title: Tettigoniidae content: as spiders and assassin bugs, or flowers, to prevent predation. The nymphs remain in a mimic state only until they are large enough to escape predation. Once they complete their last molt, they are then prepared to mate. Tettigoniids are found on every continent except Antarctica. The vast majority of katydid species live in the tropical regions of the world. For example, the Amazon basin rain forest is home to over 2000 species of katydids. However, katydids are found in the cool, dry temperate regions, as well, with about 255 species in North America. The Tettigoniidae are a large family


title: Tettigoniidae content: and have been divided into a number of subfamilies: The Copiphorinae were previously considered a subfamily, but are now placed as tribe Copiphorini in the subfamily Conocephalinae. The genus "Acridoxena" is now placed in the tribe Acridoxenini of the Mecopodinae (previously its own subfamily, Acridoxeninae). The genus "Triassophyllum" is extinct and may be placed in the Archaeorthoptera. The diet of tettigoniids includes leaves, flowers, bark, and seeds, but many species are exclusively predatory, feeding on other insects, snails, or even small vertebrates such as snakes and lizards. Some are also considered pests by commercial crop growers and are sprayed to


title: Tettigoniidae content: limit growth, but population densities are usually low, so a large economic impact is rare. Tettigoniids are serious insect pests of karuka ("Pandanus julianettii"). The species "Segestes gracilis" and "Segestidea montana" eat the leaves and can sometimes kill trees. Growers will stuff leaves and grass in between the leaves of the crown to keep insects out. By observing the head and mouthparts, where differences can be seen in relation to function, it is possible to determine what type of food the tettigoniids consume. Large tettigoniids can inflict a painful bite or pinch if handled, but seldom break the skin. Some


title: Tettigoniidae content: species of bush crickets are consumed by people, such as the "nsenene" ("Ruspolia baileyi") in Uganda and neighbouring areas. The males of tettigoniids have sound-producing organs located on the hind angles of their front wings. In some species, females are also capable of stridulation. Females chirp in response to the shrill of the males. The males use this sound for courtship, which occurs late in the summer. The sound is produced by rubbing two parts of their bodies together, called stridulation. One is the file or comb that has tough ridges; the other is the plectrum is used to produce


title: Tettigoniidae content: the vibration. For tettigoniids, the fore wings are used to sing. Tettigoniids produce continuous songs known as trills. The size of the insect, the spacing of the ridges, and the width of the scraper all influence what sound is made. Many katydids stridulate at a tempo which is governed by ambient temperature, so that the number of chirps in a defined period of time can produce a fairly accurate temperature reading. For American katydids, the formula is generally given as the number of chirps in 15 seconds plus 37 to give the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit. Some tettigoniids have spines


title: Tettigoniidae content: on different parts of their bodies that work in different ways. The Listroscelinae have limb spines on the ventral surfaces of their bodies. This works in a way to confine their prey to make a temporary cage above their mouthparts. The spines are articulated and comparatively flexible, but relatively blunt. Due to this, they are used to cage and not penetrate the prey's body. Spines on the tibiae and the femora are usually more sharp and nonarticulated. They are designed more for penetration or help in the defensive mechanism they might have. This usually works with their diurnal roosting posture


title: Tettigoniidae content: to maximize defense and prevent predators from going for their head. When tettigoniids go to rest during the day, they enter a diurnal roosting posture to maximize its cryptic qualities. This position fools predators into thinking the katydid is either dead or just a leaf on the plant. Various tettigoniids have bright coloration and black apical spots on the inner surfaces of the tegmina, and brightly colored hind wings. By flicking their wings open when disturbed, they use the coloration to fool predators into thinking the spots are eyes. This, in combination with their coloration mimicking leaves, allows them to


title: Tettigoniidae content: blend in with their surroundings, but also makes predators unsure which side is the front and which side is the back. The males provide a nuptial gift for the females in the form of a spermatophylax, a body attached to the males' spermatophore and consumed by the female, to distract her from eating the male's spermatophore and thereby increase his paternity. The Tettigoniidae have polygamous relationships. The first male to mate is guaranteed an extremely high confidence of paternity when a second male couples at the termination of female sexual refractoriness. These investment functions are a parental paternity. The nutrients


title: Tettigoniidae content: that the offspring ultimately receive will increase their fitness. The second male to mate with the female at the termination of her refractory period is usually cuckolded. The polygamous relationships of the Tettigoniidae lead to high levels of male-male competition. Male competition is caused by the decreased availability of males able to supply nutritious spermaphylanges to the females. Females produce more eggs on a high-quality diet; thus, the female looks for healthier males with a more nutritious spermatophylax. Females use the sound created by the male to judge his fitness. The louder and more fluent the trill, the higher the


title: Tettigoniidae content: fitness of the male. Oftentimes in species which produce larger food gifts, the female seeks out the males to copulate. This, however, is a cost to females as they risk predation while searching for males. Also, a cost-benefit tradeoff exists in the size of the spermatophore which the male tettigoniids produce. When males possess a large spermatophore, they benefit by being more highly selected for by females, but they are only able to mate one to two times during their lifetimes. Inversely, male Tettigoniidae with smaller spermatophores have the benefit of being able to mate two to three times per


title: Tettigoniidae content: night, but have lower chances of being selected by females. Even in times of nutritional stress, male Tettigoniidae continue to invest nutrients within their spermatophores. In some species, the cost of creating the spermatophore is low, but even in those which it is not low, it is still not beneficial to reduce the quality of the spermatophore, as it would lead to lower reproductive selection and success. This low reproductive success is attributed to some Tettigoniidae species in which the spermatophylax that the female receives as a food gift from the male during copulation increases the reproductive output of the


title: Tettigoniidae content: reproduction attempt. However, in other cases, the female receives few, if any, benefits. The reproductive behavior of bush crickets has been studied in great depth. Studies found that the tuberous bush cricket ("Platycleis affinis") has the largest testes in proportion to body mass of any animal recorded. They account for 14% of the insect's body mass and are thought to enable a fast remating rate. Tettigoniidae Insects in the family Tettigoniidae are commonly called bush crickets (in the British Isles), katydids (in the United States), or long-horned grasshoppers (obsolete). More than 6,400 species are known. Part of the suborder Ensifera,


title: Korfball content: 1902 Nico Broekhuysen, a Dutch school teacher from Amsterdam, was sent to Nääs, a town in Sweden, to follow an educational course about teaching gymnastics to children. This is where he was introduced to the Swedish game 'ringboll'. In ringboll one could score points by throwing the ball through a ring that was attached to a 3 m pole. Men and women played together, and the field was divided into three zones. Players could not leave their zone. Broekhuysen was inspired and when he returned to Amsterdam he decided to teach his students a similar game. He replaced the ring


title: Kick content: V (r. 1868-1910). While it is known that earlier forms of "boxing" existed during the Ayutthaya Kingdom, the details regarding these techniques are unclear. Some stances that look like low kicks, but not high kicks, are visible in the Shaolin temple frescoes, dated to the 17th century. The "Mahabharata" (4.13), an Indian epic compiled at some point before the 5th century AD, describes an unarmed hand-to-hand battle, including the sentence "and they gave each other violent kicks" (without providing any further detail). As the human leg is longer and stronger than the arm, kicks are generally used to keep an


title: "Kansas State University" content: spans over 9000 square feet, comprising multiple dedicated laboratories, including two crystal growth laboratories, two clean rooms (class 100 and class 1000), a dry room (rel. humidity <0.1%), two radiation measurement laboratories, chemistry laboratory, microanalysis laboratory, electronics shop, and a machine shop. Presently, SMART Laboratory researchers have produced over 200 scientific papers with 22 allowed US patents. Researchers in the SMART Laboratory have also received five R&D 100 awards. Kansas State was involved in early experimentation with television and radio broadcasts. The first radio station licensed in Manhattan was Kansas State's experimental station 9YV. In 1912 the station began a


title: Karma content: in the current life, as well as the nature and quality of future lives - one's "saṃsāra". "Karma" is the executed "deed", "work", "action", or "act", and it is also the "object", the "intent". Wilhelm Halbfass explains karma (karman) by contrasting it with another Sanskrit word "kriya". The word "kriya" is the activity along with the steps and effort in action, while "karma" is (1) the executed action as a consequence of that activity, as well as (2) the intention of the actor behind an executed action or a planned action (described by some scholars as metaphysical residue left in


title: Kimono content: Kimono The is a traditional Japanese garment. "Kimono" was basically derived from the Chinese "hanfu" of the Wu region in Jiangnan, China. "Kimono" ("ki": wear + "mono": object = "worn object", "object that is worn") means "garment" and has come to denote these full-length, usually robes. The standard English plural is "kimonos", but the unmarked Japanese plural "kimono" is also used. Kimonos are often worn for important festivals or formal occasions as formal clothing. Kimono have T-shaped, Dambi-straight-lined robes worn so that the hem falls to the ankle, with attached collars and long, wide sleeves. Kimono are wrapped around the


title: Kimono content: body, always with the left side over the right (except when dressing the dead for burial) and are secured by a sash called an "obi", which is tied at the back. Kimono are generally worn with traditional footwear (especially "zōri" or "geta") and split-toe socks ("tabi"). Today, kimono are most often worn by women, particularly on special occasions. Traditionally, unmarried women wore a style of kimono called "furisode", with almost floor-length sleeves, on special occasions. A few older women and even fewer men still wear the kimono on a daily basis. Men wear the kimono most often at weddings, tea


title: Kimono content: ceremonies, and other very special or very formal occasions. Professional sumo wrestlers are often seen in the kimono because they are required to wear traditional Japanese dress whenever appearing in public. Chinese fashion had a huge influence on Japan from the Kofun period to the early Heian period as a result of mass immigration from the continent and a Japanese envoy to the Tang Dynasty. During Japan's Heian period (794–1192 AD), the kimono became increasingly stylized, though one still wore a half-apron, called a "mo", over it. During the Muromachi age (1392–1573 AD), the "Kosode", a single kimono formerly considered


