title: "Bell Tower of Xi'an" content: The height is 2.45 meters, the weight is 6.5 tons, and the outer diameter of the bell skirt is 1.65 meters. The ornamentation and inscription resemble the original clock, and the sound quality is bright and majestic. The west wall of the first floor hall of Xi'an Bell Tower is inlaid with three inscriptions. The first one is the inscription on the inscription after the Xi'an Municipal People's Government renovated the clock tower in 1953. The second one is the Shaanxi governor Zhang Yishu after the five-year major overhaul of Qing Emperor Qianlong. The "" monument was written; the third


title: "Bell Tower of Xi'an" content: is the "" monument written by the Shaanxi Provincial Supervision Officer Gong Yuxian. On the second floor of Xi'an Bell Tower, there is a couplet on each side of the doorpost, and they are all made today. There are several legends regarding the Bell Tower, one of them tells: According to another legend: Bell Tower of Xi'an The Bell Tower of Xi'an (), built in 1384 during the early Ming Dynasty, is a symbol of the city of Xi'an and one of the grandest of its kind in China. The Bell Tower also contains several large bronze-cast bells from the


title: "When the World Comes Down" content: in Burbank, California. Despite the album being initially planned for release in mid-September 2008, recording was not completed until September 18. In an interview with "She Knows Entertainment", Ritter commented "I think "When the World Comes Down" has been a journey. I was twenty-three when I started writing this record. I'm twenty-four now... people say when you graduate college you figure out who you are. If I had graduated college, this would be that moment – now. I think I was most questioning life when I was getting off the road with "Move Along" and this record was therapy for


title: "Transportation in Doha" content: extend from Lusail City, through Rainbow roundabout, the Qatar Sports Club roundabout, and the fire department roundabout. Doha is linked to the country's western settlements, namely Dukhan, through Dukhan Highway. The Public Works Authority carried out the Dukhan Highway Central Project in 2017 to enhance the road network. The Salwa Highway project's first phase has been completed. This phase involved the expansion of the highway, which connects Doha to the southwestern town of Salwa on the Saudi Arabian border, into a four-lane highway with grade separated interchanges. The rest of Salwa Road is expected to be expanded and upgraded, from


title: "Rodney Hallworth" content: Rodney Hallworth Rodney Hallworth (1929–1985) was a British crime journalist and publicist. He was born in Stockport and died in Newton Abbot, Devon, England. Hallworth worked as a crime reporter for the "Daily Mail". He reported on many cases but most famously on that of suspected serial killer Dr John Bodkin Adams in 1956. Hallworth was very close to the main investigating officer, Herbert Hannam, and twice during the investigation he himself was investigated: once for being discovered with a memorandum alleging a homosexual link between Adams, a local magistrate (Sir Roland Gwynne) and a local policeman; and a second


title: "Daniel Mongrain" content: the musical Dracula - Entre l'amour et la mort among others and played with more than 80 different formations, bands in all kinds of genre from Blues to rock to hip-hop to prog to metal etc. His latest cover band project is a tribute band to progressive music from the 1970s called Jurassik Rock. Dan Mongrain has a bachelor's degree in Jazz-Interpretation at University of Montreal and teaches jazz and pop guitar and theory courses at the Cégep régional de Lanaudière, Joliette Campus. Mongrain is vegetarian. Daniel Mongrain Dan Mongrain (also known as Daniel Mongrain and Chewy) is a co-founder


title: JW3 content: on books related to the community, with guest author appearances, and debates on topics such as "Has the Left Lost its Way?". Social action events have included Mitzvah Day and an initiative in 2007 to bring Jewish and Muslim communities together. In November 2014 JW3 launched the first ever UK Jewish Comedy Festival, an annual festival celebrating the best in Jewish comedy. Guests have included Ruby Wax, David Baddiel and Stephen Tobolowsky. In March 2017, JW3 ran a programme of LGBTQ+ related events to mark the 50th anniversary of the Sexual Offences Act (which effectively decriminalised homosexuality in England and


title: "Samuel Beckett Bridge" content: Samuel Beckett Bridge Samuel Beckett Bridge () is a cable-stayed bridge in Dublin that joins Sir John Rogerson's Quay on the south side of the River Liffey to Guild Street and North Wall Quay in the Docklands area. Architect Santiago Calatrava, was the lead designer of the Samuel Beckett Bridge. He was assisted with the civil and structural aspects of the design by Roughan & O'Donovan consulting engineers. This was the second bridge in the area designed by Calatrava, the first being the James Joyce Bridge, which is further upstream. Constructed by a "Graham Hollandia Joint Venture", the main span


title: "Samuel Beckett Bridge" content: of the Samuel Beckett Bridge is supported by 31 cable stays from a doubly back-stayed single forward arc tubular tapered spar, with decking provided for four traffic and two pedestrian lanes. It is also capable of opening through an angle of 90 degrees allowing ships to pass through. This is achieved through a rotational mechanism housed in the base of the pylon. The shape of the spar and its cables is said to evoke an image of a harp lying on its edge. (The harp being the national symbol for Ireland from as early as the thirteenth century). The steel


title: "Samuel Beckett Bridge" content: structure of the bridge was constructed in Rotterdam by Hollandia, a Dutch company also responsible for the steel fabrication of the London Eye. The steel span of the bridge was transferred from the Hollandia wharf in Krimpen aan den IJssel on 3 May 2009, with support from specialist transport company ALE Heavylift. The bridge, which cost €60 million, is named for Irish writer Samuel Beckett, was officially opened to pedestrians on 10 December 2009 by Dublin Lord Mayor, Emer Costello and to road traffic at 7 am the following day. The bridge won Engineers Ireland’s 'Engineering Project of the Year'


title: "Samuel Beckett Bridge" content: in 2010. Commentators criticised traffic management restrictions in place around the bridge, saying that with certain turns onto the bridge being blocked, traffic would be diverted into the city centre undermining the bridge's purpose of reducing traffic on the downstream bridges. Unhappiness was also expressed over the fact that these restrictions would force drivers to use the East-Link Toll Bridge. Dublin City Council replied that these restrictions were mandated by An Bord Pleanála to prevent users of the East-Link bridge (outside the city) from coming into the city. At the time of opening, there was also criticism that no bus


title: "Samuel Beckett Bridge" content: services had plans to use the bridge. Samuel Beckett Bridge Samuel Beckett Bridge () is a cable-stayed bridge in Dublin that joins Sir John Rogerson's Quay on the south side of the River Liffey to Guild Street and North Wall Quay in the Docklands area. Architect Santiago Calatrava, was the lead designer of the Samuel Beckett Bridge. He was assisted with the civil and structural aspects of the design by Roughan & O'Donovan consulting engineers. This was the second bridge in the area designed by Calatrava, the first being the James Joyce Bridge, which is further upstream. Constructed by a


title: "Lidewij Edelkoort" content: Edelkoort also received an Honorary Degree of Doctor of Art from the United Kingdom's Nottingham Trent University, at the university's awards ceremony on 15 July 2008. More recently, on 26 November 2012, she received an award for her oeuvre of work from the Dutch foundation Prins Bernhard Cultuurfonds. She lives in Paris. Lidewij Edelkoort Lidewij Edelkoort, often called Li, (born 1950, Wageningen) is a Dutch trend forecaster, someone who anticipates future fashion and design trends. Edelkoort began her career as a fashion coordinator at the Amsterdam department store De Bijenkorf. After finishing her degree at ArtEZ, in 1975 she relocated


title: "Myriam Soumaré" content: in three events - the 100 metres, 200 metres and 4 x 100 metres relay. She was eliminated in the semi-finals of the 100 and 200 metres events. Her 4 x 100 metres relay team finished in fourth place in the final. Soumaré represented France in three events at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London: 100m, 200m and 4 x 100m relay. She finished seventh in the 200m final in a time of 22.63 sec. She achieved the 11th fastest time in the 100m semi-finals and thus did not qualify for the final. In the first round heats of the


title: "Mamed Khalidov" content: 7th card against Sengoku middleweight champion Jorge Santiago. Although, the fight was not a title bout, Khalidov defeated Santiago via first-round TKO. A rematch of the bout was held at World Victory Road Presents: Sengoku Raiden Championships 12 on March 7, 2010 for the Middleweight Championship, which Khalidov lost via controversial unanimous decision. At KSW XIII Mamed fought Ryuta Sakurai to a draw. Sakurai secured a kimura early in the first round, but Khalidov escaped. During the rest of the fight he had 6 submission attempts including 4 guillotine chokes, 1 ankle lock and 1 heel hook, but couldn't force


title: "2006 Pacific hurricane season" content: its peak of 40 mph (65 km/h). Rosa remained a tropical storm for only 18 hours, becoming a tropical depression early on November 10 and dissipating later that day. Rosa was the first tropical storm in the basin to develop during November since 2000, and was also the first tropical depression to form in the month since 2002's Tropical Depression Sixteen-E. No impact was reported from the storm. A tropical wave moved off the western coast of Africa on October 21, briefly developing two weak low pressure areas before the wave crossed into the Pacific Ocean on November 1. Thunderstorm


title: "Hungarian Turanism" content: of Magyars in Turkestan, amongst the Uyghurs. Before the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin, the Hungarians were semi-nomadic and their culture was similar to other steppe peoples. Most scientists presume a Uralic homeland for the ancient Hungarian conquerors (mainly on genealogical linguistic grounds, and on the basis of genetic research carried out on a limited number of ancient skeletons found in graves from the age of the conquest). The proto-Hungarian tribes lived in the Eurasian forest steppe zone, and so these ancient ancestors of Hungarians and their relationship with other equestrian nomadic peoples has been and still is a


title: "Phragmatobia fuliginosa" content: Phragmatobia fuliginosa Phragmatobia fuliginosa, the ruby tiger, is a moth of the family Erebidae. Subspecies include: "Phragmatobia fuliginosa" can be found in the Palearctic ecozone. It is present in most of Europe, in North Africa, Russia, Central Asia, Tibet and in northern areas of North America. This species inhabits moist open forest and meadow areas, mixed hardwood forests at low elevations, open meadows or prairies and in agricultural areas at low elevations. It is common on low-growing plants, on high-roads, railway embankments and waste fields. On warm days in the winter the larvae sometimes leave their hiding-places and are then


title: "Phragmatobia fuliginosa" content: found on fieldpaths and roads, running about quickly. "Phragmatobia fuliginosa" has a wingspan of 35–45 mm. The ruby tiger has the thorax and forewings dark reddish brown with a blackish comma-shaped spot at the apex of the cell, edged with carmine. Hindwings are carmine, more or less hyaline in the costal area, with more or less confluent black spots before the margin and at the apex of the cell. The name-typical form ""Phragmatobia fuliginosa" L. has the forewing rather densely scaled and the hindwing bright rose-red with distinct black spots. Underside strongly suffused with purple-pink. The eggs are reddish grey.


