title: Platanus content: Despite the geographic separation between North America and Old World, species from these continents will cross readily resulting in fertile hybrids such as the London plane. The following are recognized species of plane trees: Planes are susceptible to plane anthracnose ("Apiognomonia veneta"), a fungal disease that can defoliate the trees in some years. The most severe infections are associated with cold, wet spring weather. "P. occidentalis" and the other American species are the most susceptible, with "P. orientalis" the most resistant. The hybrid London plane is intermediate in resistance. "Ceratocystis platani", a wilt disease, has become a significant problem in


title: Platanus content: recent years in much of Europe. The North American species are mostly resistant to the disease, with which they probably coevolved, while the old world species are highly sensitive. Other diseases such as powdery mildew occur frequently, but are of lesser importance. "Platanus" species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including "Phyllonorycter platani" and Setaceous Hebrew Character. In the 21st century a disease, commonly known as Massaria disease, has attacked plane trees across Europe. It is caused by the fungus "Splanchnonema platani", and causes large lesions on the upper sides of branches. The principal


title: Platanus content: use of these trees is as ornamental trees, especially in urban areas and by roadsides. The London plane is particularly popular for this purpose. The American plane is cultivated sometimes for timber and investigations have been made into its use as a biomass crop. The oriental plane is widely used as an ornamental and also has a number of minor medicinal uses. Most significant aspects of cultural history apply to "Platanus orientalis" in the Old World. The tree is an important part of the literary scenery of Plato's dialogue Phaedrus. Because of Plato, the tree also played an important role


title: Platanus content: in the scenery of Cicero's De Oratore. The legendary Dry tree first recorded by Marco Polo was possibly a platanus. According to the legend, it marked the site of the battle between Alexander the Great and Darius III. The German camouflage pattern "Platanenmuster" ("plane tree pattern"), designed in 1937–1942 by Johann Georg Otto Schick, was the first dotted camouflage pattern. Platanus Platanus is a genus consisting of a small number of tree species native to the Northern Hemisphere. They are the sole living members of the family Platanaceae. All members of "Platanus" are tall, reaching in height. All except for


title: "Peter Osgood" content: written with Martin Knight and Martin King was released in 2003 and in 2004 Osgood appeared in a cameo role in the British film "The Football Factory". Prior to his death on 1 March 2006 following a heart attack at a family funeral, he was involved in football related media work and was well known on the after dinner speaker circuit. Three weeks before his death he had enjoyed a standing ovation when presented to the Stamford Bridge crowd at half-time of a match. At Chelsea's first home game after Osgood's death, against local rivals Tottenham, there were many tributes


title: "Dominique de Villepin" content: his popularity rates went down rapidly and he was no longer regarded as a serious contender for the 2007 presidential election. Another major issue in Villepin's government was the state of the national budget. France runs high deficits, which run afoul of the rules set in the EU Maastricht Treaty. Villepin's margin of maneuver in that respect was extremely slim. Ministers Delegate ministers 26 March 2007: 5 April 2007: On Thursday, 16 March 2006, tens of thousands of French university and school students marched to demand the government scrap a contentious youth jobs clause, known as First Employment Contract (CPE).


title: "The Belmonts" content: which was very different from the original. His final Laurie recording, "Stranger in My Arms", was written especially for him by hit maker Ernie Maresca ("The Wanderer", "Runaround Sue"). However, the flip, "Ring-A-Ling", was a favorite of New York disc jockey Murray Kaufman, aka "Murray the K". He featured it on his weekly "Record Review Board Contest" and it clearly won as the best new release. It received airplay on New York radio stations WINS and WENE, but also failed to chart nationally. After leaving Laurie Records Mastrangelo became DiMucci's occasional songwriting partner, backup vocalist and drummer in the group


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: Airbus A320 family The Airbus A320 family consists of short- to medium-range, narrow-body, commercial passenger twin-engine jet airliners manufactured by Airbus. The family includes the A318, A319, A320 and A321, as well as the ACJ business jet. The A320s are also named A320ceo (current engine option) after the introduction of the A320neo (new engine option). Final assembly of the family takes place in Toulouse, France, and Hamburg, Germany. A plant in Tianjin, China, has also been producing aircraft for Chinese airlines since 2009, while a final assembly facility in Mobile, Alabama, United States, delivered its first A321 in April 2016.


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: The aircraft family can accommodate up to 236 passengers and has a range of , depending on model. The first member of the A320 family—the A320—was launched in March 1984, first flew on 22 February 1987, and was first delivered in March 1988 to launch customer Air France. The family was extended to include the A321 (first delivered 1994), the A319 (1996), and the A318 (2003). The A320 family pioneered the use of digital fly-by-wire flight control systems, as well as side-stick controls, in commercial aircraft. There has been a continuous improvement process since introduction. As of 30 November 2018,


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: a total of 8,512 Airbus A320-family aircraft have been delivered, of which 8,126 are in service. In addition, another 5,909 airliners are on firm order. It ranked as the world's fastest-selling jet airliner family according to records from 2005 to 2007, and as the best-selling single-generation aircraft programme. The A320 family has proved popular with airlines including low-cost carriers such as EasyJet, which ordered A319s and A320s to replace its ageing 737 fleet. As of December 2017, American Airlines was the largest operator of the Airbus A320 family aircraft, operating 392 aircraft. The aircraft family competes directly with the 737


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: and has competed with the 717, 757, and the MD-80/MD-90. In December 2010, Airbus announced a new generation of the A320 family, the A320neo (new engine option). The A320neo offers new, more efficient engines, combined with airframe improvements and the addition of winglets, named "Sharklets" by Airbus. The aircraft will deliver fuel savings of up to 15%. As of November 2018, a total of 6,285 A320neo family aircraft had been ordered by more than 70 airlines, making it the fastest selling commercial aircraft. The first A320neo was delivered to Lufthansa on 20 January 2016 and it entered service on 25


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: January 2016. When Airbus designed the Airbus A300 during the late 1960s and early 1970s, it envisaged a broad family of airliners with which to compete against Boeing and Douglas, two established US aerospace manufacturers. From the moment of formation, Airbus had begun studies into derivatives of the Airbus A300B in support of this long-term goal. Prior to the service introduction of the first Airbus airliners, engineers within Airbus had identified nine possible variations of the A300 known as A300B1 to B9. A 10th variation, conceived in 1973, later the first to be constructed, was designated the A300B10. It was


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: a smaller aircraft which would be developed into the long-range Airbus A310. Airbus then focused its efforts on the single-aisle market, which was dominated by the 737 and McDonnell Douglas DC-9. Plans from a number of European aircraft manufacturers called for a successor to the relatively successful BAC One-Eleven, and to replace the 737–200 and DC-9. Germany's MBB ("Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm"), British Aircraft Corporation, Sweden's Saab and Spain's CASA worked on the "EUROPLANE", a 180- to 200-seat aircraft. It was abandoned after intruding on A310 specifications. VFW-Fokker, Dornier and Hawker Siddeley worked on a number of 150-seat designs. Alongside BAe (which at


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: the time was not part of Airbus) were MBB, Fokker-VFW and Aérospatiale. The design within the JET study that was carried forward was the JET2 (163 passengers), which then became the Airbus S.A1/2/3 series (Single Aisle), before settling on the A320 name for its launch in 1984. Previously, Hawker Siddeley had produced a design called the HS.134 "Airbus" in 1965, an evolution of the HS.121 (formerly DH.121) "Trident", which shared much of the general arrangement of the later JET3 study design. The name "Airbus" at the time referred to a BEA requirement, rather than to the later international programme. In


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: June 1977 was set up a new "Joint European Transport" (JET) programme. It was based at the then British Aerospace (formerly Vickers) site in Weybridge, Surrey, UK. Although the members were all of Airbus' partners, they regarded the project as a separate collaboration from Airbus. This project was considered the forerunner of Airbus A320, encompassing the 130- to 188-seat market, powered by two CFM56s. It would have a cruise speed of Mach 0.84 (faster than Boeing 737). The programme was later transferred to Airbus, leading up to the creation of the "Single-Aisle" (SA) studies in 1980, led by former leader


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: of JET programme, Derek Brown. The group looked at three different variants, covering the 125- to 180-seat market, called "SA1", "SA2" and "SA3". Although unaware at the time, the consortium was producing the blueprints for the A319, A320 and A321, respectively. The single-aisle programme created divisions within Airbus about whether to design a shorter-range twinjet than a longer-range quadjet wanted by the West Germans, particularly Lufthansa. However, works proceeded, and the German carrier would eventually order the twinjet. In February 1981, the project was re-designated A320, with efforts focused on the former SA2. During the year, Airbus worked with Delta


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: Air Lines on a 150-seat aircraft envisioned and required by the airline. The A320 would carry 150 passengers over using fuel from wing fuel tanks only. The Dash 200 had centre tank activated, increasing fuel capacity from . They would measure , respectively. Airbus considered a fuselage diameter of "the Boeing 707 and 727, or do something better" and settled on a wider cross-section with a internal width, compared to Boeing's . Although heavier, this allowed to compete more effectively with the 737. The A320 wing went through several stages of design, finally settling on . The UK, France and


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: West Germany wanted the responsibility of final assembly and the associated duties, known as "work-share arguments". The Germans requested an increased work-share of 40%, while the British wanted the major responsibilities to be swapped around to give partners production and research and development experience. In the end, British work-share was increased from that of the two previous Airbuses. France was willing to commit to a launch aid, or subsidies, while the Germans were more cautious. The UK government was unwilling to provide funding for the tooling requested by British Aerospace (BAe) and estimated at ₤250 million, it was postponed for


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: three years. On 1 March 1984 the government and the manufacturer agreed that ₤50 million would be paid whether the A320 would fly or not, while the rest would be paid as a levy on each aircraft sold. The programme was launched on 2 March 1984. At this time, Airbus had 96 orders. Air France was its first customer with a "letter of intent" for 25 A320s and an option for 25 more at the 1981 Paris air show. In October 1983, British Caledonian placed seven firm order, bringing total orders to more than 80. Cyprus Airways became the first


