title: Bee-eater content: feet are used to kick out the loose soil. It has been suggested that riverine loess deposits that do not crumble when excavated may be favoured by the larger bee-eaters. There may be several false starts where nests are dug partway before being abandoned; in solitary species this can give the impression of colonial living even when that is not the case. The process of nest building can take as long as twenty days to complete, during which time the bill can be blunted and shortened. Nests are generally used only for a single season and are rarely used twice


title: Bee-eater content: by the bee-eaters, but abandoned nests may be used by other birds, snakes and bats as shelter and breeding sites. No nesting material is used in the breeding cavity. One white egg is laid each day until the typical clutch of about five eggs is complete. Incubation starts soon after the first egg is laid, with both parents sharing this duty in the day, but only the female at night. The eggs hatch in about 20 days, and the newly hatched young are blind, pink and naked. For most species, the eggs do not all hatch at the same time,


title: Bee-eater content: so if food is in short supply only the older chicks survive. Adults and young defecate in the nest, and their pellets are trodden underfoot, making the nest cavity very malodorous. The chicks are in the nest for about 30 days. Bee-eaters may nest as single pairs, loose colonies or dense colonies. Smaller species tend to nest solitarily, while medium-sized bee-eaters have small colonies, and larger and migratory species nest in large colonies that can number in the thousands. In some instances, colonies may contain more than one species of bee-eater. In species that nest gregariously, breeding pairs may be


title: Bee-eater content: assisted by up to five helpers, These birds may alternate between breeding themselves and helping in successive years. Bee-eater nests may be raided by rats and snakes, and the adults are hunted by birds of prey such as the Levant sparrowhawk. The little bee-eater and red-throated bee-eaters are hosts of the greater honeyguide and the lesser honeyguide, both brood parasites. The young honeyguides kill the bee-eater's chicks and destroy any eggs. The begging call of the honeyguide sounds like "two" bee-eater chicks, ensuring a good supply of food from the adult bee-eaters. Bee-eaters may be infested by several blood-feeding flies


title: Bee-eater content: of the genus "Carnus", and the biting fly "Ornithophila metallica". Other parasites include chewing lice of the genera "Meromenopon", "Brueeliaa" and "Meropoecus", some of which are specialist parasites of bee-eaters, and the stickfast flea "Echidnophaga gallinacea". The hole-nesting lifestyle of bee-eaters means that they tend to carry a higher burden of external parasites than non-hole-nesting bird species. Bee-eaters may also be infected by protozoan blood parasites of the genus "Haemoproteus" including "H. meropis". Fly larvae of the genus "Fannia" live in the nests of at least European bee-eaters, and feed on faeces and food remains. Their presence and cleaning activities


title: Bee-eater content: appear to benefit the developing bee-eaters. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) assesses species vulnerability in terms of total population and the rate of any population decline. None of the bee-eaters meet the IUCN vulnerability criteria, and all are therefore evaluated as "Least-concern species". Open country species, which comprise the majority of bee-eaters, have mostly expanded in range as more land is converted to agriculture, but some tropical forest species have suffered declines through loss of habitat, although no species or subspecies gives serious cause for concern. There is some human persecution of bee-eaters, with nest holes being


title: Bee-eater content: blocked, adults shot or limed, or young taken for food. More generally problematic is the unintended destruction of nests. This can occur through cattle trampling, as with the blue-headed bee-eater in Kenya, or loss of forests, with massive conversion of native forest to oil palm plantations in Malaysia being particularly concerning. A study of the southern carmine bee-eater in Zimbabwe showed that it was affected by deliberate interference and persecution and loss of woodlands, and that nesting sites are lost though poor water management leading to river bank damage, dam construction and panning for gold. Colonies are becoming concentrated into


title: Bee-eater content: the national parks and the Zambezi Valley. The well-studied European bee-eater is trapped and shot on migration in countries bordering the Mediterranean, an estimated 4,000–6,000 annually being killed in Cyprus alone, but with a global population of between 170,000 and 550,000 pairs even losses on that scale make little overall impact. Bee-eaters were mentioned by ancient writers such as Aristotle and Virgil, who both advised beekeepers to kill the birds. Aristotle knew that bee-eaters nested at the end of tunnels up to long and the size of their clutch. He said that nesting adults were fed by their own young,


title: Bee-eater content: based on the observed actual help at the nest by related birds. In Greek mythology, the Theban Botres was fatally struck by his father when he desecrated a ritual sacrifice of a ram to the god Apollo by tasting the victim's brains. The god took pity on him, turning him into a bee-eater. The Ancient Egyptians believed that bee-eaters had medical properties, prescribing the application of bee-eater fat to deter biting flies, and treating the eyes with the smoke from charred bee-eater legs to cure an unspecified female complaint. In Hinduism, the shape of the bird in flight was thought


title: Bee-eater content: to resemble a bow, with the long bill as an arrow. This led to a Sanskrit name meaning "Vishnu's bow" and an association with archer gods. Scandalmongers were thought to be reincarnated as bee-eaters, because of the metaphorical poison they bore in their mouths. Depictions in classical art are rare for such striking birds. The only known Ancient Egyptian example is a relief, probably of a little green bee-eater, on a wall of Queen Hatshepsut's mortuary temple, and an early Roman mural depicting blue-cheeked bee-eaters was found in the villa of Agrippina. Bee-eaters have been depicted on the postage stamps


title: Bee-eater content: of at least 38 countries, the European and Carmine bee-eaters being the most common subjects, with 18 and 11 countries respectively. Bee-eater The bee-eaters are a group of near-passerine birds in the family Meropidae containing three genera and 27 species. Most species are found in Africa and Asia, with a few in southern Europe, Australia, and New Guinea. They are characterised by richly coloured plumage, slender bodies, and usually elongated central tail feathers. All have long down-turned bills and medium to long wings, which may be pointed or round. Male and female plumages are usually similar. As their name suggests,


title: "JPEG 2000" content: or region of interest access at varying degrees of granularity. It is possible to store different parts of the same picture using different quality. As of 2018, there are very few digital cameras that encode photos in the JPEG 2000 format, and many applications for viewing and editing photos still do not support it. While there is a modest increase in compression performance of JPEG 2000 compared to JPEG, the main advantage offered by JPEG 2000 is the significant flexibility of the codestream. The codestream obtained after compression of an image with JPEG 2000 is scalable in nature, meaning that


title: "Lincoln Motor Company" content: Arab Emirates, Qatar, Oman, Kuwait, Bahrain. Lincoln vehicles are also sold in Canada and Mexico. Lincoln achieved its two best U.S. sales years to date in 1989 (200,315) and 1990 (231,660), thanks largely to the popularity of the redesigned Continental, introduced in December 1987, and of the redesigned Town Car introduced in October 1989. Since 1958, Lincoln has used a framed four-pointed star as its brand logo. Introduced on the Continental Mark II in 1956, the four-point star has undergone various modifications in appearance, but has remained nearly unchanged since 1980. In 1927, Lincoln adopted a greyhound as a hood


title: "Gymnadenia conopsea" content: Gymnadenia conopsea Gymnadenia conopsea, commonly known as the fragrant orchid or marsh fragrant orchid, is a herbaceous plant belonging to the family Orchidaceae native to northern Europe. The name of the genus "Gymnadenia" is formed from Greek words (', "nude") and (', "gland") and refers to the characteristics of the organs for secreting nectar. The specific Latin name "conopsea" derives from the Greek ' ('), literally meaning "mosquito-like", probably because of the similarity of the long spur of the flower with the mouthparts of a mosquito. The scientific binomial name of this plant was initially "Orchis conopsea", proposed by the


title: "Gymnadenia conopsea" content: Swedish naturalist and botanist Carl von Linné (1707–1778) in his ' of 1753. The name has been subsequently amended to the one currently accepted ("Gymnadenia conopsea"), by the British botanist Robert Brown (1773–1858) in 1813. In German, this plant is called ' or '; in French, is called ' or '; in Italy, it is called ' ("pink hand"); in Croatian, it is known under "". "Gymnadenia conopsea" reaches on average of height, with a maximum of . These plants are bulbous geophytes, as they bring their buds in underground tubers or bulbs, organs that annually produce new stems, leaves


title: "Gymnadenia conopsea" content: and flowers. Furthermore, these orchids are "terrestrial", because unlike "epiphyte" species do not live at the expense of other plants of major sizes. The stem is leafy and robust, with a striated surface. The leaves are long, narrow and lanceolate and vary from 3 to 7. The leaf color is gray-green. Size of leaf: width 1 to 2 cm, length 10 – 25 cm. These orchids have two ovoidal bulbs, deeply webbed and with many small and short lobes. Size of tubers: 1 to 3.5 cm. The inflorescence is long and it is composed of flowers gathered in dense cylindrical


title: "Gymnadenia conopsea" content: spikes (up to 50 flowers per spike). These inflorescences are scented and genes underlying eugenol (a volatile scent compound) production have been identified in Gymnadenia conopsea, Gymnadenia odoratissima and Gymnadenia densiflora The flowers are petiolated, placed in the axils of long bracts and reach on average . They have a distinctive three lobed lip and long spurs. Their light scent is similar to cloves. Their colors vary from white and pink to pink-purple, more rarely white. These flowers bloom in the Summer, from June to July. They are hermaphrodite and pollinated by insects (entomophily), including moths. The species is almost


title: "Gymnadenia conopsea" content: exclusively pollinated by moths (Lepidoptera). The most common pollinators are the small elephant hawk-moth ("Deilephila porcellus"), hummingbird hawk-moth ("Macroglossum stellatarum"), silver Y ("Autographa gamma"), burnished brass ("Diachrysia chrysitis") and large yellow underwing ("Noctua pronuba"). Fruit set is high with an average of 73%. The seeds germination is conditioned by the presence of specific fungi. This plant is quite common throughout northern Europe with the exception of the Dinaric Alps. In Asia it is common in areas to the north of the Himalayas. "Gymnadenia conopsea" ssp. "borealis" has been recorded from Co. Donegal, Ireland in 2004. This species habitat includes mountain


title: "Gymnadenia conopsea" content: meadows and pastures, grassland and fens. They grow on siliceous and calcareous substrate, mildly damp and with low nutritional value, at an altitude of above sea level. Gymnadenia conopsea Gymnadenia conopsea, commonly known as the fragrant orchid or marsh fragrant orchid, is a herbaceous plant belonging to the family Orchidaceae native to northern Europe. The name of the genus "Gymnadenia" is formed from Greek words (', "nude") and (', "gland") and refers to the characteristics of the organs for secreting nectar. The specific Latin name "conopsea" derives from the Greek ' ('), literally meaning "mosquito-like", probably because of the similarity


