title: "Hypericum perforatum" content: Europe. The common name "St John's wort" may be used to refer to any species of the genus "Hypericum". Therefore, "Hypericum perforatum" is sometimes called "common St John's wort" or "perforate St John's wort" to differentiate it. The common name "St John's wort" comes from its traditional flowering and harvesting on St John's Day, 24 June. The genus name "Hypericum" is possibly derived from the Greek words "hyper" (above) and "eikon" (picture), in reference to the tradition of hanging plants over religious icons in the home during St John's Day, to ward off evil. "Hypericum perforatum" is native to temperate


title: "Hypericum perforatum" content: parts of Europe and Asia, but has spread to temperate regions worldwide as a cosmopolitan invasive weed. It was introduced to North America from Europe. The flower occurs in prairies, pastures, and disturbed fields. It prefers sandy soils. St John's wort reproduces both vegetatively and sexually. It thrives in areas with either a winter- or summer-dominant rainfall pattern; however, distribution is restricted by temperatures too low for seed germination or seedling survival. Altitudes greater than 1500 m, rainfall less than 500 mm, and a daily mean temperature greater than 24 °C are considered limiting thresholds. Depending on environmental and climatic


title: "Hypericum perforatum" content: conditions, and rosette age, St John's wort will alter growth form and habit to promote survival. Summer rains are particularly effective in allowing the plant to grow vegetatively, following defoliation by insects or grazing. The seeds can persist for decades in the soil seed bank, germinating following disturbance. Although "Hypericum perforatum" is grown commercially in some regions of south east Europe, it is listed as a noxious weed in more than twenty countries and has introduced populations in South and North America, India, New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa. In pastures, St John's wort acts as both a toxic and


title: "Hypericum perforatum" content: invasive weed. It replaces native plant communities and forage vegetation to the extent of making productive land nonviable or becoming an invasive species in natural habitats and ecosystems. Ingestion by livestock such as horses, sheep, and cattle can cause photosensitization, central nervous system depression, spontaneous abortion or death. Effective herbicides for control of "Hypericum" include 2,4-D, picloram, and glyphosate. In western North America three beetles "Chrysolina quadrigemina", "Chrysolina hyperici" and "Agrilus hyperici" have been introduced as biocontrol agents. Common St. John's wort has long been used in herbalism and folk medicine. It was thought to have medical properties in classical


title: "Hypericum perforatum" content: antiquity and was a standard component of theriacs, from the Mithridate of Aulus Cornelius Celsus' "De Medicina" (ca. 30 CE) to the Venice treacle of "d'Amsterdammer Apotheek" in 1686. Folk usages included oily extract ("St. John's oil") and "Hypericum" snaps. "Hypericum perforatum" is a common species and is grown commercially for use in herbalism and traditional medicine. The red, oily extract of "H. perforatum" has been used in the treatment of wounds for millennia, including by the Knights Hospitaller, the Order of St John, after battles in the Crusades, which is most likely where the name came from. Both hypericin


title: "Hypericum perforatum" content: and hyperforin are under study for their potential antibiotic properties. Some studies have supported the efficacy of St John's wort as a treatment for depression in humans, but have not concluded it as a replacement for more studied treatments, and proper medical consultation. A 2015 meta-analysis review concluded that it has superior efficacy to placebo in treating depression, is as effective as standard antidepressant pharmaceuticals for treating depression, and has fewer adverse effects than other antidepressants. The authors concluded that it is difficult to assign a place for St. John's wort in the treatment of depression owing to limitations in


title: "Hypericum perforatum" content: the available evidence base, including large variations in efficacy seen in trials performed in German-speaking relative to other countries. In Germany, St. John's wort may be prescribed for mild to moderate depression, especially in children and adolescents. A 2008 Cochrane review of 29 clinical trials concluded that it was superior to placebo in patients with major depression, as effective as standard antidepressants and had fewer side-effects. In the United States, St John's wort is considered a dietary supplement by the FDA, and is not regulated by the same standards as a prescription drug. According to the United States National Center


title: "Hypericum perforatum" content: for Complementary and Integrative Health, "St. John’s wort isn’t consistently effective for depression." Supplement strength varies by manufacturer and possibly by batch. A 2016 review noted that use of St. John's wort for mild and moderate depression was better than placebo for improving depression symptoms, and comparable to antidepressant medication. In September 2016, ConsumerLab.com tested ten brands of St John's Wort supplements for levels of hypericin or hyperforin, and the presence of heavy metals, finding considerable variability in composition, with some products not containing any hypericin or hyperforin. St. John's wort can interact in dangerous, sometimes life-threatening ways with a


title: "Hypericum perforatum" content: variety of prescribed medicines. St John's wort is generally well tolerated, but may cause gastrointestinal discomfort (such as nausea, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, and diarrhea), dizziness, confusion, fatigue, sedation, dry mouth, restlessness, and headache. The organ systems associated with adverse drug reactions to St John's wort and fluoxetine (an SSRI) have a similar incidence profile; most of these reactions involve the central nervous system. St John's wort also decreases the levels of estrogens, such as estradiol, by accelerating its metabolism, and should not be taken by women on contraceptive pills. St John's wort may cause photosensitivity. This can lead


title: "Hypericum perforatum" content: to visual sensitivity to visible and ultraviolet light and to sunburns in situations that would not normally cause them. St. John's wort can interfere with the effects of many prescription medicines, including birth control pills, cyclosporine, digoxin, HIV drugs, cancer medications including irinotecan, and warfarin. Combining both St John's wort and antidepressants could lead to increased serotonin levels causing serotonin syndrome. It should not be taken with the heart medication, ranolazine. Combining estrogen containing oral contraceptives with St John's wort can lead to decreased efficacy of the contraceptive and eventually unplanned pregnancies. Consumption of St. John's wort is discouraged for


title: "Hypericum perforatum" content: those with bipolar disorder. There is concern that people with bipolar depression taking St. John's wort may be at a higher risk for mania. St John's wort has been shown to cause multiple drug interactions through induction of the cytochrome P450 enzymes CYP3A4 and CYP1A2. This drug-metabolizing enzyme induction results in the increased metabolism of certain drugs, leading to decreased plasma concentration and potential clinical effect. The principal constituents thought to be responsible are hyperforin and amentoflavone. There is strong evidence that the mechanism of action of these interactions is activation of the pregnane X receptor. St John's wort has


title: "Hypericum perforatum" content: also been shown to cause drug interactions through the induction of the P-glycoprotein efflux transporter. Increased P-glycoprotein expression results in decreased absorption and increased clearance of certain drugs, leading to lower plasma concentrations and impaired clinical efficacy. For a complete list, see CYP3A4 ligands and CYP2C9 ligands. St. John's wort, similarly to other herbs, contains different chemical constituents. Notes: In large doses, St John's wort is poisonous to grazing livestock (cattle, sheep, goats, horses). Behavioural signs of poisoning are general restlessness and skin irritation. Restlessness is often indicated by pawing of the ground, headshaking, head rubbing, and occasional hindlimb weakness


title: "Hypericum perforatum" content: with knuckling over, panting, confusion, and depression. Mania and hyperactivity may also result, including running in circles until exhausted. Observations of thick wort infestations by Australian graziers include the appearance of circular patches giving hillsides a 'crop circle' appearance, it is presumed, from this phenomenon. Animals typically seek shade and have reduced appetite. Hypersensitivity to water has been noted, and convulsions may occur following a knock to the head. Although general aversion to water is noted, some may seek water for relief. Severe skin irritation is physically apparent, with reddening of non-pigmented and unprotected areas. This subsequently leads to itch


title: "Hypericum perforatum" content: and rubbing, followed by further inflammation, exudation, and scab formation. Lesions and inflammation that occur are said to resemble the conditions seen in foot and mouth disease. Sheep have been observed to have face swelling, dermatitis, and wool falling off due to rubbing. Lactating animals may cease or have reduced milk production; pregnant animals may abort. Lesions on udders are often apparent. Horses may show signs of anorexia, depression (with a comatose state), dilated pupils, and injected conjunctiva. Increased respiration and heart rate is typically observed while one of the early signs of St John's wort poisoning is an abnormal


title: "Hypericum perforatum" content: increase in body temperature. Affected animals will lose weight, or fail to gain weight; young animals are more affected than old animals. In severe cases death may occur, as a direct result of starvation, or because of secondary disease or septicaemia of lesions. Some affected animals may accidentally drown. Poor performance of suckling lambs (pigmented and non-pigmented) has been noted, suggesting a reduction in the milk production, or the transmission of a toxin in the milk. Most clinical signs in animals are caused by photosensitisation. Plants may induce either primary or secondary photosensitisation: Araya and Ford (1981) explored changes in


title: "Hypericum perforatum" content: liver function and concluded there was no evidence of "Hypericum"-related effect on the excretory capacity of the liver, or any interference was minimal and temporary. However, evidence of liver damage in blood plasma has been found at high and long rates of dosage. Photosensitisation causes skin inflammation by a mechanism involving a pigment or photodynamic compound, which when activated by a certain wavelength of light leads to oxidation reactions "in vivo". This leads to tissue lesions, particularly noticeable on and around parts of skin exposed to light. Lightly covered or poorly pigmented areas are most conspicuous. Removal of affected animals


title: "Hypericum perforatum" content: from sunlight results in reduced symptoms of poisoning. Hypericin, pseudohypericin, and hyperforin may be quantitated in plasma as confirmation of usage and to estimate the dosage. These three active substituents have plasma elimination half-lives within a range of 15–60 hours in humans. None of the three has been detected in urine specimens. The plant contains the following: The naphthodianthrones hypericin and pseudohypericin along with the phloroglucinol derivative hyperforin are thought to be among the numerous active constituents. It also contains essential oils composed mainly of sesquiterpenes. A major constituent chemical, hyperforin, may be useful for treatment of alcoholism, although dosage,


title: "Hypericum perforatum" content: safety and efficacy have not been studied. Hyperforin has also displayed antibacterial properties against Gram-positive bacteria, although dosage, safety and efficacy have not been studied. Herbal medicine has also employed lipophilic extracts from St John's wort as a topical remedy for wounds, abrasions, burns, and muscle pain. The positive effects that have been observed are generally attributed to hyperforin due to its possible antibacterial and anti-inflammatory effects. For this reason hyperforin may be useful in the treatment of infected wounds and inflammatory skin diseases. In response to hyperforin's incorporation into a new bath oil, a study to assess potential skin