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: to place order for V2500-powered A320s in November 1984, followed by Pan Am with 16 firm orders and 34 options in January 1985, then Inex Adria. One of the most significant order was when Northwest Airlines placed an order for 100 A320s in October 1986, later confirmed at the 1990 Farnborough Airshow, powered by CFM56 engines. During the A320 development programme, Airbus considered propfan technology, backed by Lufthansa. At the time unproven, it was essentially a fan placed outside the engine nacelle, offering speed of a turbofan at turboprops economics; eventually, Airbus stuck with turbofans. Power on the A320 would


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: be supplied by two CFM56-5-A1s rated at 25,000 lbf (112.5 kN). It was the only available engine at launch until the IAE V2500, offered by International Aero Engines, a group composed of Rolls-Royce plc, Pratt & Whitney, Japanese Aero Engine Corporation, Fiat and MTU. The first V2500 variant, the V2500-A1, has a thrust output of , hence the name. It is (0.596/0.574-1)*100round0% more efficient than the CFM56, with cruise thrust specific fuel consumption for the -A5 at for the CFM56-5A1. In presence of then French Prime Minister Jacques Chirac and the Prince and Princess of Wales, the first A320 was


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: rolled out of the final assembly line on 14 February 1987 and made its maiden flight on 22 February in 3 hours and 23 minutes from Toulouse. The flight test programme took 1,200 hours on 530 flights, European Joint Aviation Authorities certification was delivered on 26 February 1988. The first A320 was delivered to Air France on 28 March 1988. The first derivative of the A320 was the Airbus A321, also known as the "Stretched A320", "A320-500" and "A325". Its launch came on 24 November 1988 after commitments for 183 aircraft from 10 customers were secured. The aircraft would be


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: a minimum-changed derivative, apart from a number of minor modifications to the wing, and the fuselage stretch itself. The wing would incorporate double-slotted flaps and minor trailing edge modifications, increasing the wing area from to . The fuselage was lengthened by four plugs (two ahead and two behind the wings), giving the A321 an overall length of longer than the A320. The length increase required the overwing exits of the A320 to be enlarged and repositioned in front of and behind the wings. The centre fuselage and undercarriage were reinforced to accommodate the increase in maximum takeoff weight of ,


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: taking it to . Final assembly for the A321 would be, as a first for any Airbus, carried out in Germany (then West Germany). This came after a dispute between the French, who claimed the move would incur $150 million (€135 million) in unnecessary expenditure associated with the new plant, and the Germans, arguing it would be more productive for Airbus in the long run. The second production line was located at Hamburg, which would also subsequently produce the smaller Airbus A319 and A318. For the first time, Airbus entered the bond market, through which it raised $480 million (€475


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: million) to finance development costs. An additional $180 million (€175 million) was borrowed from European Investment Bank and private investors. The maiden flight of the Airbus A321 came on 11 March 1993, when the prototype, registration F-WWIA, flew with IAE V2500 engines; the second prototype, equipped with CFM56-5B turbofans, flew in May. Lufthansa and Alitalia were the first to order the stretched Airbuses, with 20 and 40 aircraft requested, respectively. The first of Lufthansa's V2500-A5-powered A321s arrived on 27 January 1994, while Alitalia received its first CFM56-5B-powered aircraft on 22 March. The A319 is the next derivative of the baseline


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: A320. The design is a "shrink" with its origins in the 130- to 140-seat SA1, part of the Single-Aisle studies. The SA1 was shelved as the consortium concentrated on its bigger siblings. After healthy sales of the A320/A321, Airbus re-focused on what was then known as the "A320M-7", meaning A320 "minus seven fuselage frames". It would provide direct competition for the 737–300/-700. The shrink was achieved through the removal of four fuselage frames fore and three aft of the wing, cutting the overall length by . Consequently, the number of overwing exits was reduced from four to two. The bulk-cargo


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: door was replaced by an aft container door, which can take in reduced height LD3-45 containers. Minor software changes were made to accommodate the different handling characteristics; otherwise the aircraft is largely unchanged. Power is provided by the CFM56-5A or V2500-A5, derated to , with option for thrust. Airbus began offering the new model from 22 May 1992, with the actual launch of the $275 million (€250 million) programme occurring on 10 June 1993; the A319's first customer was ILFC, who signed for six aircraft. On 23 March 1995, the first A319 underwent final assembly at Airbus' German plant in


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: Hamburg, where the A321s are also assembled. It was rolled out on 24 August 1995, with the maiden flight the following day. The certification programme would take 350 airborne hours involving two aircraft; certification for the CFM56-5B6/2-equipped variant was granted in April 1996, after which qualification for the V2524-A5 started the following month. Delivery of the first A319, to Swissair, took place on 25 April 1996, entering service by month's end. In January 1997, an A319 broke a record during a delivery flight by flying the great circle route to Winnipeg, Manitoba from Hamburg, in 9 hours 5 minutes. The


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: A319 has proved popular with low-cost airlines such as EasyJet, who has orders for 172, with 172 delivered. The A318 was born out of mid-1990 studies between Aviation Industries of China (AVIC), Singapore Technologies Aerospace, Alenia and Airbus on a 95- to 125-seat aircraft project. The programme was called the "AE31X", and covered the 95-seat AE316 and 115- to 125-seat AE317. The former would have had an overall length of , while the AE317 was longer by , at . The engines were to be supplied from two Rolls-Royce BR715s, CFM56-9s, or the Pratt & Whitney PW6000s; with the MTOW


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: of for the smaller version and for the AE317, the thrust requirement were and , respectively. Range was settled at and for the high gross weights of both variants. Both share a wingspan of and a flight deck similar to that of the A320 family. Costing $2 billion (€1.85 billion) to develop, aircraft production to take place in China. Simultaneously, Airbus was developing Airbus A318. In early 1998, Airbus revealed its considerations of designing a 100-seat aircraft based on the A320. The AE31X project was terminated by September 1998, after which Airbus officially announced an aircraft of its own, the


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: "A318", at that year's Farnborough Airshow. The aircraft is the smallest product of Airbus's product range, and was developed coincidentally at the same time as the largest commercial aircraft in history, the Airbus A380. First called "A319M5" in as early as March 1995, it was shorter by ahead of the wing and behind. These cuts reduced passenger capacity from 124 on the A319 to 107 passengers in a two-class layout. Range was , or with upcoming Sharklets. The 107-seater was launched on 26 April 1999 with the options and orders count at 109 aircraft. After three years of design, the


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: maiden flight took place at Hamburg on 15 January 2002. Tests on the lead engine, the Pratt & Whitney PW6000, revealed worse-than-expected fuel consumption. Consequently, Pratt & Whitney abandoned the five-stage high pressure compressor (HPC) for the MTU-designed six-stage HPC. The 129 order book for the A318 shrunk to 80 largely because of switches to other A320 family members. After 17 months of flight certification, during which 850 hours and 350 flights were accumulated, JAA certification was obtained for the CFM56-powered variant on 23 May 2003. On 22 July 2003, first delivery for launch customer Frontier Airlines occurred, entering service


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: before the end of the month. In 2006, Airbus started the A320 Enhanced (A320E) programme as a series of improvements targeting a 4–5% efficiency gain with large winglets (2%), aerodynamic refinements (1%), weight savings and a new aircraft cabin. Engine improvements reducing fuel consumption by 1% were fitted into the A320 in 2007 with the CFM56 Tech Insertion and in 2008 with the V2500Select (One). In 2006, Airbus tested three styles of winglet intended to counteract the wing's induced drag and wingtip vortices more effectively than the previous wingtip fence. The first design type to be tested was developed by


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: Airbus and was based on work done by the programme. The second type of winglet incorporated a more blended design and was designed by Winglet Technology, a company based in Wichita, Kansas. Two aircraft were used in the flight test evaluation campaign – the prototype A320, which had been retained by Airbus for testing, and a new build aircraft which was fitted with both types of winglets before it was delivered to JetBlue. Despite the anticipated efficiency gains and development work, Airbus announced that the new winglets will not be offered to customers, claiming that the weight of the modifications


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: required would negate any aerodynamic benefits. On 17 December 2008, Airbus announced it was to begin flight testing an existing blended winglet design developed by Aviation Partners Inc. as part of an A320 modernisation programme using the A320 prototype. Airbus launched the sharklet blended wingtip device during the November 2009 Dubai Airshow: installation adds but offers a 3.5% fuel burn reduction on flights over . They save US$220,000 and 700 t of CO per aircraft per year. The tall devices are manufactured by Korean Air Aerospace Division. The winglets increase efficiency by decreasing lift-induced drag. In December 2011, Airbus filed


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: suit in the western district of Texas over Aviation Partners' claims of infringement of its patents on winglet design and construction which were granted in 1993. Airbus' lawsuit seeks to reject responsibility to pay royalties to Aviation Partners for using its designs, despite work performed together with both parties to develop advanced winglets for the A320neo. The first Sharklet-equipped A320 was delivered to AirAsia on 21 December 2012, offering a payload increase or longer range at the original payload. In 2007, Airbus introduced a new enhanced, quieter cabin with better luggage storage and a more modern look and feel, and


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: a new galley reduces weight, increase revenue space and improves ergonomics and design for food hygiene and recycling. It offers a new air purifier with filters and a catalytic converter removing unpleasant smells from the air before it is pumped into the cabin and LEDs for ambience lighting and PSU. Offering 10% more overhead bin volume, more shoulder room, a weight reduction, a new intercom and in-flight entertainment system, noise reduction and slimmer PSU, the enhanced Cabin can be retrofitted. The flight crew controls the cabin through touchscreen displays. The A320neo ("neo" for "new engine option") is a development launched


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: on 1 December 2010, it made its first flight on 25 September 2014 and it was introduced by Lufthansa on 25 January 2016. Re-engined with CFM International LEAP-1A or Pratt & Whitney PW1000G engines and with large sharklets, it should be 15% more fuel efficient. Three variants are based on the previous A319, A320 and A321. Airbus received 6,031 orders by March 2018 and delivered 318 by May 2018. The original family is renamed A320ceo, for "current engine option". The Airbus A320 family are narrow-body (single-aisle) aircraft with a retractable tricycle landing gear and are powered by two wing pylon-mounted