title: Kimono content: underwear, began to be worn without the hakama (trousers, divided skirt) over it, and thus began to be held closed by an "obi" "belt". During the Edo period (1603–1867 AD), the sleeves began to grow in length, especially among unmarried women, and the "Obi" became wider, with various styles of tying coming into fashion. Since then, the basic shape of both the men’s and women’s kimono has remained essentially unchanged. Kimonos made with exceptional skill from fine materials have been regarded as great works of art. The formal kimono was replaced by the more convenient Western clothes and "yukata" as


title: Kimono content: everyday wear. After an edict by Emperor Meiji, police, railroad men and teachers moved to Western clothes. The Western clothes became the army and school uniform for boys. After the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake, kimono wearers often became victims of robbery because they could not run very fast due to the restricting nature of the kimono on the body and geta clogs. The Tokyo Women's & Children's Wear Manufacturers' Association (東京婦人子供服組合) promoted Western clothes. Between 1920 and 1930 the sailor outfit replaced the undivided "hakama" in school uniforms for girls. The national uniform, "Kokumin-fuku", a type of Western clothes, was


title: Kimono content: mandated for males in 1940. Today most people wear Western clothes and wear the breezier and more comfortable "yukata" for special occasions. In the Western world, kimono-styled women's jackets, similar to a casual cardigan, gained public attention as a popular fashion item in 2014. Kimonos for men should fall approximately to the ankle without tucking. A woman's kimono has additional length to allow for the "ohashori", the tuck that can be seen under the obi, which is used to adjust the kimono to the wearer. An ideally tailored kimono has sleeves that fall to the wrist when the arms are


title: Kimono content: lowered. Kimono textiles can to be classified into two categories: Gofuku(呉服), which indicates silk textiles in general, for luxuries and cotton/hemp Futomono(太物) for everyday wear. Gofuku was named after 呉 (Wú) in ancient China, where the technology of silk fabrics originated from. Cotton clothing is called Momenfuku (木綿服) whereas hemp clothing is called Asafuku (麻服) in Japanese. Cotton/hemp fabrics are generally called as Futomono (太物, Thick materials) as the fiber of these materials are thicker compared to that of silk. Till the end of the Edo period, tailoring of these fabrics were handled respectively at Gofuku store (Gofuku Dana) and


title: Kimono content: Futomono stores (Futomono Dana), however, after the Meiji period, kimono was not worn as daily wear very often and Futomono stores eventually went out of business. Kimonos are traditionally made from a single bolt of fabric called a "tan". "Tan" come in standard dimensions—about 36 centimetres wide and 11.5 metres long—and the entire bolt is used to make one kimono. The finished kimono consists of four main strips of fabric—two panels covering the body and two panels forming the sleeves—with additional smaller strips forming the narrow front panels and collar. Historically, kimonos were often taken apart for washing as separate


title: Kimono content: panels and resewn by hand. Because the entire bolt remains in the finished garment without cutting, the kimono can be retailored easily to fit another person. The maximum width of the sleeve is dictated by the width of the fabric. The distance from the center of the spine to the end of the sleeve could not exceed twice the width of the fabric. Traditional kimono fabric was typically no more than wide. Thus the distance from spine to wrist could not exceed a maximum of roughly . Modern kimono fabric is woven as wide as to accommodate modern Japanese body


title: Kimono content: sizes. Very tall or heavy people, such as sumo wrestlers, must have kimonos custom-made by either joining multiple bolts, weaving custom-width fabric, or using non-standard size fabric. Traditionally, kimonos are sewn by hand; even machine-made kimonos require substantial hand-stitching. Kimono fabrics are frequently hand-made and -decorated. Techniques such as "yūzen" dye resist are used for applying decoration and patterns to the base cloth. Repeating patterns that cover a large area of a kimono are traditionally done with the "yūzen" resist technique and a stencil. Over time there have been many variations in color, fabric and style, as well as accessories


title: Kimono content: such as the obi. The kimono and obi are traditionally made of hemp, linen, silk, silk brocade, silk crepes (such as "chirimen") and satin weaves (such as "rinzu"). Modern kimonos are widely available in less-expensive easy-care fabrics such as rayon, cotton sateen, cotton, polyester and other synthetic fibers. Silk is still considered the ideal fabric. Customarily, woven patterns and dyed repeat patterns are considered informal. Formal kimonos have free-style designs dyed over the whole surface or along the hem. During the Heian period, kimonos were worn with up to a dozen or more colorful contrasting layers, with each combination of


title: Kimono content: colors being a named pattern. Today, the kimono is normally worn with a single layer on top of one or more undergarments. The pattern of the kimono can determine in which season it should be worn. For example, a pattern with butterflies or cherry blossoms would be worn in spring. Watery designs are common during the summer. A popular autumn motif is the russet leaf of the Japanese maple; for winter, designs may include bamboo, pine trees and plum blossoms. A popular form of textile art in Japan is shibori (intricate tie dye), found on some of the more expensive


title: Kimono content: kimonos and haori kimono jackets. Patterns are created by minutely binding the fabric and masking off areas, then dying it, usually by hand. When the bindings are removed, an undyed pattern is revealed. Shibori work can be further enhanced with yuzen (hand applied) drawing or painting with textile dyes or with embroidery; it is then known as tsujigahana. Shibori textiles are very time-consuming to produce and require great skill, so the textiles and garments created from them are very expensive and highly prized. Old kimonos are often recycled in: altered to make haori, hiyoku, or kimonos for children; used to


title: Kimono content: patch similar kimono; used for making handbags and similar kimono accessories; and used to make covers, bags or cases for implements, especially for sweet-picks used in tea ceremonies. Damaged kimonos can be disassembled and resewn to hide the soiled areas, and those with damage below the waistline can be worn under a hakama. Historically, skilled craftsmen laboriously picked the silk thread from old kimono and rewove it into a new textile in the width of a "heko obi" for men's kimono, using a recycling weaving method called "saki-ori". These terms refer to parts of a kimono: A woman's kimono may


title: Kimono content: easily exceed US$10,000; a complete kimono outfit, with kimono, undergarments, obi, ties, socks, sandals, and accessories, can exceed US$20,000. A single obi may cost several thousand dollars. However, most kimonos owned by kimono hobbyists or by practitioners of traditional arts are far less expensive. Enterprising people make their own kimono and undergarments by following a standard pattern, or by recycling older kimonos. Cheaper and machine-made fabrics can substitute for the traditional hand-dyed silk. There is also a thriving business in Japan for second-hand kimonos, which can cost as little as ¥100 (about $0.9) at thrift stores in the Tokyo area.


title: Kimono content: Women's obi, however, mostly remain an expensive item. Although simple patterned or plain colored ones can cost as little as ¥500 (about $4.5), even a used obi can cost hundreds and even thousands of dollars, and experienced craftsmanship is required to make them. Men's obi, even those made from silk, tend to be much less expensive, because they are narrower, shorter and less decorative than those worn by women. Kimonos range from extremely formal to casual. The level of formality of women's kimono is determined mostly by the pattern of the fabric, and color. Young women's kimonos have longer sleeves,


title: Kimono content: signifying that they are not married, and tend to be more elaborate than similarly formal older women's kimono. Men's kimonos are usually one basic shape and are mainly worn in subdued colors. Formality is also determined by the type and color of accessories, the fabric, and the number or absence of "kamon" (family crests), with five crests signifying extreme formality. Silk is the most desirable, and most formal, fabric. Kimonos made of fabrics such as cotton and polyester generally reflect a more casual style. The typical woman's kimono outfit consists of twelve or more separate pieces that are worn, matched,


title: Kimono content: and secured in prescribed ways, and the assistance of licensed professional kimono dressers may be required. Called upon mostly for special occasions, kimono dressers both work out of hair salons and make house calls. Choosing an appropriate type of kimono requires knowledge of the garment's symbolism and subtle social messages, reflecting the woman's age, marital status, and the level of formality of the occasion. "Furisode" () literally translates as "swinging sleeves"—the sleeves of furisode average between 39 and in length. "Furisode" are the most formal kimono for unmarried women, with colorful patterns that cover the entire garment. They are usually


title: Kimono content: worn at coming-of-age ceremonies ("seijin shiki") and by unmarried female relatives of the bride at weddings and wedding receptions. "Hōmongi" () literally translates as "visiting wear". Characterized by patterns that flow over the shoulders, seams and sleeves, "hōmongi" rank slightly higher than their close relative, the "tsukesage". "Hōmongi" may be worn by both married and unmarried women; often friends of the bride will wear "hōmongi" at weddings (except relatives) and receptions. They may also be worn to formal parties. Pongee Hōmongi were made to promote kimono after WWII. Since Pongee Hōmongi are made from Pongee, they are considered casual wear.


title: Kimono content: "Iromuji" () are colored kimono that may be worn by married and unmarried women. They are mainly worn to tea ceremonies. The dyed silk may be figured ("rinzu", similar to jacquard), but has no differently colored patterns. It comes from the word "muji" which means plain or solid and "iro" which means color. "Komon" () means "fine pattern". The term refers to kimono with a small, repeated pattern throughout the garment. This style is more casual and may be worn around town, or dressed up with a formal obi for a restaurant. Both married and unmarried women may wear "komon".