title: "Hypericum perforatum" content: irritation was conducted which found good skin tolerance of St John's wort. Hypericum perforatum Hypericum perforatum, known as perforate St John's-wort, common Saint John's wort and St John's wort, is a flowering plant in the family Hypericaceae. Although used as a medicinal herb with possible antidepressant activity, high-quality clinical evidence for such effects is limited. The plant is poisonous to livestock. The primary phytochemical constituent of St John's wort is hyperforin. Perforate St John's wort is a herbaceous perennial plant with extensive, creeping rhizomes. Its reddish stems are erect and branched in the upper section, and can grow up to


title: "Red-throated loon" content: Red-throated loon The red-throated loon (North America) or red-throated diver (Britain and Ireland) ("Gavia stellata") is a migratory aquatic bird found in the northern hemisphere. The most widely distributed member of the loon or diver family, it breeds primarily in Arctic regions, and winters in northern coastal waters. Ranging from in length, the red-throated loon is the smallest and lightest of the world's loons. In winter, it is a nondescript bird, greyish above fading to white below. During the breeding season, it acquires the distinctive reddish throat patch which is the basis for its common name. Fish form the bulk


title: "Red-throated loon" content: of its diet, though amphibians, invertebrates, and plant material are sometimes eaten as well. A monogamous species, the red-throated loon forms long-term pair bonds. Both members of the pair help to build the nest, incubate the eggs (generally two per clutch), and feed the hatched young. The red-throated loon has a large global population and a significant global range, though some populations are declining. Oil spills, habitat degradation, pollution, and fishing nets are among the major threats this species faces. Natural predators—including various gull species, and both red and Arctic foxes, will take eggs and young. The species is protected


title: "Red-throated loon" content: by international treaties. First described by Danish naturalist Erik Pontoppidan in 1763, the red-throated loon is a monotypic species, with no distinctive subspecies despite its large Holarctic range. Pontoppidan initially placed the species in the now-defunct genus "Colymbus", which contained grebes as well as loons. By 1788, German naturalist Johann Reinhold Forster realized that grebes and loons were different enough to warrant separate genera, and moved the red-throated loon (along with all other loon species) to its present genus. Its relationship to the four other loons is complex; although all belong to the same genus, it differs from the others


title: "Red-throated loon" content: in terms of morphology, behaviour, ecology and breeding biology and may be the basal lineage of the genus. It is thought to have evolved in the Palearctic, and then to have expanded into the Nearctic. Analysis of molecular data together with the fossil record suggests the lineage of the red-throated loon diverged from that giving rise to the other loon species around 21.4 million years ago in the Miocene. It is also most closely related to the fossil Pliocene species "Gavia howardae". The genus name "Gavia" comes from the Latin for "sea mew", as used by ancient Roman naturalist Pliny


title: "Red-throated loon" content: the Elder. The specific epithet "stellata" is Latin for "set with stars" or "starry", and refers to the bird's speckled back in its non-breeding plumage. Members of the family Gavidae are known as "loons" in North America and "divers" in Great Britain and Ireland. The International Ornithological Congress uses the name "red-throated loon" for this species. "Diver" refers to the family's underwater method of hunting for prey, while "red-throated" is a straightforward reference to the bird's most distinctive breeding plumage feature. The word "loon" is thought to have derived from the Swedish "lom", the Old Norse or Icelandic "lómr", or


title: "Red-throated loon" content: the Old Dutch "loen", all of which mean "lame" or "clumsy", and is a probable reference to the difficulty that all loons have in moving about on land. A local name from Willapa Harbor, Washington was "Quaker loon". Like the other members of its genus, the red-throated loon is well adapted to its aquatic environment: its dense bones help it to submerge, its legs—in their set-back position—provide excellent propulsion, and its body is long and streamlined. Even its sharply pointed bill may help its underwater streamlining. Its feet are large, its front three toes are fully webbed, and its tarsus


title: "Red-throated loon" content: is flattened, which reduces drag and allows the leg to move easily through the water. The red-throated loon is the smallest and lightest of the world's loon species, ranging from in length with a wingspan, and weighing . Like all loons, it is long-bodied and short-necked, with its legs set far back on its body. The sexes are similar in appearance, although males tend to be slightly larger and heavier than females. In breeding plumage, the adult has a dark grey head and neck (with narrow black and white stripes on the back of the neck), a triangular red throat


title: "Red-throated loon" content: patch, white underparts, and a dark grey-brown mantle. It is the only loon with an all-dark back in breeding plumage. The non-breeding plumage is drabber with the chin, foreneck, and much of the face white, the top of the head and back of the neck grey, and considerable white speckling on the dark mantle. Its iris is carmine-red to burgundy in color, its legs are black on the outer half and pale on the inner half, and the webs of its feet are pinkish-brown, with darker margins. Its bill is thin, straight, and sharp, and often held at an uptilted


title: "Red-throated loon" content: angle. One of the bird's North American folk names is pegging-awl loon, a reference to its sharply pointed bill, which resembles a sailmaker's awl (a tool also known as a "pegging awl" in New England). Though the colour of the bill changes from black in summer to pale grey in winter, the timing of the colour change does not necessarily correspond to that of the bird's overall plumage change. The nostrils are narrow slits located near the base of the bill. When it first emerges from its egg, the young red-throated loon is covered with fine soft down feathers. Primarily


title: "Red-throated loon" content: dark brown to dark grey above, it is slightly paler on the sides of its head and neck, as well as on its throat, chest, and flanks, with a pale grey lower breast and belly. Within weeks, this first down is replaced by a second, paler set of down feathers, which are in turn replaced by developing juvenile feathers. The juvenile's plumage is similar to that of the adult, though with a few distinguishing features. It has a darker forehead and neck, with heavy speckling on the sides of the neck and the throat. Its back is browner and less


title: "Red-throated loon" content: speckled, and its underparts are tinged with brown. Its eyes are reddish-brown, and its beak is a pale grey. Though some young birds hold this plumage until mid-winter, many quickly become virtually indistinguishable from adults, except for their paler bills. In flight, the red-throated loon has a distinctive profile; its small feet do not project far past the end of its body, its head and neck droop below the horizontal (giving the flying bird a distinctly hunchbacked shape) and its thin wings are angled back. It has a quicker, deeper wingbeat than do other loons. The adult red-throated loon has


title: "Red-throated loon" content: a number of vocalisations, which are used in different circumstances. In flight, when passing conspecifics or circling its own pond, it gives a series of rapid yet rhythmic goose-like cackles—"kaa-kaa-kaa" or "kak-kak-kak", at roughly five calls per second. Its warning call, if disturbed by humans or onshore predators, is a short croaking bark. A low-pitched moaning call, used primarily as a contact call between mates and between parents and young, but also during copulation, is made with the bill closed. The species also has a short wailing call—"aarOOao...aarOOao..."—which descends slightly in pitch and lasts about a second; due to strong


title: "Red-throated loon" content: harmonics surrounding the primary pitch, this meowing call is more musical than its other calls. Another call—a harsh, pulsed cooing that rises and falls in pitch, and is typically repeated up to 10 times in a row—is used in territorial encounters and pair-bonding, and by parent birds encouraging their young to move on land between bodies of water. Known as the "long call", it is often given in duet, which is unusual among the loons; the female's contribution is longer and softer than her mate's. Young have a shrill closed-bill call, which they use in begging and to contact their


title: "Red-throated loon" content: parents. They also have a long call used in response to (and similar to that of) the long call of adults. At medium to close range, an adult red-throated loon in either breeding or non-breeding plumage is usually easily recognised. However, in certain light conditions, at certain times in its moulting cycle, or at greater distances, it may be mistaken for another species—most commonly the black-throated loon, but also occasionally the great crested grebe. It shows more white on the head and neck than does the black-throated loon, and—provided it is not sitting low in the water—tends to show more


title: "Red-throated loon" content: white on the flanks as well. If it is sitting lower in the water, so that the white on the flanks is reduced to a patch on the rear flank (thus resembling the pattern of the black-throated loon), that patch tends to be less clearly defined than the comparative patch on the black-throated. The red-throated loon breeds primarily in the Arctic regions of northern Eurasia and North America (generally north of 50°N latitude), and winters in northern coastal waters, sometimes in groups of considerable size. More than 4,400 spend the winter in a loose concentration on the eastern part of


title: "Red-throated loon" content: the German Bight, for example. Unlike other loons, it regularly uses very small freshwater lakes as breeding sites. Its small size renders it more versatile, but it is less able to feed on deeper prey. The increase in size and diversity of the remaining species of loons suggests that the benefits of larger size outweigh the limitations. In North America, it winters regularly along both coasts, ranging as far south as the Baja California Peninsula and the Gulf of California in north-western Mexico; it has been recorded as a vagrant in the interior Mexican state of Hidalgo. Some of its


title: "Red-throated loon" content: folk names in north-eastern North America—including cape race, cape brace, cape drake and cape racer, as well as corruptions such as scapegrace—originated from its abundance around Cape Race, Newfoundland. In Europe, it breeds in Iceland, northern Scotland, north-western Ireland (a few pairs only), Scandinavia and northern Russia, and winters along the coast as far south as parts of Spain; it also regularly occurs along major inland waterways, including the Mediterranean, Aegean and Black Seas, as well as large rivers, lakes and reservoirs. It has occurred as a vagrant as far south as Morocco, Tunisia and the Gambia. In Asia, it


title: "Red-throated loon" content: breeds in the northern stretches of Siberia, and winters along the Pacific coast as far south as China, Japan and Taiwan. It has occurred as a vagrant in Mongolia. Because its feet are located so far back on its body, the red-throated loon is quite clumsy walking on land, but it can use its feet to shove itself forward on its breast. Young use this method of covering ground when moving from their breeding pools to larger bodies of water, including rivers and the sea. It is the only species of loon able to take off directly from land. If


