title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: 350 passengers (mixed class) or 440 passengers (all-economy), similar to the later Boeing 777-200 or the Airbus A330-300/A340-300/500. Finally, the series 63 would have incorporated the same fuselage as the DC-10-61 as well as all the larger wing of the -62. After high-profile accidents in the 1970s, such as Turkish Airlines Flight 981 and American Airlines Flight 191, the trijet's reputation was seriously damaged by doubts regarding its structural integrity. For these reasons, and due to a downturn in the airline industry, all work on the Super 60 was stopped. In 1981, a Continental DC-10-10 (registration number N68048) was leased


title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: to conduct more research, particularly the effects the newly designed winglets would have on aircraft performance. Different types of winglets were tested during that time in conjunction with NASA. McDonnell Douglas was again planning new DC-10 versions that could incorporate winglets and more efficient engines developed at the time by Pratt & Whitney (PW2037) and Rolls-Royce (RB.211-535F4). The manufacturer finally rationalized all these studies under the MD-EEE (Ecology-Economy-Efficiency) designation, that was later modified to the MD-100 following some more changes. The MD-100 was proposed in two versions: the Series 10, having an airframe shorter by compared to the DC-10 and


title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: seating up to 270 passengers in a mixed-class configuration; and the Series 20, incorporating a fuselage stretch of over the DC-10 and able to seat up to 333 passengers in the same kind of configuration as the Series 10. Both versions could be powered by the same engine families as the actual MD-11 plus the RB.211-600. However, the situation for the manufacturer, and the airline industry in general, did not look bright. No new DC-10 orders were received, and many among the observers and customers doubted that the manufacturer would stay in business much longer. Thus, the Board of Directors


title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: decided in November 1983 to once again cease all work on the projected new trijet. The following year no new orders for the DC-10 were received. The production line was kept active thanks to earlier orders from the United States Air Force for 60 KC-10A tankers. McDonnell Douglas was still convinced that a new derivative for the DC-10 was needed, as shown by the second-hand market for their Series 30 and the heavier DC-10-30ER version. Thus, in 1984 a new derivative aircraft version of the DC-10 was designated MD-11. From the very beginning, the MD-11X was conceived in two different


title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: versions. The MD-11X-10, based on a DC-10-30 airframe, offered a range of with passengers. That first version would have had a maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) of and would have used CF6-80C2 or PW4000 engines. The MD-11X-20 was to have a longer fuselage, accommodating up to 331 passengers in a mixed-class layout, and a range of . As more orders for the DC-10 were received, McDonnell Douglas used the time gained before the end of DC-10 production to consult with potential customers and to refine the proposed new trijet. In July 1985, the Board of Directors authorized the Long Beach plant


title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: to offer the MD-11 to potential customers. At the time, the aircraft was still proposed in two versions, both with the same fuselage length, a stretch of over the DC-10 airframe, as well as the same engine choice as the MD-11X. One version would have a range of with a gross weight of and transport up to 337 passengers, while the second would carry 331 passengers over . A year later, as several airlines had committed to the MD-11, the situation was looking optimistic. The aircraft was now a 320-seater baseline and defined as an stretch over the DC-10-30 powered


title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: by the new advanced turbofans offered by the major engine manufacturers and giving it a range of . Other versions, such as a shortened ER with a range of , an all-cargo offering a maximum payload of and a Combi with a provision for ten freight pallets on the main deck, were proposed. Further growth of the aircraft was also foreseen, such as the MD-11 Advanced. The lack of innovation from McDonnell Douglas during the MD-11's design had been attributed to the company's declining cash flow, as it struggled with problems with its military contracts and declining orders for its


title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: commercial jets. Limited company resources resulting in the MD-11 being developed as a refinement of the existing DC-10, in contrast to rivals Airbus and Boeing who during this time period developed all-new aircraft designs that would become the Airbus A330/A340 and Boeing 777. As a trijet the MD-11 was less fuel-efficient but had a greater range than its mid-size widebody contemporaries which were twinjets (the existing Boeing 767 and upcoming Airbus A330). Aerospace consultant Scott Hamilton, in a 2014 article, said that the MD-11 was "classically ill-timed" as "it came at the end of the three- or four-engine era, just


title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: ahead of the real move to ETOPS with the 777". On December 30, 1986, McDonnell Douglas launched the MD-11 with commitments for 52 firm orders and 40 options in three different versions (passenger, combi and freighter) from ten airlines (Alitalia, British Caledonian, Dragonair, Federal Express, Finnair, Korean Air, Scandinavian Airlines, Swissair, Thai Airways International, and VARIG) and two leasing companies (Guinness Peat Aviation and Mitsui). Orders from Dragonair, Scandinavian and UTA, an undisclosed customer, were canceled by 1988. Assembly of the first MD-11 began on March 9, 1988, and the mating of the fuselage with wings occurred in October that


title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: year. The first flight was originally planned to occur in March 1989, but numerous problems with the manufacturing, delays with suppliers producing essential components and labor industrial actions delayed the ceremonial roll out of the prototype until September of that year. The following months were used to prepare the prototype for its maiden flight, which finally happened on January 10, 1990. The first two aircraft manufactured were intended for FedEx and thus, were already fitted with the forward side cargo door. They remained with the manufacturer as test aircraft until 1991 before being completely converted to freighters and delivered to


title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: their customer. FAA certification was achieved on November 8, 1990 while the European Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) certified the MD-11 on October 17, 1991 after approximately 200 separate issues were resolved. Fuselage sections for the DC-10, KC-10, and MD-11 were built by General Dynamics' Convair Division. Yugoslav Airlines, already flying several DC-10s, became the first customer of the MD-11. Three aircraft were manufactured but were never delivered due to the Yugoslav Wars. The first MD-11 was delivered to Finnair on December 7, 1990 and it accomplished the first revenue service by an MD-11 on December 20, 1990, carrying passengers from


title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: Helsinki to Tenerife in the Canary Islands. MD-11 service in the U.S. was inaugurated by Delta Air Lines the following year. It was during this period that flaws in the MD-11's performance became apparent. It failed to meet its targets for range and fuel burn. American Airlines in particular was unimpressed with the 19 MD-11s that it received, as was Singapore Airlines who canceled their order for 20 MD-11s and instead ordered 20 Airbus A340-300s. American Airlines cited problems with the performance of the engines and airframe, while Singapore Airlines stated that the MD-11 could not operate on the airline's


title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: long haul routes. Pre-flight estimates indicated that the P&W-powered MD-11 was to have a range with of payload. With the Phase 1 drag reduction in place then, the aircraft could only achieve its full range with of payload, or a reduced range of with a full payload. In 1990, McDonnell Douglas, along with Pratt & Whitney and General Electric began a modification program known as the Performance Improvement Program (PIP) to improve the aircraft's weight, fuel capacity, engine performance and aerodynamics. McDonnell Douglas worked with NASA's Langley Research Center to study aerodynamic improvements. The PIP lasted until 1995 and recovered


title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: the range for the aircraft. However, by this point sales of the MD-11 had already been significantly impacted. In 1995, American Airlines sold their 19 MD-11s to FedEx, as the PIP program was not sufficient for the aircraft to fly the DFW-Hong Kong route. After McDonnell Douglas merged with Boeing in 1997, the new company decided that MD-11 production would continue, though only for the freighter variant. In 1998, Boeing announced they would end MD-11 production after filling orders on hand. The last passenger MD-11 built was delivered to Sabena in April 1998. Assembly of the last two MD-11s were


title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: completed in August and October 2000; they were delivered to Lufthansa Cargo on February 22 and January 25, 2001 respectively. Production ended because of lack of sales, resulting from internal competition from the Boeing 767-400 and Boeing 777, as well as external competition from the Airbus A330/A340. McDonnell Douglas and later Boeing performed studies on the feasibility of removing the tail engine to make a twin-engine jet, but nothing came of it. McDonnell Douglas originally projected that they would sell more than 300 MD-11 aircraft, but only 200 were built. The MD-11 was assembled at McDonnell Douglas's Douglas Products Division


title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: in Long Beach, California (later Boeing's facility). The MD-11 is a medium- to long-range widebody airliner, with two engines mounted on underwing pylons and a third engine at the base of the vertical stabilizer. It is based on the DC-10, but features a stretched fuselage, increased wingspan with winglets, refined airfoils on the wing and tailplane, new engines and increased use of composites. The winglets are credited with improving fuel efficiency by about 2.5%. The MD-11 has a smaller empennage than the DC-10 it is based upon. The MD-11 features a two-crew cockpit that incorporates six interchangeable CRT-units and advanced


title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: Honeywell VIA 2000 computers. The cockpit design is called Advanced Common Flightdeck (ACF) and is shared with the Boeing 717. Flight deck features include an Electronic Instrument System, a dual Flight Management System, a Central Fault Display System, and Global Positioning System. Category IIIb automatic landing capability for bad-weather operations and Future Air Navigation Systems are available. The MD-11 was one of the first commercial designs to employ a computer-assisted pitch stability augmentation system that featured a fuel ballast tank in the tailplane, and a partly computer-driven horizontal stabilizer. Updates to the software package made the airplane's handling characteristics in


title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: manual flight similar to those of the DC-10, despite a smaller tailplane to reduce drag and increase fuel efficiency. The MD-11 incorporates hydraulic fuses not included in the initial DC-10 design, to prevent catastrophic loss of control in event of hydraulic failure. In 1987, the program was to cost $1.5 billion: $500 million for development and almost $1 billion for tooling and inventory, and the first 52 firm orders totalled $5 billion, $95 million each while the A340 sold for $67 million. At certification in 1990, $2.5 billion were invested in initial production inventory, and $700 million for engineering, tools


title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: and flight testing. While it was selling for $100 million, the initial MD-11 jets cost $120 to $150 million to produce but this was to reduce to $90 million with manufacturing experience over the program life for a 11% gross profit margin, less than the 15% to 20% Boeing obtains. In 1992, the $1.7 billion development cost was to be spread over the first 301 produced for $100 million each. In 1995, because costs and revenues could not be reasonably estimated over the program life, MDD took a pre-tax charge of $1.838 billion for deferred production costs and for reduced