title: Kimono content: "Edo komon" () is a type of "komon" characterized by tiny dots arranged in dense patterns that form larger designs. The "Edo komon" dyeing technique originated with the samurai class during the Edo period. A kimono with this type of pattern is of the same formality as an "iromuji", and when decorated with "kamon", may be worn as visiting wear (equivalent to a "tsukesage" or "hōmongi"). Mofuku is formal mourning dress for men or women. Both men and women wear kimono of plain black silk with five "kamon" over white undergarments and white "tabi". For women, the "obi" and all


title: Kimono content: accessories are also black. Men wear a subdued "obi" and black and white or black and gray striped "hakama" with black or white zori. The completely black mourning ensemble is usually reserved for family and others who are close to the deceased. "Tomesode" () is formal kimono for married woman. The feature of it is the short sleeve, the traditional main color of body is black, the lap of kimono has some simple pattern and elegant color. 'Tomesode' also has a family token and is usually used for wedding party of relatives. "Irotomesode" () is single-color kimono, patterned only below


title: Kimono content: the waistline. "Irotomesode" with five family crests are the same as formal as "kurotomesode", and are worn by married and unmarried women, usually close relatives of the bride and groom at weddings and a medal ceremony at the royal court. An "irotomesode" may have three or one "kamon". Those use as a semi-formal kimono at a party and conferment. "Kurotomesode" () is a black kimono patterned only below the waistline. They are the most formal kimono for married women. They are often worn by the mothers of the bride and groom at weddings. Kurotomesode usually have five "kamon" printed on


title: Kimono content: the sleeves, chest and back of the kimono. "Tsukesage" () has more modest patterns that cover a smaller area—mainly below the waist—than the more formal "hōmongi". They may also be worn by married women. The differences from homongi is the size of the pattern, seam connection, and not same clothes at inside and outside at "hakke" As demitoilet, not used in important occasion, but light patterned homongi is more highly rated than classic patterned tsukesage. General tsukesage is often used for parties, not ceremonies. "Uchikake" () is a highly formal kimono worn only by a bride or at a stage


title: Kimono content: performance. The "uchikake" is often heavily brocaded and is supposed to be worn outside the actual kimono and "obi", as a sort of coat. One therefore never ties the obi around the "uchikake". It is supposed to trail along the floor, this is also why it is heavily padded along the hem. The uchikake of the bridal costume is either white or very colorful often with red as the base colour. The susohiki is usually worn by geisha or by stage performers of the traditional Japanese dance. It is quite long, compared to regular kimono, because the skirt is supposed


title: Kimono content: to trail along the floor. "Susohiki" literally means "trail the skirt". Where a normal kimono for women is normally long, a "susohiki" can be up to long. This is also why geisha and maiko lift their kimono skirt when walking outside, also to show their beautiful underkimono or "nagajuban" (see below). "Jūnihitoe" () is an extremely elegant and highly complex kimono that was only worn by Japanese court-ladies. The jūnihitoe consist of various layers which are silk garments, with the innermost garment being made of white silk. The total weight of the jūnihitoe could add up to 20 kilograms. An


title: Kimono content: important accessory was an elaborate fan, which could be tied together by a rope when folded. Today, the jūnihitoe can only be seen in museums, movies, costume demonstrations, tourist attractions or at certain festivals. These robes are one of the most expensive items of Japanese clothing. Only the Imperial Household still officially uses them at some important functions. In contrast to women's kimono, men's kimono outfits are far simpler, typically consisting of five pieces, not including footwear. Men's kimono sleeves are attached to the body of the kimono with no more than a few inches unattached at the bottom, unlike


title: Kimono content: the women's style of very deep sleeves mostly unattached from the body of the kimono. Men's sleeves are less deep than women's kimono sleeves to accommodate the obi around the waist beneath them, whereas on a woman's kimono, the long, unattached bottom of the sleeve can hang over the obi without getting in the way. In the modern era, the principal distinctions between men's kimono are in the fabric. The typical men's kimono is a subdued, dark color; black, dark blues, greens, and browns are common. Fabrics are usually matte. Some have a subtle pattern, and textured fabrics are common


title: Kimono content: in more casual kimono. More casual kimono may be made in slightly brighter colors, such as lighter purples, greens and blues. Sumo wrestlers have occasionally been known to wear quite bright colors such as fuchsia. The most formal style of kimono is plain black silk with five "kamon" on the chest, shoulders and back. Slightly less formal is the three-"kamon" kimono. In modern-day Japan the meanings of the layering of kimono and hiyoku are usually forgotten. Only maiko and geisha now use this layering technique for dances and subtle erotic suggestion, usually emphasising the back of the neck. Modern Japanese


title: Kimono content: brides may also wear a traditional Shinto bridal kimono which is worn with a hiyoku. Traditionally kimonos were worn with hiyoku or floating linings. Hiyoku can be a second kimono worn beneath the first and give the traditional layered look to the kimono. Often in modern kimonos the hiyoku is simply the name for the double-sided lower half of the kimono which may be exposed to other eyes depending on how the kimono is worn. Old-fashioned kimono styles meant that hiyoku were entire under-kimono, however modern day layers are usually only partial, to give the impression of layering. In the


title: Kimono content: past, a kimono would often be entirely taken apart for washing, and then re-sewn for wearing. This traditional washing method is called "arai hari". Because the stitches must be taken out for washing, traditional kimono need to be hand sewn. "Arai hari" is very expensive and difficult and is one of the causes of the declining popularity of kimono. Modern fabrics and cleaning methods have been developed that eliminate this need, although the traditional washing of kimono is still practiced, especially for high-end garments. New, custom-made kimono are generally delivered to a customer with long, loose basting stitches placed around


title: Kimono content: the outside edges. These stitches are called "shitsuke ito". They are sometimes replaced for storage. They help to prevent bunching, folding and wrinkling, and keep the kimono's layers in alignment. Like many other traditional Japanese garments, there are specific ways to fold kimono. These methods help to preserve the garment and to keep it from creasing when stored. Kimonos are often stored wrapped in paper called "tatōshi". Kimono need to be aired out at least seasonally and before and after each time they are worn. Many people prefer to have their kimono dry cleaned. Although this can be extremely expensive,


title: Kimono content: it is generally less expensive than "arai hari" but may be impossible for certain fabrics or dyes. Kimono The is a traditional Japanese garment. "Kimono" was basically derived from the Chinese "hanfu" of the Wu region in Jiangnan, China. "Kimono" ("ki": wear + "mono": object = "worn object", "object that is worn") means "garment" and has come to denote these full-length, usually robes. The standard English plural is "kimonos", but the unmarked Japanese plural "kimono" is also used. Kimonos are often worn for important festivals or formal occasions as formal clothing. Kimono have T-shaped, Dambi-straight-lined robes worn so that the


title: "Kingston upon Thames" content: Victorian novel "Three Men in a Boat" by Jerome K. Jerome begins; cannons aimed against the Martians in H. G. Wells' "The War of the Worlds" are positioned on Kingston Hill; in "The Rainbow" by D. H. Lawrence the youngest Brangwen dreams of a job in Kingston upon Thames in a long, lyrical passage; Mr. Knightly in "Emma" by Jane Austen regularly visits Kingston, although the narrative never follows him there. Fine art is also a prominent feature in the history of Kingston. Both John Hoyland and Jeremy Moon worked from permanent studios in Kingston and many prominent artists and


title: "Protea cynaroides" content: Protea cynaroides Protea cynaroides, the king protea, is a flowering plant. It is a distinctive member of "Protea", having the largest flower head in the genus. The species is also known as giant protea, honeypot or king sugar bush. It is widely distributed in the southwestern and southern parts of South Africa in the fynbos region. The king protea is the national flower of South Africa. It also is the flagship of the Protea Atlas Project, run by the South African National Botanical Institute. The king protea has several colour forms and horticulturists have recognized 81 garden varieties, some of


title: "Protea cynaroides" content: which have injudiciously been planted in its natural range. In some varieties the pink of the flower and red borders of leaves are replaced by a creamy yellow. This unusual flower has a long vase life in flower arrangements, and makes for an excellent dried flower. "Protea cynaroides" is adapted to survive wildfires by its thick underground stem, which contains many dormant buds; these will produce the new growth after the fire. "Protea cynaroides" is a species of protea in the huge family Proteaceae. The family comprises about 80 genera with about 1600 species. It has Gondwanan distribution, which means


title: "Protea cynaroides" content: that it is mainly spread across the Southern Hemisphere, from Southern Africa, across to Australia, to South America, although certain species are also found in equatorial Africa, India, southern Asia and Oceania as well. "Protea cynaroides" is further placed within the subfamily Proteoideae, which is found mainly in Southern Africa. This subfamily is defined as those species having cluster roots, solitary ovules and indehiscent fruits. Proteoideae is further divided into four tribes: Conospermeae, Petrophileae, Proteae and Leucadendreae. The genus "Protea", and hence "P. cynaroides", is placed under the tribe Proteae. The name of the plant family Proteaceae as well as


title: "Protea cynaroides" content: the genus "Protea", both to which "P. cynaroides" belongs to, derive from the name of the Greek god Proteus, a deity that was able to change between many forms. This is an appropriate image, seeing as both the family and the genus are known for their astonishing variety and diversity of flowers and leaves. The specific epithet "cynaroides" refers to the artichoke-like appearance of the flower-heads: the artichoke belongs to the genus "Cynara". "P. cynaroides" is a woody shrub with thick stems and large dark green, glossy leaves. Most plants are one metre in height when mature, but may vary


title: "Protea cynaroides" content: according to locality and habitat from in height. The "flowers" of "P. cynaroides" are actually composite flower heads (termed an inflorescence) with a collection of flowers in the centre, surrounded by large colourful bracts, from about in diameter. Large, vigorous plants produce six to ten flower heads in one season, although some exceptional plants can produce up to forty flower heads on one plant. The colour of the bracts varies from a creamy white to a deep crimson, but the soft pale pink bracts with a silvery sheen are the most prized. "Protea cynaroides" grows in a harsh environment with


title: "Protea cynaroides" content: dry, hot summers and wet, cold winters. Several adaptions include tough, leathery leaves, which helps to prevent excessive loss of moisture, and a large taproot which penetrates deep into the soil to reach underground moisture. Like most other Proteaceae, "P. cynaroides" has proteoid roots, roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter. These enhance solubilisation of nutrients, thus allowing nutrient uptake in the low-nutrient, phosphorus-deficient soils of its native fynbos habitat. The flowers are fed at by a range of nectarivorous birds, mainly sunbirds and sugarbirds, including the


title: "Protea cynaroides" content: orange-breasted sunbird ("Anthobaphes violacea"), southern double-collared sunbird ("Cinnyris chalybeus"), malachite sunbird ("Nectarinia famosa"), and the Cape sugarbird ("Promerops cafer"). In order to reach the nectar, the bird must push its bill into the inflorescence. As it does so, its bill and face gets brushed with pollen, thereby allowing for possible pollination. Along with birds, a host of insects are attracted to the flowerhead, such as bees, for example the Cape honeybee, and various beetle species such as rove beetles and the beetles of the huge family Scarabaeidae such as the protea beetle "Trichostetha fascicularis" and monkey beetles. Like many other