title: "Red-throated loon" content: frightened, it may submerge until only its head or bill shows above the surface of the water. The red-throated loon is a diurnal migrant, which travels singly or in loose groups, often high above the water. In eastern North America (and possibly elsewhere), it tends to migrate near the coast rather than farther offshore; Siberian populations travel for hundreds of miles over land en route to their southern European wintering grounds. It is a strong flier, and has been clocked at speeds between . Like all members of its family, the red-throated loon goes through a simultaneous wing moult, losing


title: "Red-throated loon" content: all its flight feathers at once and becoming flightless for a period of three to four weeks. Unlike other loons—which undergo this moult in late winter—the red-throated loon loses its ability to fly sometime between late summer and late autumn. Like all members of its family, the red-throated loon is primarily a fish-eater, though it sometimes feeds on molluscs, crustaceans, frogs, aquatic invertebrates, insects, fish spawn or even plant material. It seizes rather than spears its prey, which is generally captured underwater. Though it normally dives and swims using only its feet for propulsion, it may use its wings as


title: "Red-throated loon" content: well if it needs to turn or accelerate quickly. Pursuit dives range from in depth, with an average underwater time of about a minute. Its fish diet increases the red-throated loon's vulnerability to persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals, both of which bioaccumulate, thus potentially causing greater problems for long-lived species (such as the loon) at or near the top of the food chain. Its main diet has also led to several of the loon's British folk names, including "sprat borer" and "spratoon". For the first few days after hatching, young red-throated loons are fed aquatic insects and small crustaceans


title: "Red-throated loon" content: by both parents. After 3–4 days, the parents switch to fish small enough for the young birds to swallow whole. By four weeks of age, the young can eat the same food—of the same size—as their parents do. Young birds may be fed for some time after fledging; adults have been seen feeding fish to juveniles at sea and on inland lakes in the United Kingdom, hundreds of kilometres from any breeding areas. The red-throated loon is a monogamous species which forms long-term pair bonds. Both sexes build the nest, which is a shallow scrape (or occasionally a platform of


title: "Red-throated loon" content: mud and vegetation) lined with vegetation and sometimes a few feathers, and placed within a half-metre (18 in) of the edge of a small pond. The female lays two eggs (though clutches of one and three have also been recorded); they are incubated for 24–29 days, primarily by the female. The eggs, which are greenish or olive-brownish spotted with black, measure and have a mass of , of which 8% is shell. Incubation is begun as soon as the first egg is laid, so they hatch asynchronously. If a clutch is lost (to predation or flooding, for example) before the


title: "Red-throated loon" content: young hatch, the red-throated loon usually lays a second clutch, generally in a new nest. The young birds are precocial upon hatching: downy and mobile with open eyes. Both parents feed them small aquatic invertebrates initially, then small fish for 38–48 days. Parents will perform distraction displays to lure predators away from the nest and young. Ornithologists disagree as to whether adults carry young on their backs while swimming with some maintaining that they do and others the opposite. In the wild, the oldest known red-throated loon lived for more than two decades; it was found, oiled and dead, on


title: "Red-throated loon" content: a beach in Sweden 23 years and 7 months after it had been ringed (banded). Although the red-throated loon is not a globally threatened species, as it has a large population and a significant range, there are populations which appear to be declining. Numbers counted in U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service surveys in Alaska show a 53% population decline between 1971 and 1993, for example, and survey count numbers have dropped in continental Europe as well. In Scotland, on the other hand, the population increased by some 16% between 1994 and 2006, according to surveys done by the Royal Society


title: "Red-throated loon" content: for the Protection of Birds and Scottish Natural Heritage. In 2002, Wetlands International estimated a global population of 490,000 to 1,500,000 individuals; global population trends have not been quantified. The red-throated loon is one of the species to which the "Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds" (AEWA) applies; in the Americas, it is protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918. Oil spills, habitat degradation, and fishing nets are among the main threats this species faces. Because it tends to migrate close to shore—generally within of land—it may be detrimentally affected by the construction of near-shore wind


title: "Red-throated loon" content: farms; studies indicate a high level of avoidance of wind farm areas, though deaths due to direct strikes with the turbines appear to be uncommon. High levels of mercury in the environment have led to reproductive failures in some areas, including parts of Sweden. Studies in Sweden have also shown that they may be adversely impacted by the acidification of lakes, as the fish on which they prey are susceptible to low pH. On the breeding grounds, Arctic and red foxes are major predators of eggs, while great skuas, Arctic skuas and various species of "Larus" gulls (including great black-backed


title: "Red-throated loon" content: gulls and glaucous gulls) are predators of both eggs and young. The species is known to serve as host for at least 51 species of parasites, most of which are roundworms (nematodes), flatworms (digeneans) and tapeworms (cestodes) carried internally; a single species of louse is its only known external parasite. It is also known to sometimes carry significant populations of diatoms (microscopic phytoplankton) on its contour feathers. The red-throated loon is susceptible to avian influenza and Type E botulism, and is regularly killed by the ingestion of neurotoxins produced by "red tide" algal blooms. During a 2007 bloom, large numbers


title: "Red-throated loon" content: of the birds also died of hypothermia, after their plumages became matted by a protein byproduct of the algae, which reduced the insulating properties of their feathers. Used as a food source since prehistoric times, the red-throated loon is still hunted by indigenous peoples in some parts of the world today. Eggs as well as birds are taken, sometimes in significant numbers; during one study on northern Canada's Igloolik Island, 73% of all red-throated loon eggs laid within the 10 km (3.9 mi) study site over two breeding seasons were collected by indigenous inhabitants of the island. In some parts


title: "Red-throated loon" content: of Russia, red-throated loon skins were traditionally used to make caps and various clothing decorations, including collars. The species was also central to the creation mythologies of indigenous groups throughout the Holarctic. According to the myth—which varies only slightly between versions, despite the sometimes-vast distances that separated the groups who believed it—the loon was asked by a great shaman to bring up earth from the bottom of the sea. That earth was then used to build the world's dry land. As recently as the 1800s, the behaviour of the red-throated loon was used to forecast the weather; according to the


title: "Red-throated loon" content: conventional wisdom of the time, birds flying inland or giving short cries predicted good weather, while those flying out to sea or giving long, wailing cries predicted rain. In the Orkney and Shetland islands of Scotland, the species is still known as the "rain goose" in deference to its supposed weather-predicting capabilities. The people of the Faroe Islands believed that if the red-throated loon miaowed like a cat, then rain was imminent, while a call of "gaa-gaa-gaa" or "turkatrae-turkatrae" predicted fine weather. Bhutan, Japan, Åland (an autonomous region of Finland), and the Union of the Comoros have issued stamps featuring


title: "Red-throated loon" content: the red-throated loon. Red-throated loon The red-throated loon (North America) or red-throated diver (Britain and Ireland) ("Gavia stellata") is a migratory aquatic bird found in the northern hemisphere. The most widely distributed member of the loon or diver family, it breeds primarily in Arctic regions, and winters in northern coastal waters. Ranging from in length, the red-throated loon is the smallest and lightest of the world's loons. In winter, it is a nondescript bird, greyish above fading to white below. During the breeding season, it acquires the distinctive reddish throat patch which is the basis for its common name. Fish


title: Frigatebird content: Frigatebird Frigatebirds (also listed as "frigate bird", "frigate-bird", "frigate", frigate-petrel") are a family of seabirds called Fregatidae which are found across all tropical and subtropical oceans. The five extant species are classified in a single genus, Fregata. All have predominantly black plumage, long, deeply forked tails and long hooked bills. Females have white underbellies and males have a distinctive red gular pouch, which they inflate during the breeding season to attract females. Their wings are long and pointed and can span up to , the largest wing area to body weight ratio of any bird. Able to soar for weeks


title: Frigatebird content: on wind currents, frigatebirds spend most of the day in flight hunting for food, and roost on trees or cliffs at night. Their main prey are fish and squid, caught when chased to the water surface by large predators such as tuna. Frigatebirds are referred to as kleptoparasites as they occasionally rob other seabirds for food, and are known to snatch seabird chicks from the nest. Seasonally monogamous, frigatebirds nest colonially. A rough nest is constructed in low trees or on the ground on remote islands. A single egg is laid each breeding season. The duration of parental care is


title: Frigatebird content: among the longest of any bird species; frigatebirds are only able to breed every other year. The Fregatidae are a sister group to Suloidea which consists of cormorants, darters, gannets, and boobies. Three of the five extant species of frigatebirds are widespread, (the magnificent, great and lesser frigatebirds) while two are endangered (the Christmas Island and Ascension Island frigatebirds) and restrict their breeding habitat to one small island each. The oldest fossils date to the early Eocene, around 50 million years ago. Classified in the genus "Limnofregata", the three species had shorter, less-hooked bills and longer legs, and lived in


title: Frigatebird content: a freshwater environment. The term "Frigate Bird" itself was used in 1738 by the English naturalist and illustrator Eleazar Albin in his "A Natural History of the Birds". The book included an illustration of the male bird showing the red gular pouch. Like the genus name, the English term is derived from the French mariners' name for the bird "la frégate"—a frigate or fast warship. The etymology was mentioned by French naturalist Jean-Baptiste Du Tertre when describing the bird in 1667. Christopher Columbus encountered frigatebirds when passing the Cape Verde Islands on his first voyage across the Atlantic in 1492.


