title: Stonehenge content: found at Blick Mead, a reliable year-round spring from Stonehenge. Salisbury Plain was then still wooded, but 4,000 years later, during the earlier Neolithic, people built a causewayed enclosure at Robin Hood's Ball and long barrow tombs in the surrounding landscape. In approximately 3500 BC, a Stonehenge Cursus was built north of the site as the first farmers began to clear the trees and develop the area. A number of other previously overlooked stone or wooden structures and burial mounds may date as far back as 4000 BC. Charcoal from the ‘Blick Mead’ camp from Stonehenge (near the Vespasian's Camp


title: Stonehenge content: site) has been dated to 4000 BC. The University of Buckingham's Humanities Research Institute believes that the community who built Stonehenge lived here over a period of several millennia, making it potentially "one of the pivotal places in the history of the Stonehenge landscape." The first monument consisted of a circular bank and ditch enclosure made of Late Cretaceous (Santonian Age) Seaford Chalk, measuring about in diameter, with a large entrance to the north east and a smaller one to the south. It stood in open grassland on a slightly sloping spot. The builders placed the bones of deer and


title: Stonehenge content: oxen in the bottom of the ditch, as well as some worked flint tools. The bones were considerably older than the antler picks used to dig the ditch, and the people who buried them had looked after them for some time prior to burial. The ditch was continuous but had been dug in sections, like the ditches of the earlier causewayed enclosures in the area. The chalk dug from the ditch was piled up to form the bank. This first stage is dated to around 3100 BC, after which the ditch began to silt up naturally. Within the outer edge


title: Stonehenge content: of the enclosed area is a circle of 56 pits, each about in diameter, known as the Aubrey holes after John Aubrey, the seventeenth-century antiquarian who was thought to have first identified them. The pits may have contained standing timbers creating a timber circle, although there is no excavated evidence of them. A recent excavation has suggested that the Aubrey Holes may have originally been used to erect a bluestone circle. If this were the case, it would advance the earliest known stone structure at the monument by some 500 years. A small outer bank beyond the ditch could also


title: Stonehenge content: date to this period. In 2013 a team of archaeologists, led by Mike Parker Pearson, excavated more than 50,000 cremated bones of 63 individuals buried at Stonehenge. These remains had originally been buried individually in the Aubrey holes, exhumed during a previous excavation conducted by William Hawley in 1920, been considered unimportant by him, and subsequently re-interred together in one hole, Aubrey Hole 7, in 1935. Physical and chemical analysis of the remains has shown that the cremated were almost equally men and women, and included some children. As there was evidence of the underlying chalk beneath the graves being


title: Stonehenge content: crushed by substantial weight, the team concluded that the first bluestones brought from Wales were probably used as grave markers. Radiocarbon dating of the remains has put the date of the site 500 years earlier than previously estimated, to around 3000 BC. A 2018 study of the strontium content of the bones found that many of the individuals buried there around the time of construction had probably come from near the source of the bluestone in Wales and had not extensively lived in the area of Stonehenge before death. Evidence of the second phase is no longer visible. The number


title: Stonehenge content: of postholes dating to the early third millennium BC suggest that some form of timber structure was built within the enclosure during this period. Further standing timbers were placed at the northeast entrance, and a parallel alignment of posts ran inwards from the southern entrance. The postholes are smaller than the Aubrey Holes, being only around in diameter, and are much less regularly spaced. The bank was purposely reduced in height and the ditch continued to silt up. At least twenty-five of the Aubrey Holes are known to have contained later, intrusive, cremation burials dating to the two centuries after


title: Stonehenge content: the monument's inception. It seems that whatever the holes' initial function, it changed to become a funerary one during Phase two. Thirty further cremations were placed in the enclosure's ditch and at other points within the monument, mostly in the eastern half. Stonehenge is therefore interpreted as functioning as an enclosed cremation cemetery at this time, the earliest known cremation cemetery in the British Isles. Fragments of unburnt human bone have also been found in the ditch-fill. Dating evidence is provided by the late Neolithic grooved ware pottery that has been found in connection with the features from this phase.


title: Stonehenge content: Archaeological excavation has indicated that around 2600 BC, the builders abandoned timber in favour of stone and dug two concentric arrays of holes (the Q and R Holes) in the centre of the site. These stone sockets are only partly known (hence on present evidence are sometimes described as forming 'crescents'); however, they could be the remains of a double ring. Again, there is little firm dating evidence for this phase. The holes held up to 80 standing stones (shown blue on the plan), only 43 of which can be traced today. It is generally accepted that the bluestones (some


title: Stonehenge content: of which are made of dolerite, an igneous rock), were transported by the builders from the Preseli Hills, away in modern-day Pembrokeshire in Wales. Another theory is that they were brought much nearer to the site as glacial erratics by the Irish Sea Glacier although there is no evidence of glacial deposition within southern central England. The long distance human transport theory was bolstered in 2011 by the discovery of a megalithic bluestone quarry at Craig Rhos-y-felin, near Crymych in Pembrokeshire, which is the most likely place for some of the stones to have been obtained. Other standing stones may


title: Stonehenge content: well have been small sarsens (sandstone), used later as lintels. The stones, which weighed about two tons, could have been moved by lifting and carrying them on rows of poles and rectangular frameworks of poles, as recorded in China, Japan and India. It is not known whether the stones were taken directly from their quarries to Salisbury Plain or were the result of the removal of a venerated stone circle from Preseli to Salisbury Plain to "merge two sacred centres into one, to unify two politically separate regions, or to legitimise the ancestral identity of migrants moving from one region


title: Stonehenge content: to another". Each monolith measures around in height, between wide and around thick. What was to become known as the Altar Stone is almost certainly derived from the Senni Beds, perhaps from east of Mynydd Preseli in the Brecon Beacons. The north-eastern entrance was widened at this time, with the result that it precisely matched the direction of the midsummer sunrise and midwinter sunset of the period. This phase of the monument was abandoned unfinished, however; the small standing stones were apparently removed and the Q and R holes purposefully backfilled. Even so, the monument appears to have eclipsed the


