of dogs in some countries, many animal control agencies, such as the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), advise that dogs not intended for further breeding should be neutered, so that they do not have undesired puppies that may later be euthanized. According to the Humane Society of the United States, 3–4 million dogs and cats are euthanized each year in the United States and many more are confined to cages in shelters


title: Dog content: because there are many more animals than there are homes. Spaying or castrating dogs helps keep overpopulation down. Local humane societies, SPCAs, and other animal protection organizations urge people to neuter their pets and to adopt animals from shelters instead of purchasing them. Neutering reduces problems caused by hypersexuality, especially in male dogs. Spayed female dogs are less likely to develop some forms of cancer, affecting mammary glands, ovaries, and other reproductive organs. However, neutering increases the risk of urinary incontinence in female dogs, and prostate cancer in males, as well as osteosarcoma, hemangiosarcoma, cruciate ligament rupture, obesity, and diabetes


title: Dog content: mellitus in either sex. A common breeding practice for pet dogs is mating between close relatives (e.g. between half- and full siblings). Inbreeding depression is considered to be due largely to the expression of homozygous deleterious recessive mutations. Outcrossing between unrelated individuals, including dogs of different breeds, results in the beneficial masking of deleterious recessive mutations in progeny. In a study of seven breeds of dogs (Bernese mountain dog, basset hound, Cairn terrier, Epagneul Breton, German Shepherd dog, Leonberger, and West Highland white terrier) it was found that inbreeding decreases litter size and survival. Another analysis of data on 42,855


title: Dog content: dachshund litters found that as the inbreeding coefficient increased, litter size decreased and the percentage of stillborn puppies increased, thus indicating inbreeding depression. In a study of boxer litters, 22% of puppies died before reaching 7 weeks of age. Stillbirth was the most frequent cause of death, followed by infection. Mortality due to infection increased significantly with increases in inbreeding. Dog intelligence is the ability of the dog to perceive information and retain it as knowledge for applying to solve problems. Dogs have been shown to learn by inference. A study with Rico showed that he knew the labels of


title: Dog content: over 200 different items. He inferred the names of novel items by exclusion learning and correctly retrieved those novel items immediately and also 4 weeks after the initial exposure. Dogs have advanced memory skills. A study documented the learning and memory capabilities of a border collie, "Chaser", who had learned the names and could associate by verbal command over 1,000 words. Dogs are able to read and react appropriately to human body language such as gesturing and pointing, and to understand human voice commands, although a 2018 study on canine cognitive abilities found that dogs' capabilities are not more exceptional


title: Dog content: than those of other animals, such as horses, chimpanzees or cats. Dogs demonstrate a theory of mind by engaging in deception. An experimental study showed compelling evidence that Australian dingos can outperform domestic dogs in non-social problem-solving, indicating that domestic dogs may have lost much of their original problem-solving abilities once they joined humans. Another study indicated that after undergoing training to solve a simple manipulation task, dogs that are faced with an insoluble version of the same problem look at the human, while socialized wolves do not. Modern domestic dogs use humans to solve their problems for them. Dog


title: Dog content: behavior is the internally coordinated responses (actions or inactions) of the domestic dog (individuals or groups) to internal and/or external stimuli. As the oldest domesticated species, with estimates ranging from 9,000–30,000 years BCE, the minds of dogs inevitably have been shaped by millennia of contact with humans. As a result of this physical and social evolution, dogs, more than any other species, have acquired the ability to understand and communicate with humans, and they are uniquely attuned to human behaviors. Behavioral scientists have uncovered a surprising set of social-cognitive abilities in the domestic dog. These abilities are not possessed by


title: Dog content: the dog's closest canine relatives nor by other highly intelligent mammals such as great apes but rather parallel some of the social-cognitive skills of human children. Unlike other domestic species which were primarily selected for production-related traits, dogs were initially selected for their behaviors. In 2016, a study found that there were only 11 fixed genes that showed variation between wolves and dogs. These gene variations were unlikely to have been the result of natural evolution, and indicate selection on both morphology and behavior during dog domestication. These genes have been shown to affect the catecholamine synthesis pathway, with the


