title: "Real-time clock" content: binary counter circuits. Many commercial RTC ICs are accurate to less than 5 parts per million. In practical terms, this is good enough to perform celestial navigation, the classic task of a chronometer. In 2011, Chip-scale atomic clocks were invented. Although more expensive, they keep time within 100 nanoseconds. Many integrated circuit manufacturers make RTCs, including Epson, Intersil, IDT, Maxim, NXP Semiconductors, Texas Instruments, STMicroelectronics and Ricoh. The RTC was introduced to PC compatibles by the IBM PC/AT in 1984, which used a Motorola MC146818 RTC. Later, Dallas Semiconductor made compatible RTCs, which were often used in older personal computers,


title: Samosa content: Samosa A samosa () is a fried or baked dish with a savoury filling, such as spiced potatoes, onions, peas, or lentils. It may take different forms, including triangular, cone, or half-moon shapes, depending on the region. The Indian style, often accompanied by a chutney, is probably the most widely-known of a broad family of recipes from Africa to China, which have origins in medieval times or earlier. Samosas are a popular entrée, appetizer, or snack in the local cuisines of the Indian subcontinent, the Arabian Peninsula, Southeast Asia, Southwest Asia, the Mediterranean, the Horn of Africa, North Africa, and


title: Samosa content: Southern Africa. Due to cultural diffusion and emigration from these areas, samosas in today's world are also prepared in other regions. The word "samosa" can be traced to the "sanbosag" (). The pastry name in other countries can also derive from this root, such as the crescent-shaped "sanbusak" or "sanbusaj" in the Arab world, "sambosa" in Afghanistan, "somosa" (Bengali: ) in Bengal, "samosa" (Urdu:) in Pakistan, "samosa" (Hindi:) in India, "()", "samboosa" in Tajikistan, "Sambôsy " in Madagascar , "samsa" by Turkic-speaking nations, "sambuus" by Somalis of Somalia, Djibouti, Somali Region of Ethiopia and North Eastern Province of Kenya, "chamuça"


title: Samosa content: in Goa, Mozambique and Portugal. While they are currently referred to as "sambusak" in the Arabic-speaking world, Medieval Arabic recipe books sometimes spell it "sambusaj". The term samosa and its variants cover a family of pastries and dumplings popular from north-eastern Africa to western China. An ancient recipe for samosa, widespread in the Near East and India, involves mixing 1 cup of oil, 1 cup of melted butter, 1 cup of warm water, and 1 teaspoon of salt with dough. A praise of samosa (as "sanbusaj") can be found in a 9th-century poem by the Persian poet Ishaq al-Mawsili. Recipes


title: Samosa content: for the dish are found in the 10th-13th century Arab cookery books, under the names "sanbusak", "sanbusaq", and "sanbusaj", all of which derive from the Persian word "sanbosag". In Iran, the dish was popular until 16th century, but by the 20th century, its popularity was restricted to certain provinces (such as the "sambusas" of Larestan). Abolfazl Beyhaqi (995-1077), an Iranian historian, mentioned it in his history, "Tarikh-e Beyhaghi". Central Asian "samsa" were introduced to the Indian subcontinent in the 13th or 14th century by traders from Central Asia. Amir Khusro (1253–1325), a scholar and the royal poet of the Delhi


title: Samosa content: Sultanate, wrote in around 1300 CE that the princes and nobles enjoyed the "samosa prepared from meat, ghee, onion, and so on". Ibn Battuta, a 14th-century traveler and explorer, describes a meal at the court of Muhammad bin Tughluq, where the "samushak" or "sambusak", a small pie stuffed with minced meat, almonds, pistachios, walnuts, and spices, was served before the third course, of "pulao". The "Ain-i-Akbari", a 16th-century Mughal document, mentions the recipe for "qutab", which it says, “the people of Hindustan call "sanbúsah"”. Regions where the dish serves as a staple of local cuisine have different ways of preparing


title: Samosa content: it. Samosas were brought to the Indian subcontinent by various Muslim merchants, and patronized under various Islamic dynasties in the region. The samosa is made with all-purpose flour locally known as maida shell stuffed with some filling, generally a mixture of mashed boiled potato, onions, green peas, lentils, spices and green chili, or fruits. The entire pastry is then deep-fried in vegetable oil or rarely ghee to a golden brown color. It is served hot and is often eaten with fresh green chutney, such as mint, coriander, or tamarind. It can also be prepared as a sweet form, rather than


title: Samosa content: as a savoury one. Samosas are often served in "chaat", along with the traditional accompaniments of either chick pea or white pea preparation, garnished with yoghurt, tamarind and green chutney, chopped onions, coriander, and "chaat masala". It can also be served with tomato sauce. Some people relish the crunchy samosa without any accompaniment. In Delhi, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Uttarakhand, a bigger version of the samosa with a spicy filling of masala potatoes, peas, crushed green chillies, cheese, and even dried fruits, as well as other variations, is quite popular. This samosa is bigger


title: Samosa content: compared to other Indian and foreign variants. In Odisha, West Bengal, and Jharkhand, "shingadas" (the East Indian version of samosas) are popular snacks. They are found almost everywhere. They are a bit smaller compared to those in other parts of India, and the filling mainly consists of boiled and diced potato, along with of other ingredients. They are wrapped in a thin sheet of dough (made of all purpose flour) and fried. Good shingaras are distinguished by flaky textures, almost as if they are made with a savoury pie crust. Usually, shingaras are deep-fried to a golden brown colour in


title: Samosa content: vegetable oil. They are served hot and consumed with ketchup or chutney, such as mint, coriander, or tamarind, or are served in "chaat", along with the traditional accompaniments of yogurt, chutney, chopped onions, coriander, and "chaat masala". Usually, shingaras are eaten at tea time as a snack. They can also be prepared in a sweet form, rather than as a savoury one. Bengali shingaras tend to be triangular, filled with potato, peas, onions, diced almonds, or other vegetables, and are more heavily fried and crunchier than either shingara or their Indian samosa cousins. "Fulkopir shingara" (shingara filled with cauliflower mixture)


title: Samosa content: is another very popular variation. In Bengal, there are non-vegetarian varieties of shingara called "mangsher shingara" (mutton shingara) and "macher shingara" (fish shingara). There are also sweeter versions, such as "narkel er shingara" (coconut shingara), as well as others filled with "khoya" and dipped in sugar syrup. In Hyderabad, India, a smaller version of the samosa with a thicker pastry crust and mince-meat filling, referred to as "lukhmi", is consumed, as is another variation with an onion filling. In the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu, samosas are slightly different, in that they are folded in a


title: Samosa content: different way, much more like Portuguese "chamuças", with a different style pastry. The filling also differs, typically featuring mashed potatoes with spices, fried onions, peas, carrots, cabbage, curry leaves, green chillies, etc. It is mostly eaten without chutney. Samosas in South India are made in different sizes, and fillings are greatly influenced by the local food habits. It can include many variety of fillings, such as meats and vegetables. Samosa is one of the most popular Indian snack items. It ist vegetable or potato filling coated with maida dough and deep fried in oil. The Muslims prepare meat filled variations


title: Samosa content: of the snack during Ramadan and other festive occasions. Mathri samosa is yet another popular snack in North India for spice-loving snack eaters. Both flat-shaped and full-shaped samosas are popular snacks in Bangladesh. A Bengali version of the full-shaped samosa is called a সিঙাড়া ("shingara") and is normally much smaller than the standard variety. The "shingara" is usually filled with pieced potatoes and vegetables, however, shingaras filled with beef liver are very popular in some parts of the country. The flat-shaped samosa is called a "somosa" or "somucha", and is usually filled with onions and minced meat. Samosas are called


title: Samosa content: "singadas" in the eastern zone of Nepal; the rest of the country calls it samosa. As in India, it is a very popular snack in Nepalese cuisine. Vendors sell the dish in various markets and restaurants. Samosas of various types are available all over Pakistan. In general, most samosa varieties sold in the southern Sindh province and in the eastern Punjab, especially the city of Lahore, are spicier and mostly contain vegetable or potato-based fillings. However, the samosas sold in the west and north of the country mostly contain minced meat-based fillings and are comparatively less spicy. The meat samosa


title: Samosa content: contains minced meat (lamb, beef, or chicken) and are very popular as snack food in Pakistan. In Pakistan, samosas of Karachi are famous for their spicy flavour, whereas samosas from Faisalabad are noted for being unusually large. Another distinct variety of samosa, available in Karachi, is called "kaghazi samosa" (; "paper samosa" in English) due to its thin and crispy covering, which resembles a wonton or spring roll wrapper. Another variant, popular in Punjab, consists of samosas with side dishes of mashed spiced chickpeas, onions, and coriander leaf salad, as well as various chutneys to top the samosas. The samosas


title: Samosa content: are a fried or baked pastry with a savoury filling, such as spiced potatoes, onions, peas, lentils, and minced meat (lamb, beef or chicken). Sweet samosas are also sold in the cities of Pakistan including Peshawar; these sweet samosas contain no filling and are dipped in thick sugar syrup. The types and varieties of samosa made in Maldivian cuisine are known as "bajiyaa". They are filled with a mixture including fish or tuna and onions. Samosas are called "samusas" in Burmese, and are an extremely popular snack in Burma. The local equivalent of samosas in Indonesia are known as "pastel,"


title: Samosa content: closer to Spanish empanadas style, i.e. not so much curry/spices flavor as it is lightly seasoned compared to Indian samosa that are richer in spices. The light thin pastry are usually filled with vegetables, minced beef, chicken or shrimp, topped with slices of egg depending on taste, before deep fried to golden color. As customary this popular snack is enjoyed with green hot chili padi. Sambuus are a staple of local cuisine in the Horn of Africa, Djibouti and Somalia, where they are known as "sambuus". They are traditionally made with a thinner pastry dough, similar to egg roll wraps,


title: Samosa content: and stuffed with ground beef. While they can be eaten any time of the year, they are usually reserved for special occasions. Many middle eastern countries include samosas in their cuisine. People in Saudi Arabia, for example, enjoy this dish as an appetizer. In the Holy Month of Ramadan, many Arabs and Muslims eat samosas everyday when they break their fast. In Israel, a () is a semicircular pocket of dough filled with mashed chickpeas, fried onions, and spices. Another variety is filled with meat, fried onions, parsley, spices, and pine nuts, which is sometimes mixed with mashed chickpeas and


title: Samosa content: breakfast version with feta or tzfat cheese and "za'atar". It is associated with Mizrahi Jewish cuisine. An Israeli "sambusak" is not as spicy as the Indian version. According to Gil Marks, an Israeli food historian, sambusak has been a traditional part of the Sephardic Sabbath meal since the 13th century. In Goa (India) and Portugal, samosas are known as "chamuças". They are usually filled with chicken, beef, pork, lamb or vegetables, and generally served quite hot. Samosas are an integral part of Goan and Portuguese cuisine, where they are a common snack. A samosa-inspired snack is also very common in


title: Samosa content: Brazil, and relatively common in several former Portuguese colonies in Africa, including Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, São Tomé and Príncipe, Angola, and Mozambique, where they are more commonly known as (in Brazil) or (in Portuguese Africa; in Brazilian Portuguese, refers to a completely different snack, always baked, small in size, and in the form of an inverse pudding). They are related to the Hispanic empanada and to the Italian calzone. Samosas are popular in the United Kingdom, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, South Africa, Kenya and Tanzania, and are also growing in popularity in Canada, and the United States. They may be


title: Samosa content: called "samboosa" or "sambusac", but in South Africa, they are often called "samoosa". Frozen samosas are increasingly available from grocery stores in Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom. While samosas are traditionally fried, many Westerners prefer to bake them, as this is viewed as more convenient and more healthy by some diners. Variations using filo, or flour tortillas are sometimes used. Samosa A samosa () is a fried or baked dish with a savoury filling, such as spiced potatoes, onions, peas, or lentils. It may take different forms, including triangular, cone, or half-moon shapes, depending on the region.


