title: Columbidae content: of other food items are taken by many species. Some, particularly the ground doves and quail-doves, eat a large number of prey items such as insects and worms. One species, the atoll fruit dove, is specialised in taking insect and reptile prey. Snails, moths, and other insects are taken by white-crowned pigeons, orange fruit doves, and ruddy ground doves. Male pigeons are more opportunistic to mate with another female. While many species of pigeons and doves have benefited from human activities and have increased their ranges, many other species have declined in numbers and some have become threatened or even


title: Columbidae content: succumbed to extinction. Among the ten species to have become extinct since 1600 (the conventional date for estimating modern extinctions) are two of the most famous extinct species, the dodo and the passenger pigeon. The passenger pigeon was exceptional for a number of reasons. In modern times, it is the only pigeon species that was not an island species to have become extinct even though it was once the most numerous species of bird on Earth. Its former numbers are difficult to estimate, but one ornithologist, Alexander Wilson, estimated one flock he observed contained over two billion birds. The decline


title: Columbidae content: of the species was abrupt; in 1871, a breeding colony was estimated to contain over a hundred million birds, yet the last individual in the species was dead by 1914. Although habitat loss was a contributing factor, the species is thought to have been massively over-hunted, being used as food for slaves and, later, the poor, in the United States throughout the 19thcentury. The dodo, and its extinction, was more typical of the extinctions of pigeons in the past. Like many species that colonise remote islands with few predators, it lost much of its predator avoidance behaviour, along with its


title: Columbidae content: ability to fly. The arrival of people, along with a suite of other introduced species such as rats, pigs, and cats, quickly spelled the end for this species and all the other island forms that have become extinct. Around 59 species of pigeons and doves are threatened with extinction today, about 19% of all species. Most of these are tropical and live on islands. All of the species are threatened by introduced predators, habitat loss, hunting, or a combination of these factors. In some cases, they may be extinct in the wild, as is the Socorro dove of Socorro Island,


title: Columbidae content: Mexico, last seen in the wild in 1972, driven to extinction by habitat loss and introduced feral cats. In some areas, a lack of knowledge means the true status of a species is unknown; the Negros fruit dove has not been seen since 1953, and may or may not be extinct, and the Polynesian ground dove is classified as critically endangered, as whether it survives or not on remote islands in the far west of the Pacific Ocean is unknown. Various conservation techniques are employed to prevent these extinctions, including laws and regulations to control hunting pressure, the establishment of


title: Columbidae content: protected areas to prevent further habitat loss, the establishment of captive populations for reintroduction back into the wild ("ex situ" conservation), and the translocation of individuals to suitable habitats to create additional populations. The pigeon was used in both World War I and II, notably by the Australian, French, German, American, and UK forces. They were also awarded with various laurels throughout, for their service. On 2 December 1943, three pigeonsWinkie, Tyke, and White Visionwere awarded the first ever Dickin medal, serving with Britain's Royal Air Force, for rescuing an air force crew during World WarII. Thirty-two pigeons have been


title: Columbidae content: decorated with the Dickin Medal, citing them for "brave service", for war contributions, including Commando, G.I. Joe, Paddy, Royal Blue, and William of Orange. Cher Ami, a homing pigeon in World War I, was awarded the "Croix de Guerre" Medal, by France, with a palm Oak Leaf Cluster for her service in Verdun. Despite having almost lost a leg and being shot in the chest, she managed to travel around twenty-five miles to deliver the message that saved 194 men of the Lost Battalion of the 77th Infantry Division in the Battle of the Argonne, in October 1918. When Cher


title: Columbidae content: Ami died, she was mounted and is part of the permanent exhibit at the National Museum of American History of the Smithsonian Institution. A grand ceremony was held in Buckingham Palace to commemorate a platoon of pigeons that braved the battlefields of Normandy to deliver vital plans to Allied forces on the fringes of Germany. Three of the actual birds that received the medals are on show in the London Military Museum so that well-wishers can pay their respects. The rock pigeon has been domesticated for hundreds of years. It has been bred into several varieties kept by hobbyists, of


title: Columbidae content: which the best known is the homing pigeon or racing homer. Other popular breeds are tumbling pigeons such as the Birmingham roller, and fancy varieties that are bred for certain physical characteristics such as large feathers on the feet or fan-shaped tails. Domesticated rock pigeons are also bred as carrier pigeons, used for thousands of years to carry brief written messages, and release doves used in ceremonies. White doves are also commonly used in magic acts. In ancient Mesopotamia, doves were prominent animal symbols of Inanna-Ishtar, the goddess of love, sexuality, and war. Doves are shown on cultic objects associated


title: Columbidae content: with Inanna as early as the beginning of the third millennium BC. Lead dove figurines were discovered in the temple of Ishtar at Aššur, dating to the thirteenth century BC, and a painted fresco from Mari, Syria, shows a giant dove emerging from a palm tree in the temple of Ishtar, indicating that the goddess herself was sometimes believed to take the form of a dove. In the "Epic of Gilgamesh", Utnapishtim releases a dove and a raven to find land; the dove merely circles and returns. Only then does Utnapishtim send forth the raven, which does not return, and


title: Columbidae content: Utnapishtim concludes the raven has found land. In the ancient Levant, doves were used as symbols for the Canaanite mother goddess Asherah. The ancient Greek word for "dove" was "peristerá", which may be derived from the Semitic phrase "peraḥ Ištar", meaning "bird of Ishtar". In classical antiquity, doves were sacred to the Greek goddess Aphrodite, who absorbed this association with doves from Inanna-Ishtar. Aphrodite frequently appears with doves in ancient Greek pottery. The temple of Aphrodite Pandemos on the southwest slope of the Athenian Acropolis was decorated with relief sculptures of doves with knotted fillets in their beaks and votive


title: Columbidae content: offerings of small, white, marble doves were discovered in the temple of Aphrodite at Daphni. During Aphrodite's main festival, the Aphrodisia, her altars would be purified with the blood of a sacrificed dove. Aphrodite's associations with doves influenced the Roman goddesses Venus and Fortuna, causing them to become associated with doves as well. In the Hebrew Bible, doves or young pigeons are acceptable burnt offerings for those who cannot afford a more expensive animal. In Genesis, Noah sends a dove out of the ark, but it came back to him because the floodwaters had not receded. Seven days later, he


title: Columbidae content: sent it again and it came back with an olive branch in her mouth, indicating the waters had receded enough for an olive tree to grow. "Dove" is also a term of endearment in the Song of Songs and elsewhere. In Hebrew, Jonah (יוֹנָה) means dove. The "sign of Jonas" in is related to the "sign of the dove". Jesus's parents sacrificed doves on his behalf after his circumcision (Luke ). Later, the Holy Spirit descended upon Jesus at his baptism like a dove (Matthew ), and subsequently the "peace dove" became a common Christian symbol of the Holy Spirit.


title: Columbidae content: In Islam, doves and the pigeon family in general are respected and favoured because they are believed to have assisted the final prophet of Islam, Muhammad, in distracting his enemies outside the cave of Thaw'r, in the great Hijra. A pair of pigeons had built a nest and laid eggs at once, and a spider had woven cobwebs, which in the darkness of the night made the fugitives believe that Muhammad could not be in that cave. Several species of pigeons and doves are used as food; however, all types are edible. Domesticated or hunted pigeons have been used as


title: Columbidae content: the source of food since the times of the Ancient Middle East, Ancient Rome, and Medieval Europe. It is familiar meat within Jewish, Arab, Assamese and French cuisines. According to the Tanakh, doves are kosher, and they are the only birds that may be used for a "korban". Other kosher birds may be eaten, but not brought as a "korban". It is also known in Asian cuisines, such as Chinese and Indonesian. In Europe, the wood pigeon is commonly shot as a game bird, while rock pigeons were originally domesticated as a food species, and many breeds were developed for


title: Columbidae content: their meat-bearing qualities. The extinction of the passenger pigeon in North America was at least partly due to shooting for use as food. "Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management" contains recipes for roast pigeon and pigeon pie, a popular, inexpensive food in Victorian industrial Britain. Columbidae Pigeons and doves constitute the animal family Columbidae and the order Columbiformes, which includes about 42 genera and 310 species. They are stout-bodied birds with short necks, and short slender bills that in some species feature fleshy ceres. They primarily feed on seeds, fruits, and plants. Pigeons and doves are likely the most common


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: Fountains Abbey Fountains Abbey is one of the largest and best preserved ruined Cistercian monasteries in England. It is located approximately south-west of Ripon in North Yorkshire, near to the village of Aldfield. Founded in 1132, the abbey operated for 407 years becoming one of the wealthiest monasteries in England until its dissolution in 1539 under the order of Henry VIII. The abbey is a Grade I listed building owned by the National Trust and part of the designated Studley Royal Park including the Ruins of Fountains Abbey UNESCO World Heritage Site. After a dispute and riot in 1132 at


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: the Benedictine house of St Mary's Abbey, in York, 13 monks were expelled (among them Saint Robert of Newminster) and, after unsuccessful attempts to form a new monastery were taken under the protection of Thurstan, Archbishop of York. He provided them with land in the valley of the River Skell, a tributary of the Ure. The enclosed valley had all the natural features needed for the creation of a monastery, providing shelter from the weather, stone and timber for building, and a supply of running water. After enduring a harsh winter in 1133, the monks applied to join the Cistercian


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: order which since the end of the previous century was a fast-growing reform movement that by the beginning of the 13th century was to have over 500 houses. So it was that in 1135, Fountains became the second Cistercian house in northern England, after Rievaulx. The Fountains monks became subject to Clairvaux Abbey, in Burgundy which was under the rule of St Bernard. Under the guidance of Geoffrey of Ainai, a monk sent from Clairvaux, the group learned how to celebrate the seven Canonical Hours according to Cistercian usage and were shown how to construct wooden buildings in accordance with


