title: Acorn content: volume of the acorn crop may vary widely, creating great abundance or great stress on the many animals dependent on acorns and the predators of those animals. Acorns, along with other nuts, are termed mast. Wildlife that consume acorns as an important part of their diets include birds, such as jays, pigeons, some ducks, and several species of woodpeckers. Small mammals that feed on acorns include mice, squirrels and several other rodents. Large mammals such as pigs, bears, and deer also consume large amounts of acorns; they may constitute up to 25% of the diet of deer in the autumn.


title: Acorn content: In Spain, Portugal and the New Forest region of southern England, pigs are still turned loose in "dehesas" (large oak groves) in the autumn, to fill and fatten themselves on acorns. Heavy consumption of acorns can, on the other hand, be toxic to other animals that cannot detoxify their tannins, such as horses and cattle. The larvae of some moths and weevils also live in young acorns, consuming the kernels as they develop. Acorns are attractive to animals because they are large and thus efficiently consumed or cached. Acorns are also rich in nutrients. Percentages vary from species to species,


title: Acorn content: but all acorns contain large amounts of protein, carbohydrates and fats, as well as the minerals calcium, phosphorus and potassium, and the vitamin niacin. Total food energy in an acorn also varies by species, but all compare well with other wild foods and with other nuts. Acorns also contain bitter tannins, the amount varying with the species. Since tannins, which are plant polyphenols, interfere with an animal's ability to metabolize protein, creatures must adapt in different ways to use the nutritional value acorns contain. Animals may preferentially select acorns that contain fewer tannins. When the tannins are metabolized in cattle,


title: Acorn content: the tannic acid produced can cause ulceration and kidney failure. Animals that cache acorns, such as jays and squirrels, may wait to consume some of these acorns until sufficient groundwater has percolated through them to leach out the tannins. Other animals buffer their acorn diet with other foods. Many insects, birds, and mammals metabolize tannins with fewer ill effects than do humans. Species of acorn that contain large amounts of tannins are very bitter, astringent, and potentially irritating if eaten raw. This is particularly true of the acorns of American red oaks and English oaks. The acorns of white oaks,


title: Acorn content: being much lower in tannins, are nutty in flavor; this characteristic is enhanced if the acorns are given a light roast before grinding. Tannins can be removed by soaking chopped acorns in several changes of water, until the water no longer turns brown. Cold water leaching can take several days, but three to four changes of boiling water can leach the tannins in under an hour. Hot water leaching (boiling) cooks the starch of the acorn, which would otherwise act like gluten in flour, helping it bind to itself. For this reason, if the acorns will be used to make


title: Acorn content: flour, then cold water leaching is preferred. Being rich in fat, acorn flour can spoil or molder easily and must be carefully stored. Acorns are also sometimes prepared as a massage oil. Acorns of the white oak group, "Leucobalanus", typically start rooting as soon as they are in contact with the soil (in the fall), then send up the leaf shoot in the spring. Acorns are too heavy for wind dispersal, so they require other ways to spread. Oaks therefore depend on biological seed dispersal agents to move the acorns beyond the mother tree and into a suitable area for


title: Acorn content: germination (including access to adequate water, sunlight and soil nutrients), ideally a minimum of from the parent tree. Many animals eat unripe acorns on the tree or ripe acorns from the ground, with no reproductive benefit to the oak, but some animals, such as squirrels and jays serve as seed dispersal agents. Jays and squirrels that scatter-hoard acorns in caches for future use effectively plant acorns in a variety of locations in which it is possible for them to germinate and thrive. Even though jays and squirrels retain remarkably large mental maps of cache locations and return to consume them,


title: Acorn content: the odd acorn may be lost, or a jay or squirrel may die before consuming all of its stores. A small number of acorns manage to germinate and survive, producing the next generation of oaks. Scatter-hoarding behavior depends on jays and squirrels associating with plants that provide good packets of food that are nutritionally valuable, but not too big for the dispersal agent to handle. The beak sizes of jays determine how large acorns may get before jays ignore them. Acorns germinate on different schedules, depending on their place in the oak family. Once acorns sprout, they are less nutritious,


title: Acorn content: as the seed tissue converts to the indigestible lignins that form the root. In some cultures, acorns once constituted a dietary staple, though they have largely been replaced by grains and are now typically considered a relatively unimportant food, except in some Native American and Korean communities. Several cultures have devised traditional acorn-leaching methods, sometimes involving specialized tools, that were traditionally passed on to their children by word of mouth. Acorns served an important role in early human history and were a source of food for many cultures around the world. For instance, the Ancient Greek lower classes and the


title: Acorn content: Japanese (during the Jōmon period) would eat acorns, especially in times of famine. In ancient Iberia they were a staple food, according to Strabo. Despite this history, acorns rarely form a large part of modern diets and are not currently cultivated on scales approaching that of many other nuts. However, if properly prepared (by selecting high-quality specimens and leaching out the bitter tannins in water), acorn meal can be used in some recipes calling for grain flours. In antiquity, Pliny the Elder noted that acorn flour could be used to make bread. Varieties of oak differ in the amount of


title: Acorn content: tannin in their acorns. Varieties preferred by American Indians such as Quercus kelloggii (California black oak) may be easier to prepare or more palatable. In Korea, an edible jelly named "dotorimuk" is made from acorns, and "dotori guksu" are Korean noodles made from acorn flour or starch. In the 17th century, a juice extracted from acorns was administered to habitual drunkards to cure them of their condition or else to give them the strength to resist another bout of drinking. Acorns have frequently been used as a coffee substitute, particularly when coffee was unavailable or rationed. The Confederates in the


title: Acorn content: American Civil War and Germans during World War II (when it was called "Ersatz" coffee), which were cut off from coffee supplies by Union and Allied blockades respectively, are particularly notable past instances of this use of acorns. Acorns were a traditional food of many indigenous peoples of North America, and served an especially important role for Californian Native Americans, where the ranges of several species of oaks overlap, increasing the reliability of the resource. One ecology researcher of Yurok and Karuk heritage reports that "his traditional acorn preparation is a simple soup, cooked with hot stones directly in a


title: Acorn content: basket," and says he enjoys acorns eaten with "grilled salmon, huckleberries or seaweed." Unlike many other plant foods, acorns do not need to be eaten or processed right away, but may be stored for a long time, much as squirrels do. In years that oaks produced many acorns, Native Americans sometimes collected enough acorns to store for two years as insurance against poor acorn production years. After drying them in the sun to discourage mold and germination, women took acorns back to their villages and cached them in hollow trees or structures on poles, to keep them safe from mice


title: Acorn content: and squirrels. The stored acorns could then be used when needed, particularly during the winter when other resources were scarce. Those acorns that germinated in the fall were shelled and pulverized before those that germinate in spring. Because of their high fat content, stored acorns can become rancid. Molds may also grow on them. The lighting of ground fires killed the larvae of acorn moths and acorn weevils by burning them during their dormancy period in the soil. The pests can infest and consume more than 95% of an oak's acorns. Fires also released the nutrients bound in dead leaves


title: Acorn content: and other plant debris into the soil, thus fertilizing oak trees while clearing the ground to make acorn collection easier. Most North American oaks tolerate light fires, especially when consistent burning has eliminated woody fuel accumulation around their trunks. Consistent burning encouraged oak growth at the expense of other trees less tolerant of fire, thus keeping oaks dominant in the landscapes. Oaks produce more acorns when they are not too close to other oaks and thus competing with them for sunlight, water and soil nutrients. The fires tended to eliminate the more vulnerable young oaks and leave old oaks which


title: Acorn content: created open oak savannas with trees ideally spaced to maximize acorn production. A motif in Roman architecture, also popular in Celtic and Scandinavian art, the acorn symbol is used as an ornament on cutlery, furniture, and jewelry; it also appears on finials at Westminster Abbey. The acorn is the symbol for the National Trails of England and Wales, and is used for the waymarks on these paths. The acorn, specifically that of the white oak, is also present in the symbol for the University of Connecticut. Acorns are also used as charges in heraldry. The word "acorn" (earlier "akerne", and


title: Acorn content: "acharn") is related to the Gothic name "akran", which had the sense of "fruit of the unenclosed land". The word was applied to the most important forest produce, that of the oak. Chaucer spoke of "achornes of okes" in the 14th century. By degrees, popular etymology connected the word both with "corn" and "oak-horn", and the spelling changed accordingly. The current spelling (emerged 15c.-16c.), derives from association with "ac" (Old English: "oak") + "corn". Acorn The acorn, or oaknut, is the nut of the oaks and their close relatives (genera "Quercus" and "Lithocarpus", in the family Fagaceae). It usually contains


title: "Falconbridge Ltd." content: right. The town of Falconbridge was incorporated by the provincial government in 1957. It was organized along with several other communities into the Town of Nickel Centre and Regional Municipality of Sudbury in 1973; the regional municipality was in turn amalgamated into today's city of Greater Sudbury in 2001. Some Falconbridge workers also lived in the nearby community of Happy Valley, which was abandoned in the 1960s due to pollution from the Falconbridge smelter. "Falco", as it was often called by Sudbury residents, remained for decades the second-largest employer in the Sudbury area, exceeded only by rival mining giant Inco.


