title: "Piping plover" content: Great Lakes populations eventually shrank to only around two dozen. Critical nesting habitats are now being protected to help the population during its breeding season. Populations have seen significant increases since the protection programs began, but the species remains in serious danger. Current conservation strategies include identification and preservation of known nesting sites; public education; limiting or preventing pedestrian and/or off-road vehicle (ORV) traffic near nests and hatched chicks; limiting predation of free-ranging cats, dogs and other pets on breeding pairs, eggs and chicks; and removal of foxes, raccoons, skunks, and other predators. In coastal areas such as Plymouth, Cape


title: "Piping plover" content: Cod, Long Island, Sandy Hook, Cape Henlopen State Park in Delaware, North Manitou Island in Lake Michigan, and most recently, Cape Hatteras National Seashore on the Outer Banks of North Carolina, beach access to pedestrians and ORVs has been limited to protect piping plovers and their chicks at critical times of the breeding season. Various environmental organizations are involved in aiding restoration efforts. The Goldenrod Foundation unsuccessfully filed suit against the Town of Plymouth in 2010 and 2015 to restrict offroad vehicle access to breeding habitat. Piping plover The piping plover ("Charadrius melodus") is a small sand-colored, sparrow-sized shorebird that


title: Raspberry content: Raspberry The raspberry is the edible fruit of a multitude of plant species in the genus "Rubus" of the rose family, most of which are in the subgenus "Idaeobatus"; the name also applies to these plants themselves. Raspberries are perennial with woody stems. Raspberry derives its name from "raspise", "a sweet rose-colored wine" (mid-15th century), from the Anglo-Latin "vinum raspeys", or from "raspoie", meaning "thicket", of Germanic origin. The name may have been influenced by its appearance as having a rough surface related to Old English "rasp" or "rough berry". Examples of raspberry species in "Rubus" subgenus "Idaeobatus" include: Several


title: Raspberry content: species of "Rubus", also called raspberries, are classified in other subgenera, including: Various kinds of raspberries can be cultivated from hardiness zones 3 to 9. Raspberries are traditionally planted in the winter as dormant canes, although planting of tender, plug plants produced by tissue culture has become much more common. A specialized production system called "long cane production" involves growing canes for a year in a northern climate such as Scotland or Oregon or Washington, where the chilling requirement for proper bud break is attained, or attained earlier than the ultimate place of planting. These canes are then dug, roots


title: Raspberry content: and all, to be replanted in warmer climates such as Spain, where they quickly flower and produce a very early season crop. Plants are typically planted 2-6 per m in fertile, well drained soil; raspberries are usually planted in raised beds/ridges, if there is any question about root rot problems. All cultivars of raspberries have perennial roots but, many do not have perennial shoots. In fact, most raspberries have shoots that are biennial (meaning shoots grow in the first growing season and fruits grow off of those shoots during the second growing season). The flowers can be a major nectar


title: Raspberry content: source for honeybees and other pollinators. Raspberries are vigorous and can be locally invasive. They propagate using basal shoots (also known as suckers), extended underground shoots that develop roots and individual plants. They can sucker new canes some distance from the main plant. For this reason, raspberries spread well, and can take over gardens if left unchecked. Raspberries are often propagated using cuttings, and will root readily in moist soil conditions. The fruit is harvested when it comes off the receptacle easily and has turned a deep color (red, black, purple, or golden yellow, depending on the species and cultivar).


title: Raspberry content: This is when the fruits are ripest and sweetest. High tunnel bramble production offers the opportunity to bridge gaps in availability during late fall and late spring. Furthermore, high tunnels allow less hardy floricane-fruiting raspberries to overwinter in climates where they wouldn't otherwise survive. In the tunnel plants are established at close spacing usually prior to tunnel construction. Raspberries are an important commercial fruit crop, widely grown in all temperate regions of the world. Many of the most important modern commercial red raspberry cultivars derive from hybrids between "R. idaeus" and "R. strigosus". Some botanists consider the Eurasian and American


title: Raspberry content: red raspberries to belong to a single, circumboreal species, "Rubus idaeus," with the European plants then classified as either "R. idaeus" subsp. "idaeus" or "R. idaeus" var. "idaeus," and the native North American red raspberries classified as either "R. idaeus" subsp. "strigosus," or "R. idaeus" var. "strigosus". Recent breeding has resulted in cultivars that are thornless and more strongly upright, not needing staking. The black raspberry, "Rubus occidentalis," is also cultivated, providing both fresh and frozen fruit, as well as jams, preserves, and other products, all with that species' distinctive flavor. Purple raspberries have been produced by horticultural hybridization of


title: Raspberry content: red and black raspberries, and have also been found in the wild in a few places (for example, in Vermont) where the American red and the black raspberries both grow naturally. Commercial production of purple-fruited raspberries is rare. Blue raspberry is a local name used in Prince Edward County, Ontario, Canada for the cultivar 'Columbian', a hybrid (purple raspberry) of "R. strigosus" and "R. occidentalis". Fruits from such plants are called golden raspberries or yellow raspberries; despite their similar appearance, they retain the distinctive flavor of their respective species (red or black). Most pale-fruited raspberries commercially sold in the eastern


title: Raspberry content: United States are derivatives of red raspberries. Yellow-fruited variants of the black raspberry are sometimes grown in home gardens. Red raspberries have also been crossed with various species in other subgenera of the genus "Rubus", resulting in a number of hybrids, the first of which was the loganberry. Later notable hybrids include boysenberry (a multi-generation hybrid), and tayberry. Hybridization between the familiar cultivated red raspberries and a few Asiatic species of "Rubus" has also been achieved. Numerous raspberry cultivars have been selected. Two types of raspberry are available for commercial and domestic cultivation; the summer-bearing type produces an abundance of


title: Raspberry content: fruit on second-year canes (floricanes) within a relatively short period in midsummer, and double or "everbearing" plants, which also bear some fruit on first-year canes (primocanes) in the late summer and fall, as well as the summer crop on second-year canes. Those marked (AGM) have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. Raspberries are sometimes eaten by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species (butterflies and moths). "Botrytis cinerea", or gray mold, is a common fungal infection of raspberries and other soft fruit under wet conditions. It is seen as a gray mold growing on the raspberries, and particularly


title: Raspberry content: affects fruit which are bruised, as it provides an easy entrance point for the spores. Raspberry plants should not be planted where potatoes, tomatoes, peppers, eggplants, or bulbs have previously been grown, without prior fumigation of the soil. These crops are hosts for the disease "Verticillium" wilt, a fungus that can stay in the soil for many years and can infest the raspberry crop. In 2016, total world production of raspberries was 795,249 tonnes, with Russia supplying 21% (164,602 tonnes) (table). Other major producers were the United States (17%), Poland (16%), and Mexico (14%) (table). Raspberries are grown for the


title: Raspberry content: fresh fruit market and for commercial processing into individually quick frozen (IQF) fruit, purée, juice, or as dried fruit used in a variety of grocery products such as raspberry pie. Traditionally, raspberries were a midsummer crop, but with new technology, cultivars, and transportation, they can now be obtained year-round. Raspberries need ample sun and water for optimal development. Raspberries thrive in well-drained soil with a pH between 6 and 7 with ample organic matter to assist in retaining water. While moisture is essential, wet and heavy soils or excess irrigation can bring on "Phytophthora" root rot, which is one of


title: Raspberry content: the most serious pest problems facing the red raspberry. As a cultivated plant in moist, temperate regions, it is easy to grow and has a tendency to spread unless pruned. Escaped raspberries frequently appear as garden weeds, spread by seeds found in bird droppings. An individual raspberry weighs , and is made up of around 100 drupelets, each of which consists of a juicy pulp and a single central seed. A raspberry bush can yield several hundred berries a year. Unlike blackberries and dewberries, a raspberry has a hollow core once it is removed from the receptacle. Raw raspberries are


title: Raspberry content: 86% water, 12% carbohydrates, and have about 1% each of protein and fat (table). In a 100 gram amount, raspberries supply 53 calories. The aggregate fruit structure contributes to raspberry's nutritional value, as it increases the proportion of dietary fiber, which is among the highest known in whole foods, up to 6% fiber per total weight. Raspberries are a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of vitamin C (32% DV), manganese (32% DV) and dietary fiber (26% DV) (table). Raspberries are a low-glycemic index food, with total sugar content of only 4% and no starch. Raspberries


title: Raspberry content: contain phytochemicals, such as anthocyanin pigments, ellagic acid, ellagitannins, quercetin, gallic acid, cyanidins, pelargonidins, catechins, kaempferol and salicylic acid. Yellow raspberries and others with pale-colored fruits are lower in anthocyanin content. Both yellow and red raspberries contain carotenoids, mostly lutein esters, but these are masked by anthocyanins in red raspberries. Raspberry compounds are under preliminary research for their potential to affect human health. Raspberry leaves can be used fresh or dried in herbal teas, providing an astringent flavor. In herbal and traditional medicine, raspberry leaves are used for some remedies, although there is no scientifically valid evidence to support their


title: Raspberry content: medicinal use. Raspberry The raspberry is the edible fruit of a multitude of plant species in the genus "Rubus" of the rose family, most of which are in the subgenus "Idaeobatus"; the name also applies to these plants themselves. Raspberries are perennial with woody stems. Raspberry derives its name from "raspise", "a sweet rose-colored wine" (mid-15th century), from the Anglo-Latin "vinum raspeys", or from "raspoie", meaning "thicket", of Germanic origin. The name may have been influenced by its appearance as having a rough surface related to Old English "rasp" or "rough berry". Examples of raspberry species in "Rubus" subgenus "Idaeobatus"


title: "European Union law" content: them. While there have been academic proposals for a European Civil Code, and projects to frame non-binding principles of contract and tort, harmonisation has only occurred for conflict of laws and intellectual property. Protection of European consumers has been a central part of developing the EU internal market. The Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union article 169 enables the EU to follow the ordinary legislative procedure to protect consumers "health, safety and economic interests" and promote rights to "information, education and to organise themselves in order to safeguard their interests". All member states may grant higher protection, and


title: "Jonathan Frid" content: Jonathan Frid John Herbert "Jonathan" Frid (December 2, 1924 – April 14, 2012) was a Canadian actor, known for having played the role of vampire Barnabas Collins on the gothic television soap opera "Dark Shadows". Frid was born of Scottish, English, German and Danish ancestry in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. He was the youngest son of homemaker Isabella Flora (née McGregor) and Herbert Percival "H.P." Frid, a construction executive. Frid served in the Royal Canadian Navy during World War II. He graduated from McMaster University in Hamilton in 1948, and the following year was accepted at the Royal Academy of Dramatic