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: Cistercian practice. After Henry Murdac was elected abbot in 1143, the small stone church and timber claustral buildings were replaced. Within three years, an aisled nave had been added to the stone church, and the first permanent claustral buildings built in stone and roofed in tile had been completed. In 1146 an angry mob, annoyed at Murdac for his role in opposing the election of William FitzHerbert as archbishop of York, attacked the abbey and burnt down all but the church and some surrounding buildings. The community recovered swiftly from the attack and founded four daughter houses. Henry Murdac resigned


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: as abbot in 1147 upon becoming the Archbishop of York and was replaced first by Maurice, Abbot of Rievaulx then, on the resignation of Maurice, by Thorald. Thorald was forced by Henry Murdac to resign after two years in office. The next abbot, Richard, held the post until his death in 1170 and restored the abbey's stability and prosperity. In 20 years as abbot, he supervised a huge building programme which involved completing repairs to the damaged church and building more accommodation for the increasing number of recruits. Only the chapter house was completed before he died and the work


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: was ably continued by his successor, Robert of Pipewell, under whose rule the abbey gained a reputation for caring for the needy. The next abbot was William, who presided over the abbey from 1180 to 1190 and he was succeeded by Ralph Haget, who had entered Fountains at the age of 30 as a novice, after pursuing a military career. During the European famine of 1194 Haget ordered the construction of shelters in the vicinity of the abbey and provided daily food rations to the poor enhancing the abbey's reputation for caring for the poor and attracting more grants from


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: wealthy benefactors. In the first half of the 13th century Fountains increased in reputation and prosperity under the next three abbots, John of York (1203–1211), John of Hessle (1211–1220) and John of Kent (1220–1247). They were burdened with an inordinate amount of administrative duties and increasing demands for money in taxation and levies but managed to complete another massive expansion of the abbey's buildings. This included enlarging the church and building an infirmary. In the second half of the 13th century the abbey was in more straitened circumstances. It was presided over by eleven abbots, and became financially unstable largely


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: due to forward selling its wool crop, and the abbey was criticised for its dire material and physical state when it was visited by Archbishop John le Romeyn in 1294. The run of disasters that befell the community continued into the early 14th century when northern England was invaded by the Scots and there were further demands for taxes. The culmination of these misfortunes was the Black Death of 1348–1349. The loss of manpower and income due to the ravages of the plague was almost ruinous. A further complication arose as a result of the Papal Schism of 1378–1409. Fountains


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: Abbey along with other English Cistercian houses was told to break off any contact with the mother house of Citeaux, which supported a rival pope. This resulted in the abbots forming their own chapter to rule the order in England and consequently they became increasingly involved in internecine politics. In 1410, following the death of Abbot Burley of Fountains, the community was riven by several years of turmoil over the election of his successor. Contending candidates John Ripon, Abbot of Meaux, and Roger Frank, a monk of Fountains were locked in conflict until 1415 when Ripon was finally appointed, ruling


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: until his death in 1434. Under abbots John Greenwell (1442–1471), Thomas Swinton (1471–8), John Darnton (1478–95), who undertook some much needed restoration of the fabric of the abbey, including notable work on the church, and Marmaduke Huby (1495–1526) Fountains regained stability and prosperity. At Abbot Huby's death he was succeeded by William Thirsk who was accused by the royal commissioners of immorality and inadequacy and was dismissed as abbot. He was replaced by Marmaduke Bradley, a monk of the abbey who had reported Thirsk's supposed offences, testified against him and offered the authorities six hundred marks for the post of


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: abbot. In 1539 it was Bradley who surrendered the abbey when its seizure was ordered under Henry VIII at the Dissolution of the Monasteries. The abbey precinct covered surrounded by an wall built in the 13th century, some parts of which are visible to the south and west of the abbey. The area consists of three concentric zones cut by the River Skell flowing from west to east across the site. The church and claustral buildings stand at the centre of the precinct north of the Skell, the inner court containing the domestic buildings stretches down to the river and


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: the outer court housing the industrial and agricultural buildings lies on the river's south bank. The early abbey buildings were added to and altered over time, causing deviations from the strict Cistercian type. Outside the walls were the abbey's granges. The original abbey church was built of wood and "was probably" two stories high; it was, however, quickly replaced in stone. The church was damaged in the attack on the abbey in 1146 and was rebuilt, in a larger scale, on the same site. Building work was completed c.1170. This structure, completed around 1170, was long and had 11 bays


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: in the side aisles. A lantern tower was added at the crossing of the church in the late 12th century. The presbytery at the eastern end of the church was much altered in the 13th century. The church's greatly lengthened choir, commenced by Abbot John of York, 1203–11, and carried on by his successor terminates, like that of Durham Cathedral, in an eastern transept, the work of Abbot John of Kent, 1220–47. The tower, which was added not long before the dissolution, by Abbot Huby, 1494–1526, is in an unusual position at the northern end of the north transept and


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: bears Huby's motto 'Soli Deo Honor et Gloria'. The sacristry adjoined the south transept. The cloister, which had arcading of black marble from Nidderdale and white sandstone, is in the centre of the precinct and to the south of the church. The three-aisled chapter-house and parlour open from the eastern walk of the cloister and the refectory, with the kitchen and buttery attached, are at right angles to its southern walk. Parallel with the western walk is an immense vaulted substructure serving as cellars and store-rooms, which supported the dormitory of the "conversi" (lay brothers) above. This building extended across


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: the river and at its south-west corner were the latrines, built above the swiftly flowing stream. The monks' dormitory was in its usual position above the chapter-house, to the south of the transept. Peculiarities of this arrangement include the position of the kitchen, between the refectory and calefactory, and of the infirmary above the river to the west, adjoining the guest-houses. The abbot's house, one of the largest in all of England, is located to the east of the latrine block, where portions of it are suspended on arches over the River Skell. It was built in the mid-twelfth century


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: as a modest single-storey structure, then, from the fourteenth century, underwent extensive expansion and remodelling to end up in the 16th century as a grand dwelling with fine bay windows and grand fireplaces. The great hall was an expansive room . Among other apartments, for the designation of which see the ground-plan, was a domestic oratory or chapel, , and a kitchen, . Medieval monasteries were sustained by landed estates that were given to them as endowments and from which they derived an income from rents. They were the gifts of the founder and subsequent patrons, but some were purchased


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: from cash revenues. At the outset, the Cistercian order rejected gifts of mills and rents, churches with tithes and feudal manors as they did not accord with their belief in monastic purity, because they involved contact with laymen. When Archbishop Thurstan founded the abbey he gave the community of land at Sutton north of the abbey and at Herleshowe to provide support while the abbey became established. In the early years the abbey struggled to maintain itself because further gifts were not forthcoming and Thurstan could not help further because the lands he administered were not his own, but part


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: of the diocesan estate. After a few years of impoverished struggle to establish the abbey, the monks were joined by Hugh, a former dean of York Minster, a rich man who brought a considerable fortune as well as furniture and books to start the library. By 1135 the monks had acquired only another at Cayton, given by Eustace fitzJohn of Knaresborough "for the building of the abbey". Shortly after the fire of 1146, the monks had established granges at Sutton, Cayton, Cowton Moor, Warsill, Dacre and Aldburgh all within of Fountains. In the 1140s the water mill was built on


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: the abbey site making it possible for the grain from the granges to be brought to the abbey for milling. Tannery waste from this time has been excavated on the site. Further estates were assembled in two phases, between 1140 and 1160 then 1174 and 1175, from piecemeal acquisitions of land. Some of the lands were grants from benefactors but others were purchased from gifts of money to the abbey. Roger de Mowbray granted vast areas of Nidderdale and William de Percy and his tenants granted substantial estates in Craven which included Malham Moor and the fishery in Malham Tarn.


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: After 1203 the abbots consolidated the abbey's lands by renting out more distant areas that the monks could not easily farm themselves, and exchanging and purchasing lands that complemented their existing estates. Fountains' holdings both in Yorkshire and beyond had reached their maximum extent by 1265, when they were an efficient and very profitable estate. Their estates were linked in a network of individual granges which provided staging posts to the most distant ones. They had urban properties in York, Yarm, Grimsby, Scarborough and Boston from which to conduct export and market trading and their other commercial interests included mining,


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: quarrying, iron-smelting, fishing and milling. The Battle of Bannockburn in 1314 was a factor that led to a downturn in the prosperity of the abbey in the early fourteenth century. Areas of the north of England as far south as York were looted by the Scots. Then the number of lay-brothers being recruited to the order reduced considerably. The abbey chose to take advantage of the relaxation of the edict on leasing property that had been enacted by the General Chapter of the order in 1208 and leased some of their properties. Others were staffed by hired labour and remained


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: in hand under the supervision of bailiffs. In 1535 Fountains had an interest in 138 vills and the total taxable income of the Fountains estate was £1,115, making it the richest Cistercian monastery in England. The Abbey buildings and over of land were sold by the Crown, on 1 October 1540, to Sir Richard Gresham, at the time a Member of Parliament and former Lord Mayor of London, the father of Sir Thomas Gresham. It was Richard Gresham who had supplied Cardinal Wolsey with the tapestries for his new house of Hampton Court and who paid for the Cardinal's funeral.