title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: support and tooling value. The MD-11 was manufactured in five variants. Note: Some or all the features of the MD-11ER, including the higher MTOW of 630,500 lb (286,000 kg), part or all of the PIPs aerodynamic improvements packages and composite panels were fitted to later built MD-11s (except the extra fuel tank), and could be retrofitted to any of the variants, except for the PIP Phase IIIB larger aft engine intake. Some airlines, such as Finnair, Martinair and FedEx have made the structural changes required to allow their aircraft to have the higher MTOW. Swissair's 16 newly delivered aircraft were


title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: retrofitted with all the features except for the extra fuel tank and were so-designated MD-11AH for Advanced Heavy. After ending the MD-12 program, McDonnell Douglas focused on 300–400-seat MD-11 derivatives. At the 1996 Farnborough International Air Show, the company presented plans for a new trijet with high-seating and long-range named "MD-XX". It was offered in the MD-XX Stretch and MD-XX LR versions. The MD-XX Stretch version was to have a longer fuselage than the MD-11 and seat 375 in a typical three-class arrangement. The MD-XX LR was to have a longer range and be the same length as the MD-11;


title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: it was to have typical three-class seating for 309. However, the MDC board of directors decided to end the MD-XX program in October 1996, because the financial investment was too large for the company. As of July 2018, the worldwide fleet of MD-11s totals 121 aircraft in commercial service with cargo operators FedEx Express (57), UPS Airlines (37), Lufthansa Cargo (12), Western Global Airlines (10), Far Eastern Air Transport (7), and other operators with fewer aircraft. Most of the airlines who ordered the MD-11 for their long-haul passenger flights had replaced it with Airbus A330, A340, and Boeing 777 aircraft


title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: by the end of 2004. Some carriers converted their MD-11s to freighters such as China Eastern Airlines and Korean Air. Korean Air announced as early as December 1994 its intention to convert its MD-11s to freighters for medium-range cargo routes. In 1995, American Airlines agreed to sell its 19 aircraft to FedEx, with the first MD-11 being transferred in 1996. Japan Airlines (JAL) announced the replacement of its 10 MD-11s in 2000; these aircraft were being converted into freighters and sold to UPS. In February 2007, TAM Linhas Aéreas began operating the first of three leased passenger MD-11s, in a


title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: deal arranged by Boeing as an interim solution for TAM to quickly be able to operate newly granted intercontinental routes while waiting for four Boeing 777-300ERs to be delivered from late 2008. The last MD-11 was retired from TAM's fleet in July 2009, which ended its use by Brazilian airlines (Varig, VASP, and TAM). In May 2007, Finnair announced the sale of their last two MD-11s to Aeroflot-Cargo to become part of the Russian airline cargo fleet in 2008 and 2009. KLM was the last airline to operate scheduled passenger flights with the passenger version of the MD-11. The final


title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: scheduled flight took place on October 26, 2014 from Montréal to Amsterdam, followed by three special roundtrip flights on November 11, 2014. Two MD-11s were also operated in a VIP configuration, one by Saudia Royal Flight for members of the Royal family, and one by Mid East Jet for ASACO Aviation; both are now stored. As of June 2017, the MD-11 has been involved in 30 aviation incidents, including nine hull-loss accidents with 244 fatalities. The MD-11 has had problems with its flight control systems that have resulted in multiple accidents and incidents since the aircraft's introduction. The initial design


title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: of the slat/flap lever in the cockpit was conducive to accidental dislodgement by crew in flight. The defect has been corrected since 1992. In the early 2000s, Boeing improved the flight control software at the urging of the FAA to reduce the possibility of violent unintentional pitch movements. In an effort to improve fuel efficiency, McDonnell Douglas designed the MD-11's center of gravity to be much further aft than other commercial aircraft. There was also a fuel-ballast tank in the MD-11's horizontal stabilizer since its tailplane was smaller than the DC-10's to improve fuel efficiency, but this was found to


title: "McDonnell Douglas MD-11" content: inhibit the MD-11's crosswind performance. These design features significantly reduced the MD-11's margin for error during the takeoff and landing phases, making it more difficult to handle than the smaller DC-10. A number of operators have introduced special training to assist crews in safely handling the MD-11's critical phases of flight. McDonnell Douglas MD-11 The McDonnell Douglas MD-11 is an American three-engine medium- to long-range wide-body jet airliner, manufactured by McDonnell Douglas and, later, by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. Based on the DC-10, it features a stretched fuselage, increased wingspan with winglets, refined airfoils on the wing and smaller tailplane, new


title: "Christian Zionism" content: advocates of a Jewish return to their homeland, Charles Spurgeon, both Horatius and Andrew Bonar, Robert Murray M'Chyene, and J C Ryle were among a number of proponents of both the importance and significance of a Jewish return to Israel. However Spurgeon averred of Dispensationalism: "It is a mercy that these absurdities are revealed one at a time, in order that we may be able to endure their stupidity without dying of amazement". In 1864, Spurgeon wrote: The crumbling of the Ottoman Empire threatened the British route to India via the Suez Canal as well as sundry French, German and


title: "Eastern meadowlark" content: Eastern meadowlark The eastern meadowlark ("Sturnella magna") is a medium-sized icterid bird, very similar in appearance to the western meadowlark. It occurs from eastern North America to South America, where it is also most widespread in the east. The adult eastern meadowlark measures from in length and spans across the wings. Body mass ranges from . The extended wing bone measures , the tail measures , the culmen measures and the tarsus measures . Females are smaller in all physical dimensions. Adults have yellow underparts with a black "V" on the breast and white flanks with black streaks. The upperparts


title: "Eastern meadowlark" content: are mainly brown with black streaks. They have a long pointed bill; the head is striped with light brown and black. The song of this bird is of pure, melancholy whistles, and thus simpler than the jumbled and flutey song of the western meadowlark; their ranges overlap across central North America. In the field, the song is often the easiest way to tell the two species apart, though plumage differences do exist, like tail pattern and malar coloration. The pale Lilian's meadowlark of northern Mexico and the southwestern US is sometimes split off as a separate species. This species was


title: "Eastern meadowlark" content: first described by Linnaeus in his 1758 "Systema naturae" as "Alauda magna". The type locality is mistakenly given as "America, Africa". Linnaeus' error is explained by two facts: first, he did not distinguish between the eastern and western meadowlarks. The peculiar belief that this bird also occurred in Africa is due to confusion of the yellow-breasted meadowlarks with certain longclaws ("Macronyx"), quite unrelated African songbirds. Specifically the Cape longclaw ("M. capensis") and the yellow-throated longclaw ("M. croceus") share similar habitat and habits, explaining the long hind toe; their plumage pattern however is all but identical, a striking example of convergent


title: "Eastern meadowlark" content: evolution. As this exact pattern provides no obvious adaptive benefit compared to that of other meadowlarks and longclaws, it seems to have arisen twice by sheer chance. Linnaeus recognized his error less than a decade later, separating the longclaws from their meadowlark look-alikes. The scientific name "Sturnella magna" is Latin for, rather confusingly, "large little starling", the generic name having been given due to the meadowlarks' behavior being similar to starlings. Their breeding habitat is grasslands and prairie, also pastures and hay fields. This species is a permanent resident throughout much of its range, though most northern birds migrate southwards


title: "Eastern meadowlark" content: in winter. In 1993 this species was first recorded in El Salvador, and the discovery of a breeding pair in 2004 confirmed that the species is a resident there. These birds forage on the ground or in low vegetation, sometimes probing with the bill. They mainly eat arthropods, but also seeds and berries. In winter, they often feed in flocks. Nesting occurs throughout the summer months. The nest is also on the ground, covered with a roof woven from grasses. There may be more than one nesting female in a male's territory. The numbers of this species increased as forests


title: "Eastern meadowlark" content: were cleared in eastern North America. This species is ideally suited to farmland areas, especially where tall grasses are allowed to grow. Their numbers are now shrinking with a decline in suitable habitat. On the other hand, its range is expanding in parts of Central America toward the Pacific (western) side of the continent, in agricultural-type areas. Eastern meadowlarks are species at risk in Nova Scotia and the subject of agricultural conservation program seeking to reduce mortality through modified practices. Allowing marginal areas of fields on farms to seed with grass can provide nesting habitat for meadowlarks and all grassland


title: "Eastern meadowlark" content: birds. Delaying hay harvest can also improve survival, giving young meadowlarks a chance of fledging Eastern meadowlark The eastern meadowlark ("Sturnella magna") is a medium-sized icterid bird, very similar in appearance to the western meadowlark. It occurs from eastern North America to South America, where it is also most widespread in the east. The adult eastern meadowlark measures from in length and spans across the wings. Body mass ranges from . The extended wing bone measures , the tail measures , the culmen measures and the tarsus measures . Females are smaller in all physical dimensions. Adults have yellow underparts


title: "Landing gear" content: the longitudinal lower corners of a flying boat's lower hull contours. Helicopters able to land on water may have floats or a hull. An amphibious aircraft has landing gear for both land and water-based operation. When an airplane needs to land on surfaces covered by snow, the landing gear usually consists of skis or a combination of wheels and skis. Some aircraft use wheels for takeoff and then jettison them soon afterwards for improved aerodynamic streamlining without the complexity, weight and space requirements of a retraction mechanism. In these cases, the wheels to be jettisoned are sometimes mounted onto axles


title: "Ha'penny Bridge" content: there were seven ferries, operated by a William Walsh, across the Liffey. The ferries were in a bad condition and Walsh was informed that he had to either fix them or build a bridge. Walsh chose the latter option and was granted the right to extract a ha'penny toll from anyone crossing it for 100 years. Initially the toll charge was based not on the cost of construction, but to match the charges levied by the ferries it replaced. A further condition of construction was that, if the citizens of Dublin found the bridge and toll to be "objectionable" within


title: "Brunei dollar" content: As such, the Brunei dollar is accepted in Singapore as "customary tender"; likewise, the Singapore dollar is accepted for payments in Brunei. Early currency in Brunei included cowrie shells. Brunei is also famous for its bronze teapots, which were used as currency in barter trade along the coast of northern Borneo. Brunei issued tin coins denominated in pitis in AH1285 (AD1868). These were followed by a one cent coin in AH1304 (AD1888). This cent was one hundredth of a Straits dollar. As a protectorate of Britain in the early 20th century, Brunei used the Straits dollar from 1906, the Malayan