title: "Semipalmated sandpiper" content: Semipalmated sandpiper The semipalmated sandpiper ("Calidris pusilla") is a very small shorebird. The genus name is from Ancient Greek "kalidris" or "skalidris", a term used by Aristotle for some grey-coloured waterside birds. The specific "pusilla" is Latin for "very small". It is sometimes separated with other "stints" in "Erolia," but, although these apparently form a monophyletic group, the present species' old genus "Ereunetes" had been proposed before "Erolia". It is a small sandpiper, 13–15 cm (5.1-5.9 in) long and weighing around 20-32 g (0.7-1.1 oz). Adults have black legs and a short, stout, straight dark bill. The body is dark


title: "Semipalmated sandpiper" content: grey-brown on top and white underneath. The head and neck are tinged light grey-brown. This bird can be difficult to distinguish from other similar tiny shorebirds, in particular the western sandpiper; these are known collectively as "peeps" or "stints". Their breeding habitat is the southern tundra in Canada and Alaska near water. They nest on the ground. The male makes several shallow scrapes; the female chooses one and adds grass and other material to line the nest. The female lays 4 eggs; the male assists in incubation. After a few days, the female leaves the young with the male; the


title: "Semipalmated sandpiper" content: young feed themselves. These birds forage on mudflats, picking up food by sight and feel (bill). They mainly eat aquatic insects and crustaceans. They are long distance migrants and winter in coastal South America, with some going to the southern United States. They migrate in flocks which can number in the hundreds of thousands, particularly in favoured feeding locations such as the Bay of Fundy and Delaware Bay. This species is a rare but regular vagrant to western Europe. Although very numerous, these birds are highly dependent on a few key stopover habitats during their migration, notably Mary's Point and


title: "Semipalmated sandpiper" content: Johnson's Mills along Shepody Bay, an arm of the Bay of Fundy. During the months of July and August, the Nature Conservancy of Canada runs an information center about these shorebirds in Johnson's Mills, New Brunswick. Semipalmated sandpiper The semipalmated sandpiper ("Calidris pusilla") is a very small shorebird. The genus name is from Ancient Greek "kalidris" or "skalidris", a term used by Aristotle for some grey-coloured waterside birds. The specific "pusilla" is Latin for "very small". It is sometimes separated with other "stints" in "Erolia," but, although these apparently form a monophyletic group, the present species' old genus "Ereunetes" had


title: "Cass Elliot" content: and made guest appearances on TV's "The New Scooby-Doo Movies", "Young Dr. Kildare", "Love, American Style", and "The Red Skelton Show", among others. In 1973, Elliot hired as her manager Allan Carr, who was also managing the careers of Tony Curtis, Ann-Margret, and Peter Sellers. Carr felt Elliot needed to leave pop and rock music altogether and head into the cabaret circuit, so a show was put together comprising old standards along with a few new songs written for her by friends. The act included Elliot and two male singers who served as backup singers and sidekicks during the musical


title: "Bull shark" content: Bull shark The bull shark ("Carcharhinus leucas"), also known as the Zambezi shark (informally "zambi") in Africa, and Lake Nicaragua shark in Nicaragua, is a requiem shark commonly found worldwide in warm, shallow waters along coasts and in rivers. The bull shark is known for its aggressive nature, and presence in warm, shallow brackish and freshwater systems including estuaries and rivers. Bull sharks can thrive in both salt and fresh water and can travel far up rivers. They have been known to travel up the Mississippi River as far as Alton, Illinois, about 700 miles (1100 km) from the ocean.


title: "Bull shark" content: However, few freshwater human-shark interactions have been recorded. Larger-sized bull sharks are probably responsible for the majority of near-shore shark attacks, including many bites attributed to other species. Unlike the river sharks of the genus "Glyphis", bull sharks are not true freshwater sharks, despite their ability to survive in freshwater habitats. The name "bull shark" comes from the shark's stocky shape, broad, flat snout, and aggressive, unpredictable behavior. In India, the bull shark may be confused with the Sundarbans or Ganges shark. In Africa, it is also commonly called the Zambezi River shark, or just "zambi". Its wide range and


title: "Bull shark" content: diverse habitats result in many other local names, including Ganges River shark, Fitzroy Creek whaler, van Rooyen's shark, Lake Nicaragua shark, river shark, freshwater whaler, estuary whaler, Swan River whaler, cub shark, and shovelnose shark. Some of the bull shark's closest living relatives do not have the capabilities of osmoregulation. Its genus, "Carcharhinus", also includes the sandbar shark, which is not capable of osmoregulation. The bull shark shares numerous similarities with river sharks of the genus "Glyphis", and other species in the genus "Carcharhinus", but its phylogeny has not been cleared yet. Bull sharks are large and stout, with females


title: "Bull shark" content: being larger than males. The bull shark can be up to in length at birth. Adult female bull sharks average long and typically weigh , whereas the slightly smaller adult male averages and . While a maximum size of is commonly reported, a single record exists of a female specimen of exactly . The maximum recorded weight of a bull shark was , but may be larger. Bull sharks are wider and heavier than other requiem sharks of comparable length, and are grey on top and white below. The second dorsal fin is smaller than the first. The bull shark's


title: "Bull shark" content: caudal fin is longer and lower than that of the larger sharks, and it has a small snout, and lacks an interdorsal ridge. Bull sharks have a bite force up to , weight for weight the highest among all investigated cartilaginous fishes. The bull shark is commonly found worldwide in coastal areas of warm oceans, in rivers and lakes, and occasionally salt and freshwater streams if they are deep enough. It is found to a depth of , but does not usually swim deeper than . In the Atlantic, it is found from Massachusetts to southern Brazil, and from Morocco


title: "Bull shark" content: to Angola. Populations of bull sharks are also found in several major rivers, with more than 500 bull sharks thought to be living in the Brisbane River. One was reportedly seen swimming the flooded streets of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, during the 2010-11 Queensland floods. Several were sighted in one of the main streets of Goodna, Queensland, shortly after the peak of the January 2011, floods. A large bull shark was caught in the canals of Scarborough, just north of Brisbane within Moreton Bay. Still greater numbers are in the canals of the Gold Coast, Queensland. In the Pacific Ocean, it


title: "Bull shark" content: can be found from Baja California to Ecuador. The bull shark has traveled up the Amazon River to Iquitos in Peru and north Bolivia. It also lives in freshwater Lake Nicaragua, in the Ganges and Brahmaputra Rivers of West Bengal, and Assam in Eastern India and adjoining Bangladesh. It can live in water with a high salt content as in St. Lucia Estuary in South Africa. Bull sharks have been recorded in the Tigris River since at least 1924 as far upriver as Baghdad. The species has a distinct preference for warm currents. After Hurricane Katrina, many bull sharks were


title: "Bull shark" content: sighted in Lake Pontchartrain. Bull sharks have occasionally gone as far upstream in the Mississippi River as Alton, Illinois, and up the Ohio River as far as Manchester, Ohio. Bull sharks have also been found in the Potomac River in Maryland. A golf course lake at Carbook, Logan City, Queensland, Australia is the home to several bull sharks. They were trapped following a flood of the Logan and Albert Rivers in 1996. The golf course has capitalized on the novelty and now hosts a monthly tournament called the "Shark Lake Challenge". The bull shark is the best known of 43


title: "Bull shark" content: species of elasmobranch in 10 genera and four families to have been reported in fresh water. Other species that enter rivers include the stingrays (Dasyatidae, Potamotrygonidae and others) and sawfish (Pristidae). Some skates (Rajidae), smooth dogfishes (Triakidae), and sandbar sharks ("Carcharhinus plumbeus") regularly enter estuaries. The bull shark is diadromous, meaning they can swim between salt and fresh water with ease. These fish also are euryhaline fish, able to adapt to a wide range of salinities. The bull shark is one of the few cartilaginous fishes that have been reported in freshwater systems. Many of the euryhaline fish are bony


title: "Bull shark" content: fish such as salmon and tilapia and are not closely related to bull sharks. Evolutionary assumptions can be made to help explain this sort of evolutionary disconnect, one being that the bull shark encountered a population bottleneck that occurred during the last ice age. This bottleneck may have separated the bull shark from the rest of the Elasmobranchii subclass and favored the genes for an osmoregulatory system. Elasmobranchs' ability to enter fresh water is limited because their blood is normally at least as salty (in terms of osmotic strength) as seawater through the accumulation of urea and trimethylamine oxide, but


title: "Bull shark" content: bull sharks living in fresh water show a significantly reduced concentration of urea within their blood. Despite this, the solute composition (i.e. osmolarity) of a bull shark in fresh water is still much higher than that of the external environment. This results in a large influx of water across the gills due to osmosis and loss of sodium and chloride from the shark's body. However, bull sharks in fresh water possess several organs with which to maintain appropriate salt and water balance; these are the rectal gland, kidneys, liver, and gills. All elasmobranchs have a rectal gland which functions in


title: "Bull shark" content: the excretion of excess salts accumulated as a consequence of living in seawater. Bull sharks in freshwater environments decrease the salt-excretory activity of the rectal gland, thereby conserving sodium and chloride. The kidneys produce large amounts of dilute urine, but also play an important role in the active reabsorption of solutes into the blood. The gills of bull sharks are likely to be involved in the uptake of sodium and chloride from the surrounding fresh water, whereas urea is produced in the liver as required with changes in environmental salinity. Recent work also shows that the differences in density of


title: "Bull shark" content: fresh water to that of marine waters result in significantly greater negative buoyancies in sharks occupying fresh water, resulting in increasing costs of living in fresh water. Bull sharks caught in freshwater have subsequently been shown to have lower liver densities than sharks living in marine waters. This may reduce the added cost of greater negative buoyancy. Bull sharks are able to regulate themselves to live in either fresh or salt water. It can live in fresh water for its entire life, but this does not happen, mostly due to reproduction. Young bull sharks leave the brackish water in which