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: Gresham sold some of the fabric of the site, stone, timber, lead, as building materials to help to defray the cost of purchase. The site was acquired in 1597 by Sir Stephen Proctor, who used stone from the monastic complex to build Fountains Hall. Between 1627 and 1767 the estate was owned by the Messenger family who sold it to William Aislaby who was responsible for combining it with the Studley Royal Estate. The archaeological excavation of the site was begun under the supervision of John Richard Walbran, a Ripon antiquary who, in 1846, had published a paper "On the


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: Necessity of clearing out the Conventual Church of Fountains". In 1966 the Abbey was placed in the guardianship of the Department of the Environment and the estate was purchased by the West Riding County Council who transferred ownership to the North Yorkshire County Council in 1974. The National Trust bought the Fountains Abbey and Studley Royal estate from North Yorkshire County Council in 1983. In 1986 the parkland in which the abbey is situated and the abbey was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. It was recognised for fulfilling the criteria of "being a masterpiece of human creative genius",


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: and "an outstanding example of a type of building or architectural or technological ensemble or landscape which illustrates significant stages in human history." Fountains Abbey is owned by the National Trust and maintained by English Heritage. The trust owns Studley Royal Park, Fountains Hall, to which there is partial public access, and St Mary's Church, designed by William Burges and built around 1873, all of which are significant features of the World Heritage Site. The Porter's Lodge, which was once the gatehouse to the abbey, houses a modern exhibition area with displays about the history of Fountains Abbey and how


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: the monks lived. In January 2010, Fountains Abbey and Studley Royal became two of the first National Trust properties to be included in Google Street View, using the Google Trike. Fountains Abbey was used as a film location by Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark for their single "Maid of Orleans (The Waltz Joan of Arc)" during the cold winter of December 1981. In 1980, Hollywood also came to the site to film the final scenes to the film "". Other productions filmed on location at the abbey are the films "Life at the Top", "The Secret Garden", "The History Boys",


title: "Fountains Abbey" content: TV series "Flambards", "A History of Britain", "Terry Jones' Medieval Lives", "Cathedral", "Antiques Roadshow" and the game show "Treasure Hunt". The BBC Television series "Gunpowder" (2017) used Fountains Abbey as a location. Fountains Abbey featured twice in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Books with poetical illustrations by Letitia Elizabeth Landon (who may possibly have visited the abbey during one of her sojourns with her Uncle in Aberford). The 1836 engraving is of the cellarium, (somewhat exaggerated in size!) being used as a promenade. Fountains Abbey Fountains Abbey is one of the largest and best preserved ruined Cistercian monasteries in England. It


title: "Antoine Laurent de Jussieu" content: plantarum" (1789), Jussieu adopted a methodology based on the use of multiple characters to define groups, an idea derived from naturalist Michel Adanson. This was a significant improvement over the "artificial" system of Linnaeus, whose most popular work classified plants into classes and orders based on the number of stamens and pistils. Jussieu did keep Linnaeus' binomial nomenclature, resulting in a work that was far-reaching in its impact; many of the present-day plant families are still attributed to Jussieu. Morton's 1981 "History of botanical science" counts 76 of Jussieu's families conserved in the ICBN, versus just 11 for Linnaeus, for


title: "Dwarf (Middle-earth)" content: the true Dwarves. In Quenya they were called "Pitya-naukor". The Petty-dwarves of West Beleriand dwindled to a single family, and then, at last, became extinct. The Sindar, not acquainted with Dwarves yet, saw the Petty-dwarves as little more than bothersome animals, calling them "(Levain) Tad-dail" ("two-legged (animals)"), and hunted them. Not until the Dwarves of the Ered Luin established contact with the Sindar did they realize what the Petty-dwarves were. Afterwards they were mostly left alone, but not before the Petty-dwarves came to hate all Elves with a passion. Petty-dwarves differed from normal Dwarves in various ways: they were smaller,


title: Cashew content: Cashew The cashew tree ("Anacardium occidentale") is a tropical evergreen tree that produces the cashew seed (nut) and the cashew apple. It can grow as high as , but the dwarf cashew, growing up to , has proved more profitable, with earlier maturity and higher yields. The species is originally native to northeastern Brazil. Portuguese colonists in Brazil began exporting cashew nuts as early as the 1550s. Major production of cashews occurs in Vietnam, Nigeria, India, and Ivory Coast. The cashew nut, often simply called a cashew, is widely consumed. It is eaten on its own, used in recipes, or


title: Cashew content: processed into cashew cheese or cashew butter. The shell of the cashew seed yields derivatives that can be used in many applications including lubricants, waterproofing, paints, and arms production, starting in World War II. The cashew apple is a light reddish to yellow fruit, whose pulp can be processed into a sweet, astringent fruit drink or distilled into liquor. Its English name derives from the Portuguese name for the fruit of the cashew tree "caju" (Portuguese pronunciation: [kaˈʒu]), which itself is derived from the Tupian word "acajú", literally meaning "nut that produces itself". The generic name "Anacardium" (derived from Greek


title: Cashew content: ἀνά (aná), meaning "outside," and καρδία (kardía), meaning "heart", refers to the unusual location of the seed (the heart) outside of the fruit. The cashew tree is large and evergreen, growing to tall, with a short, often irregularly shaped trunk. The leaves are spirally arranged, leathery textured, elliptic to obovate, long and broad, with smooth margins. The flowers are produced in a panicle or corymb up to long; each flower is small, pale green at first, then turning reddish, with five slender, acute petals long. The largest cashew tree in the world covers an area around ; it is located


title: Cashew content: in Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil. The fruit of the cashew tree is an accessory fruit (sometimes called a pseudocarp or false fruit). What appears to be the fruit is an oval or pear-shaped structure, a hypocarpium, that develops from the pedicel and the receptacle of the cashew flower. Called the cashew apple, better known in Central America as "marañón", it ripens into a yellow or red structure about long. It is edible and has a strong "sweet" smell and taste. The true fruit of the cashew tree is a kidney or boxing-glove shaped drupe that grows at the


title: Cashew content: end of the cashew apple. The drupe develops first on the tree, and then the pedicel expands to become the cashew apple. Within the true fruit is a single seed, which is often considered a nut, in the culinary sense. The seed is surrounded by a double shell containing an allergenic phenolic resin, anacardic acid, a potent skin irritant chemically related to the better-known allergenic oil urushiol which is also a toxin found in the related poison ivy. Some people are allergic to cashews, but cashews are a less frequent allergen than tree nuts or peanuts. While the cashew plant


title: Cashew content: is native to northeast Brazil, the Portuguese took it to Goa, India, between 1560 and 1565. From there, it spread throughout Southeast Asia and eventually Africa. Culinary uses for cashew seeds in snacking and cooking are similar to those for all tree seeds called nuts. Cashews are commonly used in Indian cuisine and Pakistani cuisine, whole for garnishing sweets or curries, or ground into a paste that forms a base of sauces for curries (e.g., "korma"), or some sweets (e.g., "kaju barfi"). It is also used in powdered form in the preparation of several Indian sweets and desserts. In Goan


title: Cashew content: cuisine, both roasted and raw kernels are used whole for making curries and sweets. Cashews are also used in Thai and Chinese cuisines, generally in whole form. In the Philippines, cashew is a known product of Antipolo, and is eaten with "suman". The province of Pampanga also has a sweet dessert called "turrones de casuy", which is cashew marzipan wrapped in white wafers. In Indonesia, roasted and salted cashews are called "kacang mete" or "kacang mede", while the cashew apple is called "jambu monyet" (translates in English to monkey rose apple). In the 21st century, cashew cultivation increased in several


title: Cashew content: African countries to meet the demands for manufacturing cashew milk, a plant milk alternative to dairy milk. In Mozambique, "bolo polana" is a cake prepared using powdered cashews and mashed potatoes as the main ingredients. This dessert is popular in South Africa. In Brazil, cashew fruit juice and the fruit pulp are used in the production of sweets, juice, alcoholic beverages, such as "cachaça", and as a flour, milk or cheese. In Panama, the cashew fruit is cooked with water and sugar for a prolonged time to make a sweet, brown, paste-like dessert called "dulce de marañón", with "marañón" as


title: Cashew content: a Spanish name for cashew. The shell of the cashew nut contains oil compounds which may cause contact dermatitis similar in severity to that of poison ivy, primarily resulting from the phenolic lipids, anacardic acid, and cardanol. Due to the possible dermatitis, cashews are typically not sold in the shell to consumers. Readily and inexpensively extracted from the waste shells, cardanol is under research for its potential applications in nanomaterials and biotechnology. In 2015, global production of cashew nuts (as the kernel) was 738,861 tonnes, led by India and Côte d'Ivoire each with 23% of the world total (table). Vietnam


title: Cashew content: and Brazil also had significant production of cashew kernels. In 2014, rapid growth of cashew cultivation in Côte d'Ivoire made this country the top African exporter. Fluctuations in world market prices, poor working conditions, and low pay for local harvesting have caused discontent in the cashew nut industry. The cashew tree is cultivated in the tropics between 25°N and 25°S, and is supremely adapted to hot lowland areas with a pronounced dry season, where the mango and tamarind trees also thrive. The traditional cashew tree is tall (up to 14 m) and takes three years from planting before it starts


title: Cashew content: production, and eight years before economic harvests can begin. More recent breeds, such as the dwarf cashew trees, are up to 6 m tall, and start producing after the first year, with economic yields after three years. The cashew nut yields for the traditional tree are about 0.25 metric tons per hectare, in contrast to over a ton per hectare for the dwarf variety. Grafting and other modern tree management technologies are used to further improve and sustain cashew nut yields in commercial orchards. In a 100-gram serving, raw cashews provide 553 Calories, 67% of the Daily Value (DV) in


title: Cashew content: total fats, 36% DV of protein, 13% DV of dietary fiber and 11% DV of carbohydrates (table). Cashews are rich sources (> 19% DV) of dietary minerals, including particularly copper, manganese, phosphorus, and magnesium (79-110% DV), and of thiamin, vitamin B and vitamin K (32-37% DV) (table). Iron, potassium, zinc, and selenium are present in significant content (14-61% DV) (table). Cashews (100 grams, raw) contain of beta-sitosterol. For some 6% of people, cashews can lead to complications or allergic reactions which may be life-threatening. These allergies are triggered by the proteins found in tree nuts, and cooking often does not


title: Cashew content: remove or change these proteins. Reactions to cashew and tree nuts can also occur as a consequence of hidden nut ingredients or traces of nuts that may inadvertently be introduced during food processing, handling, or manufacturing, particularly in people of European descent. Cashew oil is a dark yellow oil for cooking or salad dressing pressed from cashew nuts (typically broken chunks created during processing). This may be produced from a single cold pressing. Cashew nutshell liquid (CNSL) or cashew shell oil (CAS registry number 8007-24-7) is a natural resin with a yellowish sheen found in the honeycomb structure of the