title: "Ice Climber" content: ability to fill in holes in the floor with ice. To do this, a Topi scouts out opening in the floor, runs back to its cave, and reemerges pushing an icicle to fill in two blocks. This process repeats until no more openings on their layer of ice exist. The Nitpicker is a small, mountain-dwelling bird that swoops down from icy caves on the levels' edges. Unlike the Topi, which is confined to one floor of the mountain, Nitpickers can cross over multiple ice layers. Taking them into account along with moving platforms and sliding ice, timing jumps can be


title: Rowan content: Rowan The rowans or mountain-ashes are shrubs or trees in the genus "Sorbus" of the rose family, Rosaceae. They are native throughout the cool temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the highest species diversity in the mountains of western China and the Himalaya, where numerous apomictic microspecies occur. The name "rowan" was originally applied to the species "Sorbus aucuparia" and is also used for other species in "Sorbus" subgenus "Sorbus". Formerly, when a wider variety of fruits were commonly eaten in Europe and North America, "Sorbus" was a domestically used fruit throughout these regions. It is still used in


title: Rowan content: some countries, but "Sorbus domestica", for example, has largely vanished from Britain, where it was traditionally appreciated. Natural hybrids, often including "Sorbus aucuparia" and the whitebeam, "Sorbus aria", give rise to many endemic variants in the UK. The traditional names of the rowan are those applied to the species "Sorbus aucuparia", "Sorbus torminalis" (wild service-tree), and "Sorbus domestica" (true service-tree). The Latin name "sorbus" was borrowed into Old English as "syrfe". The name "service-tree" for "Sorbus domestica" is derived from that name by folk etymology. The Latin name "sorbus" is from a root for "red, reddish-brown" (PIE "*sor-/*ser-"); English "sorb"


title: Rowan content: is attested from the 1520s in the sense "fruit of the service tree", adopted via French "sorbe" from Latin "sorbum" "service-berry". "Sorbus domestica" is also known as "whitty pear", the adjective whitty meaning "pinnate". The name "mountain-ash" for "Sorbus domestica" is due to a superficial similarity of the rowan leaves to those of the ash, not to be confused in "Fraxinus ornus", a true ash that is also known as "mountain ash". "Sorbus torminalis" is also known as "chequer tree"; its fruits, formerly used to flavour beer, are called "chequers", perhaps from the spotted pattern of the fruit. The name


title: Rowan content: "rowan" is recorded from 1804, detached from an earlier rowan-tree, rountree, attested from the 1540s in northern dialects of English and Scots. It is from a North Germanic source, derived from Old Norse "reynir" (c.f. Norwegian "rogn", Danish "røn", Swedish "rönn"), ultimately from the Germanic verb "*raud-inan" "to redden", in reference to the berries (as is the Latin name "sorbus"). Various dialectal variants of "rowan" are found in English, including "ran, roan, rodan, royan, royne, round, rune". The Old English name of the rowan is "cwic-beám", which survives in the name quickbeam (also quicken, quicken-tree, and variants). This name by


title: Rowan content: the 19th century was reinterpreted as connected to the word witch, from a dialectal variant "wick" for quick and names such as wicken-tree, wich-tree, wicky, wiggan-tree, giving rise to names such as witch-hazel and witch-tree. The Old Irish name is "cairtheand", reflected in Modern Irish "caorann". The "arboreal" "Bríatharogam" in the "Book of Ballymote" associates the rowan with the letter "luis", with the gloss "delightful to the eye ("li sula") is "luis", i.e. rowan ("caertheand"), owing to the beauty of its berries". Due to this, "delight of the eye" (vel sim.) has been reported as a "name of the rowan"


title: Rowan content: by some commentators. In the Canadian provinces of Newfoundland and Labrador and Nova Scotia, this species is commonly referred to as a "dogberry" tree. In German, "Sorbus aucuparia" is known as the "Vogelbeerbaum" ("bird-berry tree") or as "Eberesche". The latter is a compound of the name of the ash tree ("Esche") with what is contemporarily the name of the boar ("Eber"), but in fact the continuation of a Gaulish name, "eburo-" (also the name for a dark reddish-brown colour, cognate with Greek "orphnos", Old Norse "iarpr" "brown"); like "sorbus", "eburo-" seems to have referred to the colour of the berries;


title: Rowan content: it is also recorded as a Gaulish name for the yew (which also has red berries), see also "Eburodunum (disambiguation)". The Welsh name "criafol "refers to the tree as "lamenting fruit", associating the red fruit with the blood of Christ, as Welsh tradition believed the Cross was carved from the wood of this tree. Rowans are mostly small deciduous trees 10–20 m tall, though a few are shrubs. Rowans are unrelated to the true ash trees of the genus "Fraxinus", family Oleaceae. Though their leaves are superficially similar, those of "Sorbus" are alternate, while those of "Fraxinus" are opposite. Rowan


title: Rowan content: leaves are arranged alternately, and are pinnate, with (7–)11–35 leaflets. A terminal leaflet is always present. The flowers are borne in dense corymbs; each flower is creamy white, and 5–10 mm across with five petals. The fruit is a small pome 4–8 mm diameter, bright orange or red in most species, but pink, yellow or white in some Asian species. The fruit are soft and juicy, which makes them a very good food for birds, particularly waxwings and thrushes, which then distribute the rowan seeds in their droppings. Due to their small size the fruits are often referred to as


title: Rowan content: berries, but a true berry is a simple fruit produced from a single ovary, whereas a pome is an accessory fruit. Rowan is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species; see Lepidoptera that feed on "Sorbus". The best-known species is the European rowan "Sorbus aucuparia", a small tree typically 4–12 m tall growing in a variety of habitats throughout northern Europe and in mountains in southern Europe and southwest Asia. Its berries are a favourite food for many birds and are a traditional wild-collected food in Britain and Scandinavia. It is one of the hardiest


title: Rowan content: European trees, occurring to 71° north in Vardø in Arctic Norway, and has also become widely naturalised in northern North America. The greatest diversity of form as well as the largest number of rowan species is in Asia, with very distinctive species such as Sargent's rowan "Sorbus sargentiana" with large leaves 20–35 cm long and 15–20 cm broad and very large corymbs with 200–500 flowers, and at the other extreme, small-leaf rowan "Sorbus microphylla" with leaves 8–12 cm long and 2.5–3 cm broad. While most are trees, the dwarf rowan "Sorbus reducta" is a low shrub to 50 cm tall.


title: Rowan content: Several of the Asian species are widely cultivated as ornamental trees. North American native species in the subgenus "Sorbus (Sorbus)" include the American mountain-ash "Sorbus americana" and Showy mountain-ash "Sorbus decora" in the east and Sitka mountain-ash "Sorbus sitchensis" in the west. Numerous hybrids, mostly behaving as true species reproducing by apomixis, occur between rowans and whitebeams; these are variably intermediate between their parents but generally more resemble whitebeams and are usually grouped with them (q.v.). Rowans are excellent small ornamental trees for parks, gardens and wildlife areas. Several of the Chinese species, such as White-fruited rowan ("Sorbus glabrescens") are


title: Rowan content: popular for their unusual fruit colour, and Sargent's rowan ("Sorbus sargentiana") for its exceptionally large clusters of fruit. Numerous cultivars have also been selected for garden use, several of them, such as the yellow-fruited "Sorbus" 'Joseph Rock', of hybrid origin. They are very attractive to fruit-eating birds, which is reflected in the old name "bird catcher". The wood is dense and used for carving and turning and for tool handles and walking sticks. Rowan fruit are a traditional source of tannins for mordanting vegetable dyes. In Finland, it has been a traditional wood of choice for horse sled shafts and


title: Rowan content: rake spikes. The fruit of European rowan ("Sorbus aucuparia") can be made into a slightly bitter jelly which in Britain is traditionally eaten as an accompaniment to game, and into jams and other preserves, on their own, or with other fruit. The fruit can also be a substitute for coffee beans, and has many uses in alcoholic beverages: to flavour liqueurs and cordials, to produce country wine, and to flavour ale. In Austria a clear rowan schnapps is distilled which is called by its German name "Vogelbeerschnaps". Czechs also make a rowan liquor called "jeřabinka" and the Welsh used to


title: Rowan content: make one called "diodgriafel". Rowan cultivars with superior fruit for human food use are available but not common; mostly the fruits are gathered from wild trees growing on public lands. Rowan fruit contains sorbic acid, an acid that takes its name from the Latin name of the genus "Sorbus". The raw fruit also contain parasorbic acid (about 0.4%-0.7% in the European rowan), which causes indigestion and can lead to kidney damage, but heat treatment (cooking, heat-drying etc.) and, to a lesser extent, freezing, neutralises it, by changing it to the benign sorbic acid. Luckily, they are also usually too astringent


title: Rowan content: to be palatable when raw. Collecting them after first frost (or putting in the freezer) cuts down on the bitter taste as well. The European rowan ("Sorbus aucuparia") has a long tradition in European mythology and folklore. It was thought to be a magical tree and give protection against malevolent beings. The tree was also called "wayfarer's tree" or "traveller's tree" because it supposedly prevents those on a journey from getting lost. It was said in England that this was the tree on which the Devil hanged his mother. British folklorists of the Victorian era reported the folk belief in


title: Rowan content: apotropaic powers of the rowan-tree, in particular in the warding off of witches. Such a report is given by Edwin Lees (1856) for the Wyre Forest in the English West Midlands. Sir James Frazer (1890) reported such a tradition in Scotland, where the tree was often planted near a gate or front door. According to Frazer, birds' droppings often contain rowan seeds, and if such droppings land in a fork or hole where old leaves have accumulated on a larger tree, such as an oak or a maple, they may result in a rowan growing as an epiphyte on the


title: Rowan content: larger tree. Such a rowan is called a "flying rowan" and was thought of as especially potent against witches and black magic, and as a counter-charm against sorcery. In 1891, Charles Godfrey Leland also reported traditions of rowan's apotropaic powers against witches in English folklore, citing the "Denham Tracts" (collected between 1846 and 1859). Rowan also serves as protection against fairies. For example, according to Thomas Keightley mortals could safely witness fairy rades (mounted processions held by the fairies each year at the onset of summer) by placing a rowan branch over their doors. In Norse mythology, the goddess Sif