title: "Šarūnas Jasikevičius" content: one of the contenders for the State Championship final, however they lost their first playoffs game and finished the season early. Although, he was noticed by Billy Kahn, who was working as University of Maryland assistant coach and invited Jasikevičius to join them. Jasikevičius played NCAA Division I college basketball at the University of Maryland, with the Maryland Terrapins. He played as a wing, although he remade himself into a point guard in his pro career. He did not see much playing time in his first two years in college, with seniors Duane Simpkins, Johnny Rhodes, and Exree Hipp ahead


title: "Elections in Chile" content: to two seats per district/constituency. Gerrymandering was employed in the drawing of electoral districts to favor the rightist parties, with a positive bias towards the traditionally more conservative rural areas of the country. The vote/seat ratio was lower in districts that supported Pinochet in the 1988 plebiscite and higher in those with the strongest opposition. Also, none of the newly created districts had either side in the plebiscite outpolled by the other by more than 2 to 1. The authoritarian regime also made it very difficult to change the system, as a three-fifths majority of both chambers is needed to


title: "Elections in Venezuela" content: as head of state and head of government, and a unicameral federal legislature. The President is elected for a six-year term by direct election plurality voting, and is (since the Venezuelan constitutional referendum, 2009) eligible for re-election. The National Assembly "(Asamblea Nacional)" has 165 members "(diputados)", elected for five-year terms (see #Parliamentary voting system below). Democracy in Venezuela developed during the twentieth century, with Democratic Action (founded in 1941) and its antecedents playing an important role in the early years. Democratic Action led the government during Venezuela's first democratic period (1945–1948). After an intervening decade of dictatorship (1948–1958) saw AD


title: "Three-spired cathedrals in the United Kingdom" content: The western spires are known as "Barbara" and "Mary" after Barbara and Mary Walker, spinster sisters, who provided funds for the cathedral's construction from 1873. They owned the surrounding Drumsheugh Estate and lived in Easter Coates House, which survives to the north of the cathedral. They were the granddaughters of Rev. George Walker, the Episcopal Minister of Old Meldrum Church (1734-1781). Their father, William Walker, was Attorney in Exchequer, and Bearer of the White Rod of Scotland. Their mother was Mary Drummond, daughter of George Drummond, six times Lord Provost of Edinburgh and initiator of the New Town. Three-spired cathedrals


title: "Advanced Computing Environment" content: a year after it started, as it became apparent that there was not a mass market for an alternative to the Wintel computing platform. The upstart platforms did not offer enough performance improvement from the incumbent PC and there were major cost disadvantages of such systems due to the low volume production. When the initiative started, RISC based systems (running at 100-200 MHz at the time) had substantial performance advantage over Intel 80486 and original Pentium chips (running at approximately 60 MHz at the time). Intel quickly migrated the Pentium design to newer semiconductor process generations and that performance (and


title: "Fall of the Western Roman Empire" content: had achieved an unassailable position at the Western court, in the imperial family, and as the able commander-in-chief of a partially restored army. This settlement represented a real success for the Empire—a poem by Rutilius Namatianus celebrates his voyage back to Gaul in 417 and his confidence in a restoration of prosperity. But it marked huge losses of territory and of revenue; Rutilius travelled by ship past the ruined bridges and countryside of Tuscany, and in the west the River Loire had become the effective northern boundary of Roman Gaul. In the east of Gaul the Franks controlled large areas;


title: Harehills content: view over the city of Leeds. Banstead Park was home to rioting in 2001. Along with neighbouring Chapeltown, Harehills has suffered from rioting and sporadic unrest. However, there have been no notable incidents of unrest in Harehills since 2001. The cheaper housing has made it attractive to immigrants, with the result that it has a considerable cultural and ethnic mixture. There are two main shopping streets, Harehills Lane and Harehills Road which join at the junction of Roundhay Road (A58 road) leading to Oakwood. Also, heading up Harehills Lane towards the A64 York Road at the junction with Compton Road,


title: "Villers Abbey" content: Villers Abbey Villers Abbey ("abbaye de Villers") is an ancient Cistercian abbey located in the town of Villers-la-Ville, in the Walloon Brabant province of Wallonia (Belgium), one piece of the "Wallonia's Major Heritage". Founded in 1146, the abbey was abandoned in 1796. Most of the site has since fallen into ruins. In 1146, 12 Cistercian monks and three lay brothers from Clairvaux came to Villers in order to establish the abbey on land granted them by Gauthier de Marbais. After establishing several preliminary sites (Villers I and Villers II), work was finally undertaken in the 13th century to build the


title: "Villers Abbey" content: current site. The choir was constructed by 1217, the crypt by 1240, and the refectory by 1267. The church itself took 70 years to build and was completed by the end of the century. During this period, the abbey reached the height of its fame and importance. Contemporary accounts suggest that roughly 100 monks and 300 lay brothers resided within its walls, although this is possibly an exaggeration. The lands attached to the abbey also expanded considerably, reaching some 100 km² of woods, fields, and pasturage. Decline set in during the 16th century, tied to the larger troubles of the


title: "Villers Abbey" content: Low Countries. Spanish "tercios", during the campaign of 1544, did considerable damage to the church and cloister, both of which were partially restored in 1587. In the early 17th century, Crisóstomo Henríquez wrote the history of the abbey. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the abbey's fortunes continued to diminish. The number of monks and the abbey's wealth dwindled, and it was finally abandoned in 1796 in the wake of the French Revolution. Further degradation to the site occurred in 1855, when the railway line between Leuven and Charleroi passed through the old abbatial grounds. In 1893, the Belgian state


title: "Villers Abbey" content: purchased the site and launched a conservation effort. Classed as an official historic site in 1973, the abbey has subsequently enjoyed considerable restoration, and the remains of the abbey along with numerous outbuildings can still be seen, including the cloister, refectory, kitchens, dormitories, and brewing house. Since 1992, the site has been maintained by the Association pour la Promotion Touristique et Culturelle de Villers (APTCV). The church, although in ruins, is an outstanding example of Cistercian architecture, with imposing vaulting, arches, and rose windows. The abbey now hosts an annual choir festival "Nuit Des Choeurs" in which a number of


title: "Villers Abbey" content: choirs sing a variety of music - classical through to gospel, jazz and pop arrangements - from different parts of the grounds over successive nights, culminating in a fireworks display and centre stage concert. Villers Abbey Villers Abbey ("abbaye de Villers") is an ancient Cistercian abbey located in the town of Villers-la-Ville, in the Walloon Brabant province of Wallonia (Belgium), one piece of the "Wallonia's Major Heritage". Founded in 1146, the abbey was abandoned in 1796. Most of the site has since fallen into ruins. In 1146, 12 Cistercian monks and three lay brothers from Clairvaux came to Villers in


title: Ashur-etil-ilani content: between several pretenders which led to the downfall of the Neo Assyrian Empire. The contest may have begun a few years earlier during Ashurbanipal's lifetime. The development of the events, and even the number of parties involved is not known with certainty. It seems fairly certain that upon Ashurbanipal's death, allied hordes of Scythians, Cimmerians, Medes and Persians, taking advantage of Assyria's weakness due to internal strife, crossed the borders of the Assyrian Empire, destroying Ashkelon and raiding as far as Egypt. Calah (Nimrud) was burned, but the strong walls of Nineveh protected the remnants of the Assyrian army that


title: "Middleton, Leeds" content: one of Leeds many public parks since 1919 covering an area of nearly a square mile, , of which are of ancient woodland. There is a small lake, recreational areas and a golf course. The reclaimed site of Middleton Broom Pit was incorporated into the park. Two areas of the park, comprising ancient waggonways which are now surfaced footpaths, earthworks and remains of underground workings and shaft mounds, have been designated a scheduled ancient monument. The Middleton Railway, a preserved heritage steam railway, operates from headquarters and museum at Moor Road Hunslet to Park Halt. It is operated by volunteers.


title: "City of Arts and Sciences" content: City of Arts and Sciences The City of Arts and Sciences ( ; ) is an entertainment-based cultural and architectural complex in the city of Valencia, Spain. It is the most important modern tourist destination in the city of Valencia and one of the 12 Treasures of Spain. The City of Arts and Sciences is situated at the end of the former riverbed of the river Turia, which was drained and rerouted after a catastrophic flood in 1957. The old riverbed was turned into a picturesque sunken park. Designed by Santiago Calatrava and Félix Candela, the project began the first


title: "City of Arts and Sciences" content: stages of construction in July 1996, and was inaugurated April 16, 1998 with the opening of L'Hemisfèric. The last great component of the City of Arts and Sciences, "El Palau de les Arts Reina Sofia", was inaugurated on October 9, 2005, Valencian Community Day. Originally budgeted at €300 million, it has cost nearly three times the initial expected cost. The complex is made up of the following buildings, in order of their inauguration: In 1989, the then president of the Valencian Regional Government, Joan Lerma, took up the idea of José María López Piñero, professor of the history of science


title: "City of Arts and Sciences" content: at the University of Valencia, to build a scientific museum on the land of the Garden of the Turia River that bordered the road with mulberry trees. Lerma created a team to launch the project. The ""City of the Sciences"" was the name that the autonomous government gave to the initiative, and plans included a 370m high communications tower, which would have been the third highest one in the world at that time; a planetarium; and the museum of science. The total price of the works was estimated to be about 25,000 million pesetas. The project did however cause controversy.


title: "City of Arts and Sciences" content: The Conservative Popular Party saw in the City of the Sciences a "work of the pharaohs" that would serve only to swell the ego of the Socialists, who were the driving forces behind the initiative. Later, several successive Popular Party governments continued and expanded the complex way beyond the original Socialist project at an enormous cost, heavily indebting the city. In May 1991, the council approved the transfer of lands. Four months later the project was presented, designed by Santiago Calatrava. Construction began by the end of 1994. The team that had designed the museum did not see eye to


title: "City of Arts and Sciences" content: eye with the form in which Santiago Calatrava conceived the building. Therefore, a couple of changes were made. In April 1998 the complex opened its doors to the public with L'Hemisfèric. Eleven months later, the president of Valencia, Eduardo Zaplana, inaugurated the Prince Felipe Museum of the Sciences, although the museum was not yet finished. The museum was opened to the public twenty months later. December 12, 2002 was the opening of L'Oceanographic, the largest aquarium built in Europe. Finally, on October 8, 2005 the Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía was opened and became the opera house of Valencia.