title: "Senate of Northern Ireland" content: elect him. The key offices in the Senate were: During its history 142 people sat in the upper house. With the addition of the Unionist Lord Mayor of Belfast Corporation and Mayor of Londonderry Corporation, together with boycotts of the Commons at various times by nationalist parties and fragmentation of the opposition into some parties too small to elect a Senator alone, the upper house proved to be even more heavily Unionist than the lower house. However a Nationalist, Thomas Stanislaus McAllister, served two periods as deputy speaker. The table below shows the political composition of the twenty-four elected members


title: Eviction content: tenant in order for it to be served and acted upon, but if it is correctly served, the tenant has no defence in court. Most private sector landlords rely on the s.21 procedure, and if only a possession order and costs are sought, there will be no Court hearing if the tenant has no defence. Some Housing Associations and Housing Trusts (a.k.a. Registered Providers of Social Housing) in the not-for-profit sector also use Ground 8 and s.21, but generally only in certain restricted cases. As a rule, private sector tenancies that began before 16 February 1989 are still subject to


title: "Today's Best Hits" content: Today's Best Hits Today's Best Hits was an American radio network with a Hot Adult Contemporary format. It played many contemporary songs. It also featured many retro (1980s) hits, and on Saturday night, it played only requested retro songs. The network was previously known as Best Hits, Best Variety. Today's Best Hits was a property of Cumulus Media Networks (now Westwood One). "Retro Radio," the first nationwide radio broadcast devoted solely to music from the 80's, was launched on Saturday nights in 1997. The show was created and hosted by Thom "Booray" Daniels until 2000. As of 2013, the website,


title: "Korčula" content: the liberation of Yugoslavia in 1945, the "Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia" was formed, and Korčula became a part of the People's Republic of Croatia, one of the six Yugoslav Republics. The state changed the name to Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1953, and so did the Republic into Socialist Republic of Croatia. After 1991, the island became a part of the independent Republic of Croatia. The 17th century saw the rise of Petar Kanavelić who wrote love songs, occasional epic poems and dramas. He also translated from Italian the major poetic works of that time. He is regarded


title: "Vytas Brenner" content: viajeros, Escalas y armonías, Estoy como quiero." Amazonia (1990). Tracks: "Ofrenda, Karibik, A Bolívar, Techos Rojos (1er Movimiento), Techos Rojos (2do Movimiento), Aruanda, Mestizo, Guacamaya, Autana, Orinokia, Amazonia." Vytas Brenner Vytas Brenner (19 September 1946 – 18 March 2004) was a Venezuelan musician, keyboardist, guitarist and composer. He was born in Tübingen, Germany, but his family migrated to Venezuela in 1949 when he was 2 years old. His mother, Margarita Brenner, was an Opera singer. Brenner began his musical studies in Caracas at "Colegio Emil Friedman" school, a prestigious institution heavily oriented toward musical education. When he was 12 years


title: "Duality (projective geometry)" content: a correlation. Let denote the linear functional of associated with the vector in . Define the form by: Any duality of for is induced by a nondegenerate sesquilinear form on the underlying vector space (with a companion antiautomorphism) and conversely. Homogeneous coordinates may be used to give an algebraic description of dualities. To simplify this discussion we shall assume that is a field, but everything can be done in the same way when is a skewfield as long as attention is paid to the fact that multiplication need not be a commutative operation. The points of can be taken to


title: "Copenhagen Metro" content: as its southern terminus. Trains will operate both ways through the circle. The line will have transfer to M1 and M2 at Frederiksberg and Kongens Nytorv. The line is estimated to carry 240,000 daily passengers, bringing the metro's total daily ridership to 460,000. A northwestern expansion of the City Circle Line was planned, where M4 would divert at Nørrebro and run to the suburbs of Brønshøj and Gladsaxe. This project was abandoned, as the interchange chamber between any such line and the City Circle Line was scrapped as part of the City of Copenhagen's 2009 budget. In subsequent plans, the


title: "Mazatlán" content: first settlers belonged to a Spanish family who arrived there in 1576. Among its economic activities are fishing, agriculture, livestock, fruit growing, aquaculture, and brick making. El Recodo: So-called for the square shape of the Rio Presidio at this point. It is the cradle of Don Cruz Lizarraga, founder of the international Banda El Recodo. Its economic activities are livestock, agriculture, fruit growing, tanning, and saddlery. El Quelite: A picturesque and attractive tourist town located 38 km northwest of Mazatlán. The El Quelite River passes through it. Its houses contain the Spanish classical influence predominant in the eighteenth century. Charrería


title: "Pontiac Catalina" content: 403 V8 in 1979 only. An Oldsmobile-built 350 Diesel V8 was optional for 1980 and 1981, along with another cut-down Pontiac V8 of 265 CID. With the downsized 1977 model, the Catalina Safari got a new two-way tailgate that could be opened to the side as a door or lowered as a tailgate which replaced the more complicated 1971-76 clamshell tailgate design. The wagons also shared the same full-coil spring suspension as their sedan counterparts, rather than the multi-leaf springs found on 1971-76 Safaris. As Pontiac V8s were completely banned from the State of California beginning in 1977 due to


title: "Sergey Lavrov" content: was named Foreign Minister of the Russian SFSR. In that year, the powers of the Soviet Foreign Ministry and the Foreign Ministry of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic were distributed. Until then the Russian SFSR had only a ceremonial role. In October 1991, the foreign ministers of all Soviet republics, except Georgia and the Baltic states, held a meeting where they dealt with the Union of Foreign Ministries. In November 1990, the State Council decided to change its name from the Union of Foreign Ministries to the Foreign Ministry of the Soviet Union and in December that year, the


title: "Paddy field" content: Paddy field A paddy field is a flooded parcel of arable land used for growing semiaquatic rice. Paddy cultivation should not be confused with cultivation of deepwater rice, which is grown in flooded conditions with water more than 50 cm (20 in) deep for at least a month. Genetic evidence shows that all forms of paddy rice, both "indica" and "japonica", spring from a domestication of the wild rice "Oryza rufipogon" that first occurred 8,200–13,500 years ago South of the Yangtze River in present-day China. However, the domesticated "indica" subspecies currently appears to be a product of the introgression of


title: "Paddy field" content: favorable alleles from "japonica" at a later date, so that there are possibly several events of cultivation and domestication. Paddy fields are the typical feature of rice farming in east, south and southeast Asia. Fields can be built into steep hillsides as terraces and adjacent to depressed or steeply sloped features such as rivers or marshes. They can require a great deal of labor and materials to create, and need large quantities of water for irrigation. Oxen and water buffalo, adapted for life in wetlands, are important working animals used extensively in paddy field farming. During the 20th century, paddy-field


title: "Paddy field" content: farming became the dominant form of growing rice. Hill tribes of Thailand still cultivate dry-soil varieties called upland rice. Paddy field farming is practiced in Asia, namely in Cambodia, Bangladesh, China, Taiwan, India, Indonesia, Iran, Japan, North Korea, South Korea, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos, and in Europe, Northern Italy, the Camargue in France, and in Spain, particularly in the Albufera de València wetlands in the Valencian Community, the Ebro Delta in Catalonia and the Guadalquivir wetlands in Andalusia, as well as along the eastern coast of Brazil, the Artibonite Valley in Haiti, and


title: "Paddy field" content: Sacramento Valley in California, among other places. Paddy fields are a major source of atmospheric methane and have been estimated to contribute in the range of 50 to 100 million tonnes of the gas per annum. Studies have shown that this can be significantly reduced while also boosting crop yield by draining the paddies to allow the soil to aerate to interrupt methane production. Studies have also shown the variability in assessment of methane emission using local, regional and global factors and calling for better inventorisation based on micro level data. The word "paddy" is derived from the Malay word


title: "Paddy field" content: "padi", rice plant. Archaeologists generally accept that wet-field cultivation originated in China. The earliest paddy field found dates to 4330 BC, based on carbon dating of grains of rice and soil organic matter found at the Chaodun site in Kunshan County. At Caoxieshan, a site of the Neolithic Majiabang culture, archaeologists excavated paddy fields. Some archaeologists claim that Caoxieshan may date to 4000–3000 BC. There is archaeological evidence that unhusked rice was stored for the military and for burial with the deceased from the Neolithic period to the Han Dynasty in China. There are ten archaeologically excavated rice paddy fields


title: "Paddy field" content: in Korea. The two oldest are the Okhyun and Yaumdong sites, found in Ulsan, dating to the early Mumun pottery period. Paddy field farming goes back thousands of years in Korea. A pit-house at the Daecheon-ni site yielded carbonized rice grains and radiocarbon dates, indicating that rice cultivation in dry-fields may have begun as early as the Middle Jeulmun pottery period (c. 3500–2000 BC) in the Korean Peninsula. Ancient paddy fields have been carefully unearthed in Korea by institutes such as Kyungnam University Museum (KUM) of Masan. They excavated paddy field features at the Geumcheon-ni Site near Miryang, South Gyeongsang


title: "Paddy field" content: Province. The paddy field feature was found next to a pit-house that is dated to the latter part of the Early Mumun pottery period (c. 1100–850 BC). KUM has conducted excavations, that have revealed similarly dated paddy field features, at Yaeum-dong and Okhyeon, in modern-day Ulsan. The earliest Mumun features were usually located in low-lying narrow gullies, that were naturally swampy and fed by the local stream system. Some Mumun paddy fields in flat areas were made of a series of squares and rectangles, separated by bunds approximately 10 cm in height, while terraced paddy fields consisted of long irregular


title: "Paddy field" content: shapes that followed natural contours of the land at various levels. Mumun Period rice farmers used all of the elements that are present in today's paddy fields, such as terracing, bunds, canals, and small reservoirs. We can grasp some paddy-field farming techniques of the Middle Mumun (c. 850–550 BC), from the well-preserved wooden tools excavated from archaeological rice fields at the Majeon-ni Site. However, iron tools for paddy-field farming were not introduced until sometime after 200 BC. The spatial scale of paddy-fields increased, with the regular use of iron tools, in the Three Kingdoms of Korea Period (c. AD 300/400-668).