title: Dog content: majority of the genes affecting the fight-or-flight response (i.e. selection for tameness), and emotional processing. Dogs generally show reduced fear and aggression compared with wolves. Some of these genes have been associated with aggression in some dog breeds, indicating their importance in both the initial domestication and then later in breed formation. Traits of high sociability and lack of fear in dogs may include genetic modifications related to Williams-Beuren syndrome in humans, which cause hypersociability at the expense of problem solving ability. Dog communication is about how dogs convey information to other dogs, how they understand messages from humans, and


title: Dog content: how humans translate the information that dogs are transmitting. Communication behaviors of dogs include eye gaze, facial expression, vocalization, body posture (including movements of bodies and limbs) and gustatory communication (scents, pheromones and taste). Humans communicate to dogs by using vocalization, hand signals and body posture. The global dog population is estimated at 900 million and rising. Although it is said that the "dog is man's best friend", this refers largely to the ~20% of dogs that live in developed countries. In the developing world dogs are more commonly feral, or village or community dogs, with pet dogs uncommon. Most


title: Dog content: of these dogs live their lives as scavengers and have never been owned by humans, with one study showing their most common response when approached by strangers is to run away (52%) or respond aggressively (11%). Little is known about these dogs, or the dogs in developed countries that are feral, stray or are in shelters, because the great majority of modern research on dog cognition has focused on pet dogs living in human homes. Although dogs are most abundant and widely distributed terrestrial carnivores, the potential of feral and free-ranging dogs to compete with other large carnivores is limited


title: Dog content: by their strong association with humans. For example, a review of the studies in the competitive effects of dogs on sympatric carnivores did not mention any research on competition between dogs and wolves. Although wolves are known to kill dogs, they tend to live in pairs or in small packs in areas where they are highly persecuted, giving them a disadvantage facing large dog groups. Wolves kill dogs wherever they are found together. One study reported that in Wisconsin in 1999 more compensation had been paid for losses due to wolves taking dogs than for wolves taking livestock. In Wisconsin


title: Dog content: wolves will often kill hunting dogs, perhaps because they are in the wolf's territory. A strategy has been reported from Russia where one wolf lures a dog into heavy brush where the another animal waits in ambush. In some instances, wolves have displayed an uncharacteristic fearlessness of humans and buildings when attacking dogs, to the extent that they have to be beaten off or killed. Although the numbers of dogs killed each year are relatively low, it induces a fear of wolves entering villages and farmyards to take dogs, and losses of dogs to wolves has lead to demands for


title: Dog content: more liberal wolf hunting regulations. Coyotes and big cats have also been known to attack dogs. Leopards in particular are known to have a predilection for dogs, and have been recorded to kill and consume them regardless of their size. Tigers in Manchuria, Indochina, Indonesia, and Malaysia are also reported to kill dogs. Striped hyenas are known to kill dogs in Turkmenistan, India, and the Caucasus. Dogs have been described as carnivores or omnivores. Unlike obligate carnivores, domestic dogs (and wild canids) can adapt to a wide-ranging diet, and are not dependent on meat-specific protein nor a very high level


title: Dog content: of protein in order to fulfill their basic dietary requirements. Dogs can healthily digest a variety of foods, including vegetables, fruits and grains, and can consume a large proportion of these in their diet, and some sources do not recommend all-meat diets for dogs, due to their lack of calcium and iron. Compared to wolves, dogs have genes involved in starch digestion that contribute to an increased ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet. As a domesticated or semi-domesticated animal, the dog is nearly universal among human societies. Notable exceptions once included: The domestic dog is the first species, and


title: Dog content: the only large carnivore, known to have been domesticated. Especially over the past 200 years, dogs have undergone rapid phenotypic change and were formed into today's modern dog breeds due to artificial selection by humans. These breeds can vary in size and weight from a teacup poodle to a giant mastiff. Phenotypic variation can include height measured to the withers ranging from in the Chihuahua to in the Irish Wolfhound; color varies from white through grays (usually called "blue") to black, and browns from light (tan) to dark ("red" or "chocolate") in a wide variation of patterns; coats can be