title: "City of Arts and Sciences" content: Santiago Calatrava was born in Valencia, Spain, on 28 July 1951. He is a qualified architect and engineer and also known for his artist skills in painting and sculpting. He attended the Art Academy in Valencia in the mid-1960s, then he earned a degree in architecture and a post graduate course in city planning at the Escuela Tecnica Superior de Arquitectura, studied civil engineering at the Federal Polytechnic University of Zurich, and participated in academic research investigating The Foldability of Space Frames. Calatrava's architecture is aimed to unite structure and movement. Early in his career, Calatrava was the winner to


title: "City of Arts and Sciences" content: design Stadelhofen Station in Zurich. He was recognized for his achievement in creating poetics of movement and integrating public transportation in a natural setting and urban context. Another theme in his work was moving contraptions in his buildings. The dome for the Reichstag Conversion Competition in Berlin that open and closes like a flower. The Planetarium in the City of Arts and Sciences in Valencia opens and closes like eyelids. There is, however, a controversy as to the values his work brings its users, especially when observing the usability of public space surrounding his buildings. Felix Candela was born on


title: "City of Arts and Sciences" content: January 27, 1910 in Madrid Spain and died December 7, 1997. His architectural designs composed of reinforced concrete structures distinguished by thin, curved shells. His popularity sprung from his design, in collaboration with Jorge Gonzales Reyna, of the Cosmic Ray Pavilion in Mexico. He used his signature design of the reinforced concrete roof that varies in thickness from only 5/8 inch to 2 inches. He also built the church of La Virgin Milagrosa in Mexico City and the church of San Vicente de Paul. His designs consisted of warped-shell industrial buildings, thin-shell centenary, and barrel-vaulted factories and warehouses. Candela was


title: "City of Arts and Sciences" content: also a teacher at Harvard University and University of Illinois. Felix Candela designed the underwater city, L'Oceanografic, located in the City of Arts and Sciences in Valencia and is reminiscent of Antoni Gaudí work in Barcelona. Some portions of the area were featured in the 2013 racing game "Gran Turismo 6" as a photo location. Exterior scenes of the futuristic city in the 2015 film "Tomorrowland" were filmed around the City of Arts and Sciences. In 2016 (broadcast in 2017) it was also used as a filming location in the British science-fiction television programme "Doctor Who", appearing in the second


title: "City of Arts and Sciences" content: episode of the tenth series, "Smile". The complex has also become a symbol of profligate spending, financial mismanagement and waste, due to large cost overruns and a large debt burden that the region is struggling under. City of Arts and Sciences The City of Arts and Sciences ( ; ) is an entertainment-based cultural and architectural complex in the city of Valencia, Spain. It is the most important modern tourist destination in the city of Valencia and one of the 12 Treasures of Spain. The City of Arts and Sciences is situated at the end of the former riverbed of


title: Chav content: word was used in a 2012 public statement by Rapper Plan B as he spoke out to oppose the use of the term. In 2013 linguist David Crystal said on BBC Learning English: People talk about "chav behaviour" or "chav insults" and that sort of thing. Oh, don't believe the popular etymologies that you read sometimes in the press and on websites. I saw one the other day, people said, "It's an acronym, 'chav', from 'council house and violent'"—well, no, it isn't, that was made up in recent times. Besides referring to loutish behaviour, violence, and particular speech patterns, the


title: "Mayne Island" content: The historic village at Miners Bay remains the commercial centre of the island, with the annual Fall Fair still being held at the old Agricultural Hall like so many years before. Miners Bay is also the site of the Springwater Lodge which was built in 1892 and remains the oldest continuously operated hotel in British Columbia. Nearby Active Pass still throbs with a steady stream of marine traffic, a bustling contrast to the island's quiet interior byways. Village Bay, with its BC Ferries terminal, has several late 19th-century to 1930s buildings. Active Pass is named after the American survey ship


title: "Gisele Bündchen" content: was credited with ending the "heroin chic" era of modeling. Bündchen was one of the Victoria's Secret Angels from 2000 until mid-2007. Bündchen pioneered the "horse walk", a stomping movement created when a model picks her knees up high and kicks her feet out in front. In a 2007 "Vogue" interview, Claudia Schiffer stated that Bündchen is the only remaining supermodel. Bündchen ventured into acting when she played a supporting role in "Taxi" (2004), for which she was nominated at the Teen Choice Awards for Choice Movie Breakout Performance, and for Choice Movie Bad Guy. Bündchen had a supporting role


title: "Bradley Amendment" content: an 88-7 yea-nay vote on September 20, 1986. The amendment was intended to correct a perceived imbalance between the power of the obligee usually the mother and the obligor usually the father during subsequent child support disputes. It had been alleged that a significant number of men were running up large child support debts and then finding a sympathetic judge, often in another state, to erase them. The Bradley Amendment is credited with increases in the collections success of wealthy debtors including a New York plastic surgeon who owed $172,000, a professional athlete who owed $76,000 and a yacht company


title: "Elections in Japan" content: Elections in Japan The Japanese political process has three types of elections: general elections to the House of Representatives held every four years (unless the lower house is dissolved earlier), elections to the House of Councillors held every three years to choose one-half of its members, and local elections held every four years for offices in prefectures, cities, and villages. Elections are supervised by election committees at each administrative level under the general direction of the Central Election Administration Committee, an attached organization to the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (MIC). The minimum voting age in Japan's non-compulsory electoral


title: "Elections in Croatia" content: election,the elections for President of the Republic are scheduled to take place every 5 years, with the incumbent having a possibility of re-election. The president is currently term limited to two 5-year terms. "See article": Next Croatian presidential election The next presidential election in Croatia is due to be held no more than 60 and no less than 30 days before the expiry of the incumbent president's term, as stated in the Constitution of Croatia. If the current president serves out her full term, which began on 19 February 2015 and lasts for 5 years, the election must be held


title: Triacontagon content: rotational symmetry. John Conway labels these lower symmetries with a letter and order of the symmetry follows the letter. He gives d (diagonal) with mirror lines through vertices, p with mirror lines through edges (perpendicular), i with mirror lines through both vertices and edges, and g for rotational symmetry. a1 labels no symmetry. These lower symmetries allows degrees of freedoms in defining irregular triacontagons. Only the g30 subgroup has no degrees of freedom but can seen as directed edges. Coxeter states that every zonogon (a 2"m"-gon whose opposite sides are parallel and of equal length) can be dissected into "m"("m"-1)/2


title: "Identity management" content: ancillary data about entities that include individuals, computer-related hardware, and software applications. IdM covers issues such as how users gain an identity, the protection of that identity and the technologies supporting that protection (e.g., network protocols, digital certificates, passwords, etc.). Identity management (IdM) is the task of controlling information about users on computers. Such information includes information that authenticates the identity of a user, and information that describes information and actions they are authorized to access and/or perform. It also includes the management of descriptive information about the user and how and by whom that information can be accessed and


title: "Yao Jie" content: 21-12 in the final. She also won the Italian International in 2011 beating Bulgarian Petya Nedelcheva in the final 21-11, 21-17 and won the Finnish International Open in 2012 beating Canadian Michelle Li 22-20, 21-19. Yao Jie was a runner-up to Zhang Ning at the China Open in 2006, runner-up to Juliane Schenk of Germany at the 2010 Dutch Open, runner-up to Li Xuerui of China at the 2011 Bitburger Open Grand Prix Gold and runner-up to Juliane Schenk at the 2012 Bitburger Open Grand Prix Gold. Her performances at 2004 Olympic Games and at recent BWF World Championships have


title: "White wine" content: be retained by a Muselet, and finally the top of the bottle is covered with a metallic foil shell gold or silver coloured. A fortified wine is a wine in which there has been an addition of alcohol. This category includes three types of wine products depending on the fermentation stage where the fortification took place: The temperature of service is a criterion to put wine in the best condition for drinking. The wine must be chilled but not be served with ice. Between 8 and 9 °C, the chill will accentuate the liveliness of the bubbles and reduce the


title: "Enterprise service bus" content: Management vendors truly apply all the ESB capabilities in their integration products while adopting SOA. Therefore, the challenges and opportunities for EAI vendors are to provide an integration solution that is low-cost, easily configurable, intuitive, user-friendly, and open to any tools customers choose. ¹ "Some do not regard process choreography as an ESB function. For example, see M.Richards. ² "While process choreography supports implementation of complex business processes that require coordination of multiple business services (usually using BPEL), service orchestration enables coordination of multiple implementation services (most suitably exposed as an aggregate service) to serve individual requests." These solutions often


title: Poncho content: Poncho A poncho (; "punchu" in Quechua; Mapudungun "pontro", blanket, woolen fabric) is an outer garment designed to keep the body warm. A rain poncho is made from a watertight material designed to keep the body dry from the rain. Ponchos have been used by the Native American peoples of the Andes since pre-Hispanic time, from places now under the territory of Bolivia, Peru, Chile and Ecuador and are now considered typical South American garments. In its simplest form the poncho is essentially a single large sheet of fabric with an opening in the center, for the head, and often


title: Poncho content: it has an extra piece of fabric serving as a hood. Rainproof ponchos normally are fitted with fasteners to close the sides once the poncho is draped over the body, with openings provided for the arms; many have hoods attached to ward off wind and rain. Alternative ponchos are now designed as fashion items. They are the same shape but of different material. They are designed to look fashionable and provide warmth while remaining breathable and comfortable, rather than to ward off wind and rain. These are often made out of wool or yarn, knitted or crocheted. Ponchos with festive


title: Poncho content: designs or colors can be worn at special events as well. The poncho was one of the typical clothes of the Paracas, Pre-Inca Culture around 500 B.C. Nowadays the poncho is commonly associated with the Americas. As traditional clothing, the local names and variants are: The poncho was first used on a regular basis in the 1850s for irregular U.S. military forces operating on the U.S. Western Plains. These early military ponchos were made of "gutta percha" muslin, a latex-coated, waterproof cloth. Ponchos made of gutta-percha or "India rubber" coated cloth were officially adopted during the American Civil War, both


title: Poncho content: as rain clothing and as a ground sheet for sleeping. While originally intended for cavalry forces, they were widely used by infantry as well; General Sherman's Union troops, lightly equipped and living off procurement demand from the local populace, wore ponchos during wet weather encountered during the march through Confederate Georgia to the sea. Discontinued after the Civil War, the U.S. Army again issued ponchos of waterproof rubberized canvas to its forces during the Spanish–American War of 1898. Two years later, both the Army and the Marines were forced to issue waterproof rubberized cloth ponchos with high neck collars during


title: Poncho content: the Philippine–American War in 1900. With the entry of the United States into World War I, both doughboys and Marines in France wore the poncho; it was preferred over the raincoat for its ability to keep both the wearer and his pack dry, as well as serving as a roof for a makeshift shelter. Just prior to World War II, ponchos were significantly improved during testing with the U.S. Army Jungle Experimental Platoon in the jungles of Panama, incorporating new, lighter materials and a drawcord hood that could be closed off to form a rain fly or ground sheet. Ponchos


title: Poncho content: were widely used by United States armed forces during World War II; even lightly equipped foot-mounted forces such as Merrill's Marauders, forced to discard tentage and all other unnecessary equipment, retained their blanket and poncho. During the 1950s, new lightweight coated nylon and other synthetic materials were developed for military ponchos. The poncho has remained in service ever since as a standard piece of U.S. military field equipment. Today, the United States armed forces issue ponchos that may be used as a field expedient shelter. These garments are also used by hunters, campers, and rescue workers. During World War II,