title: Stonehenge content: site at Avebury in importance towards the end of this phase. The Heelstone, a Tertiary sandstone, may also have been erected outside the north-eastern entrance during this period. It cannot be accurately dated and may have been installed at any time during phase 3. At first it was accompanied by a second stone, which is no longer visible. Two, or possibly three, large portal stones were set up just inside the north-eastern entrance, of which only one, the fallen Slaughter Stone, long, now remains. Other features, loosely dated to phase 3, include the four Station Stones, two of which stood


title: Stonehenge content: atop mounds. The mounds are known as "barrows" although they do not contain burials. Stonehenge Avenue, a parallel pair of ditches and banks leading to the River Avon, was also added. Two ditches similar to Heelstone Ditch circling the Heelstone (which was by then reduced to a single monolith) were later dug around the Station Stones. During the next major phase of activity, 30 enormous Oligocene-Miocene sarsen stones "(shown grey on the plan)" were brought to the site. They may have come from a quarry around north of Stonehenge on the Marlborough Downs, or they may have been collected from


title: Stonehenge content: a "litter" of sarsens on the chalk downs, closer to hand. The stones were dressed and fashioned with mortise and tenon joints before 30 were erected as a diameter circle of standing stones, with a ring of 30 lintel stones resting on top. The lintels were fitted to one another using another woodworking method, the tongue and groove joint. Each standing stone was around high, wide and weighed around 25 tons. Each had clearly been worked with the final visual effect in mind; the orthostats widen slightly towards the top in order that their perspective remains constant when viewed from


title: Stonehenge content: the ground, while the lintel stones curve slightly to continue the circular appearance of the earlier monument. The inward-facing surfaces of the stones are smoother and more finely worked than the outer surfaces. The average thickness of the stones is and the average distance between them is . A total of 75 stones would have been needed to complete the circle (60 stones) and the trilithon horseshoe (15 stones). It was thought the ring might have been left incomplete, but an exceptionally dry summer in 2013 revealed patches of parched grass which may correspond to the location of removed sarsens.


title: Stonehenge content: The lintel stones are each around long, wide and thick. The tops of the lintels are above the ground. Within this circle stood five trilithons of dressed sarsen stone arranged in a horseshoe shape across, with its open end facing north east. These huge stones, ten uprights and five lintels, weigh up to 50 tons each. They were linked using complex jointing. They are arranged symmetrically. The smallest pair of trilithons were around tall, the next pair a little higher, and the largest, single trilithon in the south west corner would have been tall. Only one upright from the Great


title: Stonehenge content: Trilithon still stands, of which is visible and a further is below ground. The images of a 'dagger' and 14 'axeheads' have been carved on one of the sarsens, known as stone 53; further carvings of axeheads have been seen on the outer faces of stones 3, 4, and 5. The carvings are difficult to date, but are morphologically similar to late Bronze Age weapons. Early 21st-century laser scanning of the carvings supports this interpretation. The pair of trilithons in the north east are smallest, measuring around in height; the largest, which is in the south west of the horseshoe,


title: Stonehenge content: is almost tall. This ambitious phase has been radiocarbon dated to between 2600 and 2400 BC, slightly earlier than the Stonehenge Archer, discovered in the outer ditch of the monument in 1978, and the two sets of burials, known as the Amesbury Archer and the Boscombe Bowmen, discovered to the west. Analysis of animal teeth found away at Durrington Walls, thought by Parker Pearson to be the 'builders camp', suggests that, during some period between 2600 and 2400 BC, as many as 4,000 people gathered at the site for the mid-winter and mid-summer festivals; the evidence showed that the animals


title: Stonehenge content: had been slaughtered around nine months or 15 months after their spring birth. Strontium isotope analysis of the animal teeth showed that some had been brought from as far afield as the Scottish Highlands for the celebrations. At about the same time, a large timber circle and a second avenue were constructed at Durrington Walls overlooking the River Avon. The timber circle was oriented towards the rising sun on the midwinter solstice, opposing the solar alignments at Stonehenge. The avenue was aligned with the setting sun on the summer solstice and led from the river to the timber circle. Evidence


title: Stonehenge content: of huge fires on the banks of the Avon between the two avenues also suggests that both circles were linked. They were perhaps used as a procession route on the longest and shortest days of the year. Parker Pearson speculates that the wooden circle at Durrington Walls was the centre of a 'land of the living', whilst the stone circle represented a 'land of the dead', with the Avon serving as a journey between the two. Later in the Bronze Age, although the exact details of activities during this period are still unclear, the bluestones appear to have been re-erected.


title: Stonehenge content: They were placed within the outer sarsen circle and may have been trimmed in some way. Like the sarsens, a few have timber-working style cuts in them suggesting that, during this phase, they may have been linked with lintels and were part of a larger structure. This phase saw further rearrangement of the bluestones. They were arranged in a circle between the two rings of sarsens and in an oval at the centre of the inner ring. Some archaeologists argue that some of these bluestones were from a second group brought from Wales. All the stones formed well-spaced uprights without


title: Stonehenge content: any of the linking lintels inferred in Stonehenge 3 III. The Altar Stone may have been moved within the oval at this time and re-erected vertically. Although this would seem the most impressive phase of work, Stonehenge 3 IV was rather shabbily built compared to its immediate predecessors, as the newly re-installed bluestones were not well-founded and began to fall over. However, only minor changes were made after this phase. Soon afterwards, the north eastern section of the Phase 3 IV bluestone circle was removed, creating a horseshoe-shaped setting (the Bluestone Horseshoe) which mirrored the shape of the central sarsen


title: Stonehenge content: Trilithons. This phase is contemporary with the Seahenge site in Norfolk. The Y and Z Holes are the last known construction at Stonehenge, built about 1600 BC, and the last usage of it was probably during the Iron Age. Roman coins and medieval artefacts have all been found in or around the monument but it is unknown if the monument was in continuous use throughout British prehistory and beyond, or exactly how it would have been used. Notable is the massive Iron Age hillfort Vespasian's Camp built alongside the Avenue near the Avon. A decapitated seventh century Saxon man was


title: Stonehenge content: excavated from Stonehenge in 1923. The site was known to scholars during the Middle Ages and since then it has been studied and adopted by numerous groups. Stonehenge was produced by a culture that left no written records. Many aspects of Stonehenge, such as how it was built and which purposes it was used for, remain subject to debate. A number of myths surround the stones. The site, specifically the great trilithon, the encompassing horseshoe arrangement of the five central trilithons, the heel stone, and the embanked avenue, are aligned to the sunset of the winter solstice and the opposing