title: Dog content: short or long, coarse-haired to wool-like, straight, curly, or smooth. The skull, body, and limb proportions vary significantly between breeds, with dogs displaying more phenotypic diversity than can be found within the entire order of carnivores. Some breeds demonstrate outstanding skills in herding, retrieving, scent detection, and guarding, which demonstrates the functional and behavioral diversity of dogs. The first dogs were domesticated from shared ancestors of modern wolves, however the phenotypic changes that coincided with the dog–wolf genetic divergence are not known. Domestic dogs inherited complex behaviors, such as bite inhibition, from their wolf ancestors, which would have been pack


title: Dog content: hunters with complex body language. These sophisticated forms of social cognition and communication may account for their trainability, playfulness, and ability to fit into human households and social situations, and these attributes have given dogs a relationship with humans that has enabled them to become one of the most successful species on the planet today. The dogs' value to early human hunter-gatherers led to them quickly becoming ubiquitous across world cultures. Dogs perform many roles for people, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, assisting police and military, companionship, and, more recently, aiding handicapped individuals. This influence on human society


title: Dog content: has given them the nickname "man's best friend" in the Western world. In some cultures, however, dogs are also a source of meat. Wolves, and their dog descendants, likely derived significant benefits from living in human camps—more safety, more reliable food, lesser caloric needs, and more chance to breed. They would have benefited from humans' upright gait that gives them larger range over which to see potential predators and prey, as well as better color vision that, at least by day, gives humans better visual discrimination. Camp dogs would also have benefited from human tool use, as in bringing down


title: Dog content: larger prey and controlling fire for a range of purposes. Humans would also have derived enormous benefit from the dogs associated with their camps. For instance, dogs would have improved sanitation by cleaning up food scraps. Dogs may have provided warmth, as referred to in the Australian Aboriginal expression "three dog night" (an exceptionally cold night), and they would have alerted the camp to the presence of predators or strangers, using their acute hearing to provide an early warning. It has been suggested that the most significant benefit would have been the use of dogs' robust sense of smell to


title: Dog content: assist with the hunt. The relationship between the presence of a dog and success in the hunt is often mentioned as a primary reason for the domestication of the wolf, and a 2004 study of hunter groups with and without a dog gives quantitative support to the hypothesis that the benefits of cooperative hunting was an important factor in wolf domestication. The cohabitation of dogs and humans likely improved the chances of survival for early human groups, and the domestication of dogs may have been one of the key forces that led to human success. Human emigrants from Siberia that


title: Dog content: came across the Bering land bridge into North America likely had dogs in their company. Although one writer even suggests that the use of sled dogs may have been critical to the success of the waves that entered North America roughly 12,000 years ago, the earliest archaeological evidence of dog-like canids in North America dates from about 9,400 years ago. Dogs were an important part of life for the Athabascan population in North America, and were their only domesticated animal. Dogs as pack animals may have contributed migration of the Apache and Navajo tribes 1,400 years ago. This use of


title: Dog content: dogs in these cultures often persisted after the introduction of the horse to North America. It is estimated that three-quarters of the world's dog population lives in the developing world as feral, village, or community dogs, with pet dogs uncommon. "The most widespread form of interspecies bonding occurs between humans and dogs" and the keeping of dogs as companions, particularly by elites, has a long history. (As a possible example, at the Natufian culture site of Ain Mallaha in Israel, dated to 12,000 BC, the remains of an elderly human and a four-to-five-month-old puppy were found buried together). However, pet


title: Dog content: dog populations grew significantly after World War II as suburbanization increased. In the 1950s and 1960s, dogs were kept outside more often than they tend to be today (using the expression "in the doghouse" to describe exclusion from the group signifies the distance between the doghouse and the home) and were still primarily functional, acting as a guard, children's playmate, or walking companion. From the 1980s, there have been changes in the role of the pet dog, such as the increased role of dogs in the emotional support of their human guardians. People and dogs have become increasingly integrated and