title: Rowan content: is the wife of the thunder god Thor. Sif has been linked with Ravdna, the consort of the Sami thunder-god Horagalles. Red berries of rowan were holy to Ravdna, and the name "Ravdna" resembles North Germanic words for the tree (for example, Old Norse "reynir"). According to "Skáldskaparmál" the rowan is called "the salvation of Thor" because Thor once saved himself by clinging to it. It has been theorized that Sif was once conceived in the form of a rowan to which Thor clung. In Neo-Druidism, the rowan is known as the "portal tree". It is considered the threshold, between


title: Rowan content: this world and otherworld, or between here and where ever you may be going, for example, it was placed at the gate to a property, signifying the crossing of the threshold between the path or street and the property of someone. According to Elen Sentier, in her book, "Threshold is a place of both INGRESS (the way in) and EGRESS (the way out). Rowan is a portal, threshold tree offering you the chance of 'going somewhere ... and leaving somewhere." In Newfoundland, popular folklore maintains that a heavy crop of fruit means a hard or difficult winter. Similarly, in Finland


title: Rowan content: and Sweden, the number of fruit on the trees was used as a predictor of the snow cover during winter, but here the belief was that the rowan "will not bear a heavy load of fruit and a heavy load of snow in the same year", that is, a heavy fruit crop predicted a winter with little snow. However, as fruit production for a given summer is related to weather conditions the previous summer, with warm, dry summers increasing the amount of stored sugars available for subsequent flower and fruit production, it has no predictive relationship to the weather of


title: Rowan content: the next winter. In Malax, Finland the reverse was thought. If the rowan flowers were plentiful then the rye harvest would also be plentiful. Similarly, if the rowan flowered twice in a year there would be many potatoes and many weddings that autumn. And in Sipoo people are noted as having said that winter had begun when the waxwings ("Bombycilla garrulus") had eaten the last of the rowan fruit. In Sweden, it was also thought that if the rowan trees grew pale and lost color, the fall and winter would bring much illness. References to the rowan fruit's red color


title: Rowan content: and the flowers' beauty are common in celtic music. For example, the song Marie's Wedding contains the verse, "Red her cheeks as rowans are, Bright her eyes as any star, Fairest of them all by far, Is our darling Marie." Rowan The rowans or mountain-ashes are shrubs or trees in the genus "Sorbus" of the rose family, Rosaceae. They are native throughout the cool temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the highest species diversity in the mountains of western China and the Himalaya, where numerous apomictic microspecies occur. The name "rowan" was originally applied to the species "Sorbus aucuparia"


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: Sorbus aucuparia Sorbus aucuparia, commonly called rowan and mountain-ash, is a species of deciduous tree or shrub in the rose family. It is a highly variable species, and botanists have used different definitions of the species to include or exclude trees native to certain areas; a recent definition includes trees native to most of Europe and parts of Asia, as well as northern Africa. The range extends from Madeira and Iceland to Russia and northern China. Unlike many plants with similar distributions, it is not native to Japan. "S. aucuparia" has a slender trunk with smooth bark, a loose and


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: roundish crown, and its leaves are pinnate in pairs of leaflets on a central vein with a terminal leaflet. It blossoms from May to June in dense corymbs of small yellowish white flowers and develops small red pomes as fruit that ripen from August to October and are eaten by many bird species. The plant is undemanding and frost hardy and colonizes disrupted and inaccessible places as a short-lived pioneer species. Fruit and foliage of "S. aucuparia" have been used by humans in the creation of dishes and beverages, as a folk medicine, and as fodder for livestock. Its tough


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: and flexible wood has traditionally been used for woodworking. It is planted to fortify soil in mountain regions or as an ornamental tree and has several cultivars. The binomial name "Sorbus aucuparia" is composed of the Latin words "sorbus" for service tree and "aucuparia", which derives from the words "avis" for "bird" and "capere" for "catching" and describes the use of the fruit of "S. aucuparia" as bait for fowling. The plant is commonly known as rowan and mountain-ash, and has also been called Amur mountain-ash, European mountain-ash, quick beam, quickbeam, or rowan-berry. The names rowan and mountain ash may


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: be applied to other species in "Sorbus" subgenus "Sorbus", and mountain ash may be used for several other distantly related trees. The species is unrelated to the true ash trees (genus "Fraxinus"), which also carry pinnate leaves or the species "Eucalyptus regnans", also called mountain ash, native to Tasmania and Victoria in southeastern Australia. "S. aucuparia" was previously categorized as "Pyrus aucuparia". The author citation "Sorbus aucuparia" L. belongs to Carl Linnaeus. "Sorbus aucuparia" occurs as a tree or shrub that grows up to between 5 and 15 m in height. The crown is loose and roundish or irregularly shaped


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: but wide and the plant often grows multiple trunks. A trunk is slender and cylindrical and reaches up to 40 cm in diameter, and the branches stick out and are slanted upwards. The bark of a young "S. aucuparia" is yellowish gray and gleaming and becomes gray-black with lengthwise cracks in advanced age; it descales in small flakes. Lenticels in the bark are elongated and colored a bright ocher. The plant does not often grow older than 80 years and is one of the shortest-lived trees in temperate climate. Wood of "S. aucuparia" has a wide reddish white sapwood and


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: a light brown to reddish brown heartwood. It is diffuse-porous, flexible, elastic, and tough, but not durable, with a density of 600 to in a dried state. The roots of "S. aucuparia" grow wide and deep, and the plant is capable of root sprouting and can regenerate after coppicing. The compound leaves are pinnate with 4 to 9 pairs of leaflets on either side of a terete central vein and with a terminal leaflet. There are paired leaf-like stipules at the base of the petiole. The leaves are up to 20 cm long, 8 to 12 cm wide, and arranged


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: in an alternate leaf pattern on a branch., distinguishing them from those of ash, "Fraxinus excelsior", which are opposite and without stipules. The leaflets are elongated-lanceolate in shape, 2 to 6 cm long, and 1 to 2.5 cm wide with a sharply serrated edge, and have short stems or sit close to the central vein except for the outermost leaflet. Leaflets are covered in gray-silvery hairs after sprouting but become mostly bare after they unfold. Their uppers side is dark green and their underside is a grayish green and felted. Young leaflets smell like marzipan when brayed. The leaflets are


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: asymmetrical at the bottom. "S. aucuparia" foliage grows in May and turns yellow in autumn or a dark red in dry locations. Buds of "S. aucuparia" are often longer than 1 cm and have flossy to felted hairs. These hairs, which disappear over time, cover dark brown to black bud scales. The terminal buds are oval and pointed and larger than axillary buds, which are narrow, oval and pointed, close to the twig, and often curved towards it. "S. aucuparia" is monoecious. It reaches maturity at age 10 and carries ample fruit almost every year. The plant flowers from May


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: to June (on occasion again in September) in many yellowish white corymbs that contain about 250 flowers. The corymbs are large, upright, and bulging. The flowers are between 8 and 10 mm in diameter and have five small, yellowish green, and triangular sepals that are covered in hairs or bare. The five round or oval petals are yellowish white and the flower has up to 25 stamens fused with the corolla to form a hypanthium and an ovary with two to five styles; the style is fused with the receptacle. Flowers of "S. aucuparia" have an unpleasant trimethylamine smell. Their


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: nectar is high in fructose and glucose. Its fruit are round pomes between 8 and 10 mm in diameter that ripen from August to October. The fruit are green before they ripen and then typically turn from orange or scarlet in color. The sepals persist as a black, five-pointed star on the ripe fruit. A corymb carries 80 to 100 pomes. A pome contains a star-shaped ovary with two to five locules each containing one or two flat, narrow, and pointed reddish seeds. The flesh of the fruit contains carotenoids, citric acid, malic acid, parasorbic acid, pectin, provitamin A, sorbitol,


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: tannin, and vitamin C. The seeds contain glycoside. "Sorbus aucuparia" has a chromosome number of 2"n"=34. "Sorbus aucuparia" is found in five subspecies: It can be found in almost all of Europe and the Caucasus up to Northern Russia and Siberia, but it is not native to Southern Spain, Southern Greece, Sardinia, the Balearic Islands, the Azores, and the Faroe Islands. The species was introduced as an ornamental species in North America. It is widespread from plains to mountains up to the tree line where it grows as the only deciduous tree species among krummholz. In the Alps it grows


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: at elevations of up to 2000 m. "S. aucuparia" appears north of the boreal forest at the arctic tree line; in Norway, it is found up to the 71st parallel north. It has naturalized in America from Washington to Alaska and eastward in Canada and the northeast of the US very successfully. "Sorbus aucuparia" is an undemanding species and can withstand shade. It is frost hardy and can tolerate winter dryness and a brief growing season. The plant is also resistant to air pollution, wind, and snow pressure. "S. aucuparia" mostly grows on soil that is moderately dry to moderately


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: damp, acidic, low on nutrients, sandy, and loose. It often grows in stony soil or clay soil, but also sandy soil or wet peat. The plant grows best on fresh, loose, and fertile soil, prefers average humidity, and does not tolerate saline soil or waterlogging. It can be found in light woodland of all kinds and as a pioneer species over fallen dead trees or in clearcuttings, and at the edge of forests or at the sides of roads. Seeds of "S. aucuparia" germinate easily, so the plant may appear on inaccessible rock, ruins, branch forks, or on hollow trees.