title: Poncho content: the German Army (Wehrmacht) issued the "Zeltbahn" (see Shelter half), a poncho that could be combined to form tents. A typical four-man tent used four "Zeltbahnen". Poncho A poncho (; "punchu" in Quechua; Mapudungun "pontro", blanket, woolen fabric) is an outer garment designed to keep the body warm. A rain poncho is made from a watertight material designed to keep the body dry from the rain. Ponchos have been used by the Native American peoples of the Andes since pre-Hispanic time, from places now under the territory of Bolivia, Peru, Chile and Ecuador and are now considered typical South American


title: "Francisco Ramírez Medina" content: authorities, considered by the rebels to be enemies of the fatherland, were taken as prisoners. The revolutionaries then entered the town's church and placed the revolutionary flag, the first Puerto Rican flag, knitted by Bracetti with the materials provided by Eduvigis Beauchamp Sterling, Treasurer of the revolution, on the High Altar. The flag was divided in the middle by a white Latin cross, the two lower corners were red and the two upper corners were blue. A white star was placed in the upper left blue corner. According to Puerto Rican poet Luis Lloréns Torres the white cross on it


title: "Nishimeya, Aomori" content: Nishimeya, Aomori Nishimeya is located in the far southern edge of Aomori Prefecture, bordering Akita Prefecture and the Shirakami-Sanchi mountain range. The Iwaki River flows through the village. A portion of the Akaishi Keiryū Anmon no Taki Prefectural Natural Park is located in Nishimeya. The village has cold humid continental climate (Köppen "Dfb") characterized by warm short summers and long cold winters with heavy snowfall. The average annual temperature in Nishimeya is 10.0 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1423 mm with September as the wettest month.The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 23.6 °C, and lowest


title: "Museum of Lancashire" content: erection of a new court-house and records office, which are to be placed outside the walls of the present gaol'. Hewitson, in his History of Preston states that the building was erected in 1829 and refers to Mr Rickman as the architect. He goes on to add that a new dome was added in 1849 and in 1870, due to the dangerous state of the dome it was replaced by a ceiling light. The collections include: Lancashire Through Time (archeological collections etc), Lancashire at Work (local industries etc), Lancashire at Play (the Hylda Baker costume collection and Les Dawson, George


title: "Controversies in autism" content: vaccine overload. A 2011 journal article described the MMR-autism connection as "the most damaging medical hoax of the last 100 years". In 1999, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) asked vaccine makers to remove the organomercury compound thiomersal (spelled "thimerosal" in the U.S.) from vaccines as quickly as possible, and thiomersal has been phased out of U.S. and European vaccines, except for some preparations of influenza vaccine, meningococcal vaccine, and trace amounts in the tetanus-diphtheria (Td) vaccine. Under the FDA Modernization Act (FDAMA) of 1997, the FDA conducted a comprehensive review of the


title: Ascidiacea content: Ascidiacea Ascidiacea (commonly known as the ascidians or sea squirts) is a paraphyletic class in the subphylum Tunicata of sac-like marine invertebrate filter feeders. Ascidians are characterized by a tough outer "tunic" made of the polysaccharide cellulose. Ascidians are found all over the world, usually in shallow water with salinities over 2.5%. While members of the Thaliacea and Larvacea (Appendicularia) swim freely like plankton, sea squirts are sessile animals: they remain firmly attached to their substratum, such as rocks and shells. There are 2,300 species of ascidians and three main types: solitary ascidians, social ascidians that form clumped communities by


title: Ascidiacea content: attaching at their bases, and compound ascidians that consist of many small individuals (each individual is called a zooid) forming colonies up to several meters in diameter. Sea squirts feed by taking in water through a tube, the oral siphon. The water enters the mouth and pharynx, flows through mucus-covered gill slits (also called pharyngeal stigmata) into a water chamber called the atrium, then exits through the atrial siphon. Sea squirts are rounded or cylindrical animals ranging from about 0.5 to 10 cm (0.2 to 4 in) in size. One end of the body is always firmly fixed to rock,


title: Ascidiacea content: coral, or some similar solid surface. The lower surface is pitted or ridged, and in some species has root-like extensions that help the animal grip onto the surface. The body wall is covered by a smooth thick tunic, which is often quite rigid. The tunic consists of cellulose along with proteins and calcium salts. Unlike the shells of molluscs, the tunic is composed of living tissue, and often has its own blood supply. In some colonial species, the tunics of adjacent individuals are fused into a single structure. The upper surface of the animal, opposite to the part gripping the


title: Ascidiacea content: substratum, has two openings, or siphons. When removed from the water, the animal often violently expels water from these siphons, hence the common name of "sea squirt". The body itself can be divided into up to three regions, although these are not clearly distinct in most species. The pharyngeal region contains the pharynx, while the abdomen contains most of the other bodily organs, and the postabdomen contains the heart and gonads. In many sea squirts, the postabdomen, or even the entire abdomen, are absent, with their respective organs being located more anteriorly. As its name implies, the pharyngeal region is


title: Ascidiacea content: occupied mainly by the pharynx. The large buccal siphon opens into the pharynx, acting like a mouth. The pharynx itself is ciliated and contains numerous perforations, or stigmata, arranged in a grid-like pattern around its circumference. The beating of the cilia sucks water through the siphon, and then through the stigmata. A long ciliated groove, or endostyle, runs along one side of the pharynx, and a projecting ridge along the other. The endostyle may be homologous with the thyroid gland of vertebrates, despite its differing function. The pharynx is surrounded by an atrium, through which water is expelled through a


title: Ascidiacea content: second, usually smaller, siphon. Cords of connective tissue cross the atrium to maintain the general shape of the body. The outer body wall consists of connective tissue, muscle fibres, and a simple epithelium directly underlying the tunic. The pharynx forms the first part of the digestive system. The endostyle produces a supply of mucus which is then passed into the rest of the pharynx by the beating of flagella along its margins. The mucus then flows in a sheet across the surface of the pharynx, trapping planktonic food particles as they pass through the stigmata, and is collected in the


title: Ascidiacea content: ridge on the dorsal surface. The ridge bears a groove along one side, which passes the collected food downwards and into the oesophageal opening at the base of pharynx. The oesophagus runs downwards to a stomach in the abdomen, which secretes enzymes that digest the food. An intestine runs upwards from the stomach parallel to the oesophagus and eventually opens, through a short rectum and anus, into a cloaca just below the atrial siphon. In some highly developed colonial species, clusters of individuals may share a single cloaca, with all the atrial siphons opening into it, although the buccal siphons


title: Ascidiacea content: all remain separate. A series of glands lie on the outer surface of the intestine, opening through collecting tubules into the stomach, although their precise function is unclear. The heart is a curved muscular tube lying in the postabdomen, or close to the stomach. Each end opens into a single vessel, one running to the endostyle, and the other to the dorsal surface of the pharynx. The vessels are connected by a series of sinuses, through which the blood flows. Additional sinuses run from that on the dorsal surface, supplying blood to the visceral organs, and smaller vessels commonly run


title: Ascidiacea content: from both sides into the tunic. Nitrogenous waste, in the form of ammonia, is excreted directly from the blood through the walls of the pharynx, and expelled through the atrial siphon. Unusually, the heart of sea squirts alternates the direction in which it pumps blood every three to four minutes. There are two excitatory areas, one at each end of the heart, with first one being dominant, to push the blood through the ventral vessel, and then the other, pushing it dorsally. There are four different types of blood cell: lymphocytes, phagocytic amoebocytes, "nephrocytes" and "morula cells". The nephrocytes collect


title: Ascidiacea content: waste material such as uric acid and accumulate it in "renal vesicles" close to the digestive tract. The morula cells help to form the tunic, and can often be found within the tunic substance itself. In some species, the morula cells possess pigmented reducing agents containing iron (hemoglobin), giving the blood a red colour, or vanadium (hemovanadin) giving it a green colour. In that case the cells are also referred to as "vanadocytes". The ascidian central nervous system is formed from a plate that rolls up to form a neural tube. The number of cells within the central nervous system


title: Ascidiacea content: is very small. The neural tube is composed of the sensory vesicle, the neck, the visceral or tail ganglion, and the caudal nerve cord. The anteroposterior regionalization of the neural tube in ascidians is comparable to that in vertebrates. Although there is no true brain, the largest ganglion is located in the connective tissue between the two siphons, and sends nerves throughout the body. Beneath this ganglion lies an exocrine gland that empties into the pharynx. The gland is formed from the nerve tube, and is therefore homologous to the spinal cord of vertebrates. Sea squirts lack special sense organs,


title: Ascidiacea content: although the body wall has numerous individual receptors for touch, chemoreception, and the detection of light. Almost all ascidians are hermaphrodites and conspicuous mature ascidians are sessile. The gonads are located in the abdomen or postabdomen, and include one testis and one ovary, each of which opens via a duct into the cloaca. Broadly speaking, the ascidians can be divided into species which exist as independent animals (the solitary ascidians) and those which are interdependent (the colonial ascidians). Different species of ascidians can have markedly different reproductive strategies, with colonial forms having mixed modes of reproduction. Solitary ascidians release many


title: Ascidiacea content: eggs from their atrial siphons; external fertilization in seawater takes place with the coincidental release of sperm from other individuals. A fertilized egg spends 12 hours to a few days developing into a free-swimming tadpole-like larva, which then takes no more than 36 hours to settle and metamorphose into a juvenile. As a general rule, the larva possesses a long tail, containing muscles, a hollow dorsal nerve tube and a notochord, both features clearly indicative of the animal's chordate affinities. But one group, the molgulid ascidians, have evolved tailless species on at least four separate occasions, and even direct development.


title: Ascidiacea content: A notochord is formed early in development, and always consist of a row of exactly 40 cells. The nerve tube enlarges in the main body, and will eventually become the cerebral ganglion of the adult. The tunic develops early in embryonic life, and extends to form a fin along the tail in the larva. The larva also has a statocyst and a pigmented cup above the mouth, which opens into a pharynx lined with small clefts opening into a surrounding atrium. The mouth and anus are originally at opposite ends of the animal, with the mouth only moving to its


title: Ascidiacea content: final (posterior) position during metamorphosis. The larva selects and settles on appropriate surfaces using receptors sensitive to light, orientation to gravity, and tactile stimuli. When its anterior end touches a surface, papillae (small, finger-like nervous projections) secrete an adhesive for attachment. Adhesive secretion prompts an irreversible metamorphosis: various organs (such as the larval tail and fins) are lost while others rearrange to their adult positions, the pharynx enlarges, and organs called ampullae grow from the body to permanently attach the animal to the substratum. The siphons of the juvenile ascidian become orientated to optimise current flow through the feeding apparatus.