title: "Bull shark" content: they are born and move out into the sea to breed. While theoretically, bull sharks to live in purely fresh water may be possible, the bull sharks that were being experimented on had died within four years. The stomach was opened and all that was found were two small, unidentifiable fishes. The cause of death could have been starvation since the primary food source for bull sharks resides in salt water. In a research experiment, the bull sharks were found to be at the mouth of an estuary for the majority of the time. They stayed at the mouth of


title: "Bull shark" content: the river independent of the salinity of the water. The driving factor for a bull shark to be in fresh or salt water, however, is its age; as the bull shark ages, its tolerance for very low or high salinity increases. The majority of the newborn or very young bull sharks were found in the freshwater area, whereas the much older bull sharks were found to be in the saltwater areas, as they had developed a much better tolerance for the salinity. Reproduction is one of the reasons why adult bull sharks travel into the river—it is thought to be


title: "Bull shark" content: a physiological strategy to improve juvenile survival and a way to increase overall fitness of bull sharks. The young are not born with a high tolerance for high salinity, so they are born in fresh water and stay there until they are able to travel out. Initially, scientists thought the sharks in Lake Nicaragua belonged to an endemic species, the Lake Nicaragua shark ("Carcharhinus nicaraguensis"). In 1961, following specimen comparisons, taxonomists synonymized them. They can jump along the rapids of the San Juan River (which connects Lake Nicaragua and the Caribbean Sea), almost like salmon. Bull sharks tagged inside the


title: "Bull shark" content: lake have later been caught in the open ocean (and ""), with some taking as few as seven to 11 days to complete the journey. The bull shark's diet consists mainly of bony fish and small sharks, including other bull sharks, and stingrays. Their diet can also include turtles, birds, dolphins, terrestrial mammals, crustaceans, echinoderms. They hunt in murky waters where it is harder for the prey to see the shark coming. Bull sharks have been known to use the bump-and-bite technique to attack their prey. After the first initial contact, they continue to bite and tackle prey until they


title: "Bull shark" content: are unable to flee. The bull shark is known to be a solitary hunter, although brief moments exist in which the bull shark teams up with another bull shark to make hunting and to tricking prey easier. Sharks are opportunistic feeders, and the bull shark is no exception to this, as it is part of the "Carcharhinus" family of sharks. Normally, sharks eat in short bursts, and when food is scarce, sharks digest for a much longer period of time in order to avoid starvation. As part of their survival mechanism, bull sharks will regurgitate the food in their stomachs


title: "Bull shark" content: in order to escape from a predator. This is a distraction tactic; if the predator moves to eat the regurgitated food the bull shark can use the opportunity to escape. Bull sharks mate during late summer and early autumn, often in freshwater or in the brackish water of river mouths. After gestating for 12 months, a bull shark may give birth to 1 to 13 live young. They are viviparous, born live and free-swimming. The young are about at birth. The bull shark does not rear its young; the young bull sharks are born into flat, protected areas. Coastal lagoons,


title: "Bull shark" content: river mouths, and other low-salinity estuaries are common nursery habitats. The male bull shark is able to begin reproducing around the age of 15 years while the female cannot begin reproducing until the age of 18 years. The size of a fully matured female bull shark to produce viable eggs for fertilization seems to be 175 cm to 235 cm. The courting routine between bull sharks has not been observed in detail as of yet. The male likely bites the female on the tail until she can turn upside down and the male can copulate at that point. At some


title: "Bull shark" content: points, the harassment of the male can become violent. Seeing scratches and other marks on a mature female which may be from the mating ritual is not uncommon. Bull sharks have an unusual migratory pattern in comparison to other sharks. They are found in rivers all over the world. They give birth in the fresh water of rivers. The young bull sharks are free from predators while they grow up in the river before they go out to the sea to find mates. The ability to be able to survive in both fresh and salt water also gives another benefit


title: "Bull shark" content: that has been driven by evolution. Because the majority of sharks are only able to survive in salt water, the bull shark has evolved to have their offspring in the fresh water where other sharks cannot enter. The freshwater acts as a protective area where the young are able to grow and mature without the threat of larger sharks preying on the younger bull sharks. This is an explanation for the behavior that is observed from the Bull sharks as to why there would be any reason for the adult bull shark to ever travel into a freshwater area despite


title: "Bull shark" content: being able to tolerate the high salinity of marine water. Since bull sharks often dwell in very shallow waters, are found in many types of habitats, are territorial by nature, and have virtually no tolerance for provocation, they may be more dangerous to humans than any other species of shark, and along with the tiger shark and great white shark, are among the three shark species most likely to bite humans. One or several bull sharks may have been responsible for the Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916, which were the inspiration for Peter Benchley's novel "Jaws". The speculation of


title: "Bull shark" content: bull sharks possibly being responsible is based on two fatal bites occurring in brackish and fresh water. The bull shark is responsible for biting swimmers around the Sydney Harbour inlets. Most of these bites were previously attributed to Great White sharks. In India, bull sharks swim up the Ganges River and have bitten bathers. Many of these bite incidents were attributed to the Ganges shark, "Glyphis gangeticus", a critically endangered river shark species, although the sand tiger shark was also blamed during the 1960s and 1970s. The bull shark prefers coastal water, which is less than 100 feet in depth.


title: "Bull shark" content: This is mostly due to their feeding patterns, since they prefer murky waters. This is also a problem, since this gives them the most interaction with humans. It is known that bull sharks inhabit areas off the coast of Florida, and there have been reports of bull sharks getting close enough to the coast to bite humans, since the bull shark is a territorial animal, which encourages aggressive behavior. Behavioral studies have confirmed that sharks can take visual cues in order to discriminate between different objects. The bull shark is able to discriminate between colors of mesh netting that is


title: "Bull shark" content: present underwater. It was found that bull sharks tended to avoid mesh netting of bright colors rather than colors that blended in with the water. Bright yellow mesh netting was found to be easily avoided when it was placed in the path of the bull shark. This was found to be the reason that sharks are attracted to bright yellow survival gear rather than ones that were painted black. This is very important because it gives an insight into how bull sharks are able to pick up certain visual keys underwater that might give them an advantage when seeking out


title: "Bull shark" content: certain prey. In 2008, researchers tagged and recorded the movements of young bull sharks in the Caloosahatchee River estuary. Specifically, they were testing to find out what determined the movement of the young bull sharks. It was found that the young bull sharks synchronously moved downriver when the environmental conditions changed. This large movement of young bull sharks were found to be moving as a response rather than other external factors such as predators. An interesting find was that the movement was directly related to the bull shark conserving energy for itself. One way the bull shark is able to


title: "Bull shark" content: conserve energy is that when the tidal flow changes, the bull shark uses the tidal flow in order to conserve energy as it moves downriver. Another way for the bull shark to conserve energy is to decrease the amount of energy needed to osmoregulate the surrounding environment. Bull sharks are determined predators and seldom have to fear being attacked by other animals. Humans are their biggest threat. Larger sharks, such as the tiger shark and great white shark, may attack them. Crocodiles may be a threat to bull sharks in rivers. Saltwater crocodiles have been observed preying on bull sharks


title: "Bull shark" content: in the rivers and estuaries of Northern Australia, and a Nile crocodile was reported as consuming a bull shark in South Africa. Bull shark The bull shark ("Carcharhinus leucas"), also known as the Zambezi shark (informally "zambi") in Africa, and Lake Nicaragua shark in Nicaragua, is a requiem shark commonly found worldwide in warm, shallow waters along coasts and in rivers. The bull shark is known for its aggressive nature, and presence in warm, shallow brackish and freshwater systems including estuaries and rivers. Bull sharks can thrive in both salt and fresh water and can travel far up rivers. They


title: "John Leech (caricaturist)" content: and dinner". The best technical qualities of Leech's art, his precision and vivacity in the use of the line, are seen most clearly in the first sketches for his woodcuts, and in the more finished drawings made on tracing-paper from these first outlines, before the "chiaroscuro" was added and the designs were transcribed by the engraver. Turning to the mental qualities of his art, it would be a mistaken criticism which ranked him as a comic draughtsman. Like Hogarth he was a true humorist, a student of human life, though he observed humanity mainly in its whimsical aspects, The earnestness


title: "Upland sandpiper" content: Upland sandpiper The upland sandpiper ("Bartramia longicauda") is a large sandpiper, closely related to the curlews. Older names are the upland plover and Bartram's sandpiper. In Louisiana, it is also colloquially known as the papabotte. It is the only member of the genus "Bartramia". The genus name and the old common name Bartram's sandpiper commemorate the American naturalist William Bartram. The species name " longicauda" is from Latin "longus", "long" and "caudus", "tail". The name "Bartram's sandpiper" was made popular by Alexander Wilson, who was taught ornithology and natural history illustration by Bartram. An adult is roughly long with a


title: "Upland sandpiper" content: wingspan. The average weight is . This odd bird has a small dove-like head on a long neck. It is heavily marbled black and brown on the back and wings. The neck is streaked with dark brown which continues down to the breast and on to the flanks. The belly and undertail coverts are white. The tail is quite long for a sandpiper. The upland also sports a white eye-ring and long yellow legs. They breed from eastern Alaska south east of the Rocky Mountains through Montana to northern Oklahoma and then northeast to Pennsylvania, New England and extreme southern


title: "Upland sandpiper" content: Quebec and Ontario. There are also local breeding populations in northeast Oregon and west central Idaho. They winter in northeastern Argentina, Uruguay and southern Brazil. It is an extremely rare vagrant to the South Pacific, with one record each from Australia and New Zealand. Even though they are sandpipers, they prefer open country with tall grasses to coastal habitat. They are also found at airports, blueberry farms and abandoned strip mines in the east. Their true core range and habitat is in the northern midwest United States. Upland sandpipers forage in fields, picking up food by sight. They are frequently


title: "Upland sandpiper" content: sighted on fence posts and even telephone poles. When an "uppy" alights, it holds its wings up for a few seconds. They are constantly scanning the horizon for intruders. The upland sandpiper's diet includes grasshoppers, crickets, weevils, beetles, moths, ants, flies, bugs, centipedes, millipedes, spiders, snails and earthworms. It also eats some grains and seeds. Upland sandpipers can sometimes be found in small, loose nesting colonies. The breeding season is from early-to-late summer; nests are located on the ground in dense grass. The female lays 4 eggs. Both parents look after the young and may perform distraction displays to lure