title: Soybean content: Soybean The soybean ("Glycine max"), or soya bean, is a species of legume native to East Asia, widely grown for its edible bean, which has numerous uses. Fat-free (defatted) soybean meal is a significant and cheap source of protein for animal feeds and many packaged meals. For example, soybean products, such as textured vegetable protein (TVP), are ingredients in many meat and dairy substitutes. The beans contain significant amounts of phytic acid, dietary minerals and B vitamins. Soy vegetable oil, used in food and industrial applications, is another product of processing the soybean crop. Traditional unfermented food uses of soybeans


title: Soybean content: include soy milk, from which tofu and tofu skin are made. Fermented soy foods include soy sauce, fermented bean paste, natto, and tempeh. "Soy" originated as a corruption of the Chinese or Japanese names for soy sauce () . The etymology of the genus, "Glycine", comes from Linnaeus. When naming the genus, Linnaeus observed that one of the species within the species had a sweet root. Based on the sweetness, the Greek word for sweet, glykós, was Latinized. The genus name is not related to the amino acid glycine. The genus "Glycine" Willd. is divided into two subgenera, "Glycine" and


title: Soybean content: "Soja". The subgenus "Soja" (Moench) F.J. Herm. includes the cultivated soybean, "Glycine max" (L.) Merr., and the wild soybean, "Glycine soja" Sieb. & Zucc. Both species are annuals. "Glycine soja" is the wild ancestor of "Glycine max", and grows wild in China, Japan, Korea and Russia. The subgenus "Glycine" consists of at least 25 wild perennial species: for example, "Glycine canescens" F.J. Herm. and "G. tomentella" Hayata, both found in Australia and Papua New Guinea. Perennial soybean ("Neonotonia wightii") originated in Africa and is now a widespread pasture crop in the tropics. Like some other crops of long domestication, the


title: Soybean content: relationship of the modern soybean to wild-growing species can no longer be traced with any degree of certainty. It is a cultural variety with a very large number of cultivars. Like most plants, soybeans grow in distinct morphological stages as they develop from seeds into fully mature plants. The first stage of growth is germination, a method which first becomes apparent as a seed's radicle emerges. This is the first stage of root growth and occurs within the first 48 hours under ideal growing conditions. The first photosynthetic structures, the cotyledons, develop from the hypocotyl, the first plant structure to


title: Soybean content: emerge from the soil. These cotyledons both act as leaves and as a source of nutrients for the immature plant, providing the seedling nutrition for its first 7 to 10 days. The first true leaves develop as a pair of single blades. Subsequent to this first pair, mature nodes form compound leaves with three blades. Mature trifoliolate leaves, having three to four leaflets per leaf, are often between long and broad. Under ideal conditions, stem growth continues, producing new nodes every four days. Before flowering, roots can grow per day. If rhizobia are present, root nodulation begins by the time


title: Soybean content: the third node appears. Nodulation typically continues for 8 weeks before the symbiotic infection process stabilizes. The final characteristics of a soybean plant are variable, with factors such as genetics, soil quality, and climate affecting its form; however, fully mature soybean plants are generally between in height and have rooting depths between . Flowering is triggered by day length, often beginning once days become shorter than 12.8 hours. This trait is highly variable however, with different varieties reacting differently to changing day length. Soybeans form inconspicuous, self-fertile flowers which are borne in the axil of the leaf and are white,


title: Soybean content: pink or purple. Depending of the soybean variety, node growth may cease once flowering begins. Strains that continue nodal development after flowering are termed "indeterminates" and are best suited to climates with longer growing seasons. Often soybeans drop their leaves before the seeds are fully mature. The fruit is a hairy pod that grows in clusters of three to five, each pod is long and usually contains two to four (rarely more) seeds 5–11 mm in diameter. Soybean seeds come in a wide variety sizes and hull colors such as black, brown, yellow, and green. Variegated and bicolored seed coats


title: Soybean content: are also common. The hull of the mature bean is hard, water-resistant, and protects the cotyledon and hypocotyl (or "germ") from damage. If the seed coat is cracked, the seed will not germinate. The scar, visible on the seed coat, is called the hilum (colors include black, brown, buff, gray and yellow) and at one end of the hilum is the micropyle, or small opening in the seed coat which can allow the absorption of water for sprouting. Some seeds such as soybeans containing very high levels of protein can undergo desiccation, yet survive and revive after water absorption. A.


title: Soybean content: Carl Leopold began studying this capability at the Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research at Cornell University in the mid-1980s. He found soybeans and corn to have a range of soluble carbohydrates protecting the seed's cell viability. Patents were awarded to him in the early 1990s on techniques for protecting biological membranes and proteins in the dry state. Like many legumes, soybeans can fix atmospheric nitrogen, thanks to symbiotic bacteria from the Rhizobia group. Together, protein and soybean oil content account for 56% of dry soybeans by weight (36% protein and 20% fat, table). The remainder consists of 30% carbohydrates,


title: Soybean content: 9% water and 5% ash (table). Soybeans comprise approximately 8% seed coat or hull, 90% cotyledons and 2% hypocotyl axis or germ. 100 grams of raw soybeans supply 446 calories and are 9% water, 30% carbohydrates, 20% total fat and 36% protein (table). Soybeans are an exceptional source of essential nutrients, providing in a 100 gram serving (raw, for reference) high contents of the Daily Value (DV) especially for protein (36% DV), dietary fiber (37%), iron (121%), manganese (120%), phosphorus (101%) and several B vitamins, including folate (94%) (table). High contents also exist for vitamin K, magnesium, zinc and potassium


title: Soybean content: (table). For human consumption, soybeans must be cooked with "wet" heat to destroy the trypsin inhibitors (serine protease inhibitors). Raw soybeans, including the immature green form, are toxic to all monogastric animals. Most soy protein is a relatively heat-stable storage protein. This heat stability enables soy food products requiring high temperature cooking, such as tofu, soy milk and textured vegetable protein (soy flour) to be made. Soy is a good source of protein for vegetarians and vegans or for people who want to reduce the amount of meat they eat, according to the US Food and Drug Administration: The Protein


title: Soybean content: Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS) of soy protein is the nutritional equivalent of meat, eggs, and casein for human growth and health. Soybean protein isolate has a biological value of 74, whole soybeans 96, soybean milk 91, and eggs 97. Soy protein is essentially identical to the protein of other legume seeds and pulses. Moreover, soybeans can produce at least twice as much protein per acre than any other major vegetable or grain crop besides hemp, five to 10 times more protein per acre than land set aside for grazing animals to make milk, and up to 15 times


title: Soybean content: more protein per acre than land set aside for meat production. All spermatophytes, except for the grass-cereal family, contain soybean-like 7S (vicilin) or 11S (legumin), (S denotes Svedberg, sedimentation coefficients) seed storage globulin proteins. Oats and rice are anomalous in that they also contain a majority of soybean-like protein. Cocoa, for example, contains the 7S globulin, which contributes to cocoa/chocolate taste and aroma;, whereas coffee beans (coffee grounds) contain the 11S globulin responsible for coffee's aroma and flavor. Vicilin and legumin proteins belong to the cupin superfamily, a large family of functionally diverse proteins that have a common origin and


title: Soybean content: whose evolution can be followed from bacteria to eukaryotes including animals and higher plants. 2S albumins form a major group of homologous storage proteins in many dicot species and in some monocots but not in grasses (cereals). Soybeans contain a small but significant 2S storage protein. 2S albumin are grouped in the prolamin superfamily. Other allergenic proteins included in this 'superfamily' are the non-specific plant lipid transfer proteins, alpha amylase inhibitor, trypsin inhibitors, and prolamin storage proteins of cereals and grasses. Peanuts, for instance, contain 20% 2S albumin but only 6% 7S globulin and 74% 11S. It is the high


title: Soybean content: 2S albumin and low 7S globulin that is responsible for the relatively low lysine content of peanut protein compared to soy protein. The principal soluble carbohydrates of mature soybeans are the disaccharide sucrose (range 2.5–8.2%), the trisaccharide raffinose (0.1–1.0%) composed of one sucrose molecule connected to one molecule of galactose, and the tetrasaccharide stachyose (1.4 to 4.1%) composed of one sucrose connected to two molecules of galactose. While the oligosaccharides raffinose and stachyose protect the viability of the soybean seed from desiccation (see above section on physical characteristics) they are not digestible sugars, so contribute to flatulence and abdominal discomfort


title: Soybean content: in humans and other monogastric animals, comparable to the disaccharide trehalose. Undigested oligosaccharides are broken down in the intestine by native microbes, producing gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and methane. Since soluble soy carbohydrates are found in the whey and are broken down during fermentation, soy concentrate, soy protein isolates, tofu, soy sauce, and sprouted soybeans are without flatus activity. On the other hand, there may be some beneficial effects to ingesting oligosaccharides such as raffinose and stachyose, namely, encouraging indigenous bifidobacteria in the colon against putrefactive bacteria. The insoluble carbohydrates in soybeans consist of the complex polysaccharides cellulose,


title: Soybean content: hemicellulose, and pectin. The majority of soybean carbohydrates can be classed as belonging to dietary fiber. Raw soybeans are 20% fat, including saturated fat (3%), monounsaturated fat (4%) and polyunsaturated fat, mainly as linoleic acid (table). Within soybean oil or the lipid portion of the seed is contained four phytosterols: stigmasterol, sitosterol, campesterol, and brassicasterol accounting for about 2.5% of the lipid fraction; and which can be converted into steroid hormones. Additionally soybeans are a rich source of sphingolipids. The following table shows the nutrient content of green soybean and other major staple foods, each in respective raw form. Raw


title: Soybean content: soybeans, however, aren't edible and cannot be digested. These must be sprouted, or prepared and cooked for human consumption. In sprouted and cooked form, the relative nutritional and anti-nutritional contents of each of these grains is remarkably different from that of raw form of these grains reported in this table. The nutritional value of soybean and each cooked staple depends on the processing and the method of cooking: boiling, frying, roasting, baking, etc. Soybeans are a globally important crop, providing oil and protein. In the United States, the bulk of the harvest is solvent-extracted with hexane, and the "toasted" defatted