title: "Paddy field" content: The first paddy fields in Japan date to the Early Yayoi period (300 BC – 250 AD). The Early Yayoi has been re-dated, and it appears that wet-field agriculture developed at about the same time as in the Korean peninsula. Evidence of wild rice on the island of Sulawesi dates from 3000 BCE. Historic evidence for the earliest cultivation, however, comes from eighth century stone inscriptions from the central island of Java, which show kings levied taxes in rice. In ancient Java, during the Medang Mataram period, many inscriptions are related to the establishment of the "sima" lands. This signify


title: "Paddy field" content: the formation and expansion of Javanese agricultural villages in the region during this period. Either by opening a forest or converting a "ladang" (dry rice cultivation) to "sawah" (wet rice cultivation). A "sima" is an arable wet rice agricultural land with rice surpluses available for taxation, and officially recognised through royal edict. Most of these "sima" lands are ruled by regional "rakai" or "samget" (landed gentry) in their realm. The Rakais that rule the land are granted a royal permission to collect tax, yet some parts of these tax should be regularly paid to the king's court. In some instance,


title: "Paddy field" content: some of these "sima" inscription stated that this "sima" land has become a tax-free land, in exchange that the rice harvest surpluses collected from this land are used to construct or maintain a religious building. The images of rice cultivation, rice barn, and mouse pest investing a rice field is evident in Karmawibhangga bas-reliefs of Borobudur. Divisions of labour between men, women, and animals that are still in place in Indonesian rice cultivation, were carved into relief friezes on the ninth century Prambanan temples in Central Java: a water buffalo attached to a plough; women planting seedlings and pounding grain;


title: "Paddy field" content: and a man carrying sheaves of rice on each end of a pole across his shoulders ("pikulan"). In the sixteenth century, Europeans visiting the Indonesian islands saw rice as a new prestige food served to the aristocracy during ceremonies and feasts. Rice production in Indonesian history is linked to the development of iron tools and the domestication of Wild Asian Water Buffalo as water buffalo for cultivation of fields and manure for fertiliser. Rice production requires exposure to the sun. Once covered in dense forest, much of the Indonesian landscape has been gradually cleared for permanent fields and settlements as


title: "Paddy field" content: rice cultivation developed over the last fifteen hundred years. In the Philippines, the use of rice paddies can be traced to prehistoric times, as evidenced in the names of towns such as Pila, Laguna, whose name can be traced to the straight mounds of dirt that form the boundaries of the rice paddy, or "Pilapil." Wet rice cultivation in Vietnam dates back to the Neolithic Hoa Binh culture and Bac Son culture. Although China's agricultural output is the largest in the world, only about 15% of its total land area can be cultivated. About 75% of the cultivated area is


title: "Paddy field" content: used for food crops. Rice is China's most important crop, raised on about 25% of the cultivated area. Most rice is grown south of the Huai River, in the Yangtze valley, the Zhu Jiang delta, and in Yunnan, Guizhou, and Sichuan provinces. Rice appears to have been used by the Early Neolithic populations of Lijiacun and Yunchanyan in China. Evidence of possible rice cultivation from ca. 11,500 BP has been found, however it is still questioned whether the rice was indeed being cultivated, or instead being gathered as wild rice. Bruce Smith, an archaeologist at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington,


title: "Paddy field" content: D.C., who has written on the origins of agriculture, says that evidence has been mounting that the Yangtze was probably the site of the earliest rice cultivation. In 1998, Crawford & Shen reported that the earliest of 14 AMS or radiocarbon dates on rice from at least nine Early to Middle Neolithic sites is no older than 7000 BC, that rice from the Hemudu and Luojiajiao sites indicates that rice domestication likely began before 5000 BC, but that most sites in China from which rice remains have been recovered are younger than 5000 BC. During the Spring and Autumn period


title: "Paddy field" content: (722–481 BC), two revolutionary improvements in farming technology took place. One was the use of cast iron tools and beasts of burden to pull plows, and the other was the large-scale harnessing of rivers and development of water conservation projects. Sunshu Ao of the 6th century BC and Ximen Bao of the 5th century BC are two of the earliest hydraulic engineers from China, and their works were focused upon improving irrigation systems. These developments were widely spread during the ensuing Warring States period (403–221 BC), culminating in the enormous Du Jiang Yan Irrigation System engineered by Li Bing by


title: "Paddy field" content: 256 BC for the State of Qin in ancient Sichuan. During the Eastern Jin (317–420) and the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420–589), land-use became more intensive and efficient, rice was grown twice a year and cattle began to be used for plowing and fertilization. In circa 750, 75% of China's population lived north of the river Yangtze, but by 1250, 75% of China's population lived south of the river Yangtze. Such large-scale internal migration was possible due to introduction of quick-ripening strains of rice from Vietnam suitable for multi-cropping. Localities in China which are famous for their spectacular rice paddies


title: "Paddy field" content: are Yuanyang County, Yunnan, and Longsheng County, Guangxi. India has the largest paddy output in the world and is also the fourth largest exporter of rice in the world. In India, West Bengal is the largest rice producing state. Paddy fields are a common sight throughout India, both in the northern gangetic plains and the southern peninsular plateaus. Paddy is cultivated at least twice a year in most parts of India, the two seasons being known as Rabi and Kharif respectively. The former cultivation is dependent on irrigation, while the latter depends on Monsoon. The paddy cultivation plays a major


title: "Paddy field" content: role in socio-cultural life of rural India. Many festivals such as Onam in Kerala, Bihu in Assam, Makara Sankranthi in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, Thai Pongal In Tamil Nadu, Makar Sankranti in Karnataka, Nabanna in West Bengal celebrates harvest of Paddy. Kaveri delta region of Thanjavur is historically known as the rice bowl of Tamil Nadu and Kuttanadu is called the rice bowl of Kerala. Prime Javanese paddy yields roughly 6 metric tons of unmilled rice (2.5 metric tons of milled rice) per hectare. When irrigation is available, rice farmers typically plant Green Revolution rice varieties allowing three growing seasons


title: "Paddy field" content: per year. Since fertilizer and pesticide are relatively expensive inputs, farmers typically plant seeds in a very small plot. Three weeks following germination, the 15-20 centimetre (6–8 in) stalks are picked and replanted at greater separation, in a backbreaking manual procedure. Rice harvesting in Central Java is often performed not by owners or sharecroppers of paddy, but rather by itinerant middlemen, whose small firms specialize in harvesting, transport, milling, and distribution to markets. The fertile volcanic soil of much of the Indonesian archipelago—and particularly the islands of Java and Bali—has made rice a central dietary staple. Steep terrain on Bali


title: "Paddy field" content: resulted in an intricate cooperation systems, locally called "subak", to manage water storage and drainage for rice terraces. Rice is grown in northern Italy, especially in the valley of the river Po. The paddy fields are irrigated by fast-flowing streams descending from the Alps. The acidic soil conditions common in Japan due to volcanic eruptions have made the paddy field the most productive farming method. Paddy fields are represented by the kanji (commonly read as "ta") that has had a strong influence on Japanese culture. In fact, the character , which originally meant 'field' in general, is used in Japan


title: "Paddy field" content: exclusively to convey the meaning 'rice paddy field'. One of the oldest samples of writing in Japan is widely credited to the kanji found on pottery at the archaeological site of Matsutaka in Mie Prefecture that dates to the late 2nd century. "Ta" () is used as a part of many place names as well as in many family names. Most of these places are somehow related to the paddy field and, in many cases, are based on the history of a particular location. For example, where a river runs through a village, the place east of river may be


title: "Paddy field" content: called "Higashida" (), literally "east paddy field." A place with a newly irrigated paddy field, especially those during or later than Edo period, may be called "Nitta" or "Shinden" (both ), "new paddy field." In some places, lakes and marshes were likened to a paddy field and were named with "ta", like "Hakkōda" (). Today, many family names have "ta" as a component, a practice which can be largely attributed to a government edict in the early Meiji Period which required all citizens to have a family name. Many chose a name based on some geographical feature associated with their


title: "Paddy field" content: residence or occupation, and as nearly three fourths of the population were farmers, many made family names using "ta". Some common examples are "Tanaka" (), literally meaning "in the paddy field;" "Nakata" (), "middle paddy field;" "Kawada" (川田), "river paddy field;" and "Furuta" (), "old paddy field." In recent years, rice consumption in Japan has fallen and many rice farmers are increasingly elderly. The government has subsidized rice production since the 1970s, and favors protectionist policies regarding cheaper imported rice. Arable land in small alluvial flats of most rural river valleys in South Korea are dedicated to paddy-field farming. Farmers


title: "Paddy field" content: assess paddy fields for any necessary repairs in February. Fields may be rebuilt, and bund breaches are repaired. This work is carried out until mid-March, when warmer spring weather allows the farmer to buy or grow rice seedlings. They are transplanted (usually by rice transplanter) from the indoors into freshly flooded paddy fields in May. Farmers tend and weed their paddy fields through the summer until around the time of Chuseok, a traditional holiday held on 15 August of the Lunar Calendar (circa mid-September by Solar Calendar). The harvest begins in October. Coordinating the harvest can be challenging because many


title: "Paddy field" content: Korean farmers have small paddy fields in a number of locations around their villages, and modern harvesting machines are sometimes shared between extended family members. Farmers usually dry the harvested grains in the sun before bringing them to market. The Chinese (or Sino-Korean) character for 'field', "jeon" (), is found in some place names, especially small farming townships and villages. However, the specific Korean term for 'paddy' is a purely Korean word, "non" (). In Madagascar, the average annual consumption of rice is 130 kg per person, one of the largest in the world. According to a 1999 study of