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: The tallest "S. aucuparia" in the United Kingdom stands in the Chiltern Hills in South East England. This exceptional specimen is 28 m tall and has a trunk diameter of 56 cm. In Germany, an unusually large specimen is located near Wendisch Waren, a village in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. This tree stands at more than 15 m tall, is around 100 years old, and has a diameter of 70 cm. The tallest known "S. aucuparia" in Ireland is an 18 m tall specimen at Glenstal Abbey, County Limerick. "Sorbus aucuparia" is pollinated by bees and flies. Its seeds are not digested by


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: birds and are thus propagated by being passed intact in their droppings. The fruit are eaten by about 60 bird species and several mammals. They are liked particularly by thrushes and other songbirds, and are also eaten by cloven-hoofed game, red fox, European badger, dormouse, and squirrel. Fruit of "S. aucuparia" are used as a food source by migratory birds in winter, including Bohemian waxwing, spotted nutcracker, and redwing. Cloven-hoofed game also excessively browse foliage and bark. The plant roots can be found in symbiosis with arbuscular mycorrhizal and less commonly with ectomycorrhizal fungi. It is usually later superseded by


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: larger forest trees. In Central Europe it often grows in association with red elderberry, goat willow, Eurasian aspen, and silver birch. The plant is highly flammable and tends not to accumulate plant litter. Other species of the genus "Sorbus" easily hybridize with "S. aucuparia" and hybrid speciation can result; hybrids include "Sorbus × hybrida", a small tree with oval serrated leaves and 2 to 3 pairs of leaflets, which is a hybrid with "Sorbus × intermedia", and "Sorbus thuringiaca", a medium-size tree with elongated leaves and 1 to 3 pairs of leaflets that are sometimes fused at the central vein,


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: which is a hybrid with "Sorbus aria". The main pests for "S. aucuparia" are the apple fruit moth "Argyresthia conjugella" and the mountain-ash sawfly "Hoplocampa alpina". The rust fungus "Gymnosporangium cornutum" produces leaf galls. The leaves are not palatable to insects, but are used by insect larvae, including by the moth "Venusia cambrica", the case-bearer moth "Coleophora anatipennella", and leaf miners of the genus "Stigmella". The snail "Helix aspersa" feeds on the leaves. The plant can suffer from fire blight. Fossils of "Sorbus aucuparia" have been described from the fossil flora of Kızılcahamam district in Turkey, which is of early


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: Pliocene age. Fruit of "S. aucuparia" were used in the past to lure and catch birds. To humans, the fruit are bitter, astringent, laxative, diuretic, cholagogue, prevent scurvy, and the parasorbic acid irritates the gastric mucosa. Pharmacist Mannfried Pahlow wrote that he doubted the toxicity of the fruit but advised against consuming large amounts. The fruit contain sorbitol, which can be used as a sugar substitute by diabetics, but its production is no longer relevant. "Sorbus aucuparia" fruits have been used in the traditional Austrian medicine internally (as tea, syrup, jelly or liqueur) for treatment of disorders of the respiratory


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: tract, fever, infections, colds, flu, rheumatism and gout. Fresh fruit are usually unpalatable, but they can be debittered and made into compote, jelly, jam, a tangy syrup, a tart chutney, or juice, as well as wine and liqueur, or used for tea or to make flour. Fruit are served as a side dish to lamb or game. Debittering can be accomplished by freezing, cooking, or drying, which degrades the parasorbic acid. The fruit are red colored in August but usually only harvested in October after the first frost by cutting the corymbs. The robust qualities of "S. aucuparia" make it


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: a source for fruit in harsh mountain climate and Maria Theresa of the Habsburg Monarchy recommended the planting of the species in 1779. An edible variety, named "Sorbus aucuparia" var. "dulcis" Kraetzl, or var. "edulis" Dieck, or var. "moravica" Dippel, was first discovered in 1810 near Ostružná in the Hrubý Jeseník mountain range of Northern Moravia and became widespread in Germany and Austria the early 20th century. Its leaves are larger and pointed, only the front part of the leaflets is serrated, and they have darker bark, larger buds and larger fruit. Similar non-bitter varieties found in Southern Russia were


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: first introduced in Central Europe in 1900 as 'Rossica' and 'Rossica Major', which has large fruit up to 1.5 cm in diameter. Two widespread cultivars of the Moravian variety are 'Konzentra' and 'Rosina', which were selected beginning in 1946 by the Institut für Gartenbau Dresden-Pillnitz, an agricultural research institute in Saxony, from 75 specimen found mostly in the Ore Mountains, and made available in 1954. Fruit of the more widely used 'Konzentra' are small to medium-sized, mildly aromatic and tart, easier to transport because of their thicker peel, and used for juicing, while fruit of 'Rosina' are larger, sweet and


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: tart, and aromatic, and candied or used in compote. The two cultivars are self-pollinating, yield fruit early, and the sugar content increases while the acid content decreases as the fruit ripen. 'Beissneri' is a cultivar with reddish foliage and bark and serrated leaves. Other edible varieties originate in and are named after Klosterneuburg, Lower Austria. Russian botanist Ivan Vladimirovich Michurin began in 1905 to crossbreed common "S. aucuparia" with other species to create fruit trees. His experiments resulted in the cultivars 'Burka', 'Likjornaja', 'Dessertnaja', 'Granatnaja', 'Rubinovaja', and 'Titan'. Other "S. aucuparia" hybrids planted in Western Europe beginning in the 1980s


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: include 'Apricot Queen', 'Brilliant Yellow', 'Chamois Glow', 'Pink Queen', and 'Salmon Queen'. The leaves were fermented with leaves of sweet gale and oak bark to create herb beer. Fruit are eaten as a mash in small amounts against lack of appetite or an upset stomach and stimulate production of gastric acid. In folk medicine they are used as a laxative, against rheumatism and kidney disease, and as a gargled juice against hoarseness. Wood of "S. aucuparia" is used for cartwright's work, turner's work, and woodcarving. Wood can be used from trees as young as 20 years. The sapwood is golden


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: and white, while the heart-wood is brown. In almost treeless regions it is used as firewood. The leaves are sometimes used as fodder for livestock while the fruit are used against erysipeloid infections in domestic pigs and goats. Bark of the plant was used to dye wool brown or red. Honey from "S. aucuparia" flowers is strongly aromatic and has a reddish color. "Sorbus aucuparia" is planted in mountain ranges to fortify landslides and avalanche zones. It is also used as an ornamental plant in parks, gardens, or as an avenue tree. Ornamental cultivars include 'Asplenifolia', which has divided and


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: sharply serrated leaflets, 'Blackhawk', which has large fruit and dark green foliage, 'Fastigiata', which has an upright columnar form, 'Fructu Luteo', which has orange yellow fruit, 'Michred', which has brilliant red fruit, 'Pendula', which is a weeping tree, and 'Xanthocarpa', which has orange yellow fruit. ‘Sheerwater Seedling', an upright and slender cultivar, has gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit. Cultivars are vegetatively propagated via cuttings, grafting, or shield budding. In the "Prose Edda", the Norse god Thor saves himself from a rapid river created by the giantess Gjálp by grabbing hold of a rowan, which became known


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: as "Thor's protection". In English folklore, twigs of "S. aucuparia" were believed to ward off evil spirits and witches. The plant was called "the witch" in England and dowsing rods to find ores were made out of its wood. Twigs of "S. aucuparia" were used to drive cattle to the pasture for the first time in spring to ensure their health and fertility. The wooden shafts of forks and other farm implements were constructed from "S. aucuparia", to protect farm animals and production from witches' spells. In weather lore, a year with plentiful rowan fruit would have a good grain


title: "Sorbus aucuparia" content: harvest but be followed by a severe winter. "S. aucuparia" is used in the coats of arms of the German municipalities Ebernhahn, Eschenrode, and Hermsdorf, and of the Vysočina Region of the Czech Republic. Rowan is part of the coat of arms of the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan and the logo of both Wigan Athletic and Wigan Warriors. Sorbus aucuparia Sorbus aucuparia, commonly called rowan and mountain-ash, is a species of deciduous tree or shrub in the rose family. It is a highly variable species, and botanists have used different definitions of the species to include or exclude trees native


title: "Juan Carlos Ferrero" content: began playing tennis at age seven with his father, Eduardo, who often travels with him. He has two sisters, Ana and Laura and admires the play of former No. 1 and two-time Roland Garros champion Jim Courier. Ferrero's inspiration has been his mother, Rosario, who died of cancer when he was 17. In July 2007, he bought an old cottage in Bocairente, 50 minutes south from Valencia and refurbished it into "Hotel Ferrero", which features 12 luxury suites. He is also a joint owner of the Valencia Open 500 tournament together with David Ferrer. His fitness trainer was Miguel Maeso,


title: "Metropolitan Tabernacle" content: This congregation braved persecution until 1688, when the Baptists were once again allowed to worship in freedom. At this point, the group built their first chapel, in the Tower Bridge area. In 1720, Dr. John Gill became pastor and served for 51 years. In 1771, Dr. John Rippon became pastor and served for 63 years. During these times, the church experienced great growth and became one of the largest congregations in the country. Afterwards decline set in and by 1850 the congregation was small. In 1854, the most famous of all the pastors at the Metropolitan Tabernacle started serving at


title: "HMS Inflexible (1907)" content: minutes later the British opened fire again at . Eight minutes later Spee turned again to the east to give battle. This time his strategy was to close the range on the British ships so he could bring his secondary armament into play. In this he was successful and they were able to open fire at 3:00 at maximum elevation. On this course the smoke bothered both sides, but multiple hits were made regardless. Those made by the Germans either failed to detonate or hit in some insignificant area. On the contrary, "Gneisenau" had her starboard engine room put out


title: "Royal Courts of Justice" content: Royal Courts of Justice The Royal Courts of Justice, commonly called the Law Courts, is a court building in London which houses the High Court and Court of Appeal of England and Wales. The High Court also sits on circuit and in other major cities. Designed by George Edmund Street, who died before it was completed, it is a large grey stone edifice in the Victorian Gothic style built in the 1870s and opened by Queen Victoria in 1882. It is one of the largest courts in Europe. It is located on Strand within the City of Westminster, near the


title: "Royal Courts of Justice" content: border with the City of London (Temple Bar). It is surrounded by the four Inns of Court, St Clement Danes church, King's College London and the London School of Economics. The nearest London Underground stations are Chancery Lane and Temple. The courts within the building are generally open to the public with some access restrictions depending upon the nature of the cases being heard. Those in court who do not have legal representation may receive some assistance within the building. A Citizens Advice Bureau is based in the Main Hall which provides free, confidential and impartial advice by appointment to


title: "Royal Courts of Justice" content: litigants-in-person. There is also an office of the Personal Support Unit where litigants-in-person can receive emotional support and practical information about court proceedings. The Central Criminal Court, widely known as the Old Bailey after its street, is about to the east — a Crown Court with no direct connection with the Royal Courts of Justice. The search for a design for the Law Courts was by way of a competition, a then-common approach to selecting a design and an architect. The competition ran from 1866 to 1867 and the twelve architects competing for the contract each submitted designs for the