title: "Phragmatobia fuliginosa" content: The larva is light or dark grey with a black brown head. The entire body is covered with foxy red hairs. These hairs are always more black brown in "placida", and sometimes so in "fuliginosa". The pupa is black with the abdomen marked with yellow in the segmental incision. "Phragmatobia fuliginosa borealis" has vivid black markings and the red is confined to the sides of the abdomen and the anal part of the hindwing. "Phragmatobia fuliginosa ab. subnigra" Mill., that has very dark forewings, must not be confused with the northern form; it is scarcely darker than true "fuliginosa", and


title: "Phragmatobia fuliginosa" content: not so strongly hyaline as "borealis". In "Phragmatobia fuliginosa" ab. "flavescens" Schultz the abdomen and hindwing are yellow instead of red. The full species "Phragmatobia amurensis" Seitz, 1910 is a form of the same size as "Phragmatobia fervida", but is in colour it is almost exactly like "fuliginosa", the forewing however being broader. "Phragmatobia pulverulenta" Alph. is a transition to "fervida", the forewing being lighter than in "fuliginosa", more yellowish brown,and the hindwing lighter and clearer, more flesh-colour, and with well-defined marginal spots. "Phragmatobia fuliginosa fervida" Stgr., from Turkestan and northern China, is the largest and lightest form. The forewings


title: "Phragmatobia fuliginosa" content: are strongly tinged with yellowish red, and therefore almost the same colour as the hindwings, the latter bear strongly reduced dots. "Phragmatobia placida" Friv., from South-East Europe, Asia, Minor and Turkestan, is a very large form, usually regarded as a separate species ["Phragmatobia placida" (Frivaldszky, 1835)], with the forewing more triangular and uniformly dark brown, and the hindwing pure light pink spotted with black. The forewing bears a carmine dot at the upper angle of the cell. The moth flies from May to August depending on the location. It is double-brooded in the south of England, flying in April to


title: "Phragmatobia fuliginosa" content: June, and again in August and September. In the north it is an univoltine species, with just one generation in June. The caterpillars are polyphagous, feeding on various plants, mainly "Rubus fruticosus", "Prunus spinosa", "Filipendula ulmaria", "Plantago lanceolata", "Senecio jacobaea", "Salix repens", "Salix starkeana", "Salix phylicifolia", "Polygonum" spp., "Rumex crispus", "Potentilla erecta", "Rubus idaeus", "Trifolium" spp., "Chamaenerion angustifolium", "Calluna vulgaris", "Vaccinium myrtillus", "Vaccinium uliginosum", "Andromeda polifolia", "Plantago major", "Taraxacum vulgare" and "Taraxacum officinale". Phragmatobia fuliginosa Phragmatobia fuliginosa, the ruby tiger, is a moth of the family Erebidae. Subspecies include: "Phragmatobia fuliginosa" can be found in the Palearctic ecozone. It is


title: Fungus content: Fungus A fungus (plural: fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, fungi, which is separate from the other eukaryotic life kingdoms of plants and animals. A characteristic that places fungi in a different kingdom from plants, bacteria, and some protists is chitin in their cell walls. Similar to animals, fungi are heterotrophs; they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, typically by secreting digestive enzymes into their environment. Fungi do not photosynthesise. Growth


title: Fungus content: is their means of mobility, except for spores (a few of which are flagellated), which may travel through the air or water. Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems. These and other differences place fungi in a single group of related organisms, named the "Eumycota" ("true fungi" or "Eumycetes"), which share a common ancestor (form a "monophyletic group"), an interpretation that is also strongly supported by molecular phylogenetics. This fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar myxomycetes (slime molds) and oomycetes (water molds). The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology (from


title: Fungus content: the Greek μύκης "mykes", mushroom). In the past, mycology was regarded as a branch of botany, although it is now known fungi are genetically more closely related to animals than to plants. Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous because of the small size of their structures, and their cryptic lifestyles in soil or on dead matter. Fungi include symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi and also parasites. They may become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or as molds. Fungi perform an essential role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and exchange


title: Fungus content: in the environment. They have long been used as a direct source of human food, in the form of mushrooms and truffles; as a leavening agent for bread; and in the fermentation of various food products, such as wine, beer, and soy sauce. Since the 1940s, fungi have been used for the production of antibiotics, and, more recently, various enzymes produced by fungi are used industrially and in detergents. Fungi are also used as biological pesticides to control weeds, plant diseases and insect pests. Many species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins, such as alkaloids and polyketides, that are toxic to


title: Fungus content: animals including humans. The fruiting structures of a few species contain psychotropic compounds and are consumed recreationally or in traditional spiritual ceremonies. Fungi can break down manufactured materials and buildings, and become significant pathogens of humans and other animals. Losses of crops due to fungal diseases (e.g., rice blast disease) or food spoilage can have a large impact on human food supplies and local economies. The fungus kingdom encompasses an enormous diversity of taxa with varied ecologies, life cycle strategies, and morphologies ranging from unicellular aquatic chytrids to large mushrooms. However, little is known of the true biodiversity of Kingdom


title: Fungus content: Fungi, which has been estimated at 2.2 million to 3.8 million species. Of these, only about 120,000 have been described, with over 8,000 species known to be detrimental to plants and at least 300 that can be pathogenic to humans. Ever since the pioneering 18th and 19th century taxonomical works of Carl Linnaeus, Christian Hendrik Persoon, and Elias Magnus Fries, fungi have been classified according to their morphology (e.g., characteristics such as spore color or microscopic features) or physiology. Advances in molecular genetics have opened the way for DNA analysis to be incorporated into taxonomy, which has sometimes challenged the


title: Fungus content: historical groupings based on morphology and other traits. Phylogenetic studies published in the last decade have helped reshape the classification within Kingdom Fungi, which is divided into one subkingdom, seven phyla, and ten subphyla. The English word "fungus" is directly adopted from the Latin "fungus" (mushroom), used in the writings of Horace and Pliny. This in turn is derived from the Greek word "sphongos" (σφόγγος "sponge"), which refers to the macroscopic structures and morphology of mushrooms and molds; the root is also used in other languages, such as the German "Schwamm" ("sponge") and "Schimmel" ("mold"). The use of the word


title: Fungus content: "mycology", which is derived from the Greek "mykes" (μύκης "mushroom") and "logos" (λόγος "discourse"), to denote the scientific study of fungi is thought to have originated in 1836 with English naturalist Miles Joseph Berkeley's publication "The English Flora of Sir James Edward Smith, Vol. 5." A group of all the fungi present in a particular area or geographic region is known as mycobiota (plural noun, no singular), e.g., "the mycobiota of Ireland". Before the introduction of molecular methods for phylogenetic analysis, taxonomists considered fungi to be members of the plant kingdom because of similarities in lifestyle: both fungi and plants


title: Fungus content: are mainly immobile, and have similarities in general morphology and growth habitat. Like plants, fungi often grow in soil and, in the case of mushrooms, form conspicuous fruit bodies, which sometimes resemble plants such as mosses. The fungi are now considered a separate kingdom, distinct from both plants and animals, from which they appear to have diverged around one billion years ago (around the start of the Neoproterozoic Era). Some morphological, biochemical, and genetic features are shared with other organisms, while others are unique to the fungi, clearly separating them from the other kingdoms: Shared features: Unique features: Most fungi


title: Fungus content: lack an efficient system for the long-distance transport of water and nutrients, such as the xylem and phloem in many plants. To overcome this limitation, some fungi, such as "Armillaria", form rhizomorphs, which resemble and perform functions similar to the roots of plants. As eukaryotes, fungi possess a biosynthetic pathway for producing terpenes that uses mevalonic acid and pyrophosphate as chemical building blocks. Plants and some other organisms have an additional terpene biosynthesis pathway in their chloroplasts, a structure fungi and animals do not have. Fungi produce several secondary metabolites that are similar or identical in structure to those made


title: Fungus content: by plants. Many of the plant and fungal enzymes that make these compounds differ from each other in sequence and other characteristics, which indicates separate origins and convergent evolution of these enzymes in the fungi and plants. Fungi have a worldwide distribution, and grow in a wide range of habitats, including extreme environments such as deserts or areas with high salt concentrations or ionizing radiation, as well as in deep sea sediments. Some can survive the intense UV and cosmic radiation encountered during space travel. Most grow in terrestrial environments, though several species live partly or solely in aquatic habitats,


title: Fungus content: such as the chytrid fungus "Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis", a parasite that has been responsible for a worldwide decline in amphibian populations. This organism spends part of its life cycle as a motile zoospore, enabling it to propel itself through water and enter its amphibian host. Other examples of aquatic fungi include those living in hydrothermal areas of the ocean. Around 120,000 species of fungi have been described by taxonomists, but the global biodiversity of the fungus kingdom is not fully understood. A 2017 estimate suggests there may be between 2.2 and 3.8 million species. In mycology, species have historically been distinguished


title: Fungus content: by a variety of methods and concepts. Classification based on morphological characteristics, such as the size and shape of spores or fruiting structures, has traditionally dominated fungal taxonomy. Species may also be distinguished by their biochemical and physiological characteristics, such as their ability to metabolize certain biochemicals, or their reaction to chemical tests. The biological species concept discriminates species based on their ability to mate. The application of molecular tools, such as DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis, to study diversity has greatly enhanced the resolution and added robustness to estimates of genetic diversity within various taxonomic groups. Mycology is the


title: Fungus content: branch of biology concerned with the systematic study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy, and their use to humans as a source of medicine, food, and psychotropic substances consumed for religious purposes, as well as their dangers, such as poisoning or infection. The field of phytopathology, the study of plant diseases, is closely related because many plant pathogens are fungi. The use of fungi by humans dates back to prehistory; Ötzi the Iceman, a well-preserved mummy of a 5,300-year-old Neolithic man found frozen in the Austrian Alps, carried two species of polypore mushrooms that may have