title: "Paddy field" content: UPDRS / FAO: The majority of rice is related to irrigation (1,054,381 ha). The choice of methods conditioning performance is determined by the variety and quality control of water .. The "Tavy", is traditionally the culture of flooded upland rice on burning of cleared natural rain forest (135,966 ha). Criticized as being the cause of deforestation, "Tavy" is still widely practiced by farmers in Madagascar, who find a good compromise between climate risks, availability of labour and food security. "Tanety" means hill. By extension, the "tanety" is also growing upland rice, carried out on the grassy slopes have been deforested


title: "Paddy field" content: for the operation of charcoal. (139,337 ha) Among the many varieties, rice of Madagascar include: "Vary lava" is a translucent long and large grain rice. It is a luxury ricer. "Vary Makalioka, is translucent long and thin grain rice. "Vary Rojofotsy" is a -half long.grain rice "Vary mena" or red rice, is exclusive to Madagascar. Paddy field are typically found on Peninsular Malaysia, in most of its regions. The most scenic paddy fields are located in northern Malaysia, in Kedah, Perlis and Penang; almost covering these states. Paddy fields also can be found on Malaysia's eastern coast region, mainly in


title: "Paddy field" content: Kelantan and Terengganu, and also in Selangor, especially in the districts of Kuala Selangor and Sabak Bernam. Before Malaysia became heavily reliant on its industrial output, people were mainly involved in agriculture, especially in the production of rice. It was for that reason, that people usually built their houses next to paddy fields. The very spicy chili pepper that is often eaten in Malaysia, the bird's eye chili, is locally called "cili padi", literally "paddy chili". Some research pertaining to Rainfed lowland rice in Sarawak has been reported Rice is grown primarily in three areas – the Irrawaddy Delta, the


title: "Paddy field" content: area along and the delta of the Kaladan River, and the Central plains around Mandalay, though there has been an increase in rice farming in Shan State and Kachin State in recent years. Up until the later 1960s, Myanmar was the main exporter of rice. Termed the rice basket of South East Asia, much of the rice grown in Myanmar does not rely on fertilizers and pesticides, thus, although "organic" in a sense, it has been unable to cope with population growth and other rice economies which utilized fertilizers. Rice is now grown in all the three seasons of Myanmar,


title: "Paddy field" content: though primarily in the Monsoon season – from June to October. Rice grown in the delta areas rely heavily on the river water and sedimented minerals from the northern mountains, whilst the rice grown in the central regions require irrigation from the Irrawaddy River. The fields are tilled when the first rains arrive – traditionally measured at 40 days after Thingyan, the Burmese New Year – around the beginning of June. In modern times, tractors are used, but traditionally, buffalos were employed. The rice plants are planted in nurseries and then transplanted by hand into the prepared fields. The rice


title: "Paddy field" content: is then harvested in late November – "when the rice bends with age". Most of the rice planting and harvesting are done by hand. The rice is then threshed and stored, ready for the mills. In Nepal, rice (Nepali: धान, Dhaan) is grown in the Terai and hilly regions. It is mainly grown during the summer monsoon in Nepal. Paddy fields are a common sight in the Philippines. Several vast paddy fields exist in the provinces of Ifugao, Nueva Ecija, Isabela, Cagayan, Bulacan, Quezon, and other provinces. Nueva Ecija is considered the main rice growing province of the Philippines and


title: "Paddy field" content: the leading producer of onions in the Municipality of Bongabon in Southeast Asia. It is currently the 9th richest province in the country. The Banaue Rice Terraces is an example of paddy fields in the country, it is located in Northern Luzon, Philippines and were built by the Ifugaos 2,000 years ago. Streams and springs found in the mountains were tapped and channeled into Irrigation canals that run downhill through the rice terraces. Other notable Philippine paddy fields are the Batad Rice Terraces, the Bangaan Rice Terraces, the Mayoyao Rice Terraces and the Hapao Rice Terraces. Located at Barangay Batad


title: "Paddy field" content: in Banaue, the Batad Rice Terraces are shaped like an amphitheatre, and can be reached by a 12-kilometer ride from Banaue Hotel and a 2-hour hike uphill through mountain trails. The Bangaan Rice Terraces portray the typical Ifugao community, where the livelihood activities are within the village and its surroundings. The Bangaan Rice Terraces is accessible in a one-hour ride from Poblacion, Banaue, then a 20-minute trek down to the village. It can be viewed best from the road to Mayoyao. The Mayoyao Rice Terraces is located at Mayoyao, 44 kilometers away from Poblacion, Banaue. The town of Mayoyao lies


title: "Paddy field" content: in the midst of these rice terraces. All dikes are tiered with flat stones. The Hapao Rice Terraces can be reached within 55 kilometers from the capital town of Lagawe. Other Ifugao stone-walled rice terraces are located in the municipality of Hungduan. Agriculture in Sri Lanka mainly depends on rice production. Sri Lanka sometimes exports rice to its neighboring countries. Around 1.5 million hectares of land is cultivated in Sri Lanka for paddy in 2008/2009 maha: 64% of which is cultivated during the dry season and 35% cultivated during the wet season. Around 879,000 farmer families are engaged in paddy


title: "Paddy field" content: cultivation in Sri Lanka. They make up 20% of the country's population and 32% of the employment. Rice production in Thailand represents a significant portion of the Thai economy. It uses over half of the farmable land area and labor force in Thailand. Thailand has a strong tradition of rice production. It has the fifth-largest amount of land under rice cultivation in the world and is the world's largest exporter of rice. Thailand has plans to further increase its land available for rice production, with a goal of adding 500,000 hectares to its already 9.2 million hectares of rice-growing areas.


title: "Paddy field" content: The Thai Ministry of Agriculture expected rice production to yield around 30 million tons of rice for 2008. The most produced strain of rice in Thailand is jasmine rice, which has a significantly lower yield rate than other types of rice, but also normally fetches more than double the price of other strains in a global market. Rice fields in Vietnam ("ruộng" or "cánh đồng" in Vietnamese) are the predominant land use in the valley of the Red River and the Mekong Delta. In the Red River Delta of northern Vietnam, control of seasonal riverine floodings is achieved by an


title: "Paddy field" content: extensive network of dykes which over the centuries total some 3000 km. In the Mekong Delta of southern Vietnam, there is an interlacing drainage and irrigation canal system that has become the symbol of this area. It jointly serves as transportation routes, allowing farmers to bring their produce to market. In Northwestern Vietnam, Thai people built their ""valley culture"" based on the cultivation of glutinous rice planted in upland fields, requiring terracing of the slopes. The primary festival related to the agrarian cycle is ""lễ hạ điền"" (literally "descent into the fields") held as the start of the planting season


title: "Paddy field" content: in hope of a bountiful harvest. Traditionally, the event was officiated with much pomp. The monarch carried out the ritual plowing the first furrow while local dignitaries and farmers followed suit. "Thổ địa" (deities of the earth), "thành hoàng làng" (the village patron spirit), Thần Nông (god of agriculture), and "thần lúa" (god of rice plants) were all venerated with prayers and offerings. In colloquial Vietnamese, wealth is frequently associated with the vastness of the individual's land holdings. Paddy fields so large as for "storks to fly with their wings out-stretched" (""đồng lúa thẳng cánh cò bay"") can be heard


title: "Paddy field" content: as a common metaphor. Wind-blown undulating rice plants across a paddy field in literary Vietnamese is termed figuratively "waves of rice plants" (""sóng lúa""). Paddy field A paddy field is a flooded parcel of arable land used for growing semiaquatic rice. Paddy cultivation should not be confused with cultivation of deepwater rice, which is grown in flooded conditions with water more than 50 cm (20 in) deep for at least a month. Genetic evidence shows that all forms of paddy rice, both "indica" and "japonica", spring from a domestication of the wild rice "Oryza rufipogon" that first occurred 8,200–13,500 years


title: "Concordia University System" content: named "Concordia" but are not part of the Concordia University System. For example, neither of the LCMS seminaries (Concordia Seminary and Concordia Theological Seminary) are part of CUS. The non-accredited Concordia College and University is in no way affiliated with the Concordia University System or its nine campuses. The educational institutions of the Lutheran Church–Canada are not part of the CUS even though that church body was originally part of the LCMS and remains associated with it. Those institutions are Concordia University College of Alberta and Concordia Lutheran Seminary, both in Edmonton, and Concordia Lutheran Theological Seminary in St. Catherines


title: "Pulteney Bridge" content: Pulteney Bridge Pulteney Bridge crosses the River Avon in Bath, England. It was completed by 1774, and connected the city with the land of the Pulteney family which they wished to develop. Designed by Robert Adam in a Palladian style, it is exceptional in having shops built across its full span on both sides. It has been designated as a Grade I listed building. Within 20 years of its construction, alterations were made that expanded the shops and changed the façades. By the end of the 18th century it had been damaged by floods, but it was rebuilt to a


title: "Pulteney Bridge" content: similar design. Over the next century alterations to the shops included cantilevered extensions on the bridge's north face. In the 20th century several schemes were carried out to preserve the bridge and partially return it to its original appearance, enhancing its appeal as a tourist attraction. The bridge is now long and wide. Although there have been plans to pedestrianise the bridge, it is still used by buses and taxis. The much photographed bridge and the weir below are close to the centre of the city, which is a World Heritage Site largely because of its Georgian architecture. One of


title: "Pulteney Bridge" content: only four bridges in the world to have shops across its full span on both sides, the structure was designed by Robert Adam; his original drawings are preserved in the Sir John Soane's Museum in London. The bridge is named after Frances Pulteney, wife of William Johnstone. He was a wealthy Scottish lawyer and Member of Parliament. Frances was the third daughter of MP and government official Daniel Pulteney (1684–1731) and first cousin once removed of William Pulteney, 1st Earl of Bath. She inherited the Earl's substantial fortune and estates close to Bath in Somerset after his death in 1764


title: "Pulteney Bridge" content: and that of his younger brother and heir in 1767, and the Johnstones changed their surname to Pulteney. The rural Bathwick estate, which Frances and William inherited in 1767, was across the river from the city and could only be reached by ferry. William made plans to create a new town, which would become a suburb to the historic city of Bath, but first he needed a better river crossing. The work of the Pulteneys is memorialised by Great Pulteney Street in Bathwick, and Henrietta Street and Laura Place, named after their daughter Henrietta Laura Johnstone. Initial plans for the


title: "Pulteney Bridge" content: bridge were drawn up by Thomas Paty, who estimated it would cost £4,569 to build, but that did not include the shops. A second estimate of £2,389 was obtained from local builders John Lowther and Richard Reed; it included two shops at each end of the bridge, but work did not begin before winter weather made construction of the pillars impossible. In 1770 the brothers Robert and James Adam, who were working on designs for the new town at Bathwick, adapted Paty's original design. Robert Adam envisaged an elegant structure lined with shops, similar to the Ponte Vecchio and the