title: "Royal Courts of Justice" content: site. In 1868 it was finally decided that George Edmund Street was the winner. Building was started in 1873 by Messrs Bull & Sons of Southampton. Its masons led a serious strike at an early stage which threatened to extend to the other trades and caused a temporary stoppage of the works. In consequence, foreign workmen were brought in – mostly Germans. This aroused bitter hostility on the part of the men on strike, and the newcomers had to be housed and fed within the building. However, these disputes were eventually settled and the building took eight years to complete;


title: "Royal Courts of Justice" content: it was officially opened by Queen Victoria on 4 December 1882. Street died before the building was opened, overcome by the work. Much of the preparatory legal work was completed by Edwin Wilkins Field including promotion of the Courts of Justice Building Act of 1865 and the Courts of Justice Concentration (Site) Act of 1865. A statue of Field stands in the building. Parliament paid £1,453,000 for the site upon which 450 houses had to be demolished. The building was paid for by cash accumulated in court from the estates of the intestate to the sum of £700,000. Oak work


title: "Royal Courts of Justice" content: and fittings in the court cost a further £70,000 and with decoration and furnishing the total cost for the building came to under £1 million. The dimensions of the building (in round figures) are: from east to west; from north to south; from the Strand level to the tip of the fleche. Entering through the main gates on the Strand, one passes under two elaborately carved porches fitted with iron gates. The carving over the outer porch consists of heads of the most eminent judges and lawyers. Over the highest point of the upper arch is a figure of Jesus;


title: "Royal Courts of Justice" content: to the left and right at a lower level are figures of Solomon and Alfred the Great; that of Moses is at the northern front of the building. Also at the northern front, over the Judges entrance are a stone cat and dog representing fighting litigants in court. On either side are gateways leading to different courts and to jury and witness rooms from which separate staircases are provided for them to reach their boxes in court. During the 1960s, jury rooms in the basement area were converted to courtrooms. At either end of the hall are handsome marble galleries


title: "Royal Courts of Justice" content: from which the entire Main Hall can be viewed. The walls and ceilings (of the older, original courts) are panelled in oak which in many cases is elaborately carved. In Court 4, the Lord Chief Justice's court, is an elaborately carved wooden royal coat of arms, salvaged from the fire that destroyed the original Palace of Westminster. Each court has an interior unique to itself; they were each designed by different architects.The grand hall is magnificent in architectural style and huge in size. In addition to the waiting rooms are arbitration chambers, consultation chambers and robing rooms for members of


title: "Royal Courts of Justice" content: the bar and solicitor advocates. The first extension was the West Green building, for which plans were drawn up in 1910; the space was for extra divorce courts. They were the first rooms at the Courts to have modern air conditioning and tape recording in their original design. The next new building was the Queen's Building, opened in 1968, providing a further 12 courts. This building used to contain cells in its basement. It was intended that these courts could be used for criminal matters; however they are now primarily used for family proceedings. The 11-storey Thomas More Building was


title: "Royal Courts of Justice" content: built to house the Bankruptcy and Companies Courts with associated offices. A semi-panorama is possible from the top floor to St Paul's Cathedral and the Central Criminal Court (the Old Bailey) in the City of London. Further courts are at the Rolls Building, a short distance away just off of Fetter Lane The Thomas More Courts are 12 courts for the Chancery Division, which opened in January 1990. The Thomas More Building has become the County Court at Central London, in the lower tier of hierarchy, not part of the High Court or Court of Appeal. Vacant land for horizontal


title: "Royal Courts of Justice" content: extensions is minimal and proximity to natural light from various windows, coupled with a long-standing consensus to remain relatively low-rise among the older Courts, restricts vertical extension. Full refurbishment of the east block took place during 1994–95, which provided 14 extra courts for the Civil Division of the Court of Appeal and two extra large courts which are unassigned and will be used for cases having multiple parties or an unusually large number of documents and books. Anyone is allowed to watch, free of charge, most of the trials and hearings that are taking place; the main exception is private


title: "Royal Courts of Justice" content: family cases such as proceedings concerning children. Royal Courts of Justice The Royal Courts of Justice, commonly called the Law Courts, is a court building in London which houses the High Court and Court of Appeal of England and Wales. The High Court also sits on circuit and in other major cities. Designed by George Edmund Street, who died before it was completed, it is a large grey stone edifice in the Victorian Gothic style built in the 1870s and opened by Queen Victoria in 1882. It is one of the largest courts in Europe. It is located on Strand


title: "Datsun 510" content: coupe-style swept roofline and shorter deck lid while wagons got a "W" prefix. In the U.S., the 1968 510 two-door sedan saw a limited introduction during the summer season, resulting in it being the rarest U.S. 510-year and model. The two-door sedan body style became popular and was imported into the U.S. in large numbers for the next 5 model years. For the 1974 U.S. model year, the 510 four-door sedan was dropped in favor of the 1974 PL610 series cars. Around the world, the "J" series pushrod-engined model was most common. When first shown, at the 1967 Tokyo Motor


title: "Seat of local government" content: Early Medieval period, the hall, a single large open chamber, was the main, and sometimes "only" room of the home of a feudal lord. There the lord lived with his family and retinue, ate, slept and administered rule and justice. Activities in the hall played an essential role in the functioning of the feudal manor, the administrative unit of society. As manorial dwellings developed into manor houses, castles and palaces, the hall, or "great hall" as it was often termed, remained an essential unit within the architectural complex. In the later Middle Ages or early modern period, many European market


title: "Ed Sprague Jr." content: Sox. After becoming a free agent at the end of the year, he signed with the Seattle Mariners for the 2001 season, playing in 45 regular season games. He signed a minor league contract with the Texas Rangers in early 2002, but did not return to the major leagues. Sprague twice led the league in getting hit by pitches and finished with a career total of 91. Sprague is the only baseball player ever to win championships in the College World Series, the Olympics, and the World Series. Sprague's final career totals include 1203 games played, 506 runs, 1010 hits,


title: "Carol J. Adams" content: vegetarians, and she also found multiple books written by feminists, on vegetarianism as a “part of the feminist awakening of the hero”. A further look into the newly connected themes proved to be very important to the course Adams’ work would take in the future. She found that a patriarchal ethics ”naturalizes and normalizes violence...and perpetuates human exceptionalism that permits the oppression of other beings”. Thus her theory of the patriarchal essence begins, and the creation of The Sexual Politics of Meat: A Feminist-Vegetarian Critical Theory took form. Adams has explained that her activism taught her how to write by


title: "Sabine's gull" content: Sabine's gull The Sabine's gull ("Xema sabini"), also known as the fork-tailed gull or xeme, is a small gull. Its generic placement is disputed; some authors treat it as the sole species in the genus Xema as Xema sabini, while others retain it in the genus "Larus" as Larus sabini. The Sabine's gull breeds in colonies on coasts and tundra, laying two or three spotted olive-brown eggs in a ground nest lined with grass. It is very pelagic outside the breeding season. It takes a wide variety of mainly animal food, and will eat any suitable small prey. It also


title: "Sabine's gull" content: steals eggs from nesting colonies of Arctic terns. The Sabine's gull is a small gull, in length and weighing . The wings are long, thin and pointed with a span of between . The bill, which is black with a yellow tip, is around long. This species is easy to identify through its striking wing pattern. The adult has a pale grey back and wing coverts, black primary flight feathers and white secondaries. The white tail is forked. The male's hood darkens during breeding season. Young birds have a similar tricoloured wing pattern, but the grey is replaced by brown,


title: "Sabine's gull" content: and the tail has a black terminal band. Juveniles take two years to attain full adult plumage. Sabine's gulls have an unusual molt pattern for gulls. Fledged birds retain their juvenile plumage through the autumn and do not start molting into their first winter plumage until they have reached their wintering grounds. Adults have their complete molt in the spring prior to the spring migration, and have a partial molt in the autumn after returning to the wintering area, a reversal of the usual pattern for gulls. They have a very high-pitched and squeaking call. The Sabine's gull is usually


title: "Sabine's gull" content: treated as comprising a monotypic genus; it is only placed within the genus "Larus" when the genus is enlarged. The black bill and notched tail are almost unique within the gulls, as they are shared only with the swallow-tailed gull of the Galapagos. On the basis of this the two species were often thought to be each other's closest relatives, a hypothesis ruled out by a number of behaviour and ecological differences. Mitochondrial DNA studies confirmed that they are not closely related, and the closest relative of the Sabine's gull is now thought to be the ivory gull, another Arctic


title: "Sabine's gull" content: species. The two species are thought to have separated around 2 million years ago, longer ago than most groups of gull species. Geographical variation is slight; birds from Alaska are slightly darker and perhaps bigger. Most authorities recognise no races, but a few recognise four based on size and mantle (back) colour. The Handbook of the Birds of the World recognises four subspecies. The nominate subspecies, "X. s. sabini", breeds from the Canadian Arctic to Greenland. "X. s. palaearctica" (Stegman, 1934) breeds from Spitsbergen to the Taymyr Peninsula in Russia, and "X. s. tschuktschorum" (Portenko, 1939) breeds on the Chukotskiy


title: "Sabine's gull" content: Peninsula of Russia, and "X. s. woznesenskii" (Portenko, 1939) is found from the Gulf of Anadyr to Alaska. The specific epithet and common name honour the Irish scientist Sir Edward Sabine, who sent a specimen to his brother Joseph Sabine; Joseph referred to it as "Larus sabini" in 1818. (The first accepted description was by Leach in 1819.) The "Oxford English Dictionary" gives the pronunciation , which is the pronunciation of the surname according to a history of the Sabine family. However, some authorities give . The genus name "Xema" appears to be an invented name without meaning. It breeds


title: "Sabine's gull" content: in the Arctic and has a circumpolar distribution through northernmost North America and Eurasia. It migrates south in autumn; most of the population winters at sea in the Pacific off western South America in the cold waters of the Humboldt Current, while Greenland and eastern Canadian birds cross the Atlantic by way of the westernmost fringes of Europe to winter off southwest Africa in the cold waters of the Benguela Current. Occasionally individual Sabine's gulls can be seen off other coasts such as the northeastern United States or further east in Europe, typically following autumn storms. It is recorded often