title: Fungus content: been used as tinder ("Fomes fomentarius"), or for medicinal purposes ("Piptoporus betulinus"). Ancient peoples have used fungi as food sources–often unknowingly–for millennia, in the preparation of leavened bread and fermented juices. Some of the oldest written records contain references to the destruction of crops that were probably caused by pathogenic fungi. Mycology is a relatively new science that became systematic after the development of the microscope in the 17th century. Although fungal spores were first observed by Giambattista della Porta in 1588, the seminal work in the development of mycology is considered to be the publication of Pier Antonio Micheli's


title: Fungus content: 1729 work "Nova plantarum genera". Micheli not only observed spores but also showed that, under the proper conditions, they could be induced into growing into the same species of fungi from which they originated. Extending the use of the binomial system of nomenclature introduced by Carl Linnaeus in his "Species plantarum" (1753), the Dutch Christian Hendrik Persoon (1761–1836) established the first classification of mushrooms with such skill as to be considered a founder of modern mycology. Later, Elias Magnus Fries (1794–1878) further elaborated the classification of fungi, using spore color and microscopic characteristics, methods still used by taxonomists today. Other


title: Fungus content: notable early contributors to mycology in the 17th–19th and early 20th centuries include Miles Joseph Berkeley, August Carl Joseph Corda, Anton de Bary, the brothers Louis René and Charles Tulasne, Arthur H. R. Buller, Curtis G. Lloyd, and Pier Andrea Saccardo. The 20th century has seen a modernization of mycology that has come from advances in biochemistry, genetics, molecular biology, and biotechnology. The use of DNA sequencing technologies and phylogenetic analysis has provided new insights into fungal relationships and biodiversity, and has challenged traditional morphology-based groupings in fungal taxonomy. Most fungi grow as hyphae, which are cylindrical, thread-like structures 2–10


title: Fungus content: µm in diameter and up to several centimeters in length. Hyphae grow at their tips (apices); new hyphae are typically formed by emergence of new tips along existing hyphae by a process called "branching", or occasionally growing hyphal tips fork, giving rise to two parallel-growing hyphae. Hyphae also sometimes fuse when they come into contact, a process called hyphal fusion (or anastamosis). These growth processes lead to the development of a mycelium, an interconnected network of hyphae. Hyphae can be either septate or coenocytic. Septate hyphae are divided into compartments separated by cross walls (internal cell walls, called septa, that


title: Fungus content: are formed at right angles to the cell wall giving the hypha its shape), with each compartment containing one or more nuclei; coenocytic hyphae are not compartmentalized. Septa have pores that allow cytoplasm, organelles, and sometimes nuclei to pass through; an example is the dolipore septum in fungi of the phylum Basidiomycota. Coenocytic hyphae are in essence multinucleate supercells. Many species have developed specialized hyphal structures for nutrient uptake from living hosts; examples include haustoria in plant-parasitic species of most fungal phyla, and arbuscules of several mycorrhizal fungi, which penetrate into the host cells to consume nutrients. Although fungi are


title: Fungus content: opisthokonts—a grouping of evolutionarily related organisms broadly characterized by a single posterior flagellum—all phyla except for the chytrids have lost their posterior flagella. Fungi are unusual among the eukaryotes in having a cell wall that, in addition to glucans (e.g., β-1,3-glucan) and other typical components, also contains the biopolymer chitin. Fungal mycelia can become visible to the naked eye, for example, on various surfaces and substrates, such as damp walls and spoiled food, where they are commonly called molds. Mycelia grown on solid agar media in laboratory petri dishes are usually referred to as colonies. These colonies can exhibit growth


title: Fungus content: shapes and colors (due to spores or pigmentation) that can be used as diagnostic features in the identification of species or groups. Some individual fungal colonies can reach extraordinary dimensions and ages as in the case of a clonal colony of "Armillaria solidipes", which extends over an area of more than 900 ha (3.5 square miles), with an estimated age of nearly 9,000 years. The apothecium—a specialized structure important in sexual reproduction in the ascomycetes—is a cup-shaped fruit body that is often macroscopic and holds the hymenium, a layer of tissue containing the spore-bearing cells. The fruit bodies of the


title: Fungus content: basidiomycetes (basidiocarps) and some ascomycetes can sometimes grow very large, and many are well known as mushrooms. The growth of fungi as hyphae on or in solid substrates or as single cells in aquatic environments is adapted for the efficient extraction of nutrients, because these growth forms have high surface area to volume ratios. Hyphae are specifically adapted for growth on solid surfaces, and to invade substrates and tissues. They can exert large penetrative mechanical forces; for example, many plant pathogens, including "Magnaporthe grisea", form a structure called an appressorium that evolved to puncture plant tissues. The pressure generated by


title: Fungus content: the appressorium, directed against the plant epidermis, can exceed . The filamentous fungus "Paecilomyces lilacinus" uses a similar structure to penetrate the eggs of nematodes. The mechanical pressure exerted by the appressorium is generated from physiological processes that increase intracellular turgor by producing osmolytes such as glycerol. Adaptations such as these are complemented by hydrolytic enzymes secreted into the environment to digest large organic molecules—such as polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids—into smaller molecules that may then be absorbed as nutrients. The vast majority of filamentous fungi grow in a polar fashion (extending in one direction) by elongation at the tip (apex)


title: Fungus content: of the hypha. Other forms of fungal growth include intercalary extension (longitudinal expansion of hyphal compartments that are below the apex) as in the case of some endophytic fungi, or growth by volume expansion during the development of mushroom stipes and other large organs. Growth of fungi as multicellular structures consisting of somatic and reproductive cells—a feature independently evolved in animals and plants—has several functions, including the development of fruit bodies for dissemination of sexual spores (see above) and biofilms for substrate colonization and intercellular communication. The fungi are traditionally considered heterotrophs, organisms that rely solely on carbon fixed by


title: Fungus content: other organisms for metabolism. Fungi have evolved a high degree of metabolic versatility that allows them to use a diverse range of organic substrates for growth, including simple compounds such as nitrate, ammonia, acetate, or ethanol. In some species the pigment melanin may play a role in extracting energy from ionizing radiation, such as gamma radiation. This form of "radiotrophic" growth has been described for only a few species, the effects on growth rates are small, and the underlying biophysical and biochemical processes are not well known. This process might bear similarity to CO fixation via visible light, but instead


title: Fungus content: uses ionizing radiation as a source of energy. Fungal reproduction is complex, reflecting the differences in lifestyles and genetic makeup within this diverse kingdom of organisms. It is estimated that a third of all fungi reproduce using more than one method of propagation; for example, reproduction may occur in two well-differentiated stages within the life cycle of a species, the teleomorph and the anamorph. Environmental conditions trigger genetically determined developmental states that lead to the creation of specialized structures for sexual or asexual reproduction. These structures aid reproduction by efficiently dispersing spores or spore-containing propagules. Asexual reproduction occurs via vegetative


title: Fungus content: spores (conidia) or through mycelial fragmentation. Mycelial fragmentation occurs when a fungal mycelium separates into pieces, and each component grows into a separate mycelium. Mycelial fragmentation and vegetative spores maintain clonal populations adapted to a specific niche, and allow more rapid dispersal than sexual reproduction. The "Fungi imperfecti" (fungi lacking the perfect or sexual stage) or Deuteromycota comprise all the species that lack an observable sexual cycle. Deuteromycota is not an accepted taxonomic clade, and is now taken to mean simply fungi that lack a known sexual stage. Sexual reproduction with meiosis has been directly observed in all fungal phyla


title: Fungus content: except Glomeromycota (genetic analysis suggests meiosis in Glomeromycota as well). It differs in many aspects from sexual reproduction in animals or plants. Differences also exist between fungal groups and can be used to discriminate species by morphological differences in sexual structures and reproductive strategies. Mating experiments between fungal isolates may identify species on the basis of biological species concepts. The major fungal groupings have initially been delineated based on the morphology of their sexual structures and spores; for example, the spore-containing structures, asci and basidia, can be used in the identification of ascomycetes and basidiomycetes, respectively. Fungi employ two mating


title: Fungus content: systems: heterothallic species allow mating only between individuals of opposite mating type, whereas homothallic species can mate, and sexually reproduce, with any other individual or itself. Most fungi have both a haploid and a diploid stage in their life cycles. In sexually reproducing fungi, compatible individuals may combine by fusing their hyphae together into an interconnected network; this process, anastomosis, is required for the initiation of the sexual cycle. Many ascomycetes and basidiomycetes go through a dikaryotic stage, in which the nuclei inherited from the two parents do not combine immediately after cell fusion, but remain separate in the hyphal


title: Fungus content: cells (see heterokaryosis). In ascomycetes, dikaryotic hyphae of the hymenium (the spore-bearing tissue layer) form a characteristic "hook" at the hyphal septum. During cell division, formation of the hook ensures proper distribution of the newly divided nuclei into the apical and basal hyphal compartments. An ascus (plural "asci") is then formed, in which karyogamy (nuclear fusion) occurs. Asci are embedded in an ascocarp, or fruiting body. Karyogamy in the asci is followed immediately by meiosis and the production of ascospores. After dispersal, the ascospores may germinate and form a new haploid mycelium. Sexual reproduction in basidiomycetes is similar to that


title: Fungus content: of the ascomycetes. Compatible haploid hyphae fuse to produce a dikaryotic mycelium. However, the dikaryotic phase is more extensive in the basidiomycetes, often also present in the vegetatively growing mycelium. A specialized anatomical structure, called a clamp connection, is formed at each hyphal septum. As with the structurally similar hook in the ascomycetes, the clamp connection in the basidiomycetes is required for controlled transfer of nuclei during cell division, to maintain the dikaryotic stage with two genetically different nuclei in each hyphal compartment. A basidiocarp is formed in which club-like structures known as basidia generate haploid basidiospores after karyogamy and


title: Fungus content: meiosis. The most commonly known basidiocarps are mushrooms, but they may also take other forms (see Morphology section). In glomeromycetes (formerly zygomycetes), haploid hyphae of two individuals fuse, forming a gametangium, a specialized cell structure that becomes a fertile gamete-producing cell. The gametangium develops into a zygospore, a thick-walled spore formed by the union of gametes. When the zygospore germinates, it undergoes meiosis, generating new haploid hyphae, which may then form asexual sporangiospores. These sporangiospores allow the fungus to rapidly disperse and germinate into new genetically identical haploid fungal mycelia. Both asexual and sexual spores or sporangiospores are often actively


title: Fungus content: dispersed by forcible ejection from their reproductive structures. This ejection ensures exit of the spores from the reproductive structures as well as traveling through the air over long distances. Specialized mechanical and physiological mechanisms, as well as spore surface structures (such as hydrophobins), enable efficient spore ejection. For example, the structure of the spore-bearing cells in some ascomycete species is such that the buildup of substances affecting cell volume and fluid balance enables the explosive discharge of spores into the air. The forcible discharge of single spores termed "ballistospores" involves formation of a small drop of water (Buller's drop), which


title: Fungus content: upon contact with the spore leads to its projectile release with an initial acceleration of more than 10,000 g; the net result is that the spore is ejected 0.01–0.02 cm, sufficient distance for it to fall through the gills or pores into the air below. Other fungi, like the puffballs, rely on alternative mechanisms for spore release, such as external mechanical forces. The bird's nest fungi use the force of falling water drops to liberate the spores from cup-shaped fruiting bodies. Another strategy is seen in the stinkhorns, a group of fungi with lively colors and putrid odor that attract


title: Fungus content: insects to disperse their spores. Besides regular sexual reproduction with meiosis, certain fungi, such as those in the genera "Penicillium" and "Aspergillus", may exchange genetic material via parasexual processes, initiated by anastomosis between hyphae and plasmogamy of fungal cells. The frequency and relative importance of parasexual events is unclear and may be lower than other sexual processes. It is known to play a role in intraspecific hybridization and is likely required for hybridization between species, which has been associated with major events in fungal evolution. In contrast to plants and animals, the early fossil record of the fungi is meager.