title: Cashew content: cashew nutshell, and is a byproduct of processing cashew nuts. It is a raw material of multiple uses in developing drugs, antioxidants, fungicides, and biomaterials. It is used in tropical folk medicine and for antitermite treatment of timber. Its composition varies depending on how it is processed. These substances are skin allergens, like the oils of poison ivy, and present danger during manual cashew processing. This natural oil phenol has been found to have interesting chemical structural features which enable a range of chemical modifications to create a wide spectrum of biobased monomers capitalizing on the chemically versatile construct, containing


title: Cashew content: three different functional groups: the aromatic ring, the hydroxyl group, and the double bonds in the flanking alkyl chain. These can be split into key groups, used as polyols, which have recently seen a dramatic increase in demand for their biobased origin and key chemical attributes such as high reactivity, range of functionalities, reduction in blowing agents, and naturally occurring fire retardant properties in the field of ridged polyurethanes aided by their inherent phenolic structure and larger number of reactive units per unit mass. CNSL may be used as a resin for carbon composite products. CNSL-based Novolac is another versatile


title: Cashew content: industrial monomer deriving from cardanol typically used as a reticulating agent for epoxy matrices in composite applications providing good thermal and mechanical properties to the final composite material. The cashew apple, also called cashew fruit, is the fleshy part of the cashew fruit attached to the cashew nut. The top end of the cashew apple is attached to the stem that comes off the tree. The bottom end of the cashew apple attaches to the cashew nut, which is encased in a shell. In botanical terms, the cashew apple is an accessory fruit that grows on the cashew seed (which


title: Cashew content: is the nut). The cashew apple can be eaten fresh, cooked in curries, or fermented into vinegar, as well as an alcoholic drink. It is also used to make preserves, chutneys, and jams in some countries such as India and Brazil. In many countries, particularly in South America, the cashew apple is used to flavor drinks, both alcoholic and nonalcoholic. Cashew nuts are more widely traded than cashew apples, because the apple, unlike the nut, is easily bruised and has very limited shelf life. Cashew apple juice, however, may be used for manufacturing blended juices. In cultures that consume cashew


title: Cashew content: apples its astringency is sometimes removed by steaming the fruit for five minutes before washing it in cold water; alternatively, boiling the fruit in salt water for five minutes or soaking it in gelatin solution also reduces the astringency. In Goa, the cashew apple is mashed and the juice extracted and kept for fermentation for a few days. Fermented juice then undergoes a double distillation process. The resulting beverage is called "feni" or fenny. "Feni" is about 40–42% alcohol. The single-distilled version is called "urrac", which is about 15% alcohol. In the southern region of Mtwara, Tanzania, the cashew apple


title: Cashew content: ("bibo" in Swahili) is dried and saved. Later, it is reconstituted with water and fermented, then distilled to make a strong liquor often referred to by the generic name, "gongo". In Mozambique, cashew farmers commonly make a strong liquor from the cashew apple. It is known under various names in the local languages of Mozambique (muchekele in Emakua spoken in the North, xicadju in Changana spoken in the South). In contrast to the above-mentioned Feni of Goa, the cashew liquor made in Mozambique does not involve the extraction of the juice from the cashew apples. Following harvest and the removal


title: Cashew content: of the nuts, the apples are spread on the ground under trees and courtyards and allowed to lose water and ferment. The shrivelled fruits are then used for distillation. According to one source, an alcohol had been distilled in the early 20th century from the juice of the fruit, and was manufactured in the West Indies. Discarded cashew nuts unfit for human consumption, alongside the residues of oil extraction from cashew kernels, can be used to feed livestock. Animals can also eat the leaves of cashew trees. Cashew The cashew tree ("Anacardium occidentale") is a tropical evergreen tree that produces


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: Church of the Nativity The Church of the Nativity, also Basilica of the Nativity (; ; ; ) is a basilica located in Bethlehem in the West Bank. The grotto it contains holds a prominent religious significance to Christians of various denominations as the birthplace of Jesus. The grotto is the oldest site continuously worshipped in Christianity, and the basilica is the oldest major church in the Holy Land. The church was originally commissioned in 327 by Constantine the Great and his mother Helena on the site that was traditionally considered to be the birthplace of Jesus. That original basilica


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: was completed sometime between 333-339. It was destroyed by fire during the Samaritan revolts of the 6th century, and a new basilica was built in 565 by Byzantine Emperor Justinian, who restored the architectural tone of the original. The Church of the Nativity, while remaining basically unchanged since the Justinian reconstruction, has seen numerous repairs and additions, especially from the Crusader period, such as two bell towers (now gone), wall mosaics and paintings (partially preserved). Over the centuries, the surrounding compound has been expanded, and today it covers approximately 12,000 square meters, comprising three different monasteries: one Greek Orthodox, one


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: Armenian Apostolic, and one Roman Catholic, of which the first two contain bell-towers built during the modern era. The silver star marking the spot where Christ was born was stolen in 1847. Some assert that this was a contributing factor in the Crimean War against the Russian Empire; Others assert that the war grew out of the wider european situation. The Church of the Nativity is a World Heritage site and was the first to be listed under Palestine by UNESCO. The site is also on UNESCO's List of World Heritage in Danger. The "status quo of Holy Land sites"


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: is a 250-year old understanding among religious communities that applies to the site. The holy site known as the Nativity Grotto is thought to be the cave in which Jesus of Nazareth was born. In 135, Emperor Hadrian had the site above the Grotto converted into a worship place for Adonis, the Greek god of beauty and desire. Jerome noted in 420 that the grotto had been consecrated to the worship of Adonis, and that a sacred grove was planted there in order to completely wipe out the memory of Jesus from the world. Some modern scholars dispute this argument


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: and insist that the cult of Adonis-Tammuz originated the shrine and that it was the Christians who took it over, substituting the worship of Jesus. The antiquity of the association of the site with the birth of Jesus, however, is attested by Justin Martyr (c. 100–165) who noted in his "Dialogue with Trypho" that the Holy Family had taken refuge in a cave outside of town: But when the Child was born in Bethlehem, since Joseph could not find a lodging in that village, he took up his quarters in a certain cave near the village; and while they were


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: there Mary brought forth the Christ and placed Him in a manger, and here the Magi who came from Arabia found Him. Additionally, early Christian theologian and Greek philosopher Origen of Alexandria (185–c. 254) wrote: In Bethlehem the cave is pointed out where He was born, and the manger in the cave where He was wrapped in swaddling clothes. And the rumor is in those places, and among foreigners of the Faith, that indeed Jesus was born in this cave who is worshipped and reverenced by the Christians. The first basilica on this site was begun by Helena of Constantinople,


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: the mother of Emperor Constantine I. The construction started in 327 under the supervision of Bishop Makarios of Jerusalem and was completed a few years later - it was already visited in 333 by the Bordeaux Pilgrim and was officially dedicated on 31 May 339. Construction of this early church was carried out as part of a larger project following the First Council of Nicaea during Constantine's reign, aimed to build churches on the supposed sites of the life of Jesus. The design of the basilica centered around three major architectural sections: The structure was burned and destroyed in one


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: of the Samaritan Revolts of 529 or 556, in the second of which Jews seem to have joined the Samaritans. The basilica was rebuilt in its present form in 565 by Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. The Persians under Khosrau II invaded Palestine and conquered nearby Jerusalem in 614, but they did not destroy the structure. According to legend, their commander Shahrbaraz was moved by the depiction above the church entrance of the Three Magi wearing the garb of Persian Zoroastrian priests, so he ordered that the building be spared. The Church of the Nativity was used as the primary coronation


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: church for Crusader kings, from the second ruler of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1100 and until 1131. The Crusaders undertook extensive decoration and restoration on the basilica and grounds, a process that continued until 1169, from 1165-69 even through a rare cooperation between the Catholic king Amalric I of Jerusalem and the Byzantine emperor Manuel I Komnenos, who was his father-in-law. The Khwarezmian Turks desecrated the Church of the Nativity in April 1244, leaving the roof in poor condition. The Duchy of Burgundy committed resources to restore the roof in August 1448, and multiple regions contributed supplies to


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: have the Church roof repaired in 1480: England supplied the lead, the Second Kingdom of Burgundy supplied the wood, and the Republic of Venice provided the labor. Earthquakes inflicted significant damage to the Church of the Nativity between 1834 and 1837. The 1834 Jerusalem earthquake damaged the church's bell tower, the furnishings of the cave on which the church is built, and other parts of its structure. Minor damages were further inflicted by a series of strong aftershocks in 1836 and the Galilee earthquake of 1837. By 1846, the Church of the Nativity and its surrounding site lay in disrepair


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: and vulnerable to looting. Much of the interior marble flooring was looted in the early half of the 19th century, much of which was transferred to use in other buildings around the region, including the Haram ash-Sharif (Temple Mount) in Jerusalem. The religiously significant silver star marking the exact birthplace of Jesus was stolen in 1846 from the Grotto of the Nativity. The church was under the control of the Ottoman Empire, but around Christmas 1852, Napoleon III forced the Ottomans to recognise France as the "sovereign authority" over Christian holy sites in the Holy Land. The Sultan of Turkey


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: replaced the silver star at the Grotto, complete with a Latin inscription, but the Russian Empire disputed the change in authority. They cited the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca and then deployed armies to the Danube area. As a result, the Ottomans issued firmans essentially reversing their earlier decision, renouncing the French treaty, and restoring the Greeks to the sovereign authority over the churches of the Holy Land for the time being, thus increasing local tensions—and all this fuelled the conflict between the Russian and the Ottoman empires over the control of holy sites around the region. The passageway which connects


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: St. Jerome's Cave and the Cave of the Nativity was expanded in February 1964, allowing easier access for visitors. American businessman Stanley Slotkin was visiting at the time and purchased a quantity of the limestone rubble, more than a million irregular fragments about across. He sold them to the public encased in plastic crosses, and they were advertised in infomercials in 1995. Approximately 50 armed Palestinians wanted by the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) locked themselves in the church in April 2002 during the Second Intifada, holding hostage 200 monks and other Palestinians—some of whom served as human shields for the