title: "Upland sandpiper" content: predators away from the nest or young birds. Upland sandpipers can be identified by a distinctive call, sometimes called a "wolf whistle", which features a long, ascending whistle followed by a second rising and/or falling call. These sounds are often made while the bird is landing or while flying high. The numbers of these birds increased as forests were cleared in the early 19th century, but declined sharply in the late 19th century due to hunting. They are now regularly present in Midwestern North America but populations are scattered in the east. Loss of prairie habitat is a concern. Also,


title: "Upland sandpiper" content: livestock grazing has been found to reduce the number of nests in a field. Controlled burns may benefit this species as they feed on low-growing plants that are more easily spotted after a fire. Upland sandpiper The upland sandpiper ("Bartramia longicauda") is a large sandpiper, closely related to the curlews. Older names are the upland plover and Bartram's sandpiper. In Louisiana, it is also colloquially known as the papabotte. It is the only member of the genus "Bartramia". The genus name and the old common name Bartram's sandpiper commemorate the American naturalist William Bartram. The species name " longicauda" is


title: "Alimentation Couche-Tard" content: in Scandinavia and a major foothold in Northern Europe with presence in Poland, the Baltics and Russia. On June 20, 2012 Statoil Fuel and Retail's shareholders voted in favor (+91.56%) of the acquisition and later it was declared that Couche-Tard had finally acquired 100% of Statoil Fuel and Retail for approximately 2.8 billion $US (forcing the minority shareholders to sell their shares). This acquisition adds over 2,853 stores to Couche-Tard's portfolio and a mega-presence in Europe. Alain Bouchard is planning to grow this newly acquired chain all over Europe. In 2016, all Statoil stations were rebranded to Circle K. On


title: Menhir content: Menhir A menhir (from Brittonic languages: "maen" or "men", "stone" and "hir" or "hîr", "long"), standing stone, orthostat, lith is a large man-made upright stone, typically dating from the European middle Bronze Age. They can be found solely as monoliths, or as part of a group of similar stones. Menhirs' size can vary considerably, but they are generally uneven and squared, often tapering towards the top. They are widely distributed across Europe, Africa and Asia, but most numerous in Western Europe; particularly in Ireland, Great Britain, Brittany and France, where there are about 50,000 examples, while there are 1,200 menhirs


title: Menhir content: in northwest France alone. Standing stones are usually difficult to date, but pottery, or pottery shards, found underneath some in Atlantic Europe connects them with the Beaker people. They were constructed during many different periods across pre-history as part of the larger megalithic cultures in Europe and near areas. Some menhirs have been erected next to buildings that often have an early or current religious significance. One example is the South Zeal Menhir in Devon, which formed the basis for a 12th-century monastery built by lay monks. The monastery later became the Oxenham Arms hotel, at South Zeal, and the


title: Menhir content: standing stone remains in place in the ancient snug bar at the hotel. Where menhirs appear in groups, often in a circular, oval, henge or horseshoe formation, they are sometimes called megalithic monuments. These are sites of ancient religious ceremonies, sometimes containing burial chambers. The exact function of menhirs has provoked more debate than practically any other issue in European pre-history. Over the centuries, they have variously been thought to have been used by Druids for human sacrifice, used as territorial markers, or elements of a complex ideological system, or functioned as early calendars. Until the nineteenth century, antiquarians did


title: Menhir content: not have substantial knowledge of prehistory, and their only reference points were provided by classical literature. The developments of radiocarbon dating and dendrochronology have significantly advanced scientific knowledge in this area. The word "menhir" was adopted from French by 19th-century archaeologists. The introduction of the word into general archaeological usage has been attributed to the 18th-century French military officer Théophile Corret de la Tour d'Auvergne. It is a combination of two words of the Breton language: "maen" and "hir". In modern Welsh, they are described as "maen hir", or "long stone". In modern Breton, the word "peulvan" is used, with


title: Menhir content: "peul" meaning "stake" or "post" and "van" which is a soft mutation of the word "maen" which means "stone". Almost nothing is known of the social organization or religious beliefs of the people who erected the menhirs. There is not even any trace of these people's language; however we do know that they buried their dead and had the skills to grow cereal, farm and make pottery, stone tools and jewelry. Identifying their uses remains speculative. Until recently, menhirs were associated with the Beaker people, who inhabited Europe during the European late Neolithic and early Bronze Age—later third millennium BC,


title: Menhir content: c. 2800–1800 BC. However, recent research into the age of megaliths in Brittany strongly suggests a far older origin, perhaps back to six to seven thousand years ago. Many menhirs are engraved with megalithic art. This often turned them into anthropomorphic stelae, although images of objects such as stone axes, ploughs, shepherd crooks and yokes were common. With the exception of the stone axe, none of these motifs are definite, and the name used to describe them is largely for convenience. Some menhirs were broken up and incorporated into later passage graves, where they had new megalithic art carved with


title: Menhir content: little regard for the previous pictures. It is not known if this re-use was deliberate or if the passage grave builders just saw menhirs as a convenient source of stone (Le Roux 1992). During the Middle Ages, standing stones were believed to have been built by the giants who lived before the biblical flood. Many of the megaliths were destroyed or defaced by early Christians, but it is estimated that some 50,000 megaliths once stood in Northern Europe, where almost 10,000 now remain. In the "Asterix" comic book series, one of the protagonists, Obelix, is a menhir maker and delivery


title: Menhir content: man. Menhir A menhir (from Brittonic languages: "maen" or "men", "stone" and "hir" or "hîr", "long"), standing stone, orthostat, lith is a large man-made upright stone, typically dating from the European middle Bronze Age. They can be found solely as monoliths, or as part of a group of similar stones. Menhirs' size can vary considerably, but they are generally uneven and squared, often tapering towards the top. They are widely distributed across Europe, Africa and Asia, but most numerous in Western Europe; particularly in Ireland, Great Britain, Brittany and France, where there are about 50,000 examples, while there are 1,200


title: "Chidambaram Subramaniam" content: worked as the Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission from 2 May 1971 to 22 July 1972. Along with M. S. Swaminathan and B. Sivaraman, Subramaniam was the architect of India’s modern agricultural development policy, after the success of his programme which led to a record production of wheat in 1972 termed as the Indian Green Revolution. As Minister for Food and Agriculture, he introduced high-yielding varieties of seeds and more intensive application of fertilizers which paved the way for increased output of cereals and attainment of self-sufficiency in food-grains in the country. About his contribution, Dr. Norman E. Borlaug,


title: "Hughes Hall, Cambridge" content: the college are also active in sports and teams at University and national level. There are a number of college societies, including a Chess Club, Film Society, Writing Group, and Law Society amongst others. The college's "Hat Club" organises events where students and fellows present papers on their research and study to an audience of college members, and the Enterprise Society supports and encourages students with an interest in starting their own business. The college's main performance space is the Pavilion Room which hosts a number of regular musical groups and organizations. The Stradivari Trust, the Cambridge Graduate Orchestra, and


title: Icicle content: to break. This can also happen with roofs, where failure can damage nearby parked vehicles or the contents and occupants of the structure. Icicles on roofs can also be associated with ice dams, which can cause water damage as the water penetrates below the shingles. The story of an English youth who was killed by a falling icicle in 1776 has been often recounted. Large icicles that form on cliffs near highways have been known to fall and damage motor vehicles. In 2010, five people were killed and 150 injured by icicles in Saint Petersburg, Russia after a heavy snow


title: Jeddah content: Selim I. As territories of the Mamluk Sultanate, the Hijaz, including Jeddah and the holy city of Mecca, passed into Ottoman possession. The Ottomans rebuilt the weak walls of Jeddah in 1525 following their victory over the Lopo Soares de Albergaria's Armada in the Red Sea. The new Turkish wall included six watchtowers and six city gates. They were constructed to defend against the Portuguese attack. Of the six gates, the Gate of Mecca was the eastern gate and the Gate of Al-Magharibah, facing the port, was the western gate. The Gate of Sharif faced south. The other gates were


title: "Kate Beckinsale" content: the shoot but found her "complicated" and "prickly." McCarthy said the leads "confirm their status as two of the young actresses on the scene today most worth watching," finding Beckinsale "very effective at getting across layered character traits and emotions." "Danes and Beckinsale are exceptionally talented young actresses," said Thomas, but "unfortunately, the script's seriously underdeveloped context defeats their considerable efforts at every turn." Stephen Holden of "The New York Times" felt that Beckinsale's character "never comes into focus." The film was a box office failure. 2000's "The Golden Bowl" marked Beckinsale's first role following the birth of her daughter.


title: "Papillon dog" content: Papillon dog The Papillon (, French for 'butterfly[-eared]'), also called the Continental Toy Spaniel, is a breed of dog, of the spaniel type. One of the oldest of the toy spaniels, it derives its name from its characteristic butterfly-like look of the long and fringed hair on the ears. A Papillon with dropped ears is called a (French for 'moth'). The small head is slightly rounded between the ears with a well-defined stop. The muzzle is somewhat short and thin, tapering to the nose. The dark, medium-sized, round eyes have thin, black rims, often extending at the junction of the


title: "Papillon dog" content: eyelids towards the ears. The large ears can either be erect or dropped with rounded tips. The teeth meet in a scissors bite. The long tail is set high carried over the body, and covered with long, fine hair. Dewclaws are sometimes removed. The straight, long, fine, single coat has extra frill on the chest, ears, back of the legs, and tail. Coat color is white with patches of any color. A mask of a color other than white covers both ears and eyes from back to front. Papillons are very intelligent and self-assured dogs that have a very easy


title: "Papillon dog" content: time learning new tricks. These dogs can be sociable with children and strangers, but are generally reserved around new people. They can also be socialized to get along well with other pets, but care should be taken with rambunctious pets or cats with claws, as they may injure them. If not properly socialized, Papillons can be distrustful and exhibit aggressive tendencies toward other dogs and people. Papillons may also be very playful and affectionate. Widely known as great companion dogs, they have the spirit and energy to keep up with active families, but can also be calm enough to be


title: "Papillon dog" content: happy with sleeping in the arms of an equally affectionate owner. Due to their high energy level, they demand an augmented exercise routine, relative to the average companion breed. Papillons are known as excellent watchdogs, as they will alert their owner to changes in their environment. They may be considered garrulous like many other toy dogs. They can withstand heat, but are more sensitive to cold temperatures because of their single-coated fur, and should not be left outside unattended in cold weather. The most iconic aspect of Papillons are their ears, which are large and well fringed, giving them a


title: "Papillon dog" content: butterfly wing-like appearance. Papillons are particolored or white with patches of any color. An all-white dog or a dog with no white is disqualified from the conformation show ring. A blaze (area of white extending down between the eyes) and noseband is preferred over a solid-colored head, but not required. Nose, eye rims, and lips should be black. Paw pads vary in color from black to pink, depending on the coloring of the dog. Papillons can be registered with the American Kennel Club as the following colors and markings, with types for show purposes indicated with S for standard or


title: "Papillon dog" content: A for alternate: The American Kennel Club breed standard indicates a conformance fault that may be penalized: failure of the non-white color to cover the front and back of both ears and to extend from the ears over both eyes. Not penalized are a slight extension of the white collar onto the base of the ears, or a few white hairs interspersed in the color – as long as "the butterfly appearance is not sacrificed". Two ear variations of this breed are seen, the completely upright ears of the more common Papillon, and the dropped spaniel-like ears of the Phalène.