title: Fungus content: Factors that likely contribute to the under-representation of fungal species among fossils include the nature of fungal fruiting bodies, which are soft, fleshy, and easily degradable tissues and the microscopic dimensions of most fungal structures, which therefore are not readily evident. Fungal fossils are difficult to distinguish from those of other microbes, and are most easily identified when they resemble extant fungi. Often recovered from a permineralized plant or animal host, these samples are typically studied by making thin-section preparations that can be examined with light microscopy or transmission electron microscopy. Researchers study compression fossils by dissolving the surrounding matrix


title: Fungus content: with acid and then using light or scanning electron microscopy to examine surface details. The earliest fossils possessing features typical of fungi date to the Paleoproterozoic era, some (Ma); these multicellular benthic organisms had filamentous structures capable of anastomosis. Other studies (2009) estimate the arrival of fungal organisms at about 760–1060 Ma on the basis of comparisons of the rate of evolution in closely related groups. For much of the Paleozoic Era (542–251 Ma), the fungi appear to have been aquatic and consisted of organisms similar to the extant chytrids in having flagellum-bearing spores. The evolutionary adaptation from an aquatic


title: Fungus content: to a terrestrial lifestyle necessitated a diversification of ecological strategies for obtaining nutrients, including parasitism, saprobism, and the development of mutualistic relationships such as mycorrhiza and lichenization. Recent (2009) studies suggest that the ancestral ecological state of the Ascomycota was saprobism, and that independent lichenization events have occurred multiple times. It is presumed that the fungi colonized the land during the Cambrian (542–488.3 Ma), long before land plants. Fossilized hyphae and spores recovered from the Ordovician of Wisconsin (460 Ma) resemble modern-day Glomerales, and existed at a time when the land flora likely consisted of only non-vascular bryophyte-like plants. Prototaxites,


title: Fungus content: which was probably a fungus or lichen, would have been the tallest organism of the late Silurian. Fungal fossils do not become common and uncontroversial until the early Devonian (416–359.2 Ma), when they occur abundantly in the Rhynie chert, mostly as Zygomycota and Chytridiomycota. At about this same time, approximately 400 Ma, the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota diverged, and all modern classes of fungi were present by the Late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian, 318.1–299 Ma). Lichen-like fossils have been found in the Doushantuo Formation in southern China dating back to 635–551 Ma. Lichens formed a component of the early terrestrial ecosystems, and the


title: Fungus content: estimated age of the oldest terrestrial lichen fossil is 400 Ma; this date corresponds to the age of the oldest known sporocarp fossil, a "Paleopyrenomycites" species found in the Rhynie Chert. The oldest fossil with microscopic features resembling modern-day basidiomycetes is "Palaeoancistrus", found permineralized with a fern from the Pennsylvanian. Rare in the fossil record are the Homobasidiomycetes (a taxon roughly equivalent to the mushroom-producing species of the Agaricomycetes). Two amber-preserved specimens provide evidence that the earliest known mushroom-forming fungi (the extinct species "Archaeomarasmius leggetti") appeared during the late Cretaceous, 90 Ma. Some time after the Permian–Triassic extinction event (251.4


title: Fungus content: Ma), a fungal spike (originally thought to be an extraordinary abundance of fungal spores in sediments) formed, suggesting that fungi were the dominant life form at this time, representing nearly 100% of the available fossil record for this period. However, the relative proportion of fungal spores relative to spores formed by algal species is difficult to assess, the spike did not appear worldwide, and in many places it did not fall on the Permian–Triassic boundary. 65 million years ago, immediately after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction that famously killed off most dinosaurs, there is a dramatic increase in evidence of fungi, apparently


title: Fungus content: the death of most plant and animal species leading to a huge fungal bloom like "a massive compost heap". Although commonly included in botany curricula and textbooks, fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants and are placed with the animals in the monophyletic group of opisthokonts. Analyses using molecular phylogenetics support a monophyletic origin of fungi. The taxonomy of fungi is in a state of constant flux, especially due to recent research based on DNA comparisons. These current phylogenetic analyses often overturn classifications based on older and sometimes less discriminative methods based on morphological features and biological


title: Fungus content: species concepts obtained from experimental matings. There is no unique generally accepted system at the higher taxonomic levels and there are frequent name changes at every level, from species upwards. Efforts among researchers are now underway to establish and encourage usage of a unified and more consistent nomenclature. Fungal species can also have multiple scientific names depending on their life cycle and mode (sexual or asexual) of reproduction. Web sites such as Index Fungorum and ITIS list current names of fungal species (with cross-references to older synonyms). The 2007 classification of Kingdom Fungi is the result of a large-scale collaborative


title: Fungus content: research effort involving dozens of mycologists and other scientists working on fungal taxonomy. It recognizes seven phyla, two of which—the Ascomycota and the Basidiomycota—are contained within a branch representing subkingdom Dikarya, the most species rich and familiar group, including all the mushrooms, most food-spoilage molds, most plant pathogenic fungi, and the beer, wine, and bread yeasts. The accompanying cladogram depicts the major fungal taxa and their relationship to opisthokont and unikont organisms, based on the work of Philippe Silar, "The Mycota: A Comprehensive Treatise on Fungi as Experimental Systems for Basic and Applied Research" and Tedersoo et al. 2018. The


title: Fungus content: lengths of the branches are not proportional to evolutionary distances. The major phyla (sometimes called divisions) of fungi have been classified mainly on the basis of characteristics of their sexual reproductive structures. Currently, seven phyla are proposed: Microsporidia, Chytridiomycota, Blastocladiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Glomeromycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota. Phylogenetic analysis has demonstrated that the Microsporidia, unicellular parasites of animals and protists, are fairly recent and highly derived endobiotic fungi (living within the tissue of another species). One 2006 study concludes that the Microsporidia are a sister group to the true fungi; that is, they are each other's closest evolutionary relative. Hibbett and colleagues


title: Fungus content: suggest that this analysis does not clash with their classification of the Fungi, and although the Microsporidia are elevated to phylum status, it is acknowledged that further analysis is required to clarify evolutionary relationships within this group. The Chytridiomycota are commonly known as chytrids. These fungi are distributed worldwide. Chytrids and their close relatives Neocallimastigomycota and Blastocladiomycota (below) are the only fungi with active motility, producing zoospores that are capable of active movement through aqueous phases with a single flagellum, leading early taxonomists to classify them as protists. Molecular phylogenies, inferred from rRNA sequences in ribosomes, suggest that the Chytrids


title: Fungus content: are a basal group divergent from the other fungal phyla, consisting of four major clades with suggestive evidence for paraphyly or possibly polyphyly. The Blastocladiomycota were previously considered a taxonomic clade within the Chytridiomycota. Recent molecular data and ultrastructural characteristics, however, place the Blastocladiomycota as a sister clade to the Zygomycota, Glomeromycota, and Dikarya (Ascomycota and Basidiomycota). The blastocladiomycetes are saprotrophs, feeding on decomposing organic matter, and they are parasites of all eukaryotic groups. Unlike their close relatives, the chytrids, most of which exhibit zygotic meiosis, the blastocladiomycetes undergo sporic meiosis. The Neocallimastigomycota were earlier placed in the phylum Chytridomycota.


title: Fungus content: Members of this small phylum are anaerobic organisms, living in the digestive system of larger herbivorous mammals and in other terrestrial and aquatic environments enriched in cellulose (e.g., domestic waste landfill sites). They lack mitochondria but contain hydrogenosomes of mitochondrial origin. As in the related chrytrids, neocallimastigomycetes form zoospores that are posteriorly uniflagellate or polyflagellate. Members of the Glomeromycota form arbuscular mycorrhizae, a form of mutualist symbiosis wherein fungal hyphae invade plant root cells and both species benefit from the resulting increased supply of nutrients. All known Glomeromycota species reproduce asexually. The symbiotic association between the Glomeromycota and plants is


title: Fungus content: ancient, with evidence dating to 400 million years ago. Formerly part of the Zygomycota (commonly known as 'sugar' and 'pin' molds), the Glomeromycota were elevated to phylum status in 2001 and now replace the older phylum Zygomycota. Fungi that were placed in the Zygomycota are now being reassigned to the Glomeromycota, or the subphyla incertae sedis Mucoromycotina, Kickxellomycotina, the Zoopagomycotina and the Entomophthoromycotina. Some well-known examples of fungi formerly in the Zygomycota include black bread mold ("Rhizopus stolonifer"), and "Pilobolus" species, capable of ejecting spores several meters through the air. Medically relevant genera include "Mucor", "Rhizomucor", and "Rhizopus". The Ascomycota,


title: Fungus content: commonly known as sac fungi or ascomycetes, constitute the largest taxonomic group within the Eumycota. These fungi form meiotic spores called ascospores, which are enclosed in a special sac-like structure called an ascus. This phylum includes morels, a few mushrooms and truffles, unicellular yeasts (e.g., of the genera "Saccharomyces", "Kluyveromyces", "Pichia", and "Candida"), and many filamentous fungi living as saprotrophs, parasites, and mutualistic symbionts (e.g. lichens). Prominent and important genera of filamentous ascomycetes include "Aspergillus", "Penicillium", "Fusarium", and "Claviceps". Many ascomycete species have only been observed undergoing asexual reproduction (called anamorphic species), but analysis of molecular data has often been