title: "Sabine's gull" content: enough inland in North America, Europe, and even Siberia, that it has been said to exhibit "cross-continental migration" in addition to migration at sea. The diet and feeding technique of the Sabine's gull varies by season and habitat. In the breeding season it takes a range of freshwater and terrestrial prey on the tundra. This includes insects and probably spiders, aquatic insects and insect larvae, crustaceans, fish and young birds and eggs. Young birds and eggs are taken opportunistically and rarely, but can include black turnstones, lapland longspurs and even the eggs of other Sabine's gulls and geese. Insects and


title: "Sabine's gull" content: insect larvae taken include terrestrial and aquatic beetles, springtails, craneflies, mosquitos, midges, and flower flies (Syrphidae). Sabine's gull The Sabine's gull ("Xema sabini"), also known as the fork-tailed gull or xeme, is a small gull. Its generic placement is disputed; some authors treat it as the sole species in the genus Xema as Xema sabini, while others retain it in the genus "Larus" as Larus sabini. The Sabine's gull breeds in colonies on coasts and tundra, laying two or three spotted olive-brown eggs in a ground nest lined with grass. It is very pelagic outside the breeding season. It takes


title: "Mark Holden" content: fifth. John Bromwell from Essex Music encouraged Holden to relocate to Sydney and arranged a meeting with Peter Dawkins a record producer with EMI Music who signed Holden. Holden's debut album "Dawn in Darkness" was released in 1975, in which Holden wrote or co-wrote all tracks. From 1975 to 1976, Holden performed as Joseph in the first Australian production of "Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat" at the Seymour Centre, Sydney. He was the first pop star in the world to play the lead role. In May 1976, Holden released a cover of Eric Carmen's "Never Gonna Fall in Love


title: "Orchard oriole" content: Orchard oriole The orchard oriole ("Icterus spurius") is the smallest species of icterid. The subspecies of the Caribbean coast of Mexico, "I. s. fuertesi", is sometimes considered a separate species, the ochre oriole or Fuertes's oriole. This species is long and weighs . The bill is pointed and black with some blue-gray at the base of the lower mandible (Howell and Webb 1995). The adult male of the nominate subspecies has chestnut on the underparts, shoulder, and rump, with the rest of the plumage black. In the subspecies "I. s. fuertesi", the chestnut is replaced with ochre (Howell and Webb


title: "Orchard oriole" content: 1995). The adult female and the juvenile of both subspecies have olive-green on the upper parts and yellowish on the breast and belly. All adults have pointed bills and white wing bars. (Orchard orioles are considered to be adults after their second year.) One-year-old males are yellow-greenish with a black bib. The breeding habitat is semi-open areas with deciduous trees. "I. s. spurius" breeds in spring across eastern North America from near the Canada–United States border south to central Mexico. A 2009 study also found breeding in the thorn forest of Baja California Sur and the coast of Sinaloa during


title: "Orchard oriole" content: the summer "monsoon"; this region had previously been thought to be only a migratory stopover (Rohwer, Hobson, and Rohwer, 2009). "I. s. fuertesi" breeds from southern Tamaulipas to Veracruz (Howell and Webb 1995). These birds enjoy living in shaded trees within parks along lakes and streams. The nest is a tightly woven pouch attached to a fork on a horizontal branch. Their nests tend to sit close together. The nominate subspecies' winter range extends from the coastal lowlands of central Sinaloa and southern Veracruz south to northern Colombia and northwestern Venezuela (Scharf and Kren 1996). The ochre subspecies has been


title: "Orchard oriole" content: observed in winter on the Pacific slope of Mexico (Howell and Webb 1995). Nominate orchard orioles depart from their winter habitats in March and April and arrive in their breeding habitats from late April to late May. Usually, they leave their breeding territories in late July and early August and arrive on their winter territories in mid August. These birds are nocturnal migrants. While in breeding season, they eat insects and spiders. When the season changes, their diet also includes ripe fruit, which quickly passes through their digestive tract. During the winter, their diet consists of fruit, nectar, insects and


title: "Orchard oriole" content: seeds. When in flight, orchard orioles generally swoop close to the ground and fly at or below treetop level During courtship, females display themselves in three ways. The first is by bowing their head and torso toward the male. Seesawing, the second courtship display, involves repetitively alternating lowering and raising the head and tail. The third display is begging, which is fast-paced fluttering of wings halfway extended, followed by a high whistle. The specific name "spurius" refers to the original misidentification of the male as a female Baltimore oriole. These birds are sometimes mistakenly identified as New World warblers. Orchard


title: "Robert Iler" content: Robert Iler Robert Michael Iler is an American actor, known for his portrayal of A.J. Soprano on "The Sopranos" which aired on HBO from 1999 to 2007. Iler was born in New York City and is of Irish descent. Iler appeared in the video for Marilyn Manson's single "Dope Hat" (1995). By mid-1997, he was appearing in commercials for Pizza Hut, and attending three or four auditions a week. He had also appeared on "Saturday Night Live" and in some film parts, but nothing that brought him great recognition. It was then that he won the role of A.J. Soprano,


title: "Age of Apocalypse" content: on the outskirts of the blast perimeter and was taken to New Cairo, where he was healed and interrogated by Sinister's Prelates, the Summers Brothers. As the interrogation didn't prove to be successful, Cypher was taken to the Human Compound and, listening carefully to the conversation between the Summers Brothers and the humans representatives Dr. Peter Corbeau and Carol Danvers, discovered what the humans were hiding and the mutants afraid of: a virus that could wipe out all of mutantkind. The Elite Mutant Force were then attacked by Magneto and the rest of his X-Men After rescuing Cypher and capturing


title: WrestleMania content: Tag Team Championship, The SmackDown Tag Team Championship was also defended for the first time at WrestleMania, where The Bludgeon Brothers defeated The Usos and The New Day to win the titles, Matt Hardy last eliminated Baron Corbin to win fifth Andre the Giant memorial battle royal as well as first ever WrestleMania Women's Battle Royal contested where Naomi won by last eliminating Bayley. WrestleMania 35 will be held on April 7, 2019 at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey. Over the years, WrestleMania has featured many celebrity appearances with varying levels of involvement. The main event of the


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: Manhattan Bridge The Manhattan Bridge is a suspension bridge that crosses the East River in New York City, connecting Lower Manhattan at Canal Street with Downtown Brooklyn at the Flatbush Avenue Extension. The main span is long, with the suspension cables being long. The bridge's total length is . It is one of four toll-free bridges spanning the East River; the other three are the Queensboro, Williamsburg, and Brooklyn Bridges. The bridge opened to traffic on December 31, 1909. It was built by The Phoenix Bridge Company and designed by Leon Moisseiff, and is noted for its innovative design. As


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: the first suspension bridge to employ Josef Melan's deflection theory for the stiffening of its deck, it is considered to be the forerunner of modern suspension bridges, and this design served as the model for many of the long-span suspension bridges built in the first half of the twentieth century. The Manhattan Bridge was also the first suspension bridge to utilize a Warren truss in its design. The Manhattan Bridge was the last of the three suspension bridges built across the lower East River, following the Brooklyn and Williamsburg Bridges. In the earliest plans, the Manhattan Bridge was to have


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: been called "Bridge No. 3" because it was the third bridge to be built. The Manhattan Bridge's current name was given in 1902. The name was confirmed in 1904. "The New York Times" criticized the name as "meaningless" and that the Manhattan Bridge's name "would have geographical and historical significance if it were known as the Wallabout Bridge". This was a reference to Wallabout Bay, located near the proposed bridge's Brooklyn side. In 1905, the "Times" raised another objection, stating, "All bridges across the East River are Manhattan bridges. When there was only one, it was well enough to call


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: it the Brooklyn Bridge, or the East River Bridge". Construction on the bridge's towers had commenced by at least 1901. By 1903, three workers had died while working on the Brooklyn-side tower's caisson. A $10 million grant for the bridge's construction was granted in May 1904 with the expectation that work on the span would start later that year. A plan for the suspension-bridge span was announced in 1903. Elevated and trolley routes would use the Manhattan Bridge, and there would be large balconies and enormous spaces within the towers' anchorages. However, the Municipal Art Commission raised objections to one


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: of the bridge's plans, which delayed the start of construction for the span. Another set of plans was unveiled in June 1904 by New York City Bridge Commissioner Gustav Lindenthal, but the second plan was also rejected. The dispute revolved around whether eyebars or wire cables should be used in the new bridge. The MAC voted to use wire cables in the bridge in September 1904. Because of this dispute, the plans for Manhattan Bridge are sometimes mistakenly attributed to Lindenthal. Other delays arose over the proposed placement of the bridge's termini on either side.The first temporary wire between the


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: Manhattan Bridge's two towers was strung in June 1908. It was to be replaced later with permanent, thicker main cables, each thick, on both sides of the bridge's deck. By this time, the construction cost had increased to $22 million. During the stringing of the anchorages, one of the cables on the Brooklyn side broke loose, injuring two people. The last of the suspender ropes supporting the main cables was strung in December of that year. The cables had been strung in four months, The construction of the bridge span required 30,000 tons of steel. Erection of the superstructure and


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: steel fabrication were contracted to The Phoenix Bridge Company. The first girder for the new bridge was installed in February 1909. By April, the majority of the span had been fitted into place between the main cables. The New York City Rapid Transit Commission recommended the construction of a subway line across the Manhattan Bridge in 1905. This line was approved in 1907. The New York City Public Service Commission requested permission to start constructing the subway tracks in March 1908. This plan was approved in May. A group of 100 "leading citizens of Brooklyn" walked over the bridge on


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: December 5, 1909, marking the unofficial completion of the bridge. The bridge was officially opened by outgoing Mayor George B. McClellan Jr. on December 31, 1909. Shortly after opening, a fire on the Brooklyn side of the Manhattan Bridge damaged the structure. An upper-deck roadway on the bridge was installed in 1922. Floodlights and barbed-wire fences were installed at the bases of the bridge's anchorages in 1951, during the Cold War. The installations were fortified to protect against "possible sabotage attempts under wartime conditions". The anchorages themselves were sealed. The subway trains crossing the Manhattan Bridge had a major impact


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: on its condition (see ), and the bridge started to tilt to one side based on how many trains used that side. This had supposedly been a problem since the tracks opened in 1917. In 1956, the bridge was renovated in order to rectify this tilt. However, by 1978, the Manhattan Bridge had deteriorated to such a point that the United States Congress voted to allocate money to repair the bridge, as well as several others in New York City. Minor repair work started in 1982. A discretionary grant for $50 million was allocated to these bridges' repairs in 1985.