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: turbofan engines. After the oil price rises of the 1970s, Airbus needed to minimise the trip fuel costs of the A320. To that end, it adopted composite primary structures, centre-of-gravity control using fuel, glass cockpit (EFIS) and a two-crew flight deck. Airbus claimed the 737-300 burns 35% more fuel and has a 16% higher operating cost per seat than the V2500-powered A320. A 150-seat A320 burns of jet fuel over (between Los Angeles and New York City), or per seat with a 0.8 kg/L fuel. Its wing is long and thin, offering better aerodynamic efficiency because of the higher aspect


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: ratio than the competing 737 and MD-80. The Airbus A320 family are low-wing cantilever monoplanes with a conventional empennage with a single vertical stabilizer and rudder. Its wing sweep is 25 degrees. Compared to other airliners of the same class, the A320 features a wider single-aisle cabin of outside diameter, compared to of the Boeing 737 or 757, and larger overhead bins. Its cargo hold can accommodate Unit Load Devices containers. The A320 airframe includes composite materials and aluminium alloys to save weight and reduce the total number of parts to decrease the maintenance costs. Its tail assembly is made


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: almost entirely of such composites by CASA, who also builds the elevators, main landing gear doors, and rear fuselage parts. It includes a full glass cockpit rather than the hybrid versions found in previous airliners. The A320's flight deck is equipped with Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) with side-stick controllers. The A320 features an Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitor (ECAM) which gives the flight crew information about all the systems of the aircraft. The only analogue instruments were the Radio-magnetic indicator and brake pressure indicator. From 2003, A320's feature liquid crystal display (LCD) units in the flight deck of its A318,


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: A319, A320, and A321 flight decks instead of the original cathode ray tube (CRT) displays. These include the main displays and the backup artificial horizon, which was an analog display prior to this. Airbus offers an avionics upgrade for older A320, the In-Service Enhancement Package, to keep them updated. Digital head-up displays are available. The A320 retained the "dark cockpit" (where an indicator is off when its system is running; useful for drawing attention to dysfunctions when an indicator is lit) from the A310, the first widebody designed to be operated without a flight engineer and influenced by Bernard Ziegler,


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: first Airbus CEO Henri Ziegler's son. All following Airbuses have similar human/machine interface and systems control philosophy to facilitate cross-type qualification with minimal training; for Roger Béteille, former Airbus president, this choice was one of the most difficult he had ever made. The A320 is the world's first airliner with digital fly-by-wire (FBW) flight control system: input commands through the side-stick are interpreted by flight control computers and transmitted to flight control surfaces within the flight envelope protection; in the 1980s the computer-controlled dynamic system of the Dassault Mirage 2000 fighter cross-fertilised the Airbus team which tested FBW on an


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: A300. At its introduction, fly-by-wire and flight envelope protection was a new experience for many pilots. Early A320s used the Intel 80186 and Motorola 68010. In 1988, the flight management computer contained six Intel 80286 CPUs, running in three logical pairs, with 2.5 megabytes of memory. The suppliers provide turbofan engines for the A320 series are CFM International with the CFM56, International Aero Engines offering its V2500, and Pratt & Whitney's PW6000 engines available only for the A318. The Toulouse Blagnac final assembly line builds A320s, whereas the Hamburg Finkenwerder final assembly line builds A318s, A319s, and A321s. The Airbus


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: factory in Tianjin, China assembles A319s, A320s, and A321s; A320s and A321s are also assembled at the Airbus Americas factory in Mobile, Alabama. Airbus produced 42 A320 per month in 2015, and expects to increase to 50 per month in 2017. As Airbus targets a 60 monthly global production rate by mid-2019, the Tianjin line delivered 51 in 2016 and it could assemble six per month from four as it starts producing A320neos in 2017; 147 Airbus were delivered in 2016 in China, 20% of its production, mostly A320-family, a 147/(147+165)*100round0% market share as the country should become the world's


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: largest market ahead of the USA before 2027. In June 2018, along a larger and modernised delivery centre, Airbus inaugurated its fourth Hamburg production line, with two seven-axis robots to drill 80% of fuselage upper side holes, autonomous mobile tooling platforms and following Design Thinking principles. The Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) issued the type certificate for the A320 on 26 February 1988. After entering the market in March 1988 with Air France and Ansett Australia, Airbus then expanded the A320 family rapidly, launching the 185-seat A321 in 1989 and first delivered it in 1994; launching the 124-seat A319 in 1993


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: and delivering it in 1996; and launching the 107-seat A318 in 1999 with first deliveries in 2003. The A320 family was developed to compete with the 737 Classics (-300/-400/-500) and the McDonnell Douglas MD-80/90 series, and has since faced challenges from the Boeing 737 Next Generation (-600/-700/-800/-900) and the 717 during its two decades in service. As of 2010, as well as the 737, the A320 family faces competition from Embraer's E-195 (to the A318), and the CSeries being developed by Bombardier to the A318/A319. Airbus has delivered 7,979 A320 series aircraft since their certification/first delivery in early 1988, with


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: another 6,099 on firm order (as of 31 December 2017). In comparison, Boeing has shipped 9,864 737s since late 1967, with 8,358 of those deliveries since March 1988, and has a further 4,668 on firm order (as of 31 December 2017). By September 2018, there were 7,251 A320 family ceo aircraft in service versus 6,757 737NGs, while Airbus should deliver 3,174 A320neos compared with 2,999 Boeing 737 MAX through 2022. Airbus sold well the A320 to low-cost startups and offering a choice of engines could make them more attractive to airlines and lessors than the single sourced 737, but CFM


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: engines are extremely reliable. The six month head-start of the A320neo allowed Airbus to rack up 1,000 orders before Boeing announced the MAX. The A321 has outsold the 737-900 three to one, as the A321neo is again dominating the 737-9 MAX, to be joined by the 737-10 MAX. A Checks are every 750 flight hours and structural inspections are at six- and 12-year intervals. A320-family maintenance should grow from $20.6 billion in 2018, for three quarters on A320s and A321s, to $24.5 billion in 2022. Airbus was studying a future replacement for the A320 series, tentatively dubbed "NSR", for "New


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: Short-Range aircraft". The follow-on aircraft to replace the A320 was named "A3XX". Airbus North America President Barry Eccleston states that the earliest the aircraft could be available is 2017. In January 2010, John Leahy, Airbus's chief operating officer-customers, stated that an all-new single-aisle aircraft is unlikely to be constructed before 2024/2025. The baseline A320 has given rise to a family of aircraft which share a common design but with passenger capacity ranges from 100, on the A318, to 220, on the A321. They compete with the 737, 757, and 717. Because the four variants share the same flight deck, all


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: have the same pilot type rating. Today all variants are available as corporate jets. An A319 variant known as A319LR is also developed. Military version like A319 MPA also exists. American Airlines is the world's largest airline operator of the A320 family of aircraft with 392 aircraft in service as of 30 September 2017. Technically, the name "A320" only refers to the original mid-sized aircraft, but it is often informally used to indicate any of the A318/A319/A320/A321 family. All variants are able to be ETOPS (Extended-range Twin-engine Operational Performance Standards) certified for 180 minutes since 2004 (EASA) and 2006 (FAA).


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: With launch of the new Airbus A320neo project, the previous members of the Airbus A320 family received the "current engine option" or "CEO" name. The A320 series has two variants, the "A320-100" and "A320-200". Only 21 A320-100s were produced. These aircraft, the first to be manufactured, were delivered to Air Inter – later acquired by Air France – and British Airways as a result of an order from British Caledonian made prior to its acquisition. The primary changes of the -200 over the -100 are wingtip fences and increased fuel capacity for increased range. Indian Airlines used its first 31


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: A320-200s with double-bogie main landing gear for airfields with poor runway condition which a single-bogie main gear could not manage. Powered by two CFM International CFM56-5s or IAE V2500s with thrust ratings of , its typical range with 150 passengers is 3,300 nmi / 6,100 km. A total of 4,512 of the A320ceo model have been delivered, with 220 remaining on order as of 30 September 2017. The closest Boeing competitor is the 737-800. As the A320 began operations in 1988, the A321 was launched as its first derivative. The A321 fuselage is stretched by with a front plug immediately


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: forward of wing and a rear plug. The A321-100 maximum takeoff weight is increased by to . To maintain performance, double-slotted flaps were included, in addition to increasing the wing area by , to . The maiden flight of the first of two prototypes came on 11 March 1993. The A321-100 entered service in January 1994 with Lufthansa. As the A321-100 range was reduced compared to the A320, the heavier and longer range A321-200 development was launched in 1995. This is achieved through higher thrust engines (V2533-A5 or CFM56-5B3), minor structural strengthening, and an increase in fuel capacity with the


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: installation of one or two optional tanks in the rear underfloor hold. Its fuel capacity is increased to and its maximum takeoff weight to . It first flew in December 1996 and entered service with Monarch Airlines in April 1997. Its closest Boeing competitors are the 737-900/900ER, and the 757–200. A total of 1,562 of the A321ceo model have been delivered, with 231 remaining on order as of 30 September 2017. The A319 is a shortened, minimum-change version of the A320. Also known as the A320M-7, it is shorter than the A320; four frames fore of the wing and three


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: frames aft of the wing were removed. The reduced seating reduces the emergency exits to six. With virtually the same fuel capacity as the A320-200, and fewer passengers, the range with 124 passengers in a two-class configuration extends to , or with the "Sharklets". Four propulsion options available on the A319 are the V2522-A5 and V2527M-A5 from IAE, or the CFM56-5B/A and CFM56-5B7. Although identical to those of the A320, these engines are derated because of the A319's lower MTOW. The A319 was developed at the request of Steven Udvar-Hazy, the former president and CEO of ILFC according to "The


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: New York Times". The A319's launch customer, in fact, was ILFC, which had placed an order for six A319s by 1993. Anticipating further orders by Swissair and Alitalia, Airbus decided to launch the programme on 10 June 1993. Final assembly of the first A319 began on 23 March 1995 and it was first introduced with Swissair in April 1996. The direct Boeing competitor is the Boeing 737-700. A total of 1,460 of the A319ceo model have been delivered, with 24 remaining on order as of 30 September 2017. The A319CJ (rebranded ACJ319) is the corporate jet version of the A319.