title: Soybean content: soymeal (50% protein) then makes possible the raising of farm animals (e.g. chicken, hog, turkey) on a large industrial scale. Soybean products are used in a large variety of processed foods. During World War II, soybeans became important in both North America and Europe chiefly as substitutes for other protein foods and as a source of edible oil. During the war, the soybean was discovered as fertilizer by the United States Department of Agriculture. Cultivation is successful in climates with hot summers, with optimum growing conditions in mean temperatures of ; temperatures of below 20 °C and over 40 °C


title: Soybean content: (68 °F, 104 °F) stunt growth significantly. They can grow in a wide range of soils, with optimum growth in moist alluvial soils with a good organic content. Soybeans, like most legumes, perform nitrogen fixation by establishing a symbiotic relationship with the bacterium "Bradyrhizobium japonicum" (syn. "Rhizobium japonicum"; Jordan 1982). For best results, though, an inoculum of the correct strain of bacteria should be mixed with the soybean (or any legume) seed before planting. Modern crop cultivars generally reach a height of around , and take 80–120 days from sowing to harvesting. Environmental groups such as Greenpeace and the WWF


title: Soybean content: have reported soybean cultivation—especially soybean cultivation in Brazil—has already destroyed huge areas of Amazon rainforest, and is encouraging further deforestation. The driving cause of this deforestation is the global demand for meat, which in turn requires huge tracts of land to grow feed crops for livestock. According to the World Bank, animal agriculture is responsible for up to 91% of the destruction of the Amazon rainforest. Soil scientists Edson Lobato (Brazil), Andrew McClung (U.S.), and Alysson Paolinelli (Brazil) were awarded the 2006 World Food Prize for transforming the ecologically biodiverse savannah of the Cerrado region of Brazil into highly productive


title: Soybean content: cropland that could grow profitable soybeans. However, even correcting for poor soils soybeans were an unlikely cash crop for the Cerrado. Soy did not fare well in the low latitudes. More than the heat and humidity, it was a lack of seasons that hampered production. In the higher more northerly latitudes, flowering coincides with the summer solstice, when the plants reach their maximum height. The first soybeans planted in the Cerrado, however, flowered early and, deprived of long summer days, remained stunted. For soy agriculture to take root in Mato Grosso it was first necessary to develop a "tropical soybean"—one


title: Soybean content: that would flower later, giving the plants more time to fully mature. This was accomplished after years of crossbreeding by scientists within Embrapa, the research arm of the Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture. Human sewage sludge can be used as fertilizer to grow soybeans. Soybeans grown in sewage sludge likely contain elevated concentrations of metals. Soybean plants are vulnerable to a wide range of bacterial diseases, fungal diseases, viral diseases and parasites. One important pest is the corn earworm moth and bollworm, which is the most common and destructive pest of soybean growth in Virginia. The main countries growing soybeans in


title: Soybean content: 2016 were the United States (35% of world total), Brazil (29%) and Argentina (18%). The global production of soybeans is forecast to be 337 million tonnes in 2017–2018, The United States, Brazil and Argentina are the world's largest soybean producers and represent more than 80% of global soybean production (table). In 2016, the average worldwide yield for soybean crops was 2.8 tonnes per hectare. The three largest yields per hectare were in Turkey, Georgia and Italy, having an average nationwide soybean yield of 4.0 tonnes. The most productive soybean farms in the world in 2016 were in Turkey, with a


title: Soybean content: nationwide average farm yield of 4.3 tonnes per hectare. In the 1960–1 Dillon round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the United States secured tariff-free access for its soybeans to the European market. In the 1960s, the United States exported over 90% of the world's soybeans. By 2005, the top soybean exporters were Argentina (39% of world soybean exports), United States (37%), and Brazil (16%), while the top importers were China (41% of world soybean imports), European Union (22%), Japan (6%) and Mexico (6%). Soybeans were a crucial crop in East Asia long before written records began.


title: Soybean content: There is evidence for soybean domestication between 7000 and 6600 BC in China, between 5000 and 3000 BC in Japan and 1000 BC in Korea. Prior to fermented products such as fermented black soybeans ("douchi"), "jiang" (Chinese miso), soy sauce, tempeh, natto, and miso, soy was considered sacred for its beneficial effects in crop rotation, and it was eaten by itself, and as bean curd and soy milk. Soybeans were introduced to Java in Malay Archipelago circa 13th century or probably earlier. By the 17th century through their trade with Far East, soybeans and its products were traded by European


title: Soybean content: traders (Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch) in Asia, and supposedly reached Indian Subcontinent by this period. By the 18th century, soybeans were introduced to the Americas and Europe. Soy was introduced to Africa from China in the late 19th century, and is now widespread across the continent. They are now a major crop in the United States, Brazil, Argentina, India, and China. The closest living relative of the soybean is "Glycine soja" (previously called "G. ussuriensis"), a legume native to central China. According to the ancient Chinese myth, in 2853 BC, the legendary Emperor Shennong of China proclaimed that five plants


title: Soybean content: were sacred: soybeans, rice, wheat, barley, and millet. Cultivation of soybeans took place over long periods of time in the prehistory of modern-day Japan, Korea and Northern China, based on archaeological evidence. The origin of soy bean cultivation remains scientifically debated. Early Chinese records mention that soybeans were a gift from the region of Yangtze River delta and Southeast China. Recent research, however, indicates that seeding of wild forms started early (before 5000 BC) in multiple locations throughout East Asia The Great Soviet Encyclopedia claims soybean cultivation originated in China about 5000 years ago. Some scholars suggest that soybean originated


title: Soybean content: in China and was domesticated about 3500 BC. However, the oldest preserved soybeans resembling modern varieties in size and shape were found in archaeological sites in Korea dated about 1000 BC. Radiocarbon dating of soybean samples recovered through flotation during excavations at the Early Mumun period Okbang site in Korea indicated soybean was cultivated as a food crop in around 1000–900 BC. Soybeans from the Jōmon period in Japan from 3000 BC are also significantly larger than wild varieties. The cultivation of soybeans began in the eastern half of northern China by 2000 BC, but is almost certainly much older.


title: Soybean content: Soybeans became an important crop by the Zhou Dynasty (c. 1046 – 256 BC) in China. However, the details of where, when, and under what circumstances soybean developed a close relationship with people are poorly understood. Soy bean was unknown in South China before the Han period. From about the first century AD to the Age of Discovery (15–16th centuries), soybeans were introduced into across South and Southeast Asia. This spread was due to the establishment of sea and land trade routes. The earliest Japanese textual reference to the soybean is in the classic "Kojiki" (Records of Ancient Matters), which


title: Soybean content: was completed in AD 712. Many people have claimed soybeans in Asia were historically only used after a fermentation process, which lowers the high phytoestrogens content found in the raw plant. However, terms similar to "soy milk" have been in use since AD 82, and there is evidence of tofu consumption that dates to 220. Soybeans were mentioned as "kadêlê" (modern Indonesian term: "kedelai") in an old Javanese manuscript, Serat Sri Tanjung, which dates around the 12th to 13th century Java. By the 13th century, the soybean had arrived and cultivated in Indonesia; it probably arrived much earlier however, carried


title: Soybean content: by traders or merchants from Southern China. The earliest known reference to it as "tempeh" appeared in 1815 in the Serat Centhini manuscript. The development of tempeh fermented soybean cake were probably took place earlier, circa 17th century in Java. By the 1600s, soy sauce spread from southern Japan across the region through the Dutch East India Company (VOC). The soybean probably arrived from southern China, moving southwest into northern parts of Indian Subcontinent by this period. In 1603, "Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam", a famous Japanese-Portuguese dictionary, was compiled and published by Jesuit priests in Nagasaki. It contains short


title: Soybean content: but clear definitions for about 20 words related to soyfoods - the first in any European language. The Luso-Hispanic traders were familiar with soybeans and soybean product through their trade with Far East since at least 17th century. However, it was not until the late 19th century that the first attempt to cultivate soybeans in the Iberian peninsula was undertaken. In 1880, the soybean was first cultivated in Portugal in the Botanical Gardens at Coimbra (Crespi 1935). In about 1910 in Spain the first attempts at Soybean cultivation were made by the Count of San Bernardo, who cultivated soybeans on


title: Soybean content: his estates at Almillo (in southwest Spain) about 48 miles east-northeast of Seville. Soybeans were first introduced to North America from China in 1765, by Samuel Bowen, a former East India Company sailor who had visited China in conjunction with James Flint, the first Englishman legally permitted by the Chinese authorities to learn Chinese. The first "New World" soybean crop was grown on Skidaway Island, Georgia in 1765 by Henry Yonge from seeds given him by Samuel Bowen. Bowen grew soy near Savannah, Georgia, possibly using funds from Flint, and made soy sauce for sale to England. Although, soybean was


title: Soybean content: introduced into North America in 1765, for the next 155 years, the crop was grown primarily for forage. In 1831, the first soy product "a few dozen India Soy" [sauce] arrived in Canada. Soybeans were probably first cultivated in Canada by 1855, and definitely in 1895 at Ontario Agricultural College. It was not until Lafayette Mendel and Thomas Burr Osborne showed that the nutritional value of soybean seeds could be increased by cooking, moisture or heat, that soy went from a farm animal feed to a human food. William Morse is considered the "father" of modern soybean agriculture in America.