title: "Papillon dog" content: The Phalène are likely a throwback to their spaniel ancestors. The American Kennel Club and the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) consider the Phalène and the Papillon the same breed. The temperament of Papillons is happy, friendly, adventurous dogs. They are not shy or aggressive. Papillons make excellent family dogs, but should be watched around little children, as should any dog, due to a small child's lack of understanding of a dog's behavior and the likelihood that they will do something to upset the dog. Given the intelligence of Papillons, they should also be given rigorous training and mental stimulation to


title: "Papillon dog" content: prevent behavioral issues arising from boredom. A 2002 Papillon Club of America survey found that the Papillons of their members lived an average of 11.45 years. Papillons can live up to 17 years. Papillons have only minor health concerns, although patellar luxation, seizures, and dental problems can be issues. Additionally, they can be at risk for progressive retinal atrophy, intervertebral disk disease, and allergies. Play will take care of a lot of their exercise needs; however, as with all breeds, play is not sufficient for all exercise. Daily walks or runs are an excellent way to exercise a Papillon. They


title: "Papillon dog" content: also enjoy a good romp in a safe open area off leash, such as a large, fenced yard. Papillons are a very active breed of dog and enjoy having a job to perform. Papillon breeders recommend dog agility, rally obedience, or obedience training for Papillons because of their intelligence and energy level. The history of the Papillon is traced through works of art. The earliest toy spaniels resembling the papillon are found in Italy. Tiziano Vicelli painted these small dogs in many famous paintings beginning around 1500, including the "Venus of Urbino" (1542). Other well-known artists who included them in


title: "Papillon dog" content: paintings are Watteau, Gonzales Coques, Fragonard, Paolo Veronese, and Mignard. In a painting after Largillierre in the Wallace Collection in London, a Papillon is clearly shown in a family portrait of Louis XIV. Papillons are also in paintings of royal families around Europe and paintings of merchant-class families. The breed was popular in England, France, and Belgium, which are considered countries of origin by the FCI. The "Titian spaniels" and those portrayed by later artists through Mignard and his contemporaries had the drooping ears characteristic of today's Phalène; the erect-eared appearance did not become fashionable until the end of the


title: "Papillon dog" content: 19th century. The Titian spaniels were also exclusively red-and-white in coloration, in contrast to the many recognized colorations of today's Papillon. The Papillon's history and long association with royalty have led to many stories about the breed. Marie Antoinette is said to have walked to the guillotine clutching her small dog under her arm, likely an apocryphal tale. However, tradition has it that Marie Antoinette's dog was a small spaniel that had been brought to the French court from Spain on the back of pack mules. According to the story, her pup was spared and cared for in a building


title: "Papillon dog" content: in Paris still called the Papillon House. Marie Antoinette's dog was said to have descended from a very old drop-eared breed known as the Epagneul Nain, or Continental Dwarf/Toy Spaniel that appeared in church frescos and paintings as early as the 13th century. The Papillon is still officially referred to as the Epagneul Nain (ENC) in non-English-speaking countries. The name Squirrel Spaniel also has been used, most likely referring to an earlier standard in which the tail set is described as "curling over the back as a squirrel's". One version of the history of the two varieties of ear shape


title: "Papillon dog" content: in the ENC ("papillon" to denote the erect ear and "phalène" to denote the dropped ear) is that toward the end of the 19th century, breed fanciers bred a version of the spaniel whose ears stood up. This dog was said to have been nicknamed "papillon" based on the impressively large, erect ears that resembled the wings of a butterfly. The drop-eared variety of the breed came to be called the Phalène (which means "night moth"). Both types are still bred today and appear in the same litter. The papillon variety is much more common, although recently, the Phalène has


title: "Papillon dog" content: undergone a resurgence in popularity. The Papillon was first recognized by the AKC in 1935 with the formation of the Papillon Club of America. By the end of the war, the club was no longer functioning, but it was reactivated in 1948, with its first postwar specialty held in September 1954. In 1999, Ch. Loteki Supernatural Being (call name "Kirby") owned and handled by John Oulton of Norwalk, Connecticut, became the first Papillon to win the prestigious "Best in Show" at the annual Westminster Kennel Club dog show. Kirby also won international success for the breed by taking the World


title: "Papillon dog" content: Dog Show in Helsinki, Finland, and the Royal Invitational in Canada in 1998. Papillons also enjoy success today in competitive fields outside of conformation, including obedience and agility. Papillon dog The Papillon (, French for 'butterfly[-eared]'), also called the Continental Toy Spaniel, is a breed of dog, of the spaniel type. One of the oldest of the toy spaniels, it derives its name from its characteristic butterfly-like look of the long and fringed hair on the ears. A Papillon with dropped ears is called a (French for 'moth'). The small head is slightly rounded between the ears with a well-defined


title: "China–United States relations" content: North Vietnam early on, for fear of repeating the Korean War but now with a thermonuclear-armed China. However, it is unclear exactly what Beijing's reaction to a US invasion of North Vietnam would have been—Mao Zedong reportedly told journalist Edgar Snow in 1965 that China had no intention of fighting to save the Hanoi regime and would not engage the US military unless it crossed into Chinese territory. On other occasions, Mao expressed confidence that the People's Liberation Army could take on the US again, much like it did in Korea. Whatever Chinese plans might have been, the Johnson Administration


title: "Science and technology in China" content: US export controls of advanced five axis machine tools were ineffectual due to the technical capabilities of Chinese and Taiwanese manufacturers. One example of new Chinese military technology is the DF-21D anti-ship ballistic missile which reportedly has contributed to a quick and major change in US naval strategy. China is developing anti-satellite weapons and plans to make the navigational Beidou system global by 2020. Other new technologies include Chinese anti ballistic missile developments, the Chengdu J-20 fifth-generation jet fighter, and possibly electromagnetic pulse weapons. Chinese reconnaissance satellites are, according to a 2011 report, almost equal to those of the United


title: "Mountain zebra" content: Mountain zebra The mountain zebra ("Equus zebra") is a species in the family Equidae. It is native to south-western Angola, Namibia, and South Africa. The mountain zebra comprises two subspecies: In 2004, C. P. Groves and C. H. Bell investigated the taxonomy of the zebras (genus "Equus", subgenus "Hippotigris"). They concluded that the mountain zebra ("Equus zebra zebra") and Hartmann's mountain zebra ("Equus zebra hartmannea") are distinct, and suggested that the two would be better classified as separate species, "Equus zebra" and "Equus hartmannae". However, in a sexual genetic study that included 295 mountain zebra specimens, Moodley and Harley (2005)


title: "Mountain zebra" content: found nothing to support the separation of the two mountain zebra populations into separate species. They concluded that the Cape mountain zebra and Hartmann's mountain zebra should remain as subspecies. This is consistent with the third edition of "Mammal Species of the World" (2005), which lists the mountain zebra as a single species ("Equus zebra") with two subspecies. The mountain zebra has a dewlap, which is more conspicuous in "E. z. zebra" than in "E. z. hartmannae". Like all extant zebras, mountain zebras are boldly striped in black or dark brown, and no two individuals look exactly alike. The whole


title: "Mountain zebra" content: body is striped except for the belly. In the Cape mountain zebra, the ground colour is effectively white, but the ground colour in Hartmann's zebra is slightly buff. Adult mountain zebras have a head-and-body length of and a tail of long. Wither height ranges from . They weigh from . Groves and Bell found that Cape mountain zebras exhibit sexual dimorphism, females being larger than males, whereas Hartmann's mountain zebras do not. Hartmann's zebra is on average slightly larger than the Cape mountain zebra. Mountain zebras are found on mountain slopes, open grasslands, woodlands, and areas with sufficient vegetation, but


title: "Mountain zebra" content: their preferred habitat is mountainous terrain, especially escarpment with a diversity of grass species. Mountain zebras live in hot, dry, rocky, mountainous and hilly habitats. They prefer slopes and plateaus as high as above sea level, although they do migrate lower during winter. Their preferred diet is tufted grass, but in times of shortage, they browse, eating bark, twigs, leaves, buds, fruit, and roots. They drink every day. When no surface water is available due to drought, they commonly dig for ground water in dry river beds. The Cape mountain zebra and Hartmann's mountain zebra are now allopatric, meaning that


title: "Mountain zebra" content: their present ranges do not overlap, which prevents them from crossbreeding. This was not always so, and the current situation is a result of their populations being fragmented when hunters exterminated them throughout the Northern Cape Province of South Africa. Historically, mountain zebras could be found across the entire length of the escarpments along the west coast of southern Africa and in the fold mountain region in the south. However, they generally inhabited poorly productive land and were nowhere really numerous in comparison to those species of zebras or antelope that inhabited the plains, for example. Mountain zebras do not


title: "Mountain zebra" content: aggregate into large herds like plains zebras; they form small family groups consisting of a single stallion and one to five mares, together with their recent offspring. Bachelor males live in separate groups, and mature bachelors attempt to capture young mares to establish a harem. In this they are opposed by the dominant stallion of the group. Mares give birth to one foal at a time. The foal feeds mainly on its mother's milk for about a year, after which it is weaned onto solid forage. Cape mountain zebra foals generally move away from their maternal herds sometime between the


title: "Mountain zebra" content: ages of 13 and 37 months. However, with Hartmann's mountain zebra, mares try to expel their foals when they are aged around 14 to 16 months. Young males may wander alone for a while before joining a bachelor group, while females are either taken into another breeding herd or are joined by a bachelor male to form a new breeding herd. The main threats to the species are the loss of habitat to agriculture, hunting, and persecution. A zebra produces a good quantity of meat, and poaching them for food (for example during guerrilla fighting) has decreased their numbers. The