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: It incorporates removable extra fuel tanks (up to 6 Additional Center Tanks) which are installed in the cargo compartment, and an increased service ceiling of . Range with eight passengers' payload and auxiliary fuel tanks (ACTs) is up to 6,000 nautical miles (11,100 km). Upon resale, the aircraft can be reconfigured as a standard A319 by removing its extra tanks and corporate cabin outfit, thus maximising its resale value. It was formerly also known as the ACJ, or Airbus Corporate Jet, while starting with 2014 it has the marketing designation ACJ319. The aircraft seats up to 39 passengers, but may


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: be outfitted by the customers into any configuration. Tyrolean Jet Service Mfg. GmbH & CO KG, MJET and Reliance Industries are among its users. The A319CJ competes with other ultralarge-cabin corporate jets such as the Boeing 737–700-based Boeing Business Jet (BBJ) and Embraer Lineage 1000, as well as with large-cabin and ultralong-range Gulfstream G650, Gulfstream G550 and Bombardier's Global 6000. It is powered by the same engine types as the A320. The A319CJ was used by the "Escadron de Transport, d'Entraînement et de Calibration" which is in charge of transportation for France's officials and also by the Flugbereitschaft of the


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: German Air Force for transportation of Germany's officials. An ACJ serves as a presidential or official aircraft of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Brazil, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany, Italy, Malaysia, Slovakia, Thailand, Turkey, Ukraine, and Venezuela. The Airbus A318 is the smallest member of the Airbus A320 family. The A318 carries up to 132 passengers and has a maximum range of 3,100 nmi (5,700 km; 3,600 mi). The aircraft entered service in July 2003 with Frontier Airlines, and shares a common type rating with all other Airbus A320 family variants, allowing existing A320 family pilots to fly the aircraft without the need for


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: further training. It is the largest commercial aircraft certified by the European Aviation Safety Agency for steep approach operations, allowing flights at airports such as London City Airport. Relative to other Airbus A320 family variants, the A318 has sold in only small numbers with total orders for only 80 aircraft placed . A programme to convert A320 and A321 aircraft into freighters was set up by Airbus Freighter Conversion GmbH. Airframes would be converted by EADS EFW in Dresden, Germany, and Zhukovsky, Russia. The launch customer AerCap signed a firm contract on 16 July 2008 to convert 30 of AerCap's


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: passenger A320/A321s into A320/A321P2F (passenger to freighter). However, on 3 June 2011, Airbus announced all partners would end the passenger to freighter programme, citing high demand for used airframes for passenger service. On 17 June 2015, ST Aerospace, signed agreements with Airbus and EADS EFW for a collaboration to launch the A320/A321 passenger-to-freighter (P2F) conversion programme. As of 31 December 2017, 7,630 Airbus A320-family aircraft (all variants, including the A320neo family) remained in commercial service with over 330 airline operators. This includes 67 A318, 1,446 A319ceo, 4,270 A320ceo, 229 A320neo, 1,598 A321ceo and 20 A321neo aircraft. Air France, Avianca, and


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: British Airways are the only operators to operate all four variants of the A320ceo family. By December 2018, the backlog fell to 193: 14 A319s, 85 A320s and 94 A321s; as Airbus delivered 213 A320ceo variants over the first 11 months of 2018 compared to 320 A320neos variant. For the entire A320 family, 118 aviation accidents and incidents have occurred (the last one being Afriqiyah Airways Flight 209 on 23 December 2016), including 35 hull loss accidents (the last one being EgyptAir Flight 804 on 19 May 2016), and a total of 1393 fatalities (the last one aboard EgyptAir Flight


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: 804 on 19 May 2016). On 26 June 1988, Air France Flight 296 crashed into trees at the end of runway at Mulhouse-Habsheim Airport, three out of 130 passengers were killed. In February 1990 another A320, Indian Airlines Flight 605, crash landed short of the airport runway in Bangalore, the ensuing fire contributed to the casualty count of ninety-two, out of 146 on board. The press and media later questioned the fly-by-wire flight control system but subsequent investigations by commission of inquiry found "no malfunction of the aircraft or its equipment which could have contributed towards a reduction in safety


title: "Airbus A320 family" content: or an increase in the crew's workload during the final flight phase ... the response of the engines was normal and in compliance with certification requirement". It has seen fifty incidents where several flight displays were lost. Through 2015, the Airbus A320 family has experienced 0.12 fatal hull-loss accidents for every million takeoffs, and 0.26 total hull-loss accidents for every million takeoffs. Airbus A320 family The Airbus A320 family consists of short- to medium-range, narrow-body, commercial passenger twin-engine jet airliners manufactured by Airbus. The family includes the A318, A319, A320 and A321, as well as the ACJ business jet. The


title: "Old Faithful" content: Old Faithful Old Faithful is a cone geyser located in Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming, United States. It was named in 1870 during the Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition and was the first geyser in the park to receive a name. It is a highly predictable geothermal feature, and has erupted every 44 to 125 minutes since 2000. The geyser and the nearby Old Faithful Inn are part of the Old Faithful Historic District. On the afternoon of September 18, 1870, the members of the Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition traveled down the Firehole River from the Kepler Cascades and entered the Upper Geyser Basin. The


title: "Old Faithful" content: first geyser that they saw was Old Faithful. Nathaniel P. Langford wrote in his 1871 Scribner's account of the expedition: In the early days of the park, Old Faithful was often used as a laundry: More than 1,000,000 eruptions have been recorded. Harry Woodward first described a mathematical relationship between the duration and intervals of the eruptions in 1938. Old Faithful is not the tallest or largest geyser in the park; those titles belong to the less predictable Steamboat Geyser. The reliability of Old Faithful can be attributed to the fact that it is not connected to any other thermal


title: "Old Faithful" content: features of the Upper Geyser Basin. Eruptions can shoot of boiling water to a height of lasting from to 5 minutes. The average height of an eruption is . Intervals between eruptions can range from 60 to 110 minutes, averaging 66.5 minutes in 1939, slowly increasing to an average of 90 minutes apart today, which may be the result of earthquakes affecting subterranean water levels. The disruptions have made earlier mathematical relationships inaccurate, but have actually made Old Faithful more predictable in terms of its next eruption. The time between eruptions has a bimodal distribution, with the mean interval being


title: "Old Faithful" content: either 65 or 91 minutes, and is dependent on the length of the prior eruption. Within a margin of error of ±10 minutes, Old Faithful will erupt either 65 minutes after an eruption lasting less than minutes, or 91 minutes after an eruption lasting more than minutes. Between 1983 and 1994, four probes containing temperature and pressure measurement devices and video equipment were lowered into Old Faithful. The probes were lowered as deep as . Temperature measurements of the water at this depth was , the same as was measured in 1942. The video probes were lowered to a maximum


title: "Old Faithful" content: depth of to observe the conduit formation and the processes that took place in the conduit. Some of the processes observed include fog formation from the interaction of cool air from above mixing with heated air from below, the recharge processes of water entering into the conduit and expanding from below, and entry of superheated steam measuring as high as into the conduit. Old Faithful Old Faithful is a cone geyser located in Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming, United States. It was named in 1870 during the Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition and was the first geyser in the park to receive a


title: "Zhuang Zhou" content: Chuang Chou/Zhuang Zhou. In reality, it was nothing of the sort. The "Chuang-tzu" known to us today was the production of a thinker of the third century CE named Kuo Hsiang. Though Kuo was long called merely a 'commentator,' he was in reality much more: he arranged the texts and compiled the present 33-chapter edition. Regarding the identity of the original person named Chuang Chou/Zhuangzi, there is no reliable historical data at all. However, Sima Qian's biography of Zhuangzi pre-dates Guo Xiang (Kuo Hsiang) by centuries. Furthermore, the "Han Shu" "Yiwenzhi" (Monograph on literature) lists a text "Zhuangzi", showing that


title: Stalybridge content: River Trust. Stalybridge bus station is run by Transport for Greater Manchester. The majority of services that serve the bus station are run by First Greater Manchester and Stagecoach Manchester, whilst other operators include Checkmate Transport, JPT and Stotts. There are frequent buses running to Ashton-under-Lyne. Buses also run to Glossop, Hyde, Manchester, Oldham and Saddleworth. From the end of the 19th century until 1909 the main football team in the town was Stalybridge Rovers. The club reached the 1st round of the FA Cup in the 1900/1901 season and its players included Arthur Wharton and Herbert Chapman. Today the


title: "Petrol engine" content: Petrol engine A petrol engine (known as a gasoline engine in American English) is an internal combustion engine with spark-ignition, designed to run on petrol (gasoline) and similar volatile fuels. In most petrol engines, the fuel and air are usually mixed after compression (although some modern petrol engines now use cylinder-direct petrol injection). The pre-mixing was formerly done in a carburetor, but now it is done by electronically controlled fuel injection, except in small engines where the cost/complication of electronics does not justify the added engine efficiency. The process differs from a diesel engine in the method of mixing the


title: "Petrol engine" content: fuel and air, and in using spark plugs to initiate the combustion process. In a diesel engine, only air is compressed (and therefore heated), and the fuel is injected into very hot air at the end of the compression stroke, and self-ignites. The first practical petrol engine was built in 1876 in Germany by Nikolaus August Otto, although there had been earlier attempts by Étienne Lenoir, Siegfried Marcus, Julius Hock and George Brayton. With both air and fuel in a closed cylinder, compressing the mixture too much poses the danger of auto-ignition — or behaving like a diesel engine. Because


title: "Petrol engine" content: of the difference in burn rates between the two different fuels, petrol engines are mechanically designed with different timing than diesels, so to auto-ignite a petrol engine causes the expansion of gas inside the cylinder to reach its greatest point before the cylinder has reached the "top dead center" (T.D.C) position. Spark plugs are typically set statically or at idle at a minimum of 10 degrees or so of crankshaft rotation before the piston reaches T.D.C, but at much higher values at higher engine speeds to allow time for the fuel-air charge to substantially complete combustion before too much expansion


title: "Petrol engine" content: has occurred - gas expansion occurring with the piston moving down in the power stroke. Higher octane petrol burns slower, therefore it has a lower propensity to auto-ignite and its rate of expansion is lower. Thus, engines designed to run high-octane fuel exclusively can achieve higher compression ratios. Most modern automobile petrol engines generally have a compression ratio of 10.0:1 to 13.5:1. Engines with a knock sensor can and usually have C.R higher than 11.1:1 and approaches 14.0:1 (for high octane fuel and usually with direct fuel injection) and engines without a knock sensor generally have C.R of 8.0:1 to


title: "Petrol engine" content: 10.5:1. Petrol engines run at higher rotation speeds than diesels, partially due to their lighter pistons, connecting rods and crankshaft (a design efficiency made possible by lower compression ratios) and due to petrol burning more quickly than diesel. Because pistons in petrol engines tend to have much shorter strokes than pistons in diesel engines, typically it takes less time for a piston in a petrol engine to complete its stroke than a piston in a diesel engine. However the lower compression ratios of petrol engines give petrol engines lower efficiency than diesel engines. Typically, most petrol engines have approximately 20%(avg.)