title: Soybean content: He and Charles Piper (Dr. C. V. Piper) took what was an unknown Oriental peasant crop in 1910 and transformed it into a "golden bean" for America becoming one of America's largest farm crops and its most nutritious. Prior to the 1920 in the US, the soybean was mainly a forage crop, a source of oil, meal (for feed) and industrial products, with very little used as food. However, it took on an important role after World War I. During the Great Depression, the drought-stricken (Dust Bowl) regions of the United States were able to use soy to regenerate their


title: Soybean content: soil because of its nitrogen-fixing properties. Farms were increasing production to meet with government demands, and Henry Ford became a promoter of soybeans. He In 1931, Ford hired chemists Robert Boyer and Frank Calvert to produce artificial silk. They succeeded in making a textile fiber of spun soy protein fibers, hardened or tanned in a formaldehyde bath, which was given the name Azlon. It never reached the commercial market. Soybean oil was used to paint the automobiles, as well as fluid for shock absorbers. Tofu was introduced in Japanese American internment camps during World War II, and gradually spread into


title: Soybean content: the mainstream cuisine. New varieties were developed to improve the blandness of soybean oil. The Counterculture in the San Francisco region popularize soy foods. Although practically unseen in 1900, by 2000 they covered upward of 70 million acres, second only to corn, and it became America's largest cash crop. The soybean arrived in the Caribbean in the form of soy sauce made by Samuel Bowen in Savannah, Georgia, in 1767. It remains only a minor crop there, but its uses for human food are growing steadily. The soybean was first cultivated in Italy by 1760 in the Botanical Garden of


title: Soybean content: Turin. During the 1780s it was grown in at least three other botanical gardens in Italy. In 1935 soybeans are first introduced to Greece by Anton Brillmayer, an Austrian soybean breeder. By 1939, soybeans have been cultivated in Greece. An entire book has been published on the history of soybeans and soyfoods in Greece. Wild soybeans were discovered in northeastern Australia in 1770 by explorers Banks and Solander. In 1804, the first soyfood product ("Fine India Soy" [sauce]) was sold in Sydney. In 1879, the first domesticated soybeans arrived in Australia, a gift of the Minister of the Interior Department,


title: Soybean content: Japan. The soybean was first cultivated in France by 1779 (and perhaps as early as 1740). The two key early people and organizations introducing the soybean to France were the Society of Acclimatization (starting in 1855) and Li Yu-ying (from 1910). Li started a large tofu factory, where the first commercial soyfoods in France were made. The soybean first arrived in Africa via Egypt in 1857. In 1873, Professor Friedrich J. Haberlandt first became interested in soybeans when he obtained the seeds of 19 soybean varieties at the Vienna World Exposition (Wiener Weltausstellung). He cultivated these seeds in Vienna, and


title: Soybean content: soon began to distribute them throughout Central and Western Europe. In 1875, he first grew the soybeans in Vienna, then in early 1876 he sent samples of seeds to seven cooperators in central Europe, who planted and tested the seeds in the spring of 1876, with good or fairly good results in each case. Most of the farmers who received seeds from him cultivated them, then reported their results back to him. Starting in Feb. 1876, he published these results first in various journal articles, and finally in his "magnum opus", Die Sojabohne (The Soybean) in 1878. In northern Europe


title: Soybean content: lupin/lupine is known as the "soybean of the north" A Hitler Youth manual from the 1930s promoted soy beans, which it called "Nazi beans" as an alternative to meat. The soybean is first in cultivated Transcaucasia in Central Asia in 1876, by the Dungans. This region has never been important for soybean production. The first reliable reference to the soybean in this region dates from Mexico in 1877. The soybean first arrived in South America in Argentina in 1882. Andrew McClung showed in the early 1950s that with soil amendments the Cerrado region of Brazil would grow soybeans. The march


title: Soybean content: of soybeans into deforested areas of the Amazon rain forest would come later. Soybeans are one of the "biotech food" crops that have been genetically modified, and genetically modified soybeans are being used in an increasing number of products. In 1995, Monsanto company introduced glyphosate-tolerant soybeans that have been genetically modified to be resistant to Monsanto's glyphosate herbicides through substitution of the "Agrobacterium sp." (strain CP4) gene EPSP (5-enolpyruvyl shikimic acid-3-phosphate) synthase. The substituted version is not sensitive to glyphosate. In 1997, about 8% of all soybeans cultivated for the commercial market in the United States were genetically modified. In


title: Soybean content: 2010, the figure was 93%. As with other glyphosate-tolerant crops, concern is expressed over damage to biodiversity. A 2003 study concluded the RR gene had been bred into so many different soybean cultivars, there had been little decline in genetic diversity, but "diversity was limited among elite lines from some companies". The widespread use of such types of GM soybeans in the Americas has caused problems with exports to some regions. GM crops require extensive certification before they can be legally imported into the European Union, where there is considerable supplier and consumer reluctance to use GM products for consumer


title: Soybean content: or animal use. Difficulties with coexistence and subsequent traces of cross-contamination of non-GM stocks have caused shipments to be rejected and have put a premium on non-GM soy. A 2006 United States Department of Agriculture report found the adoption of genetically engineered (GE) soy, corn and cotton reduced the amount of pesticides used overall, but did result in a slightly greater amount of herbicides used for soy specifically. The use of GE soy was also associated with greater conservation tillage, indirectly leading to better soil conservation, as well as increased income from off-farming sources due to the greater ease with


title: Soybean content: which the crops can be managed. Though the overall estimated benefits of the adoption of GE soybeans in the United States was $310 million, the majority of this benefit was experienced by the companies selling the seeds (40%), followed by biotechnology firms (28%) and farmers (20%). The patent on glyphosate-tolerant soybeans expired in 2014, so benefits can be expected to shift. In 2010, a team of American scientists announced they had sequenced the soybean genome—the first legume to be sequenced. Among the legumes, the soybean is valued for its high (38–45%) protein content as well as its high (approximately 20%)


title: Soybean content: oil content. Soybeans are the second-most valuable agricultural export in the United States, behind corn. Approximately 85% of the world's soybean crop is processed into soybean meal and soybean oil, the remainder processed in other ways or eaten whole. Soybeans can be broadly classified as "vegetable" (garden) or field (oil) types. Vegetable types cook more easily, have a mild, nutty flavor, better texture, are larger in size, higher in protein, and lower in oil than field types. Tofu, soy milk, & soy sauce, are among the top edible commodities made using soybeans. Producers prefer the higher protein cultivars bred from


title: Soybean content: vegetable soybeans originally brought to the United States in the late 1930s. The "garden" cultivars are generally not suitable for mechanical combine harvesting because there is a tendency for the pods to shatter upon reaching maturity. Soybean seed contains 18–19% oil. To extract soybean oil from seed, the soybeans are cracked, adjusted for moisture content, rolled into flakes and solvent-extracted with commercial hexane. The oil is then refined, blended for different applications, and sometimes hydrogenated. Soybean oils, both liquid and partially hydrogenated, are exported abroad, sold as "vegetable oil", or end up in a wide variety of processed foods. Soybean


title: Soybean content: meal, or soymeal, is the material remaining after solvent extraction of oil from soybean flakes, with a 50% soy protein content. The meal is 'toasted' (a misnomer because the heat treatment is with moist steam) and ground in a hammer mill. Ninety-seven percent of soybean meal production globally is used as livestock feed. Soybean meal is also used in some dog foods. One of the major uses of soybeans globally is as livestock feed, predominantly in the form of soybean meal. Spring grasses are rich in omega-3 fatty acids, whereas soy is predominantly omega-6. The soybean hulls, which mainly consist


title: Soybean content: of the outer coats of the beans removed before oil extraction, can also be fed to livestock, as well as whole soybean seeds after processing. In addition to their use in livestock feed, soybean products are widely used for human consumption. Common soybean products include soy sauce, soy milk, tofu, soy meal, soy flour, textured vegetable protein (TVP), tempeh, soy lecithin and soybean oil. Soybeans may also be eaten with minimal processing, for example in the Japanese food , in which immature soybeans are boiled whole in their pods and served with salt. In China, Japan, and Korea, soybean and


title: Soybean content: soybean products are a common part of the diet. Tofu (豆腐 "dòufu") is thought to have originated in China, along with soy sauce and several varieties of soybean paste used as seasonings. Japanese foods made from soya include "miso" (味噌), "nattō" (納豆), "kinako" (黄粉) and "edamame" (枝豆), as well as products made with tofu such as atsuage and aburaage. In China, whole dried soybeans are sold in supermarkets and used to cook a variety of dishes, usually after rehydration by soaking in water; they find their use in soup or as a savory dish. In Korean cuisine, soybean sprouts (


title: Soybean content: "kongnamul") are used in a variety of dishes, and are the base ingredient in "doenjang", "cheonggukjang" and "ganjang". In Vietnam, soybeans are used to make soybean paste ("tương") in the North with the most popular products are "tương Bần", "tương Nam Đàn", "tương Cự Đà" as a garnish for "phở" and "gỏi cuốn" dishes, as well as tofu ("đậu hũ" or "đậu phụ" or "tàu hũ"), soy sauce ("nước tương"), soy milk ("nước đậu" in the North or "sữa đậu nành" in the South), and "đậu hũ nước đường" (tofu sweet soup). In India, textured vegetable protein is often called


title: Soybean content: meal maker or soya chunks and is a popular substitute for meat. Soy flour refers to soybeans ground finely enough to pass through a 100-mesh or smaller screen where special care was taken during desolventizing (not toasted) to minimize denaturation of the protein to retain a high protein dispersibility index, for uses such as food extrusion of textured vegetable protein. It is the starting material for production of soy concentrate and soy protein isolate. Soy flour can also be made by roasting the soybean, removing the coat (hull), and grinding into a flour. Soy flour is manufactured with different fat


title: Soybean content: levels. Alternatively, raw soy flour omits the roasting step. Soy lecithin can be added (up to 15%) to soy flour to make lecithinated soy flour. It increases dispersibility and gives it emulsifying properties. Soy flour has 50% protein and 5% fiber. It has higher levels of protein, thiamine, riboflavin, phosphorus, calcium, and iron than wheat flour. It does not contain gluten. As a result, yeast-raised breads made with soy flour are dense in texture. Among many uses, soy flour thickens sauces, prevents staling in baked food, and reduces oil absorption during frying. Baking food with soy flour gives it tenderness,


title: Soybean content: moistness, a rich color, and a fine texture. Soy grits are similar to soy flour except the soybeans have been toasted and cracked into coarse pieces. "Kinako" is a soy flour used in Japanese cuisine. Soy-based infant formula (SBIF) is sometimes given to infants who are not being strictly breastfed; it can be useful for infants who are either allergic to pasteurized cow milk proteins or who are being fed a vegan diet. It is sold in powdered, ready-to-feed, and concentrated liquid forms. Some reviews have expressed the opinion that more research is needed to determine what effect the phytoestrogens


title: Soybean content: in soybeans may have on infants. Diverse studies have concluded there are no adverse effects in human growth, development, or reproduction as a result of the consumption of soy-based infant formula. One of these studies, published in the "Journal of Nutrition", concludes that there are: ... no clinical concerns with respect to nutritional adequacy, sexual development, neurobehavioral development, immune development, or thyroid disease. SBIFs provide complete nutrition that adequately supports normal infant growth and development. FDA has accepted SBIFs as safe for use as the sole source of nutrition. Soybeans can be processed to produce a texture and appearance similar


title: Soybean content: to many other foods. For example, soybeans are the primary ingredient in many dairy product substitutes (e.g., soy milk, margarine, soy ice cream, soy yogurt, soy cheese, and soy cream cheese) and meat alternatives (e.g. veggie burgers). These substitutes are readily available in most supermarkets. Soy milk does not naturally contain significant amounts of digestible calcium. Many manufacturers of soy milk sell calcium-enriched products, as well. Soy is also used in tempeh: the beans (sometimes mixed with grain) are fermented into a solid cake. Soy products also are used as a low-cost substitute in meat and poultry products. Food service,


title: Soybean content: retail and institutional (primarily school lunch and correctional) facilities regularly use such "extended" products. Extension may result in diminished flavor, but fat and cholesterol are reduced. Vitamin and mineral fortification can be used to make soy products nutritionally equivalent to animal protein; the protein quality is already roughly equivalent. The soy-based meat substitute textured vegetable protein has been used for more than 50 years as a way of inexpensively extending ground beef without reducing its nutritional value. The soybean is used to make a product called soy nut butter which is similar in texture to peanut butter. Sweet boiled beans


title: Soybean content: are popular in Japan and Korea and the sweet boiled soybeans are called as "Daizu no " in Japan and Kongjorim () in Korea. Sweet boiled beans are even used in sweetened buns, especially in . The boiled and pasted edamame, called , is used as one of the Sweet bean pastes in Japanese confections. Roasted and ground soybeans can be used as a caffeine-free substitute for coffee. After the soybeans are roasted and ground, they look similar to regular coffee beans or can be used as a powder similar to instant coffee, with aroma and flavor of roasted soybeans.