title: "Protea cynaroides" content: "Protea" species, "P. cynaroides" is adapted to an environment in which bushfires are essential for reproduction and regeneration. Most "Protea" species can be placed in one of two broad groups according to their response to fire: "reseeders" are killed by fire, but fire also triggers the release of their canopy seed bank, thus promoting recruitment of the next generation; "resprouters" survive fire, resprouting from a lignotuber or, more rarely, epicormic buds protected by thick bark. "P. cynaroides" is a resprouter as it shoots up new stems from buds in its thick underground stem after a fire. The king protea is


title: "Protea cynaroides" content: the national flower of South Africa and as such lends its name to the national cricket team, whose nickname is "the Proteas" In the early 1990s there was a political debate as to how and if the flower should be incorporated onto the national rugby teams shirts, perhaps replacing the controversial springbok. Protea cynaroides Protea cynaroides, the king protea, is a flowering plant. It is a distinctive member of "Protea", having the largest flower head in the genus. The species is also known as giant protea, honeypot or king sugar bush. It is widely distributed in the southwestern and southern


title: Kumquat content: Kumquat Kumquats (or cumquats in Australian English, ; "Citrus japonica") are a group of small fruit-bearing trees in the flowering plant family Rutaceae. They were previously classified as forming the now historical genus "Fortunella", or placed within "Citrus sensu lato". The edible fruit closely resembles the orange ("Citrus sinensis") in color and shape but is much smaller, being approximately the size of a large olive. Kumquat is a fairly cold-hardy citrus. The English name "kumquat" derives from the Cantonese "gām-gwāt" , literally meaning "golden orange" or "golden tangerine". The kumquat plant is native to south Asia and the Asia-Pacific region.


title: Kumquat content: The earliest historical reference to kumquats appears in literature of China from the 12th century. They have long been cultivated in India, Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, and southeast Asia. They were introduced to Europe in 1846 by Robert Fortune, collector for the London Horticultural Society, and shortly thereafter were brought to North America. They are slow-growing evergreen shrubs or short trees that stand tall, with dense branches, sometimes bearing small thorns. The leaves are dark glossy green, and the flowers are white, similar to other citrus flowers, and can be borne singly or clustered within the leaf-axils. Depending on size,


title: Kumquat content: the kumquat tree can produce hundreds or even thousands of fruits each year. Citrus taxonomy is complicated and controversial. Different systems place different types of kumquat in different species, or unite them in a single genus. Historically they were viewed as within the genus "Citrus", but the Swingle system of citrus taxonomy elevated them to their own genus, "Fortunella". Recent phylogenetic analysis suggests they indeed fall within "Citrus". When the kumquats are divided into multiple species, the name Fortunella japonica (or "Citrus japonica") is retained by the group. The round kumquat, also called Marumi kumquat or Morgani kumquat, is an


title: Kumquat content: evergreen tree that produces edible golden-yellow fruit. The round Hawaiian varietal, the "Meiwa kumquat", is typically eaten raw. The fruit is small and usually spherical but can be oval shaped. The peel has a sweet flavor, but the fruit has a distinctly sour center. The fruit can be eaten cooked but is mainly used to make marmalades, jellies, and other spreads. It is grown as an ornamental plant and can be used in bonsai cultivation. The plant symbolizes good luck in China and other Asian countries, where it is often kept as a houseplant and given as a gift during


title: Kumquat content: the Lunar New Year. Round kumquats are more commonly cultivated than other species due to their high cold tolerance. When the kumquats are divided into multiple species, the name Fortunella margarita (or "Citrus margarita") is used for this group. The oval kumquat is also called the Nagami kumquat. The most unusual feature of the Nagami kumquat is how the fruit is consumed; namely, that it is eaten whole, skin and all. The inside is still quite sour, but the skin has a very sweet flavour, so when eaten together an unusual tart-sweet, refreshing flavour is produced. The fruit ripens mid-


title: Kumquat content: to late winter and always crops very heavily, creating a spectacular display against the dark green foliage. The tree tends to be much smaller and dwarf in nature, making it ideal for pots and occasionally bonsai cultivation. When the kumquats are divided into multiple species, the name Fortunella obovata (or "Citrus obovata") is used for this group. The Jiangsu kumquat or Fukushu kumquat bears edible fruit that can be eaten raw, as well as made into jelly and marmalade. The fruit can be round or bell shape and is bright orange when fully ripe. The plant can be distinguished from


title: Kumquat content: other kumquats by its distinctly round leaves. It is typically grown for its edible fruit and as an ornamental plant, but cannot withstand frost like the round kumquat. These kumquats are often seen near the Yuvraj section of the Nayak Province. The 'Centennial Variegated' kumquat cultivar arose spontaneously from the oval kumquat. It produces a greater proportion of fruit to peel than the oval kumquat, and the fruit are rounder and sometimes necked. Fruit are distinguishable by their variegation in color, exhibiting bright green and yellow stripes. The tree is distinguishable by its lack of thorns. Kumquats are much hardier


title: Kumquat content: than other citrus plants such as oranges. The Nagami kumquat requires a hot summer, ranging from 25 °C to 38 °C (77 °F to 100 °F), but can withstand frost down to about without injury. In cultivation in the UK, "Citrus japonica" has gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit (confirmed 2017). Kumquats do not grow well from seeds and so are vegetatively propagated by using rootstock of another citrus fruit, air layering, or cuttings (using a rooting gel/powder). Like most citrus, they are self-pollinating. The essential oil of the kumquat peel contains much of the aroma of


title: Kumquat content: the fruit, and is composed principally of limonene, which makes up around 93% of the total. Besides limonene and alpha-pinene (0.34%), both of which are considered monoterpenes, the oil is unusually rich (0.38% total) in sesquiterpenes such as α-bergamotene (0.021%), caryophyllene (0.18%), α-humulene (0.07%) and α-muurolene (0.06%), and these contribute to the spicy and woody flavor of the fruit. Carbonyl compounds make up much of the remainder, and these are responsible for much of the distinctive flavor. These compounds include esters such as isopropyl propanoate (1.8%) and terpinyl acetate (1.26%); ketones such as carvone (0.175%); and a range of aldehydes


title: Kumquat content: such as citronellal (0.6%) and 2-methylundecanal. Other oxygenated compounds include nerol (0.22%) and trans-linalool oxide (0.15%). Hybrid forms of the kumquat include the following: Kumquat Kumquats (or cumquats in Australian English, ; "Citrus japonica") are a group of small fruit-bearing trees in the flowering plant family Rutaceae. They were previously classified as forming the now historical genus "Fortunella", or placed within "Citrus sensu lato". The edible fruit closely resembles the orange ("Citrus sinensis") in color and shape but is much smaller, being approximately the size of a large olive. Kumquat is a fairly cold-hardy citrus. The English name "kumquat" derives


title: "Common kestrel" content: Common kestrel The common kestrel ("Falco tinnunculus") is a bird of prey species belonging to the kestrel group of the falcon family Falconidae. It is also known as the European kestrel, Eurasian kestrel, or Old World kestrel. In Britain, where no other kestrel species occurs, it is generally just called "the kestrel". This species occurs over a large range. It is widespread in Europe, Asia, and Africa, as well as occasionally reaching the east coast of North America. It has colonized a few oceanic islands, but vagrant individuals are generally rare; in the whole of Micronesia for example, the species


title: "Common kestrel" content: was only recorded twice each on Guam and Saipan in the Marianas. Common kestrels measure from head to tail, with a wingspan of . Females are noticeably larger, with the adult male weighing , around on average; the adult female weighs , around on average. They are thus small compared with other birds of prey, but larger than most songbirds. Like the other "Falco" species, they have long wings as well as a distinctive long tail. Their plumage is mainly light chestnut brown with blackish spots on the upperside and buff with narrow blackish streaks on the underside; the remiges


title: "Common kestrel" content: are also blackish. Unlike most raptors, they display sexual colour dimorphism with the male having fewer black spots and streaks, as well as a blue-grey cap and tail. The tail is brown with black bars in females, and has a black tip with a narrow white rim in both sexes. All common kestrels have a prominent black malar stripe like their closest relatives. The cere, feet, and a narrow ring around the eye are bright yellow; the toenails, bill and iris are dark. Juveniles look like adult females, but the underside streaks are wider; the yellow of their bare parts


title: "Common kestrel" content: is paler. Hatchlings are covered in white down feathers, changing to a buff-grey second down coat before they grow their first true plumage. In the cool-temperate parts of its range, the common kestrel migrates south in winter; otherwise it is sedentary, though juveniles may wander around in search for a good place to settle down as they become mature. It is a diurnal animal of the lowlands and prefers open habitat such as fields, heaths, shrubland and marshland. It does not require woodland to be present as long as there are alternative perching and nesting sites like rocks or buildings.


title: "Common kestrel" content: It will thrive in treeless steppe where there are abundant herbaceous plants and shrubs to support a population of prey animals. The common kestrel readily adapts to human settlement, as long as sufficient swathes of vegetation are available, and may even be found in wetlands, moorlands and arid savanna. It is found from the sea to the lower mountain ranges, reaching up to ASL in the hottest tropical parts of its range but only to about in the subtropical climate of the Himalayan foothills. Globally, this species is not considered threatened by the IUCN. Its stocks were affected by the


title: "Common kestrel" content: indiscriminate use of organochlorines and other pesticides in the mid-20th century, but being something of an r-strategist able to multiply quickly under good conditions it was less affected than other birds of prey. The global population is fluctuating considerably over the years but remains generally stable; it is roughly estimated at 1–2 million pairs or so, about 20% of which are found in Europe. There has been a recent decline in parts of Western Europe such as Ireland. Subspecies "dacotiae" is quite rare, numbering less than 1000 adult birds in 1990, when the ancient western Canarian subspecies "canariensis" numbered about


title: "Common kestrel" content: ten times as many birds. When hunting, the common kestrel characteristically hovers about above the ground, searching for prey, either by flying into the wind or by soaring using ridge lift. Like most birds of prey, common kestrels have keen eyesight enabling them to spot small prey from a distance. Once prey is sighted, the bird makes a short, steep dive toward the target. It can often be found hunting along the sides of roads and motorways. This species is able to see near ultraviolet light, allowing the birds to detect the urine trails around rodent burrows as they shine


title: "Common kestrel" content: in an ultraviolet colour in the sunlight. Another favourite (but less conspicuous) hunting technique is to perch a bit above the ground cover, surveying the area. When the birds spots prey animals moving by, they will pounce on them. They also prowl a patch of hunting ground in a ground-hugging flight, ambushing prey as they happen across it. Common kestrels eat almost exclusively mouse-sized mammals. Voles, shrews and true mice supply up to three-quarters or more of the biomass most individuals ingest. On oceanic islands (where mammals are often scarce), small birds (mainly passerines) may make up the bulk of


title: "Common kestrel" content: its diet. Elsewhere, birds are only an important food during a few weeks each summer when inexperienced fledglings abound. Other suitably sized vertebrates like bats, swifts, frogs and lizards are eaten only on rare occasions. However, kestrels are more likely to prey on lizards in southern latitudes. In northern latitudes, the kestrel is found more often to deliver lizards to their nestlings during midday and also with increasing ambient temperature. Seasonally, arthropods may be a main prey item. Generally, invertebrates like camel spiders and even earthworms, but mainly sizeable insects such as beetles, orthopterans and winged termites will be eaten.