title: "Pulteney Bridge" content: Ponte di Rialto he would likely have seen when he visited Florence and Venice. Adam's design more closely followed Andrea Palladio's rejected design for the Rialto. The revised bridge was wide, rather than the width envisaged by Paty, which overcame the objections of the local council about the bridge being too narrow. Construction started in 1770 and was completed by 1774 at a cost of £11,000. The builders for the lower part of the bridge were local masons Reed and Lowther; the shops were constructed by Singers and Lankeshere. Pulteney Bridge stood for less than 20 years in the form


title: "Pulteney Bridge" content: Adam created. In 1792 alterations were made during which the bridge was widened to and the shops enlarged, converting the original sixteen shops into six larger ones. Floods in 1799 and 1800 wrecked the north side of the bridge, which had been constructed with inadequate support. Thomas Telford suggested replacing the bridge with a single span cast iron bridge. However it was rebuilt by John Pinch senior, surveyor to the Pulteney estate, in a less ambitious version of Adam's design. Nineteenth-century shopkeepers changed the structure and appearance of their premises by changing windows, or expanding them by adding cantilevers over


title: "Pulteney Bridge" content: the river. Some painted advertisements on the outside of their shops, affecting the view from the river and Grand Parade. The western end pavilion on the south side was demolished in 1903 for road widening and its replacement was not an exact match. In 1936 the bridge was designated an ancient monument. The city council bought several of the shops and made plans for the restoration of the original façade, which was completed in time for the Festival of Britain in 1951. Further work was carried out in the 1960s to repair the underside soffits of all three arches. More


title: "Pulteney Bridge" content: restoration of the southern street facade was needed in 1975. The status of the bridge as an ancient monument was replaced in 1955 with its designation as a Grade I listed building. In 2009 Bath and North East Somerset council put forward a proposal to close the bridge to motor traffic and convert it to a pedestrianised zone, but the plan was abandoned in September 2011. The bridge features two ranges of shops designed in the Palladian style c. 1770, between them forming a narrow street over the bridge. The street and buildings sit above three segmental arches of equal


title: "Pulteney Bridge" content: span. The shops on the north side have cantilevered rear extensions. Consequently, the northern external façade of the bridge is asymmetrical, much altered and of no architectural merit, whereas the southern external side clearly shows the hand of Robert Adam. Built of limestone, in classic Palladian style, the southern façade takes the form of a temple-like central bay with symmetrical wings connecting to two flanking, terminating pavilions. The central bay is given eminence by a broken pediment supported by austere Doric pillasters. It in turn is flanked by two small bays, each with a small pointed pediment supported by shallow


title: "Pulteney Bridge" content: pilasters, which further emphasise and complement the central broken pediment sitting above a large Palladian window – the focal point of the building. On this southern side the structure comprises a principal floor at street level, with a low mezzanine separated by stone banding above. Beneath the principal floor is a sub-floor constructed in the masonry between the spans of the bridge, its presence indicated by ocular windows placed symmetrically beneath the span of each arch. This ocular motif, on a reduced scale, is repeated symmetrically at mezzanine level beneath the central broken pediment. The two terminating pavilions, in reality


title: "Pulteney Bridge" content: slight projections, have shallow saucer domes concealed behind their pointed pediments. The roof is pitched and of Welsh slate. The western mid-stream pier was rebuilt in 1804. Further alteration took place in 1895, when the western pavilion was moved for the construction of the Grand Parade. The appearance changed yet again when the current weir, the scene of Javert's suicide in the film version of "Les Misérables", was constructed between 1968 and 1972 as part of a flood-prevention scheme. Further restoration was undertaken in 1975. Notes Bibliography Pulteney Bridge Pulteney Bridge crosses the River Avon in Bath, England. It was


title: "Landing craft" content: the problem of launching small craft rapidly. The "Landing Ship Stern Chute", which was a converted train ferry, was an early attempt. Thirteen Landing Craft Mechanized (LCM) could be launched from these ships down the chute. The Landing Ship Gantry was a converted tanker with a crane to transfer its cargo of landing craft from deck to sea - 15 LCM in a little over half an hour. The design was developed and built in the US for the USN and the Royal Navy. The LSD could carry 36 LCM at 16 knots. It had a large open compartment at


title: Exedra content: ever seen domes and exedrae in a dwelling before. An exedra was normally a public feature: when rhetoricians and philosophers disputed in a Roman gymnasium it was in an exedra opening into the peristyle that they gathered. A basilica featured a large exedra at the far end from its entrance, where the magistrates sat, usually raised up several steps, in hearing cases. This was called a "tribuna" in Latin, and tribune is used for an area of raised floor backing onto a wall, often in an exedra. Following precedents from Rome, exedrae continued to be in widespread use architecturally after


title: "IDS Center" content: almanacs and other listings of building height. The owners of the Capella Tower were hesitant to claim that their building was taller than IDS, and usually deferred the honor to the more well-known structure. As area journalists reported on the sale of the IDS Center to the John Buck Company in 2004 and the death of designer Philip Johnson in 2005, they came face-to-face with the fact that the roof of the tower was one foot lower than its neighbor. Emporis.com restored the IDS Center to first-place status in the city in February 2005 by including the height of the


title: "City Beautiful movement" content: and city planning. These improvements, combined with a new state capitol building in 1906, quickly transformed Harrisburg into a proud modern city by 1915. In Memphis, the City Beautiful Commission was officially established by a city ordinance on July 1, 1930, making it the first and oldest beautification commission in the nation. It was the brainchild of the mayor, Mr. E. H. Crump. The first Commission was appointed and had operating expenses of $1,500. A small office was set up in The Nineteenth Century Club. Mrs. E. G. Willingham was chosen as chairman and Mrs. William B. Fowler served as


title: "The Seven Crystal Balls" content: for a moment into Haddock's shoes and to be autobiographical". Jean-Marc Lofficier and Randy Lofficier believed that the two-story arc represents "one more leap forward in Hergé's graphic and narrative skills" as a result of the transition to full colour double pages as the initial means of publication. They noted that "The Seven Crystal Balls" is "bathed in the surreal atmosphere that Hergé knew how to create so well", with Tintin confronting "a dark and oppressive force" that was "worthy of a Hammer film." They asserted that the character of Professor Tarragon was "to archaeology what Haddock is to the


title: "Chofetz Chaim" content: severity of Jewish law on tale-mongering and gossip. Lashon hara, meaning "evil speech" (or loosely gossip and slander and prohibitions of defamation), is sometimes translated as "prohibitions of slander", but in essence is concerning the "prohibitions of saying evil/bad/unpleasant things about a person, whether or not they are true". The book is divided into three parts: Rabbi Israel Meir HaCohen Kagan is commonly known as the "Chafetz Chaim," the name of his famous work on guarding one's tongue. He was born in Zhetel, Poland on February 6, 1838. As his reputation grew, students from all over Europe flocked to him


title: "Hampden Park" content: demand to see the visitors. A crowd of over 30,000 saw Scotland win 6–0. The redeveloped Hampden served as one of the 1999 Rugby World Cup venues, over 90 years later. Scotland played Romania in a friendly match before the tournament and South Africa played Uruguay in a tournament pool match. The only rugby union international played at Hampden since then was in November 2004, between Scotland and Australia. Hampden hosted the Scottish Amateur Athletics Association championships during the 1920s and 1930s, with the original Meadowbank Stadium used as an alternative venue. Eric Liddell won the 110, 220 and 440


title: "Whipple's disease" content: disease is not associated with a substantially increased risk of other infections. The disease is usually diagnosed in middle age (median 49 years). Studies from Germany have shown that age at diagnosis has been rising since the 1960s. Whipple described the disease in 1907 in a paper in the now-defunct "Bulletin of Johns Hopkins Hospital". The patient was a 35-year-old medical missionary. Whipple referred to the disease as "intestinal lipodystrophy". It was long presumed to be an infectious disease, but the causative organism was only fully identified in 1992. In 2003, doctors from Johns Hopkins Hospital, together with a French


title: Tetra content: Tetra Tetra is the common name of many small freshwater Characiform fishes. Tetras come from Africa, Central America, and South America, belonging to the biological family Characidae and to its former subfamilies Alestidae (the "African tetras") and Lebiasinidae. The Characidae are distinguished from other fish by the presence of a small adipose fin between the dorsal and caudal fins. Many of these, such as the neon tetra ("Paracheirodon innesi"), are brightly colored and easy to keep in captivity. Consequently, they are extremely popular for home aquaria. "Tetra" is no longer a taxonomic, phylogenetic term. It is short for "Tetragonopterus", a


title: Tetra content: genus name formerly applied to many of these fish, which is Greek for "square-finned" (literally, four-sided-wing). Because of the popularity of tetras in the fishkeeping hobby, many unrelated fish are commonly known as tetras, including species from different families. Even vastly different fish may be called tetras. For example, payara ("Hydrolycus scomberoides") is occasionally known as the "sabretooth tetra" or "vampire tetra". Tetras generally have compressed (sometimes deep), fusiform bodies and are typically identifiable by their fins. They ordinarily possess a homocercal caudal fin (a twin-lobed, or forked, tail fin whose upper and lower lobes are of equal size) and


title: Tetra content: a tall dorsal fin characterized by a short connection to the fish’s body. Additionally, tetras possess a long anal fin stretching from a position just posterior of the dorsal fin and ending on the ventral caudal peduncle, and a small, fleshy adipose fin located dorsally between the dorsal and caudal fins. This adipose fin represents the fourth unpaired fin on the fish (the four unpaired fins are the caudal fin, dorsal fin, anal fin, and adipose fin), lending to the name tetra, which is Greek for four. While this adipose fin is generally considered the distinguishing feature, some tetras (such


title: Tetra content: as the emperor tetras, "Nematobrycon palmeri") lack this appendage. Ichthyologists debate the function of the adipose fin, doubting its role in swimming due to its small size and lack of stiffening rays or spines. Although the list below is sorted by common name, in a number of cases the common name is applied to different species. Since the aquarium trade may use a different name for the same species, advanced aquarists tend to use scientific names for the less-common tetras. The list below is incomplete. Tetra species: A–D E–Q R–Z Tetra Tetra is the common name of many small freshwater