title: Soybean content: Soybeans with black hulls are used in Chinese fermented black beans, "douchi", not to be confused with black turtle beans. Soybeans are also used in industrial products, including oils, soap, cosmetics, resins, plastics, inks, crayons, solvents, and clothing. Soybean oil is the primary source of biodiesel in the United States, accounting for 80% of domestic biodiesel production. Soybeans have also been used since 2001 as fermenting stock in the manufacture of a brand of vodka. In 1936, Ford Motor Company developed a method where soybeans and fibers were rolled together producing a soup which was then pressed into various parts


title: Soybean content: for their cars, from the distributor cap to knobs on the dash board. Ford also informed in public relation releases that in 1935 over five million acres (20,000 km) was dedicated to growing soybeans in the United States. According to the American Cancer Society, "Studies in humans have not shown harm from eating soy foods. Moderate consumption of soy foods appears safe for both breast cancer survivors and the general population, and may even lower breast cancer risk." There is insufficient research to indicate whether taking soy dietary supplements has any effect on health or cancer risk. Saponins, a class


title: Soybean content: of natural surfactants (soaps), are sterols that are present naturally in a wide variety of plant foods, including vegetables, legumes, and cereals such as oats. Whole soybeans contain from 0.17 to 6.16% saponins, 0.35 to 2.3% in defatted soy flour and 0.06 to 1.9% in tofu. Legumes such as soybean and chickpeas are the major source of saponins in the human diet. Sources of non-dietary saponins include alfalfa, sunflower, herbs and barbasco. Soy contains isoflavones like genistein and daidzein, and glycitein, an O-methylated isoflavone which accounts for 5–10% of the total isoflavones in soy food products. Glycitein is a phytoestrogen


title: Soybean content: with weak estrogenic activity, comparable to that of the other soy isoflavones. Soy's content of isoflavones are as much as 3 mg/g dry weight. Isoflavones are polyphenol compounds, produced primarily by beans and other legumes, including peanuts and chickpeas. Isoflavones are closely related to flavonoids found in other plants, vegetables and flowers. Soybeans contain the isoflavones, genistein and daidzein, which are phytoestrogen compounds implicated as potentially beneficial factors in cardiovascular diseases and numerous other conditions. No beneficial effects, however, have been shown in clinical research to lower the risk of cardiovascular diseases, including high blood cholesterol levels, prostate cancer or


title: Soybean content: respiratory infections. The dramatic increase in soyfood sales is largely credited to the Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) approval of soy as a cholesterol-lowering food, along with other heart and health benefits. A 1995 review concluded that soy protein is correlated with significant decreases in serum cholesterol, LDL (bad cholesterol) and triglycerides. However, HDL (good cholesterol) did not increase by a significant amount. Soy phytoestrogens (isoflavones: genistein and daidzein) adsorbed onto the soy protein were suggested as the agent reducing serum cholesterol levels. The FDA granted the following health claim for soy: "25 grams of soy protein a day, as


title: Soybean content: part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease." One serving, (1 cup or 240 mL) of soy milk, for instance, contains 6 or 7 grams of soy protein. Solae resubmitted their original petition, asking for a more vague health claim, after their original was challenged and highly criticized. Solae also submitted a petition for a health claim that soy can help prevent cancer. They quickly withdrew the petition for lack of evidence and after more than 1,000 letters of protest were received. On 18 February 2008, Weston A. Price Foundation submitted


title: Soybean content: a petition for removal of this health claim. 25 g/day soy protein was established as the threshold intake because most trials used at least this much protein and not because less than this amount is inefficacious. In fact, there is evidence suggesting that lower amounts are indeed efficacious. An American Heart Association (AHA) review of a decade long study of soy protein benefits casts doubt on the FDA allowed "Heart Healthy" claim for soy protein and does not recommend isoflavone supplementation. The review panel also found that soy isoflavones have not been shown to reduce post-menopausal "hot flashes" and the


title: Soybean content: efficacy and safety of isoflavones to help prevent cancers of the breast, uterus or prostate is in question. However, AHA concludes that "many soy products should be beneficial to cardiovascular and overall health because of their high content of polyunsaturated fats, fiber, vitamins, and minerals and low content of saturated fat". The AHA did not conduct a formal statistical analysis of the 22 studies upon which they based their estimate of the potency of soy protein. When such an analysis was conducted, Jenkins et al. found that the AHA had considerably underestimated the hypocholesterolemic effects of soy protein. Further, when


title: Soybean content: the analysis was limited to the 11 studies that provided evidence that the control and soy diets were matched, soy protein was found to lower LDL by 5.2 percent. This estimate is in line with the results of other recently published meta-analyses. Furthermore, recent research suggests that soy protein decreases postprandial triglyceride levels, which is increasingly viewed as important for reducing coronary heart disease risk. Soybeans contain a high level of phytic acid, which has many effects including acting as an antioxidant and a chelating agent. The beneficial claims for phytic acid include reducing cancer, minimizing diabetes, and reducing inflammation.


title: Soybean content: However, phytic acid is also criticized for reducing vital minerals absorption due to its chelating effect, especially for diets already low in minerals. Allergy to soy is common, and the food is listed with other foods that commonly cause allergy, such as milk, eggs, peanuts, tree nuts, shellfish. The problem has been reported among younger children, and the diagnosis of soy allergy is often based on symptoms reported by parents and results of skin tests or blood tests for allergy. Only a few reported studies have attempted to confirm allergy to soy by direct challenge with the food under controlled


title: Soybean content: conditions. It is very difficult to give a reliable estimate of the true prevalence of soy allergy in the general population. To the extent that it does exist, soy allergy may cause cases of urticaria and angioedema, usually within minutes to hours of ingestion. In rare cases, true anaphylaxis may also occur. The reason for the discrepancy is likely that soy proteins, the causative factor in allergy, are far less potent at triggering allergy symptoms than the proteins of peanut and shellfish. An allergy test that is positive demonstrates that the immune system has formed IgE antibodies to soy proteins.


title: Soybean content: However, this is only a factor when soy proteins reach the blood without being digested, in sufficient quantities to reach a threshold to provoke actual symptoms. Soy can also trigger symptoms via food intolerance, a situation where no allergic mechanism can be proven. One scenario is seen in very young infants who have vomiting and diarrhoea when fed soy-based formula, which resolves when the formula is withdrawn. Older infants can suffer a more severe disorder with vomiting, diarrhoea that may be bloody, anemia, weight loss and failure to thrive. The most common cause of this unusual disorder is a sensitivity


title: Soybean content: to cow's milk, but soy formulas can also be the trigger. The precise mechanism is unclear and it could be immunologic, although not through the IgE-type antibodies that have the leading role in urticaria and anaphylaxis. However, it is also self-limiting and will often disappear in the toddler years. Soybeans contain isoflavones called genistein and daidzein, which are one source of phytoestrogens in the human diet. Because most naturally occurring phytoestrogens act as selective estrogen receptor modulators, or SERMs, which do not necessarily act as direct agonists of estrogen receptors, normal consumption of foods that contain these phytoestrogens should not


title: Soybean content: provide sufficient amounts to elicit a physiological response in humans. Plant lignans associated with high fiber foods such as cereal brans and beans are the principal precursor to mammalian lignans which have an ability to bind to human estrogen sites. Soybeans are a significant source of mammalian lignan precursor secoisolariciresinol containing 13–273 µg/100 g dry weight. Another phytoestrogen in the human diet with estrogen activity is coumestans, which are found in beans, split-peas, with the best sources being alfalfa, clover, and soybean sprouts. Coumestrol, an isoflavone coumarin derivative, is the only coumestan in foods. Soybeans and processed soy foods are


title: Soybean content: among the richest foods in total phytoestrogens (wet basis per 100 g), which are present primarily in the form of the isoflavones daidzein and genistein. Human breast milk-containing or cow milk formula-containing diets provide 0.005-0.01 mg of isoflavone per day, while soy-based infant formulas provide 6–47 mg of isoflavone daily. This intake is several orders of magnitude greater than those provided by other nutrients. Although considerable research has examined the potential for soy consumption to lower the risk of breast cancer in women, assessment of these studies indicates there is insufficient population evidence to make a conclusion about this relationship


title: Soybean content: as of 2016. A 2001 literature review suggested that women with current or past breast cancer should be aware of the risks of potential tumor growth when taking soy products, based on the effect of phytoestrogens to promote breast cancer cell growth in animals. A 2006 commentary reviewed the relationship with soy and breast cancer, stating that soy may decrease the risk of breast cancer, but cautioned that the impact of isoflavones on breast tissue needs to be evaluated at the cellular level in women at high risk for breast cancer. A high consumption of omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids, which


title: Soybean content: are found in most types of vegetable oil including soybean oil, may increase the likelihood that postmenopausal women will develop breast cancer. Another analysis suggests an inverse association between total polyunsaturated fatty acid intake and breast cancer risk. A 2011 analysis of the literature said: "Our study suggests soy isoflavones intake is associated with a significant reduced risk of breast cancer incidence in Asian populations, but not in Western populations." Because of the phytoestrogen content, some studies have suggested that soybean ingestion may influence testosterone levels in men. However, a 2010 meta-analysis of 15 placebo controlled studies showed that neither