title: Stonehenge content: sunrise of the summer solstice. A natural landform at the monument's location followed this line, and may have inspired its construction. The excavated remains of culled animal bones suggest that people may have gathered at the site for the winter rather than the summer. Further astronomical associations, and the precise astronomical significance of the site for its people, are a matter of speculation and debate. There is little or no direct evidence revealing the construction techniques used by the Stonehenge builders. Over the years, various authors have suggested that supernatural or anachronistic methods were used, usually asserting that the stones


title: Stonehenge content: were impossible to move otherwise due to their massive size. However, conventional techniques, using Neolithic technology as basic as shear legs, have been demonstrably effective at moving and placing stones of a similar size. How the stones could be transported by a prehistoric people without the aid of the wheel or a pulley system is not known. The most common theory of how prehistoric people moved megaliths has them creating a track of logs on which the large stones were rolled along. Another megalith transport theory involves the use of a type of sleigh running on a track greased with


title: Stonehenge content: animal fat. Such an experiment with a sleigh carrying a 40-ton slab of stone was successful near Stonehenge in 1995. A team of more than 100 workers managed to push and pull the slab along the journey from Marlborough Downs. Proposed functions for the site include usage as an astronomical observatory or as a religious site. More recently two major new theories have been proposed. Professor Geoffrey Wainwright, president of the Society of Antiquaries of London, and Timothy Darvill, of Bournemouth University, have suggested that Stonehenge was a place of healing—the primeval equivalent of Lourdes. They argue that this accounts


title: Stonehenge content: for the high number of burials in the area and for the evidence of trauma deformity in some of the graves. However, they do concede that the site was probably multifunctional and used for ancestor worship as well. Isotope analysis indicates that some of the buried individuals were from other regions. A teenage boy buried approximately 1550 BC was raised near the Mediterranean Sea; a metal worker from 2300 BC dubbed the "Amesbury Archer" grew up near the alpine foothills of Germany; and the "Boscombe Bowmen" probably arrived from Wales or Brittany, France. On the other hand, Mike Parker Pearson


title: Stonehenge content: of Sheffield University has suggested that Stonehenge was part of a ritual landscape and was joined to Durrington Walls by their corresponding avenues and the River Avon. He suggests that the area around Durrington Walls Henge was a place of the living, whilst Stonehenge was a domain of the dead. A journey along the Avon to reach Stonehenge was part of a ritual passage from life to death, to celebrate past ancestors and the recently deceased. Both explanations were first mooted in the twelfth century by Geoffrey of Monmouth, who extolled the curative properties of the stones and was also


title: Stonehenge content: the first to advance the idea that Stonehenge was constructed as a funerary monument. Whatever religious, mystical or spiritual elements were central to Stonehenge, its design includes a celestial observatory function, which might have allowed prediction of eclipse, solstice, equinox and other celestial events important to a contemporary religion. There are other hypotheses and theories. According to a team of British researchers led by Mike Parker Pearson of the University of Sheffield, Stonehenge may have been built as a symbol of "peace and unity", indicated in part by the fact that at the time of its construction, Britain's Neolithic people


title: Stonehenge content: were experiencing a period of cultural unification. Researchers from the Royal College of Art in London have discovered that the monument’s bluestones possess "unusual acoustic properties" — when struck they respond with a "loud clanging noise". According to Paul Devereux, editor of the journal "Time and Mind: The Journal of Archaeology, Consciousness and Culture", this idea could explain why certain bluestones were hauled nearly —a major technical accomplishment at the time. In certain ancient cultures rocks that ring out, known as lithophones, were believed to contain mystic or healing powers, and Stonehenge has a history of association with rituals. The


title: Stonehenge content: presence of these "ringing rocks" seems to support the hypothesis that Stonehenge was a "place for healing", as has been pointed out by Bournemouth University archaeologist Timothy Darvill, who consulted with the researchers. The bluestones of Stonehenge were quarried near a town in Wales called Maenclochog, which means "ringing rock", where the local bluestones were used as church bells until the 18th century. The Heel Stone lies northeast of the sarsen circle, beside the end portion of Stonehenge Avenue. It is a rough stone, above ground, leaning inwards towards the stone circle. It has been known by many names in


title: Stonehenge content: the past, including "Friar's Heel" and "Sun-stone". At summer solstice an observer standing within the stone circle, looking northeast through the entrance, would see the Sun rise in the approximate direction of the heel stone, and the sun has often been photographed over it. A folk tale relates the origin of the Friar's Heel reference. The name is not unique; there was a monolith with the same name recorded in the nineteenth century by antiquarian Charles Warne at Long Bredy in Dorset. In the twelfth century, Geoffrey of Monmouth included a fanciful story in his "Historia Regum Britanniae" ("History of


title: Stonehenge content: the Kings of Britain") that attributed the monument's construction to the wizard Merlin. Geoffrey's story spread widely, appearing in more and less elaborate form in adaptations of his work such as Wace's Norman French "Roman de Brut", Layamon's Middle English "Brut", and the Welsh "Brut y Brenhinedd". According to Geoffrey, the rocks of Stonehenge were healing rocks, called the Giant's dance, which Giants had brought from Africa to Ireland for their healing properties. The fifth-century king Aurelius Ambrosius wished to erect a memorial to 3,000 nobles slain in battle against the Saxons and buried at Salisbury, and, at Merlin's advice,


title: Stonehenge content: chose Stonehenge. The king sent Merlin, Uther Pendragon (King Arthur's father), and 15,000 knights, to remove it from Ireland, where it had been constructed on Mount Killaraus by the Giants. They slew 7,000 Irish, but as the knights tried to move the rocks with ropes and force, they failed. Then Merlin, using "gear" and skill, easily dismantled the stones and sent them over to Britain, where Stonehenge was dedicated. After it had been rebuilt near Amesbury, Geoffrey further narrates how first Ambrosius Aurelianus, then Uther Pendragon, and finally Constantine III, were buried inside the "Giants' Ring of Stonehenge". In another