title: "Common kestrel" content: "F. tinnunculus" requires the equivalent of 4–8 voles a day, depending on energy expenditure (time of the year, amount of hovering, etc.). They have been known to catch several voles in succession and cache some for later consumption. An individual nestling consumes on average 4.2 g/h, equivalent to 67.8 g/d (3–4 voles per day). The common kestrel starts breeding in spring (or the start of the dry season in the tropics), i.e. April or May in temperate Eurasia and some time between August and December in the tropics and southern Africa. It is a cavity nester, preferring holes in cliffs,


title: "Common kestrel" content: trees or buildings; in built-up areas, common kestrels will often nest on buildings, and will reuse the old nests of corvids. The diminutive subspecies "dacotiae", the "sarnicolo" of the eastern Canary Islands is peculiar for nesting occasionally in the dried fronds below the top of palm trees, apparently coexisting with small songbirds which also make their home there. In general, common kestrels will usually tolerate conspecifics nesting nearby, and sometimes a few dozen pairs may be found nesting in a loose colony. The clutch is normally 3–7 eggs; more eggs may be laid in total but some will be removed


title: "Common kestrel" content: during the laying time. This lasts about 2 days per egg laid. The eggs are abundantly patterned with brown spots, from a wash that tinges the entire surface buffish white to large almost-black blotches. Incubation lasts from 4 weeks to one month, and only the female incubates the eggs. The male is responsible for providing her with food, and for some time after hatching this remains the same. Later, both parents share brooding and hunting duties until the young fledge, after 4–5 weeks. The family stays close together for a few weeks, during which time the young learn how to


title: "Common kestrel" content: fend for themselves and hunt prey. The young become sexually mature the next breeding season. Data from Britain shows nesting pairs bringing up about 2–3 chicks on average, though this includes a considerable rate of total brood failures; actually, few pairs that do manage to fledge offspring raise less than 3 or 4. Compared to their siblings, first-hatched chicks have greater survival and recruitment probability, thought to be due to the first-hatched chicks obtaining a higher body condition when in the nest. Population cycles of prey, particularly voles, have a considerable influence on breeding success. Most common kestrels die before


title: "Common kestrel" content: they reach 2 years of age; mortality up until the first birthday may be as high as 70%. At least females generally breed at one year of age; possibly, some males take a year longer to maturity as they do in related species. The biological lifespan to death from senescence can be 16 years or more, however; one was recorded to have lived almost 24 years. This species is part of a clade that contains the kestrel species with black malar stripes, a feature which apparently was not present in the most ancestral kestrels. They seem to have radiated in


title: "Common kestrel" content: the Gelasian (Late Pliocene, roughly 2.5–2 mya, probably starting in tropical East Africa, as indicated by mtDNA cytochrome "b" sequence data analysis and considerations of biogeography. The common kestrel's closest living relative is apparently the nankeen or Australian kestrel ("F. cenchroides"), which probably derived from ancestral common kestrels settling in Australia and adapting to local conditions less than one million years ago, during the Middle Pleistocene. The rock kestrel ("F. rupicolus"), previously considered a subspecies, is now treated as a distinct species. The lesser kestrel ("F. naumanni"), which much resembles a small common kestrel with no black on the upperside


title: "Common kestrel" content: except wing and tail tips, is probably not very closely related to the present species, and the American kestrel ("F. sparverius") is apparently not a true kestrel at all. Both species have much grey in their wings in males, which does not occur in the common kestrel or its close living relatives but does in almost all other falcons. A number of subspecies of the common kestrel are known, though some are hardly distinct and may be invalid. Most of them differ little, and mainly in accordance with Bergmann's and Gloger's Rules. Tropical African forms have less grey in the


title: "Common kestrel" content: male plumage. The common kestrels of Europe living during cold periods of the Quaternary glaciation differed slightly in size from the current population; they are sometimes referred to as the paleosubspecies "F. t. atavus" ("see also" Bergmann's Rule). The remains of these birds, which presumably were the direct ancestors of the living "F. t. tinnunculus" (and perhaps other subspecies), are found throughout the then-unglaciated parts of Europe, from the Late Pliocene (ELMA Villanyian/ICS Piacenzian, MN16) about 3 million years ago to the Middle Pleistocene Saalian glaciation which ended about 130,000 years ago, when they finally gave way to birds indistinguishable


title: "Common kestrel" content: from those living today. Some of the voles the Ice Age common kestrels ate—such as European pine voles ("Microtus subterraneus")—were indistinguishable from those alive today. Other prey species of that time evolved more rapidly (like "M. malei", the presumed ancestor of today's tundra vole "M. oeconomus"), while yet again others seem to have gone entirely extinct without leaving any living descendants—for example "Pliomys lenki", which apparently fell victim to the Weichselian glaciation about 100,000 years ago. The kestrel is sometimes seen, like other birds of prey, as a symbol of the power and vitality of nature. In "Into Battle" (1915),


title: "Common kestrel" content: the war poet Julian Grenfell invokes the superhuman characteristics of the kestrel among several birds, when hoping for prowess in battle: "The kestrel hovering by day, And the little owl that call at night, Bid him be swift and keen as they, As keen of ear, as swift of sight." Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844–1889) writes on the kestrel in his poem "The Windhover", exalting in their mastery of flight and their majesty in the sky. "I caught this morning morning's minion, king-<br> dom of daylight's dauphin, dapple-dawn-drawn Falcon, in his riding" A kestrel is also one of the main characters


title: "Common kestrel" content: in "The Animals of Farthing Wood". Barry Hines’ novel "A Kestrel for a Knave" - together with the 1969 film based on it, Ken Loach's "Kes" - is about a working-class boy in England who befriends a kestrel. The Pathan name for the kestrel, Bād Khurak, means "wind hover" and in Punjab it is called Larzānak or "little hoverer". It was once used as a decoy to capture other birds of prey in Persia and Arabia. It was also used to train greyhounds meant for hunting gazelles in parts of Arabia. Young greyhounds would be set after jerboa-rats which would


title: "Common kestrel" content: also be distracted and forced to make twists and turns by the dives of a kestrel. The name "kestrel" is derived from the French crécerelle which is diminutive for crécelle, which also referred to a bell used by lepers. The word first appears in 1678 in the work of Francis Willughby. The kestrel was once used to drive and keep away pigeons. Archaic names for the kestrel include "windhover" and "windfucker," due to its habit of beating the wind (hovering in air). The Late Latin "falco" derives from "falx", "falcis", a sickle, referencing the claws of the bird. The species


title: "Common kestrel" content: name "tinnunculus" is Latin for "kestrel" from "tinnulus", "shrill". Common kestrel The common kestrel ("Falco tinnunculus") is a bird of prey species belonging to the kestrel group of the falcon family Falconidae. It is also known as the European kestrel, Eurasian kestrel, or Old World kestrel. In Britain, where no other kestrel species occurs, it is generally just called "the kestrel". This species occurs over a large range. It is widespread in Europe, Asia, and Africa, as well as occasionally reaching the east coast of North America. It has colonized a few oceanic islands, but vagrant individuals are generally rare;


title: "Kalmia latifolia" content: Kalmia latifolia Kalmia latifolia, commonly called mountain laurel, calico-bush, or spoonwood, is a broadleaved evergreen shrub in the heather family, Ericaceae, that is native to the eastern United States. Its range stretches from southern Maine south to northern Florida, and west to Indiana and Louisiana. Mountain laurel is the state flower of Connecticut and Pennsylvania. It is the namesake of Laurel County in Kentucky and the city of Laurel, Mississippi (founded 1882). It is an evergreen shrub growing to 3–9 m tall. The leaves are 3–12 cm long and 1–4 cm wide. Its flowers are round, ranging from light pink


title: "Kalmia latifolia" content: to white, and occur in clusters. There are several named cultivars today that have darker shades of pink, near red and maroon pigment. It blooms in May and June. All parts of the plant are poisonous. Roots are fibrous and matted. The plant is naturally found on rocky slopes and mountainous forest areas. It thrives in acidic soil, preferring a soil pH in the 4.5 to 5.5 range. The plant often grows in large thickets, covering great areas of forest floor. In the Appalachians, it can become tree-sized but is a shrub farther north. The species is a frequent component


title: "Kalmia latifolia" content: of oak-heath forests. In low, wet areas, it grows densely, but in dry uplands has a more sparse form. "Kalmia latifolia" is notable for its unusual method of dispensing its pollen. As the flower grows, the filaments of its stamens are bent and brought into tension. When an insect lands on the flower, the tension is released, catapulting the pollen forcefully onto the insect. Experiments have shown the flower capable of flinging its pollen up to 15 cm. Physicist Lyman J. Briggs became fascinated with this phenomenon in the 1950s after his retirement from the National Bureau of Standards and


title: "Kalmia latifolia" content: conducted a series of experiments in order to explain it. It is also known as ivybush or spoonwood (because Native Americans used to make their spoons out of it). The plant was first recorded in America in 1624, but it was named after the Finnish explorer and botanist Pehr Kalm (1716–1779), who sent samples to Linnaeus. The Latin specific epithet "latifolia" means "with broad leaves" – as opposed to its sister species "Kalmia angustifolia", "with narrow leaves". The plant was originally brought to Europe as an ornamental plant during the 18th century. It is still widely grown for its attractive