title: "Petrol engine" content: thermal efficiency, which is nearly half of diesel engines. However some newer engines are reported to be much more efficient(thermal efficiency up to 38%) than previous spark-ignition engines. Petrol engines have many applications, including: Before the use of diesel engines became widespread, petrol engines were used in buses, lorries (trucks) and a few railway locomotives. Examples: Petrol engines may run on the four-stroke cycle or the two-stroke cycle. For details of working cycles see: Common cylinder arrangements are from 1 to 6 cylinders in-line or from 2 to 16 cylinders in V-formation. Flat engines – like a V design flattened


title: "Petrol engine" content: out – are common in small airplanes and motorcycles and were a hallmark of Volkswagen automobiles into the 1990s. Flat 6s are still used in many modern Porsches, as well as Subarus. Many flat engines are air-cooled. Less common, but notable in vehicles designed for high speeds is the W formation, similar to having 2 V engines side by side. Alternatives include rotary and radial engines the latter typically have 7 or 9 cylinders in a single ring, or 10 or 14 cylinders in two rings. Petrol engines may be air-cooled, with fins (to increase the surface area on the


title: "Petrol engine" content: cylinders and cylinder head); or liquid-cooled, by a water jacket and radiator. The coolant was formerly water, but is now usually a mixture of water and either ethylene glycol or propylene glycol. These mixtures have lower freezing points and higher boiling points than pure water and also prevent corrosion, with modern antifreezes also containing lubricants and other additives to protect water pump seals and bearings. The cooling system is usually slightly pressurized to further raise the boiling point of the coolant. Petrol engines use spark ignition and high voltage current for the spark may be provided by a magneto or


title: "Petrol engine" content: an ignition coil. In modern car engines the ignition timing is managed by an electronic Engine Control Unit. The most common way of engine rating is what is known as the brake power, measured at the flywheel, and given in kilowatts (metric) or horsepower (Imperial/USA). This is the actual mechanical power output of the engine in a usable and complete form. The term "brake" comes from the use of a brake in a dynamometer test to load the engine. For accuracy, it is important to understand what is meant by usable and complete. For example, for a car engine, apart


title: "Petrol engine" content: from friction and thermodynamic losses inside the engine, power is absorbed by the , alternator, and radiator fan, thus reducing the power available at the flywheel to move the car along. Power is also absorbed by the power steering pump and air conditioner (if fitted), but these are not installed for a power output test or calculation. Power output varies slightly according to the energy value of the fuel, the ambient air temperature and humidity, and the altitude. Therefore, there are agreed standards in the USA and Europe on the fuel to use when testing, and engines are rated at


title: "Petrol engine" content: (Europe), and (USA) at sea level, . Marine engines, as supplied, usually have no radiator fan, and often no alternator. In such cases the quoted power rating does not allow for losses in the radiator fan and alternator. The SAE in USA, and the ISO in Europe, publish standards on exact procedures, and how to apply corrections for non-standard conditions such as altitude above sea level. Car testers are most familiar with the chassis dynamometer or "rolling road" installed in many workshops. This measures drive wheel brake horsepower, which is generally less than the brake horsepower measured at the crankshaft


title: "Petrol engine" content: or flywheel on an engine dynamometer. A YouTube video shows workshop measurement of a car's power. The measured power curve in kW is shown at 3:39. Petrol engine A petrol engine (known as a gasoline engine in American English) is an internal combustion engine with spark-ignition, designed to run on petrol (gasoline) and similar volatile fuels. In most petrol engines, the fuel and air are usually mixed after compression (although some modern petrol engines now use cylinder-direct petrol injection). The pre-mixing was formerly done in a carburetor, but now it is done by electronically controlled fuel injection, except in small


title: "Herman Kahn" content: presented a strong case for full disarmament by suggesting that nuclear war was all but unavoidable. Others criticized Kahn vehemently, claiming that his postulating the notion of a "winnable" nuclear war made such a warwhether judged subsequently as "won", "lost", or neithermore likely. In 1961, Kahn, Max Singer and Oscar Ruebhausen founded the Hudson Institute, a policy research organization initially located in Croton-on-Hudson, New York, where Kahn was living at the time. Luminaries such as sociologist Daniel Bell, political philosopher Raymond Aron and novelist Ralph Ellison (author of the 1952 classic "Invisible Man") were recruited. Stung by the vociferousness of


title: "The Orioles" content: special "Doo Wop 51" in 2000, with the groups alternating verses on "Crying in the Chapel" (with Bobby Thomas and Larry Jordan on lead). In 2015 the musical theater production, "Soul Harmony", telling the story of Deborah Chessler, Sonny Til, and the Orioles, premiered in Portland, Oregon. The Orioles The Orioles were an American R&B group of the late 1940s and early 1950s, one of the earliest such vocal groups who established the basic pattern for the doo-wop sound. The Orioles are generally acknowledged as R&B's first vocal group. Baltimore natives, they blended rhythm with group harmonies. Dubbing themselves after


title: "Daniel Boone National Forest" content: to the beginning of the 20th century, the Daniel Boone and surrounding forest were the subject of extensive logging, with logs sent downstream for processing in the sawmills of Louisville, Nashville, Frankfort and Cincinnati, only to be overtaken as rail extended into the area around the turn of the century. The industry reached its peak in 1907, with almost one billion board feet of lumber production. The forest was additionally harvested to provide charcoal for the developing iron industry, and as the railroad advanced, to produce crossties, and lumber for the building of bridges in addition to rail cars. In


title: "Willows High School" content: rated the school as "unsatisfactory", reporting that it needed "significant improvement". The inspectors reported that, although pupils often had unsatisfactory English grammar and literacy skills, leadership was "adequate" and there were real prospects of improvement. The school has now substantially improved and according to education watchdog Estyn, is no longer a school requiring significant improvement. Willows High was featured in the Channel 4 documentary 'Educating Cardiff' in 2015. Willows High School Willows High School () is a secondary school located in the Tremorfa area of Cardiff, Wales. It caters for pupils aged 11 to 16 and is English-medium. As of


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: Phytophthora infestans Phytophthora infestans is an oomycete or water mold, a microorganism that causes the serious potato and tomato disease known as late blight or potato blight. (Early blight, caused by "Alternaria solani", is also often called "potato blight".) Late blight was a major culprit in the 1840s European, the 1845 Irish, and the 1846 Highland potato famines. The organism can also infect some other members of the Solanaceae. The pathogen is favored by moist, cool environments: sporulation is optimal at 12–18 °C in water-saturated or nearly saturated environments, and zoospore production is favored at temperatures below 15 °C. Lesion


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: growth rates are typically optimal at a slightly warmer temperature range of 20 to 24 °C. The genus name "Phytophthora" comes from the Greek -(), meaning : "plant" - plus the Greek (), meaning : "decay, ruin, perish". The species name "infestans" is the present participle of the Latin verb , meaning : "attacking, destroying", from which we get the word "to infest". The asexual life cycle of "Phytophthora infestans" is characterized by alternating phases of hyphal growth, sporulation, sporangia germination (either through zoospore release or direct germination, i.e. germ tube emergence from the sporangium), and the re-establishment of hyphal


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: growth. There is also a sexual cycle, which occurs when isolates of opposite mating type (A1 and A2) meet. Hormonal communication triggers the formation of the sexual spores, called oospores. The different types of spores play major roles in the dissemination and survival of "P. infestans." Sporangia are spread by wind or water and enable the movement of "P. infestans" between different host plants. The zoospores released from sporangia are biflagellated and chemotactic, allowing further movement of "P. infestans" on water films found on leaves or soils. Both sporangia and zoospores are short-lived, in contrast to oospores which can persist


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: in a viable form for many years. The color of potato sign is white. People can observe "Phytophthora infestans" produce sporangia and sporangiophores on the surface of potato stems and leaves. These sporangia and sporangiophores always appear on the lower surface of the foliage. As for tuber blight, the white mycelium often shows on the tubers' surface. Under ideal conditions, the life cycle can be completed on potato or tomato foliage in about five days. Sporangia develop on the leaves, spreading through the crop when temperatures are above and humidity is over 75–80% for 2 days or more. Rain can


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: wash spores into the soil where they infect young tubers, and the spores can also travel long distances on the wind. The early stages of blight are easily missed. Symptoms include the appearance of dark blotches on leaf tips and plant stems. White mold will appear under the leaves in humid conditions and the whole plant may quickly collapse. Infected tubers develop grey or dark patches that are reddish brown beneath the skin, and quickly decay to a foul-smelling mush caused by the infestation of secondary soft bacterial rots. Seemingly healthy tubers may rot later when in store. "P. infestans"


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: survives poorly in nature apart from its plant hosts. Under most conditions, the hyphae and asexual sporangia can survive for only brief periods in plant debris or soil, and are generally killed off during frosts or very warm weather. The exceptions involve oospores, and hyphae present within tubers. The persistence of viable pathogen within tubers, such as those that are left in the ground after the previous year's harvest or left in cull piles is a major problem in disease management. In particular, volunteer plants sprouting from infected tubers are thought to be a major source of inoculum at the