title: Stonehenge content: legend of Saxons and Britons, in 472, the invading king Hengist invited Brythonic warriors to a feast, but treacherously ordered his men to draw their weapons from concealment and fall upon the guests, killing 420 of them. Hengist erected the stone monument—Stonehenge—on the site to show his remorse for the deed. Stonehenge has changed ownership several times since King Henry VIII acquired Amesbury Abbey and its surrounding lands. In 1540 Henry gave the estate to the Earl of Hertford. It subsequently passed to Lord Carleton and then the Marquess of Queensberry. The Antrobus family of Cheshire bought the estate in


title: Stonehenge content: 1824. During the First World War an aerodrome (Royal Flying Corps "No. 1 School of Aerial Navigation and Bomb Dropping") was built on the downs just to the west of the circle and, in the dry valley at Stonehenge Bottom, a main road junction was built, along with several cottages and a cafe. The Antrobus family sold the site after their last heir was killed in the fighting in France. The auction by Knight Frank & Rutley estate agents in Salisbury was held on 21 September 1915 and included "Lot 15. Stonehenge with about 30 acres, 2 rods, 37 perches


title: Stonehenge content: [12.44 ha] of adjoining downland." Cecil Chubb bought the site for £6,600 and gave it to the nation three years later. Although it has been speculated that he purchased it at the suggestion of—or even as a present for—his wife, in fact he bought it on a whim, as he believed a local man should be the new owner. In the late 1920s a nationwide appeal was launched to save Stonehenge from the encroachment of the modern buildings that had begun to rise around it. By 1928 the land around the monument had been purchased with the appeal donations, and


title: Stonehenge content: given to the National Trust to preserve. The buildings were removed (although the roads were not), and the land returned to agriculture. More recently the land has been part of a grassland reversion scheme, returning the surrounding fields to native chalk grassland. During the twentieth century, Stonehenge began to revive as a place of religious significance, this time by adherents of Neopaganism and New Age beliefs, particularly the Neo-druids. The historian Ronald Hutton would later remark that "it was a great, and potentially uncomfortable, irony that modern Druids had arrived at Stonehenge just as archaeologists were evicting the ancient Druids


title: Stonehenge content: from it." The first such Neo-druidic group to make use of the megalithic monument was the Ancient Order of Druids, who performed a mass initiation ceremony there in August 1905, in which they admitted 259 new members into their organisation. This assembly was largely ridiculed in the press, who mocked the fact that the Neo-druids were dressed up in costumes consisting of white robes and fake beards. Between 1972 and 1984, Stonehenge was the site of the Stonehenge Free Festival. After the Battle of the Beanfield in 1985, this use of the site was stopped for several years and ritual


title: Stonehenge content: use of Stonehenge is now heavily restricted. Some Druids have arranged an assembling of monuments styled on Stonehenge in other parts of the world as a form of Druidist worship. When Stonehenge was first opened to the public it was possible to walk among and even climb on the stones, but the stones were roped off in 1977 as a result of serious erosion. Visitors are no longer permitted to touch the stones, but are able to walk around the monument from a short distance away. English Heritage does, however, permit access during the summer and winter solstice, and the


title: Stonehenge content: spring and autumn equinox. Additionally, visitors can make special bookings to access the stones throughout the year. The access situation and the proximity of the two roads has drawn widespread criticism, highlighted by a 2006 National Geographic survey. In the survey of conditions at 94 leading World Heritage Sites, 400 conservation and tourism experts ranked Stonehenge 75th in the list of destinations, declaring it to be "in moderate trouble". As motorised traffic increased, the setting of the monument began to be affected by the proximity of the two roads on either side—the A344 to Shrewton on the north side, and


title: Stonehenge content: the A303 to Winterbourne Stoke to the south. Plans to upgrade the A303 and close the A344 to restore the vista from the stones have been considered since the monument became a World Heritage Site. However, the controversy surrounding expensive re-routing of the roads has led to the scheme being cancelled on multiple occasions. On 6 December 2007, it was announced that extensive plans to build Stonehenge road tunnel under the landscape and create a permanent visitors' centre had been cancelled. On 13 May 2009, the government gave approval for a £25 million scheme to create a smaller visitors' centre


title: Stonehenge content: and close the A344, although this was dependent on funding and local authority planning consent. On 20 January 2010 Wiltshire Council granted planning permission for a centre to the west and English Heritage confirmed that funds to build it would be available, supported by a £10m grant from the Heritage Lottery Fund. On 23 June 2013 the A344 was closed to begin the work of removing the section of road and replacing it with grass. The centre, designed by Denton Corker Marshall, opened to the public on 18 December 2013. The earlier rituals were complemented by the Stonehenge Free Festival,


title: Stonehenge content: loosely organised by the Politantric Circle, held between 1972 and 1984, during which time the number of midsummer visitors had risen to around 30,000. However, in 1985 the site was closed to festivalgoers by a High Court injunction. A consequence of the end of the festival in 1985 was the violent confrontation between the police and New Age travellers that became known as the Battle of the Beanfield when police blockaded a convoy of travellers to prevent them from approaching Stonehenge. Beginning in 1985, the year of the Battle, no access was allowed into the stones at Stonehenge for any


title: Stonehenge content: religious reason. This "exclusion-zone" policy continued for almost fifteen years: until just before the arrival of the twenty-first century, visitors were not allowed to go into the stones at times of religious significance, the winter and summer solstices, and the vernal and autumnal equinoxes. However, following a European Court of Human Rights ruling obtained by campaigners such as Arthur Uther Pendragon, the restrictions were lifted. The ruling recognizes that members of any genuine religion have a right to worship in their own church, and Stonehenge is a place of worship to Neo-Druids, Pagans and other "Earth based' or 'old' religions.