title: Frigatebird content: In his journal entry for 29 September he used the word "rabiforçado", modern Spanish "rabihorcado" or forktail. In the Caribbean frigatebirds were called Man-of-War birds by English mariners. This name was used by the English explorer William Dampier in his book "An Account of a New Voyage Around the World" published in 1697: The Man-of-War (as it is called by the English) is about the bigness of a Kite, and in shape like it, but black; and the neck is red. It lives on Fish yet never lights on the water, but soars aloft like a Kite, and when it


title: Frigatebird content: sees its prey, it flys down head foremost to the Waters edge, very swiftly takes its prey out of the Sea with his Bill, and immediately mounts again as swiftly; never touching the Water with his Bill. His Wings are very long; his feet are like other Land-fowl, and he builds on Trees, where he finds any; but where they are wanting on the ground. Frigatebirds were grouped with cormorants, and sulids (gannets and boobies) as well as pelicans in the genus "Pelecanus" by Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his "Systema Naturae". He described the distinguishing characteristics


title: Frigatebird content: as a straight bill hooked at the tip, linear nostrils, a bare face, and fully webbed feet. The genus "Fregata" was defined by French naturalist Bernard Germain de Lacépède in 1799. Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot described the genus name "Tachypetes" in 1816 for the great frigatebird. The genus name "Atagen" had been coined by German naturalist Paul Möhring in 1752, though this has no validity as it predates the official beginning of Linnaean taxonomy. In 1874, English zoologist Alfred Henry Garrod published a study where he had examined various groups of birds and recorded which muscles of a selected group


title: Frigatebird content: of five they possessed or lacked. Noting that the muscle patterns were different among the steganopodes (classical Pelecaniformes), he resolved that there were divergent lineages in the group that should be in separate families, including frigatebirds in their own family Fregatidae. Urless N. Lanham observed in 1947 that frigatebirds bore some skeletal characteristics more in common with Procellariiformes than Pelecaniformes, though concluded they still belonged in the latter group (as suborder Fregatae), albeit as an early offshoot. Martyn Kennedy and colleagues derived a cladogram based on behavioural characteristics of the traditional Pelecaniformes, calculating the frigatebirds to be more divergent than


title: Frigatebird content: pelicans from a core group of gannets, darters and cormorants, and tropicbirds the most distant lineage. The classification of this group as the traditional Pelecaniformes, united by feet that are totipalmate (with all four toes linked by webbing) and the presence of a gular pouch, persisted until the early 1990s. The DNA–DNA hybridization studies of Charles Sibley and Jon Edward Ahlquist placed the frigatebirds in a lineage with penguins, loons, petrels and albatrosses. Subsequent genetic studies place the frigatebirds as a sister group to the group Suloidea, which comprises the gannets and boobies, cormorants and darters. Microscopic analysis of eggshell


title: Frigatebird content: structure by Konstantin Mikhailov in 1995 found that the eggshells of frigatebirds resembled those of other Pelecaniformes in having a covering of thick microglobular material over the crystalline shells. Molecular studies have consistently shown that pelicans, the namesake family of the Pelecaniformes, are actually more closely related to herons, ibises and spoonbills, the hamerkop and the shoebill than to the remaining species. In recognition of this, the order comprising the frigatebirds and Suloidea was renamed Suliformes in 2010. In 1994 the family name Fregatidae, cited as described in 1867 by French naturalists Côme-Damien Degland and Zéphirin Gerbe, was conserved under


title: Frigatebird content: Article 40(b) of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature in preference to the 1840 description Tachypetidae by Johann Friedrich von Brandt. This was because the genus names "Atagen" and "Tachypetes" had been synonymised with "Fregata" before 1961, resulting in the aligning of family and genus names. The Eocene frigatebird genus "Limnofregata" comprises birds whose fossil remains were recovered from prehistoric freshwater environments, unlike the marine preferences of their modern-day relatives. They had shorter less-hooked bills and longer legs, and longer slit-like nasal openings. Three species have been described from fossil deposits in the western United States, two—"L. azygosternon" and "L.


title: Frigatebird content: hasegawai"—from the Green River Formation (48–52 million years old) and one—"L. hutchisoni"—from the Wasatch Formation (between 53 and 55 million years of age). Fossil material indistinguishable from living species dating to the Pleistocene and Holocene has been recovered from Ascension Island (for "F. aquila"), Saint Helena Island, both in the southern Atlantic Ocean, and also from various islands in the Pacific Ocean (for "F. minor" and "F. ariel"). A cladistic study of the skeletal and bone morphology of the classical Pelecaniformes and relatives found that the frigatebirds formed a clade with "Limnofregata". Birds of the two genera have 15 cervical


title: Frigatebird content: vertebrae, unlike almost all other Ciconiiformes, Suliformes and Pelecaniformes, which have 17. The age of "Limnofregata" indicates that these lineages had separated by the Eocene. The type species of the genus is the Ascension frigatebird ("Fregata aquila"). For many years, the consensus was to recognise only two species of frigatebird, with larger birds as "F. aquila" and smaller as "F. ariel". In 1914 the Australian ornithologist Gregory Mathews delineated five species, which remain valid. Analysis of ribosomal and mitochondrial DNA indicated that the five species had diverged from a common ancestor only recently—as little as 1.5 million years ago. There


title: Frigatebird content: are two species pairs, the great and Christmas Island frigatebirds, and the magnificent and Ascension frigatebirds, while the fifth species, the lesser frigatebird, is an early offshoot of the common ancestor of the other four species. Three subspecies of the lesser and five subspecies of the great frigatebird are recognised. Frigatebirds are large slender mostly black-plumaged seabirds, with the five species similar in appearance to each other. The largest species is the magnificent frigatebird, which reaches in length, with three of the remaining four almost as large. The lesser frigatebird is substantially smaller, at around long. Frigatebirds exhibit marked sexual


title: Frigatebird content: dimorphism; females are larger and up to 25 percent heavier than males, and generally have white markings on their underparts. Frigatebirds have short necks and long, slender hooked bills. Their long narrow wings (male wingspan can reach ) taper to points. Their wings have eleven primary flight feathers, with the tenth the longest and eleventh a vestigial feather only, and 23 secondaries. Their tails are deeply forked, though this is not apparent unless the tail is fanned. The tail and wings give them a distinctive 'W' silhouette in flight. The legs and face are fully feathered. The totipalmate feet are


title: Frigatebird content: short and weak, the webbing is reduced and part of each toe is free. The bones of frigatebirds are markedly pneumatic (filled with air), making them very light and contribute only 5% to total body weight. The pectoral girdle (shoulder joint) is strong as its bones are fused. The pectoral muscles are well-developed, and weigh as much as the frigatebird's feathers—around half the body weight is made up equally of these muscles and feathers. The males have inflatable red-coloured throat pouches called gular pouches, which they inflate to attract females during the mating season. The gular sac is, perhaps, the


title: Frigatebird content: most striking frigatebird feature. These can only deflate slowly, so males that are disturbed will fly off with pouches distended for some time. Frigatebirds remain in the air and do not settle on the ocean. They produce very little oil from their uropygial glands so their feathers would become sodden if they settled on the surface. In addition, with their long wings relative to body size, they would have great difficulty taking off again. Frigatebirds are found over tropical oceans, and ride warm updrafts under cumulus clouds. Their range coincides with availability of food such as flying fish, and with


title: Frigatebird content: the trade winds, which provide the windy conditions that facilitate their flying. They are rare vagrants to temperate regions and not found in polar latitudes. Adults are generally sedentary, remaining near the islands where they breed. However, male frigatebirds have been recorded dispersing great distances after departing a breeding colony—one male great frigatebird relocated from Europa Island in the Mozambique Channel to the Maldives away, and a male magnificent frigatebird flew from French Guiana to Trinidad. Great frigatebirds marked with wing tags on Tern Island in the French Frigate Shoals were found to regularly travel the to Johnston Atoll, although


title: Frigatebird content: one was reported in Quezon City in the Philippines. Genetic testing seems to indicate that the species has fidelity to their site of hatching despite their high mobility. Young birds may disperse far and wide, with distances of up to recorded. Having the largest wing-area-to-body-weight ratio of any bird, frigatebirds are essentially aerial. This allows them to soar continuously and only rarely flap their wings. One great frigatebird, being tracked by satellite in the Indian Ocean, stayed aloft for two months. They can fly higher than 4,000 meters in freezing conditions. Like swifts they are able to spend the night


title: Frigatebird content: on the wing, but they will also return to an island to roost on trees or cliffs. Field observations in the Mozambique Channel found that great frigatebirds could remain on the wing for up to 12 days while foraging. Highly adept, they use their forked tails for steering during flight and make strong deep wing-beats, though not suited to flying by sustained flapping. Frigatebirds bathe and clean themselves in flight by flying low and splashing at the water surface before preening and scratching afterwards. Conversely, frigatebirds do not swim and with their short legs cannot walk well or take off


title: Frigatebird content: from the sea easily. The average life span is unknown but in common with seabirds such as the wandering albatross and Leach's storm petrel, frigatebirds are long-lived. In 2002, 35 ringed great frigatebirds were recovered on Tern Island in the Hawaiian Islands. Of these ten were older than 37 years and one was at least 44 years of age. Despite having dark plumage in a tropical climate, frigatebirds have found ways not to overheat—particularly as they are exposed to full sunlight when on the nest. They ruffle feathers to lift them away from the skin and improve air circulation, and


title: Frigatebird content: can extend and upturn their wings to expose the hot undersurface to the air and lose heat by evaporation and convection. Frigatebirds also place their heads in the shade of their wings, and males frequently flutter their gular pouches. Frigatebirds typically breed on remote oceanic islands, generally in colonies of up to 5000 birds. Within these colonies, they most often nest in groups of 10 to 30 (or rarely 100) individuals. Breeding can occur at any time of year, often prompted by commencement of the dry season or plentiful food. Frigatebirds have the most elaborate mating displays of all seabirds.