title: Soybean content: soy foods nor isoflavone supplements alter measures of bioavailable testosterone or estrogen concentrations in men. It has been hypothesized that soy foods and enterolactone may increase the development of prostate cancer although no significant associations were observed for the soy isoflavones. Furthermore, soy consumption has been shown to have no effect on the levels and quality of sperm. A 2009 meta-analysis of the research on the association between soy consumption and prostate cancer risk in men concluded that "consumption of soy foods is associated with a reduction in prostate cancer risk in men." Because of mixed results from animal studies


title: Soybean content: and epidemiological studies, a (relatively definitive but expensive) controlled study of the impacts of soy on cognitive skills was performed; it found no impact. Though there is some evidence that estrogen can help protect and repair the brain after injury in rats, there is also evidence that phytoestrogens may be harmful for the recovery of rats in other situations that have sustained brain injury. Similarly, epidemiological evidence of humans eating soya products is currently divided: a study of Japanese men between 1965 and 1999 demonstrated a positive correlation between brain atrophy and consumption of tofu meals. A 2001 literature review


title: Soybean content: noted that disturbing data on soy's effect on the cognitive function of the elderly existed. In 2008, an epidemiological study of 719 Indonesian elderly individuals found that tofu intake was associated with worse memory, but tempeh (a fermented soy product) intake was associated with better memory. The cover article in the Center for Science in the Public Interest's September 2014 newsletter reported that a controlled study at USC prompted by suggestive epidemiological evidence found no impact on cognitive skills of years of soy vs milk protein diet enrichment. Though raw soy flour is known to be correlated with pancreatic cancer


title: Soybean content: in rats the cooked flour has not been found carcinogenic. Whether soy might promote pancreatic cancer in humans is unknown because studies have not yet attempted to single out soy intake and the incidence of pancreatic cancer in humans, and the amount of soy fed to the rats is proportionately far larger than what humans would normally consume. However, the soy isoflavone genistein has been suggested as a chemopreventive agent against pancreatic cancer, by interfering with the chemical pathways that promote the creation and growth of tumors. The Cancer Council of New South Wales, Australia has released a statement saying


title: Soybean content: scientific research suggests that overall the moderate consumption of soy products does not appear to present a risk to women with breast cancer, and there is equivocal evidence that consuming large amounts of soy products may have a protective effect against developing breast and prostate cancer. However, the Council does not recommend taking soy dietary supplements as there is no evidence they are either effective or safe at preventing or treating cancers. One review noted that soy based foods may inhibit absorption of thyroid hormone medications required for treatment of hypothyroidism. A 2015 scientific review by the European Food Safety


title: Soybean content: Authority concluded that intake of isoflavones from supplements did not affect thyroid hormone levels in postmenopausal women. Soybeans and soy products contain significant amounts of purines, a class of organic compounds. For people who suffer from gout, eating foods containing moderate or high levels of purines may make the condition worse. The U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH) recommends that gout sufferers limit consumption of soy products (although also suggesting that soy may have health benefits by reducing the risk for heart disease). However, other researchers have found little or no association between consumption of purine-rich vegetables (including beans) and


title: Soybean content: gout. Soybean futures are traded on the Chicago Board of Trade and have delivery dates in January (F), March (H), May (K), July (N), August (Q), September (U), November (X). They are also traded on other commodity futures exchanges under different contract specifications: Soybean The soybean ("Glycine max"), or soya bean, is a species of legume native to East Asia, widely grown for its edible bean, which has numerous uses. Fat-free (defatted) soybean meal is a significant and cheap source of protein for animal feeds and many packaged meals. For example, soybean products, such as textured vegetable protein (TVP), are


title: Edamame content: Edamame Edamame is a preparation of immature soybeans in the pod, found in cuisines with origins in East Asia. The pods are boiled or steamed and may be served with salt. In Japan, they are usually blanched in 4% salt water and not served with salt. When the beans are outside the pod, the term mukimame and Edamame in Japanese are also sometimes used. In Japan and Hong Kong, the name "edamame" is commonly used to refer to the dish. It literally means ‘‘stem peas’’ (枝 "eda" = ‘‘branch’’ or ‘‘stem’’ + 豆 "mame" = ‘‘pea’’), because the beans were


title: Edamame content: often sold while still attached to the stem. In China, "Maodou" is used commonly to refer to the dish, which literally means ‘‘fur peas’’ (毛 "Mao" = ‘‘fur’’ + 豆 "dou" = ‘‘pea’’). The earliest documented reference to the term "edamame" dates from the year 1275, when the Japanese monk Nichiren wrote a note thanking a parishioner for the gift of "edamame" he had left at the temple. In 1406 during the Ming dynasty in China, the leaves of the soybeans were eaten and during outbreaks of famine, it was recommended for citizens to eat the beans whole or use


title: Edamame content: them ground up and added to flour. Years later in China in 1620 they are referred to again, but as Maodou, which translates to the term "hairy bean". They are found in the records of the Runan vegetable gardens and stated as having a medicinal purpose as well as being a snack food. Edamame appeared in haikai verse in Japanese in the Edo period (1603 – 1868), with one example as early as 1638. They were first recognized in the United States in 1855 when a farmer commented on the difficulties he had shelling them after harvest. In March 1923,


title: Edamame content: the immature soy bean is first referred to in text in the United States. In this book they are first pictured and shown as being eaten out of open shell pods. The first nutritional facts about them are published and some recipes are included as they were a new type of vegetable to the public. The earliest recorded usage in English of the word "edamame" is in 1951 in the journal "Folklore Studies". "Edamame" appeared as a new term in the Oxford English Dictionary in 2003, and in the Merriam-Webster dictionary in 2008. In 2008, the first soybeans grown in


title: Edamame content: Europe were sold in grocery stores as edamame and eaten as an alternative source of protein. Edamame is typically harvested by hand to avoid damaging the crop's stems and leaves. Green soybean pods are picked before they fully ripen, typically 35 to 40 days after the crop first flowers. Soybeans harvested at this stage are sweeter because they contain more sucrose than soybeans picked later in the growing season. Other factors contributing to edamame's flavor include free amino acids such as glutamic acid, aspartic acid, and alanine. Often these unbound amino acids decrease as the pods fully expand and ripen.


title: Edamame content: Pods may be boiled in water, steamed, or microwaved. The ends of the pod are sometimes cut before boiling or steaming. The most common preparations use salt for taste, either dissolved in the boiling water before introducing the soybean pods or added after cooking. Edamame is a popular side dish at Japanese izakaya restaurants with local varieties being in demand, depending on the season. Salt and garlic are typical condiments for edamame. In Japan, a coarse salt wet with brine is preferred on beans eaten directly from the pod. Edamame purchased fresh is preferably eaten the same day, with flavor


title: Edamame content: degradation being noticeable in as few as 10 hours after harvest. However, fresh edamame will stay edible for three days when stored in the refrigerator. Damaged pods brown more rapidly however, mainly due to the enzyme polyphenol oxidase. If stored fresh, the pods should be kept humid to prevent discoloration and wilting. This can be accomplished by wrapping the pods in plastic or another material which traps moisture. Freezing fresh edamame is another option for maintaining good quality over a few months. Fresh edamame should be blanched first before being frozen. The United States Department of Agriculture states that edamame


title: Edamame content: beans are a "soybean that can be eaten fresh and are best known as a snack with a nutritional punch". Edamame and other preparations of soybeans are rich in protein, dietary fiber, and micronutrients, particularly folate, manganese, phosphorus and vitamin K (table). The balance of fatty acids in 100 grams of edamame is 361 mg of omega-3 fatty acids to 1794 mg of omega-6 fatty acids. As a significant source of plant protein, edamame beans are under research to establish whether a relationship exists between soy consumption and reduction of disease risk. Edamame Edamame is a preparation of immature soybeans


title: "Gordon Setter" content: Gordon Setter The Gordon Setter is a large breed of dog, a member of the setter family that also includes both the better-known Irish Setter and the English Setter. Setter breeds are classified as members of either the Sporting or Gundog Group depending on the national kennel club or council. The original purpose of the breed was to hunt gamebirds. Their quarry in the United Kingdom, may be partridge or grouse, pheasant, ptarmigan, blackgame, snipe or woodcock: whilst overseas bird dogs are worked on quail, willow grouse, sand grouse, guinea fowl, sagehen, francolin and any other bird that will sit


title: "Gordon Setter" content: to a dog—that is to say, will attempt to avoid a potential predator by concealment rather than by taking to the wing at the first sign of danger. It is this combination of a bird that will sit fast in front of a dog that will remain on point that makes bird dog work possible. Gordon Setters, also known as "black and tans", have a coal-black coat with distinctive markings of a rich chestnut or mahogany colour on their paws and lower legs, vents, throat, and muzzles; one spot above each eye; and two spots on their chest. A small


title: "Gordon Setter" content: amount of white is allowed on the chest. Although uncommon, red Gordons are occasionally born to normal-coloured parents, the result of expression of a recessive red gene. Predominantly tan, red, or buff dogs are ineligible for showing. A Gordon's coat is straight or slightly waved (but not curly), long and silky, with chest, stomach, ear, leg, and tail feathering. According to the AKC breed standard, "the bearing is intelligent, noble, and dignified". They are the heaviest of the setter breeds, with males reaching at the withers and up to in weight. The AKC describes the Gordon Setter temperament as "alert,


title: "Gordon Setter" content: interested, and confident. He is fearless and willing, intelligent, and capable. He is loyal and affectionate, and strong-minded enough to stand the rigors of training". Gordons are intensely loyal to their owners; thrive in an attentive, loving environment; and are good family dogs. Puppies and adult dogs can be quite boisterous, and although they are patient by nature, may not be suitable for households with very young children. Gordons are sensitive and empathic, eager to learn, and need firm but gentle handling. Early socialisation and obedience training is important. The breed is one of the slowest to mature, not hitting


title: "Gordon Setter" content: prime until three years of age or more, and will show puppy-like characteristics well into their older years. Gordons were bred to run, and require 60 to 80 minutes of vigorous exercise daily. Young dogs should not be over-exercised or begin agility training until they are at least 18 months old, to avoid joint problems later in life. Because of their hunting instincts, Gordons should not be allowed to roam freely if unsupervised, as they are apt to wander into a potentially dangerous traffic situation while following a scent. Although not as prone to hip dysplasia as many of the


title: "Gordon Setter" content: larger breeds, Gordons can suffer from the condition. Other health issues can include hypothyroidism, gastric torsion (bloat) and eye diseases such as progressive retinal atrophy (PRA), and cataracts. Life expectancy for the breed is generally about 10 to 12 years. At the beginning of 2009, a report was issued to all of the Breed Clubs in the UK concerning cases of late onset PRA in Gordon Setters. On March 14, 2011, Animal Health Trust (AHT) made a DNA test available. The mutation is termed rcd4 (for rod-cone degeneration 4) to distinguish it from other, previously described forms of rod-cone degeneration.