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: terrorists. The IDF did not break into the building, but they prevented the entry of food and cut telephone lines. The siege lasted 39 days, and some of the terrorists were shot by IDF snipers. Curtains caught fire in the grotto beneath the church on 27 May 2014, which resulted in some slight damage. The Church undertook a major renovation starting in September 2013, about to be completed as of April 2018. Italian restoration workers uncovered a seventh mosaic angel in July 2016, which was previously hidden under plaster. The property rights, liturgical use and maintenance of the church are


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: regulated by a set of documents and understandings known as the Status Quo. The church is owned by three church authorities, the Greek Orthodox (most of the building and furnishings), the Armenian Apostolic and the Roman Catholic (each of them with lesser properties). The Coptic Orthodox and Syriac Orthodox are holding minor rights of worship at the Armenian church in the northern transept, and at the Altar of Nativity. There have been repeated brawls among monk trainees over quiet respect for others' prayers, hymns and even the division of floor space for cleaning duties. The Palestinian police have been called


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: to restore peace and order. The centrepiece of the Nativity complex is the Grotto of the Nativity, a cave which enshrines the site where Jesus is said to have been born. The core of the complex connected to the Grotto consists of the Church of the Nativity itself, and the adjoining Roman Catholic Church of St. Catherine north of it. Bethlehem's main city square, Manger Square, is an extension of the large paved courtyard in front of the Church of the Nativity and St Catherine's. Here crowds gather on Christmas Eve to sing Christmas carols in anticipation of the midnight


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: services. The main Basilica of the Nativity is maintained by the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem. It is designed like a typical Roman basilica, with five aisles formed by Corinthian columns, and an apse in the eastern end containing the sanctuary. The basilica is entered through a very low door called the "Door of Humility." The church's interior walls features medieval golden mosaics once covering the side walls, which are now in large parts lost. The original Roman-style floor of the basilica has been covered over with flagstones, but there is a trap door in the floor which opens up


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: to reveal a portion of the original mosaic pavement from the Constantinian basilica. There are 44 columns separating the aisles from each other and from the nave, some of which are painted with images of saints, such as the Irish monk St. Cathal (fl. 7th century), the patron of the Sicilian Normans, St. Canute (c. 1042-1086), king of Denmark, and St. Olaf (995-1030), king of Norway. The east end of the church consists of a raised chancel, closed by an apse containing the main altar and separated from the chancel by a large gilded iconostasis. A complex array of sanctuary


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: lamps is placed throughout the entire building. The open ceiling exposes the wooden rafters, recently restored. The previous 15th-century restoration used beams donated by King Edward IV of England, who also donated lead to cover the roof; however, this lead was taken by the Ottoman Turks, who melted it down for ammunition to use in war against Venice. Stairways on either side of the chancel lead down to the Grotto. The Grotto of the Nativity, the place where Jesus is said to have been born, is an underground space which forms the crypt of the Church of the Nativity. It


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: is situated underneath its main altar, and it is normally accessed by two staircases on either side of the chancel. The Grotto is part of a network of caves, which are accessed from the adjacent Church St Catherine's. The tunnel-like corridor connecting the Grotto to the other caves is normally locked. The cave has an eastern niche said to be the place where Jesus was born, which contains the Altar of Nativity. The exact spot where Jesus was born is marked beneath this altar by a 14-pointed silver star with the Latin inscription "Hic De Virgine Maria Jesus Christus Natus


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: Est-1717" (Here Jesus Christ was born to the Virgin Mary-1717). It was installed by the Catholics in 1717, removed - allegedly by the Greeks - in 1847, and replaced by the Turkish government in 1853. The star is set into the marble floor and surrounded by 15 silver lamps representing the three Christian communities: six belong to the Greek Orthodox, four to the Catholics, and five to the Armenian Apostolic. The Altar of the Nativity is maintained by the Greek Orthodox and Armenian Apostolic churches. Roman Catholics are in charge of a section of the Grotto known as the "Grotto


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: of the Manger", marking the traditional site where Mary laid the newborn Baby in the manger. The Altar of the Magi is located directly opposite from the manger site. The adjoining Church of St. Catherine is a Roman Catholic church dedicated to St. Catherine of Alexandria, built in a more modern Gothic Revival style. It has been further modernized according to the liturgical trends which followed Vatican II. This is the church where the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem celebrates Midnight Mass on Christmas Eve. Certain customs in this Midnight Mass predate Vatican II, but must be maintained because the "status


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: quo" was legally fixed by a firman (decree) in 1852 under the Ottoman Empire, which is still in force today. The bas-relief of the Tree of Jesse is a sculpture by Czesław Dźwigaj which was recently incorporated into the Church of St. Catherine as a gift of Pope Benedict XVI during his trip to the Holy Land in 2009. It represents an olive tree as the Tree of Jesse, displaying the genealogy of Jesus from Abraham through Joseph, as well as symbolism from the Old Testament. The upper portion is dominated by a crowned figure of Christ the King in


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: an open-armed pose blessing the Earth. It is situated along the passage used by pilgrims making their way to the Grotto of the Nativity. Several chapels are found in the caves accessed from St. Catherine's, including the Chapel of Saint Joseph commemorating the angel's appearance to Joseph, commanding him to flee to Egypt (); the Chapel of the Innocents, commemorating the children killed by Herod (); and the Chapel of Saint Jerome, in the underground cell where tradition holds he lived while translating the Bible into Latin (the Vulgate). According to a tradition not sustained by history, the tombs of


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: four Catholic saints are said to be located beneath the Church of the Nativity, in the caves accessible from the Church of St. Catherine: A number of ancient through-shaped tombs can be seen in the Catholic-owned caves adjacent to the Nativity Grotto and St Jerome's Cave, some of them inside the Chapel of the Innocents; more tombs can be seen on the southern, Greek-Orthodox side of the Basilica of the Nativity, also presented as being those of the infants murdered by Herod. In 2012, the church complex became the first Palestinian site to be listed as a World Heritage site


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: by the World Heritage Committee at its 36th session on 29 June. It was approved by a secret vote of 13–6 in the 21-member committee, according to UNESCO spokeswoman Sue Williams, and following an emergency candidacy procedure that by-passed the 18-month process for most sites, despite the opposition of the United States and Israel. The site was approved under criteria four and six. The decision was a controversial one on both technical and political terms. It has also been placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger as it is suffering from damages due to water leaks. The basilica


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: was placed on the 2008 Watch List of the 100 Most Endangered Sites by the World Monuments Fund: The present state of the church is worrying. Many roof timbers are rotting, and have not been replaced since the 19th century. The rainwater that seeps into the building not only accelerates the rotting of the wood and damages the structural integrity of the building, but also damages the 12th-century wall mosaics and paintings. The influx of water also means that there is an ever-present chance of an electrical fire. If another earthquake were to occur on the scale of the one


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: of 1834, the result would most likely be catastrophic. ... It is hoped that the listing will encourage its preservation, including getting the three custodians of the church—the Greek Orthodox Church, the Armenian Orthodox Church, and the Franciscan order—to work together, which has not happened for hundreds of years. The Israeli government and the Palestinian Authority would also have to work together to protect it. In 2010, the Palestinian Authority announced that a multimillion-dollar restoration programme was imminent. The initial phase of the restoration work was completed in early 2016. The project is partially funded by Palestinians and conducted by


title: "Church of the Nativity" content: a team of Palestinian and international experts. New windows have been installed, structural repairs on the roof have been completed and art works and mosaics have been cleaned and restored. Although overwhelmingly Muslim, Palestinians consider the church a national treasure and one of their most visited tourist sites. President Mahmoud Abbas has been actively involved in the project, which is led by Ziad al-Bandak. Church of the Nativity The Church of the Nativity, also Basilica of the Nativity (; ; ; ) is a basilica located in Bethlehem in the West Bank. The grotto it contains holds a prominent religious


title: "Herbert Beerbohm Tree" content: to appeal to the broad public taste for realistic scenery and scenic effects and lavish spectacle, mirroring the Edwardian fashion for luxury and extravagance. For example, in "The Winter's Tale" (1906), there was a woodland glade with a shepherd's cottage and babbling brook; in "The Tempest" (1904), a replica of a sixteenth-century vessel was tossed in a storm; in "The Merchant of Venice" (1908), he recreated an authentic Renaissance ghetto. Tree expounded his views on staging in 1897: Tree sometimes interpolated scenes of famous historical events into the plays to provide even more spectacle, such as King John's granting of


title: "Vanessa Redgrave" content: the age of 80, Redgrave made her directorial debut with the feature documentary "Sea Sorrow", which covers the plight of child migrants in the Calais refugee camps and the broader European migrant crisis. It premiered at the 2017 Cannes Film Festival. Critics praised the documentary's message but criticized the structure for a "scattershot lack of focus" and the "ungainliness of its production values." Theatre Redgrave won four Evening Standard Awards for Best Actress in four decades. She was awarded the Laurence Olivier Award for Actress of the Year in a Revival in 1984 for "The Aspern Papers". In 2000, her


title: "Venn diagram" content: Venn diagram A Venn diagram (also called primary diagram, set diagram or logic diagram) is a diagram that shows "all" possible logical relations between a finite collection of different sets. These diagrams depict elements as points in the plane, and sets as regions inside closed curves. A Venn diagram consists of multiple overlapping closed curves, usually circles, each representing a set. The points inside a curve labelled "S" represent elements of the set "S", while points outside the boundary represent elements not in the set "S". This lends to easily read visualizations; for example, the set of all elements that


title: "Venn diagram" content: are members of both sets "S" and "T", "S" ∩ "T", is represented visually by the area of overlap of the regions "S" and "T". In Venn diagrams the curves are overlapped in every possible way, showing all possible relations between the sets. They are thus a special case of Euler diagrams, which do not necessarily show all relations. Venn diagrams were conceived around 1880 by John Venn. They are used to teach elementary set theory, as well as illustrate simple set relationships in probability, logic, statistics, linguistics, and computer science. A Venn diagram in which the area of each