title: "Mountain zebra" content: species is listed as vulnerable under the IUCN Red List. The Cape mountain zebra was hunted to near extinction. In the 1930s, their population was reduced to about 100 individuals. However, consistent and vigorous conservation measures have succeeded in reversing the decline, and in 1998, the population of the Cape mountain zebra was estimated to have increased to some 1200, about 540 in national parks, 490 in provincial nature reserves, and 165 in other reserves. However, the population has increased to about over 2,700 in the wild due to conservation efforts. Though both mountain zebra subspecies are currently protected in


title: "Mountain zebra" content: national parks, they are still threatened. The European Zoos Endangered Species Program and co-operative management of zoo populations worldwide have been set up for them. See mountain zebra national park Mountain zebra The mountain zebra ("Equus zebra") is a species in the family Equidae. It is native to south-western Angola, Namibia, and South Africa. The mountain zebra comprises two subspecies: In 2004, C. P. Groves and C. H. Bell investigated the taxonomy of the zebras (genus "Equus", subgenus "Hippotigris"). They concluded that the mountain zebra ("Equus zebra zebra") and Hartmann's mountain zebra ("Equus zebra hartmannea") are distinct, and suggested that


title: "Clumber Spaniel" content: Clumber Spaniel The Clumber Spaniel is a breed of dog of the spaniel type, developed in the United Kingdom. It is the largest of the spaniels, and comes in predominantly white with either lemon or orange markings. The name of the breed is taken from Clumber Park in Nottinghamshire where the breed was first developed. It is a gundog that specialises in hunting in heavy cover. They are gentle and loyal, and can act aloof with strangers. They have several habits which could be considered disadvantages, including a constant shedding of its coat and snoring. The history of the breed


title: "Clumber Spaniel" content: is uncertain prior to the mid-19th century with two theories being prevalent. Clumber Spaniels have been kept and bred by various members of the British Royal Family, including Prince Albert, King Edward VII and King George V. They were introduced into Canada in 1844, and in 1884 became one of the first ten breeds recognised by the American Kennel Club. The breed can suffer from a variety of breed-specific ailments varying in severity from temporary lameness due to bone growth whilst young to hip dysplasia or spinal disc herniation. The Clumber Spaniel is the largest of the spaniels, and is


title: "Clumber Spaniel" content: long and heavy-bodied, standing only in height but weighing from . It is similar in shape to the smaller Sussex Spaniel. The Clumber has a heavy bone structure, has a massive 'melting' head with a mournful and dopey expression, a square nose and muzzle, and large vine-leaf shaped ears. Freckles on the muzzle and front legs are common. Its coat is dense, weather-resistant, straight, and flat with feathering around the ears, belly and legs. Clumbers are predominantly white in colour with lemon, brown, or orange markings around the eyes, and at the base of the tail. Their temperament is described


title: "Clumber Spaniel" content: as gentle, loyal and affectionate, but dignified and aloof with strangers. They can appear to be a sedate breed and enjoy curling up on the couch, eating and sleeping. Clumber Spaniels shed at a medium pace. Clumbers tend to drool because of their very droopy flews. Clumbers have minds of their own. Puppies are especially curious and playful. The breed has a trophy mentality and the dog has an incessant need to carry something most of the time; unfortunately this can lead to health issues as they may ingest the items. The breed has been used to hunt pheasant and


title: "Clumber Spaniel" content: partridge, in both small packs and alone. It is well-suited for work in upland hunting in dense cover, and although the Clumber is rather slow in the field compared to other spaniels, it is a quiet worker with a fine nose and good stamina. The broad muzzle of the breed allows it to retrieve a variety of game. Because Clumber Spaniels are large boned and fast growing, they can suffer from temporary lameness from between six and twelve months of age, with this lameness subsiding when bone growth is complete. Another common condition that the breed suffers from are impacted


title: "Clumber Spaniel" content: anal sacs and the dog may require them to be emptied by a veterinarian. The final common condition that the breed has is heat sensitivity: if Clumber Spaniels are left without shade, they can become uncomfortably hot and dehydrated. In addition, Clumbers often have difficulties conceiving and giving birth, and may require caesarian sections. Some dogs may suffer from sensitivity to anaesthesia. The most common severe health conditions in the Clumber Spaniel are entropion/ectropion eye conditions, spinal disc herniation and hip dysplasia. They have a median lifespan of around 10 years. Entropion is the inward rolling of the eyelid, commonly


title: "Clumber Spaniel" content: the lower lid. This in turn irritates the cornea of the eye and can cause visual impairment. It is a hereditary disorder seen in both English and American Cocker Spaniels, King Charles Spaniels, English Springer Spaniels plus a variety of non spaniel breeds. Ectropion is the outward rolling of the eyelid, which abnormally exposes the eye, resulting in irritation. Because of the increased exposure, the dog can develop allergic or bacterial conjunctivitis or keratoconjunctivitis sicca also known as dry-eye syndrome. It is most commonly found in breeds with exaggerated facial features such as the Boxer, Bloodhound, Gordon Setter as well


title: "Clumber Spaniel" content: as the English and American Cocker Spaniels, and the English Springer Spaniel. The treatment for ectropion varies depending on the severity of the condition. The only treatment for entropion is surgical, and may be delayed until the dog reaches adulthood as whilst a puppy the facial structures of the animal are still growing and changing. Dogs who have surgical correction for defects such as entropion or ectropion may not be exhibited in the show ring. Spinal disc herniation occurs when the Intervertebral disc bulges or ruptures into the vertebral canal where the spinal cord resides. Once the cord is compressed,


title: "Clumber Spaniel" content: the dog experiences symptoms ranging from mild back/neck pain to leg paralysis, loss of sensation, and urinary and fecal incontinence. The most commonly location seen is the mid-back area, but it may occur anywhere along the spine. Cases that do not result in paralysis can be treated medically by confining the animal to restrict movement to a minimum for several weeks, and this can be accompanied by medication for the pain. Surgery can restore sensation to a dog's legs following paralysis but the success rate depends on how severe the herniation was. Hip dysplasia is a hereditary condition which occurs


title: "Clumber Spaniel" content: in most dog breeds to some extent, according to scores from a 2001 UK Kennel Club scheme, the Clumber Spaniel has the second worst breed mean scores. Furthermore, a survey conducted by the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals found that 45.7% of Clumber Spaniels tested were affected by the condition. Initial signs are usually first noted when the dog is between five and twelve months old, and may include a swaying hindleg gait, hindleg lameness, muscle wastage around the hindquarters, reluctance to and fatigue during exercise, inability to climb stairs or jump up. The dog can appear hunched up with an


title: "Clumber Spaniel" content: arched back, and in the very worst cases may wince with pain when moving its hindlegs. Medical treatment can vary from the administration of painkillers to surgical correction depending on the severity of the condition. The breed's history is uncertain before the middle of the 19th century. One theory is that it originated in France, stating that the Duc de Noailles at the time of the French Revolution gave his kennel of prized spaniels to the Duke of Newcastle at Clumber Park in Nottinghamshire. The theory goes, that the now extinct Alpine Spaniel was bred with Basset Hounds, and the


title: "Clumber Spaniel" content: Pyrenean Mountain Dog also known as the Great Pyrenees. A second theory is that it is descended from the old type of Bleinheim Spaniel, which was later to be incorporated into the King Charles breed of Spaniel. Originally these dogs were large gundogs, colored lemon and white whereas the modern breed of them is a much smaller lap/toy breed of dog. What is certain is that the breed took its name from Clumber Park and that the Duke of Newcastle's gamekeeper, William Mansell, is credited with their development and improvement. Prince Albert, the Prince consort of Queen Victoria, was a


title: "Clumber Spaniel" content: fancier and promoter of the breed, as was his son King Edward VII, who bred them at the Sandringham estate in Norfolk. The breed was shown in England from 1859 onward. They are referred to in Queen Victoria's diary: on October 16, 1840, she wrote, "Walked out directly after breakfast before Albert went to shoot. He had his 7 fine Clumber Spaniels with us and we went into the Slopes, with such a funny old Gamekeeper, Walters, in order that I should see how the dogs found out their game. They are such dear, nice dogs." Until the mid 19th


title: "Clumber Spaniel" content: century the breeding of the Clumber Spaniel was mostly restricted to the nobility. During World War I breeding was stopped entirely causing their numbers to decrease to a record low. In 1925, King George V re-developed a line of Clumbers in the Royal Kennel and were used in the fields in the Sandringham Estate. Sh. Ch. Raycroft Socialite, bred by Rae Furness and owned by Ralph Dunne of County Cavan, Ireland, won the coveted honor of Best In Show at the 1991 Crufts Centenary Show. The Clumber Spaniel is currently recognised as a Vulnerable Native Breed by the UK Kennel


title: "Clumber Spaniel" content: Club, which means it is a breed which fewer than 300 new registrations each year. Other spaniels recognised as such are the Field Spaniel, Irish Water Spaniel and Sussex Spaniel. While the breed was not shown widely in the United States prior to the late 1960s, in 1844, Lieutenant Venables, an officer of the British regiment stationed in Halifax, Nova Scotia, introduced the Clumber Spaniel to North America. The first Clumber Spaniel listed in the AKC registry, recorded for the date of 1878 was Bustler, an orange and white dog owned by Benjamin Smith of Nova Scotia. The Clumber Spaniel


title: "Clumber Spaniel" content: became one of the first ten breeds recognised by the American Kennel Club in 1884. The first Clumber Spaniel was entered in the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show in 1878. Champion Clussexx Country Sunrise ("Brady"), bred by Doug Johnson and owned by Richard and Judith Zaleski of Florida, became the only Clumber to win Best in Show there in 1996. Clumber Spaniel The Clumber Spaniel is a breed of dog of the spaniel type, developed in the United Kingdom. It is the largest of the spaniels, and comes in predominantly white with either lemon or orange markings. The name of