title: "Gordon Setter" content: It is recessive, and 19 out of the 21 Gordons in their study who had clinical signs of PRA were homozygous for this mutation, indicating it is the major cause of PRA in the breed. As many as 50% of Gordon Setters may be carriers. "Domesticated Dogs Finding Their Game by Scent, But Not Killing It, Being Chiefly Used in Aid of the Gun"."The Dog In Health & Disease"—Longmans, Green & Co. 1859 This is the title of the chapter covering pointers and setters in Stonehenge's work on dogs published around a hundred and fifty years ago. The term "gun


title: "Gordon Setter" content: dogs" would pretty well cover all the dogs described in the chapter. Many of the gun dogs described by Stonehenge are no longer to be found in the United Kingdom or have been absorbed into one of the other breeds. The Russian Setter, the Welsh Setter, Northern Irish Water Spaniel, Southern Irish Water Spaniel and English Water Spaniel, the Spanish Pointer and the Portuguese Pointer have all disappeared in the past hundred and fifty years, and the pictures of some of the breeds that are still with us show considerable differences to the breed as we see them today. Edward


title: "Gordon Setter" content: Laverick wrote in "The Setter", published in 1872: "the setter is but an improved spaniel"; while the Rev Pearce in "The Dog", published in the same year, said, 'he is a direct descendant of the Spaniel: "a Setting Spaniel" was the first Setter'. Since then this is the generally agreed with conclusion that the Setter was primarily derived from the old Land Spaniel, so called so as to distinguish it from the Water Spaniel. It is however likely that outside crosses with Hounds or Pointers did influence its development. William Taplin in "The Sportsman's Cabinet" (1803–04) maintained that it was


title: "Gordon Setter" content: "originally produced by a commixture between the Spanish pointer and the larger breed of the English spaniel". We now really need not to go back to the Spaniel and its specialised development into the setting-dog, as it was called, and can be found in the work by the famous French sportsman, Gaston de Foix, Vicomte de Béarn (1331–91), who it is said owned about 1500 dogs 'brought from all countries of Europe' and was known as 'Gaston Phèbus' owing to his love for the chase. This work is called "Livre de Chasse" or "Miroir de Phèbus", and was started in


title: "Gordon Setter" content: 1387. This work was the bases of "The Master of Game" written between 1406 and 1413 by Edward III's grandson, Edward, second Duke of York, who acknowledged his debt to de Foix. Below is the main passage referring to the Spaniel and the Setting-dog, as republished in 1904: <poem>Another kind of dog is that is called falcon-dog or spaniel ["espaignols" in the French original] because it comes from Spain, notwithstanding that there are many in other countries... A good spaniel should not be too rough, though his tail should be rough. The good qualities that such a dogs are these:


title: "Gordon Setter" content: They love well their masters and follow them without losing, although they be in a great crowd of men, and commonly they go before their master, running and wagging their tail, and raise or start fowl and wild beasts. But their right craft is of the partridge and of the quail. It is good for a man that has a noble goshawk, or a tierecel, or a sparrowhawk for the partridges to have such dogs; and also, when they are taught to be couchers ("chiens couchants" in the original French—ed.), they are good for taking partridge and quail with the


title: "Gordon Setter" content: net...</poem> The modern Gordon Setter is a predominantly black dog with rich tan marking on the muzzle, legs and chest. A little bigger and heavier than either the Irish or English, he is nevertheless descended from the same genetic mixing pot, which undoubtedly has its origins among those setting spaniels we met earlier. The Kennel Club applied the name 'Gordon Setter' to the breed in 1924. Before that they were known as black and tan setters, and were found in many kennels beside those of the Alexander Gordon, 4th Duke of Gordon (1743–1827). Indeed, as we shall see, there is


title: "Gordon Setter" content: plenty of evidence that the majority of the setters at Gordon Castle during the Duke's time were tri-coloured rather than pure black and tan. The breed was brought to the United States by George Blunt and Daniel Webster in 1842, with the purchase of two dogs named Rake and Rachel from the Duke's kennels. The American Kennel Club officially recognised the breed in 1892. Among the many changes which took place in sport and country affairs during the last century where those concerned with the method of shooting and consequent role of the gundog. These changes were accelerated after the


title: "Gordon Setter" content: Second World War, prior to which there were many "dogging moors" in the north of the UK, especially in Scotland. Walking up game became largely superseded by driving and field-craft by marksmanship. The function of the gundog was as a result limited to the recovery of dead or wounded birds and – in the age of specialisation – this meant that the Labrador Retriever came to the forefront while the number of working pointers and setters declined year after year. Besides the modernisation of the style of shooting and the work required of gundogs, the situation was altered by the


title: "Gordon Setter" content: new developments that also took place in farming, which helped to bring about a marked reduction in the partridge population. This came about with the introduction of modernisation such as early cutting of silage, the use of fast-moving mechanical equipment, the burning or ploughing of stubble-fields soon after harvest, the destruction of hedgerows and the use of chemical sprays for weed-killing. The hedgerows had provided shelter and nesting sites; the weeds and other herbage supplied food and cover; whilst the stubble-fields had been a primary source of winter food; so the partridges were deprived of some important assets, whilst the


title: "Gordon Setter" content: wide use of chemicals on the land exercised a direct harmful effect. It will be obvious to the reader that these changes significantly affected the status of setters and pointers, not least that of the Gordon. Though often used as a general purpose gundog, the Gordon Setter is essentially a wide-ranging dog employed in the U.K. to locate red grouse and ptarmigan on the Scottish or North of England moors and partridges on the stubble-fields of the south of England. Up to the late 1930s most Gordons were kept for this type of work, so that the majority were to


title: "Gordon Setter" content: be found in Scotland and the north of England; but now they are more evenly distributed and there are no large working kennels. The function of the setter is well summarised by Captain Blaine as follows: ‘The work required of the setter and pointer differs from that of all other breeds of dog. It is their business to range and hunt independently for game, at a distance from the sportsman, using their own initiative and intelligence to find it, and having done so, to remain staunchly “on point” awaiting his approach. They must search for the body, and not for


title: "Gordon Setter" content: the foot scent, and be able to maintain a fast steady gallop for long periods without fatigue. For the purpose a dog should have independence of character, speed, endurance, and a sensitive nose, combined with natural ability for hunting the terrain, in the best method of finding game’ (Croxton Smith, 1932, p70). Two Gordon Setters have achieved the title of Dual Champion. The first was a bitch whose registered name was Amscot Irresista Belle; her pet name was Trisca. The second was Trisca's relative, Boyers Scarlatti. "These girls are the only setters of any breed to achieve this in the


title: "Gordon Setter" content: UK, with the incredibly high standards set in the UK field and show ring." The Kennel Club regulations state this title can only be claimed by dogs who have achieved the title of Show Champion and Field Trial Champion. Perhaps one of the best descriptions of the setter at work in the field is a poem by the poet William Somerville (1675–1742) in the following lines: <poem>When autumn smiles, all beauteous in decay, And paints each chequered grove with various hues, My setter ranges in the new shorn fields, His nose in air erect; from ridge to ridge, Panting, he


title: "Gordon Setter" content: bounds, his quartered ground divides In equal intervals, nor careless leaves One inch untried. At length the tainted gale His nostrils wide inhale, quick joy elates His beating heart, which, awed by discipline Severe, he dares not own, but cautious creeps Low-cowering, step by step; at last attains His proper distance, there he stops at once, And points with his instructive nose upon The trembling prey. On wings of wind and upborne The floating net unfolded flies; then drops, And the poor fluttering captives rise in vain.</poem> Alexander, the 4th Duke of Gordon (1743–1827), established his kennel of Black and


title: "Gordon Setter" content: Tan Setters at Gordon Castle, which was situated near Fochabers, not far from the River Spey and a few miles from the coast of Moray. The exact date when this occurred is not known. A Colonel Thornton visited the place during his tour of the Highlands in 1786. He makes no mention of any kennel of Setters at that time, although he does note that ‘The Duke of Gordon still keeps up a diversion of falconry….I saw, also, here a true Highland greyhound, which is now become very scarce….’. The Duke was indeed devoted to country pursuits and was among


title: "Gordon Setter" content: the last of his day in Scotland to keep hawks and practise falconry; he was celebrated for his Scottish Deerhounds as well as his Setters. However all that can be inferred from the Colonel’s remarks is that there are unlikely to have been any Setters of note at the Castle in 1786. There is much on record that seems reliable about the origin or derivation of the Duke of Gordon’s Setters, though verification at this late date is of course impossible. Most of this evidence comes from Samuel Brown, the Veterinary Surgeon of Melton Mowbray, who was a great authority


title: "Gordon Setter" content: on the breed. In a letter to ‘’The Field’’ of 12 November 1864 Samuel Brown stated: ‘An old gentleman sportsman, and one too who has shot over the same breed for fifty years and knew them during his boyhood, assures me that the late Duke of Gordon, Marquis of Anglesey, and several other noblemen, had their original stock of setters from the late Mr Coke of Longford, and that the colour was usually black-white- and -tan. Mine are descended from the original breed of Mr Coke, the Gordon ‘’Regent’’ and ‘’Fan’’, and within the last five years from a black-white-and


title: "Gordon Setter" content: –tan bitch which I got direct from the Beaudesart kennel’ (i.e. the Marquees of Anglesey’s – Ed.). Five years late, in another letter to the same journal, the Rev F. W. Adye wrote: ‘Mr Brown was told by Mr Coke himself that he often sent dogs to the Duke of Gordon and received others in exchange, in order now and then to obtain fresh blood’ (‘’The Field,’’ 8 January 1870). These facts were well known to J. H. Walsh (‘Stonehenge’), Editor of ‘’The Field’’ and a leading authority on sporting dogs, for it is he who mentions in the first