title: Fungus content: able to identify their closest teleomorphs in the Ascomycota. Because the products of meiosis are retained within the sac-like ascus, ascomycetes have been used for elucidating principles of genetics and heredity (e.g., "Neurospora crassa"). Members of the Basidiomycota, commonly known as the club fungi or basidiomycetes, produce meiospores called basidiospores on club-like stalks called basidia. Most common mushrooms belong to this group, as well as rust and smut fungi, which are major pathogens of grains. Other important basidiomycetes include the maize pathogen "Ustilago maydis", human commensal species of the genus "Malassezia", and the opportunistic human pathogen, "Cryptococcus neoformans". Because of


title: Fungus content: similarities in morphology and lifestyle, the slime molds (mycetozoans, plasmodiophorids, acrasids, "Fonticula" and labyrinthulids, now in Amoebozoa, Rhizaria, Excavata, Opisthokonta and Stramenopiles, respectively), water molds (oomycetes) and hyphochytrids (both Stramenopiles) were formerly classified in the kingdom Fungi, in groups like Mastigomycotina, Gymnomycota and Phycomycetes. The slime molds were studied also as protozoans, leading to a ambiregnal, duplicated taxonomy. Unlike true fungi, the cell walls of oomycetes contain cellulose and lack chitin. Hyphochytrids have both chitin and cellulose. Slime molds lack a cell wall during the assimilative phase (except labyrinthulids, which have a wall of scales), and ingest nutrients by ingestion


title: Fungus content: (phagocytosis, except labyrinthulids) rather than absorption (osmotrophy, as fungi, labyrinthulids, oomycetes and hyphochytrids). Neither water molds nor slime molds are closely related to the true fungi, and, therefore, taxonomists no longer group them in the kingdom Fungi. Nonetheless, studies of the oomycetes and myxomycetes are still often included in mycology textbooks and primary research literature. The Eccrinales and Amoebidiales are opisthokont protists, previously thought to be zygomycete fungi. Other groups now in Opisthokonta (e.g., "Corallochytrium", Ichthyosporea) were also at given time classified as fungi. The genus "Blastocystis", now in Stramenopiles, was originally classified as a yeast. "Ellobiopsis", now in Alveolata,


title: Fungus content: was considered a chytrid. The bacteria were also included in fungi in some classifications, as the group Schizomycetes. The Rozellida clade, including the "ex-chytrid" "Rozella", is a genetically disparate group known mostly from environmental DNA sequences that is a sister group to fungi. Members of the group that have been isolated lack the chitinous cell wall that is characteristic of fungi. The nucleariids may be the next sister group to the eumycete clade, and as such could be included in an expanded fungal kingdom. Many Actinomycetales (Actinobacteria), a group with many filamentous bacteria, were also long believed to be fungi.


title: Fungus content: Although often inconspicuous, fungi occur in every environment on Earth and play very important roles in most ecosystems. Along with bacteria, fungi are the major decomposers in most terrestrial (and some aquatic) ecosystems, and therefore play a critical role in biogeochemical cycles and in many food webs. As decomposers, they play an essential role in nutrient cycling, especially as saprotrophs and symbionts, degrading organic matter to inorganic molecules, which can then re-enter anabolic metabolic pathways in plants or other organisms. Many fungi have important symbiotic relationships with organisms from most if not all Kingdoms. These interactions can be mutualistic or


title: Fungus content: antagonistic in nature, or in the case of commensal fungi are of no apparent benefit or detriment to the host. Mycorrhizal symbiosis between plants and fungi is one of the most well-known plant–fungus associations and is of significant importance for plant growth and persistence in many ecosystems; over 90% of all plant species engage in mycorrhizal relationships with fungi and are dependent upon this relationship for survival. The mycorrhizal symbiosis is ancient, dating to at least 400 million years ago. It often increases the plant's uptake of inorganic compounds, such as nitrate and phosphate from soils having low concentrations of


title: Fungus content: these key plant nutrients. The fungal partners may also mediate plant-to-plant transfer of carbohydrates and other nutrients. Such mycorrhizal communities are called "common mycorrhizal networks". A special case of mycorrhiza is myco-heterotrophy, whereby the plant parasitizes the fungus, obtaining all of its nutrients from its fungal symbiont. Some fungal species inhabit the tissues inside roots, stems, and leaves, in which case they are called endophytes. Similar to mycorrhiza, endophytic colonization by fungi may benefit both symbionts; for example, endophytes of grasses impart to their host increased resistance to herbivores and other environmental stresses and receive food and shelter from the


title: Fungus content: plant in return. Lichens are a symbiotic relationship between fungi and photosynthetic algae or cyanobacteria. The photosynthetic partner in the relationship is referred to in lichen terminology as a "photobiont". The fungal part of the relationship is composed mostly of various species of ascomycetes and a few basidiomycetes. Lichens occur in every ecosystem on all continents, play a key role in soil formation and the initiation of biological succession, and are prominent in some extreme environments, including polar, alpine, and semiarid desert regions. They are able to grow on inhospitable surfaces, including bare soil, rocks, tree bark, wood, shells, barnacles


title: Fungus content: and leaves. As in mycorrhizas, the photobiont provides sugars and other carbohydrates via photosynthesis to the fungus, while the fungus provides minerals and water to the photobiont. The functions of both symbiotic organisms are so closely intertwined that they function almost as a single organism; in most cases the resulting organism differs greatly from the individual components. Lichenization is a common mode of nutrition for fungi; around 20% of fungi—between 17,500 and 20,000 described species—are lichenized. Characteristics common to most lichens include obtaining organic carbon by photosynthesis, slow growth, small size, long life, long-lasting (seasonal) vegetative reproductive structures, mineral nutrition


title: Fungus content: obtained largely from airborne sources, and greater tolerance of desiccation than most other photosynthetic organisms in the same habitat. Many insects also engage in mutualistic relationships with fungi. Several groups of ants cultivate fungi in the order Agaricales as their primary food source, while ambrosia beetles cultivate various species of fungi in the bark of trees that they infest. Likewise, females of several wood wasp species (genus "Sirex") inject their eggs together with spores of the wood-rotting fungus "Amylostereum areolatum" into the sapwood of pine trees; the growth of the fungus provides ideal nutritional conditions for the development of the


title: Fungus content: wasp larvae. At least one species of stingless bee has a relationship with a fungus in the genus "Monascus", where the larvae consume and depend on fungus transferred from old to new nests. Termites on the African savannah are also known to cultivate fungi, and yeasts of the genera "Candida" and "Lachancea" inhabit the gut of a wide range of insects, including neuropterans, beetles, and cockroaches; it is not known whether these fungi benefit their hosts. Fungi ingrowing dead wood are essential for xylophagous insects (e.g. woodboring beetles). They deliver nutrients needed by xylophages to nutritionally scarce dead wood. Thanks


title: Fungus content: to this nutritional enrichment the larvae of woodboring insect is able to grow and develop to adulthood. The larvae of many families of fungicolous flies, particularly those within the superfamily Sciaroidea such as the Mycetophilidae and some Keroplatidae feed on fungal fruiting bodies and sterile mycorrhizae. Many fungi are parasites on plants, animals (including humans), and other fungi. Serious pathogens of many cultivated plants causing extensive damage and losses to agriculture and forestry include the rice blast fungus "Magnaporthe oryzae", tree pathogens such as "Ophiostoma ulmi" and "Ophiostoma novo-ulmi" causing Dutch elm disease and "Cryphonectria parasitica" responsible for chestnut blight,


title: Fungus content: and plant pathogens in the genera "Fusarium", "Ustilago", "Alternaria", and "Cochliobolus". Some carnivorous fungi, like "Paecilomyces lilacinus", are predators of nematodes, which they capture using an array of specialized structures such as constricting rings or adhesive nets. Many fungi that are plant pathogens, such as "Magnaporthe oryzae", can switch from being biotrophic (parasitic on living plants) to being necrotrophic (feeding on the dead tissues of plants they have killed). Some fungi can cause serious diseases in humans, several of which may be fatal if untreated. These include aspergillosis, candidiasis, coccidioidomycosis, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, mycetomas, and paracoccidioidomycosis. Furthermore, persons with immuno-deficiencies are


title: Fungus content: particularly susceptible to disease by genera such as "Aspergillus", "Candida", "Cryptoccocus", "Histoplasma", and "Pneumocystis". Other fungi can attack eyes, nails, hair, and especially skin, the so-called dermatophytic and keratinophilic fungi, and cause local infections such as ringworm and athlete's foot. Fungal spores are also a cause of allergies, and fungi from different taxonomic groups can evoke allergic reactions. The organisms which parasitize fungi are known as mycoparasitic organisms. Certain species of the genus "Pythium", which are oomycetes, have potential as biocontrol agents against certain fungi. Fungi can also act as mycoparasites or antagonists of other fungi, such as "Hypomyces chrysospermus",


title: Fungus content: which grows on bolete mushrooms. Fungi can become the target of infection by mycoviruses. Many fungi produce biologically active compounds, several of which are toxic to animals or plants and are therefore called mycotoxins. Of particular relevance to humans are mycotoxins produced by molds causing food spoilage, and poisonous mushrooms (see above). Particularly infamous are the lethal amatoxins in some "Amanita" mushrooms, and ergot alkaloids, which have a long history of causing serious epidemics of ergotism (St Anthony's Fire) in people consuming rye or related cereals contaminated with sclerotia of the ergot fungus, "Claviceps purpurea". Other notable mycotoxins include the


title: Fungus content: aflatoxins, which are insidious liver toxins and highly carcinogenic metabolites produced by certain "Aspergillus" species often growing in or on grains and nuts consumed by humans, ochratoxins, patulin, and trichothecenes (e.g., T-2 mycotoxin) and fumonisins, which have significant impact on human food supplies or animal livestock. Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites (or natural products), and research has established the existence of biochemical pathways solely for the purpose of producing mycotoxins and other natural products in fungi. Mycotoxins may provide fitness benefits in terms of physiological adaptation, competition with other microbes and fungi, and protection from consumption (fungivory). Many fungal secondary metabolites


title: Fungus content: (or derivatives) are used medically, as described under Human Use below. "Ustilago maydis" is a pathogenic plant fungus that causes smut disease in maize and teosinte. Plants have evolved efficient defense systems against pathogenic microbes such as "U. maydis". A rapid defense reaction after pathogen attack is the oxidative burst where the plant produces reactive oxygen species at the site of the attempted invasion. "U. maydis" can respond to the oxidative burst with an oxidative stress response, regulated by the gene "YAP1". The response protects "U. maydis" from the host defense, and is necessary for the pathogen’s virulence. Furthermore, "U.