title: "Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek" content: However, the museum is equally noted for its collection of paintings that includes an extensive collection of French impressionists and Post-impressionists as well as Danish Golden Age paintings. The French Collection includes works by painters such as Jacques-Louis David, Monet, Pissarro, Renoir, Degas and Cézanne, as well as those by Post-impressionists such as van Gogh, Toulouse-Lautrec and Bonnard. The museum's collection includes all the bronze sculptures of Degas, including the series of dancers. Numerous works by Norwegian-Danish sculptor Stephan Sinding are featured prominently in various sections of the museum. Carl Jacobsen was a dedicated art collector. He was particularly interested


title: "Clotted cream" content: Clotted cream Clotted cream (sometimes called scalded, clouted, Devonshire or Cornish cream) is a thick cream made by indirectly heating full-cream cow's milk using steam or a water bath and then leaving it in shallow pans to cool slowly. During this time, the cream content rises to the surface and forms "clots" or "clouts". It forms an essential part of a cream tea. Although its origin is uncertain, the cream's production is commonly associated with dairy farms in southwest England and in particular the counties of Cornwall and Devon. The current largest commercial producer in the United Kingdom is Rodda's


title: "Clotted cream" content: at Scorrier, Redruth, Cornwall, which can produce up to 25 tonnes (25,000 kg; 55,000 lbs.) of clotted cream a day. In 1998 the term "Cornish clotted cream" became a Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) by European Union directive, as long as the milk is produced in Cornwall and the minimum fat content is 55%. Clotted cream has been described as having a "nutty, cooked milk" flavour, and a "rich sweet flavour" with a texture that is grainy, sometimes with oily globules on the crusted surface. It is a thick cream, with a very high fat content (a minimum of 55


title: "Clotted cream" content: percent, but an average of 64 percent). Though often compared to butter, in the United States it would not be classified as butter, as butter is required to have at least 80% butterfat. For comparison, the fat content of single cream is only 18 percent. Due to its high saturated fat content, the regular consumption of clotted cream was, until recently, thought to be bad for health, though now dairy fat in the diet, in moderation, is considered beneficial by some researchers. A 2006 survey of nutrition professionals ranked clotted cream as the least healthy of 120 foods selected to


title: "Clotted cream" content: be representative of the British diet. According to the United Kingdom's Food Standards Agency, a tub of clotted cream provides , roughly equivalent to a cheeseburger. Originally made by farmers to reduce the amount of waste from their milk, clotted cream has become so deep-rooted in the culture of southwest Britain that it is embedded as part of the region's tourist attraction. While there is no doubt of its strong and long association with Cornwall and Devon, it is not clear of its actual antiquity, or more recent development. The "Oxford Companion to Food" follows traditional folklore by suggesting it


title: "Clotted cream" content: may have been introduced to Cornwall by Phoenician traders in search of tin. It is similar to kaymak (or kajmak), a Near Eastern delicacy that is made throughout the Middle East, southeast Europe, Iran, Afghanistan, India, and Turkey. A similar clotted cream known as 'urum'(өрөм) is also made in Mongolia. Contemporary ancient food experts, noting Strabo's commentaries on Britain have proposed that the early Britons would probably have clotted cream to preserve its freshness. More recently, regional archaeologists have associated the stone "fogou" (dial. 'fuggy-hole'), or souterrains, found across Atlantic Britain, France, and Ireland as a possible form of "cold


title: "Clotted cream" content: store" for dairy production of milk, cream, and cheese in particular. Similar functions are ascribed to the linhay (or 'linney') stone-built form, often used as a dairy in later medieval longhouses in the same regions. It has long been disputed whether clotted cream originated in Devon or Cornwall, and which county makes it the best. There is evidence that the monks of Tavistock Abbey were making clotted cream in the early 14th century. After their abbey had been ransacked by Vikings in 997 AD, the monks rebuilt it with the help of Ordulf, Earl of Devon. Local workers were drafted


title: "Clotted cream" content: in to help with the repairs, and the monks rewarded them with bread, clotted cream, and strawberry preserves. The 1658 cookery book "The Compleat Cook" had a recipe for "clouted cream". In the 19th century it was regarded as better nourishment than "raw" cream because that cream was liable to go sour and be difficult to digest, causing illness. An article from 1853 calculates that creating clotted cream will produce 25 percent more cream than regular methods. In Devon, it was so common that in the mid-19th century it was used in the formative processes of butter, instead of churning


title: "Clotted cream" content: cream or milk. The butter made in this way had a longer lifespan and was free from any negative flavours added by the churning. It has long been the practice for local residents in southwest England, or those on holiday, to send small tins or tubs of clotted cream by post to friends and relations in other parts of the British Isles. In 1993, an application was made for the name "Cornish clotted cream" to have a Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) in the European Union for cream produced by the traditional recipe in Cornwall. This was accepted in 1998.


title: "Clotted cream" content: Cornish clotted cream must be made from milk produced in Cornwall and have a minimum butterfat content of 55 percent. The unique, slightly yellow, Cornish clotted cream colour is due to the high carotene levels in the grass. Traditionally, clotted cream was created by straining fresh cow's milk, letting it stand in a shallow pan in a cool place for several hours to allow the cream to rise to the surface, then heating it either over hot cinders or in a water bath, before a slow cooling. The clots that formed on the top were then skimmed off with a


title: "Clotted cream" content: long-handled cream-skimmer, known in Devon as a "reamer" or "raimer". By the mid-1930s, the traditional way of using milk brought straight from the dairy was becoming a rarity in Devon because using a cream separator actively separated the cream from the milk using centrifugal force, which produced far more clotted cream than the traditional method from the same amount of milk. As a farmer's wife in Poundsgate said, "the separator saves a whole cow!" Today, there are two distinct modern methods for making clotted cream. The "float cream method" includes scalding a floating layer of double cream in milk (skimmed


title: "Clotted cream" content: or whole) in shallow trays. To scald, the trays are heated using steam or very hot water. After the mixture has been heated for up to an hour it is slowly cooled for 12 hours or more, before the cream is separated and packaged. The "scald cream method" is similar, but the milk layer is removed and a layer of cream which has been mechanically separated to a minimum fat level is used. This cream is then heated in a similar manner, but at a lower temperature and after a set amount of time it is then chilled and packaged.


title: "Clotted cream" content: In the United Kingdom the resultant cream is deemed to be equivalent to pasteurised for legal purposes. Unlike pasteurisation, however, there is no requirement for the temperatures to be recorded on thermograph charts. As the temperatures are lower than used in standard pasteurisation, much care is needed in ensuring high standards of hygiene. The largest manufacturer in the United Kingdom is Rodda's, a family-owned business based in Scorrier, Cornwall. Founded in 1890, the company was producing over per year in 1985, and in 2010 the managing director said that they might produce as little as 5 or 6 tons (5,000


title: "Clotted cream" content: or 6,000 kg) a day in January, but up to 25 tons (25,000 kg) a day as Christmas approached. In the early 1980s, Rodda's signed deals with international airlines to serve small tubs of clotted cream with the in-flight desserts. The company considers the annual Wimbledon tennis championships one of their peak selling periods. As a by-product, for every of milk used, of skimmed milk is produced, which is then used in food manufacture. One Devon manufacturer, Definitely Devon was purchased by Robert Wiseman Dairies in March 2006, closing one of the two Devon dairies and moving all production to


title: "Clotted cream" content: Okehampton. However, in 2011 Robert Wiseman sold the Definitely Devon Brand to Rodda's, who moved the production of Definitely Devon to Cornwall, which caused some controversy as the name was not changed, prompting an investigation by Trading Standards. Throughout Cornwall and southwest England, clotted cream manufacture is a cottage industry, with many farms and dairies producing cream for sale in local outlets. Clotted cream is also produced in Somerset, Dorset, Herefordshire, Pembrokeshire, and the Isle of Wight. When authentic clotted cream is not available, there are ways to create a substitute product, such as by mixing mascarpone with whipped cream,


title: "Clotted cream" content: a little sugar, and vanilla extract. Clotted cream is an essential part of a cream tea, a favourite with tourists particularly in Cornwall and Devon. It is served on scones—or the more traditional "splits" in Cornwall—with strawberry jam (other flavours are generally less acceptable), along with a pot of tea. Traditionally, there are differences in the way it is eaten in each county: in Devon, the cream is traditionally spread first on the scone, with the jam dolloped on top. In Cornwall the jam is spread first with a dollop of cream. Cream teas, known as Devonshire teas, spread to


title: "Clotted cream" content: southern Australia as early immigrants from Cornwall and Devon took their traditional recipes with them. In 2010, Langage Farm in Devon started a campaign for "Devon cream tea" to have protected designation of origin similar to "Cornish clotted cream". One variation on a cream tea is called "Thunder and Lightning" which consists of a round of bread topped with clotted cream and golden syrup, honey, or treacle. Clotted cream can be used as an accompaniment to hot or cold desserts. Clotted cream, especially clotted cream from Devon, where it is less yellow due to lower carotene levels in the grass,


title: "Clotted cream" content: is regularly used in baking. It is used throughout southwest England in the production of ice cream and fudge. Clotted cream is used in some savoury dishes, and can be incorporated into mashed potato, risotto or scrambled eggs. Cabbage cream (which does not contain cabbage) was a delicacy in the mid-17th century: layers of clotted cream were interspersed with sugar and rosewater, creating a cabbage effect when served. It was a common accompaniment to junket, a milk-based dessert which went out of fashion in the mid-20th century. Clotted cream was mentioned in "The Shepheardes Calendar", a poem by Edmund Spenser


title: "Clotted cream" content: in 1579: <poem>Ne would she scorn the simple shepherd swain, For she would call him often heam, And give him curds and clouted cream.</poem> As with many Cornish and Devonian icons, clotted cream has become entrenched in local folklore. For example, one myth tells of Jenny who enticed the giant Blunderbore (sometimes called Moran) by feeding him clotted cream. He eventually fell in love with her and made her his fourth wife. Another myth, from Dartmoor, tells of a princess who wanted to marry an elven prince, but according to tradition had to bathe in pure cream first. Unfortunately, a


title: "Clotted cream" content: witch who wanted the prince for her daughter kept souring the cream. Eventually, the prince offered the princess clotted cream, which the witch was unable to sour. Clotted cream is also mentioned as one of the staple foods of the hobbits in J.R.R. Tolkien's "The Lord of the Rings" books. Clotted cream Clotted cream (sometimes called scalded, clouted, Devonshire or Cornish cream) is a thick cream made by indirectly heating full-cream cow's milk using steam or a water bath and then leaving it in shallow pans to cool slowly. During this time, the cream content rises to the surface and