title: Stonehenge content: The Roundtable meetings include members of the Wiltshire Police force, National Trust, English Heritage, Pagans, Druids, Spiritualists and others. At the Summer Solstice 2003, which fell over a weekend, over 30,000 people attended a gathering at and in the stones. The 2004 gathering was smaller (around 21,000 people). Throughout recorded history, Stonehenge and its surrounding monuments have attracted attention from antiquarians and archaeologists. John Aubrey was one of the first to examine the site with a scientific eye in 1666, and in his plan of the monument, he recorded the pits that now bear his name, the Aubrey holes. William


title: Stonehenge content: Stukeley continued Aubrey’s work in the early eighteenth century, but took an interest in the surrounding monuments as well, identifying (somewhat incorrectly) the Cursus and the Avenue. He also began the excavation of many of the barrows in the area, and it was his interpretation of the landscape that associated it with the Druids. Stukeley was so fascinated with Druids that he originally named Disc Barrows as Druids' Barrows. The most accurate early plan of Stonehenge was that made by Bath architect John Wood in 1740. His original annotated survey has recently been computer redrawn and published. Importantly Wood’s plan


title: Stonehenge content: was made before the collapse of the southwest trilithon, which fell in 1797 and was restored in 1958. William Cunnington was the next to tackle the area in the early nineteenth century. He excavated some 24 barrows before digging in and around the stones and discovered charred wood, animal bones, pottery and urns. He also identified the hole in which the Slaughter Stone once stood. Richard Colt Hoare supported Cunnington's work and excavated some 379 barrows on Salisbury Plain including on some 200 in the area around the Stones, some excavated in conjunction with William Coxe. To alert future diggers


title: Stonehenge content: to their work they were careful to leave initialled metal tokens in each barrow they opened. Cunnington's finds are displayed at the Wiltshire Museum. In 1877 Charles Darwin dabbled in archaeology at the stones, experimenting with the rate at which remains sink into the earth for his book "The Formation of Vegetable Mould Through the Action of Worms". William Gowland oversaw the first major restoration of the monument in 1901 which involved the straightening and concrete setting of sarsen stone number 56 which was in danger of falling. In straightening the stone he moved it about half a metre from


title: Stonehenge content: its original position. Gowland also took the opportunity to further excavate the monument in what was the most scientific dig to date, revealing more about the erection of the stones than the previous 100 years of work had done. During the 1920 restoration William Hawley, who had excavated nearby Old Sarum, excavated the base of six stones and the outer ditch. He also located a bottle of port in the Slaughter Stone socket left by Cunnington, helped to rediscover Aubrey's pits inside the bank and located the concentric circular holes outside the Sarsen Circle called the Y and Z Holes.


title: Stonehenge content: Richard Atkinson, Stuart Piggott and John F.S. Stone re-excavated much of Hawley's work in the 1940s and 1950s, and discovered the carved axes and daggers on the Sarsen Stones. Atkinson's work was instrumental in furthering the understanding of the three major phases of the monument's construction. In 1958 the stones were restored again, when three of the standing sarsens were re-erected and set in concrete bases. The last restoration was carried out in 1963 after stone 23 of the Sarsen Circle fell over. It was again re-erected, and the opportunity was taken to concrete three more stones. Later archaeologists, including


title: Stonehenge content: Christopher Chippindale of the Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Cambridge and Brian Edwards of the University of the West of England, campaigned to give the public more knowledge of the various restorations and in 2004 English Heritage included pictures of the work in progress in its book "Stonehenge: A History in Photographs". In 1966 and 1967, in advance of a new car park being built at the site, the area of land immediately northwest of the stones was excavated by Faith and Lance Vatcher. They discovered the Mesolithic postholes dating from between 7000 and 8000 BC, as well


title: Stonehenge content: as a length of a palisade ditch – a V-cut ditch into which timber posts had been inserted that remained there until they rotted away. Subsequent aerial archaeology suggests that this ditch runs from the west to the north of Stonehenge, near the avenue. Excavations were once again carried out in 1978 by Atkinson and John Evans during which they discovered the remains of the Stonehenge Archer in the outer ditch, and in 1979 rescue archaeology was needed alongside the Heel Stone after a cable-laying ditch was mistakenly dug on the roadside, revealing a new stone hole next to the


title: Stonehenge content: Heel Stone. In the early 1980s Julian Richards led the Stonehenge Environs Project, a detailed study of the surrounding landscape. The project was able to successfully date such features as the Lesser Cursus, Coneybury Henge and several other smaller features. In 1993 the way that Stonehenge was presented to the public was called 'a national disgrace' by the House of Commons Public Accounts Committee. Part of English Heritage's response to this criticism was to commission research to collate and bring together all the archaeological work conducted at the monument up to this date. This two-year research project resulted in the


title: Stonehenge content: publication in 1995 of the monograph "Stonehenge in its landscape", which was the first publication presenting the complex stratigraphy and the finds recovered from the site. It presented a rephasing of the monument. More recent excavations include a series of digs held between 2003 and 2008 known as the Stonehenge Riverside Project, led by Mike Parker Pearson. This project mainly investigated other monuments in the landscape and their relationship to the stones — notably Durrington Walls, where another "Avenue" leading to the River Avon was discovered. The point where the Stonehenge Avenue meets the river was also excavated, and revealed


title: Stonehenge content: a previously unknown circular area which probably housed four further stones, most likely as a marker for the starting point of the avenue. In April 2008 Tim Darvill of the University of Bournemouth and Geoff Wainwright of the Society of Antiquaries, began another dig inside the stone circle to retrieve dateable fragments of the original bluestone pillars. They were able to date the erection of some bluestones to 2300 BC, although this may not reflect the earliest erection of stones at Stonehenge. They also discovered organic material from 7000 BC, which, along with the Mesolithic postholes, adds support for the


title: Stonehenge content: site having been in use at least 4,000 years before Stonehenge was started. In August and September 2008, as part of the Riverside Project, Julian Richards and Mike Pitts excavated Aubrey Hole 7, removing the cremated remains from several Aubrey Holes that had been excavated by Hawley in the 1920s, and re-interred in 1935. A licence for the removal of human remains at Stonehenge had been granted by the Ministry of Justice in May 2008, in accordance with the "Statement on burial law and archaeology" issued in May 2008. One of the conditions of the licence was that the remains


title: Stonehenge content: should be reinterred within two years and that in the intervening period they should be kept safely, privately and decently. A new landscape investigation was conducted in April 2009. A shallow mound, rising to about was identified between stones 54 (inner circle) and 10 (outer circle), clearly separated from the natural slope. It has not been dated but speculation that it represents careless backfilling following earlier excavations seems disproved by its representation in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century illustrations. Indeed, there is some evidence that, as an uncommon geological feature, it could have been deliberately incorporated into the monument at the outset.