title: Dog content: implicated in each other's lives, to the point where pet dogs actively shape the way a family and home are experienced. There have been two major trends in the changing status of pet dogs. The first has been the 'commodification' of the dog, shaping it to conform to human expectations of personality and behaviour. The second has been the broadening of the concept of the family and the home to include dogs-as-dogs within everyday routines and practices. There are a vast range of commodity forms available to transform a pet dog into an ideal companion. The list of goods, services


title: Dog content: and places available is enormous: from dog perfumes, couture, furniture and housing, to dog groomers, therapists, trainers and caretakers, dog cafes, spas, parks and beaches, and dog hotels, airlines and cemeteries. While dog training as an organized activity can be traced back to the 18th century, in the last decades of the 20th century it became a high-profile issue as many normal dog behaviors such as barking, jumping up, digging, rolling in dung, fighting, and urine marking (which dogs do to establish territory through scent), became increasingly incompatible with the new role of a pet dog. Dog training books, classes


title: Dog content: and television programs proliferated as the process of commodifying the pet dog continued. The majority of contemporary dog owners describe their pet as part of the family, although some ambivalence about the relationship is evident in the popular reconceptualization of the dog–human family as a pack. A dominance model of dog–human relationships has been promoted by some dog trainers, such as on the television program "Dog Whisperer". However it has been disputed that "trying to achieve status" is characteristic of dog–human interactions. Pet dogs play an active role in family life; for example, a study of conversations in dog–human families


title: Dog content: showed how family members use the dog as a resource, talking to the dog, or talking through the dog, to mediate their interactions with each other. Increasingly, human family members are engaging in activities centered on the perceived needs and interests of the dog, or in which the dog is an integral partner, such as dog dancing and dog yoga. According to statistics published by the American Pet Products Manufacturers Association in the National Pet Owner Survey in 2009–2010, it is estimated there are 77.5 million people with pet dogs in the United States. The same survey shows nearly 40%


title: Dog content: of American households own at least one dog, of which 67% own just one dog, 25% two dogs and nearly 9% more than two dogs. There does not seem to be any gender preference among dogs as pets, as the statistical data reveal an equal number of female and male dog pets. Yet, although several programs are ongoing to promote pet adoption, less than a fifth of the owned dogs come from a shelter. The latest study using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) comparing humans and dogs showed that dogs have same response to voices and use the same parts of


title: Dog content: the brain as humans do. This gives dogs the ability to recognize emotional human sounds, making them friendly social pets to humans. Dogs have lived and worked with humans in many roles. In addition to dogs' role as companion animals, dogs have been bred for herding livestock (collies, sheepdogs), hunting (hounds, pointers), and rodent control (terriers). Other types of working dogs include search and rescue dogs, detection dogs trained to detect illicit drugs or chemical weapons; guard dogs; dogs who assist fishermen with the use of nets; and dogs that pull loads. In 1957, the dog Laika became the first


title: Dog content: animal to be launched into Earth orbit, aboard the Soviets' Sputnik 2; she died during the flight. Various kinds of service dogs and assistance dogs, including guide dogs, hearing dogs, mobility assistance dogs, and psychiatric service dogs provide assistance to individuals with disabilities. Some dogs owned by epileptics have been shown to alert their handler when the handler shows signs of an impending seizure, sometimes well in advance of onset, allowing the guardian to seek safety, medication, or medical care. People often enter their dogs in competitions such as breed-conformation shows or sports, including racing, sledding and agility competitions. In


title: Dog content: conformation shows, also referred to as breed shows, a judge familiar with the specific dog breed evaluates individual purebred dogs for conformity with their established breed type as described in the breed standard. As the breed standard only deals with the externally observable qualities of the dog (such as appearance, movement, and temperament), separately tested qualities (such as ability or health) are not part of the judging in conformation shows. Dog meat is consumed in some East Asian countries, including Korea, China and Vietnam, a practice that dates back to antiquity. It is estimated that 13–16 million dogs are killed