title: Chef content: Chef A chef is a trained professional cook who is proficient in all aspects of food preparation, often focusing on a particular cuisine. The word "chef" is derived from the term "chef de cuisine" (), the director or head of a kitchen. Chefs can receive formal training from an institution, as well as by apprenticing with an experienced chef. There are different terms that use the word "chef" in their titles, and deal with specific areas of food preparation, such as the "sous-chef", who acts as the second-in-command in a kitchen, or the "chef de partie", who handles a specific


title: "Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans" content: the Revolutionary Tribunal on 6 November, he was sentenced to death, and guillotined the same day. Philippe d'Orléans has been portrayed in several films, such as the 1938 film, "Marie Antoinette", in which he was portrayed by Joseph Schildkraut, and the 2001 film "The Lady and the Duke" by Jean-Claude Dreyfus. Philippe d'Orléans was an antagonist in the anime "The Rose of Versailles" by Riyoko Ikeda. Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans Louis Philippe Joseph d'Orléans (13 April 17476 November 1793), most commonly known as "Philippe", was born at the Château de Saint-Cloud. He received the title of Duke of


title: "Glasgow Airport (Montana)" content: within this group, one located at the Great Falls Army Air Base and one at each of the three satellite air fields at Lewistown, Glasgow and Cut Bank. The 96th Bombardment Squadron of the Second Bombardment Group arrived at Glasgow Army Air Field on November 29, 1942. Heavy bomber squadrons of the time usually consisted of 8 B-17s with 37 officers and 229 enlisted men. The satellite field was used by B-17 bomber crews from the Second Air Force during the second phase of their training. Actual bombing and gunnery training was conducted at the airfield's associated sites, Glasgow Pattern


title: "Françoise d'Aubigné, Marquise de Maintenon" content: care to keep the house well guarded and discreet, even doing the domestic duties herself. Her care for the infant Louis Auguste, Duke of Maine (born 1670) first brought her to the attention of Louis XIV, though he was initially put off by her strict religious practice. When Louis Auguste and his siblings were legitimized on 20 Dec 1673, she became the royal governess at Saint-Germain. As governess, she was one of very few people permitted to speak with the king as an equal, without holding back. Madame de Sévigné observed that he was charmed by having someone who would


title: "Management consulting" content: Management consulting Management consulting is the practice of helping organizations to improve their performance, operating primarily through the analysis of existing organizational problems and the development of plans for improvement. Organizations may draw upon the services of management consultants for a number of reasons, including gaining external (and presumably objective) advice and access to the consultants' specialized expertise. As a result of their exposure to, and relationships with numerous organizations, consulting firms are typically aware of industry "best practices." However, the specific nature of situations under consideration may limit the ability to transfer such practices from one organization to another.


title: "Peking duck" content: Peking duck Peking duck is a dish from Beijing (Peking) that has been prepared since the imperial era. The meat is characterized by its thin, crisp skin, with authentic versions of the dish serving mostly the skin and little meat, sliced in front of the diners by the cook. Ducks bred specially for the dish are slaughtered after 65 days and seasoned before being roasted in a closed or hung oven. The meat is often eaten with spring onion, cucumber and sweet bean sauce with pancakes rolled around the fillings. Sometimes pickled radish is also inside, and other sauces (like


title: "Peking duck" content: hoisin sauce) can be used. Duck has been roasted in China since the Southern and Northern Dynasties. A variation of roast duck was prepared for the Emperor of China in the Yuan Dynasty. The dish, originally named "shāo yāzi" (燒鴨子), was mentioned in the "Complete Recipes for Dishes and Beverages" (飲膳正要) manual in 1330 by Hu Sihui (忽思慧), an inspector of the imperial kitchen. The Peking Roast Duck that came to be associated with the term was fully developed during the later Ming Dynasty, and by then, Peking Duck was one of the main dishes on imperial court menus. The


title: "Peking duck" content: first restaurant specialising in Peking Duck, Bianyifang, was established in the Xianyukou, close to Qianmen of Beijing in 1416. By the Qianlong Period (1736–1796) of the Qing Dynasty, the popularity of Peking Duck spread to the upper classes, inspiring poetry from poets and scholars who enjoyed the dish. For instance, one verse of "Dūmén zhúzhīcí", a Beijing local poem was, "Fill your plates with roast duck and suckling pig". In 1864, the Quanjude (全聚德) restaurant was established in Beijing. Yang Quanren (楊全仁), the founder of Quanjude, developed the hung oven to roast ducks. With its innovations and efficient management, the


title: "Peking duck" content: restaurant became well known in China, introducing the Peking Duck to the rest of the world. By the mid-20th century, Peking Duck had become a national symbol of China, favored by tourists and diplomats alike. For example, Henry Kissinger, the Secretary of State of the United States, met Premier Zhou Enlai in the Great Hall of the People on July 10, 1971, during his first (secret) visit to China. After a round of inconclusive talks in the morning, the delegation was served Peking Duck for lunch, which became Kissinger's favourite. The Americans and Chinese issued a joint statement the following


title: "Peking duck" content: day, inviting President Richard Nixon to visit China in 1972. Following Zhou's death in 1976, Kissinger paid another visit to Beijing to savor Peking Duck. Peking Duck, at the Quanjude in particular, has also been a favorite dish for various political leaders ranging from Cuban Fidel Castro to former German chancellor Helmut Kohl. Two notable restaurants in Beijing which serve this dish are Quanjude and Bianyifang, both centuries-old establishments which have become household names, each with their own style: Quanjude is known for using the hung oven roasting method, while Bianyifang uses the oldest technique of closed oven roasting. The


title: "Peking duck" content: ducks used to prepare Peking Duck originated in Nanjing. They were small, had black feathers, and lived in the canals around the city linking major waterways. With the relocation of the Chinese capital to Beijing, supply barge traffic increased in the area. Often these barges would spill grain into the canals, providing food for the ducks. By the Five Dynasties, the new breed of duck had been domesticated by Chinese farmers. Nowadays, Peking Duck is prepared from the white feathered Pekin duck ("Anas platyrhynchos domestica"). Newborn ducks are raised in a free range environment for the first 45 days of


title: "Peking duck" content: their lives, and force fed 4 times a day for the next 15–20 days, resulting in ducks that weigh 5–7 kg (11–15 lbs). The force feeding of the ducks led to an alternate name for the animal, Peking Stuffed Duck (). Fattened ducks are slaughtered, plucked, eviscerated and rinsed thoroughly with water. Air is pumped under the skin through the neck cavity to separate the skin from the fat. The duck is then soaked in boiling water for a short while before it is hung up to dry. While it is hung, the duck is glazed with a layer of


title: "Peking duck" content: maltose syrup, and the inside is rinsed once more with water. Having been left to stand for 24 hours, the duck is roasted in an oven until it turns shiny brown. Besides two traditional methods to prepare Peking Duck, recipes have been compiled by chefs around the world to produce the dish at home. Peking Duck is originally roasted in a closed oven (), and Bianyifang is the restaurant who keeps this tradition. The closed oven is built of brick and fitted with metal griddles (). The oven is preheated by burning Gaoliang sorghum straw () at the base. The


title: "Peking duck" content: duck is placed in the oven immediately after the fire burns out, allowing the meat to be slowly cooked through the convection of heat within the oven. Controlling the fuel and the temperature is the main skill. In closed oven style, duck meat is combined well with the fat under the skin, and therefore is juicy and tender. The open oven () was developed in the imperial kitchens during the Qing Dynasty, and adopted by the Quanjude restaurant chain. It is designed to roast up to 20 ducks at the same time with an open fire fueled by hardwood from


title: "Peking duck" content: peach or pear trees. The ducks are hung on hooks above the fire and roasted at a temperature of 270 °C (525 °F) for 30–40 minutes. While the ducks are roasting, the chef may use a pole to dangle each duck closer to the fire for 30 second intervals. In open oven style, the fat is usually melted during the cooking process, so the skin is crispy, and can be eaten separately as a snack. Almost every part of a duck can be prepared afterwards. Quanjude Restaurant even served their customers the "All Duck Banquet" in which they cooked the


title: "Peking duck" content: bones of ducks with vegetables. The cooked Peking Duck is traditionally carved in front of the diners and served in three stages. First, the duck skin is served with sugar and garlic sauce as dip. The skin tastes better while remaining warm, but it will cool down fast. The meat is then served with steamed pancakes (), spring onions and sweet bean sauce. Several vegetable dishes are provided to accompany the meat, typically cucumber sticks. Some restaurants offer watermelon radish sticks as alternative. The diners spread sauce over the pancake. Traditionally, the pancake is wrapped around the meat and spring


title: "Peking duck" content: onion, then eaten by hand. Cucumber sticks are eaten as refreshment between Peking Duck rolls, but can also be rolled in the pancake. The remaining duck (鸭架) can be cooked in three ways. The traditional way is to be cooked into a broth. The meat together with bones can also be stir-fried with sweet bean sauce, or rapidly sautéed and served with salt and Sichuan pepper (椒鹽). Otherwise, they are packed up to be taken home by the customers. Whole Peking Ducks can be ordered as takeaways. The ducks can be reheated at home with an oven, grill or boiling


title: "Peking duck" content: oil. When an oven is used, the duck is heated at a temperature of 150 °C (300 °F) for 20 minutes, and then at 160 °C (325 °F) for another 10 minutes. The grilling method involves filling the duck with boiling water before placing it on a griddle, 70 cm (28 in) above the cooking fire. The boiling water is replaced every 3–4 minutes until the duck's skin is piping hot. To reheat the Peking Duck with oil, the duck is sliced into thin pieces and placed in a strainer held over a wok of boiling oil. The duck is


title: "Peking duck" content: then rinsed several times with the oil. A number of restaurants in Beijing specialise in Peking Duck. Examples include Quanjude, Bianyifang, Changan Yihao (長安一號), Dayali, Beijing Xiaowangfu (北京小王府) and Dadong Kaoyadian (大董烤鴨店). Some restaurants, in particular Quanjude and Bianyifang, have long histories of serving high quality duck that they are now household names, or "Lao zihao" (老字號), literally "old brand name". In addition, Quanjude has received worldwide recognition, having been named a China Renowned Trademark in 1999. Duck Chang's Restaurant, established in 1975 in Virginia, USA, was the first Chinese restaurant to prepare and serve Peking Duck without a 24-hour