title: Ascidiacea content: Sexual maturity can be reached in as little as a few weeks. Since the larva is more advanced than its adult, this type of metamorphosis is called 'retrogressive metamorphosis'. This feature is a landmark for the 'theory of retrogressive metamorphosis or ascidian larva theory'; the true chordates are hypothesized to have evolved from sexually mature larvae. Colonial ascidians reproduce both asexually and sexually. Colonies can survive for decades. An ascidian colony consists of individual elements called "zooids". Zooids within a colony are usually genetically identical and some have a shared circulation. Different colonial ascidian species produce sexually derived offspring by


title: Ascidiacea content: one of two dispersal strategies- Colonial species are either broadcast spawners (long-range dispersal) or philopatric (very short-range dispersal). Broadcast spawners release sperm and ova into the water column and fertilization occurs near to the parent colonies. Resultant zygotes develop into microscopic larvae that may be carried great distances by oceanic currents. The larvae of sessile forms which survive eventually settle and complete maturation on the substratum- then they may bud asexually to form a colony of zooids. The picture is more complicated for the philopatrically dispersed ascidians: sperm from a nearby colony (or from a zooid of the same colony)


title: Ascidiacea content: enter the pharyngeal siphon and fertilization takes place "within" the atrium. Embryos are then brooded within the atrium where embryonic development takes place: this results in macroscopic tadpole-like larvae. When mature, these larvae exit the atrial siphon of the adult and then settle close to the parent colony (often within meters). The combined effect of short sperm range and philopatric larval dispersal results in local population structures of closely related individuals/inbred colonies. Generations of colonies which are restricted in dispersal are thought to accumulate adaptions to local conditions, thereby providing advantages over newcomers. Trauma or predation often results in fragmentation


title: Ascidiacea content: of a colony into subcolonies. Subsequent zooid replication can lead to coalescence and circulatory fusion of the subcolonies. Closely related colonies which are proximate to each other may also fuse if they coalesce and if they are histocompatible. Ascidians were among the first animals to be able to immunologically recognize self from non-self as a mechanism to prevent unrelated colonies from fusing to them and parasitizing them. Sea squirt eggs are surrounded by a fibrous vitelline coat and a layer of follicle cells that produce sperm-attracting substances. In fertilization, the sperm passes through the follicle cells and binds to glycosides


title: Ascidiacea content: on the vitelline coat. The sperm's mitochondria are left behind as the sperm enters and drives through the coat; this translocation of the mitochondria might provide the necessary force for penetration. The sperm swims through the perivitelline space, finally reaching the egg plasma membrane and entering the egg. This prompts rapid modification of the vitelline coat, through processes such as the egg's release of glycosidase into the seawater, so no more sperm can bind and polyspermy is avoided. After fertilization, free calcium ions are released in the egg cytoplasm in waves, mostly from internal stores. The temporary large increase in


title: Ascidiacea content: calcium concentration prompts the physiological and structural changes of development. The dramatic rearrangement of egg cytoplasm following fertilization, called ooplasmic segregation, determines the dorsoventral and anteroposterior axes of the embryo. There are at least three types of sea squirt egg cytoplasm: ectoplasm containing vesicles and fine particles, endoderm containing yolk platelets, and myoplasm containing pigment granules, mitochondria, and endoplasmic reticulum. In the first phase of ooplasmic segregation, the myoplasmic actin-filament network contracts to rapidly move the peripheral cytoplasm (including the myoplasm) to the vegetal pole, which marks the dorsal side of the embryo. In the second phase, the myoplasm moves


title: Ascidiacea content: to the subequatorial zone and extends into a crescent, which marks the future posterior of the embryo. The ectoplasm with the zygote nucleus ends up at the animal hemisphere while the endoplasm ends up in the vegetal hemisphere. "Ciona intestinalis" is a hermaphrodite that releases sperm and eggs into the surrounding seawater almost simultaneously. It is self-sterile, and thus has been used for studies on the mechanism of self-incompatibility. Self/non-self-recognition molecules play a key role in the process of interaction between sperm and the vitelline coat of the egg. It appears that self/non-self recognition in ascidians such as "C. intestinalis"


title: Ascidiacea content: is mechanistically similar to self-incompatibility systems in flowering plants. Self-incompatibility promotes out-crossing, and thus provides the adaptive advantage at each generation of masking deleterious recessive mutations (i.e. genetic complementation). "Ciona savignyi" is highly self-fertile. However, non-self sperm out-compete self-sperm in fertilization competition assays. Gamete recognition is not absolute allowing some self-fertilization. It was speculated that self-incompatibility evolved to avoid inbreeding depression, but that selfing ability was retained to allow reproduction at low population density. "Botryllus schlosseri" is a colonial tunicate, a member of the only group of chordates that are able to reproduce both sexually and asexually. "B. schlosseri" is


title: Ascidiacea content: a sequential (protogynous) hermaphrodite, and in a colony, eggs are ovulated about two days before the peak of sperm emission. Thus self-fertilization is avoided, and cross-fertilization is favored. Although avoided, self-fertilization is still possible in "B. schlosseri". Self-fertilized eggs develop with a substantially higher frequency of anomalies during cleavage than cross-fertilized eggs (23% vs. 1.6%). Also a significantly lower percentage of larvae derived from self-fertilized eggs metamorphose, and the growth of the colonies derived from their metamorphosis is significantly lower. These findings suggest that self-fertilization gives rise to inbreeding depression associated with developmental deficits that are likely caused by expression


title: Ascidiacea content: of deleterious recessive mutations. Many colonial sea squirts are also capable of asexual reproduction, although the means of doing so are highly variable between different families. In the simplest forms, the members of the colony are linked only by rootlike projections from their undersides known as stolons. Buds containing food storage cells can develop within the stolons and, when sufficiently separated from the 'parent', may grow into a new adult individual. In other species, the postabdomen can elongate and break up into a string of separate buds, which can eventually form a new colony. In some, the pharyngeal part of


title: Ascidiacea content: the animal degenerates, and the abdomen breaks up into patches of germinal tissue, each combining parts of the epidermis, peritoneum, and digestive tract, and capable of growing into new individuals. In yet others, budding begins shortly after the larva has settled onto the substrate. In the family Didemnidae, for instance, the individual essentially splits into two, with the pharynx growing a new digestive tract and the original digestive tract growing a new pharynx. The exceptional filtering capability of adult sea squirts causes them to accumulate pollutants that may be toxic to embryos and larvae as well as impede enzyme function


title: Ascidiacea content: in adult tissues. This property has made some species sensitive indicators of pollution. Over the last few hundred years, most of the world's harbors have been invaded by non-native sea squirts that have clung to ship hulls or to introduced organisms such as oysters and seaweed. Several factors, including quick attainment of sexual maturity, tolerance of a wide range of environments, and a lack of predators, allow sea squirt populations to grow rapidly. Unwanted populations on docks, ship hulls, and farmed shellfish cause significant economic problems, and sea squirt invasions have disrupted the ecosystem of several natural sub-tidal areas by


title: Ascidiacea content: smothering native animal species. Sea squirts are the natural prey of many animals, including nudibranchs, flatworms, molluscs, rock crabs, sea stars, fish, birds, and sea otters. They are also eaten by humans in many parts of the world, including Japan, Korea, Chile, and Europe (where they are sold under the name “sea violet”). As chemical defenses, many sea squirts intake and maintain an extremely high concentration of vanadium in the blood, have a very low pH of the tunic due to acid in easily ruptured bladder cells, and (or) produce secondary metabolites harmful to predators and invaders. Some of these


title: Ascidiacea content: metabolites are toxic to cells and are of potential use in pharmaceuticals. Ascidians are soft-bodied animals, and for this reason their fossil record is almost entirely lacking. The earliest reliable ascidians is "Shankouclava shankouense" from the Lower Cambrian Maotianshan Shale (South China). There are also two enigmatic species from the Ediacaran period with some affinity to the ascidians - "Ausia" from the Nama Group of Namibia and "Burykhia" from the Onega Peninsula, White Sea of northern Russia. They are also recorded from Lower Jurassic (Bonet and Benveniste-Velasquez, 1971; Buge and Monniot,1972) and the Tertiary from France (Deflandre-Riguard, 1949, 1956; Durand,


title: Ascidiacea content: 1952; Deflandre and Deflandre-Rigaud, 1956; Bouche, 1962; Lezaud, 1966; Monniot and Buge, 1971; Varol and Houghton, 1996). Older (Triassic) records are ambiguous. The representatives of the genus Cystodytes (family Polycitoridae) have been described from the Pliocene of France by Monniot (1970, 1971) and Deflandre-Rigaud (1956), and from Eocene of France by Monniot and Buge (1971), and lately from the Late Eocene of S Australia by Łukowiak (2012). The ascidians were on morphological evidence treated as sister to the Thaliacea and Appendicularia, but molecular evidence shows that ascidians are paraphyletic within the Tunicata, as shown in the cladogram. Various ascidians are


title: Ascidiacea content: used as food. Sea pineapple ("Halocynthia roretzi") is cultivated in Japan ("hoya", "maboya") and Korea ("meongge"). When served raw, they have a chewy texture and peculiar flavor likened to "rubber dipped in ammonia" which has been attributed to (E,E)-2,4-decadien-1-ol. The tunicate "Styela clava" is farmed in parts of Korea where it is known as "mideoduk" and is added to various seafood dishes such as agujjim. Sea squirt bibimbap is a specialty of Geojae island, not far from Masan. "Microcosmus sabatieri" and several similar species from the Mediterranean Sea are eaten in France ("figue de mer", "violet"), Italy ("limone di mare",


title: Ascidiacea content: "uova di mare") and Greece ("fouska", "φούσκα"), for example raw with lemon, or in salads with olive oil, lemon and parsley. The "piure" ("Pyura chilensis") is used as food in the cuisine of Chile, consumed both raw and used as ingredients in seafood stews like bouillabaisse. "Pyura praeputialis" is known as "cunjevoi" in Australia. It was once used as a food source by Aboriginal people living around Botany Bay, but is now used mainly for fishing bait. A number of factors make sea squirts good models for studying the fundamental developmental processes of chordates, such as cell-fate specification. The embryonic