title: Stonehenge content: A circular, shallow bank, little more than high, was found between the Y and Z hole circles, with a further bank lying inside the "Z" circle. These are interpreted as the spread of spoil from the original Y and Z holes, or more speculatively as hedge banks from vegetation deliberately planted to screen the activities within. In July 2010, the Stonehenge Hidden Landscape Project discovered a "henge-like" monument less than away from the main site. This new hengiform monument was subsequently revealed to be located "at the site of Amesbury 50", a round barrow in the Cursus Barrows group. On


title: Stonehenge content: 26 November 2011, archaeologists from University of Birmingham announced the discovery of evidence of two huge pits positioned within the Stonehenge Cursus pathway, aligned in celestial position towards midsummer sunrise and sunset when viewed from the Heel Stone. The new discovery is part of the Stonehenge Hidden Landscape Project which began in the summer of 2010. The project uses non-invasive geophysical imaging technique to reveal and visually recreate the landscape. According to team leader Vince Gaffney, this discovery may provide a direct link between the rituals and astronomical events to activities within the Cursus at Stonehenge. On 18 December 2011,


title: Stonehenge content: geologists from University of Leicester and the National Museum of Wales announced the discovery of the exact source of some of the rhyolite fragments found in the Stonehenge debitage. These fragments do not seem to match any of the standing stones or bluestone stumps. The researchers have identified the source as a long rock outcrop called Craig Rhos-y-Felin (), near Pont Saeson in north Pembrokeshire, located from Stonehenge. On 10 September 2014 the University of Birmingham announced findings including evidence of adjacent stone and wooden structures and burial mounds, overlooked previously, that may date as far back as 4000 BC.


title: Stonehenge content: An area extending to was studied to a depth of three metres with ground-penetrating radar equipment. As many as seventeen new monuments, revealed nearby, may be Late Neolithic monuments that resemble Stonehenge. The interpretation suggests a complex of numerous related monuments. Also included in the discovery is that the cursus track is terminated by two wide extremely deep pits, whose purpose is still a mystery. Stonehenge Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument in Wiltshire, England, west of Amesbury. It consists of a ring of standing stones, with each standing stone around high, wide and weighing around 25 tons. The stones are


title: Sailing content: is a function of both the craft's point of sail and how the sail is adjusted with respect to the apparent wind. As the lift generated by a sail increases, so does lift-induced drag, which together with parasitic drag constitute total "drag", which acts in a direction "parallel" to the incident airstream. This occurs as the angle of attack increases with sail trim or change of course and causes the lift coefficient to increase up to the point of aerodynamic stall along with the lift-induced drag coefficient. At the onset of stall, lift is abruptly decreased, as is lift-induced drag.


title: Supernova content: and only four of those are in the Milky Way. A number of close or well known stars have been identified as possible core collapse supernova candidates: the red supergiants Antares and Betelgeuse; the yellow hypergiant Rho Cassiopeiae; the luminous blue variable Eta Carinae that has already produced a supernova impostor; and the brightest component, a Wolf–Rayet star, in the Regor or Gamma Velorum system, Others have gained notoriety as possible, although not very likely, progenitors for a gamma-ray burst; for example WR 104. Identification of candidates for a Type Ia supernova is much more speculative. Any binary with an


title: Socialism content: Party. While initially formed in opposition to the "Old Left" Democratic Party, groups composing the New Left gradually became central players in the Democratic coalition. The protests of 1968 represented a worldwide escalation of social conflicts, predominantly characterised by popular rebellions against military, capitalist and bureaucratic elites who responded with an escalation of political repression. These protests marked a turning point for the civil rights movement in the United States, which produced revolutionary movements like the Black Panther Party; the prominent civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. organised the "Poor People's Campaign" to address issues of economic justice, while


title: Syntax content: to question fundamental assumptions about the relationship between language and logic. It became apparent that there was no such thing as the most natural way to express a thought, and therefore logic could no longer be relied upon as a basis for studying the structure of language. The Port-Royal grammar modeled the study of syntax upon that of logic. (Indeed, large parts of the Port-Royal Logic were copied or adapted from the "Grammaire générale".) Syntactic categories were identified with logical ones, and all sentences were analyzed in terms of "subject – copula – predicate". Initially, this view was adopted even


title: Seafood content: life may be referred to as seafood. For the sake of completeness, this article includes all edible aquatic life. The harvesting of wild seafood is usually known as fishing or hunting, and the cultivation and farming of seafood is known as aquaculture, or fish farming in the case of fish. Seafood is often distinguished from meat, although it is still animal and is excluded in a strict vegetarian diet. Seafood is an important source of protein in many diets around the world, especially in coastal areas. Most of the seafood harvest is consumed by humans, but a significant proportion is


title: "Demographics of Sweden" content: people in 2040 and 14,388,478 in 2080. As of 2017, Statistics Sweden reported that around 2,439,007 or 24.1% of the inhabitants of Sweden were from a foreign background: that is, each such person either had been born abroad or had been born in Sweden to two parents who themselves had both been born abroad. Also taking into account people with only one parent born abroad, this number increases to almost a third in 2017. According to Eurostat, in 2010, there were 1.33 million foreign-born residents in Sweden, corresponding to 14.3% of the total population. Of these, 859,000 (64.3%) were born


title: Spearmint content: Spearmint Spearmint (binomial "Mentha spicata", synonym "Mentha viridis"), also known as garden mint, common mint, lamb mint and mackerel mint, is a species of mint native to the Balkan Peninsula and Turkey. It is naturalized in much of Europe and Asia (Middle East, Himalayas, China etc.), parts of northern and western Africa, North America, and South America, as well as various oceanic islands. Spearmint is a herbaceous, rhizomatous, perennial plant growing 30–100 cm tall, with variably hairless to hairy stems and foliage, and a wide-spreading fleshy underground rhizome. The leaves are 5–9 cm long and 1.5–3 cm broad, with a


title: Spearmint content: serrated margin. The stem is square-shaped, a trademark of the mint family of herbs. Spearmint produces flowers in slender spikes, each flower pink or white, 2.5–3 mm long, and broad. The plant flowers from the months of July to September. The spearmint plant has relatively larger pollen grains and seeds, which measure 37-42 mm and 0.62-0.90 mm respectively. Hybrids involving spearmint include "Mentha × piperita" (peppermint; hybrid with "Mentha aquatica"), "Mentha × gracilis" (ginger mint, syn. "M. cardiaca"; hybrid with "Mentha arvensis"), and "Mentha × villosa" (large apple mint, hybrid with "Mentha suaveolens"). The name 'spear' mint derives from the