title: "Venn diagram" content: shape is proportional to the number of elements it contains is called an area-proportional or scaled Venn diagram. This example involves two sets, A and B, represented here as coloured circles. The orange circle, set A, represents all living creatures that are two-legged. The blue circle, set B, represents the living creatures that can fly. Each separate type of creature can be imagined as a point somewhere in the diagram. Living creatures that both can fly "and" have two legs—for example, parrots—are then in both sets, so they correspond to points in the region where the blue and orange circles


title: "Venn diagram" content: overlap. It is important to note that this overlapping region would only contain those elements (in this example creatures) that are members of both set A (two-legged creatures) and are also members of set B (flying creatures.) Humans and penguins are bipedal, and so are then in the orange circle, but since they cannot fly they appear in the left part of the orange circle, where it does not overlap with the blue circle. Mosquitoes have six legs, and fly, so the point for mosquitoes is in the part of the blue circle that does not overlap with the orange


title: "Venn diagram" content: one. Creatures that are not two-legged and cannot fly (for example, whales and spiders) would all be represented by points outside both circles. The combined region of sets A and B is called the "union" of A and B, denoted by . The union in this case contains all living creatures that are either two-legged or that can fly (or both). The region in both A and B, where the two sets overlap, is called the "intersection" of A and B, denoted by . For example, the intersection of the two sets is not empty, because there "are" points that


title: "Venn diagram" content: represent creatures that are in "both" the orange and blue circles. Venn diagrams were introduced in 1880 by John Venn in a paper entitled "On the Diagrammatic and Mechanical Representation of Propositions and Reasonings" in the "Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science", about the different ways to represent propositions by diagrams. The use of these types of diagrams in formal logic, according to Frank Ruskey and Mark Weston, is "not an easy history to trace, but it is certain that the diagrams that are popularly associated with Venn, in fact, originated much earlier. They are rightly associated with Venn, however,


title: "Venn diagram" content: because he comprehensively surveyed and formalized their usage, and was the first to generalize them". Venn himself did not use the term "Venn diagram" and referred to his invention as "Eulerian Circles". For example, in the opening sentence of his 1880 article Venn writes, "Schemes of diagrammatic representation have been so familiarly introduced into logical treatises during the last century or so, that many readers, even those who have made no professional study of logic, may be supposed to be acquainted with the general nature and object of such devices. Of these schemes one only, viz. that commonly called 'Eulerian


title: "Venn diagram" content: circles,' has met with any general acceptance..." Lewis Carroll (Charles Dodgson) includes "Venn's Method of Diagrams" as well as "Euler's Method of Diagrams" in an "Appendix, Addressed to Teachers" of his book "Symbolic Logic" (4th edition published in 1896). The term "Venn diagram" was later used by Clarence Irving Lewis in 1918, in his book "A Survey of Symbolic Logic". Venn diagrams are very similar to Euler diagrams, which were invented by Leonhard Euler in the 18th century. M. E. Baron has noted that Leibniz (1646–1716) in the 17th century produced similar diagrams before Euler, but much of it was


title: "Venn diagram" content: unpublished. She also observes even earlier Euler-like diagrams by Ramon Llull in the 13th Century. In the 20th century, Venn diagrams were further developed. D. W. Henderson showed in 1963 that the existence of an "n"-Venn diagram with "n"-fold rotational symmetry implied that "n" was a prime number. He also showed that such symmetric Venn diagrams exist when "n" is 5 or 7. In 2002 Peter Hamburger found symmetric Venn diagrams for "n" = 11 and in 2003, Griggs, Killian, and Savage showed that symmetric Venn diagrams exist for all other primes. Thus rotationally symmetric Venn diagrams exist if and


title: "Venn diagram" content: only if "n" is a prime number. Venn diagrams and Euler diagrams were incorporated as part of instruction in set theory as part of the new math movement in the 1960s. Since then, they have also been adopted in the curriculum of other fields such as reading. A Venn diagram is constructed with a collection of simple closed curves drawn in a plane. According to Lewis, the "principle of these diagrams is that classes [or "sets"] be represented by regions in such relation to one another that all the possible logical relations of these classes can be indicated in the


title: "Venn diagram" content: same diagram. That is, the diagram initially leaves room for any possible relation of the classes, and the actual or given relation, can then be specified by indicating that some particular region is null or is not-null". Venn diagrams normally comprise overlapping circles. The interior of the circle symbolically represents the elements of the set, while the exterior represents elements that are not members of the set. For instance, in a two-set Venn diagram, one circle may represent the group of all wooden objects, while another circle may represent the set of all tables. The overlapping region or "intersection" would


title: "Venn diagram" content: then represent the set of all wooden tables. Shapes other than circles can be employed as shown below by Venn's own higher set diagrams. Venn diagrams do not generally contain information on the relative or absolute sizes (cardinality) of sets; i.e. they are schematic diagrams. Venn diagrams are similar to Euler diagrams. However, a Venn diagram for "n" component sets must contain all 2 hypothetically possible zones that correspond to some combination of inclusion or exclusion in each of the component sets. Euler diagrams contain only the actually possible zones in a given context. In Venn diagrams, a shaded zone


title: "Venn diagram" content: may represent an empty zone, whereas in an Euler diagram the corresponding zone is missing from the diagram. For example, if one set represents "dairy products" and another "cheeses", the Venn diagram contains a zone for cheeses that are not dairy products. Assuming that in the context "cheese" means some type of dairy product, the Euler diagram has the cheese zone entirely contained within the dairy-product zone—there is no zone for (non-existent) non-dairy cheese. This means that as the number of contours increases, Euler diagrams are typically less visually complex than the equivalent Venn diagram, particularly if the number of


title: "Venn diagram" content: non-empty intersections is small. The difference between Euler and Venn diagrams can be seen in the following example. Take the three sets: The Venn and the Euler diagram of those sets are: Venn diagrams typically represent two or three sets, but there are forms that allow for higher numbers. Shown below, four intersecting spheres form the highest order Venn diagram that has the symmetry of a simplex and can be visually represented. The 16 intersections correspond to the vertices of a tesseract (or the cells of a 16-cell respectively). For higher numbers of sets, some loss of symmetry in the


title: "Venn diagram" content: diagrams is unavoidable. Venn was keen to find "symmetrical figures...elegant in themselves," that represented higher numbers of sets, and he devised an "elegant" four-set diagram using ellipses (see below). He also gave a construction for Venn diagrams for "any" number of sets, where each successive curve that delimits a set interleaves with previous curves, starting with the three-circle diagram. Anthony William Fairbank Edwards constructed a series of Venn diagrams for higher numbers of sets by segmenting the surface of a sphere, which became known as Edwards–Venn diagrams. For example, three sets can be easily represented by taking three hemispheres of


title: "Venn diagram" content: the sphere at right angles ("x" = 0, "y" = 0 and "z" = 0). A fourth set can be added to the representation by taking a curve similar to the seam on a tennis ball, which winds up and down around the equator, and so on. The resulting sets can then be projected back to a plane to give "cogwheel" diagrams with increasing numbers of teeth, as shown here. These diagrams were devised while designing a stained-glass window in memory of Venn. Edwards–Venn diagrams are topologically equivalent to diagrams devised by Branko Grünbaum, which were based around intersecting polygons


title: "Venn diagram" content: with increasing numbers of sides. They are also two-dimensional representations of hypercubes. Henry John Stephen Smith devised similar "n"-set diagrams using sine curves with the series of equations Charles Lutwidge Dodgson (aka Lewis Carroll) devised a five-set diagram known as Carroll's square. Joaquin and Boyles, on the other hand, proposed supplemental rules for the standard Venn diagram in able to account for certain problem cases. For instance, regarding the issue of representing singular statements, they suggest to consider the Venn diagram circle as a representation of a set of things, and use first-order logic and set theory to treat categorical


title: "Venn diagram" content: statements as statements about sets. Additionally, they propose to treat singular statements as statements about set membership. So, for example, to represent the statement “a is F” in this retooled Venn diagram, a small letter “a” may be placed inside the circle that represents the set F. Venn diagrams correspond to truth tables for the propositions formula_5, formula_6, etc., in the sense that each region of Venn diagram corresponds to one row of the truth table. This type is also known as Johnston diagram. Another way of representing sets is with John F. Randolph's R-diagrams. Venn diagram A Venn diagram


title: Nagoya content: College of Music, Nagoya Future Culture College, Nagoya Gakuin University, Nagoya Management Junior College, Nagoya Women's University, St. Mary's College, Nagoya, Sugiyama Jogakuen University, Sugiyama Jogakuen University Junior College, Tokai Gakuen Women's College. Various universities from outside Nagoya have set up satellite campuses, such as Tokyo University of Social Welfare. The Hōsa Library dates to the 17th century and houses 110,000 items, including books of classic literature that are an heirloom of the Owari Tokugawa and were bequeathed to the city. The Nagoya City Archives store a large collection of documents and books. Tsuruma Central Library is a public library


title: "Ophrys apifera" content: Ophrys apifera Ophrys apifera, known in Europe as the bee orchid, is a perennial herbaceous plant belonging to the family Orchidaceae. It is remarkable as an example of sexually-deceptive pollination and floral mimicry as well as of a highly-selective and highly evolved plant-pollinator relationship. "Ophrys apifera" grows to a height of . This hardy orchid develops small rosettes of leaves in autumn. They continue to grow slowly during winter. Basal leaves are ovate or oblong-lanceolate, upper leaves and bracts are ovate-lanceolate and sheathing. The plant blooms from mid-April in continental Europe, but in the United Kingdom it flowers June to


title: "Ophrys apifera" content: July. A flower spike is produced, composed from one to twelve flowers. The flowers have large sepals, with a central green rib and colour varying from white to pink, while petals are short, pubescent, yellow to greenish. The labellum is trilobed, with two pronounced humps on the hairy lateral lobes, the median lobe is hairy and similar to the abdomen of a bee. The labellum is remarkable for displaying at least four distinct colours, in addition to the two colours of the sepals and petals. Pattern of labellum colouration is quite variable. The gynostegium is at right angles, with an