title: Ascidiacea content: development of sea squirts is simple, rapid, and easily manipulated. Because each embryo contains relatively few cells, complex processes can be studied at the cellular level, while remaining in the context of the whole embryo. The embryo's transparency is ideal for fluorescent imaging and its maternally-derived proteins are naturally pigmented, so cell lineages are easily labeled, allowing scientists to visualize embryogenesis from beginning to end. Sea squirts are also valuable because of their unique evolutionary position: as an approximation of ancestral chordates, they can provide insight into the link between chordates and ancestral non-chordate deuterostomes, as well as the evolution


title: Ascidiacea content: of vertebrates from simple chordates. The sequenced genomes of the related sea squirts "Ciona intestinalis" and "Ciona savignyi" are small and easily manipulated; comparisons with the genomes of other organisms such as flies, nematodes, pufferfish and mammals provides valuable information regarding chordate evolution. A collection of over 480,000 cDNAs have been sequenced and are available to support further analysis of gene expression, which is expected to provide information about complex developmental processes and regulation of genes in vertebrates. Gene expression in embryos of sea squirts can be conveniently inhibited using Morpholino oligos. Ascidiacea Ascidiacea (commonly known as the ascidians or


title: "Sligo Creek" content: Ken Burns. "Sligo Creek" is an Irish traditional reel composed by an American banjo, mandolin, fiddle and guitar player, Danny Noveck, and named after the creek he was living near at the time he composed the melody. The creek inspired Katherine Paterson to write the Newbery Medal award-winning book Bridge to Terabithia. Sligo Creek Sligo Creek is a free-flowing tributary of the Northwest Branch of the Anacostia River in Maryland. (The Anacostia, in turn, feeds into the Potomac River and eventually empties into the Atlantic Ocean via Chesapeake Bay.) The creek is approximately long, with a drainage area of about


title: "Josie Maran" content: out of photos. Signed at age 17 with the Elite modeling agency of Los Angeles, Maran appeared on her first cover with "Glamour" magazine in 1998; she was then the featured Guess? Girl in their summer 1998 and fall 1998 campaigns. After building a résumé of over 25 commercials and advertisements, including playing Howie D's companion in the music video of Backstreet Boys hit "Everybody (Backstreet's Back)", in which she was bitten on the neck by Count Dracula (played by Howie D), Maran moved cross-country to join with Elite in New York City. In 1999, she landed a multi-year deal


title: "Lawrie McMenemy" content: when he was named manager of Sunderland, who had just been relegated to the Second Division. At the time he was the highest-paid manager in English football, but his time on Wearside was not a success and he quit in March 1987 - just weeks before Sunderland fell into the Third Division for the first time in their history. A year earlier, they had narrowly avoided a second successive relegation when they had been among the pre-season favourites for promotion, and the best supported side in the Second Division with an average attendance of more than 16,000 - higher than


title: "Jacob of Nisibis" content: had lain down and covered with a sheet with the illusion of death; consequently, the man died, and the people repented and thus the man was resurrected as a result of Saint Jacob's prayers. Disagreement exists as to the date of the saint's consecration as bishop of Nisibis as it is argued it took place in c. 300, and he is recorded as the city's first bishop by Saint Ephrem the Syrian. However, Saint Jacob is credited as the successor of Babu, the first bishop of Nisibis (r. 300-309), by the "Catholic Encyclopedia", who Saint Ephrem states was in fact


title: "Harry Pierpont" content: a $20 bill. When the teller told him to go to another window, Pierpont pulled his tommy gun out. The other gang members pulled out their guns and began cleaning money from the vaults. Witnesses clearly identified Pierpont as the leader of the robbers. Five minutes later, the robbery was over, and the gang walked out with $74,000 in cash and bonds without firing a shot. They were so quiet that no one at the police station across the street knew what had happened. With the Indiana State Police after them, the gang hid out in Chicago, with Dillinger, Pierpont,


title: "Damo Suzuki" content: was with Can from 1970 to 1973, recording a number of well-regarded albums such as "Tago Mago", "Future Days" and "Ege Bamyasi". Suzuki's first vocal performance with Can was "Don't Turn the Light On, Leave Me Alone" from "Soundtracks". His freeform, often improvised lyrics, were sung in no particular language. He returned to music in 1983, and currently leads what is known as "Damo Suzuki's Network" – as he tours, he performs live improvisational music with various local musicians, so-called "Sound Carriers". The Fall's 1985 album "This Nation's Saving Grace" features a song "I Am Damo Suzuki," inspired by the


title: "Einhänder" content: an eventual peace. Yet, the pilot's name and deeds were stricken from the records and they are remembered only by veterans of the war. After the end credits a lone Einhänder spacecraft is shown powering up. "Einhänder" was the first 3D shooter developed by Square, a company otherwise mostly known for their role-playing video games. The developers used German terms extensively for naming things in the game, in addition to a number of references from Greek mythology and the Bible. According to the gaming website IGN, a lot of the effects Square learned from creating "Final Fantasy VII" were also


title: "The Cobweb (novel)" content: his town, he discovers a plot involving a new Triangle Trade of terrorists, biological warfare, and training. Mixing the events staged in Washington, D.C. and those happening in the Gulf, a strange thread of deceit appears to be winding its way back to Iowa. Although fictional in its narrative, the story includes appearances by Tariq Aziz and George H. W. Bush. The Cobweb (novel) The Cobweb is a 1996 novel written by Neal Stephenson with J. Frederick George, a pseudonym for Stephenson's uncle, historian George Jewsbury. It was originally published under the collective pseudonym "Stephen Bury", as was their earlier


title: "Yang Wei (gymnast)" content: to the screen.Yang Wei: "Gold Medal for my Love!" The two married on November 6, 2008. Their son, Yang Wenchang (杨文昌), was born November 2009. Yang Wei (gymnast) Yang Wei (; born February 8, 1980 in Xiantao, Hubei) is a male gymnast from China. Yang Wei won the silver medal in the individual all-around competition and won the gold in the team event at the 2000 Olympics in Sydney. In 2003, he again won the gold in the team event and silver in the all-around competition at the 2003 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships in Anaheim. At the 2004 Olympics in


title: "Contingency table" content: V. "C" suffers from the disadvantage that it does not reach a maximum of 1, notably the highest it can reach in a 2 × 2 table is 0.707; the maximum it can reach in a 4 × 4 table is 0.870. It can reach values closer to 1 in contingency tables with more categories. It should, therefore, not be used to compare associations among tables with different numbers of categories. The formulae for the "C" and "V" coefficients are: "k" being the number of rows or the number of columns, whichever is less. "C" can be adjusted so it


title: "81st Street–Museum of Natural History (IND Eighth Avenue Line)" content: Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line already provided parallel service, the new Eighth Avenue subway via Central Park West provided an alternative route. The station was renovated in 1998–2000, in coordination with building the new Hayden Planetarium, within the Rose Center for Earth and Space. The floors were replaced, new lighting installed, the token booth upgraded, and the walls and staircases re-tiled. Structural improvements were also made during the renovation. This underground station has four tracks and two side platforms. On this section of the line, the local tracks are stacked, uptown above downtown, and the express tracks are stacked in the same


title: Sundae content: Sundae The sundae () is an ice cream dessert. It typically consists of one or more scoops of ice cream topped with sauce or syrup, and in some cases other toppings including sprinkles, whipped cream, marshmallows, peanuts, maraschino cherries, or other fruits (e.g., bananas and pineapple in a banana split.). According to the "Oxford English Dictionary", the origin of the term "sundae" is obscure; however, it is generally accepted that the spelling "sundae" derives from the English word "Sunday". Among the many stories about the invention of the sundae, a frequent theme is that the ice cream sundae was a


title: Sundae content: variation of the popular ice cream soda. According to documentation published by the Evanston Public Library (Illinois), the drinking of soda was outlawed on Sundays in Illinois. Other origin stories for the sundae focus on the novelty or inventiveness of the treat or the name of the originator, and make no mention of legal pressures. Ice cream sundae soon became the weekend semi-official soda fountain confection in the beginning of the 1900s and quickly gained popularity. "The Ice Cream Trade Journal" for 1909 along with plain, or French sundae, listed such exotic varieties as Robin Hood sundae, Cocoa Caramel sundae,


title: Sundae content: Black Hawk sundae, Angel Cake sundae, Cherry Dip sundae, Cinnamon Peak sundae, Opera sundae, Fleur D'Orange sundae, Knickerbocker sundae, Tally-Ho Sundae, Bismarck and George Washington sundaes, to name a few. Various localities have claimed to be the birthplace of the ice cream sundae, including Plainfield, Illinois; New Orleans, Louisiana; Cleveland, Ohio; and New York City. Two Rivers claim is based on the story of George Hallauer asking Edward C. Berners, the owner of Berners' Soda Fountain, to drizzle chocolate syrup over ice cream in 1881. Berners eventually did and wound up selling the treat for a nickel, originally only on


title: Sundae content: Sundays, but later every day. According to this story, the spelling changed when a glass salesman ordered canoe-shaped dishes. When Berners died in 1939, the "Chicago Tribune" headlined his obituary "Man Who Made First Ice Cream Sundae Is Dead". Two Ithaca High School students, however, claim that Berners would have only been 16 or 17 in 1881, so it is therefore "improbable" that he would have owned an ice cream shop in that year. They also state that the obituary dates Berners' first sundae to 1899 rather than 1881. Residents of Two Rivers have contested the claims of other cities


title: Sundae content: to the right to claim the title "birthplace of the ice cream sundae". When Ithaca, New York, mayor Carolyn K. Peterson proclaimed a day to celebrate her city as the birthplace of the sundae, she received postcards from Two Rivers' citizens reiterating that town's claim. Buffalos Stoddart Bros. Drug Store advertised serving up ice cream sodas garnished with fruit syrup and whipped cream in the pages of The Buffalo Evening News and the Buffalo Courier, as early as 1889. Evanston was one of the first locations to pass a blue law against selling ice cream sodas in 1890. "Some ingenious