title: "Stone pine" content: Stone pine The stone pine, botanical name Pinus pinea, also known as the Italian stone pine, umbrella pine and parasol pine, is a tree from the pine family ("Pinaceae"). The tree is native to the Mediterranean region, occurring in Southern Europe, Israel, Lebanon and Syria. It is also naturalized in North Africa, the Canary Islands, South Africa and New South Wales. The species was introduced into North Africa millennia ago, such a long time that it is essentially indistinguishable from being native. Stone pines have been used and cultivated for their edible pine nuts since prehistoric times. They are widespread


title: "Stone pine" content: in horticultural cultivation as ornamental trees, planted in gardens and parks around the world. This plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. The prehistoric range of "Pinus pinea" included North Africa in the Sahara Desert and Maghreb regions during a more humid climate period, in present-day Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya. Its contemporary natural range is in the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome ecoregions and countries, including the following: The Iberian conifer forests ecoregion of the Iberian Peninsula in Spain and Portugal; the Italian sclerophyllous and semideciduous forests ecoregion in France and Italy; the Tyrrhenian-Adriatic


title: "Stone pine" content: sclerophyllous and mixed forests ecoregion of southern Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia; the Illyrian deciduous forests of the eastern coast of the Ionian and Adriatic Seas in Croatia and Albania; and the Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests ecoregion of the southern Balkan Peninsula in Greece. In Greece, although the species is not widely distributed, an extensive stone pine forest exists in western Peloponnese at Strofylia on the peninsula separating the Kalogria Lagoon from the Mediterranean Sea. This coastal forest is at least 8 miles long, with dense and tall stands of "Pinus pinea" mixed with "Pinus halepensis". Currently,


title: "Stone pine" content: "Pinus halepensis" is outcompeting stone pines in many locations of the forest. Another location in Greece is at Koukounaries on the northern Aegean island of Skiathos at the southwest corner of the island. This is a half-mile-long dense stand of stone and Aleppo pines that lies between a lagoon and the Aegean Sea. In Western Asia, the Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests ecoregion in Turkey; and the Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests ecoregion in Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and northern Israel. The Mediterranean woodlands and forests ecoregion of North Africa, in Morocco and Algeria. In the Western Cape Province, where


title: "Stone pine" content: the pines were according to legend planted by the French Huguenot refugees who settled at the Cape of Good Hope during the late 17th century and brought the seeds with them from France. Known in the Afrikaans language as "kroonden". The stone pine is a coniferous evergreen tree that can exceed in height, but is more typical. In youth, it is a bushy globe, in mid-age an umbrella canopy on a thick trunk, and, in maturity, a broad and flat crown over in width. The bark is thick, red-brown and deeply fissured into broad vertical plates. The flexible mid-green leaves


title: "Stone pine" content: are needle-like, in bundles of two, and are long (exceptionally up to ). Young trees up to 5–10 years old bear juvenile leaves, which are very different, single (not paired), long, glaucous blue-green; the adult leaves appear mixed with juvenile leaves from the fourth or fifth year on, replacing it fully by around the tenth year. Juvenile leaves are also produced in regrowth following injury, such as a broken shoot, on older trees. The cones are broad, ovoid, long, and take 36 months to mature, longer than any other pine. The seeds (pine nuts, "piñones", "pinhões", "pinoli", or "pignons") are


title: "Stone pine" content: large, long, and pale brown with a powdery black coating that rubs off easily, and have a rudimentary wing that falls off very easily. The wing is ineffective for wind dispersal, and the seeds are animal-dispersed, originally mainly by the Iberian magpie, but in recent history largely by humans. "Pinus pinea" has been cultivated extensively for at least 6,000 years for its edible pine nuts, which have been trade items since early historic times. The tree has been cultivated throughout the Mediterranean region for so long that it has naturalized, and is often considered native beyond its natural range. In


title: "Stone pine" content: Italy, the stone pine has been an aesthetic landscape element since the Italian Renaissance garden period. The tree is among the symbols of Rome, where many historic Roman roads, such as the Via Appia, are embellished with lines of stone pines. Stone pines were planted on the hills of the Bosphorus strait in Istanbul for ornamental purposes during the Ottoman period. In the 1700s, "P. pinea" began being introduced as an ornamental tree to other Mediterranean climate regions of the world, and is now often found in gardens and parks in South Africa, California, and Australia. It has naturalized beyond


title: "Stone pine" content: cities in South Africa to the extent that it is listed as an invasive species there. It is also planted in western Europe up to southern Scotland, and on the East Coast of the United States up to New Jersey. In the United Kingdom it has won the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit. Small specimens are used for bonsai, and also grown in large pots and planters. The year-old seedlings are seasonally available as table-top Christmas trees tall. Other products of economic value include resin, bark for tannin extraction, and empty pine cone shells for fuel. "Pinus pinea"


title: "Stone pine" content: is also currently widely cultivated around the Mediterranean for environmental protection such as consolidation of coastal dunes, soil conservation and protection of coastal agricultural crops. The introduced western conifer seed bug "(Leptoglossus occidentalis") was accidentally imported with timber to northern Italy in the late 1990s from western USA, and has spread across Europe as an invasive pest species since then. It feeds on the sap of developing conifer cones throughout its life, and its sap-sucking causes the developing seeds to wither and misdevelop. It has destroyed most of the pine nut seeds in Italy, threatening "P. pinea" in its native


title: "Stone pine" content: habitats there. Stone pine The stone pine, botanical name Pinus pinea, also known as the Italian stone pine, umbrella pine and parasol pine, is a tree from the pine family ("Pinaceae"). The tree is native to the Mediterranean region, occurring in Southern Europe, Israel, Lebanon and Syria. It is also naturalized in North Africa, the Canary Islands, South Africa and New South Wales. The species was introduced into North Africa millennia ago, such a long time that it is essentially indistinguishable from being native. Stone pines have been used and cultivated for their edible pine nuts since prehistoric times. They


title: "Predatory pricing" content: an irrational practice and that laws designed to prevent it only inhibit competition. This stance was taken by the US Supreme Court in the 1993 case "Brooke Group v. Brown & Williamson Tobacco", and the Federal Trade Commission has not successfully prosecuted any company for predatory pricing since. In addition, the predator's competitors know that it cannot keep its prices down forever, and thus need only to play chicken to remain in the market if they have the means to do so. Thomas Sowell explains one reason why predatory pricing is unlikely to work: Critics of laws against predatory pricing


title: "Rupprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria" content: guns, blaming them for a majority of civilian casualties during the last war. He also advocated Germany's participation in future peace conferences, and he dismissed claims that Kaiser Wilhelm II was to blame for the First World War. While opposed to the Weimar Republic and never having renounced his rights to the throne, Rupprecht envisioned a constitutional monarchy for Bavaria. Upon his father's death in October 1921, Rupprecht declared his claim to the throne since his father had never formally renounced his crown in the Anif declaration. While never crowned king, he did become the head of the House of


title: "Avidius Cassius" content: Avidius Cassius Gaius Avidius Cassius (130 – July 175 AD) was a Roman general and usurper. He was born in Cyrrhus, and was the son of Gaius Avidius Heliodorus, who served as "Praefectus augustalis" (prefect of Roman Egypt), and Julia Cassia Alexandra, who was related to a number of royal figures, including her descent from both Augustus and Herod the Great. He began his military career under Antoninus Pius, rising to the status of "legatus". He served during the Parthian War of Lucius Verus, in which he distinguished himself, for which he was elevated to the Senate, and later made


title: "Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?" content: required to obey the orders of his superiors. A clergyman is required to teach the doctrines of the church that employs him. But the responsibilities of their office do not preclude them from publicly voicing any opinions that may conflict with those responsibilities. We expect office holders to stay in character at all times, but Kant gives examples. A clergyman is not free to make use of his reason in the execution of his duties, but as "a scholar addressing the real public through his writings, the clergyman making public use of his reason enjoys unlimited freedom to use his


title: "Bearded Collie" content: the Scottish Highlands herding sheep; they also excel at treibball, dog agility and Obedience trials. A loyal and family-friendly dog, the Beardie can add years of pet-ownership enjoyment to the home. They have keen problem-solving abilities, and are entertaining to watch. In training, beardies can be independent, they will go from A to B but maybe not via the expected route. One of the most common problems for new Beardie owners is the breed's intelligence makes them prone to get quickly fed up if training gets too repetitive. The Bearded Collie is used to herd both sheep and cattle. It


title: "Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate" content: molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA) (see figure). RuBisCO also catalyzes RuBP with oxygen () in a process called photorespiration, a process that is more prevalent at high temperatures. During photorespiration RuBP combines with to become 3-PGA + phosphoglycolic acid. In the Calvin cycle, RuBP is a product of the phosphorylation of ribulose-5-phosphate by ATP. Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) is an organic substance that is involved in photosynthesis. It is a colourless anion, a double phosphate ester of the ketopentose (ketone-containing sugar with five carbon atoms) called ribulose. Salts of RuBP can be isolated, but its crucial biological function happens in


title: "West Frisian language" content: . Of the two, probably has the greater number of speakers, but because the western clay area was originally the more prosperous part of the mostly agricultural province, has had the larger influence on the West Frisian standardised language. In the early Middle Ages the Frisian lands stretched from the area around Bruges, in what is now Belgium, to the river Weser, in northern Germany. At that time, the Frisian language was spoken along the entire southern North Sea coast. Today this region is sometimes referred to as "Greater Frisia" or , and many of the areas within it still


title: "Thomas Greenway" content: votes as Norquay's Conservatives. A personal visit from John A. Macdonald boosted Conservative strength, however, and Norquay's government won roughly 21 seats compared to 14 for the opposition. Greenway himself faced a surprisingly strong challenge in Mountain, defeating Conservative candidate R. Rogers by 385 votes to 370. Norquay was unable to maintain his alliance with John A. Macdonald, and resigned after losing the support of his ministers in December 1887. When his successor David Howard Harrison proved unable to command a parliamentary majority, Greenway was asked by the Lieutenant Governor to form a new administration in January 1888. Through by-election


title: "Thomas Greenway" content: to lead the Liberals in a desultory fashion through the election of 1903 (wherein his party won only 9 of 40 seats). Greenway returned to federal politics in 1904, winning election for the Manitoba riding of Lisgar. Although his loyalty to the Liberal Party was now unquestioned, he accomplished very little in Ottawa and continued to spend most of his time seeking out a comfortable sinecure. In 1908, he finally received an appointment to the expanded Board of Railway Commissioners. However, he suffered a fatal heart attack on the day that he was scheduled to be sworn in. Greenway remained