title: Fungus content: maydis" has a well-established recombinational DNA repair system which acts during mitosis and meiosis. The system may assist the pathogen in surviving DNA damage arising from the host plant’s oxidative defensive response to infection. "Cryptococcus neoformans" is an encapsulated yeast that can live in both plants and animals. "C. neoformans" usually infects the lungs, where it is phagocytosed by alveolar macrophages. Some "C. neoformans" can survive inside macrophages, which appears to be the basis for latency, disseminated disease, and resistance to antifungal agents. One mechanism by which "C. neoformans" survives the hostile macrophage environment is by up-regulating the expression of


title: Fungus content: genes involved in the oxidative stress response. Another mechanism involves meiosis. The majority of "C. neoformans" are mating "type a". Filaments of mating "type a" ordinarily have haploid nuclei, but they can become diploid (perhaps by endoduplication or by stimulated nuclear fusion) to form blastospores. The diploid nuclei of blastospores can undergo meiosis, including recombination, to form haploid basidiospores that can be dispersed. This process is referred to as monokaryotic fruiting. this process requires a gene called "DMC1", which is a conserved homologue of genes "recA" in bacteria and "RAD51" in eukaryotes, that mediates homologous chromosome pairing during meiosis and


title: Fungus content: repair of DNA double-strand breaks. Thus, "C. neoformans" can undergo a meiosis, monokaryotic fruiting, that promotes recombinational repair in the oxidative, DNA damaging environment of the host macrophage, and the repair capability may contribute to its virulence. The human use of fungi for food preparation or preservation and other purposes is extensive and has a long history. Mushroom farming and mushroom gathering are large industries in many countries. The study of the historical uses and sociological impact of fungi is known as ethnomycology. Because of the capacity of this group to produce an enormous range of natural products with antimicrobial


title: Fungus content: or other biological activities, many species have long been used or are being developed for industrial production of antibiotics, vitamins, and anti-cancer and cholesterol-lowering drugs. More recently, methods have been developed for genetic engineering of fungi, enabling metabolic engineering of fungal species. For example, genetic modification of yeast species—which are easy to grow at fast rates in large fermentation vessels—has opened up ways of pharmaceutical production that are potentially more efficient than production by the original source organisms. Many species produce metabolites that are major sources of pharmacologically active drugs. Particularly important are the antibiotics, including the penicillins, a structurally


title: Fungus content: related group of β-lactam antibiotics that are synthesized from small peptides. Although naturally occurring penicillins such as penicillin G (produced by "Penicillium chrysogenum") have a relatively narrow spectrum of biological activity, a wide range of other penicillins can be produced by chemical modification of the natural penicillins. Modern penicillins are semisynthetic compounds, obtained initially from fermentation cultures, but then structurally altered for specific desirable properties. Other antibiotics produced by fungi include: ciclosporin, commonly used as an immunosuppressant during transplant surgery; and fusidic acid, used to help control infection from methicillin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" bacteria. Widespread use of antibiotics for the treatment


title: Fungus content: of bacterial diseases, such as tuberculosis, syphilis, leprosy, and others began in the early 20th century and continues to date. In nature, antibiotics of fungal or bacterial origin appear to play a dual role: at high concentrations they act as chemical defense against competition with other microorganisms in species-rich environments, such as the rhizosphere, and at low concentrations as quorum-sensing molecules for intra- or interspecies signaling. Other drugs produced by fungi include griseofulvin isolated from "Penicillium griseofulvum", used to treat fungal infections, and statins (HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors), used to inhibit cholesterol synthesis. Examples of statins found in fungi include mevastatin


title: Fungus content: from "Penicillium citrinum" and lovastatin from "Aspergillus terreus" and the oyster mushroom. Fungi produce compounds that inhibit viruses and cancer cells. Specific metabolites, such as polysaccharide-K, ergotamine, and β-lactam antibiotics, are routinely used in clinical medicine. The shiitake mushroom is a source of lentinan, a clinical drug approved for use in cancer treatments in several countries, including Japan. In Europe and Japan, polysaccharide-K (brand name Krestin), a chemical derived from "Trametes versicolor", is an approved adjuvant for cancer therapy. Certain mushrooms enjoy usage as therapeutics in folk medicines, such as Traditional Chinese medicine. Notable medicinal mushrooms with a well-documented history


title: Fungus content: of use include "Agaricus subrufescens", "Ganoderma lucidum", and "Ophiocordyceps sinensis". Baker's yeast or "Saccharomyces cerevisiae", a unicellular fungus, is used to make bread and other wheat-based products, such as pizza dough and dumplings. Yeast species of the genus "Saccharomyces" are also used to produce alcoholic beverages through fermentation. Shoyu koji mold ("Aspergillus oryzae") is an essential ingredient in brewing Shoyu (soy sauce) and sake, and the preparation of miso, while "Rhizopus" species are used for making tempeh. Several of these fungi are domesticated species that were bred or selected according to their capacity to ferment food without producing harmful mycotoxins


title: Fungus content: (see below), which are produced by very closely related "Aspergilli". Quorn, a meat substitute, is made from "Fusarium venenatum". Edible mushrooms include commercially raised and wild-harvested fungi. "Agaricus bisporus", sold as button mushrooms when small or Portobello mushrooms when larger, is the most widely cultivated species in the West, used in salads, soups, and many other dishes. Many Asian fungi are commercially grown and have increased in popularity in the West. They are often available fresh in grocery stores and markets, including straw mushrooms ("Volvariella volvacea"), oyster mushrooms ("Pleurotus ostreatus"), shiitakes ("Lentinula edodes"), and enokitake ("Flammulina" spp.). Many other mushroom


title: Fungus content: species are harvested from the wild for personal consumption or commercial sale. Milk mushrooms, morels, chanterelles, truffles, black trumpets, and "porcini" mushrooms ("Boletus edulis") (also known as king boletes) demand a high price on the market. They are often used in gourmet dishes. Certain types of cheeses require inoculation of milk curds with fungal species that impart a unique flavor and texture to the cheese. Examples include the blue color in cheeses such as Stilton or Roquefort, which are made by inoculation with "Penicillium roqueforti". Molds used in cheese production are non-toxic and are thus safe for human consumption; however,


title: Fungus content: mycotoxins (e.g., aflatoxins, roquefortine C, patulin, or others) may accumulate because of growth of other fungi during cheese ripening or storage. Many mushroom species are poisonous to humans, with toxicities ranging from slight digestive problems or allergic reactions as well as hallucinations to severe organ failures and death. Genera with mushrooms containing deadly toxins include "Conocybe", "Galerina", "Lepiota", and, the most infamous, "Amanita". The latter genus includes the destroying angel "(A. virosa)" and the death cap "(A. phalloides)", the most common cause of deadly mushroom poisoning. The false morel ("Gyromitra esculenta") is occasionally considered a delicacy when cooked, yet can


title: Fungus content: be highly toxic when eaten raw. "Tricholoma equestre" was considered edible until it was implicated in serious poisonings causing rhabdomyolysis. Fly agaric mushrooms ("Amanita muscaria") also cause occasional non-fatal poisonings, mostly as a result of ingestion for its hallucinogenic properties. Historically, fly agaric was used by different peoples in Europe and Asia and its present usage for religious or shamanic purposes is reported from some ethnic groups such as the Koryak people of north-eastern Siberia. As it is difficult to accurately identify a safe mushroom without proper training and knowledge, it is often advised to assume that a wild mushroom


title: Fungus content: is poisonous and not to consume it. In agriculture, fungi may be useful if they actively compete for nutrients and space with pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria or other fungi via the competitive exclusion principle, or if they are parasites of these pathogens. For example, certain species may be used to eliminate or suppress the growth of harmful plant pathogens, such as insects, mites, weeds, nematodes, and other fungi that cause diseases of important crop plants. This has generated strong interest in practical applications that use these fungi in the biological control of these agricultural pests. Entomopathogenic fungi can be


title: Fungus content: used as biopesticides, as they actively kill insects. Examples that have been used as biological insecticides are "Beauveria bassiana", "Metarhizium" spp, "Hirsutella" spp, "Paecilomyces" ("Isaria") spp, and "Lecanicillium lecanii". Endophytic fungi of grasses of the genus "Neotyphodium", such as "N. coenophialum", produce alkaloids that are toxic to a range of invertebrate and vertebrate herbivores. These alkaloids protect grass plants from herbivory, but several endophyte alkaloids can poison grazing animals, such as cattle and sheep. Infecting cultivars of pasture or forage grasses with "Neotyphodium" endophytes is one approach being used in grass breeding programs; the fungal strains are selected for producing


title: Fungus content: only alkaloids that increase resistance to herbivores such as insects, while being non-toxic to livestock. Certain fungi, in particular white-rot fungi, can degrade insecticides, herbicides, pentachlorophenol, creosote, coal tars, and heavy fuels and turn them into carbon dioxide, water, and basic elements. Fungi have been shown to biomineralize uranium oxides, suggesting they may have application in the bioremediation of radioactively polluted sites. Several pivotal discoveries in biology were made by researchers using fungi as model organisms, that is, fungi that grow and sexually reproduce rapidly in the laboratory. For example, the one gene-one enzyme hypothesis was formulated by scientists using


title: Fungus content: the bread mold "Neurospora crassa" to test their biochemical theories. Other important model fungi are "Aspergillus nidulans" and the yeasts "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" and "Schizosaccharomyces pombe", each of which with a long history of use to investigate issues in eukaryotic cell biology and genetics, such as cell cycle regulation, chromatin structure, and gene regulation. Other fungal models have more recently emerged that address specific biological questions relevant to medicine, plant pathology, and industrial uses; examples include "Candida albicans", a dimorphic, opportunistic human pathogen, "Magnaporthe grisea", a plant pathogen, and "Pichia pastoris", a yeast widely used for eukaryotic protein production. Fungi are


title: Fungus content: used extensively to produce industrial chemicals like citric, gluconic, lactic, and malic acids, and industrial enzymes, such as lipases used in biological detergents, cellulases used in making cellulosic ethanol and stonewashed jeans, and amylases, invertases, proteases and xylanases. Several species, most notably "Psilocybin mushrooms" (colloquially known as "magic mushrooms"), are ingested for their psychedelic properties, both recreationally and religiously. Fungus A fungus (plural: fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, fungi, which is