title: Frigatebird content: The male birds take up residence in the colony in groups of up to thirty individuals. They display to females flying overhead by pointing their bills upwards, inflating their red throat pouches and vibrating their outstretched wings, showing the lighter wing undersurfaces in the process. They produce a drumming sound by vibrating their bills together and sometimes give a whistling call. The female descends to join a male she has chosen and allows him to take her bill in his. The pair also engages in mutual "head-snaking". After copulation it is generally the male who gathers sticks and the female


title: Frigatebird content: that constructs the loosely woven nest. The nest is subsequently covered with (and cemented by) guano. Frigatebirds prefer to nest in trees or bushes, though when these are not available they will nest on the ground. A single white egg that weighs up to 6–7% of mother's body mass is laid, and is incubated in turns by both birds for 41 to 55 days. The altricial chicks are naked on hatching and develop a white down. They are continuously guarded by the parents for the first 4–6 weeks and are fed on the nest for 5–6 months. Both parents take


title: Frigatebird content: turns feeding for the first three months, after which the male's attendance trails off leaving the mother to feed the young for another six to nine months on average. The chicks feed by reaching their heads in their parents' throat and eating the part-regurgitated food. It takes so long to rear a chick that frigatebirds generally breed every other year. The duration of parental care in frigatebirds is among the longest for birds, rivalled only by the southern ground hornbill and some large accipitrids. Frigatebirds take many years to reach sexual maturity. A study of great frigatebirds in the Galapagos


title: Frigatebird content: Islands found that they only bred once they have acquired the full adult plumage. This was attained by female birds when they were eight to nine years of age and by male birds when they were ten to eleven years of age. Frigatebirds' feeding habits are pelagic, and they may forage up to 500 km (310 mi) from land. They do not land on the water but snatch prey from the ocean surface using their long, hooked bills. They mainly catch small fish such as flying fish, particularly the genera "Exocoetus" and "Cypselurus", that are driven to the surface by


title: Frigatebird content: predators such as tuna and dolphinfish, but they will also eat cephalopods, particularly squid. Menhaden of the genus "Brevoortia" can be an important prey item where common, and jellyfish and larger plankton are also eaten. Frigatebirds have learned to follow fishing vessels and take fish from holding areas. Conversely tuna fishermen fish in areas where they catch sight of frigatebirds due to their association with large marine predators. Frigatebirds also at times prey directly on eggs and young of other seabirds, including boobies, petrels, shearwaters and terns, in particular the sooty tern. Frigatebirds will rob other seabirds such as boobies,


title: Frigatebird content: particularly the red-footed booby, tropicbirds, shearwaters, petrels, terns, gulls and even ospreys of their catch, using their speed and manoeuvrability to outrun and harass their victims until they regurgitate their stomach contents. They may either assail their targets after they have caught their food or circle high over seabird colonies waiting for parent birds to return laden with food. Although frigatebirds are renowned for their kleptoparasitic feeding behaviour, kleptoparasitism is not thought to play a significant part of the diet of any species, and is instead a supplement to food obtained by hunting. A study of great frigatebirds stealing from


title: Frigatebird content: masked boobies estimated that the frigatebirds could at most obtain 40% of the food they needed, and on average obtained only 5%. Unlike most other seabirds, frigatebirds drink freshwater when they come across it, by swooping down and gulping with their bills. Frigatebirds are unusual among seabirds in that they often carry blood parasites. Blood-borne protozoa of the genus "Haemoproteus" have been recovered from four of the five species. Bird lice of the ischnoceran genus "Pectinopygus" and amblyceran genus "Colpocephalum" and species "Fregatiella aurifasciata" have been recovered from magnificent and great frigatebirds of the Galapagos Islands. Frigatebirds tended to have


title: Frigatebird content: more parasitic lice than did boobies analysed in the same study. A heavy chick mortality at a large and important colony of the magnificent frigatebird, located on Île du Grand Connétable off French Guiana, was recorded in summer 2005. Chicks showed nodular skin lesions, feather loss and corneal changes, with around half the year's progeny perishing across the colony. An alphaherpesvirus was isolated and provisionally named "Fregata magnificens" herpesvirus, though it was unclear whether it caused the outbreak or affected birds already suffering malnutrition. Two of the five species are considered at risk. In 2003, a survey of the four


title: Frigatebird content: colonies of the critically endangered Christmas Island frigatebirds counted 1200 breeding pairs. As frigatebirds normally breed every other year, the total adult population was estimated to lie between 1800 and 3600 pairs. Larger numbers formerly bred on the island, but the clearance of breeding habitat during World War II and dust pollution from phosphate mining have contributed to the decrease. The population of the vulnerable Ascension frigatebird has been estimated at around 12,500 individuals. The birds formerly bred on Ascension Island itself, but the colonies were exterminated by feral cats introduced in 1815. The birds continued to breed on a


title: Frigatebird content: rocky outcrop just off the shore of the island. A program conducted between 2002 and 2004 eradicated the feral cats and a few birds have returned to nest on the island. The other three species are classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of "Least Concern". The populations of all three are large, with that of the magnificent frigatebird thought to be increasing, while the great and lesser frigatebird decreasing. Monitoring populations of all species is difficult due to their movements across the open ocean and low reproductivity. The status of the Atlantic populations of the


title: Frigatebird content: great and lesser frigatebirds are unknown and possibly extinct. As frigatebirds rely on large marine predators such as tuna for their prey, overfishing threatens to significantly impact on food availability and jeopardise whole populations. As frigatebirds nest in large dense colonies in small areas, they are vulnerable to local disasters that could wipe out the rare species or significantly impact the widespread ones. In Nauru, catching frigatebirds was an important tradition still practised to some degree. Donald W. Buden writes: "Birds typically are captured by slinging the weighted end of a coil of line in front of an approaching bird


title: Frigatebird content: attracted to previously captured birds used as decoys. In a successful toss, the line becomes entangled about the bird's wing and bringing [sic] it to ground." Marine birds including frigatebirds were once harvested for food on Christmas Island but this practice ceased in the late 1970s. Eggs and young of magnificent frigatebirds were taken and eaten in the Caribbean. Great frigatebirds were eaten in the Hawaiian Islands and their feathers used for decoration. The great frigatebird was venerated by the Rapa Nui people on Easter Island; carvings of the birdman Tangata manu depict him with the characteristic hooked beak and


title: Frigatebird content: throat pouch. Its incorporation into local ceremonies suggests that the now-vanished species was extant there between the 1800s and 1860s. Maritime folklore around the time America was discovered held that frigatebirds were birds of good omen as their presence meant land was near. There are anecdotal reports of tame frigatebirds being kept across Polynesia and Micronesia in the Pacific. A bird that had come from one island and had been taken elsewhere could be reliably trusted to return to its original home, hence would be used as a speedy way to relay a message there. There is firmer evidence of


title: Frigatebird content: this practice taking place in the Gilbert Islands and Tuvalu. Frigatebird Frigatebirds (also listed as "frigate bird", "frigate-bird", "frigate", frigate-petrel") are a family of seabirds called Fregatidae which are found across all tropical and subtropical oceans. The five extant species are classified in a single genus, Fregata. All have predominantly black plumage, long, deeply forked tails and long hooked bills. Females have white underbellies and males have a distinctive red gular pouch, which they inflate during the breeding season to attract females. Their wings are long and pointed and can span up to , the largest wing area to body


title: Neoclassicism content: Neoclassicism Neoclassicism (from Greek νέος "nèos", "new" and Latin "classicus", "of the highest rank") is the name given to Western movements in the decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that draw inspiration from the "classical" art and culture of classical antiquity. Neoclassicism was born largely thanks to the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann, at the time of the rediscovery of Pompeii and Herculaneum, but its popularity spread all over Europe as a generation of European art students finished their Grand Tour and returned from Italy to their home countries with newly rediscovered Greco-Roman ideals. The main Neoclassical


title: Penny-farthing content: Penny-farthing The penny-farthing, also known as a high wheel, high wheeler and ordinary, was the first machine to be called a "bicycle". It was popular in the 1870s and 1880s, with its large front wheel providing high speeds (owing to it travelling a large distance for every rotation of the legs) and comfort (the large wheel provides greater shock absorption). It became obsolete from the late 1880s with the development of modern bicycles, which provided similar speed amplification via chain-driven gear trains and comfort through pneumatic tyres, and were marketed in comparison to penny-farthings as "safety bicycles" due to the


title: Penny-farthing content: reduced danger of falling and the reduced height to fall from. The name came from the British penny and farthing coins, one much larger than the other, so that the side view resembles a penny leading a farthing. Although the name "penny-farthing" is now the most common, it was probably not used until the machines were nearly outdated; the first recorded print reference is from 1891 in "Bicycling News". For most of their reign, they were simply known as "bicycles". In the late 1890s, the name "ordinary" began to be used, to distinguish them from the emerging safety bicycles; this


title: Penny-farthing content: term and "hi-wheel" (and variants) are preferred by many modern enthusiasts. Following the popularity of the boneshaker, Eugène Meyer, a Frenchman, invented the high-wheeler bicycle design in 1869 and fashioned the wire-spoke tension wheel. Around 1870 English inventor James Starley, described as the father of the bicycle industry, and others, began producing bicycles based on the French boneshaker but with front wheels of increasing size, because larger front wheels, up to in diameter, enabled higher speeds on bicycles limited to direct drive. In 1878, Albert Pope began manufacturing the Columbia bicycle outside Boston, starting their two-decade heyday in America. Although


title: Penny-farthing content: the trend was short-lived, the penny-farthing became a symbol of the late Victorian era. Its popularity also coincided with the birth of cycling as a sport. Eugène Meyer of Paris, France is now regarded as the father of the high bicycle by the International Cycling History Conference in place of James Starley. Meyer patented a wire-spoke tension wheel with individually adjustable spokes in 1869. They were called "spider" wheels in Britain when introduced there. Meyer produced a classic high bicycle design during the 1880s. James Starley in Coventry added the tangent spokes and the mounting step to his famous bicycle


title: Penny-farthing content: named "Ariel". He is regarded as the father of the British cycling industry. Ball bearings, solid rubber tires and hollow-section steel frames became standard, reducing weight and making the ride much smoother. Penny-farthing bicycles are dangerous due to the risk of headers (taking a fall over the handlebars head-first). Makers developed "moustache" handlebars, allowing the rider's knees to clear them, "Whatton" handlebars that wrapped around behind the legs, and ultimately (though too late, after development of the safety bicycle), the American "Eagle" and "Star" bicycles, whose large and small wheels were reversed. This prevented headers, but left the danger of


title: Penny-farthing content: being thrown backwards when riding uphill. Other attempts included moving the seat rearward and driving the wheel by levers or treadles, as in the "Xtraordinary" and "Facile", or gears, by chain as in the "Kangaroo" or at the hub, as in the "Crypto"; another option was to move the seat well back, as in the "Rational". Even so, bicycling remained the province of the urban well-to-do, and mainly men, until the 1890s, and was a salient example of conspicuous consumption. The penny-farthing used a larger wheel than the velocipede, thus giving higher speeds on all but the steepest hills. In


title: Penny-farthing content: addition, the large wheel gave a smoother ride, important before the invention of pneumatic tires. Although the high riding position seems daunting to some, mounting can be learned on a lower velocipede. Once the technique is mastered, a high wheeler can be mounted and dismounted easily on flat ground and some hills. An attribute of the penny-farthing is that the rider sits high and nearly over the front axle. When the wheel strikes rocks and ruts, or under hard braking, the rider can be pitched forward off the bicycle head-first. Headers were relatively common and a significant, sometimes fatal, hazard.