title: Spearmint content: pointed leaf tips. The plant is a triploid species (2n=48), which could be a consequence of hybridization and chromosome doubling. "Mentha longifolia" and "Mentha suaveolens" (2n=24) are suspected to be the contributing diploid species. John Gerard's "Herbal" (1597) states that: "It is good against watering eyes and all manner of break outs on the head and sores. It is applied with salt to the biting of mad dogs," and that "They lay it on the stinging of wasps and bees with good success." He also mentions that "the smell rejoice the heart of man", for which cause they used to


title: Spearmint content: strew it in chambers and places of recreation, pleasure and repose, where feasts and banquets are made." Mention of spearmint dates back to at least the first century AD, with references from naturalist Pliny and later mention in the bible . Further records show descriptions of mint in ancient mythology. Findings of early versions of toothpaste using mint in the 14 century suggest widespread domestication by this point. It was introduced into England through the Romans by the 15 century, and the “Father of British Botany”, of the surname Turner, mentions mint as being good for ‘ye stomack’. Spearmint is


title: Spearmint content: document as being an important cash crop in Connecticut during the period of the American Revolution, at which time mint teas were noted as being a popular drink due to them not being taxed. Research suggests that Spearmint is an allopolyploid derivation of "M". "longifolia" and "M". "suaveolens", with varied leaf blade dimensions, prominence of leaf veins, and pubescence. While spearmint is known to be native to Europe and Asia, its true natural range is unknown due to early domestication. Spearmint can readily adapt to grow in various types of soil. Spearmint tends to thrive with plenty of organic material


title: Spearmint content: in full sun to part shade. The plant is also known to be found in moist habitats such as swamps or creeks, where the soil is sand or clay. Spearmint ideally thrives in soils that are moist, rich in nutrients and organic matter, have a crumbly texture, and planted deeply. pH range should be between 6.0 —7.5. Fungal diseases are common diseases in spearmint. Two main diseases are rust and leaf spot. "Puccinia menthae" is a fungus that causes the disease called “rust”. Rust affects the leaves of spearmint by producing pustules inducing the leaves to fall off. Leaf spot


title: Spearmint content: is a fungal disease that occurs when "Alternaria alernata"is present on the spearmint leaves. The infection looks like circular dark spot on the top side of the leaf. Other fungi that cause disease in spearmint are "Rhizoctonia solani", "Verticillium dahliae", "Phoma stasseri", and "Erysiphe cischoracearum". Some nematode diseases in spearmint include root knot and root lesions. Nematode species that cause root knots in this plant are various "Meloidogyne" species. The other nematode species are "Pratylenchus" which cause root lesions. Spearmint can be infected by tobacco ring spot virus. This virus can lead to stunted plant growth and deformation of the


title: Spearmint content: leaves in this plant. In China, spearmint have been seen with mosaic symptoms and deformed leaves. This is an indication that the plant can also be infected by the viruses, cucumber mosaic and tomato aspermy. Spearmint grows well in nearly all temperate climates. Gardeners often grow it in pots or planters due to its invasive, spreading rhizomes. Spearmint leaves can be used fresh, dried, or frozen. They can also be preserved in salt, sugar, sugar syrup, alcohol, or oil. The leaves lose their aromatic appeal after the plant flowers. It can be dried by cutting just before, or right (at


title: Spearmint content: peak) as the flowers open, about one-half to three-quarters the way down the stalk (leaving smaller shoots room to grow). Some dispute exists as to what drying method works best; some prefer different materials (such as plastic or cloth) and different lighting conditions (such as darkness or sunlight). Spearmint is used for its aromatic oil, referred to as oil of spearmint. The most abundant compound in spearmint oil is R-(–)-carvone, which gives spearmint its distinctive smell. Spearmint oil also contains significant amounts of limonene, dihydrocarvone, and 1,8-cineol. Unlike oil of peppermint, oil of spearmint contains minimal amounts of menthol and


title: Spearmint content: menthone. It is used as a flavoring for toothpaste and confectionery, and is sometimes added to shampoos and soaps. Spearmint has been used traditionally as medicines for minor ailments such as fevers, and digestive disorders. There is research on spearmint extracts in the treatment of gout and as an antiemetic. There is research on the possible cytotoxic effects of spearmint on leukemia cells. Spearmint essential oil has had success as a larvicide against mosquitos. Using spearmint as a larvicide would be a greener alternative to synthetic insecticides due to their toxicity and negative affect to the environment. Used as a


title: Spearmint content: fumigant, spearmint essential oil is an effective insecticide against adult moths. The main chemical component of spearmint is the terpenoid carvone, which has been shown to aid in the inhibition of tumors. Perillyl alcohol, an additional terpenoid found in lower concentrations in spearmint, positively effects the regulation of various cell substances involved in cell growth and differentiation. Studies on spearmint have shown varying results on the antioxidant effects of the plant and its extracts. Results have ranged from spearmint essential oil displaying considerable free radical scavenging activity to no antioxidant activity in spearmint essential oil, but strong activity in spearmint


title: Spearmint content: methanolic extract. Antioxidant activity has been shown to be significantly higher in spearmint that is dried at lower temperatures rather than high . It is suggested this is due to the degradation of phenolics at high temperatures. In experiments demonstrating antioxidant properties in spearmint oil, the major component, carvone, alone showed lower antioxidant activity. Spearmint has been historically used for its antimicrobial activity, which is likely due to the high concentration of carvone. Its antibacterial activity has been compared to, and is even said to surpass, that of amoxicillin, penicillin, and streptomycin. Spearmint oil is found to have higher activity


title: Spearmint content: against Gram-positive bacteria compared to Gram-negative bacteria, which may be due to differing sensitivities to oils. The degree of antimicrobial activity varies with the type of microorganism tested. Studies have found significant anti-androgen effects in spearmint, specifically following routine spearmint herbal tea ingestion. Antispasmodic effects have been displayed in spearmint oil and carvone, the main chemical component of spearmint. Spearmint is also associated with improvements in oral and gastrointestinal health. Spearmint leaves are infused in water to make spearmint tea. Spearmint is an ingredient of Maghrebi mint tea. Grown in the mountainous regions of Morocco, this variety of mint possesses


title: Spearmint content: a clear, pungent, but mild aroma. Spearmint is an ingredient in several mixed drinks, such as the mojito and mint julep. Sweet tea, iced and flavored with spearmint, is a summer tradition in the Southern United States. Spearmint Spearmint (binomial "Mentha spicata", synonym "Mentha viridis"), also known as garden mint, common mint, lamb mint and mackerel mint, is a species of mint native to the Balkan Peninsula and Turkey. It is naturalized in much of Europe and Asia (Middle East, Himalayas, China etc.), parts of northern and western Africa, North America, and South America, as well as various oceanic islands.