title: "808s & Heartbreak" content: individuality, and produced a hauntingly personal album." Most of West's lyrics are directed at an ex-lover. In Robert Christgau's opinion, "808s & Heartbreak" is a "slow, sad-ass and self-involved ... breakup album", while Plagenhoef found it "steeped in regret, pain, and even more self-examination than a typical Kanye West album". West refers to an ex-lover's treatment of him as "the coldest story ever told" on "Heartless", and on "RoboCop", she is called a "spoiled little L.A. girl" comparable to the antagonist in the 1990 film "Misery". On "Paranoid", West describes a lover who "worries about the wrong things" and is


title: "Edward Giles Stone" content: Pty. Ltd, Dorman, Long had to buy their cement from Kandos for the harbour bridge. Another cement works associated with E.G. Stone is believed to have been the "Never Been Beaten Lime & Cement Works" at Deep Creek, Narrabeen on the Northern Beaches of Sydney which may have operated c1941-1955. Further research into these works is ongoing. Edward Giles Stone Edward Giles Stone (17 February 1873 (1876?) – 16 October 1947) was an Australian engineer prominent in many innovative, often daringly and spectacular, aspects of early reinforced concrete constructions in Australia. He was also involved in cement manufacture. He was


title: "The Good, the Sad and the Drugly" content: always stop whenever it's on." She said that she "flipped out" when she was offered a guest role and that it "might be the most [...] exciting thing" that has ever happened to her. The episode marked the first time she did a voice-over to an animation that was not animated beforehand. Hathaway described her character Jenny as a "good girl" but "not necessarily bland" and "a little complicated, [and] a little judgemental". The episode was also notable for featuring the first grounding to be used since "Fraudcast News" back in Season 15. This would lead to three additional episodes


title: "Bristol Tennessee High School" content: S. Battle High School. Tennessee High won the 1972 High School Football National Championship as well as the 1971 and 1972 Tennessee state football championships. Bristol Tennessee High School Bristol Tennessee High School (more commonly called Tennessee High) is a public high school located in Bristol, Tennessee, operated as part of the Bristol City School System. The first official Tennessee High School opened in 1916 on Alabama Street. The first part of the current campus was built in 1939. The Bristol Municipal Stadium, also known as the Stone Castle, hosts football and soccer games and was built in 1936 as


title: "Robert James Clayton" content: and endeavouring to move GEC into areas of future growth—often against a company culture of short-termism. On 2 April 1949 he married Joy Kathleen (c. 1925–1997), daughter of Allan McFarlane King, an electrician, and they moved to live at Stanmore. They had no children. In his retirement ill health and blindness increasingly restricted his activities. He was widowed in 1997 when his wife died. He died at Northwick Park Hospital, Brent, on 20 June 1998. His cremation was marked only by an informal gathering of friends and the dedication of a copse of trees of the Woodland Trust. His wealth


title: "Hamburg City Hall" content: Hamburg City Hall Hamburg City Hall (, ) is the seat of local government of the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg, Germany. It is the seat of the government of Hamburg and as such, the seat of one of Germany's 16 state parliaments. The Rathaus is located in the Altstadt quarter in the city center, at the Rathausmarkt square, and near the lake Binnenalster and the central station. Constructed from 1886 to 1897, the city hall still houses its original governmental functions with the office of the First Mayor of Hamburg and the meeting rooms for Hamburg's parliament and


title: "Hamburg City Hall" content: senate (the city's executive). After the old city hall was destroyed in the great fire of 1842, it took almost 44 years to build a new one. The present building was designed by a group of seven architects, led by Martin Haller. Construction started in 1886 and the new city hall was inaugurated in 1897. Its cost was 11 million German gold marks, about €80 million. On October 26, 1897 at the official opening ceremony the First Mayor Johannes Versmann received the key of the city hall. In the postwar period, various heads of state visited Hamburg and its City


title: "Hamburg City Hall" content: Hall — among them Emperor Haile Selassie I, the Shahanshah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi in 1955, and in 1965 Queen Elizabeth II. An emotionally moving service of remembrance was held on the market-square for the victims of the North Sea flood of 1962. Happier moments were the celebrations of Hamburger SV as German football champions, the last time though in 1983. In 1971 a room in the tower was only discovered accidentally during a search for a document fallen behind a filing cabinet. So there is a probability that there are even more rooms than the currently counted 647 rooms. On


title: "Hamburg City Hall" content: the outside the architectural style is neo-renaissance, which is abandoned inside for several historical elements. It is one of the few completely preserved buildings of historicism in Hamburg. Built in a period of wealth and prosperity, in which the Kingdom of Prussia and its confederates defeated France in the Franco-German War and the German Empire was formed, the look of the new Hamburg Rathaus was intended to express this wealth and also the independence of the State of Hamburg and Hamburg's republican traditions. The city hall has a total area of , not including the restaurant "Ratsweinkeller", now called "Parlament",


title: "Hamburg City Hall" content: of . The tower is high with 436 steps. It is a common misconception that Hamburg Rathaus has more rooms than Buckingham Palace (647 vs. 775), on a building area of . The balcony is surmounted by a mosaic of Hamburg's patron goddess Hammonia, the city's coat of arms and an inscription of the city's motto in Latin: The courtyard is decorated with a Hygieia fountain. Hygieia as the goddess of health and hygiene in Greek mythology and its surrounding figures represents the power and pureness of the water. It was built in remembrance of the cholera epidemic in 1892,


title: "Hamburg City Hall" content: the former technical purpose was air cooling in the city hall. The lobby is a public area used for concerts and exhibitions. It is open to the public. The emperor's hall in the first floor is the second-largest representation hall, named after Wilhelm II and functions as a room for official presentations. The mayor's hall was planned as a small meeting room. In the room as of 2008 the entry in the city's Golden Book take place, which was done by many dignitaries including the former German President Paul von Hindenburg and the Dalai Lama. In the left wing is


title: "Hamburg City Hall" content: the floor of the Hamburg Parliament. The 121 representatives meet in a room that was renovated during the Nazi era. Only three fields on the ceiling shows its original decoration. The Rathaus takes part in the Long Night of Museums. Even it is not a museum itself, and there are many virtu and historical details. During the "Long Night of Museums in Hamburg" the motto is "long night in centre of power". The city hall is located in the center of Hamburg. In front of it is a market-square, the Rathausmarkt, used for events and festivals. At the rear of


title: "Hamburg City Hall" content: the town hall is the Hamburg Stock Exchange. The main shopping street, Mönckebergstraße, connects the town hall with the central station. The Binnenalster with the Jungfernstieg station and quay for the Alster ships is directly north of the Rathaus. A nearby architectural landmark is the St. Peter's Church. Hamburg City Hall Hamburg City Hall (, ) is the seat of local government of the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg, Germany. It is the seat of the government of Hamburg and as such, the seat of one of Germany's 16 state parliaments. The Rathaus is located in the Altstadt quarter


title: "Gay pornography" content: not make it onto film until 1929's "The Surprise of a Knight." Legal restrictions meant that early hardcore gay pornography was underground and that commercially available gay pornography primarily consisted of pictures of individual men either fully naked or wearing a G-string. Pornography in the 1940s and 1950s focused on athletic men or bodybuilders in statuesque poses. They were generally young, muscular, and with little or no visible body hair. These pictures were sold in physique magazines, also known as beefcake magazines, allowing the reader to pass as a fitness enthusiast. The Athletic Model Guild (AMG), founded by photographer Bob


title: "Abdullah of Saudi Arabia" content: that requires work, but that the United States and Saudi Arabia had done it for 70 years over three generations. "Our disagreements don't cut to the bone", he stated. He was the leading gift-giver to the US president and his office in his first two years in office, his gifts totaling more than $300,000. A ruby and diamond jewelry set, given by the king and accepted by Michelle Obama on behalf of the United States, was worth $132,000. However, according to US federal law, gifts of such nature and value are accepted "on behalf of the United States" and are


title: "Alfredo Simón" content: Alfredo Simón Alfredo Simón Cabrera, also known as The Big Pasta, (born May 8, 1981) is a Dominican professional baseball pitcher who is currently a free agent. He has played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Baltimore Orioles, Detroit Tigers and Cincinnati Reds. From 2001 through part of 2004 he pitched under the name Carlos Cabrera. Simón was signed on July 9, 1999, by the Philadelphia Phillies. He originally signed under the name Carlos Cabrera, and he pretended to be 21 months younger than he really was. He made his professional debut in 2000 for the La Vega Phillies


title: Iroquois content: and embroidered with porcupine-quill work." An over-dress (ah-de-a'-da-we-sa) of muslin or calico was worn over the skirt, it is "gathered slightly at the waist, and falls part way down the skirt ... In front it is generally buttoned with silver broaches." The blanket (e'yose) is two or three yards of blue or green broadcloth "it falls from the head or neck in natural folds the width of the cloth, as the selvedges are at the top and bottom, and it is gathered round the person like a shawl." The women wore their hair very long and tied together at the


title: Iroquois content: settlers. By the end of the century, Haudenosaunee populations were mostly made up of captives from other nations. Among the Indigenous groups targeted by the Haudenosaunee were the Wyandot who were captured in such large numbers that they lost their independence for a large period of time. “Mourning wars” became essential to rebuild numbers, but also Haudenosaunee warriors began targeting French and later English colonizers. Similarly to Indigenous slaves, European slaves were tortured by the Haudenosaunee using finger mutilation and sometimes cannibalism. European captives did not make for good slaves though because they resisted even more so than Indigenous captives


title: "Rhombus formation" content: men, the third by three and so on. In this type of rhombus, there are no files, as each subsequent rank is arrayed with its men in the intervals between the men in front. The rhombus by file is formed with each subsequent rank containing two more troopers, so the men are posted in files, the first rank being occupied by the ilarches, the second by three men, the third by five and so on. Rhombus formation A rhombus is a cavalry formation in which troops are arrayed to form a rhombus-shaped body. Cavalry in rhombus formation has superior maneuverability,


title: "All or Nothing (Theory of a Deadman song)" content: awards at the 2009 MuchMusic Video Awards. "All or Nothing" is a ballad written by Theory of a Deadman's lead singer and guitarist, Tyler Connolly. The lyrics surround the events of when Connolly met his now ex-wife, Canadian actress Christine Danielle. The song was released in Canada in 2008, peaking at number 22 on the "Billboard" Canadian Hot 100 chart. It was released in the United States in 2010 where it reached number 99 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. It also appeared on "Billboard"'s Adult Top 40 and Mainstream Top 40 charts, peaking at numbers 17 and 40, respectively. Directed