title: "Kalmia latifolia" content: flowers and year round evergreen leaves. Elliptic, alternate, leathery, glossy evergreen leaves (to 5" long) are dark green above and yellow green beneath and reminiscent to the leaves of rhododendrons. All parts of this plant are toxic if ingested. Numerous cultivars have been selected with varying flower color. Many of the cultivars have originated from the Connecticut Experiment Station in Hamden and from the plant breeding of Dr. Richard Jaynes. Jaynes has numerous named varieties that he has created and is considered the world's authority on "Kalmia latifolia". In the UK the following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's


title: "Kalmia latifolia" content: Award of Garden Merit:- The wood of the mountain laurel is heavy and strong but brittle, with a close, straight grain. It has never been a viable commercial crop as it does not grow large enough, yet it is suitable for wreaths, furniture, bowls and other household items. It was used in the early 19th century in wooden-works clocks. Root burls were used for pipe bowls in place of imported briar burls unattainable during World War II. It can be used for handrails or guard rails. Mountain laurel is poisonous to several different animals, including horses, goats, cattle, deer, monkeys,


title: "Kalmia latifolia" content: and humans, due to grayanotoxin and arbutin. The green parts of the plant, flowers, twigs, and pollen are all toxic, including food products made from them, such as toxic honey that may produce neurotoxic and gastrointestinal symptoms in humans eating more than a modest amount. Symptoms of toxicity begin to appear about 6 hours following ingestion. Symptoms include irregular or difficulty breathing, anorexia, repeated swallowing, profuse salivation, watering of the eyes and nose, cardiac distress, incoordination, depression, vomiting, frequent defecation, weakness, convulsions, paralysis, coma, and eventually death. Necropsy of animals who have died from spoonwood poisoning show gastrointestinal hemorrhage. The


title: "Kalmia latifolia" content: Cherokee use the plant as an analgesic, placing an infusion of leaves on scratches made over location of the pain. They also rub the bristly edges of ten to twelve leaves over the skin for rheumatism, crush the leaves to rub brier scratches, use an infusion as a wash "to get rid of pests", use a compound as a liniment, rub leaf ooze into the scratched skin of ball players to prevent cramps, and use a leaf salve for healing. They also use the wood for carving. The Hudson Bay Cree use a decoction of the leaves for diarrhea, but


title: "Kalmia latifolia" content: consider the plant to be poisonous. Kalmia latifolia Kalmia latifolia, commonly called mountain laurel, calico-bush, or spoonwood, is a broadleaved evergreen shrub in the heather family, Ericaceae, that is native to the eastern United States. Its range stretches from southern Maine south to northern Florida, and west to Indiana and Louisiana. Mountain laurel is the state flower of Connecticut and Pennsylvania. It is the namesake of Laurel County in Kentucky and the city of Laurel, Mississippi (founded 1882). It is an evergreen shrub growing to 3–9 m tall. The leaves are 3–12 cm long and 1–4 cm wide. Its flowers


title: Koala content: Koala The koala ("Phascolarctos cinereus", or, inaccurately, koala bear) is an arboreal herbivorous marsupial native to Australia. It is the only extant representative of the family Phascolarctidae and its closest living relatives are the wombats, which comprise the family Vombatidae.. The koala is found in coastal areas of the mainland's eastern and southern regions, inhabiting Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. It is easily recognisable by its stout, tailless body and large head with round, fluffy ears and large, spoon-shaped nose. The koala has a body length of and weighs . Pelage colour ranges from silver grey to


title: Koala content: chocolate brown. Koalas from the northern populations are typically smaller and lighter in colour than their counterparts further south. These populations possibly are separate subspecies, but this is disputed. Koalas typically inhabit open eucalypt woodlands, and the leaves of these trees make up most of their diet. Because this eucalypt diet has limited nutritional and caloric content, koalas are largely sedentary and sleep up to 20 hours a day. They are asocial animals, and bonding exists only between mothers and dependent offspring. Adult males communicate with loud bellows that intimidate rivals and attract mates. Males mark their presence with secretions


title: Koala content: from scent glands located on their chests. Being marsupials, koalas give birth to underdeveloped young that crawl into their mothers' pouches, where they stay for the first six to seven months of their lives. These young koalas, known as joeys, are fully weaned around a year old. Koalas have few natural predators and parasites, but are threatened by various pathogens, such as Chlamydiaceae bacteria and the koala retrovirus, as well as by bushfires and droughts. Koalas were hunted by Indigenous Australians and depicted in myths and cave art for millennia. The first recorded encounter between a European and a koala


title: Koala content: was in 1798, and an image of the animal was published in 1810 by naturalist George Perry. Botanist Robert Brown wrote the first detailed scientific description of the koala in 1814, although his work remained unpublished for 180 years. Popular artist John Gould illustrated and described the koala, introducing the species to the general British public. Further details about the animal's biology were revealed in the 19th century by several English scientists. Because of its distinctive appearance, the koala is recognised worldwide as a symbol of Australia. Koalas are listed as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.


title: Koala content: The Australian government similarly lists specific populations in Queensland and New South Wales as Vulnerable. The animal was hunted heavily in the early 20th century for its fur, and large-scale cullings in Queensland resulted in a public outcry that initiated a movement to protect the species. Sanctuaries were established, and translocation efforts moved to new regions koalas whose habitat had become fragmented or reduced. The biggest threat to their existence is habitat destruction caused by agriculture and urbanisation. The word koala comes from the Dharug "gula". Although the vowel 'u' was originally written in the English orthography as "oo" (in


title: Koala content: spellings such as "coola" or "koolah"), it was changed to "oa", possibly in error. Because of the koala's supposed resemblance to a bear, it was often miscalled the koala bear, particularly by early settlers. The generic name, "Phascolarctos", is derived from the Greek words "phaskolos" "pouch" and "arktos" "bear". The specific name, "cinereus", is Latin for "ash coloured". The koala was given its generic name "Phascolarctos" in 1816 by French zoologist Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville, who would not give it a specific name until further review. In 1819, German zoologist Georg August Goldfuss gave it the binomial "Lipurus cinereus".


title: Koala content: Because "Phascolarctos" was published first, according to the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, it has priority as the official name of the genus. French naturalist Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest proposed the name "Phascolartos fuscus" in 1820, suggesting that the brown-coloured versions were a different species than the grey ones. Other names suggested by European authors included "Marodactylus cinereus" by Goldfuss in 1820, "P. flindersii" by René Primevère Lesson in 1827, and "P. koala" by John Edward Gray in 1827. The koala is classified with wombats (family Vombatidae) and several extinct families (including marsupial tapirs, marsupial lions and giant wombats) in the


title: Koala content: suborder Vombatiformes within the order Diprotodontia. The Vombatiformes are a sister group to a clade that includes macropods (kangaroos and wallabies) and possums. The ancestors of vombatiforms were likely arboreal, and the koala's lineage was possibly the first to branch off around 40 million years ago during the Eocene. The modern koala is the only extant member of Phascolarctidae, a family that once included several genera and species. During the Oligocene and Miocene, koalas lived in rainforests and had less specialised diets. Some species, such as the Riversleigh rainforest koala ("Nimiokoala greystanesi") and some species of "Perikoala", were around the


title: Koala content: same size as the modern koala, while others, such as species of "Litokoala", were one-half to two-thirds its size. Like the modern species, prehistoric koalas had well developed ear structures which suggests that long-distance vocalising and sedentism developed early. During the Miocene, the Australian continent began drying out, leading to the decline of rainforests and the spread of open "Eucalyptus" woodlands. The genus "Phascolarctos" split from "Litokoala" in the late Miocene and had several adaptations that allowed it to live on a specialised eucalyptus diet: a shifting of the palate towards the front of the skull; larger molars and premolars;


title: Koala content: smaller pterygoid fossa; and a larger gap between the molar and the incisor teeth. During the Pliocene and Pleistocene, when Australia experienced changes in climate and vegetation, koala species grew larger. "P. cinereus" may have emerged as a dwarf form of the giant koala ("P. stirtoni"). The reduction in the size of large mammals has been seen as a common phenomenon worldwide during the late Pleistocene, and several Australian mammals, such as the agile wallaby, are traditionally believed to have resulted from this dwarfing. A 2008 study questions this hypothesis, noting that "P. cinereus" and "P. stirtoni" were sympatric during


title: Koala content: the middle to late Pleistocene, and possibly as early as the Pliocene. The fossil record of the modern koala extends back at least to the middle Pleistocene. Traditionally, three distinct subspecies have been recognised: the Queensland koala ("P. c. adustus", Thomas 1923), the New South Wales koala ("P. c. cinereus", Goldfuss 1817), and the Victorian koala ("P. c. victor", Troughton 1935). These forms are distinguished by pelage colour and thickness, body size, and skull shape. The Queensland koala is the smallest of the three, with shorter, silver fur and a shorter skull. The Victorian koala is the largest, with shaggier,


title: Koala content: brown fur and a wider skull. The boundaries of these variations are based on state borders, and their status as subspecies is disputed. A 1999 genetic study suggests that the variations represent differentiated populations with limited gene flow between them, and that the three subspecies comprise a single evolutionarily significant unit. Other studies have found that koala populations have high levels of inbreeding and low genetic variation. Such low genetic diversity may have been a characteristic of koala populations since the late Pleistocene. Rivers and roads have been shown to limit gene flow and contribute to the genetic differentiation of


title: Koala content: southeast Queensland populations. In April 2013, scientists from the Australian Museum and Queensland University of Technology announced they had fully sequenced the koala genome. The koala is a stocky animal with a large head and vestigial or non-existent tail. It has a body length of and a weight of , making it among the largest arboreal marsupials. Koalas from Victoria are twice as heavy as those from Queensland. The species is sexually dimorphic, with males 50% larger than females. Males are further distinguished from females by their more curved noses and the presence of chest glands, which are visible as