title: "Ophrys apifera" content: elongated apex. "Ophrys apifera" is widespread across central and southern Europe, as well as North Africa and the Middle East. Its range stretches from Portugal, Ireland and Denmark east to Iran and the Caucasus. It is quite common in the Mediterranean region eastwards to the Black Sea, (Codes) but is less common in its northern range being uncommon or local in Germany and Ireland. In the UK, it has a distinct southeastern preference, being more common in England. Recently it has been found in the southwest of England in Butleigh near Glastonbury in Somerset; whereas it is only to be


title: "Ophrys apifera" content: found in coastal regions of Wales as well as the Hodbarrow Nature Reserve in Millom, Cumbria, and some parts of Northern Ireland. It is relatively common in the northeast of England and in recent years large numbers have appeared in the grass verges surrounding the Metro Centre in Gateshead. In Scotland, it was thought to be extinct, but was rediscovered in Ayrshire in 2003. In some countries the plants have protected status. They are unusual in that in some years they appear in great numbers, then sometimes only reappear after an absence of many years. "Ophrys apifera" generally grows on


title: "Ophrys apifera" content: semi-dry turf, in grassland, on limestone, calcareous dunes or in open areas in woodland. It prefers calcareous soils, in bright light or dim light. It is a major colonizer of sites disturbed by human activity, such as old quarries, roadside verges and airfields. "O. apifera" is one of the most likely European orchid species to establish itself within towns and cities. "Ophrys apifera" relies upon a symbiotic relationship with mycorrhizal fungi in the genus "Tulasnella", to extract sufficient nutrient from the soil it grows in. This makes it vulnerable to chemicals, particularly fungicides, but also other chemical applications which could


title: "Ophrys apifera" content: reduce the prevalence of "Tulasnella" fungi. "Ophrys apifera" is the only species of the genus "Ophrys" which preferentially practices self-pollination. The flowers are almost exclusively self-pollinating in the northern ranges of the plant's distribution, but pollination by the solitary bee "Eucera longicornis" occurs in the Mediterranean area. In this case the plant attracts these insects by producing a scent that mimics the scent of the female bee. In addition, the lip acts as a decoy as the male bee confuses it with a female. Pollen transfer occurs during the ensuing pseudocopulation. The flowers emit allomones that attract the bee species


title: "Ophrys apifera" content: "Tetralonia cressa" and "Eucera pulveraceae". "Eucera longicornis" males have been observed attempting to copulate with the flowers. It is also believed that male bees would preferentially select orchids with the most bee-like lips and attempt to mate with them, transferring pollen in the process. "Ophrys apifera" is the County flower of Bedfordshire. The bee orchid is the focus of one episode of the online comic strip xkcd , but the comic is not correct in stating that the pollinator "went extinct". The name "Ophrys" derives from the Greek word ', meaning "eyebrow", while the Latin specific epithet ' means "bee-bearing"


title: "Ophrys apifera" content: or "bee-bringing" and refers to the bee-shaped lip of the orchid. The genus "Ophrys" is the most species-rich (i.e. diverse) genus of orchids in Europe and the Mediterranean with over 200 species, according to 'Orchids of Britain and Europe' by Pierre Delforge. Floral parts display the presence of quercetin and kaempferol glycosides, which are supposed to be acylated, as well as cinnamic acid derivatives. The pink outer tepals show the presence of anthocyanins. Ophrys apifera Ophrys apifera, known in Europe as the bee orchid, is a perennial herbaceous plant belonging to the family Orchidaceae. It is remarkable as an example


title: "Michael Heseltine" content: ITV, very likely, in Crick's view, to maintain his public profile as an aspiring politician. Despite Heseltine's later insistence on management controls in government departments which he ran, Cornmarket was a highly disorganised company, with little in the way of accounting or business plans and cheques and invoices often going astray. One of its most lucrative ventures, the "Graduates Appointments Register" (albums of anonymous graduate CVs—companies had to pay for the names and addresses of those whom they wished to interview), went ahead after an employee simply ignored Heseltine's instructions to abandon the project. Heseltine and Labovitch brought a great


title: Bloodletting content: principal results, which we effect by it, are 1st. The diminution of the mass of the blood, by which the overloaded capillary or larger vessels of some affected part may be relieved; 2. The modification of the force and frequency of the heart's action; 3. A change in the composition of the blood, rendering it less stimulating; the proportion of serum becoming increased after bleeding, in consequence of its being reproduced with greater facility than the other elements of the blood; 4. The production of syncope, for the purpose of effecting a sudden general relaxation of the system; and, 5.


title: "History of Catalonia" content: Generalitat of Catalonia, called the politician members from all the Principality in order to form a "Junta de Braços" or "Braços Generals" (General Estates), a consultive body. The calling was a success, and the presence of cities and feudal villages was exceptionally large. This assembly worked with individual voting and began to create and apply various revolutionary measures, such as the establishment of a Council of Defense of the Principality, a special tax for the nobility (the "Batalló") and made contacts with the Kingdom of France, while the tension with the monarchy grew and started the military conflicts. Finally, on


title: "Pompeu Fabra" content: de l'Ensenyança Catalana. His "Converses filològiques," first published in the newspaper "La Publicitat," were later collected as "Popular Barcino." Probably his most famous work was the "Diccionari General de la Llengua Catalana" (1932), the first edition of which later became the Institute's official dictionary. In 1932, owing to his scientific prestige, he was unanimously named a professor ("catedràtic") of the Republican "Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona" (not to be confused with the later Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona created in the 1960s during the Francoist régime). The following year he was named President of the University's governing council, which resulted in his


title: "Fresnel lens" content: Fresnel lens A Fresnel lens ( or ) is a type of compact lens originally developed by French physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel for lighthouses. The design allows the construction of lenses of large aperture and short focal length without the mass and volume of material that would be required by a lens of conventional design. A Fresnel lens can be made much thinner than a comparable conventional lens, in some cases taking the form of a flat sheet. A Fresnel lens can capture more oblique light from a light source, thus allowing the light from a lighthouse equipped with one to


title: "Fresnel lens" content: be visible over greater distances. The idea of creating a thinner, lighter lens in the form of a series of annular steps is often attributed to Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon. Whereas Buffon proposed grinding such a lens from a single piece of glass, the Marquis de Condorcet (1743–1794) proposed making it with separate sections mounted in a frame. French physicist and engineer Augustin-Jean Fresnel is most often given credit for the development of the multi-part lens for use in lighthouses. According to "Smithsonian" magazine, the first Fresnel lens was used in 1823 in the Cordouan lighthouse at the mouth


title: "Fresnel lens" content: of the Gironde estuary; its light could be seen from more than out. Scottish physicist Sir David Brewster is credited with convincing the United Kingdom to adopt these lenses in their lighthouses. The Fresnel lens reduces the amount of material required compared to a conventional lens by dividing the lens into a set of concentric annular sections. An ideal Fresnel lens would have an infinite number of sections. In each section, the overall thickness is decreased compared to an equivalent simple lens. This effectively divides the continuous surface of a standard lens into a set of surfaces of the same


title: "Fresnel lens" content: curvature, with stepwise discontinuities between them. In some lenses, the curved surfaces are replaced with flat surfaces, with a different angle in each section. Such a lens can be regarded as an array of prisms arranged in a circular fashion, with steeper prisms on the edges, and a flat or slightly convex center. In the first (and largest) Fresnel lenses, each section was actually a separate prism. 'Single-piece' Fresnel lenses were later produced, being used for automobile headlamps, brake, parking, and turn signal lenses, and so on. In modern times, computer-controlled milling equipment (CNC) might be used to manufacture more


title: "Fresnel lens" content: complex lenses. Fresnel lens design allows a substantial reduction in thickness (and thus mass and volume of material), at the expense of reducing the imaging quality of the lens, which is why precise imaging applications such as photography usually still use larger conventional lenses. Fresnel lenses are usually made of glass or plastic; their size varies from large (old historical lighthouses, meter size) to medium (book-reading aids, OHP viewgraph projectors) to small (TLR/SLR camera screens, micro-optics). In many cases they are very thin and flat, almost flexible, with thicknesses in the range. Modern Fresnel lenses usually consist of all refractive


title: "Fresnel lens" content: elements. However many of the lighthouses have both refracting and reflecting elements, as shown in the photographs and diagram. That is, the outer elements are sections of reflectors while the inner elements are sections of refractive lenses. Total internal reflection was often used to avoid the light loss in reflection from a silvered mirror. Fresnel produced six sizes of lighthouse lenses, divided into four "orders" based on their size and focal length. In modern use, these are classified as first through sixth order. An intermediate size between third and fourth order was added later, as well as sizes above first


title: "Fresnel lens" content: order and below sixth. A first-order lens has a focal length of 920 mm (36 in) and a maximum diameter 2590 mm (8.5 ft) high. The complete assembly is about 3.7 m (12 ft) tall and 1.8 m (6 ft) wide. The smallest (sixth-order) has a focal length of 150 mm (5.9 in) and an optical diameter 433 mm (17 in) high. The largest Fresnel lenses are called hyperradiant Fresnel lenses. One such lens was on hand when it was decided to build and outfit the Makapuu Point Light in Hawaii. Rather than order a new lens, the huge optic


title: "Fresnel lens" content: construction, tall and with over a thousand prisms, was used there. There are two main types of Fresnel lens: "imaging" and "non-imaging". Imaging Fresnel lenses use segments with curved cross-sections and produce sharp images, while non-imaging lenses have segments with flat cross-sections, and do not produce sharp images. As the number of segments increases, the two types of lens become more similar to each other. In the abstract case of an infinite number of segments, the difference between curved and flat segments disappears. Fresnel lenses are used as simple hand-held magnifiers. They are also used to correct several visual disorders,


title: "Fresnel lens" content: including ocular-motility disorders such as strabismus. Fresnel lenses have been used to increase the visual size of CRT displays in pocket televisions, notably the Sinclair TV80. They are also used in traffic lights. Fresnel lenses are used in left-hand-drive European lorries entering the UK and Republic of Ireland (and vice versa, right-hand-drive Irish and British trucks entering mainland Europe) to overcome the blind spots caused by the driver operating the lorry while sitting on the wrong side of the cab relative to the side of the road the car is on. They attach to the passenger-side window. Another automobile application