title: "Graythwaite Hall" content: Graythwaite Hall Graythwaite Hall, near Hawkshead, Cumbria in the Lake District of England is the home of the Sandys family. The gardens within the grounds are open to the public from early April until mid August, However, the hall is closed to the public. One of the more famous members of the family was Edwin Sandys, who was Archbishop of York (1576–88) and was founder of Hawkshead Grammar School which William Wordsworth attended. The hall dates from the 17th century and extension work was carried out in the 18th century. In 1840 some major refacing gave the hall the appearance


title: "Wellens' syndrome" content: be 69% and 89%, respectively, with a positive predictive value of 86%. Wellens' sign has also been seen as a rare presentation of Takotsubo cardiomyopathy or stress cardiomyopathy. Wellens' syndrome Wellens' syndrome is an electrocardiographic manifestation of critical proximal left anterior descending (LAD) coronary artery stenosis in patients with unstable angina. Originally thought of as two separate presentations, A and B, it is now considered an evolving wave form, initially of biphasic T w-wave inversions and later becoming symmetrical, often deep (>2 mm), T wave inversions in the anterior precordial leads. First described by Hein J. J. Wellens and colleagues


title: "2009 Mauritanian presidential election" content: reverted the country to the authoritarianism it had experienced under President Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya, who Vall and Abdel Aziz ousted in 2005. He also said that he would continue to struggle against Abdel Aziz's regime. Abdel Aziz was sworn in at a ceremony in Nouakchott on 5 August 2009, one day prior to the first anniversary of the coup that initially brought him to power. About 20,000 people were in attendance, along with several regional leaders: Senegalese President Abdoulaye Wade, Malian President Amadou Toumani Toure, Moroccan Prime Minister Abbas El Fassi, and Gambian Vice-President Isatou Njie-Saidy. Representatives of the


title: "Roman Catholic Diocese of Sant' Angelo de' Lombardi-Bisaccia" content: Roman Catholic Diocese of Sant' Angelo de' Lombardi-Bisaccia The former Italian Catholic Diocese of Sant'Angelo dei Lombardi-Bisaccia, in the Province of Avellino, Southern Italy, existed until 1921. In that year it was united into the Archdiocese of Conza-Campagna, to form the Archdiocese of Conza-Sant'Angelo dei Lombardi-Bisaccia. The Diocese of Sant' Angelo de' Lombardi was created under Pope Gregory VII, but its first known bishop is Thomas, in 1179, when the see was a suffragan of the archdiocese of Conza. In 1540 under the episcopate of Rinaldo de' Cancellieri, it was united to the Diocese of Bisaccia (the ancient Romulea); it


title: "Things Can Only Get Better (Howard Jones song)" content: sitting in a high bar stool. This image was used in silhouette for the 7" artwork, the single being issued in several alternative sleeves with different colour backgrounds. The video depicts Jones singing the song as his road crew sets up equipment for a concert, followed by a transition to the show as he performs for a lively crowd. Both a 7" and 12" picture disc were released with the same tracks as the standard formats. In 2005, Swedish DJ Eric Prydz released a remixed version and renamed it "And Do You Feel Scared?". It is featured on the video


title: "2008 Italia Shooters season" content: 2008 Italia Shooters season The 2008 CSL season was the 11th season in Italia Shooters existence. The club's season began on May 19, 2008 in a home game against Serbian White Eagles, which resulted in a 2-2 tie. The club's first goal of the season was scored by Luca Forno and Franco Ruschetto on May 19, 2008 in a 2-2 draw against Serbian White Eagles. The season concluded with the Shooters winning their second International Division title. The shooters reached the playoffs and were victorious over the Brampton Lions in the quarterfinals. But were defeated by eventual champions Serbian White


title: "Armenians in Belarus" content: of Armenians in Belarus doubled. Armenians in Belarus Armenians in Belarus refers to ethnic Armenians living in Belarus. They numbered 8,512 as of the 2009 census and mainly live in Minsk. The settlement of Armenians in Belarus in the 20th century was episodic and due mainly to the needs of trade. The most important of these transpired in the latter part of the 1980s when the Armenian population began to increase. In 1989, the census figures revealed that the ethnic group reached 4,933, accounting for 0.04 percent of the Belarusian population. A decade later, this population more than doubled, reaching


title: "Browsing (herbivory)" content: too tall for browsers to reach. Related to browsing is bark peeling. Particularly in forestry this is a problem as the trees may then get diseased and also die. Even if they do not die the trees may suffer fungal infections that affect the wood value. With the rise in deer population in some places, such as Austria, the search for food means that the bark peeling reaches economically serious levels in some forest concerns. There is a difference in mode over the seasons, with winter bark peeling being more gnawing of the trees due to the trees being frozen


title: "Video game controversies" content: Lorenza Colzato, M. Brent Donnellan, Dorothy Espelage, Frank Farley, Christopher Ferguson, Peter Gray, Mark D. Griffiths, Jessica Hammer, Mizuko Ito, James C. Kaufman, Dana Klisanin, Catherine McBride-Chang, Jean Mercer, Hal Pashler, Steven Pinker, Richard M. Ryan, Todd K. Shackelford, Daniel Simons, Ian Spence, and Dean Simonton, criminologists Kevin Beaver, James Alan Fox, Roger J.R. Levesque, and Mike A. Males, game design researchers Bob De Schutter and Kurt Squire, communications scholar Thorsten Quandt, and science writer Richard Rhodes. In 2005, a study by Bruce D. Bartholow and colleagues at the University of Missouri-Columbia, University of Michigan, Vrije Universiteit, and University of


title: "Ricky Burns" content: Burns the best and sent him a Celtic strip signed by the whole of the first team as a good luck present. On 4 December 2010, Burns defended his title for the first time against Norwegian boxer Andreas Evensen who held the WBO inter-continental belt at featherweight. The fight, at the Braehead Arena in Glasgow, resulted in another unanimous points win for Burns with the Scotsman also scoring a knockdown in the first round. On 12 March 2011, Burns made his second defence again at the Braehead Arena. His opponent the Ghanaian boxer Joseph Laryea had won the WBO Inter-Continental


title: "Shape of My Heart (Noah and the Whale song)" content: Shape of My Heart (Noah and the Whale song) "Shape of My Heart" is a song by English indie folk band Noah and the Whale, released on 5 May 2008 as the third single from their debut studio album "Peaceful, the World Lays Me Down" (2008). It was re-released on 20 October 2008. The music video was released onto YouTube on 8 April 2008. It is an homage to the many sci-fi and horror movies made from the 1950s to the 1980s by the famous Mexican wrestler El Santo. It has him starting off with a sombrero playing a guitar


title: Tenvi content: Tenvi Tenvi (Korean:"텐비") is a Massively Multiplayer Online Role-playing Game released in 2008, in the same vein as MapleStory in that it was also side-scrolling and 2D, but it included many new features. The main differences are enhanced character sprites and the addition of a ""Guardian"" which followed your character around. On July 24, 2012, Tenvi was shut down, but was reopened as TenviXtreme under TooniLand on November 1, 2012. TooniLand has terminated services as of August 6, 2013. Like most MMORPGs, game play centers on venturing into dungeons and combating monsters in real-time. The players combat monsters and complete


title: "Asclepias cordifolia" content: Asclepias cordifolia Asclepias cordifolia is a species of milkweed commonly called heart-leaf milkweed or purple milkweed (a common name shared with another milkweed, "Asclepias purpurascens"). It is native to the western United States (California, Nevada, Oregon), growing between elevation in the northern Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges. Heart-leaf milkweed was valued by the Native American Miwok tribe for its stems, which they dried and processed into string and rope. Heart-leaf milkweed is a perennial that grows to a height of , with dark red-purple flowers whose hoods are slightly elevated above the base of the corolla. The flower structure is


title: "Asclepias cordifolia" content: unusual—it has five stamens fused into a column, with five circular attachments called 'hoods', and an anther head surrounding the large stigma at the flower's center. The fruit (photo at left) is a follicle with many flat seeds that have silky hairs which disperse easily in the wind. The large opposite leaves are cordate, or heart-shaped. The plant grows in open or shaded woodland, often on rocky slopes and in mixed coniferous forest. The milkweeds are named for the milky sap which exudes from the plant's stem. It blooms from May to July. The species name, "cordifolia" (Latin for 'heart-leaved'),


title: "Asclepias cordifolia" content: refers to the heart-shaped leaves, while the genus name honors the Greek physician Asclepius. Monarch butterfly caterpillars are commonly found on all the milkweeds, including the heart-leaf milkweed. Even after the caterpillar has metamorphosed into a butterfly, the alkaloids they ingest from the plant are retained in the butterfly, making it unpalatable to predators. The Miwok gathered heart-leaf milkweed in the summer and dried it, or collected it in the fall after it was already dry. The dry stems were combed with a loop of willow to draw out the fiber just beneath the very thin outer skin. The fiber


title: "Asclepias cordifolia" content: was wound into balls for storage and later processing. The making of cordage (rope and string) was done entirely by hand, with no tools. "Asclepias" was also used by the Native American Yokut or Mariposa in northern and central California for string or rope. A single Miwok feather skirt or cape was made with approximately 100 feet of cordage, requiring about 500 plant stalks. A 40-foot-long deer net contained about 7,000 feet of cordage, requiring the harvesting of approximately 35,000 plant stalks. The milkweed stalks were burned in the fall to eliminate dead stalks and stimulate the next year's growth,


title: "Asclepias cordifolia" content: and to stimulate flower and seed production. Cordage was typically two-ply, though there are some examples at the Field Museum of three- and four-ply Miwok cordage. Heart-leaf milkweed was also used as a contraceptive and snakebite remedy, though without proper preparation it can cause vomiting in low doses and death in higher doses due to a mix of cardenolides in the sap. At one time it was classified as a noxious weed because of reported negative effects on livestock. Asclepias cordifolia Asclepias cordifolia is a species of milkweed commonly called heart-leaf milkweed or purple milkweed (a common name shared with


title: "Bremanger Church" content: were transferred to the new Bremangerpollen parish that was established on 1 July 1908 and a few days later a ""bedehus"" (chapel) was consecrated for church functions. From the village of Vetvik the journey to church was still more than long enough, and for those who chose not to go by boat, the alternative was a three-hour hike across the mountain. A new church was completed in 1914 to replace the little chapel that was originally used from 1908 until 1914. The stones for the foundation wall were taken from the mountain straight up from the church site. This work