title: Penny-farthing content: Riders coasting down hills often took their feet off the pedals and put them over the tops of the handlebars, so they would be pitched off feet-first instead of head-first. Penny-farthing bicycles often used similar materials and construction as earlier velocipedes: cast iron frames, solid rubber tires, and plain bearings for pedals, steering, and wheels. They were often quite durable and required little service. For example, when cyclist Thomas Stevens rode around the world in the 1880s, he reported only one significant mechanical problem in over , caused when the local military confiscated his bicycle and damaged the front wheel.


title: Penny-farthing content: The well-known dangers of the penny-farthing were, for the time of its prominence, outweighed by its strengths. While it was a difficult, dangerous machine, it was simpler, lighter, and faster than the safer velocipedes of the time. Two new developments changed this situation, and led to the rise of the safety bicycle. The first was the chain drive, originally used on tricycles, allowing a gear ratio to be chosen independent of the wheel size. The second was the pneumatic bicycle tire, allowing smaller wheels to provide a smooth ride. The nephew of one of the men responsible for popularity of


title: Penny-farthing content: the penny-farthing was largely responsible for its demise. James Starley had built the Ariel (spirit of the air) high-wheeler in 1870; but this was a time of innovation, and when chain drives were upgraded so that each link had a small roller, higher and higher speeds became possible without the large wheel. In 1885, Starley's nephew John Kemp Starley took these new developments to launch the modern bicycle, the Rover safety bicycle, so-called because the rider, seated much lower and farther behind the front wheel contact point, was less prone to a header. In 1888, when John Dunlop re-invented the


title: Penny-farthing content: pneumatic tire for his son's tricycle, the high wheel was made obsolete. The comfortable ride once found only on tall wheels could now be enjoyed on smaller chain-driven bicycles. By 1893, high-wheelers were no longer being produced. Use lingered into the 1920s in track cycling until racing safety bicycles were adequately designed. Today, enthusiasts ride restored penny-farthings, and a few manufacturers build new ones. The penny-farthing is a direct-drive bicycle, meaning the cranks and pedals are fixed directly to the hub. Instead of using gears to multiply the revolutions of the pedals, the driven wheel is enlarged to be close


title: Penny-farthing content: to the rider's inseam, to increase the maximum speed. This shifts the rider nearly on top of the wheel and makes it impossible for the rider to reach the ground while sitting on the seat. The frame is a single tube following the circumference of the front wheel, then diverting to a trailing wheel. A mounting peg is above the rear wheel. The front wheel is in a rigid fork with little if any trail. A spoon brake is usually fitted on the fork crown, operated by a lever from one of the handlebars. The bars are usually mustache shaped,


title: Penny-farthing content: dropping from the level of the headset. The saddle mounts on the frame less than behind the headset. One particular model, made by Pope Manufacturing Company in 1886, weighs , has a 60-spoke front wheel and a 20-spoke rear wheel. It is fitted with solid rubber tires. The rims, frame, fork, and handlebars are made from hollow, steel tubing. The steel axles are mounted in adjustable ball bearings. The leather saddle is suspended by springs. Another model, made by Humber and Co., Ltd., of Beeston, Nottingham, England, weighs only , and has and wheels. It has no step and no


title: Penny-farthing content: brakes, in order to minimize weight. A third model, also made by Pope Manufacturing Company, weighs and has forged steel forks. A brake lever on the right of a straight handlebar operates a spoon brake against the front wheel. All three have cranks that can be adjusted for length. Mounting requires skill. The rider must first grasp the handlebar and place one foot on a peg above the back wheel. Then the rider scoots the bicycle forward to gain momentum and quickly jumps up onto the seat while continuing to steer the bicycle and maintain balance. Although easy to ride


title: Penny-farthing content: slowly because of their high center of mass and the inverted pendulum effect, penny-farthings prone to accidents. To stop, the rider presses back on the pedals while applying a spoon-shaped brake pressing the tire. The center of mass being high and not far behind the front wheel means any sudden stop or collision with a pothole or other obstruction can send the rider over the handlebars. On long downhills, some riders hooked their feet over the handlebars. This made for quick descents but left no chance of stopping. A new type of handlebar was introduced, called Whatton bars, that looped


title: Penny-farthing content: behind the legs so that riders could still keep their feet on the pedals and also be able to leap forward feet-first off the machine. The first recorded hour record was set in 1876 when Frank Dodds of England pedalled in an hour on a high wheeler around the Cambridge University ground. The furthest (paced) hour record ever achieved on a penny-farthing bicycle was by William A. Rowe, an American, in 1886.. Until the 21st century, the last paced hour record to be set on a penny-farthing was probably BW Attlee's 1891 English amateur record of . This was beaten


title: Penny-farthing content: by Scots cyclist Mark Beaumont at Herne Hill velodrome on 16th June 2018 when he covered . In 1884, Thomas Stevens rode a Columbia penny-farthing from San Francisco to Boston—the first cyclist to cross the United States. In 1885–86, he continued from London through Europe, the Middle East, China, and Japan, to become the first to ride around the world. Tremendous feats of balance were reported, including negotiating a narrow bridge parapet and riding down the U.S. Capitol steps with the small wheel in front. The bike, with the one wheel dominating, led to riders being referred to in America


title: Penny-farthing content: as "wheelmen", a name that lived on for nearly a century in the League of American Wheelmen until renamed the League of American Bicyclists in 1994. Clubs of racing cyclists wore uniforms of peaked caps, tight jackets and knee-length breeches, with leather shoes, the caps and jackets displaying the club's colors. In 1967 collectors and restorers of penny-farthings (and other early bicycles) founded the Wheelmen, a non-profit organization "dedicated to keeping alive the heritage of American cycling". The high-wheeler lives on in the gear inch units used by cyclists in English-speaking countries to describe gear ratios. These are calculated by


title: Penny-farthing content: multiplying the wheel diameter in inches by the number of teeth on the front chain-wheel and dividing by the teeth on the rear sprocket. The result is the equivalent diameter of a penny-farthing wheel. A 60-inch gear, the largest practicable size for a high-wheeler, is nowadays a middle gear of a utility bicycle, while top gears on many exceed 100 inches. There was at least one Columbia made in the mid-1880s, but 60 was the largest in regular production. Penny-farthing The penny-farthing, also known as a high wheel, high wheeler and ordinary, was the first machine to be called a


title: "De Havilland Comet" content: most striking aspects of Comet travel was the quiet, "vibration-free flying" as touted by BOAC. For passengers used to propeller-driven airliners, smooth and quiet jet flight was a novel experience. For ease of training and fleet conversion, de Havilland designed the Comet's flight deck layout with a degree of similarity to the Lockheed Constellation, an aircraft that was popular at the time with key customers such as BOAC. The cockpit included full dual-controls for the captain and first officer, while a flight engineer controlled various key systems, including fuel, air conditioning, and electrical systems. The navigator occupied a dedicated station


title: "John Constantine" content: herself with a poisonous revolver, but Constantine sneaks the last remaining dart from his niece. Gemma says her life will be better without him, because he takes up too much of it and she is either hating him or loving him too much. John suggests he leave her be, but Gemma fears he will return and put her life to misery. John tells Gemma to make her own decision, and she reluctantly points the revolver at him. Gemma closes her eyes before muttering, "Damn you, John Constantine." and pulls the trigger, but when she opened her eyes again, Constantine had


title: "Pictures at an Exhibition" content: commission the setting and publish the score himself on the condition that no one else be allowed to perform it. Bessel turned to a Ravel student, 21-year-old Russian-born pianist Leonidas Leonardi (1901–1967), a.k.a. Leon Leonardi or Leonid Leonardi, to create an orchestral version that could meet the now burgeoning demand and help the publisher regain some of its lost advantage. Leonardi's orchestration requires even larger forces than the version made by his mentor. The young pianist dedicated his setting of the suite to Igor Stravinsky and conducted the premiere in Paris with the Lamoureux Orchestra on 15 June 1924. The


title: Anhinga content: Anhinga The anhinga (; "Anhinga anhinga"), sometimes called snakebird, darter, American darter, or water turkey, is a water bird of the warmer parts of the Americas. The word "anhinga" comes from the Brazilian Tupi language and means devil bird or snake bird. The origin of the name snakebird is apparent when swimming: only the colored neck appears above water so the bird looks like a snake ready to strike. They do not have external nares (nostrils) and breathe solely through their epiglottis. The anhinga is placed in the darter family, Anhingidae, and is closely related to Indian ("Anhinga melanogaster"), African


title: Anhinga content: ("Anhinga rufa"), and Australian ("Anhinga novaehollandiae") darters. Like other darters, the anhinga hunts by spearing fish and other small prey using its sharp, slender beak. "Anhinga" species are found all over the world in warm shallow waters. The American anhinga has been subdivided into two subspecies, "A. a. anhinga" and "A. a. leucogaster", based on their location. "A. a. anhinga" can be found mainly east of the Andes in South America and also the islands of Trinidad and Tobago. "A. a. leucogaster" can be found in the southern United States, Mexico, Cuba, and Grenada. A fossil species "Anhinga walterbolesi" has


title: Anhinga content: been described from the Late Oligocene to Early Miocene of Australia. Only birds that live in the extreme north and south of their range migrate and do so based on temperature and available sunlight. Anhingas will migrate towards the equator during winter but this range is "determined by the amount of sunshine to warm the chilled birds". Although not in their usual range, anhingas have been found as far north as the states of Pennsylvania and Wisconsin in the United States. Kettles of anhingas often migrate with other birds and have been described as resembling black paper gliders. The "A.