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: The first phase of repairs started that year. The bridge's condition was blamed on the imbalance in the number of trains crossing the bridge, as well as deferred maintenance during the New York City fiscal crisis of the 1970s. In April 1986, workers temporarily closed the Manhattan-bound roadway on the upper level in order to repair the deck there. The north-side subway tracks, underneath the Manhattan-bound roadway, were also closed during this time. In December 1987, inspectors also shut one lane of the lower level due to a crack in the deck. The New York City Department of Transportation published


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: a list of 17 structurally deficient bridges in the city. Among them was the Manhattan Bridge, which needed $166 million in repairs to fix "cable anchors and torsion of steel members as subways cross". Repairs on the northern side of the Manhattan Bridge were complete by the end of 1988, and the subway tracks on the north side were reopened. Simultaneous with the reopening of the north side, the south-side tracks were closed. In 1991, trucks were banned from the lower level because they were too heavy for the decaying bridge. "Major" repair work on the southern side began in


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: 1992. The Yonkers Construction Company was awarded a $97.8 million contract for the repair project in August 1992. City Comptroller Elizabeth Holtzman originally denied the contract to the company because of concerns about corruption, but she was overridden by Mayor David Dinkins, who wanted to complete repairs quickly. At the same time, the NYCDOT increased the frequency of maintenance inspections for the bridge, after inspectors found holes in beams that had been deemed structurally sound during previous inspections. The Brooklyn-bound roadway on the upper level was closed from 1993 to 1996 so that side of the bridge could be repaired.


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: The bridge repairs were repeatedly delayed as the renovation process uncovered more serious structural problems underlying the bridge. The original plans had been to complete the renovations by 1995 for $150 million, but by 1996, the renovation was slated to be complete in 2003 at a cost of $452 million. By 2001, it was estimated that the total cost of the renovations had reached half a billion dollars, including $260 million for the south side and another $175 million for the north side. At the time, the NYCDOT had set a January 2004 deadline for the renovation. The original pedestrian


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: walkway on the south side of the bridge was reopened after forty years in June 2001. It was shared with bicycles until late summer 2004, when a dedicated bicycle path was opened on the north side of the bridge. The northern bridge bike path is notable for poor signage that leads to cyclist and pedestrian conflicts. By the time work on the bridge was completed in 2004, the final cost of the renovation totaled $800 million. To celebrate the bridge's centennial anniversary, a series of events and exhibits were organized by the New York City Bridge Centennial Commission in October


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: 2009. These included a ceremonial parade across the Manhattan Bridge on the morning of October 4 and a fireworks display in the evening. In 2009, the bridge was designated as a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers. The bridge has four vehicle lanes on the upper level, split between two roadways carrying opposite directions of traffic. The lower level has three Manhattan-bound (formerly reversible) vehicle lanes, four subway tracks, a walkway and a bikeway. The bridge once carried New York State Route 27 and later was planned to carry Interstate 478. The bridge is


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: the subject of American artist Edward Hopper's famous painting "Manhattan Bridge Loop". In 1910, after the bridge opened, the architectural firm Carrère and Hastings drew up preliminary plans for an elaborate grand entry to the bridge on the Manhattan side, as part of the "City Beautiful" movement. Construction began that year, and plans were finalized in 1912. It was described as a "complete, dignified and monumental ensemble, worthy of one of the principal gateways of a great modern city" in a "New York Times" article. The arch and colonnade were completed in 1915. The decoration includes pylons which were sculpted


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: by Carl Augustus Heber and a frieze called "Buffalo Hunt" by Charles Rumsey. The arch and colonnade were designated a New York City landmark on November 25, 1975. After many years of neglect and several attempts by traffic engineers to remove the structure, the arch and colonnade were repaired and restored in 2000. Four subway tracks are located on the lower deck of the bridge, two on each side of the roadway. The two tracks on the south side are used by the ' train at all times and the ' train at all times except late nights, when they


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: use the Montague Street Tunnel. The tracks on the north side are used by the ' train at all times and the ' train on weekdays. On the Manhattan side, the south side tracks connect to Canal Street and become the express tracks of the BMT Broadway Line, while the north side tracks connect to the Chrystie Street Connection through Grand Street and become the express tracks on the IND Sixth Avenue Line. On the Brooklyn side, the two pairs merge under Flatbush Avenue to a large junction with the BMT Fourth Avenue Line and BMT Brighton Line at DeKalb


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: Avenue. For 18 years, between 1986 and 2004, one or the other set of tracks was closed to repair structural damage. When the bridge first opened, the tracks did not connect to any others. In 1910, the Manhattan Bridge Three Cent Line, a streetcar company, began operations on those tracks. This was followed by the Brooklyn and North River Line in 1912. The trolley arrangement continued until the BRT (later BMT), which also had two tracks each over the Brooklyn and Williamsburg Bridges, trackage was connected to the bridge in 1915. The trolleys were moved to the upper-level roadways until


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: 1929, when service was discontinued. The feeder lines for the Brooklyn side of the tracks have not changed since subway service began on the bridge. It has always been fed by tracks from the BMT Fourth Avenue Line and the BMT Brighton Line; however, the junction between the lines was reconstructed in 1956, and Myrtle Avenue subway station, just near the foot of the bridge, was closed. On the Manhattan side, however, the two north tracks originally connected to the BMT Broadway Line (where the south tracks now connect) while the two south tracks curved south to join the BMT


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: Nassau Street Line towards Chambers Street. This connection has been severed and the tracks are now used for storage. On November 26, 1931, a connection south of Chambers Street to the Montague Street Tunnel opened, adding two stations (Fulton Streets and Broad) and rerouted train service on the bridge's south side. Service on that side became relatively low afterward as the only trains that normally crossed it were "The Bankers’ Special", which ran from either the Sea Beach and/or Fourth Avenue Line, crossed the Manhattan Bridge or Montague Street Tunnel into Manhattan, and then returned to Brooklyn via the opposite


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: crossing. Since the tracks are on the outer part of the bridge, passing trains caused the structure to tilt and sway. The wobble worsened as train cars became longer and heavier. Eventually, when one train moved over the bridge one side would be three feet lower than the other side, severely damaging the structure. In 1956, a repair program was begun at a cost of $30 million. Trains still crossed the bridge, but many times one of the tracks had to be closed with both routes using a single-track, which further restricted the number and size of the trains crossing.


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: Concurrent with the building of the Chrystie Street Connection (opened November 26, 1967) to connect to the north tracks, the south tracks were rerouted to the BMT Broadway Line connection, and the connecting tracks to the BMT Nassau Street Line were severed. The connection, and its related projects, opened two new stations (Grand Street and, in July 1968, 57th Street – Sixth Avenue) and added express service on the IND Sixth Avenue Line. The IND's and trains were routed via the north side of the bridge, while the and routes were moved to the south side of the bridge for


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: service to Broadway. At the time, the B train continued to Brooklyn using the BMT West End Line, while the D and Q trains used the Brighton Line and the N used the BMT Sea Beach Line Even after the 1956 repairs, the New York City Department of Transportation failed to maintain the bridge properly, and a major repair program began in the 1980s (see also ). Changes to subway service patterns started in 1983. Because of the large scope of these repairs, there was limited train access to the bridge, reducing the number of trains that could cross the


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: span. The north tracks, which had been more heavily used, were closed first in April 1986. This split B and D service into two sections: trains from the Bronx and upper Manhattan terminated at 34th Street – Herald Square, thus suspending express service on Sixth Avenue, while trains from Brooklyn were rerouted to the BMT Broadway Line express via the south side of the bridge. The N was rerouted via the Montague Street Tunnel. The north tracks were reopened and the south tracks were closed simultaneously in December 1988, merging the B and D services, rerouting the Q train to


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: Sixth Avenue in Manhattan. Broadway Line express service was suspended while Sixth Avenue express service was restored. After an 18-month delay for procuring contracts, the New York City Transit Authority and politicians pressured the DOT to resume N train service on the bridge's south side on September 30, 1990, despite warnings from engineers that the structure was unsafe and major repairs still had to be made. On December 27, state inspectors forced south side service to be rerouted via the tunnel again after discovery of corroded support beams and missing steel plates. The city's deputy commissioner for bridges and his


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: administrative assistant were fired after this incident. Following the controversial decision to do so, the New York City Council's Transportation committee held an inquiry into the decision to restore subway service on the Manhattan Bridge's south side, as well as an inquiry into the safety of all New York City bridges. They found that the Transportation Department and Transit Authority's lack of cooperative inspection were a major contributor for the deteriorating conditions. A projection for a reopening date was initially made for 1995. That year, the north side was closed during off-peak hours for six months, rerouting the Q to


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: Broadway and cutting D service from Brooklyn and B service from Manhattan. The south side finally reopened on July 22, 2001, whereby the north side was again closed, returning the Q to the express tracks on the Broadway Line; introducing the new train to run on the West End Line; and discontinuing B and D service in Brooklyn. The south side was closed on weekends from April to November 2003, and the Q was rerouted via the Montague Street Tunnel. On February 22, 2004, the north side reopened, and all four tracks were in service simultaneously for the first time


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: in 18 years. B and D trains returned to Brooklyn, but switched routes in that borough (the B on the Brighton Line and D on the Fourth Avenue and West End Lines). Additionally, the N train once again used the bridge for travel and the W no longer ran in Brooklyn. Between August 2, 2013, and September 14, 2014, weekend R trains and late-night N trains also used the south tracks due to the Montague Street Tunnel being closed for Hurricane Sandy-related repairs. Before 1986 1986–1988: North tracks closed 1988–2001: South tracks closed 2001–2004: North tracks closed 2004–2013, 2014–present 2013–2014:


title: "Manhattan Bridge" content: Montague Street Tunnel closed Access to the Manhattan Bridge is provided by a series of ramps on both the Manhattan and Brooklyn sides of the river. As part of the construction of the Lower Manhattan Expressway, there were plans to make the Manhattan Bridge I-178, but since this interstate would have led to a crosstown expressway and the existing Brooklyn-Queens Expressway, the FHWA stated that the first digit should be even, so the designation I-478 was chosen. However, with the cancellation of I-78 through New York City, the spur neither qualified to be part of the Interstate Highway System nor