title: "Gordon Setter" content: chapter of his book ‘’The Dogs of the British Islands’’ (1867) a Setter ‘from Mr Coke of Norfolk and doubtless related to the late Duke of Gordon’s kennel, as Mr Coke and the duke bred together and interchanged setters frequently’. Therefore, it does appear to be reasonably established that Mr Coke provided most of the original Setters for the Duke’s kennel. The Rev Hutchinson, who wrote under the pseudonym ‘Sixty-one’, insisted that ‘the original setter taken or sent to Gordon Castle by the first Marquis of Anglesea’ (‘’The Field’’, 29 January 1870), however what has been seen is that, according


title: "Gordon Setter" content: to Samuel Brown’s ‘old gentleman sportsman’, the Marquees of Anglesey likewise had his original stock of Setters at Beaudesart from Mr Coke – probably, although this cannot be confirmed, some years before the Gordon Castle kennel was founded; for in 1869 the Beaudesart Setters were said to have been maintained ‘for sixty years pure and unmixed with any blood’ (‘’The Field’’, 11 December 1869). It is most unlikely that the Duke obtained his setters from only one source, we know that he interbreed with other kennels besides Mr Coke’s, notably with Lord Lovat’s. Gordon Setter The Gordon Setter is a


title: Columbidae content: Columbidae Pigeons and doves constitute the animal family Columbidae and the order Columbiformes, which includes about 42 genera and 310 species. They are stout-bodied birds with short necks, and short slender bills that in some species feature fleshy ceres. They primarily feed on seeds, fruits, and plants. Pigeons and doves are likely the most common birds in the world; the family occurs worldwide, but the greatest variety is in the Indomalaya and Australasia ecozones. The distinction between "doves" and "pigeons" is not consistent. In everyday speech, "dove" frequently indicates a pigeon that is white or nearly white; some people use


title: Columbidae content: the terms "dove" and "pigeon" interchangeably. In contrast, in scientific and ornithological practice, "dove" tends to be used for smaller species and "pigeon" for larger ones, but this is in no way consistently applied. Historically, the common names for these birds involve a great deal of variation between the terms. The species most commonly referred to as "pigeon" is the species known by scientists as the rock dove, one subspecies of which, the domestic pigeon, is common in many cities as the feral pigeon. "Pigeon" is a French word that derives from the Latin "pipio", for a "peeping" chick, while


title: Columbidae content: "dove" is a Germanic word that refers to the bird's diving flight. The English dialectal word "culver" appears to derive from Latin "columba". Doves and pigeons build relatively flimsy nests, often using sticks and other debris, which may be placed on trees, ledges, or the ground, depending on species. They lay one or two eggs at a time, and both parents care for the young, which leave the nest after 7–28 days. Unlike most birds, both sexes of doves and pigeons produce "crop milk" to feed to their young, secreted by a sloughing of fluid-filled cells from the lining of


title: Columbidae content: the crop. Young doves and pigeons are called "squabs". The family Columbidae was introduced by the English zoologist William Elford Leach in a guide to the contents of the British Museum published in 1820. Columbidae is the only living family in the order Columbiformes. The sandgrouses (Pteroclididae) were formerly placed here, but were moved to a separate order Pteroclidiformes based on anatomical differences (e.g., they are unable to drink by "sucking" or "pumping"); they are now considered to be more closely related to shorebirds. Recent phylogenomic studies support the grouping of pigeons and sandgrouse together, along with mesites, forming the


title: Columbidae content: sister taxon to Mirandornithes. The Columbidae are usually divided into five subfamilies, probably inaccurately. For example, the American ground and quail doves ("Geotrygon"), which are usually placed in the Columbinae, seem to be two distinct subfamilies. The order presented here follows Baptista etal. (1997), with some updates. The arrangement of genera and naming of subfamilies is in some cases provisional because analyses of different DNA sequences yield results that differ, often radically, in the placement of certain (mainly Indo-Australian) genera. This ambiguity, probably caused by long branch attraction, seems to confirm the first pigeons evolved in the Australasian region, and


title: Columbidae content: that the "Treronidae" and allied forms (crowned and pheasant pigeons, for example) represent the earliest radiation of the group. The family Columbidae previously also contained the family Raphidae, consisting of the extinct Rodrigues solitaire and the dodo. These species are in all likelihood part of the Indo-Australian radiation that produced the three small subfamilies mentioned above, with the fruit doves and pigeons (including the Nicobar pigeon). Therefore, they are here included as a subfamily Raphinae, pending better material evidence of their exact relationships. Exacerbating these issues, columbids are not well represented in the fossil record. No truly primitive forms have


title: Columbidae content: been found to date. The genus "Gerandia" has been described from Early Miocene deposits in France, but while it was long believed to be a pigeon, it is now considered a sandgrouse. Fragmentary remains of a probably "ptilinopine" Early Miocene pigeon were found in the Bannockburn Formation of New Zealand and described as "Rupephaps"; ""Columbina" prattae" from roughly contemporary deposits of Florida is nowadays tentatively separated in "Arenicolumba", but its distinction from "Columbina/Scardafella" and related genera needs to be more firmly established (e.g. by cladistic analysis). Apart from that, all other fossils belong to extant genera. Taxonomy based on the


title: Columbidae content: work by John H. Boyd, III, a professor of economics. Pigeons and doves exhibit considerable variation in size, ranging in length from , and in weight from to above . The largest species is the crowned pigeon of New Guinea, which is nearly turkey-sized, at a weight of . The smallest is the New World ground dove of the genus "Columbina", which is the same size as a house sparrow, weighing as little as . With a total length of more than and weight of almost , the largest arboreal species is the Marquesan imperial pigeon, while the dwarf fruit


title: Columbidae content: dove, which may measure as little as , has a marginally smaller total length than any other species from this family. Overall, the Columbidae tend to have short legs, short bills with a fleshy cere, and small heads on large, compact bodies. In a series of experiments in 1975 by Dr.Mark B. Friedman, using doves, their characteristic head bobbing was shown to be due to their natural desire to keep their vision constant. It was shown yet again in a 1978 experiment by Dr.Barrie J. Frost, in which pigeons were placed on treadmills; it was observed that they did not


title: Columbidae content: bob their heads, as their surroundings were constant. The wings are large, and have eleven primary feathers, and low wing loading; pigeons have strong wing muscles (wing muscles comprise 31–44% of their body weight) and are among the strongest fliers of all birds. They are also highly manoeuvrable in flight. Columbidae have unique body feathers, with the shaft being generally broad, strong, and flattened, tapering to a fine point, abruptly. In general, the aftershaft is absent; however, small ones on some tail and wing feathers may be present . Body feathers have very dense, fluffy bases, are attached loosely into


title: Columbidae content: the skin, and drop out easily. Possibly serving as a predator avoidance mechanism, large numbers of feathers come out in the attacker's mouth, if the bird is grabbed by a predator, facilitating the bird's escape. The plumage of the family is variable. Granivorous species tend to have dull plumage, with a few exceptions, whereas the frugivorous species have brightly coloured plumage. The "Ptilinopus" (fruit doves) are some of the brightest-coloured pigeons, with the three endemic species of Fiji and the Indian Ocean "Alectroenas" being the brightest. Pigeons and doves may be sexually monochromatic or dichromatic. In addition to bright colours,


title: Columbidae content: pigeons may sport crests or other ornamentation. Like some other birds, the Columbidae have no gall bladders. Some medieval naturalists concluded they have no bile (gall), which in the medieval theory of the four humours explained the allegedly sweet disposition of doves. In fact, however, they do have gall (as Aristotle had earlier realised), which is secreted directly into the gut. Pigeons and doves are distributed everywhere on Earth, except for the driest areas of the Sahara Desert, Antarctica and its surrounding islands, and the high Arctic. They have colonised most of the world's oceanic islands, reaching eastern Polynesia and


title: Columbidae content: the Chatham Islands in the Pacific, Mauritius, the Seychelles and Réunion in the Indian Ocean, and the Azores in the Atlantic Ocean. The family has adapted to most of the habitats available on the planet. These species may be arboreal, terrestrial, or semi-terrestrial. Various species also inhabit savannas, grasslands, deserts, temperate woodlands and forests, mangrove forests, and even the barren sands and gravels of atolls. Some species have large natural ranges. The eared dove ranges across the entirety of South America from Colombia to Tierra del Fuego, the Eurasian collared dove has a massive (if discontinuous) distribution from Britain across


title: Columbidae content: Europe, the Middle East, India, Pakistan and China, and the laughing dove across most of sub-Saharan Africa, as well as India, Pakistan, and the Middle East. Other species have tiny, restricted distributions; this is most common in island endemics. The whistling dove is endemic to the tiny Kadavu Island in Fiji, the Caroline ground dove is restricted to two islands, Truk and Pohnpei in the Caroline Islands, and the Grenada dove is restricted to Grenada in the Caribbean. Some continental species also have tiny distributions; for example, the black-banded fruit dove is restricted to a small area of the Arnhem


title: Columbidae content: Land of Australia, the Somali pigeon is restricted to a tiny area of northern Somalia, and Moreno's ground dove is restricted to the area around Salta and Tucuman in northern Argentina. The largest range of any species is that of the rock dove. This species had a large natural distribution from Britain and Ireland to northern Africa, across Europe, Arabia, Central Asia, India, the Himalayas and up into China and Mongolia. The range of the species increased dramatically upon domestication, as the species went feral in cities around the world. The species is currently resident across most of North America,


title: Columbidae content: and has established itself in cities and urban areas in South America, sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand. The species is not the only pigeon to have increased its range due to the actions of man; several other species have become established outside of their natural range after escaping captivity, and other species have increased their natural ranges due to habitat changes caused by human activity. Seeds and fruit form the major component of the diets of pigeons and doves. In fact, the family can be divided into the seed-eating or granivorous species (subfamily Columbinae) and the


title: Columbidae content: fruit-and-mast-eating or frugivorous species (the other four subfamilies). The granivorous species typically feed on seed found on the ground, whereas the frugivorous species tend to feed in trees. There are morphological adaptations that can be used to distinguish between the two groups: granivores tend to have thick walls in their gizzards, intestines, and esophagi whereas the frugivores tend to have thin walls. In addition, fruit-eating species have short intestines whereas those that eat seeds have longer ones. Frugivores are capable of clinging to branches and even hang upside down to reach fruit. In addition to fruit and seeds, a number