title: Koala content: hairless patches. As in most marsupials, the male koala has a bifurcated penis, and the female has two lateral vaginas and two separate uteri. The male's penile sheath contains naturally occurring bacteria that play an important role in fertilisation. The female's pouch opening is tightened by a sphincter that keeps the young from falling out. The pelage of the koala is thicker and longer on the back, and shorter on the belly. The ears have thick fur on both the inside and outside. The back fur colour varies from light grey to chocolate brown. The belly fur is whitish; on


title: Koala content: the rump it is dappled whitish, and darker at the back. The koala has the most effective insulating back fur of any marsupial and is highly resilient to wind and rain, while the belly fur can reflect solar radiation. The koala's curved, sharp claws are well adapted for climbing trees. The large forepaws have two opposable digits (the first and second, which are opposable to the other three) that allow them to grasp small branches. On the hindpaws, the second and third digits are fused, a typical condition for members of the Diprotodontia, and the attached claws (which are still


title: Koala content: separate) are used for grooming. As in humans and other primates, koalas have friction ridges on their paws. The animal has a sturdy skeleton and a short, muscular upper body with proportionately long upper limbs that contribute to its climbing and grasping abilities. Additional climbing strength is achieved with thigh muscles that attach to the shinbone lower than other animals. The koala has a cartilaginous pad at the end of the spine that may make it more comfortable when it perches in the fork of a tree. The koala has one of the smallest brains in proportion to body weight


title: Koala content: of any mammal, being 60% smaller than that of a typical diprotodont, weighing only . The brain's surface is fairly smooth, typical for a "primitive" animal. It occupies only 61% of the cranial cavity and is pressed against the inside surface by cerebrospinal fluid. The function of this relatively large amount of fluid is not known, although one possibility is that it acts as a shock absorber, cushioning the brain if the animal falls from a tree. The koala's small brain size may be an adaptation to the energy restrictions imposed by its diet, which is insufficient to sustain a


title: Koala content: larger brain. Because of its small brain, the koala has a limited ability to perform complex, unfamiliar behaviours. For example, when presented with plucked leaves on a flat surface, the animal cannot adapt to the change in its normal feeding routine and will not eat the leaves. The koala's olfactory senses are normal, and it is known to sniff the oils of individual branchlets to assess their edibility. Its nose is fairly large and covered in leathery skin. Its round ears provide it with good hearing, and it has a well-developed middle ear. A koala's vision is not well developed,


title: Koala content: and its relatively small eyes are unusual among marsupials in that the pupils have vertical slits. Koalas make use of a novel vocal organ to produce low-pitched sounds (see social spacing, below). Unlike typical mammalian vocal cords, which are folds in the larynx, these organs are placed in the velum (soft palate) and are called velar vocal cords. The koala has several adaptations for its eucalypt diet, which is of low nutritive value, of high toxicity, and high in dietary fibre. The animal's dentition consists of the incisors and cheek teeth (a single premolar and four molars on each jaw),


title: Koala content: which are separated by a large gap (a characteristic feature of herbivorous mammals). The incisors are used for grasping leaves, which are then passed to the premolars to be snipped at the petiole before being passed to the highly cusped molars, where they are shredded into small pieces. Koalas may also store food in their cheek pouches before it is ready to be chewed. The partially worn molars of middle-aged koalas are optimal for breaking the leaves into small particles, resulting in more efficient stomach digestion and nutrient absorption in the small intestine, which digests the eucalyptus leaves to provide


title: Koala content: most of the animal's energy. A koala sometimes regurgitates the food into the mouth to be chewed a second time. Unlike kangaroos and eucalyptus-eating possums, koalas are hindgut fermenters, and their digestive retention can last for up to 100 hours in the wild, or up to 200 hours in captivity. This is made possible by the extraordinary length of their caecum— long and in diameter—the largest proportionally of any animal. Koalas can select which food particles to retain for longer fermentation and which to pass through. Large particles typically pass through more quickly, as they would take more time to


title: Koala content: digest. While the hindgut is proportionally larger in the koala than in other herbivores, only 10% of the animal's energy is obtained from fermentation. Since the koala gains a low amount of energy from its diet, its metabolic rate is half that of a typical mammal, although this can vary between seasons and sexes. The koala conserves water by passing relatively dry faecal pellets high in undigested fibre, and by storing water in the caecum. The koala's geographic range covers roughly , and 30 ecoregions. It extends throughout eastern and southeastern Australia, encompassing northeastern, central and southeastern Queensland, eastern New


title: Koala content: South Wales, Victoria, and southeastern South Australia. The koala was introduced near Adelaide and on several islands, including Kangaroo Island and French Island. The population on Magnetic Island represents the northern limit of its range. Fossil evidence shows that the koala's range stretched as far west as southwestern Western Australia during the late Pleistocene. They were likely driven to extinction in these areas by environmental changes and hunting by indigenous Australians. In Queensland, koalas are unevenly distributed and uncommon except in the southeast, where they are numerous. In New South Wales, they are abundant only in Pilliga, while in Victoria


title: Koala content: they are common nearly everywhere. In South Australia, koalas were extirpated by 1920 and subsequently reintroduced. Koalas can be found in habitats ranging from relatively open forests to woodlands, and in climates ranging from tropical to cool temperate. In semi-arid climates, they prefer riparian habitats, where nearby streams and creeks provide refuge during times of drought and extreme heat. Koalas are herbivorous, and while most of their diet consists of eucalypt leaves, they can be found in trees of other genera, such as "Acacia", "Allocasuarina", "Callitris", "Leptospermum", and "Melaleuca". They are able to digest the toxins present in eucalyptus leaves


title: Koala content: due to their production of cytochrome P450, which breaks down these poisons in the liver. Though the foliage of over 600 species of "Eucalyptus" is available, the koala shows a strong preference for around 30. They tend to choose species that have a high protein content and low proportions of fibre and lignin. The most favoured species are "Eucalyptus microcorys", "E. tereticornis", and "E. camaldulensis", which, on average, make up more than 20% of their diet. Despite its reputation as a fussy eater, the koala is more generalist than some other marsupial species, such as the greater glider. Since eucalypt


title: Koala content: leaves have a high water content, the koala does not need to drink often; its daily water turnover rate ranges from 71 to 91 ml/kg of body weight. Although females can meet their water requirements from eating leaves, larger males require additional water found on the ground or in tree hollows. When feeding, a koala holds onto a branch with hindpaws and one forepaw while the other forepaw grasps foliage. Small koalas can move close to the end of a branch, but larger ones stay near the thicker bases. Koalas consume up to of leaves a day, spread over four


title: Koala content: to six feeding sessions. Despite their adaptations to a low-energy lifestyle, they have meagre fat reserves and need to feed often. Because they get so little energy from their diet, koalas must limit their energy use and sleep 20 hours a day; only 4 hours a day are spent in active movement. They are predominantly active at night and spend most of their waking hours feeding. They typically eat and sleep in the same tree, possibly for as long as a day. On very hot days, a koala may climb down to the coolest part of the tree which is


title: Koala content: cooler than the surrounding air. The koala hugs the tree to lose heat without "panting". On warm days, a koala may rest with its back against a branch or lie on its stomach or back with its limbs dangling. During cold, wet periods, it curls itself into a tight ball to conserve energy. On windy days, a koala finds a lower, thicker branch on which to rest. While it spends most of the time in the tree, the animal descends to the ground to move to another tree, walking on all fours. The koala usually grooms itself with its hindpaws,


title: Koala content: but sometimes uses its forepaws or mouth. Koalas are asocial animals and spend just 15 minutes a day on social behaviours. In Victoria, home ranges are small and have extensive overlap, while in central Queensland they are larger and overlap less. Koala society appears to consist of "residents" and "transients", the former being mostly adult females and the latter males. Resident males appear to be territorial and dominate others with their larger body size. Alpha males tend to establish their territories close to breeding females, while younger males are subordinate until they mature and reach full size. Adult males occasionally


title: Koala content: venture outside their home ranges; when they do so, dominant ones retain their status. When a male enters a new tree, he marks it by rubbing his chest gland against the trunk or a branch; males have occasionally been observed to dribble urine on the trunk. This scent-marking behaviour probably serves as communication, and individuals are known to sniff the base of a tree before climbing. Scent marking is common during aggressive encounters. Chest gland secretions are complex chemical mixtures—about 40 compounds were identified in one analysis—that vary in composition and concentration with the season and the age of the


title: Koala content: individual. Adult males communicate with loud bellows—low pitched sounds that consist of snore-like inhalations and resonant exhalations that sound like growls. These sounds are thought to be generated by unique vocal organs found in koalas. Because of their low frequency, these bellows can travel far through air and vegetation. Koalas may bellow at any time of the year, particularly during the breeding season, when it serves to attract females and possibly intimidate other males. They also bellow to advertise their presence to their neighbours when they enter a new tree. These sounds signal the male's actual body size, as well


title: Koala content: as exaggerate it; females pay more attention to bellows that originate from larger males. Female koalas bellow, though more softly, in addition to making snarls, wails, and screams. These calls are produced when in distress and when making defensive threats. Young koalas squeak when in distress. As they get older, the squeak develops into a "squawk" produced both when in distress and to show aggression. When another individual climbs over it, a koala makes a low grunt with its mouth closed. Koalas make numerous facial expressions. When snarling, wailing, or squawking, the animal curls the upper lip and points its


title: Koala content: ears forward. During screams, the lips retract and the ears are drawn back. Females bring their lips forward and raise their ears when agitated. Agonistic behaviour typically consists of squabbles between individuals climbing over or passing each other. This occasionally involves biting. Males that are strangers may wrestle, chase, and bite each other. In extreme situations, a male may try to displace a smaller rival from a tree. This involves the larger aggressor climbing up and attempting to corner the victim, which tries either to rush past him and climb down or to move to the end of a branch.