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: start of a growing season. This can have devastating effects by destroying entire crops. "P. infestans" is diploid, with about 11-13 chromosomes, and in 2009 scientists completed the sequencing of its genome. The genome was found to be considerably larger (240 Mbp) than that of most other "Phytophthora" species whose genomes have been sequenced; "Phytophthora sojae" has a 95 Mbp genome and "Phytophthora ramorum" had a 65 Mbp genome. About 18,000 genes were detected within the "P. infestans" genome. It also contained a diverse variety of transposons and many gene families encoding for effector proteins that are involved in causing


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: pathogenicity. These proteins are split into two main groups depending on whether they are produced by the water mould in the symplast (inside plant cells) or in the apoplast (between plant cells). Proteins produced in the symplast included RXLR proteins, which contain an arginine-X-leucine-arginine (where X can be any amino acid) sequence at the amino terminus of the protein. Some RXLR proteins are avirulence proteins, meaning that they can be detected by the plant and lead to a hypersensitive response which restricts the growth of the pathogen. "P. infestans" was found to encode around 60% more of these proteins than


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: most other "Phytophthora" species. Those found in the apoplast include hydrolytic enzymes such as proteases, lipases and glycosylases that act to degrade plant tissue, enzyme inhibitors to protect against host defence enzymes and necrotizing toxins. Overall the genome was found to have an extremely high repeat content (around 74%) and to have an unusual gene distribution in that some areas contain many genes whereas others contain very few. The highlands of central Mexico are considered by many to be the center of origin of "P. infestans", although others have proposed its origin to be in the Andes, which is also


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: the origin of potatoes. A recent study evaluated these two alternate hypotheses and found conclusive support for central Mexico being the center of origin. Support for Mexico comes from multiple observations including the fact that populations are genetically most diverse in Mexico, late blight is observed in native tuber-bearing "Solanum" species, populations of the pathogen are in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, the two mating types occur in a 1:1 ratio, and detailed phylogeographic and evolutionary studies. Furthermore, the closest relatives of "P. infestans", namely "P. mirabilis" and "P. ipomoeae" are endemic to central Mexico. On the other hand, the only close relative


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: found in South America, namely "P. andina", is a hybrid that does not share a single common ancestor with "P. infestans". Finally, populations of "P. infestans" in South America lack genetic diversity and are clonal. Migrations from Mexico to North America or Europe have occurred several times throughout history, probably linked to the movement of tubers. Until the 1970s, the A2 mating type was restricted to Mexico, but now in many regions of the world both A1 and A2 isolates can be found in the same region. The co-occurrence of the two mating types is significant due to the possibility


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: of sexual recombination and formation of oospores, which can survive the winter. Only in Mexico and Scandinavia, however, is oospore formation thought to play a role in overwintering. In other parts of Europe, increasing genetic diversity has been observed as a consequence of sexual reproduction This is notable since different forms of "P. infestans" vary in their aggressiveness on potato or tomato, in sporulation rate, and sensitivity to fungicides. Variation in such traits also occurs in North America, however importation of new genotypes from Mexico appears to be the predominant cause of genetic diversity, as opposed to sexual recombination within


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: potato or tomato fields. Many of the strains that appeared outside of Mexico since the 1980s have been more aggressive, leading to increased crop losses. Some of the differences between strains may be related to variation in the RXLR effectors that are present. "P. infestans" is still a difficult disease to control. There are many chemical options in agriculture for the control of both damage to the foliage and infections of the tuber. A few of the most common foliar-applied fungicides are Ridomil, a Gavel/SuperTin tank mix, and Previcur Flex. All of the aforementioned fungicides need to be tank mixed


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: with a broad-spectrum fungicide such as mancozeb or chlorothalonil not just for resistance management but also because the potato plants will be attacked by other pathogens at the same time. If adequate field scouting occurs and late blight is found soon after disease development, localized patches of potato plants can be killed with a desiccant (e.g. paraquat) through the use of a backpack sprayer. This management technique can be thought of as a field-scale hypersensitive response similar to what occurs in some plant-viral interactions whereby cells surrounding the initial point of infection are killed in order to prevent proliferation of


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: the pathogen. If infected tubers make it into the storage bin, there's a very high risk to the storage life of that bin. Once in storage, there isn't much that can be done besides emptying the parts of the bin that contain tubers infected with "Phytophthora infestans." To increase the probability of successfully storing potatoes from a field where late blight was known to occur during the growing season, some products can be applied just prior to entering storage (e.g. Phostrol). The problem with products being sprayed on tubers just prior to storage is that you are applying these products


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: in an aqueous solution and high moisture carries a high risk of tuber breakdown due to wide range of pathogens. Around the world the disease causes around $6 billion of damage to crops each year. Breeding for resistance, particularly in potato, has had limited success in part due to difficulties in crossing cultivated potato to its wild relatives, which are the source of potential resistance genes. In addition, most resistance genes only work against a subset of "P. infestans" isolates, since effective plant disease resistance only results when the pathogen expresses a RXLR effector gene that matches the corresponding plant


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: resistance (R) gene; effector-R gene interactions trigger a range of plant defenses, such as the production of compounds toxic to the pathogen. Potato and tomato varieties vary in their susceptibility to blight. Most early varieties are very vulnerable; they should be planted early so that the crop matures before blight starts (usually in July in the Northern Hemisphere). Many old crop varieties, such as King Edward potato are also very susceptible but are grown because they are wanted commercially. Maincrop varieties which are very slow to develop blight include Cara, Stirling, Teena, Torridon, Remarka, and Romano. Some so-called resistant varieties


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: can resist some strains of blight and not others, so their performance may vary depending on which are around. These crops have had polygenic resistance bred into them, and are known as "field resistant". New varieties such as Sarpo Mira and Sarpo Axona show great resistance to blight even in areas of heavy infestation. Defender is an American cultivar whose parentage includes Ranger Russet and Polish potatoes resistant to late blight. It is a long white-skinned cultivar with both foliar and tuber resistance to late blight. Defender was released in 2004. Genetic engineering may also provide options for generating resistance


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: cultivars. A resistance gene effective against most known strains of blight has been identified from a wild relative of the potato, "Solanum bulbocastanum", and introduced by genetic engineering into cultivated varieties of potato. This is an example of cisgenic genetic engineering. Blight can be controlled by limiting the source of inoculum. Only good-quality seed potatoes and tomatoes obtained from certified suppliers should be planted. Often discarded potatoes from the previous season and self-sown tubers can act as sources of inoculum. Compost, soil or potting medium can be heat-treated to kill oomycetes such as "Phytophthora infestans". The recommended sterilisation temperature for


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: oomycetes is for 30 minutes. There are several environmental conditions that are conducive to "P. infestans". An example of such took place in the United States during the 2009 growing season. As colder than average for the season and with greater than average rainfall, there was a major infestation of tomato plants, specifically in the eastern states. By using weather forecasting systems, such as BLITECAST, if the following conditions occur as the canopy of the crop closes, then the use of fungicides is recommended to prevent an epidemic. The Beaumont and Smith periods have traditionally been used by growers in


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: the United Kingdom, with different criteria developed by growers in other regions. The Smith period has been the preferred system used in the UK since its introduction in the 1970s. Based on these conditions and other factors, several tools have been developed to help growers manage the disease and plan fungicide applications. Often these are deployed as part of Decision support systems accessible through web sites or smart phones. Several studies have attempted to develop systems for real-time detection via flow cytometry or microscopy of airborne sporangia collected in air samplers. Whilst these methods show potential to allow detection of


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: sporangia in advance of occurrence of detectable disease symptoms on plants, and would thus be useful in enhancing existing Decision support systems, none have been commercially deployed to date. Fungicides for the control of potato blight are normally only used in a preventative manner, optionally in conjunction with disease forecasting. In susceptible varieties, sometimes fungicide applications may be needed weekly. An early spray is most effective. The choice of fungicide can depend on the nature of local strains of "P. infestans". Metalaxyl is a fungicide that was marketed for use against "P. infestans", but suffered serious resistance issues when used


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: on its own. In some regions of the world during the 1980s and 1990s, most strains of "P. infestans" became resistant to metalaxyl, but in subsequent years many populations shifted back to sensitivity. To reduce the occurrence of resistance, it is strongly advised to use single-target fungicides such as metalaxyl along with carbamate compounds. A combination of other compounds are recommended for managing metalaxyl-resistant strains. These include mandipropamid, chlorothalonil, fluazinam, triphenytin, mancozeb, and others. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency has approved oxathiapiprolin for use against late blight. In the past, copper(II) sulfate solution (called 'bluestone') was used


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: to combat potato blight. Copper pesticides remain in use on organic crops, both in the form of copper hydroxide and copper sulfate. Given the dangers of copper toxicity, other organic control options that have been shown to be effective include horticultural oils, phosphorous acids, and rhamnolipid biosurfactants, while sprays containing "beneficial" microbes such as "Bacillus subtilis" or compounds that encourage the plant to produce defensive chemicals (such as knotweed extract) have not performed as well. Ridging is often used to reduce tuber contamination by blight. This normally involves piling soil or mulch around the stems of the potato blight meaning


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: the pathogen has farther to travel to get to the tuber. Another approach is to destroy the canopy around five weeks before harvest, using a contact herbicide or sulfuric acid to burn off the foliage. Eliminating infected foliage reduces the likelihood of tuber infection. The effects of "Phytophthora infestans" in Ireland in 1845–52 were one of the factors which caused over one million to starve to death and forced another two million to emigrate from affected countries. Most commonly referenced is the Great Irish Famine, during the late 1840s. The first recorded instances of the disease were in the United


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: States, in Philadelphia and New York City in early 1843. Winds then spread the spores, and in 1845 it was found from Illinois to Nova Scotia, and from Virginia to Ontario. It crossed the Atlantic Ocean with a shipment of seed potatoes for Belgian farmers in 1845. All of the potato-growing countries in Europe were affected, but the potato blight hit Ireland the hardest. Implicated in Ireland's fate was the island's disproportionate dependency on a single variety of potato, the Irish Lumper. The lack of genetic variability created a susceptible host population for the organism. During the First World War,