title: "Fresnel lens" content: of a Fresnel lens is a rear view enhancer, as the wide view angle of a lens attached to the rear window permits examining the scene behind a vehicle, particularly a tall or bluff-tailed one, more effectively than a rear-view mirror alone. Multi-focal Fresnel lenses are also used as a part of retina identification cameras, where they provide multiple in- and out-of-focus images of a fixation target inside the camera. For virtually all users, at least one of the images will be in focus, thus allowing correct eye alignment. Fresnel lenses have also been used in the field of popular


title: "Fresnel lens" content: entertainment. The British rock artist Peter Gabriel made use of them in his early solo live performances to magnify the size of his head, in contrast to the rest of his body, for dramatic and comic effect. In the Terry Gilliam film "Brazil", plastic Fresnel screens appear ostensibly as magnifiers for the small CRT monitors used throughout the offices of the Ministry of Information. However, they occasionally appear between the actors and the camera, distorting the scale and composition of the scene to humorous effect. The Pixar movie Wall-E features a fresnel lens in the scenes where the protagonist watches


title: "Fresnel lens" content: the musical Hello, Dolly! magnified on an iPod. Canon and Nikon have used Fresnel lenses to reduce the size of telephoto lenses. Photographic lenses that include Fresnel elements can be much shorter than corresponding conventional lens design. Nikon calls their technology "Phase Fresnel". The Polaroid SX-70 camera used a Fresnel reflector as part of its viewing system. View and large format cameras can utilize a Fresnel lens in conjunction with the ground glass, to increase the perceived brightness of the image projected by a lens onto the ground glass, thus aiding in adjusting focus and composition. High-quality glass Fresnel lenses


title: "Fresnel lens" content: were used in lighthouses, where they were considered state of the art in the late 19th and through the middle of the 20th centuries; most lighthouses have now retired them from service. Lighthouse Fresnel lens systems typically include extra annular prismatic elements, arrayed in faceted domes above and below the central planar Fresnel, in order to catch all light emitted from the light source. The light path through these elements can include an internal reflection, rather than the simple refraction in the planar Fresnel element. These lenses conferred many practical benefits upon the designers, builders, and users of lighthouses and


title: "Fresnel lens" content: their illumination. Among other things, smaller lenses could fit into more compact spaces. Greater light transmission over longer distances, and varied patterns, made it possible to triangulate a position. Perhaps the most widespread use of Fresnel lenses, for a time, occurred in automobile headlamps, where they can shape the roughly parallel beam from the parabolic reflector to meet requirements for dipped and main-beam patterns, often both in the same headlamp unit (such as the European H4 design). For reasons of economy, weight, and impact resistance, newer cars have dispensed with glass Fresnel lenses, using multifaceted reflectors with plain polycarbonate lenses.


title: "Fresnel lens" content: However, Fresnel lenses continue in wide use in automobile tail, marker, and backup lights. Glass Fresnel lenses also are used in lighting instruments for theatre and motion pictures (see Fresnel lantern); such instruments are often called simply "Fresnels". The entire instrument consists of a metal housing, a reflector, a lamp assembly, and a Fresnel lens. Many Fresnel instruments allow the lamp to be moved relative to the lens' focal point, to increase or decrease the size of the light beam. As a result, they are very flexible, and can often produce a beam as narrow as 7° or as wide


title: "Fresnel lens" content: as 70°. The Fresnel lens produces a very soft-edged beam, so is often used as a wash light. A holder in front of the lens can hold a colored plastic film ("gel") to tint the light or wire screens or frosted plastic to diffuse it. The Fresnel lens is useful in the making of motion pictures not only because of its ability to focus the beam brighter than a typical lens, but also because the light is a relatively consistent intensity across the entire width of the beam of light. Aircraft carriers and naval air stations typically use Fresnel lenses


title: "Fresnel lens" content: in their optical landing systems. The "meatball" light aids the pilot in maintaining proper glide slope for the landing. In the center are amber and red lights composed of Fresnel lenses. Although the lights are always on, the angle of the lens from the pilot's point of view determines the color and position of the visible light. If the lights appear above the green horizontal bar, the pilot is too high. If it is below, the pilot is too low, and if the lights are red, the pilot is very low. The Fresnel lens has seen applications for enhancing passenger


title: "Fresnel lens" content: reading lights on Airbus aircraft: in a dark cabin, the focused beam of light does not dazzle neighboring passengers. The use of Fresnel lenses for image projection reduces image quality, so they tend to occur only where quality is not critical or where the bulk of a solid lens would be prohibitive. Cheap Fresnel lenses can be stamped or molded of transparent plastic and are used in overhead projectors and projection televisions. Fresnel lenses of different focal lengths (one collimator, and one collector) are used in commercial and DIY projection. The collimator lens has the lower focal length and is


title: "Fresnel lens" content: placed closer to the light source, and the collector lens, which focuses the light into the triplet lens, is placed after the projection image (an active matrix LCD panel in LCD projectors). Fresnel lenses are also used as collimators in overhead projectors. Since plastic Fresnel lenses can be made larger than glass lenses, as well as being much cheaper and lighter, they are used to concentrate sunlight for heating in solar cookers, in solar forges, and in solar collectors used to heat water for domestic use. They can also be used to generate steam or to power a Stirling engine.


title: "Fresnel lens" content: Fresnel lenses can concentrate sunlight onto solar cells with a ratio of almost 500:1. This allows the active solar-cell surface to be reduced, lowering cost and allowing the use of more efficient cells that would otherwise be too expensive. In the early 21st century, Fresnel reflectors began to be used in concentrating solar power (CSP) plants to concentrate solar energy. One application was to preheat water at the coal-fired Liddell Power Station, in Hunter Valley Australia. Fresnel lenses can be used to sinter sand, allowing 3D printing in glass. The English children's fantasy television series "Shadows" features an episode "The


title: "Fresnel lens" content: Other Window", in which a scientist places a Fresnel lens on a window of his home, and his children and his mother are able to see visions of their ancestors in previous centuries in it. In the horror manga "Uzumaki" by Junji Ito, the concentric patterns of the Fresnel lens of a lighthouse are melted by heat and form a spiral. A subplot in Jimmy Buffett's novel "A Salty Piece of Land" follows the characters' efforts to find a Fresnel lens to refurbish a Bahamian lighthouse. A Fresnel lens is featured in the 2016 film "To Keep the Light" wherein


title: "Fresnel lens" content: a lighthouse keeper's wife fulfills her husband's duties. Fresnel lens A Fresnel lens ( or ) is a type of compact lens originally developed by French physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel for lighthouses. The design allows the construction of lenses of large aperture and short focal length without the mass and volume of material that would be required by a lens of conventional design. A Fresnel lens can be made much thinner than a comparable conventional lens, in some cases taking the form of a flat sheet. A Fresnel lens can capture more oblique light from a light source, thus allowing the


title: Powerlifting content: Powerlifting Powerlifting is a strength sport that consists of three attempts at maximal weight on three lifts: squat, bench press, and deadlift. As in the sport of Olympic weightlifting, it involves the athlete attempting a maximal weight single lift of a barbell loaded with weight plates. Powerlifting evolved from a sport known as "odd lifts", which followed the same three-attempt format but used a wider variety of events, akin to strongman competition. Eventually odd lifts became standardized to the current three. In competition, lifts may be performed equipped or un-equipped (typically referred to as 'raw' lifting or 'classic' in the


title: Powerlifting content: IPF specifically). Equipment in this context refers to a supportive bench shirt or squat/deadlift suit or briefs. In some federations, knee wraps are permitted in the equipped but not un-equipped division; in others, they may be used in both equipped and un-equipped lifting. Weight belts, knee sleeves, wrist wraps and special footwear may also be used, but are not considered when distinguishing equipped from un-equipped lifting. Competitions take place across the world. Powerlifting has been a Paralympic sport (bench press only) since 1984 and, under the IPF, is also a World Games sport. Local, national and international competitions have also


title: Powerlifting content: been sanctioned by other federations operating independently of the IPF. The roots of powerlifting are found in traditions of strength training stretching back as far as ancient Greek and Roman times. The modern sport originated in the United Kingdom and the United States in the 1950s. Previously, the weightlifting governing bodies in both countries had recognized various "odd lifts" for competition and record purposes. During the 1950s, Olympic weightlifting declined in the United States, while strength sports gained many new followers. In 1958, the AAU's National Weightlifting Committee decided to begin recognizing records for odd lifts. A national championship was


title: Powerlifting content: tentatively scheduled for 1959, but never happened. The first genuine national "meet" was held in September 1964 under the auspices of the York Barbell Company. Ironically, York Barbell owner Bob Hoffman had been a longtime adversary of the sport, but his company was now making powerlifting equipment to make up for the sales it had lost on Olympic equipment. During the late 1950s, Hoffman's influence on Olympic lifting and his predominately Olympic-based magazine "Strength and Health" were beginning to come under increasing pressure from Joe Weider's organization. In order to combat the growing influence of Weider, Hoffman started another magazine,


title: Powerlifting content: "Muscular Development", which would be focused more on bodybuilding and the fast-growing interest in odd lift competitions. The magazine's first editor was John Grimek. During the late 1950s and early 1960s, various odd lift events gradually developed into the specific lifts of the bench press, squat, and deadlift, and they were lifted in that order. Hoffman became more and more influential in the development of this new lifting sport and organized the Weightlifting Tournament of America in 1964, effectively the first USA National championships. In 1965, the first named USA National Championships were held. During the same period, lifting in


title: Powerlifting content: Britain also had factions. In the late 1950s, because members of the ruling body (BAWLA) were only interested in the development of Olympic lifting, a breakaway organization called the Society of Amateur Weightlifters had been formed to cater for the interests of lifters who were not particularly interested in Olympic lifting. Although at that time there were 42 recognized lifts, the "Strength Set" (biceps curl, bench press, and squat) soon became the standard competition lifts, and both organizations held Championships on these lifts (as well as on the Olympic lifts) until 1965. In 1966, the Society of Amateur Weightlifters rejoined