title: Koala content: The aggressor attacks by grasping the target by the shoulders and repeatedly biting him. Once the weaker individual is driven away, the victor bellows and marks the tree. Pregnant and lactating females are particularly aggressive and attack individuals that come too close. In general, however, koalas tend to avoid energy-wasting aggressive behaviour. Koalas are seasonal breeders, and births take place from the middle of spring through the summer to early autumn, from October to May. Females in oestrus tend to hold their heads further back than usual and commonly display tremors and spasms. However, males do not appear to recognise


title: Koala content: these signs, and have been observed to mount non-oestrous females. Because of his much larger size, a male can usually force himself on a female, mounting her from behind, and in extreme cases, the male may pull the female out of the tree. A female may scream and vigorously fight off her suitors, but will submit to one that is dominant or is more familiar. The bellows and screams that accompany matings can attract other males to the scene, obliging the incumbent to delay mating and fight off the intruders. These fights may allow the female to assess which is


title: Koala content: dominant. Older males usually have accumulated scratches, scars, and cuts on the exposed parts of their noses and on their eyelids. The koala's gestation period lasts 33–35 days, and a female gives birth to a single joey (although twins occur on occasion). As with all marsupials, the young are born while at the embryonic stage, weighing only . However, they have relatively well-developed lips, forelimbs, and shoulders, as well as functioning respiratory, digestive, and urinary systems. The joey crawls into its mother's pouch to continue the rest of its development. Unlike most other marsupials, the koala does not clean her


title: Koala content: pouch. A female koala has two teats; the joey attaches itself to one of them and suckles for the rest of its pouch life. The koala has one of the lowest milk energy production rates in relation to body size of any mammal. The female makes up for this by lactating for as long as 12 months. At seven weeks of age, the joey's head grows longer and becomes proportionally large, pigmentation begins to develop, and its sex can be determined (the scrotum appears in males and the pouch begins to develop in females). At 13 weeks, the joey weighs


title: Koala content: around and its head has doubled in size. The eyes begin to open and fine fur grows on the forehead, nape, shoulders, and arms. At 26 weeks, the fully furred animal resembles an adult, and begins to poke its head out of the pouch. As the young koala approaches six months, the mother begins to prepare it for its eucalyptus diet by predigesting the leaves, producing a faecal pap that the joey eats from her cloacum. The pap is quite different in composition from regular faeces, resembling instead the contents of the caecum, which has a high concentration of bacteria.


title: Koala content: Eaten for about a month, the pap provides a supplementary source of protein at a transition time from a milk to a leaf diet. The joey fully emerges from the pouch for the first time at six or seven months of age, when it weighs . It explores its new surroundings cautiously, clinging to its mother for support. By nine months, it weighs over and develops its adult fur colour. Having permanently left the pouch, it rides on its mother's back for transportation, learning to climb by grasping branches. Gradually, it spends more time away from its mother, and at


title: Koala content: 12 months it is fully weaned, weighing around . When the mother becomes pregnant again, her bond with her previous offspring is permanently severed. Newly weaned young are encouraged to disperse by their mothers' aggressive behaviour towards them. Females become sexually mature at about three years of age and can then become pregnant; in comparison, males reach sexual maturity when they are about four years old, although they can produce sperm as early as two years. While the chest glands can be functional as early as 18 months of age, males do not begin scent-marking behaviours until they reach sexual


title: Koala content: maturity. Because the offspring have a long dependent period, female koalas usually breed in alternate years. Favourable environmental factors, such as a plentiful supply of high-quality food trees, allow them to reproduce every year. Koalas may live from 13 to 18 years in the wild. While female koalas usually live this long, males may die sooner because of their more hazardous lives. Koalas usually survive falls from trees and immediately climb back up, but injuries and deaths from falls do occur, particularly in inexperienced young and fighting males. Around six years of age, the koala's chewing teeth begin to wear


title: Koala content: down and their chewing efficiency decreases. Eventually, the cusps disappear completely and the animal will die of starvation. Koalas have few predators; dingos and large pythons may prey on them, while birds of prey (such as powerful owls and wedge-tailed eagles) are threats to young. They are generally not subject to external parasites, other than ticks in coastal areas. Koalas may also suffer mange from the mite "Sarcoptes scabiei", and skin ulcers from the bacterium "Mycobacterium ulcerans", but neither is common. Internal parasites are few and largely harmless. These include the tapeworm "Bertiella obesa", commonly found in the intestine, and


title: Koala content: the nematodes "Marsupostrongylus longilarvatus" and "Durikainema phascolarcti", which are infrequently found in the lungs. In a three-year study of almost 600 koalas admitted to the Australian Zoo Wildlife Hospital in Queensland, 73.8% of the animals were infected with at least one species of the parasitic protozoal genus "Trypanosoma", the most common of which was "T. irwini". Koalas can be subject to pathogens such as Chlamydiaceae bacteria, which can cause keratoconjunctivitis, urinary tract infection, and reproductive tract infection. Such infections are widespread on the mainland, but absent in some island populations. The koala retrovirus (KoRV) may cause koala immune deficiency syndrome


title: Koala content: (KIDS) which is similar to AIDS in humans. Prevalence of KoRV in koala populations suggests a trend spreading from the north to the south of Australia. Northern populations are completely infected, while some southern populations (including Kangaroo Island) are free. The animals are vulnerable to bushfires due to their slow movements and the flammability of eucalypt trees. The koala instinctively seeks refuge in the higher branches, where it is vulnerable to intense heat and flames. Bushfires also fragment the animal's habitat, which restricts their movement and leads to population decline and loss of genetic diversity. Dehydration and overheating can also


title: Koala content: prove fatal. Consequently, the koala is vulnerable to the effects of climate change. Models of climate change in Australia predict warmer and drier climates, suggesting that the koala's range will shrink in the east and south to more mesic habitats. Droughts also affect the koala's well-being. For example, a severe drought in 1980 caused many "Eucalyptus" trees to lose their leaves. Subsequently, 63% of the population in southwestern Queensland died, especially young animals that were excluded from prime feeding sites by older, dominant koalas, and recovery of the population was slow. Later, this population declined from an estimated mean population


title: Koala content: of 59,000 in 1995 to 11,600 in 2009, a reduction attributed largely to hotter and drier conditions resulting from droughts in most years between 2002 and 2007. Another predicted negative outcome of climate change is the effect of elevations in atmospheric levels on the koala's food supply: increases in cause "Eucalyptus" trees to reduce protein and increase tannin concentrations in their leaves, reducing the quality of the food source. The first written reference of the koala was recorded by John Price, servant of John Hunter, the Governor of New South Wales. Price encountered the "cullawine" on 26 January 1798, during


title: Koala content: an expedition to the Blue Mountains, although his account was not published until nearly a century later in "Historical Records of Australia". In 1802, French-born explorer Francis Louis Barrallier encountered the animal when his two Aboriginal guides, returning from a hunt, brought back two koala feet they were intending to eat. Barrallier preserved the appendages and sent them and his notes to Hunter's successor, Philip Gidley King, who forwarded them to Joseph Banks. Similar to Price, Barrallier's notes were not published until 1897. Reports of the first capture of a live "koolah" appeared in "The Sydney Gazette" in August 1803.


title: Koala content: Within a few weeks Flinders' astronomer, James Inman, purchased a specimen pair for live shipment to Joseph Banks in England. They were described as 'somewhat larger than the Waumbut (Wombat)'. These encounters helped provide the impetus for King to commission the artist John Lewin to paint watercolours of the animal. Lewin painted three pictures, one of which was subsequently made into a print that was reproduced in Georges Cuvier's "The Animal Kingdom" (first published in 1827) and several European works on natural history. Botanist Robert Brown was the first to write a detailed scientific description of the koala in 1814,


title: Koala content: based on a female specimen captured near what is now Mount Kembla in the Illawarra region of New South Wales. Austrian botanical illustrator Ferdinand Bauer drew the animal's skull, throat, feet, and paws. Brown's work remained unpublished and largely unnoticed, however, as his field books and notes remained in his possession until his death, when they were bequeathed to the British Museum (Natural History) in London. They were not identified until 1994, while Bauer's koala watercolours were not published until 1989. British surgeon Everard Home included details of the koala based on eyewitness accounts of William Paterson, who had befriended


title: Koala content: Brown and Bauer during their stay in New South Wales. Home, who in 1808 published his report in the journal "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society", gave the animal the scientific name "Didelphis coola". The first published image of the koala appeared in George Perry's (1810) natural history work "Arcana". Perry called it the "New Holland Sloth" on account of its perceived similarities to the Central and South American tree-living mammals of genus "Bradypus". His disdain for the koala, evident in his description of the animal, was typical of the prevailing early 19th-century British attitude about the primitiveness and oddity


title: Koala content: of Australian fauna: "... the eye is placed like that of the Sloth, very close to the mouth and nose, which gives it a clumsy awkward appearance, and void of elegance in the combination ... they have little either in their character or appearance to interest the Naturalist or Philosopher. As Nature however provides nothing in vain, we may suppose that even these torpid, senseless creatures are wisely intended to fill up one of the great links of the chain of animated nature ...". Naturalist and popular artist John Gould illustrated and described the koala in his three-volume work "The


title: Koala content: Mammals of Australia" (1845–63) and introduced the species, as well as other members of Australia's little-known faunal community, to the general British public. Comparative anatomist Richard Owen, in a series of publications on the physiology and anatomy of Australian mammals, presented a paper on the anatomy of the koala to the Zoological Society of London. In this widely cited publication, he provided the first careful description of its internal anatomy, and noted its general structural similarity to the wombat. English naturalist George Robert Waterhouse, curator of the Zoological Society of London, was the first to correctly classify the koala as


title: Koala content: a marsupial in the 1840s. He identified similarities between it and its fossil relatives "Diprotodon" and "Nototherium", which had been discovered just a few years before. Similarly, Gerard Krefft, curator of the Australian Museum in Sydney, noted evolutionary mechanisms at work when comparing the koala to its ancestral relatives in his 1871 "The Mammals of Australia". The first living koala in Britain arrived in 1881, purchased by the Zoological Society of London. As related by prosecutor to the society, William Alexander Forbes, the animal suffered an accidental demise when the heavy lid of a washstand fell on it and it


title: Koala content: was unable to free itself. Forbes used the opportunity to dissect the fresh female specimen, thus was able to provide explicit anatomical details on the female reproductive system, the brain, and the liver—parts not previously described by Owen, who had access only to preserved specimens. Scottish embryologist William Caldwell—well known in scientific circles for determining the reproductive mechanism of the platypus—described the uterine development of the koala in 1884, and used the new information to convincingly place the koala and the monotremes into an evolutionary time frame. Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester, visited the Koala Park Sanctuary in Sydney in