title: "Gateshead Millennium Bridge" content: Gateshead Millennium Bridge The Gateshead Millennium Bridge is a pedestrian and cyclist tilt bridge spanning the River Tyne in North East England between Gateshead's Quays arts quarter on the south bank, and the Quayside of Newcastle upon Tyne on the north bank. Opened for public use in 2001, the award-winning structure was conceived and designed by architect WilkinsonEyre and structural engineer Gifford. The bridge is sometimes referred to as the 'Blinking Eye Bridge' or the 'Winking Eye Bridge' due to its shape and its tilting method. In terms of height, the Gateshead Millennium Bridge is slightly shorter than the neighbouring


title: "Gateshead Millennium Bridge" content: Tyne Bridge, and stands as the sixteenth tallest structure in the city. The bridge was lifted into place in one piece by the Asian Hercules II, one of the world's largest floating cranes, on 20 November 2000. It was opened to the public on 17 September 2001, and was dedicated by Queen Elizabeth II on 7 May 2002. The bridge, which cost £22m to build, was part-funded by the Millennium Commission and European Regional Development Fund. It was built by Volker Stevin. Six diameter hydraulic rams (three on each side, each powered by a 55 kW electric motor) rotate the


title: "Gateshead Millennium Bridge" content: bridge back on large bearings to allow small ships and boats (up to tall) to pass underneath. The bridge takes as little as minutes to rotate through the full 40° from closed to open, depending on wind speed. Its appearance during this manoeuvre has led to it being nicknamed the "Blinking Eye Bridge". The design is so energy-efficient that, , it cost just £3.96 per opening. The bridge has operated reliably since construction, opening to allow river traffic to pass. It also opens periodically for sightseers and for major events such as the Northumbrian Water University Boat Race and the


title: "Gateshead Millennium Bridge" content: Cutty Sark Tall Ships' Race. One of the principal requirements for opening the bridge is to allow access to HMS "Calliope" where Royal Navy patrol boat HMS "Example" is based. For the construction of the bridge, the architect WilkinsonEyre won the 2002 Royal Institute of British Architects Stirling Prize and Gifford the 2003 IStructE Supreme Award. In 2005, the bridge received the Outstanding Structure Award from the International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering. Bollards were installed when the bridge was built to protect it from collisions. As the bollards were unsightly, and as it became noted that they were


title: "Gateshead Millennium Bridge" content: not really needed, they were removed in March 2012. Tilt times for the bridge are displayed on the bridge and Gateshead Council website. Gateshead Millennium Bridge The Gateshead Millennium Bridge is a pedestrian and cyclist tilt bridge spanning the River Tyne in North East England between Gateshead's Quays arts quarter on the south bank, and the Quayside of Newcastle upon Tyne on the north bank. Opened for public use in 2001, the award-winning structure was conceived and designed by architect WilkinsonEyre and structural engineer Gifford. The bridge is sometimes referred to as the 'Blinking Eye Bridge' or the 'Winking Eye


title: "Aurangabad, Maharashtra" content: affiliated to it. The University has 101 Colleges affiliated in Aurangabad and similarly 99 Colleges in Beed, 53 & 55 Colleges affiliated in Jalna & Osmanabad. Aurangabad has schools run by the Aurangabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) and private schools owned and run by trusts and individuals. Government Polytechnic Aurangabad is one of the polytechnic institutions in Marathwada region. Government College of Engineering, Aurangabad is an Autonomous engineering college in Maharashtra State of India. It was affiliated to the Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University and was established in 1960. The construction of the college was started in 1957 and was completed


title: Neurotoxicity content: Neurotoxicity Neurotoxicity is a form of toxicity in which a biological, chemical, or physical agent produces an adverse effect on the structure or function of the central and/or peripheral nervous system. It occurs when exposure to substance – specifically, a neurotoxin – alters the normal activity of the nervous system in such a way as to cause permanent or reversible damage to nervous tissue. This can eventually disrupt or even kill neurons, which are cells that transmit and process signals in the brain and other parts of the nervous system. Neurotoxicity can result from organ transplants, radiation treatment, certain drug


title: Cyclamen content: Cyclamen Cyclamen ( or ) is a genus of 23 species of perennial flowering plants in the family Primulaceae. Cyclamen species are native to Europe and the Mediterranean Basin east to Iran, with one species in Somalia. They grow from tubers and are valued for their flowers with upswept petals and variably patterned leaves. It was traditionally classified in the family Primulaceae, was reclassified in the family Myrsinaceae in 2000, and finally, in 2009 with the introduction of the APG III system, was returned to the subfamily Myrsinoideae within the family Primulaceae. "Cyclamen" is Medieval Latin, from earlier Latin "cyclamīnos",


title: Cyclamen content: from Ancient Greek κυκλάμινος, "kyklā́mīnos" (also "kyklāmī́s"), probably from κύκλος, "kýklos" "circle", because of the round tuber. In English, the species of the genus are commonly called by the genus name. In many languages, cyclamen species are colloquially called by a name like the English sowbread, or swinebread (because they are said to be eaten by pigs), based on Medieval Latin "panis porcinus": "Saubrot" in German, "pain de pourceau" in French, "pan porcino" in Italian, "varkensbrood" in Dutch, "pigs' manjū" in Japanese. Cyclamens have a tuber, from which the leaves, flowers and roots grow. In most species, leaves come up


title: Cyclamen content: in autumn, grow through the winter, and then die in spring, then the plant goes "dormant" through the dry Mediterranean summer. The storage organ of the cyclamen is a round tuber that develops from the hypocotyl (the stem of a seedling). It is often mistakenly called a corm, but a corm (found in crocuses, for example) has a papery tunic and a basal plate from which the roots grow. The storage organ of the cyclamen has no papery covering and, depending on the species, roots may grow out of any part. It is therefore properly classified as a tuber (somewhat


title: Cyclamen content: like a potato). The tuber may produce roots from the top, sides, or bottom, depending on the species. "Cyclamen persicum" and "Cyclamen coum" root from the bottom; "Cyclamen hederifolium" roots from the top and sides. "Cyclamen graecum" has thick anchor roots on the bottom. The shape of the tuber may be near spherical, as in "Cyclamen coum" or flattened, as in "Cyclamen hederifolium". In some older specimens of "Cyclamen purpurascens" and "Cyclamen rohlfsianum", growing points on the tuber become separated by shoulders of tissue, and the tuber becomes misshapen. In most other species, the tuber is round in old age.


title: Cyclamen content: Leaves and flowers sprout from growing points on the top of the tuber. Growing points that have lengthened and become like woody stems are known as floral trunks. The size of the tuber varies depending on species. In "Cyclamen hederifolium", older tubers commonly reach across, but in "Cyclamen parviflorum", tubers do not grow larger than across. Leaves sprout from growing points or floral trunks on top of the tuber. Each leaf grows on its own stem. Leaf stems in early growth may be distinguished from flower stems by the direction their tips curl: tips of leaf stems curl upwards, while


title: Cyclamen content: tips of flower stems curl downwards. The shape of the leaves varies between the species, and even between different specimens of the same species. "Cyclamen hederifolium" and "Cyclamen repandum" usually have leaves shaped like ivy, with angles and lobes, "Cyclamen coum" has nearly round leaves, and "Cyclamen persicum" has heart-shaped leaves with a pointed tip. The leaf margin may be smooth, as in "Cyclamen coum" subsp. "coum", or finely toothed, as in "Cyclamen graecum". The color of the upper side of leaves is variable, even within a species. Most species have leaves variegated in several shades of green and silver,


title: Cyclamen content: either in an irregular pattern of blotches or an arrowhead or Christmas tree shape. In cultivation, cyclamens, especially species other than "Cyclamen persicum", are selected as often or more often for striking or unusual leaf patterns than for their flowers. The lower side of leaves is often shiny, and its color varies from plain green to rich red or purple. Most cyclamen species originate from the Mediterranean, where summers are hot and dry and winters are cool and wet, and are summer-dormant: their leaves sprout in the autumn, remain through the winter, and wither the next spring. "Cyclamen purpurascens" and


title: Cyclamen content: "Cyclamen colchicum", however, originate from cooler regions in mountains, and their leaves remain through the summer and wither only after the next year's leaves have developed. Flowering time may be any month of the year, depending on the species. "Cyclamen hederifolium" and "Cyclamen purpurascens" bloom in summer and autumn, "Cyclamen persicum" and "coum" bloom in winter, and "Cyclamen repandum" blooms in spring. Each flower is on a stem coming from a growing point on the tuber. In all species, the stem is normally bent 150-180° at the tip, so that the nose of the flower faces downwards. "Cyclamen hederifolium" 'Stargazer'


title: Cyclamen content: is an exception to this; its nose faces upwards. Flowers have 5 petals, bent outwards or up, sometimes twisted, and connected at the base into a cup, and five sepals behind the cup. Petal shape varies depending on species, and sometimes within the same species. "Cyclamen repandum" has petals much longer than wide, "Cyclamen coum" has stubby, almost round petals, and "Cyclamen hederifolium" usually has petals with proportions between the two. Petal color may be white, pink, or purple, often with darker color on the nose. Many species have a pink form and a white form, but a few have


title: Cyclamen content: only one color, such as "Cyclamen balearicum", which is always white. The dark color on the flower nose varies in shape: "Cyclamen persicum" has a smooth band, "Cyclamen hederifolium" has a streaky V, and "Cyclamen coum" has an M-shaped splotch with two white or pink "eyes" beneath. In some species, such as "Cyclamen hederifolium", the petal edges at the nose are curved outwards into "auricles" (Latin for "little ears"). Most species, like "Cyclamen persicum", have no auricles. In most species, the style protrudes 1–3 mm out of the nose of the flower, but the stamens are inside the flower. In


title: Cyclamen content: "Cyclamen rohlfsianum", however, the cone of anthers sticks out prominently, about beyond the rim of the corolla, similar to shooting-stars ("Dodecatheon"). The flower stem coils or bends when the fruit begins to form. The stems of "Cyclamen hederifolium" and "Cyclamen coum" coil starting at the end, "Cyclamen persicum" arches downwards but does not curl, "Cyclamen rohlfsianum" coils starting near the tuber, and "Cyclamen graecum" coils both directions, starting at the middle. The fruit is a round pod that opens by several flaps or teeth at maturity and contains numerous sticky seeds, brown at maturity. Natural seed dispersal is by ants


title: Cyclamen content: (myrmecochory), which eat the sticky covering and then discard the seeds. Cyclamen are commonly grown for their flowers, both outdoors and indoors in pots. Several species, particularly "Cyclamen hederifolium", are hardy and can be grown outdoors in mild climates such as northwest Europe and the Pacific Northwest of North America. Cyclamen species range from frost-hardy to frost-tender. The most frost-hardy species, such as "C. purpurascens", "C. hederifolium", "C. coum", and "C. cilicium", tolerate temperatures down to . "C. hederifolium" has even survived prolonged freezing and temperatures down to . "C. repandum" survives temperatures down to , but not prolonged freezing