title: Dog content: and consumed in Asia every year. In China, debates have ensued over banning the consumption of dog meat. Other cultures, such as Polynesia and pre-Columbian Mexico, also consumed dog meat in their history. However, Western, South Asian, African, and Middle Eastern cultures, in general, regard consumption of dog meat as taboo. In some places, however, such as in rural areas of Poland, dog fat is believed to have medicinal properties—being good for the lungs for instance. Dog meat is also consumed in some parts of Switzerland. Proponents of eating dog meat have argued that placing a distinction between livestock and


title: Dog content: dogs is western hypocrisy, and that there is no difference with eating the meat of different animals. In Korea, the primary dog breed raised for meat, the "nureongi" (누렁이), differs from those breeds raised for pets that Koreans may keep in their homes. The most popular Korean dog dish is "gaejang-guk" (also called "bosintang"), a spicy stew meant to balance the body's heat during the summer months. Followers of the custom claim this is done to ensure good health by balancing one's "gi", or vital energy of the body. A 19th century version of "gaejang-guk" explains that the dish is


title: Dog content: prepared by boiling dog meat with scallions and chili powder. Variations of the dish contain chicken and bamboo shoots. While the dishes are still popular in Korea with a segment of the population, dog is not as widely consumed as beef, chicken, and pork. In 2005, the WHO reported that 55,000 people died in Asia and Africa from rabies, a disease for which dogs are the most important vector. Citing a 2008 study, the U.S. Center for Disease Control estimated in 2015 that 4.5 million people in the USA are bitten by dogs each year. A 2015 study estimated that


title: Dog content: 1.8% of the U.S. population is bitten each year. In the 1980s and 1990s the US averaged 17 fatalities per year, while in the 2000s this has increased to 26. 77% of dog bites are from the pet of family or friends, and 50% of attacks occur on the property of the dog's legal owner. A Colorado study found bites in children were less severe than bites in adults. The incidence of dog bites in the US is 12.9 per 10,000 inhabitants, but for boys aged 5 to 9, the incidence rate is 60.7 per 10,000. Moreover, children have a


title: Dog content: much higher chance to be bitten in the face or neck. Sharp claws with powerful muscles behind them can lacerate flesh in a scratch that can lead to serious infections. In the UK between 2003 and 2004, there were 5,868 dog attacks on humans, resulting in 5,770 working days lost in sick leave. In the United States, cats and dogs are a factor in more than 86,000 falls each year. It has been estimated around 2% of dog-related injuries treated in UK hospitals are domestic accidents. The same study found that while dog involvement in road traffic accidents was difficult


title: Dog content: to quantify, dog-associated road accidents involving injury more commonly involved two-wheeled vehicles. "Toxocara canis" (dog roundworm) eggs in dog feces can cause toxocariasis. In the United States, about 10,000 cases of "Toxocara" infection are reported in humans each year, and almost 14% of the U.S. population is infected. In Great Britain, 24% of soil samples taken from public parks contained "T. canis" eggs. Untreated toxocariasis can cause retinal damage and decreased vision. Dog feces can also contain hookworms that cause cutaneous larva migrans in humans. The scientific evidence is mixed as to whether companionship of a dog can enhance human


title: Dog content: physical health and psychological wellbeing. Studies suggesting that there are benefits to physical health and psychological wellbeing have been criticised for being poorly controlled, and finding that "[t]he health of elderly people is related to their health habits and social supports but not to their ownership of, or attachment to, a companion animal." Earlier studies have shown that people who keep pet dogs or cats exhibit better mental and physical health than those who do not, making fewer visits to the doctor and being less likely to be on medication than non-guardians. A 2005 paper states "recent research has failed


title: Dog content: to support earlier findings that pet ownership is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, a reduced use of general practitioner services, or any psychological or physical benefits on health for community dwelling older people. Research has, however, pointed to significantly less absenteeism from school through sickness among children who live with pets." In one study, new guardians reported a highly significant reduction in minor health problems during the first month following pet acquisition, and this effect was sustained in those with dogs through to the end of the study. In addition, people with pet dogs took considerably more


title: Dog content: physical exercise than those with cats and those without pets. The results provide evidence that keeping pets may have positive effects on human health and behaviour, and that for guardians of dogs these effects are relatively long-term. Pet guardianship has also been associated with increased coronary artery disease survival, with human guardians being significantly less likely to die within one year of an acute myocardial infarction than those who did not own dogs. The health benefits of dogs can result from contact with dogs in general, and not solely from having dogs as pets. For example, when in the presence