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: all of the copper in Germany was used for shell casings and electric wire and therefore none was available for making copper sulfate to spray potatoes. A major late blight outbreak on potato in Germany therefore went untreated, and the resulting scarcity of potatoes led to the deaths of 700,000 German civilians from starvation. France, Canada, the United States, and the Soviet Union researched "P. infestans" as a biological weapon in the 1940s and 1950s. Potato blight was one of more than 17 agents that the United States researched as potential biological weapons before the nation suspended its biological weapons


title: "Phytophthora infestans" content: program. Whether a weapon based on the pathogen would be effective is questionable, due to the difficulties in delivering viable pathogen to an enemy's fields, and the role of uncontrollable environmental factors in spreading the disease. Phytophthora infestans Phytophthora infestans is an oomycete or water mold, a microorganism that causes the serious potato and tomato disease known as late blight or potato blight. (Early blight, caused by "Alternaria solani", is also often called "potato blight".) Late blight was a major culprit in the 1840s European, the 1845 Irish, and the 1846 Highland potato famines. The organism can also infect some


title: Bournemouth content: Augustus Granville's 1841 book, "The Spas of England". Bournemouth's growth accelerated with the arrival of the railway, and it became a town in 1870. Historically part of Hampshire, it joined Dorset with the reorganisation of local government in 1974. Since 1997, the town has been administered by a unitary authority independent of Dorset County Council, although it remains part of that ceremonial county. The local council is Bournemouth Borough Council. From 1 April 2019 it will be part of the new Bournemouth Christchurch and Poole Council. The town centre has notable Victorian architecture and the spire of St Peter's Church,


title: "Joseph Justus Scaliger" content: among his friends who erroneously believed that with the success of Henry IV learning would flourish, and Protestantism would be no barrier to his advancement. The invitation was renewed in the most flattering manner a year later; the invitation stated Scaliger would not be required to lecture, and that the university wished only for his presence, while he would be able to dispose of his own time in all respects. This offer Scaliger accepted provisionally. Midway through 1593 he set out for the Netherlands, where he would pass the remaining sixteen years of his life, never returning to France. His


title: "Fairchild Aircraft" content: Fairchild Aircraft Fairchild was an American aircraft and aerospace manufacturing company based at various times in Farmingdale, New York; Hagerstown, Maryland; and San Antonio, Texas. The company was founded by Sherman Fairchild in 1924 as Fairchild Aviation Corporation, based in Farmingdale, and East Farmingdale, New York. It was established as the parent company for Fairchild's many aviation interests. The company produced the first US aircraft to include a fully enclosed cockpit and hydraulic landing gear, the Fairchild FC-1. At some point, it was also known as the Fairchild Aircraft Manufacturing Company. The Fairchild Aircraft Ltd. of Longueuil, Quebec, Canada was


title: "Fairchild Aircraft" content: an aircraft manufacturer during the period of 1920 to 1950, which served as a subsidiary of the Fairchild company of the United States. The Fairchild Engine Company was formed with the purchase of the Caminez Engine Company in 1925. In 1929, Sherman Fairchild purchased a majority stock interest in Kreider-Reisner Aircraft Company of Hagerstown, Maryland. The company moved to Hagerstown in 1931. A series of related designs beginning with the Fairchild FC-1 and continuing to the Fairchild 71 were designed for aerial photography as a result of dissatisfaction towards available aircraft which were incapable of flying steadily enough at a


title: "Fairchild Aircraft" content: sufficient altitude. In 1935, Fairchild was hired by the US government to do aerial photograph surveys of the United States to track soil erosion and its effects. Their performance and carrying ability led to them becoming one of the most popular bushplanes of the era. A Fairchild 71 monoplane, the "Virginia", was taken as one of three aircraft by Richard E. Byrd on his 1928–1929 expedition to the South Pole. It was used for test flights and reconnaissance. During World War II, Fairchild produced PT-19/PT-23/PT-26 (Cornell) and AT-21 Gunner trainers, C-82 Packet transports and drones. The Fairchild AT-21 Gunner, a


title: "Fairchild Aircraft" content: twin-engine trainer, was manufactured at a former rayon mill in Burlington, North Carolina. Also large numbers of the Fairchild 24 (C-61/Argus) were produced for the military (principally as the Argus for the Royal Air Force), and continued production after the war for the civilian market. Fairchild ranked 73rd among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts. The Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcar was a US military transport aircraft developed from the World War II C-82 Packet. The C-119 could carry cargo, personnel, stretcher patients and mechanized equipment with the ability to make "paradrops" of cargo


title: "Fairchild Aircraft" content: and troops. The first C-119 made its initial flight in November 1947, and by the time production ceased in 1955, more than 1,100 C-119s had been built for use in the USAF, the Royal Canadian Air Force and others. Many were converted into waterbombers after being retired from military service. In 1949 the Hagerstown, Maryland Fairchild Engine and Airplane Corporation developed the Chase XCG-20 glider into the C-123 Provider transport which entered service in 1955. In 1954 Fairchild purchased the American Helicopter Company, incorporating it and the XH-26 Jet Jeep as a division. In 1956, the company acquired rights to


title: "Fairchild Aircraft" content: the Fokker Friendship, producing 206 of the aircraft as the Fairchild F-27 and Fairchild Hiller FH-227. During the 1950s, Fairchild was a large subcontractor to Boeing for B-52 fuselage sections and wing panels. Later they would build McDonnell-Douglas F-4 Phantom II tail sections, Grumman F-14 Tomcat tails, and Space Shuttle stabilizers. Their association with Boeing would continue into the 1980s as they built wing control surfaces for 747s and 757s. In 1964, the company purchased Hiller Aircraft, changing its name to Fairchild Hiller and producing the FH-1100, until 1973 when the helicopter division was sold back to Stanley Hiller. In


title: "Fairchild Aircraft" content: 1965, the company acquired the Republic Aviation Company. Following the death of its founder, Fairchild changed its name to Fairchild Industries in 1971, before purchasing Swearingen and manufacturing the Fairchild Swearingen Metroliner, a successful commuter aircraft which gained orders from the US military as the C-26 Metroliner. In 1971 the company began developing the Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II which prevailed over the rival Northrop YA-9 in the A-X competition for an eventual production run of 716 aircraft. The company developed the T-46 jet trainer to replace the elderly Cessna T-37 Tweet trainer, but it was not accepted by the


title: "Fairchild Aircraft" content: Air Force because of performance problems. Aircraft production was ended in Hagerstown, Maryland in 1984. After the company's takeover of Dornier's civil assets in 1996, the company was renamed Fairchild Dornier. The company commenced production of the Dornier 328 in 1998 under license from DASA. In December 1999, Fairchild Aerospace Corporation was acquired by German insurer Allianz A.G. and the United States investment group Clayton, Dubilier & Rice Inc. for $1.2 billion. In 2003, the assets of Fairchild were purchased by M7 Aerospace and the new company was relocated to San Antonio. On December 15, 2010, M7 was purchased by


title: "Fairchild Aircraft" content: the United States subsidiary of the Israeli defense contractor Elbit Systems. Fairchild Aircraft Fairchild was an American aircraft and aerospace manufacturing company based at various times in Farmingdale, New York; Hagerstown, Maryland; and San Antonio, Texas. The company was founded by Sherman Fairchild in 1924 as Fairchild Aviation Corporation, based in Farmingdale, and East Farmingdale, New York. It was established as the parent company for Fairchild's many aviation interests. The company produced the first US aircraft to include a fully enclosed cockpit and hydraulic landing gear, the Fairchild FC-1. At some point, it was also known as the Fairchild Aircraft


title: "Slavoj Žižek" content: assistant researcher with the promise of tenure, but was dismissed after his Master's thesis was denounced by the authorities of being "non-Marxist". He graduated from the University of Ljubljana in 1981 with a Doctor of Arts in Philosophy for his dissertation entitled "The Theoretical and Practical Relevance of French Structuralism". He spent the next few years undertaking national service in the Yugoslav army in Karlovac. During the 1980s, Žižek edited and translated Jacques Lacan, Sigmund Freud, and Louis Althusser. He used Jacques Lacan's work to interpret Hegelian and Marxist philosophy. In 1985, Žižek completed a second doctorate (Doctor of Philosophy


title: "Henry II of Castile" content: Castilian forces (supported by French mercenaries under Bertrand du Guesclin). Pedro then defeated Henry in the Battle of Nájera, but Henry escaped and returned to France under the protection of Charles V of France. King Pedro and Prince Edward parted ways over the funding of the expedition, and the Black Prince returned to Bordeaux, having contracted an illness on this expedition that would ail him until his death in 1376. They reorganised their army at Peyrepertuse Castle. Then, with the help of many Castilian rebels and Bertrand du Guesclin's Frenchmen, they defeated Pedro at the Battle of Montiel on 14


title: "Jerry Jones" content: built a team that is often reckoned to be the best NFL franchise of the 1990s. The Cowboys won Super Bowl XXVII in the 1992 season, as well as Super Bowl XXVIII the following year in the 1993 season. Johnson then departed and was replaced by Barry Switzer, who also went on to win Super Bowl XXX in the 1995 season. At the time of the sale, the financially troubled Bright claimed to be losing $1 million per month on the franchise. During Jones' tenure, the Cowboys have appreciated in value to an estimated $4.2 billion, turning their owner into


title: "Academic degree" content: Czech Republic implemented Bologna process so there are basically three degrees: Bachelor (3 years), Master (2 years after Bachelor) and Doctor (3 years after Master). There are also voluntary academic titles called "small doctorates" (e. g. RNDr. for natural sciences, PhDr. for philosophy, JUDr. for law etc.) achieved after rigorosum exam. Medical students don't get bachelor's or master's degrees, instead they study six years and after obligatory rigorosum exam they get title MUDr. or MDDr. for dentists or MVDr. for veterinary physicians. They can also get "big doctorate" (Ph.D.) after another three years of studies. Bachelor's degrees, master's degrees and


title: "I, Claudius" content: Claudius was a trained historian and is known to have written an autobiography (now lost) in eight books that covered the same period. "I, Claudius" is a first-person narrative of Roman history from the reigns of Augustus to Caligula; "Claudius the God" is written as a later addition documenting Claudius' own reign. Graves provides a theme for the story by having the fictional Claudius describe a visit to Cumae, where he receives a prophecy in verse from the Sibyl and an additional prophecy contained in a book of "Sibylline Curiosities". The latter concerns the fates of the "hairy ones" (i.e.