title: Anhinga content: anhinga" species is a large bird and measures approximately in length, with a range of , and a wingspan. The "A. a. anhinga" subspecies is larger than "A. a. leucogaster" and has "broader buffy tail lips". They weigh on average around , with a range of . The bill is relatively long (about twice the length of the head), sharply pointed and yellow like their webbed feet. The male is a glossy black-green with the wings, base of wings, and tail a glossy black-blue. The tip of the tail has white feathers. The back of the head and the neck


title: Anhinga content: have elongated feathers that have been described as gray or light purple-white. The upper back of the body and wings is spotted or streaked with white. The female anhinga is similar to the male except that it has a pale gray-buff or light brown head, neck, and upper chest. The lower chest or breast is a chestnut color and as compared to the male, the female has a more brown back. The hatchling starts out bald but gains tan down within a few days of hatching. Within two weeks the tan down is replaced by white down. Three weeks after


title: Anhinga content: hatching, the first juvenile feathers appear. Juveniles are mostly brown until they first breed usually after the second or third winter. This bird is often mistaken for the double-crested cormorant due to its similar size and shape, although the two species can be differentiated by their tails and bills. The tail of the anhinga is wider and much longer than that of the cormorant. The bill of the anhinga is pointed, while the bill of the cormorant has a hook-tip. Anhingas swim with their webbed feet and pursue their prey, fish, under water and spear their prey by rapidly stretching


title: Anhinga content: out their neck. They come up to handle and swallow fish. Unlike ducks, ospreys and pelicans which coat their feathers with oil from their uropygial gland, the anhinga does not have waterproof feathers. Their feathers get soaked upon immersion in water. Therefore, they cannot stay floating on water for long periods of time. Their dense bones, wetted plumage and neutral buoyancy in water, allows them to fully submerge and search for underwater prey. The anhinga cannot fly with wet feathers. If it attempts to fly while its wings are wet, the anhinga has difficulty, flapping vigorously while "running" on the


title: Anhinga content: water. Like cormorants, the anhinga stands with wings spread and feathers fanned open in a semicircular shape to dry its feathers and absorb heat. They face away from the sun to dry their feathers. Anhingas lose body heat relatively fast and their posture helps them absorb solar radiation from the sun to balance the high rates of heat loss. Because an anhinga in the drying position resembles a male turkey, it has been referred to colloquially as the water turkey or swamp turkey. Anhingas feed on moderately sized wetland fishes. In Alabama, the anhinga's diet consists of fishes such as


title: Anhinga content: Mullet (fish), Ocean sunfish, catfish, suckers (Catostomidae), Chain pickerel, crayfish, crabs, shrimp, aquatic insects, tadpoles, water snakes (Nerodia) and small terrapins. In Florida, sunfishes and bass (Centrarchidae), killifishes (Cyprinodontiformes) and live-bearing fishes (Poeciliidae) are primarily eaten by the anhingas. Anhingas stalk fish underwater, mainly where there is some flora present. Once they locate their prey, they partly open their bill and stab the fish swiftly. For larger fish, they use both their jaws and use the lower jaw on small fish. If the fish is too large to forage, the anhinga stabs it repeatedly and then lets it go. The


title: Anhinga content: anhingas bring their capture to the surface of the water, toss it backwards and engulf it head-first. The anhinga is protected in the US under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918. The number of individual anhingas has not been estimated but they are considered to be of least concern because of the frequency of their occurrence in their global range. Anhinga The anhinga (; "Anhinga anhinga"), sometimes called snakebird, darter, American darter, or water turkey, is a water bird of the warmer parts of the Americas. The word "anhinga" comes from the Brazilian Tupi language and means devil bird


title: "Pierre-Joseph Cambon" content: Pierre-Joseph Cambon Pierre-Joseph Cambon (10 June 1756 – 15 February 1820) was a French statesman. Born in Montpellier, Cambon was the son of a wealthy cotton merchant. In 1785, his father retired, leaving Pierre and his two brothers to run the business, but in 1788 Pierre entered politics, and was sent by his fellow-citizens as deputy suppliant to the Estates-General, where he was mostly a spectator. In January 1790 he returned to Montpellier, was elected a member of the municipality, co-founded the Jacobin Club in that city, and on the flight to Varennes of King Louis XVI in 1791, he


title: Ebony content: Ebony Ebony is a dense black hardwood, most commonly yielded by several different species in the genus "Diospyros", which also contains the persimmons. Ebony is dense enough to sink in water. It is finely-textured and has a very smooth finish when polished, making it valuable as an ornamental wood. The word "ebony" comes from the Ancient Egyptian "hbny", through the Ancient Greek ("ébenos"), into Latin and Middle English. Species of ebony include "Diospyros ebenum" (Ceylon ebony), native to southern India and Sri Lanka; "Diospyros crassiflora" (Gabon ebony), native to western Africa; and "Diospyros celebica" (Makassar ebony), native to Indonesia and


title: Ebony content: prized for its luxuriant, multi-colored wood grain. Mauritius ebony, "Diospyros tessellaria", was largely exploited by the Dutch in the 17th century. Some species in the genus "Diospyros" yield an ebony with similar physical properties, but striped rather than evenly black ("Diospyros ebenum"). Ebony has a long history of use, with carved pieces having been found in Ancient Egyptian tombs. By the end of the 16th century, fine cabinets for the luxury trade were made of ebony in Antwerp. The wood's dense hardness lent itself to refined moldings framing finely detailed pictorial panels with carving in very low relief (bas-relief), usually


title: Ebony content: of allegorical subjects, or with scenes taken from classical or Christian history. Within a short time, such cabinets were also being made in Paris, where their makers became known as "ébénistes", which remains the French term for a cabinetmaker. Modern uses are largely restricted to small items, such as crucifixes, and musical instrument parts, including black piano and harpsichord keys, violin, viola, mandolin, guitar, double bass, and cello fingerboards, tailpieces, pegs, chinrests, and bow frogs. Many plectra, or guitar picks, are made from this black wood. Traditionally, the black pieces in chess sets were made from ebony, with rare boxwood


title: Ebony content: or ivory being used for the white pieces. Modern East Midlands-style lace-making bobbins, also being small, are often made of ebony and look particularly decorative when bound with brass or silver wire. Due to its strength, many handgun grips and rifle fore-end tips are made of ebony, as are the butts of pool cues. As a result of unsustainable harvesting, many species yielding ebony are now considered threatened. Africa in particular has had most of its indigenous ebony cut down illegally. In Sri Lanka, ebony is a protected species and harvesting and sale of ebony is illegal and punishable by


title: Ebony content: imprisonment. In 2012, the Gibson Guitar company was raided by the US Fish and Wildlife Service for violations of the Lacey Act of 1900, which prohibits the importation of threatened woods and other materials. Pete Lowry, an ebony and rosewood expert at the Missouri Botanical Garden, calls the Madagascar wood trade the "equivalent of Africa's blood diamonds". Ebony, when ground into fine dust (for example, during sawing), results in a flammable and toxic powder which can float about in air for several days. Due to the high toxicity of ebony in powdered form, its use in construction work requires government


title: Ebony content: certification in several South Asian countries. Ebony Ebony is a dense black hardwood, most commonly yielded by several different species in the genus "Diospyros", which also contains the persimmons. Ebony is dense enough to sink in water. It is finely-textured and has a very smooth finish when polished, making it valuable as an ornamental wood. The word "ebony" comes from the Ancient Egyptian "hbny", through the Ancient Greek ("ébenos"), into Latin and Middle English. Species of ebony include "Diospyros ebenum" (Ceylon ebony), native to southern India and Sri Lanka; "Diospyros crassiflora" (Gabon ebony), native to western Africa; and "Diospyros celebica"


title: "Flag of the Republic of China" content: members when emphasizing the separate and independently governed systems and territories of the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in mainland China. The specific designs of the flag are located in the "Law about the national flag and emblem of the Republic of China." The ratio of the flag is 2:3, with most of it being red. One-fourth of the flag is blue, which contains the 12 pointed sun. Each sun ray is 30 degrees, so the total sun rays will make up a complete 360 degree circle. Inside the sun, the blue ring is the diameter


title: Sanitation content: with storm drains or separated from them as sanitary sewers. Combined sewers are usually found in the central, older parts or urban areas. Heavy rainfall and inadequate maintenance can lead to combined sewer overflows or sanitary sewer overflows, i.e., more or less diluted raw sewage being discharged into the environment. Industries often discharge wastewater into municipal sewers, which can complicate wastewater treatment unless industries pre-treat their discharges. In developing countries most wastewater is still discharged untreated into the environment. Alternatives to centralized sewer systems include onsite sanitation, decentralized wastewater systems, dry toilets connected to fecal sludge management. Disposal of solid


title: "Philippine–American War" content: an additional 200,000 civilian deaths, mostly from a cholera epidemic. Rudolph Rummel claims that 128,000 Filipinos were killed by the U.S in democide. The United States Department of State states that the war "resulted in the death of over 4,200 American and over 20,000 Filipino combatants", and that "as many as 200,000 Filipino civilians died from violence, famine, and disease". Bob Couttie noted in 2016 that estimates of civilian deaths range from 200,000 to 3,000,000, analyzed a number of the historical sources supporting various of those estimates, and detailed problems with the figures they reported. Throughout the war, American soldiers


title: "Song thrush" content: Song thrush The song thrush ("Turdus philomelos") is a thrush that breeds across much of Eurasia. It has brown upperparts and black-spotted cream or buff underparts and has three recognised subspecies. Its distinctive song, which has repeated musical phrases, has frequently been referred to in poetry. The song thrush breeds in forests, gardens and parks, and is partially migratory with many birds wintering in southern Europe, North Africa and the Middle East; it has also been introduced into New Zealand and Australia. Although it is not threatened globally, there have been serious population declines in parts of Europe, possibly due


title: "Song thrush" content: to changes in farming practices. The song thrush builds a neat mud-lined cup nest in a bush or tree and lays four to five dark-spotted blue eggs. It is omnivorous and has the habit of using a favourite stone as an "anvil" on which to break open the shells of snails. Like other perching birds (passerines), it is affected by external and internal parasites and is vulnerable to predation by cats and birds of prey. The song thrush was described by German ornithologist Christian Ludwig Brehm in 1831, and still bears its original scientific name, "Turdus philomelos". The generic name,