title: Dog content: of a pet dog, people show reductions in cardiovascular, behavioral, and psychological indicators of anxiety. Other health benefits are gained from exposure to immune-stimulating microorganisms, which, according to the hygiene hypothesis, can protect against allergies and autoimmune diseases. The benefits of contact with a dog also include social support, as dogs are able to not only provide companionship and social support themselves, but also to act as facilitators of social interactions between humans. One study indicated that wheelchair users experience more positive social interactions with strangers when they are accompanied by a dog than when they are not. In 2015,


title: Dog content: a study found that pet owners were significantly more likely to get to know people in their neighborhood than non-pet owners. The practice of using dogs and other animals as a part of therapy dates back to the late 18th century, when animals were introduced into mental institutions to help socialize patients with mental disorders. Animal-assisted intervention research has shown that animal-assisted therapy with a dog can increase social behaviors, such as smiling and laughing, among people with Alzheimer's disease. One study demonstrated that children with ADHD and conduct disorders who participated in an education program with dogs and other


title: Dog content: animals showed increased attendance, increased knowledge and skill objectives, and decreased antisocial and violent behavior compared with those who were not in an animal-assisted program. Every year, between 6 and 8 million dogs and cats enter US animal shelters. The Humane Society of the United States (HSUS) estimates that approximately 3 to 4 million of those dogs and cats are euthanized yearly in the United States. However, the percentage of dogs in US animal shelters that are eventually adopted and removed from the shelters by their new legal owners has increased since the mid-1990s from around 25% to a 2012


title: Dog content: average of 40% among reporting shelters (with many shelters reporting 60–75%). Dogs have been viewed and represented in different manners by different cultures and religions, over the course of history. In ancient Mesopotamia, from the Old Babylonian period until the Neo-Babylonian, dogs were the symbol of Ninisina, the goddess of healing and medicine, and her worshippers frequently dedicated small models of seated dogs to her. In the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods, dogs were used as emblems of magical protection. In mythology, dogs often serve as pets or as watchdogs. Stories of dogs guarding the gates of the underworld recur throughout


title: Dog content: Indo-European mythologies and may originate from Proto-Indo-European religion. In Greek mythology, Cerberus is a three-headed watchdog who guards the gates of Hades. In Norse mythology, a bloody, four-eyed dog called Garmr guards Helheim. In Persian mythology, two four-eyed dogs guard the Chinvat Bridge. In Welsh mythology, Annwn is guarded by Cŵn Annwn. In Hindu mythology, Yama, the god of death, owns two watch dogs who have four eyes. They are said to watch over the gates of Naraka. The hunter god Muthappan from North Malabar region of Kerala has a hunting dog as his mount. Dogs are found in and


title: Dog content: out of the Muthappan Temple and offerings at the shrine take the form of bronze dog figurines. In Philippine mythology, Kimat who is the pet of Tadaklan, god of thunder, is responsible for lightning. The role of the dog in Chinese mythology includes a position as one of the twelve animals which cyclically represent years (the zodiacal dog). In Homer's epic poem the "Odyssey", when the disguised Odysseus returns home after 20 years he is recognized only by his faithful dog, Argos, who has been waiting for his return. In Christianity, dogs represent faithfulness. Within the Roman Catholic denomination specifically,


title: Dog content: the iconography of Saint Dominic includes a dog, after the hallow's mother dreamt of a dog springing from her womb and becoming pregnant shortly thereafter. As such, the Dominican Order (Ecclesiastical Latin: "Dominicanus") means "dogs of the Lord" of "hounds of the Lord" (Ecclesiastical Latin: "domini canis"). In Christian folklore, a church grim often takes the form of a black dog to guard Christian churches and their churchyards from sacrilege. Jewish law does not prohibit keeping dogs and other pets. Jewish law requires Jews to feed dogs (and other animals that they own) before themselves, and make arrangements for feeding