title: "Asclepias tuberosa" content: Asclepias tuberosa Asclepias tuberosa is a species of milkweed native to eastern North America. It is a perennial plant growing to tall, with clustered orange or yellow flowers from early summer to early autumn. The leaves are spirally arranged, lanceolate, 5–12 cm long, and 2–3 cm broad. This plant favors dry, sand or gravel soil, but has also been reported on stream margins. It requires full sun. It is commonly known as butterfly weed because of the butterflies that are attracted to the plant by its color and its copious production of nectar. It is also the larval food plant


title: "Asclepias tuberosa" content: of the queen and monarch butterflies. Hummingbirds, bees and other insects are also attracted. Use of the plant is contraindicated in pregnancy, during lactation or with infants due to the small amount of cardiac glycosides. The plant looks similar to the lanceolate milkweed ("Asclepias lanceolata"), but is uniquely identified by the larger number of flowers, and the hairy stems that are not milky when broken. It is most commonly found in fields with dry soil. Most easily propagated by seed. Sown outdoors after frost, a plant will flower and produce seed in the third year. Difficult to transplant once established.


title: "Asclepias tuberosa" content: Common names include butterfly weed, Canada root, chieger flower, chiggerflower, fluxroot, Indian paintbrush, Indian posy, orange milkweed, orange root, orange Swallow-wort, pleurisy root, silky swallow-wort, tuber root, yellow milkweed, white-root, windroot, butterfly love, butterflyweed, and butterfly milkweed. Asclepias tuberosa Asclepias tuberosa is a species of milkweed native to eastern North America. It is a perennial plant growing to tall, with clustered orange or yellow flowers from early summer to early autumn. The leaves are spirally arranged, lanceolate, 5–12 cm long, and 2–3 cm broad. This plant favors dry, sand or gravel soil, but has also been reported on stream margins.


title: Palmistry content: his sobriquet, Cheiro. After studying under gurus in India, he set up a palmistry practice in London and enjoyed a wide following of famous clients from around the world, including famous celebrities like Mark Twain, W. T. Stead, Sarah Bernhardt, Mata Hari, Oscar Wilde, Grover Cleveland, Thomas Edison, the Prince of Wales, General Kitchener, William Ewart Gladstone, and Joseph Chamberlain. So popular was Cheiro as a "society palmist" that even those who were not believers in the occult had their hands read by him. The skeptical Mark Twain wrote in Cheiro's visitor's book that he had "…exposed my character to


title: "Non-commissioned officer" content: grades of petty officer. There are different classes of non-commissioned officer, including junior non-commissioned officers (JNCO) and senior (or staff) non-commissioned officers (SNCO). The non-commissioned officer corps is often referred to as "the backbone" of the armed services, as they are the primary and most visible leaders for most military personnel. Additionally, they are the leaders primarily responsible for executing a military organization's mission and for training military personnel so they are prepared to execute their missions. NCO training and education typically includes leadership and management as well as service-specific and combat training. Senior NCOs are considered the primary link


title: "Ryan Adams" content: Ryan Adams David Ryan Adams (born November 5, 1974) is an American singer-songwriter, musician, multi-instrumentalist, record producer and poet. He is best known for his solo career, during which he has released sixteen albums, and as a former member of rock/alternative country band Whiskeytown, with whom he recorded three studio albums. In 2000, Adams left Whiskeytown and released his debut solo album, "Heartbreaker", to critical acclaim. The album was nominated for the Shortlist Music Prize. The following year, his profile increased with the release of the UK certified-gold "Gold", which included the hit single, "New York, New York". During this


title: "Canned Heat" content: Parra also recorded a sequel live album in Australia entitled "Burnin' Live". The lineup dissolved in the early 1990s as Junior Watson went his own way and Mandel came back into the fold, bringing along Ron Shumake on bass to take some of the load off of Larry Taylor. Mandel, however, left the band after a few tours, so female singer and guitarist Becky Barksdale was brought in for a tour of France, Germany and Hawaii; but lasted no longer. Smokey Hormel was also considered, but only played one gig before friction between de la Parra and Larry Taylor caused


title: "National Mall" content: National Mall The National Mall is a landscaped park within the National Mall and Memorial Parks, an official unit of the United States National Park System. It is located near the downtown area of Washington, D.C., the capital city of the United States, and is administered by the National Park Service (NPS) of the United States Department of the Interior. The term "National Mall" commonly includes areas that are also officially part of neighboring West Potomac Park and Constitution Gardens to the southwest. The term is often taken to refer to the entire area between the Lincoln Memorial on the


title: "National Mall" content: west and east to the United States Capitol grounds, with the Washington Monument dividing the area slightly west of its midpoint. A smaller designation sometimes referred to as the "National Mall (proper)" excludes both the Capitol grounds and the Washington Monument grounds, applying only to an area between them. The National Mall contains and borders a number of museums of the Smithsonian Institution, art galleries, cultural institutions, and various memorials, sculptures, and statues. The park receives approximately 24 million visitors each year. In his 1791 plan for the future city of Washington, D.C., Pierre (Peter) Charles L'Enfant envisioned a garden-lined


title: "National Mall" content: "grand avenue" approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) in length and wide, in an area that would lie between the Congress House (now the Capitol Building) and an equestrian statue of George Washington. The statue would be placed directly south of the President's House (now the White House) (see L'Enfant Plan). The National Mall (proper) occupies the site of this planned "grand avenue", which was never constructed. Mathew Carey's 1802 map is reported to be the first to name the area west of the United States Capitol as the "Mall". The Washington City Canal, completed in 1815 in accordance with the


title: "National Mall" content: L'Enfant Plan, travelled along the former course of Tiber Creek to the Potomac River along the present line of Constitution Avenue, NW (formerly B Street, NW) and south around the base of a hill containing the Congress House, thus defining the northern and eastern boundaries of the Mall. Being shallow and often obstructed by silt, the canal served only a limited role and became an open sewer that poured sediment and waste into the Potomac River's flats and shipping channel. The portion of the canal that traveled near the Mall was covered over in 1871 for sanitary reasons. Some consider


title: "National Mall" content: a lockkeeper's house constructed in 1837 near the western end of the Washington City Canal for an eastward extension of the Chesapeake & Ohio Canal to be the oldest building still standing on the National Mall. The structure, which is located near the southwestern corner of 17th Street, NW and Constitution Avenue, NW is west of the National Mall (proper). The Smithsonian Institution Building ("The Castle"), constructed from 1847 to 1855, is the oldest building now present on the National Mall (proper). The Washington Monument, whose construction began in 1848, stands near the planned site of its namesake's equestrian statue.


title: "National Mall" content: During the early 1850s, architect and horticulturist Andrew Jackson Downing designed a landscape plan for the Mall. Over the next half century, federal agencies developed several naturalistic parks within the Mall in accordance with Downing's plan. Two such areas were Henry Park and Seaton Park. During that period, the Mall was subdivided into several areas along B Street NW: In 1856, the Armory (No. 27 on the map above) was built at the intersection of B Street SW and 6th Street SW on the Armory Grounds. In 1862, during the American Civil War, the building was converted to a military


title: "National Mall" content: hospital known as Armory Square Hospital to house Union Army casualties. After the war ended, the Armory building became the home of the United States Fish Commission. The United States Congress established the United States Department of Agriculture in 1862 during the Civil War. Designed by Adolf Cluss and Joseph von Kammerhueber, the United States Department of Agriculture Building (No. 25 on the map), was constructed in 1867–1868 on a 35-acre site on the Mall. After the war ended, the Department started growing experimental crops and demonstration gardens on the Mall. These gardens extended from the Department's building on the


title: "National Mall" content: south side of the Mall to B Street NW (the northern boundary of the Mall). The building was razed in 1930. In addition, greenhouses belonging to the U.S. Botanical Garden (No. 16 on the map) appeared near the east end of the Mall between the Washington City Canal and the Capitol (later between 1st and 3rd Streets). Originating during the early 1800s as a collection of market stalls immediately north of the Washington City Canal and the Mall, the Center Market (No. 19 on the map), which Adolf Cluss also designed, opened in 1872 soon after the canal closed. Located


title: "National Mall" content: on the north side of Constitution Avenue NW (formerly B Street NW), the National Archives now occupies the Market's site. During that period, railroad tracks crossed the Mall on 6th Street, west of the Capitol. Near the tracks, several structures were built over the years. The Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station (B on the map) rose in 1873 on the north side of the Mall at the southwest corner of 6th Street and B Street NW (now the site of the west building of the National Gallery of Art). In 1887, the Army Medical Museum and Library, which Adolph Class


title: "National Mall" content: designed in 1885, opened on the Mall at northwest corner of B Street SW (now Independence Avenue SW) and 7th Street SW. The Smithsonian Institution's Hirshhorn Museum now occupies the site of the building, which was demolished in 1968. Meanwhile, in order to clean up the Potomac Flats and to make the Potomac River more navigable, in 1882 Congress authorized the Army Corps of Engineers to dredge the river. The Corps used the sediment removed from the shipping channel to fill in the flats. The work started in 1882 and continued until 1911, creating 628 new acres of land. Part


title: "National Mall" content: of the new land, which become West Potomac Park, expanded the Mall southward and westward (see 1893 map above). In 1902, the McMillan Commission's plan, which was partially inspired by the City Beautiful Movement and which purportedly extended L'Enfant's plan, called for a radical redesign of the Mall that would replace its greenhouses, gardens, trees, and commercial/industrial facilities with an open space. The plan differed from L'Enfant's by replacing the wide "grand avenue" with a wide vista containing a long and broad expanse of grass. Four rows of American elm (Ulmus americana) trees planted fifty feet apart between two paths