title: Sundae content: confectioners and drug store operators [in Evanston]... obeying the law, served ice cream with the syrup of your choice without the soda [on Sundays]. Thereby complying with the law… This sodaless soda was the Sunday soda." As sales of the dessert continued on Mondays, local Methodist leaders then objected to naming the dish after the Sabbath, so the spelling of the name was changed to sundae. Supporting Ithacas claim to be "the birthplace of the ice cream sundae", researchers at The History Center in Tompkins County, New York, provide an account of how the sundae came to be: On Sunday,


title: Sundae content: April 3, 1892, in Ithaca, John M. Scott, a Unitarian Church minister, and Chester Platt, co-owner of Platt & Colt Pharmacy, created the first historically documented sundae. Platt covered dishes of ice cream with cherry syrup and candied cherries on a whim. The men named the dish "Cherry Sunday" in honor of the day it was created. The oldest-known written evidence of a sundae is Platt & Colt's newspaper ad for a "Cherry Sunday" placed in the "Ithaca Daily Journal" on April 5, 1892. By May 1892, the Platt & Colt soda fountain also served "Strawberry Sundays" and later, "Chocolate


title: Sundae content: Sundays". Platt & Colt's "Sundays" grew so popular that by 1894, Chester Platt attempted to trademark the term ice cream "Sunday". Plainfield, Illinois has also claimed to be the home of the very first ice cream sundae. A local belief is that a Plainfield druggist named Mr. Sonntag created the dish "after the urgings of patrons to serve something different." He named it the "sonntag" after himself, and since "Sonntag" means Sunday in German, the name was translated to Sunday, and later was spelled sundae. Charles Sonntag established himself as a pharmacist after graduating from pharmacy school in 1890. He


title: Sundae content: worked for several years under the employ of two local druggists, Dr. David W. Jump and F. R. Tobias. Sonntag established his own pharmacy (as early as 1893 and no later than 1895) in a building constructed in the months following a December 1891 fire that devastated one side of the town's business district. His store advertised "Sonntag's Famous Soda" and was, likely, the first soda fountain in the Village of Plainfield. The original sundae consists of vanilla ice cream topped with a flavored sauce or syrup, whipped cream, and a maraschino cherry. Classic sundaes are typically named after flavored


title: Sundae content: syrup employed in the recipe: cherry sundae, chocolate sundae, strawberry sundae, raspberry sundae, etc. The classic sundae is traditionally served in a tulip-shaped, footed glass vase. Due to the long association between the shape of the glass and the dessert, this style of serving dish is generally now known as a sundae glass. This dessert consists of two halves of a banana, sliced lengthwise. The classic banana split consists of strawberry ice cream topped with chocolate syrup, chocolate ice cream topped with crushed pineapple, and vanilla ice cream topped with strawberry syrup. Each scoop is individually garnished with whipped cream


title: Sundae content: and a maraschino cherry. This is a sundae served in a tall glass filled with layers of ice cream, gelatine, and flavorings such as syrups, whipped cream, granola, fresh fruit, and/or liqueurs. This ice cream sundae is served in a large tall glass, consisting of layers of ice cream, jelly, and cream, topped with syrup, nuts, whipped cream, and often a cherry; it is popular in the United Kingdom. Sliced or chopped fruit that has been sugared and let to sit for an hour or more to form a sweet syrup may be substituted for the flavored sauce or syrup


title: Sundae content: of the classic sundae. Fresh fruit sundaes include named variations such as the strawberry, peach, raspberry, blueberry, blackberry, and mixed fruit sundaes. Fresh fruit sundaes are generally served during the summer months, and they are sometimes advertised as specialty offerings in agricultural areas where particular fruits are grown. Jarred fruit products are also available which are made specifically for the preparation of ice cream sundaes, often sweetened and in a thickened flavored juice. Sundaes can also be topped with canned fruits. Heated-sauce sundaes are those in which the flavored sauce or syrup is heated before being poured over the ice


title: Sundae content: cream, creating appealing differences in temperature as well as texture. This sundae features a scoop of vanilla ice cream with chocolate sauce and a scoop of chocolate ice cream with creamy white marshmallow sauce, topped with Spanish peanuts. The Tin Roof Sundae was created in 1916, at the Potter Drug Co., in Potter, Nebraska, owned by pharmacist James Earl Thayer. His son, Harold Dean “Pinky” Thayer, worked in the soda fountain as a teenager, and is credited for inventing the ice cream treat. According to Dr. J.E. Thayer of Sidney, there are two stories of how the sundae got its


title: Sundae content: name. The first is that it was inspired by the tin ceiling in the business; the other is that the stable across the street had a tin roof and that he named it after that. The Tin Roof Sundae can still be enjoyed in Potter, Nebraska, where the Potter Drug Co., now called the Potter Sundry, is still in operation. This is a rich sundae made with brownies, vanilla ice cream, chocolate syrup, peanuts, hot fudge, and whipped cream, often topped with maraschino cherry. If a blondie replaces the brownie, then caramel sauce is used as a topping instead of


title: Sundae content: chocolate sauce. Sundae The sundae () is an ice cream dessert. It typically consists of one or more scoops of ice cream topped with sauce or syrup, and in some cases other toppings including sprinkles, whipped cream, marshmallows, peanuts, maraschino cherries, or other fruits (e.g., bananas and pineapple in a banana split.). According to the "Oxford English Dictionary", the origin of the term "sundae" is obscure; however, it is generally accepted that the spelling "sundae" derives from the English word "Sunday". Among the many stories about the invention of the sundae, a frequent theme is that the ice cream sundae


title: "Dungeness crab" content: Dungeness crab The Dungeness crab, Metacarcinus magister (the naming convention recognized by WoRMS) or Cancer magister (the naming convention recognized by ITIS), is a species of crab that inhabits eelgrass beds and water bottoms on the west coast of North America. It typically grows to across the carapace and is a popular seafood prized for its sweet, moist and tender flesh. Its common name comes from the port of Dungeness, Washington. The carapace widths of mature Dungeness crabs may reach in some areas off the coast of Washington, but are typically under . They are a popular delicacy, and are


title: "Dungeness crab" content: the most commercially important crab in the Pacific Northwest, as well as the western states generally. The annual Dungeness Crab and Seafood Festival is held in Port Angeles, Washington each October. Dungeness crabs have a wide, long, hard shell, which they must periodically moult to grow; this process is called ecdysis. They have five pairs of legs, which are similarly armoured, the foremost pair of which ends in claws the crab uses both as defense and to tear apart large food items. The crab uses its smaller appendages to pass the food particles into its mouth. Once inside the crab's


title: "Dungeness crab" content: stomach, food is further digested by the "gastric mill", a collection of tooth-like structures. "M. magister" prefers to eat clams, other crustaceans and small fish, but is also an effective scavenger. Dungeness crabs can bury themselves completely in the sand if threatened. Mature female crabs generally molt between May and August, and mating occurs immediately after the female has molted and before the new exoskeleton hardens. Males are attracted to potential mates by pheromones present in the urine of females. Upon locating an available female, the male initiates a protective premating embrace that lasts for several days. In this embrace,


title: "Dungeness crab" content: the female is tucked underneath the male, oriented such that their abdomens touch and their heads face each other. Mating occurs only after the female has molted, and the female signals her readiness to molt by urinating on or near the antennae of the male. The female extrudes the eggs from her body several months later; however, they remain attached under her abdomen for three to five months until they hatch. Young crabs are free-swimming after hatching, and go through five larval stages before reaching maturity after about 10 molts or two years. Juvenile crabs develop in eelgrass beds and


title: "Dungeness crab" content: estuaries where salinity levels tend to be low. The hyposaline conditions of the estuaries are lethal to some of the crab's parasites, such as "Carcinonemertes errans" which consumes a brooding female's live eggs"." Dungeness crabs surveyed in Coos Bay were less likely to be infected by "C. errans" and have fewer parasites present on their carapace when inhabiting less saline waters farther inland. The Dungeness crab is named after Dungeness, Washington, which is located approximately north of Sequim and east of Port Angeles. Its typical range extends from Alaska's Aleutian Islands to Point Conception, near Santa Barbara, California, while it


title: "Dungeness crab" content: is occasionally found as far south as Magdalena Bay, Baja California Sur, Mexico. Dungeness crabs have recently been found in the Atlantic Ocean, far from their known range, raising concern about their possible effects on the local wildlife. About one-quarter of the crab's weight is meat. The flesh has what is considered to be a delicate flavour and slightly sweet taste. Dungeness crabs can typically be purchased either live or cooked. Live crabs are cooked simply by dropping them into boiling salt water, waiting for a boil to return, and then allowing it to continue for 15 minutes, after which


title: "Dungeness crab" content: time the crabs are removed and placed into cold water to cool, and then cleaned. Another method of preparing crab is called half backing. Half backing is done by flipping the crab upside down and chopping it in half (from head to "tail"), after which the guts and gills can be scooped or hosed out. Many consider half backing to be superior to cooking the entire crab, because the meat is not contaminated by the flavor or toxins of the guts. Furthermore, half backed crabs boil faster or can be quickly steamed instead of boiled. Two common tools for removing


title: "Dungeness crab" content: crab meat from the shell are a crab cracker and a shrimp fork. Sometimes, a cleaver, mallet, or small hammer is used for cracking Dungeness crab, but the use of these devices is not recommended, as the integrity of the meat may be compromised due to the impact. Seafood Watch has given the Dungeness crab a sustainable seafood rating of 'Good Alternative' to overfished species or fish that is farmed in ways that harm other marine life or the environment. In 2014, 53 million pounds worth $170 million was harvested. In 2009, based on lobbying from schoolchildren at Sunset Primary


title: "Dungeness crab" content: School in West Linn, Oregon, and citing its importance to the Oregon economy, the Oregon Legislative Assembly designated the Dungeness crab as the state crustacean of Oregon. Dungeness crab The Dungeness crab, Metacarcinus magister (the naming convention recognized by WoRMS) or Cancer magister (the naming convention recognized by ITIS), is a species of crab that inhabits eelgrass beds and water bottoms on the west coast of North America. It typically grows to across the carapace and is a popular seafood prized for its sweet, moist and tender flesh. Its common name comes from the port of Dungeness, Washington. The carapace


title: "High Level Bridge" content: and uncomfortable day... Notwithstanding, however, the unfavourable weather dense crowds assembled at every spot in this locality, where a view of the royal carriage could be obtained, and many remained for hours exposed to the weather in order that they might retain the places which at an earlier period of the morning they had secured. The bridge was densely lined with people, and the platform was well covered, though not inconveniently crowded. A profusion of banners were displayed on this elegant and substantial structure, and from nearly all the public and many of the private buildings both in Newcastle and