title: Dog content: them before obtaining them. The view on dogs in Islam is mixed, with some schools of thought viewing it as unclean, although Khaled Abou El Fadl states that this view is based on "pre-Islamic Arab mythology" and "a tradition to be falsely attributed to the Prophet". Therefore, Sunni Malaki and Hanafi jurists permit the trade of and keeping of dogs as pets. In China, Korea, and Japan, dogs are viewed as kind protectors. Cultural depictions of dogs in art extend back thousands of years to when dogs were portrayed on the walls of caves. Representations of dogs became more elaborate


title: Dog content: as individual breeds evolved and the relationships between human and canine developed. Hunting scenes were popular in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Dogs were depicted to symbolize guidance, protection, loyalty, fidelity, faithfulness, watchfulness, and love. Lists Dog The domestic dog ("Canis lupus familiaris" when considered a subspecies of the wolf or "Canis familiaris" when considered a distinct species) is a member of the genus "Canis" (canines), which forms part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore. The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa as modern wolves are not closely related to


title: "Snakes in mythology" content: a snake (identified as Satan by both Paul and John in II Corinthians and Revelation, respectively). In the story, the snake convinces Eve to eat fruit from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil, which she then convinces Adam to do as well. As a result, God banishes Adam and Eve from the garden and curses the snake. In the state of Kerala, India, snake shrines occupy most households. Snakes were called upon by the creator of Kerala, Parasurama, to make the saline land fertile. The Mannarasala Shri Nagaraja Temple is one of the main centres of worship. The


title: Quilmesaurus content: deep and thin) extensor groove excludes "Quilmesaurus" from Carnosauria, as does the possession of parallel upper and lower edges of the cnemial crest. However, some features do support its placement within Ceratosauria. These include a pronounced cnemial crest of the tibia and large mesiodistal crest of the femur. The asymmetrical distal part of the tibia and small socket for the astragalus specifically place it within the family Abelisauridae. The preserved bones share features with various abelisaurid taxa throughout the family, although such similarities are widespread and seemingly pop up at random among the taxa, thus making more specific placement difficult.


title: "Calocedrus decurrens" content: Calocedrus decurrens Calocedrus decurrens, with the common names incense cedar and California incense-cedar (syn. "Libocedrus decurrens" Torr.), is a species of conifer native to western North America, with the bulk of the range in the United States, from central western Oregon through most of California and the extreme west of Nevada, and also a short distance into northwest Mexico in northern Baja California. It grows at altitudes of . It is the most widely known species in the genus, and is often simply called 'incense cedar' without the regional qualifier. "Calocedrus decurrens" is a large tree, typically reaching heights of


title: "Calocedrus decurrens" content: and a trunk diameter of up to . The largest known tree, located in Umpqua National Forest, Oregon, is tall with a diameter trunk. It has a broad conic crown of spreading branches. The bark is orange-brown weathering grayish, smooth at first, becoming fissured and exfoliating in long strips on the lower trunk on old trees. The foliage is produced in flattened sprays with scale-like leaves long; they are arranged in opposite decussate pairs, with the successive pairs closely then distantly spaced, so forming apparent whorls of four; the facial pairs are flat, with the lateral pairs folded over their


title: "Calocedrus decurrens" content: bases. The leaves are bright green on both sides of the shoots with only inconspicuous stomata. The foliage, when crushed, gives off an aroma somewhat akin to shoe-polish. The seed cones are long, pale green to yellow, with four (rarely six) scales arranged in opposite decussate pairs; the outer pair of scales each bears two winged seeds, the inner pair(s) usually being sterile and fused together in a flat plate. The cones turn orange to yellow-brown when mature about 8 months after pollination. The pollen cones are long. This tree is the preferred host of a wood wasp, "Syntexis libocedrii"


title: "Calocedrus decurrens" content: a living fossil species which lays its eggs in the smoldering wood immediately after a forest fire. The tree is also host to incense-cedar mistletoe ("Phoradendron libocedri"), a parasitic plant which can often be found hanging from its branches. The incense cedar is one of the most fire and drought tolerant plants in California. Although the tree is killed by hot, stand-replacing crown fire, it spreads rapidly after lower intensity burns. This has given the incense cedar a competitive advantage over other species such as the bigcone Douglas-fir in recent years. The wood is the primary material for wooden pencils,