title: Cyclamen content: below this temperature. "C. graecum" tolerates frost as low as for a few hours. Others, such as "C. africanum", "C. persicum", and "C. rohlfsianum", only tolerate mild and brief frost. The cyclamen commonly sold by florists is "Cyclamen persicum", which is frost-tender. Selected cyclamen cultivars can have white, bright pink, red or purple flowers. While flowering, florists' cyclamens should be kept below , with the night time temperatures preferably between . Temperatures above may induce the plant to go dormant. In many areas within the native range, cyclamen populations have been severely depleted by collection from the wild, often illegally,


title: Cyclamen content: for the horticultural trade; some species are now endangered as a result. However, in a few areas, plant conservation charities have educated local people to control the harvest carefully at a sustainable level, including sowing seed for future crops, both sustaining the wild populations and producing a reliable long-term income. Many cyclamen are also propagated in nurseries without harm to the wild plants. Cyclamen species are eaten by the caterpillars of The Gothic moth. Cyclamen diversity in the Mediterranean has been studied extensively to understand how the species remain distinct (Debussche et al., 2000, 2002, 2003) and how they have


title: Cyclamen content: reacted to the dramatic climate changes in the region. Certain climate change models suggest many species could become extinct in their current range within the next 50 years. Species in the "Cyclamen hederifolium" group have flowers with auricles, leaves usually with angles, and tubers with roots from the top and sides. Species in the "Cyclamen purpurascens" group have flowers with slight or no auricles and round or heart-shaped leaves. Species in the "Cyclamen persicum" group have toothed leaves and flowers with or without auricles. Species of the "Cyclamen cilicium" group have small leaves sometimes scalloped or toothed and small tubers


title: Cyclamen content: rooting from the bottom. Species in the "Cyclamen coum" group have flowers with short petals, round or oval leaves, and small tubers rooting from the center of the bottom. Species of the "Cyclamen repandum" group have flowers with long, slender petals, leaves with scalloped edges, and tubers rooting from the center of the bottom. Cyclamens bloom in different seasons, depending on the species. Cyclamen Cyclamen ( or ) is a genus of 23 species of perennial flowering plants in the family Primulaceae. Cyclamen species are native to Europe and the Mediterranean Basin east to Iran, with one species in Somalia.


title: Donauturm content: Donauturm The Donauturm () is a tower in Vienna, the tallest structure in Austria at , and among the 75 tallest towers in the world. Opening in April 1964, the tower is located near the north bank of the Danube River in the district of Donaustadt. The hills Leopoldsberg and Kahlenberg are visible in the background. The Donauturm was constructed during 1962–1964, as designed by architect Hannes Lintl, in preparation for the Viennese International Horticultural Show 1964. The tower stands at in height. Groundbreaking took place on 12 October 1962. After approximately 18 months of construction, under the supervision of


title: Donauturm content: Eberhard Födisch, the tower was officially opened on 16 April 1964 by Federal President Adolf Schärf. Since then, it has become a part of the Viennese skyline and has become a popular lookout point and a tourist attraction. It is situated in the middle of the Donaupark, which was built to host the horticultural fair in Vienna's 22nd District, Donaustadt, near the northern bank of the Danube. Two high-speed elevators transport passengers to the tower's viewing platform at . Each lift, carrying up to 14 passengers, takes only 35 seconds to reach the observation platform. In strong winds, the elevators


title: Donauturm content: travel at only half speed because of the possible fluctuation of the tower: the movement of the elevator cable could be dangerous. By walking about 779 steps (775, according to architects Lintl), the platform can also be reached on foot. The stairs are, however, usually only accessible during the annual Donauturm run, or in an emergency. The Donauturm spire carries antennas of cellular phone networks, private VHF radio stations and several other radio communication services. Despite its similarity to TV towers elsewhere, it has not been used for TV broadcasting. The major TV transmitter for the Vienna area is situated


title: Donauturm content: on Kahlenberg hill ("see image at top"). Two revolving restaurants (at a height of 161.2 and 169.4 metres, or 529 and 556 ft) offer a varied view over the Austrian capital and the Danube River below. It takes the platform either 26, 39 or 52 minutes to complete a full revolution. The restaurants were originally largely identical; however, now the top is an "upscale" restaurant (named "Donauwalzer") and the lower restaurant is a café (named "Panorama"). Even so, the menu and prices continue to differ little. The observation deck also has a bungee-jumping site, with a platform projecting from the


title: Donauturm content: area. It is used at times during the summer months. At a meeting of Pro Juventute on 6 June 1968, four gas balloons were launched from a meadow at Donauturm. While three of them floated past the tower, the fourth was driven against the tower, where it was initially hung on the security grills, at a height of approx. 150 m. The balloon net tore and the balloon envelope broke free. The remnants of the net and the basket fell to the ground. The American balloonist Francis Shields died, along with two Austrian passengers: a higher official of the Austrian


title: Donauturm content: Post and Telegraph Management, Guntram Pammer, and journalist Dieter Kasper of the Austrian Press agency. The Donauturm shares some architectural features with the Fernsehturm Stuttgart, but was never planned for TV broadcasting purposes. The German Wikipedia had an approximately 600,000-character discussion about the suitable title and categories, as some authors, many of them Austrian, regarded the Donauturm as a mere observation tower. The Spiegel coverage of the issue cited a participant with "On good days, Wikipedia is better than any TV soap". Donauturm The Donauturm () is a tower in Vienna, the tallest structure in Austria at , and among


title: "Cream cheese" content: Cream cheese Cream cheese is a soft, mild-tasting fresh cheese made from milk and cream. Stabilizers such as carob bean gum and carrageenan are typically added in industrial production. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration defines cream cheese as containing at least 33% milk fat with a moisture content of not more than 55%, and a pH range of 4.4 to 4.9. Similarly, under Canadian Food and Drug Regulations cream cheese must contain at least 30% milk fat and a maximum of 55% moisture. In other countries, it is defined differently and may need a considerably higher fat content. Cream


title: "Cream cheese" content: cheese is not naturally matured and is meant to be consumed fresh, so it differs from other soft cheeses such as Brie and Neufchâtel. It is more comparable in taste, texture, and production methods to Boursin and Mascarpone. Early prototypes of cream cheese are mentioned in England as early as 1583 and in France as early as 1651. Recipes are recorded soon after 1754, particularly from Lincolnshire and the southwest of England. Recipes for cream cheese can be found in U.S. cookbooks and newspapers beginning in the mid-18th century. By the 1820s the dairy farms in and around Philadelphia and


title: "Cream cheese" content: New York City had gained a reputation for producing the best examples of this cheese. Cream cheese was produced on family farms throughout the country, so quantities made and distributed were typically small. Around 1873 William A. Lawrence, a dairyman in Chester, New York, was the first to mass-produce cream cheese. In 1872 he purchased a Neufchâtel factory. By adding cream to the process, he developed a richer cheese that he called “cream cheese”. In 1877 Lawrence created the first brand of cream cheese: its logo was a silhouette of a cow followed by the words "Neufchatel & Cream Cheese".


title: "Cream cheese" content: In 1879, to build a larger factory, Lawrence entered into an arrangement with Samuel S. Durland, another Chester merchant. In 1880, Alvah Reynolds, a New York cheese distributor, began to sell the cheese of Lawrence & Durland and called it "Philadelphia Cream Cheese". By the end of 1880, faced with increasing demand for his Philadelphia-brand cheese, Reynolds turned to Charles Green, a second Chester dairyman, who by 1880 had been manufacturing cream cheese as well. Some of Green’s cheese was also sold under the Philadelphia label. In 1892 Reynolds bought the Empire Cheese Co. of South Edmeston, New York, to


title: "Cream cheese" content: produce cheese under his "Philadelphia" label. When the Empire factory burned down in 1900, he asked the newly formed Phenix Cheese Company to produce his cheese, instead. In 1903 Reynolds sold rights to the "Philadelphia" brand name to Phenix Cheese Company, which was under the direction of Jason F. Whitney, Sr. (It merged with Kraft in 1928). By the early 1880s Star cream cheese had emerged as Lawrence & Durland's brand, and Green made World and Globe brands of the cheese. At the turn of the 20th century, New York dairymen were producing cream cheese sold under a number of


title: "Cream cheese" content: other brands, as well: Triple Cream (C. Percival), Eagle (F.X. Baumert), Empire (Phenix Cheese Co.), Mohican (International Cheese Co.), Monroe Cheese Co. (Gross & Hoffman), and Nabob (F.H. Legget). Cream cheese became popular in the Jewish cuisine of New York City, where it is commonly known as a "schmear". It is used on bagels, and is the basis of bagel and cream cheese, a common open-faced sandwich. Lox, capers, and other ingredients are often added to this dish. The basic bagel and cream cheese has become a ubiquitous breakfast and brunch food throughout the United States. Cream cheese is easy


title: "Cream cheese" content: to make at home, and many methods and recipes are used. Consistent, reliable, commercial manufacture is more difficult. Normally, protein molecules in milk have a negative surface charge, which keeps milk in a liquid state; the molecules act as surfactants, forming micelles around the particles of fat and keeping them in emulsion. Lactic acid bacteria are added to pasteurized and homogenized milk. During the fermentation around , the pH of the milk decreases (it becomes more acidic). Amino acids at the surface of the proteins begin losing charge and become neutral, turning the fat micelles from hydrophilic to hydrophobic state


title: "Cream cheese" content: and causing the liquid to coagulate. If the bacteria are left in the milk too long, the pH lowers further, the micelles attain a positive charge, and the mixture returns to liquid form. The key, then, is to kill the bacteria by heating the mixture to at the moment the cheese is at the isoelectric point, meaning the state at which half the ionizable surface amino acids of the proteins are positively charged and half are negative. Inaccurate timing of the heating can produce inferior or unsalable cheese due to variations in flavor and texture. Cream cheese has a higher


title: "Cream cheese" content: fat content than other cheeses, and fat repels water, which tends to separate from the cheese; this can be avoided in commercial production by adding stabilizers such as guar or carob gums to prolong its shelf life. In Canada, the regulations for cream cheese stipulate that it is made by coagulating cream with the help of bacteria, forming a curd which is then formed into a mass after removing the whey. Some of its ingredients include cream (to adjust milk fat content), salt, nitrogen (to improve spreadability) and several gelling, thickening, stabilizing and emulsifying ingredients such as xanthan gum or