title: "Song thrush" content: "Turdus", is the Latin for "thrush", and the specific epithet refers to a character in Greek mythology, Philomela, who had her tongue cut out, but was changed into a singing bird. Her name is derived from the Ancient Greek "Φιλο" "philo-" ("loving"), and "μέλος" "melos" ("song"). The dialect names "throstle" and "mavis" both mean "thrush", being related to the German "drossel" and French "mauvis" respectively. "Throstle" dates back to at least the fourteenth century and was used by Chaucer in the "Parliament of Fowls". Mavis is derived via Middle English "mavys" and Old French "mauvis" from Middle Breton "milhuyt" meaning


title: "Song thrush" content: "thrush." Mavis (Μαβής) can also mean "purple" in Greek. A recent molecular study indicates that the song thrush's closest relatives are the similarly plumaged mistle thrush ("T. viscivorus") and Chinese thrush ("T. mupinensis"); these three species are early offshoots from the lineage of "Turdus" thrushes before they diversified and spread across the globe, and hence are less closely related to other European thrush species such as the blackbird ("T. merula"). The song thrush has three subspecies, with the nominate subspecies, "T. p. philomelos", covering the majority of the species' range. "T. p. hebridensis", described by British ornithologist William Eagle Clarke


title: "Song thrush" content: in 1913, is a mainly sedentary (non-migratory) form found in the Outer Hebrides and Isle of Skye in Scotland. It is the darkest subspecies, with a dark brown back, greyish rump, pale buff background colour to the underparts and grey-tinged flanks. "T. p. clarkei", described by German zoologist Ernst Hartert in 1909, and named for William Eagle Clarke, breeds in the rest of Great Britain and Ireland and on mainland Europe in France, Belgium, the Netherlands and possibly somewhat further east. It has brown upperparts which are warmer in tone than those of the nominate form, an olive-tinged rump and


title: "Song thrush" content: rich yellow background colour to the underparts. It is a partial migrant with some birds wintering in southern France and Iberia. This form intergrades with the nominate subspecies in central Europe, and with "T. p. hebridensis" in the Inner Hebrides and western Scotland, and in these areas birds show intermediate characteristics. Additional subspecies, such as "T. p. nataliae" of Siberia, proposed by the Russian Sergei Buturlin in 1929, are not widely accepted. The song thrush (as represented by the nominate subspecies "T. p. philomelos") is 20 to 23.5 centimetres (8 to 9.25 in) in length and weighs 50–107 grammes (1.8


title: "Song thrush" content: to 3.8 oz). The sexes are similar, with plain brown backs and neatly black-spotted cream or yellow-buff underparts, becoming paler on the belly. The underwing is warm yellow, the bill is yellowish and the legs and feet are pink. The upperparts of this species become colder in tone from west to east across the breeding range from Sweden to Siberia. The juvenile resembles the adult, but has buff or orange streaks on the back and wing coverts. The most similar European thrush species is the redwing ("T. iliacus"), but that bird has a strong white supercilium, red flanks, and shows


title: "Song thrush" content: a red underwing in flight. The mistle thrush ("T. viscivorus") is much larger and has white tail corners, and the Chinese thrush ("T. mupinensis"), although much more similar in plumage, has black face markings and does not overlap in range. The song thrush has a short, sharp "tsip" call, replaced on migration by a thin high "seep", similar to the redwing's call but shorter. The alarm call is a "chook-chook" becoming shorter and more strident with increasing danger. The male's song, given from trees, rooftops or other elevated perches, is a loud clear run of musical phrases, repeated two to


title: "Song thrush" content: four times, "filip filip filip codidio codidio quitquiquit tittit tittit tereret tereret tereret", and interspersed with grating notes and mimicry. It is given mainly from February to June by the Outer Hebridean race, but from November to July by the more widespread subspecies. For its weight, this species has one of the loudest bird calls. An individual male may have a repertoire of more than 100 phrases, many copied from its parents and neighbouring birds. Mimicry may include the imitation of man-made items like telephones, and the song thrush will also repeat the calls of captive birds, including exotics such


title: "Song thrush" content: as the white-faced whistling duck. The song thrush breeds in most of Europe (although not in the greater part of Iberia, lowland Italy or southern Greece), and across the Ukraine and Russia almost to Lake Baikal. It reaches to 75°N in Norway, but only to about 60°N in Siberia. Birds from Scandinavia, Eastern Europe and Russia winter around the Mediterranean, North Africa and the Middle East, but only some of the birds in the milder west of the breeding range leave their breeding areas. In Great Britain song thrushes are commonly found where there are trees and bushes. Such areas


title: "Song thrush" content: include parks, gardens, coniferous and deciduous woodland and hedgerows. Birds of the nominate subspecies were introduced to New Zealand and Australia by acclimatisation societies between 1860 and 1880, apparently for purely sentimental reasons. In New Zealand, where it was introduced on both the main islands, the song thrush quickly established itself and spread to surrounding islands such as the Kermadecs, Chatham and Auckland Islands. Although it is common and widespread in New Zealand, in Australia only a small population survives around Melbourne. In New Zealand, there appears to be a limited detrimental effect on some invertebrates due to predation by


title: "Song thrush" content: introduced bird species, and the song thrush also damages commercial fruit crops in that country. As an introduced species it has no legal protection in New Zealand, and can be killed at any time. The song thrush typically nests in forest with good undergrowth and nearby more open areas, and in western Europe also uses gardens and parks. It breeds up to the tree-line, reaching 2,200 metres (7,250 ft) in Switzerland. The island subspecies "T. p. hebridensis" breeds in more open country, including heathland, and in the east of the song thrush's Eurasian range, the nominate subspecies is restricted to


title: "Song thrush" content: the edge of the dense conifer forests. In intensively farmed areas where agricultural practices appear to have made cropped land unsuitable, gardens are an important breeding habitat. In one English study, only 3.5% of territories were found in farmland, whereas gardens held 71.5% of the territories, despite that habitat making up only 2% of the total area. The remaining nests were in woodlands (1% of total area). The winter habitat is similar to that used for breeding, except that high ground and other exposed localities are avoided; however, the island subspecies "T. p. hebridensis" will frequent the seashore in winter.


title: "Song thrush" content: The song thrush is not usually gregarious, although several birds may roost together in winter or be loosely associated in suitable feeding habitats, perhaps with other thrushes such as the blackbird, fieldfare, redwing and dark-throated thrush. Unlike the more nomadic fieldfare and redwing, the song thrush tends to return regularly to the same wintering areas. This is a monogamous territorial species, and in areas where it is fully migratory, the male re-establishes its breeding territory and starts singing as soon as he returns. In the milder areas where some birds stay year round, the resident male remains in his breeding


title: "Song thrush" content: territory, singing intermittently, but the female may establish a separate individual wintering range until pair formation begins in the early spring. During migration, the song thrush travels mainly at night with a strong and direct flight action. It flies in loose flocks which cross the sea on a broad front rather than concentrating at short crossings (as occurs in the migration of large soaring birds), and calls frequently to maintain contact. Migration may start as early as late August in the most easterly and northerly parts of the range, but the majority of birds, with shorter distances to cover, head


title: "Song thrush" content: south from September to mid-December. However, hard weather may force further movement. Return migration varies between mid-February around the Mediterranean to May in northern Sweden and central Siberia. Vagrants have been recorded in Greenland, various Atlantic islands, and West Africa. The female song thrush builds a neat cup-shaped nest lined with mud and dry grass in a bush, tree or creeper, or, in the case of the Hebridean subspecies, on the ground. She lays four or five bright glossy blue eggs which are lightly spotted with black or purple; they are typically size and weigh , of which 6% is


title: "Song thrush" content: shell. The female incubates the eggs alone for 10–17 days, and after hatching a similar time elapses until the young fledge. Two or three broods in a year is normal, although only one may be raised in the north of the range. On average, 54.6% of British juveniles survive the first year of life, and the adult annual survival rate is 62.2%. The typical lifespan is three years, but the maximum recorded age is 10 years 8 months. The song thrush is occasionally a host of parasitic cuckoos, such as the common cuckoo, but this is very rare because the


title: "Song thrush" content: thrush recognizes the cuckoo's non-mimetic eggs. However, the song thrush does not demonstrate the same aggression toward the adult cuckoo that is shown by the blackbird. The introduced birds in New Zealand, where the cuckoo does not occur, have, over the past 130 years, retained the ability to recognise and reject non-mimetic eggs. Adult birds may be killed by cats, little owls and sparrowhawks, and eggs and nestlings are taken by magpies, jays, and, where present, grey squirrels. As with other passerine birds, parasites are common, and include endoparasites, such as the nematode "Splendidofilaria (Avifilaria) mavis" whose specific name "mavis"


title: "Song thrush" content: derives from this thrush. A Russian study of blood parasites showed that all the fieldfares, redwings and song thrushes sampled carried haematozoans, particularly "Haemoproteus" and "Trypanosoma". "Ixodes" ticks are also common, and can carry pathogens, including tick-borne encephalitis in forested areas of central and eastern Europe and Russia, and, more widely, "Borrelia" bacteria. Some species of "Borrelia" cause Lyme disease, and ground-feeding birds like the song thrush may act as a reservoir for the disease. The song thrush is omnivorous, eating a wide range of invertebrates, especially earthworms and snails, as well as soft fruit and berries. Like its relative,


title: "Song thrush" content: the blackbird, the song thrush finds animal prey by sight, has a run-and-stop hunting technique on open ground, and will rummage through leaf-litter seeking potential food items. Land snails are an especially important food item when drought or hard weather makes it hard to find other food. The thrush often uses a favourite stone as an "anvil" on which to break the shell of the snail before extracting the soft body and invariably wiping it on the ground before consumption. Young birds initially flick objects and attempt to play with them until they learn to use anvils as tools to


title: "Song thrush" content: smash snails. The nestlings are mainly fed on animal food such as worms, slugs, snails and insect larvae. The grove Snail ("Cepaea nemoralis") is regularly eaten by the song thrush, and its polymorphic shell patterns have been suggested as evolutionary responses to reduce predation; however, song thrushes may not be the only selective force involved. The song thrush has an extensive range, estimated at 10 million square kilometres (3.8 million square miles), and a large population, with an estimated 40 to 71 million individuals in Europe alone. In the western Palaearctic, there is evidence of population decline, but at a