title: "Calocedrus decurrens" content: because it is soft and tends to sharpen easily without forming splinters. The Native Americans of California used the plant in traditional medicine, basket making, hunting bows, building materials, and to produce fire by friction. The Maidu Concow tribe name for the plant is hö'-tä (Konkow language). "Calocedrus decurrens" is cultivated by plant nurseries as an ornamental tree, for planting in gardens and parks. It is used in traditional, xeriscapic, native plant, and wildlife gardens; and used in designed natural landscaping and habitat restoration projects in California. It is valued for its columnar form and evergreen foliage textures. The tree


title: "Calocedrus decurrens" content: is also grown in gardens and parks in cool summer climates, including the Pacific Northwest in the Northwestern United States and British Columbia, eastern Great Britain and continental Northern Europe. In these areas it can develop an especially narrow columnar crown, an unexplained consequence of the cooler climatic conditions that is rare in trees within its warm summer natural range in the California Floristic Province. Other cultivated species from the family Cupressaceae can have similar crown forms. This plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. Calocedrus decurrens Calocedrus decurrens, with the common names incense cedar and


title: "Harry Woods (footballer)" content: Herbert Chapman was appointed manager in 1925, but Woods played only three times under him, and left for Luton Town in August 1926, where he scored 27 goals in 105 games. He moved back into non-league football with North Shields in 1930, after which his whereabouts remain unknown. Harry Woods (footballer) Harry Woods (born in St Helens on 14 March 1894; date of death unknown) was an English footballer who played as an inside-forward. He initlally trained as a glass worker whilst playing as an amateur for St Helens Recreation, and then Ashton Town and St Helens Town. In 1911,


title: "Luminary (astrology)" content: the luminaries, the English physicians Richard Mead (1673-1754) and James Gibbs (d. 1724) utilized iatromechanism, which regarded the body as a Cartesian machine, conforming in its functions to mechanical laws. Physiological phenomena could thus be explained in terms of physics. Richard Mead subsequently applied Newton's gravitational theories to Pitcairne's hydraulic iatromechanism and astrological medicine. In De imperio solis ac lunae in corpora humana et morbis inde oriundis [A treatise concerning the influence of the sun and moon on human bodies and the diseases thereby produced] (1704), Mead stressed the mechanical effects of solar and lunar emanations, especially the gravitational effects


title: "Buffalo Public Schools" content: "Except where noted, all schools serve Grades 5-12" "Except where noted, all schools serve Grades 9-12" The Buffalo Public School System boasts the most exceptional academically performing high school in Western New York, the City Honors School at Fosdick-Masten Park, which is recognized as one of the most exceptional high schools in the United States. Originally built in 1912 as Masten Park High School, it sits atop the foundation of the original school that was built in 1895, but was destroyed by a fire in 1912. The name was changed in 1927 to Fosdick-Masten Park High School in honor of


title: "Field Mill" content: D & E). Quarry Lane End – behind the South goal, housing the home fans, with a capacity of 1,968. The players' tunnel is in the corner of this stand adjacent to the old West Stand. North Stand – behind the opposite goal from the Quarry Lane End, this was traditionally the home terrace although safety issues meant this would swap with the Quarry Lane End and become the away stand. Capacity of 1,910. Bishop Street Stand – this stand, which runs along the side of the pitch opposite the old West Stand, was condemned prior to 2006 and is


title: WSEE-TV content: they would cease broadcasting and merge. The new combined network would be called The CW. On September 18 of that year, WSEE-TV launched a new second digital subchannel to simulcast "WBEP" allowing non-cable subscribers access to the new network. That station began official use of the call sign WSEE-DT2 and became part of The CW Plus. Back in 2002, WICU-TV entered into a local marketing agreement with WSEE-TV. From that point until June 1, 2009, the station continued to operate from studios on Peach Street in Downtown Erie. On that date, WSEE-TV merged into WICU-TV's facilities on State Street. WSEE