title: "Zooey Deschanel" content: real chemistry". In December 2009, Deschanel guest-starred in a Christmas episode of the Fox crime procedural comedy-drama "Bones", which was the first-ever on-screen pairing of the Deschanel sisters. Deschanel starred in the comedy "Our Idiot Brother" (2011) as the independent and bisexual sister of a dimwitted but idealistic man (Paul Rudd). The production was screened at the Sundance Film Festival, to a generally positive critical reception. She played Belladonna in the stoner fantasy-comedy "Your Highness" (2011), with Danny McBride and James Franco. The film received negative reviews and bombed at the box office. Describing her role, Roger Ebert noted in


title: "Bombardier Challenger 600 series" content: Bombardier Challenger 600 series The Bombardier Challenger 600 series is a family of business jets. It was first produced by Canadair (as an independent company), and then produced from 1986 by Canadair as a division of Bombardier Aerospace. As of December 2017, close to 1,100 Challenger 600 Series have been delivered. Including the Challenger 300 and Challenger 850, the 1,600 Bombardier Challengers in-service had logged 7.3 million hours and over 4.3 million flights by early 2017. Circa 1974, Bill Lear conceptualised the LearStar 600 business jet powered by Garrett TFE731-1s. As Lear lacked the capabilities to launch it, Canadair backed


title: "Bombardier Challenger 600 series" content: it at the end of 1975. Canadair evolved the design to a large airframe with a new supercritical wing, new avionics and engines, for new FAR part 25 standards: an ambitious task. In April 1976, Canadair acquired the long and wide LearStar 600 concept: the most attractive Mach 0.85, range executive jet for 14 passengers, then a freighter for a 3,400 kg (7,500 lbs) payload with a front door, or a less interesting commuter airliner for 30 passengers in 2-1 seating. The configuration was frozen in August and a 1/25 model was tested in the National Aeronautical Establishment transonic wind


title: "Bombardier Challenger 600 series" content: tunnel. Backed by the Federal Government, the programme was launched on 29 October 1976 with firm orders and deposits for 53 aircraft. After disagreements, Bill Lear was phased out and in March 1977 it was renamed the Challenger 600. The original conventional tailplane was in the engine exhaust path and it was changed for a T-tail. The wide cargo door was designed for FedEx, the launch customer with an order for 25. As FedEx had problems with the General Electric CF34s, they favoured the Lycoming ALF 502D but those later had delivery troubles and lacked performance. By 1977 spring, Canadair


title: "Bombardier Challenger 600 series" content: had over 70 firm orders and began constructing three prototypes. FedEx cancelled its orders due to the US Airline Deregulation Act, and the specific aircraft already in production were sold to other customers. A full-scale fuselage mockup was shown at the 1977 Paris Air Show before a European and North American tour and 106 had been sold by 1977 end. Airframe structural testing began in February 1979 and operational test cycling started in December 1979, simulating 72,638 flight hours by February 1985 while predicted lifetime was 30,000 hours. By early March 1978, the first prototype was almost finished and the


title: "Bombardier Challenger 600 series" content: assembly of the two other had debuted. as 116 orders were confirmed 19 months after go-ahead, it was formally rolled out on 25 May 1978, destined to control handling qualities and test flight performance. The flight test and certification program would be conducted at Mojave Kern County Airport instead of Canada due to better conditions. On 8 November 1978, the prototype aircraft took off from Montreal, Quebec. The second and third prototypes flew in 1979. A test flight on 3 April 1980 in the Mojave Desert resulted in disaster, the aircraft crashing due to the failure of the release mechanism


title: "Bombardier Challenger 600 series" content: to detach the recovery chute after a deep stall, killing one of the test pilots (the other test pilot and the flight test engineer parachuted to safety). Despite the crash, both Transport Canada and the Federal Aviation Administration in the United States certified the aircraft in 1980, albeit with restrictions to pilots including a limited maximum takeoff weight. A program to reduce the aircraft's weight was then implemented to improve the aircraft's range. The name LearStar was not new to this concept, since Bill Lear had long before used the name for his conversion of Lockheed Lodestars into business transports.


title: "Bombardier Challenger 600 series" content: Canadair's top management was of the opinion that Lear's concept was sketchy at best. Lear did not have an expert grasp of aeronautical engineering. Thus, he had only been able to pay a California aeronautical consultant to do some very preliminary design explorations. However, Canadair planned to use Lear's name and skills at self-promotion to secure extensive financial guarantees for a business jet project from the Canadian Federal government. This proved an effective choice: future Prime Minister Jean Chrétien specifically refers to the effect of personal contact with Lear on his decision to direct financial support to Canadair's program. At


title: "Bombardier Challenger 600 series" content: the time of these events, Chrétien was successively President of the Treasury Board, Minister of Industry, Trade and Commerce, and Minister of Finance, in the Canadian Federal government. Due to the use of letters of comfort, the extent of the Ministry's financial commitments for Canadair could be kept from parliament and the public for several years. These financial guarantees were later used as an academic example of insufficient monitoring and lax controls in government support of industry. The cabin has a forward galley, two seating sections: typically a four-chair club section then conference grouping or divans and an aft lavatory.


title: "Bombardier Challenger 600 series" content: While the Challenger is generally similar in configuration to previous aircraft of its type, some of its features stand out; for example, the use of a widened fuselage that allows a "walk-about cabin". The Challenger was also one of the first bizjets designed with a supercritical wing. Challengers can be identified visually by their distinctive double slotted hinged flap design, where the fairings can be seen below the wings, a sight much more common on commercial airliners. Built from 1996 through 2006, over 360 were delivered, early ones were selling for $4.0-$4.5 million and late models for less than $8


title: "Bombardier Challenger 600 series" content: million in 2016. With BOWs, it carries 6 to 7 passengers and full fuel with the increased MTOW, is able to cruise 7.5-8.0 hr at Mach 0.80 and to fly five passengers 4,000 nm at Mach 0.74 up to FL 410. Thrust lapse as altitude increases, hefty power and wing loadings affects hot-and-high performance: it takes off in for under missions, in at MTOW and sea level but in at ISA+20C and altitudes, and TOW is reduced to to meet climb requirements. Pro Line 4 avionics include six CRTs and dual FMS. It burns in the first hour, in the


title: "Bombardier Challenger 600 series" content: second hour, in the third hour then /hr. Scheduled maintenance is done every 200 h or six months and major inspections every 96 months includes $110,000 landing gear overhauls, the CF34-3B turbofans costs $375 per engine per hour. The 605 and 650 improve the avionics and cabin but their performance are similar to the 604. The 500th was rolled out in May 2000. The 1000th, a 650, was delivered to NetJets in December 2015. By October 2018, the global fleet amounted to 997: 611 in North America, 151 in Europe, 93 in Latin America, 78 in Asia-Pacific, 37 in Africa


title: "Bombardier Challenger 600 series" content: and 23 in Middle East. By March 2018, the Challenger fleet suffered 18 hull losses including nine causing 26 fatalities, the worst with 11 fatalities was the latest on 11 March 2018 when TC-TRB, a Challenger 604 crashed near Shahr-e Kord in Iran. Bombardier Challenger 600 series The Bombardier Challenger 600 series is a family of business jets. It was first produced by Canadair (as an independent company), and then produced from 1986 by Canadair as a division of Bombardier Aerospace. As of December 2017, close to 1,100 Challenger 600 Series have been delivered. Including the Challenger 300 and Challenger


title: "Parque del Buen Retiro, Madrid" content: Parque del Buen Retiro, Madrid The Buen Retiro Park (Spanish: "Parque del Buen Retiro", literally "Park of the Pleasant Retreat", or simply "El Retiro") is one of the largest parks of the city of Madrid, Spain. The park belonged to the Spanish Monarchy until the late 19th century, when it became a public park. The Buen Retiro Park is a large and popular park at the edge of the city centre, very close to the Puerta de Alcalá and not far from the Prado Museum. A magnificent park, filled with beautiful sculptures and monuments, galleries, a peaceful lake, and a


title: "Parque del Buen Retiro, Madrid" content: host to a variety of events, it is one of Madrid's premier attractions. The park is entirely surrounded by the present-day city. In 1505, at the time of Isabella I (r. 1474–1504) the Jeronimos monastery was moved from an unsuitable location elsewhere to the present site of San Jeronimo el Real Church, and a new monastery built in Isabelline Gothic style. The royal family had a retreat built as part of the church. King Philip II (r. 1556–1598) moved the Spanish court to Madrid in 1561. Philip had the Retiro enlarged by his architect Juan Bautista de Toledo, and formal


title: "Parque del Buen Retiro, Madrid" content: avenues of trees were laid out. The gardens were extended in the 1620s, when Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares, Philip IV's powerful favourite, gave the king several tracts of land in the vicinity for the Court's recreational use. Olivares determined to build, in a place that the king liked, a royal house which should be superior to those villas that Roman nobles had been setting up in the hilly outskirts of Rome during the previous century. Although this second royal residence was to be built in what were then outlying areas of Madrid, it was actually not far from


title: "Parque del Buen Retiro, Madrid" content: the existing Alcázar or fortress residence, and the location in a cool, wooded area proved to be ideal. In the 1630s, under the supervision of architects Giovanni Battista Crescenzi and Alonso Carbonell, several buildings were erected in great haste, two of which are still standing: the "Casón del Buen Retiro" which served as a ballroom, and the "Salón de Reinos" (Hall of Kingdoms), its wall decorated with paintings by Velázquez and Zurbarán and frescoes by Luca Giordano. The Count-Duke of Olivares commissioned the park in the 1630s, worked on by Cosimo Lotti, a garden designer who had worked under Bernardo


title: "Parque del Buen Retiro, Madrid" content: Buontalenti on the layout of the Boboli Gardens for Cosimo I, Grand Duke of Tuscany. Water was a distinguishing trait of the garden from the outset: the great pond, "Estanque del Retiro", which served as the setting for mock naval battles and other aquatic displays, the great canal, the narrow channel, the chamfered or bellflower pond, created —along with the chapels— the basic layout of the gardens. Buen Retiro was described as ""The world art wonder of the time"", probably the last great creation of the Renaissance in Spain. Buen Retiro became the center of Habsburg court life at a