title: "Submarine sandwich" content: Submarine sandwich A submarine sandwich, also known as a sub, hoagie, hero, grinder, po'boy or Italian sandwich, is the name given in the United States to a type of sandwich that consists of a length of bread or roll split crosswise and filled with a variety of meats, cheeses, vegetables, and condiments. The sandwich has no standardized name, with over a dozen variations used around the world. Larger submarine sandwiches, particularly those that are longer in length or overstuffed with greater quantities of ingredients than usual, are sometimes called battleship sandwiches, flattop sandwiches or destroyer sandwiches. The terms submarine and


title: "Submarine sandwich" content: sub are widespread and not assignable to any certain region, though many of the localized terms are clustered in the northeastern United States. The Italian sandwich originated in several different Italian American communities in the Northeastern United States from the late 19th to mid-20th centuries. Portland, Maine claims to be the birthplace of the Italian sandwich and it is considered Maine's signature sandwich. The popularity of this Italian-American cuisine has grown from its origins in Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island to most parts of the United States, Canada, and with the advent of


title: "Submarine sandwich" content: chain restaurants, is now available in many parts of the world. The use of the term "submarine" or "sub" (after the resemblance of the roll to the shape of a submarine) is widespread. While some accounts source the name as originating in New London, Connecticut (site of the United States Navy's primary submarine base) during World War II, written advertisements from 1940 in Wilmington, Delaware indicate the term originated prior to the United States' entry into World War II. One theory says the submarine was brought to the U.S. by Dominic Conti (1874–1954), an Italian immigrant who came to New


title: "Submarine sandwich" content: York in the early 1900s. He is said to have named it after seeing the recovered 1901 submarine called "Fenian Ram" in the Paterson Museum of New Jersey in 1928. His granddaughter has stated the following: "My grandfather came to this country circa 1895 from Montella, Italy. Around 1910, he started his grocery store, called Dominic Conti's Grocery Store, on Mill Street in Paterson, New Jersey where he was selling the traditional Italian sandwiches. His sandwiches were made from a recipe he brought with him from Italy, which consisted of a long crust roll, filled with cold cuts, topped with


title: "Submarine sandwich" content: lettuce, tomatoes, peppers, onions, oil, vinegar, Italian herbs and spices, salt, and pepper. The sandwich started with a layer of cheese and ended with a layer of cheese (this was so the bread wouldn't get soggy)." The term "hoagie" originated in the Philadelphia area. "The Philadelphia Bulletin" reported, in 1953, that Italians working at the World War I–era shipyard in Philadelphia known as Hog Island, where emergency shipping was produced for the war effort, introduced the sandwich by putting various meats, cheeses, and lettuce between two slices of bread. This became known as the "Hog Island" sandwich; shortened to "Hoggies",


title: "Submarine sandwich" content: then the "hoagie". The "Philadelphia Almanac and Citizen's Manual" offers a different explanation, that the sandwich was created by early-twentieth-century street vendors called "hokey-pokey men", who sold antipasto salad, meats, cookies and buns with a cut in them. When Gilbert and Sullivan's operetta "H.M.S. Pinafore" opened in Philadelphia in 1879, bakeries produced a long loaf called the pinafore. Entrepreneurial "hokey-pokey men" sliced the loaf in half, stuffed it with antipasto salad, and sold the world's first "hoagie". Another explanation is that the word "hoagie" arose in the late 19th to early 20th century, among the Italian community in South Philadelphia,


title: "Submarine sandwich" content: when "on the hoke" was a slang term used to describe a destitute person. Deli owners would give away scraps of cheeses and meats in an Italian bread-roll known as a "hokie", but the Italian immigrants pronounced it "hoagie". Shortly after World War II, there were numerous varieties of the term in use throughout Philadelphia. By the 1940s, the spellings "hoagie" and, to a lesser extent, "hoagy" had come to dominate less used variations like "hoogie" and "hoggie". By 1955, restaurants throughout the area were using the term "hoagie". Listings in Pittsburgh show hoagies arriving in 1961 and becoming widespread


title: "Submarine sandwich" content: in that city by 1966. Former Philadelphia mayor (and later Pennsylvania governor) Ed Rendell declared the hoagie the "Official Sandwich of Philadelphia". However, there are claims that the hoagie was actually a product of nearby Chester, Pennsylvania. DiCostanza's in Boothwyn, Pennsylvania claims that the mother of DiConstanza's owner originated the hoagie in 1925 in Chester. DiCostanza relates the story that a customer came into the family deli and through an exchange matching the customer's requests and the deli's offerings, the hoagie was created. Woolworth's to-go sandwich was called a hoagie in all U.S. stores. Bánh mì sandwiches are sometimes referred


title: "Submarine sandwich" content: to as "Vietnamese hoagies" in Philadelphia. The New York term "hero" is first attested in 1937. The name is sometimes credited to the "New York Herald Tribune" food writer Clementine Paddleford in the 1930s, but there is no good evidence for this. It is also sometimes claimed that it is related to the "gyro", but this is unlikely as the "gyro" was unknown in the United States until the 1960s, according to sources. "Hero" (plural usually "", not "heroes") remains the prevailing New York City term for most sandwiches on an oblong roll with a generally Italian flavor, in addition


title: "Submarine sandwich" content: to the original described above. Pizzeria menus often include eggplant parmigiana, chicken parmigiana, and meatball , each served with sauce. A common term in New England, its origin has several possibilities. One theory has the name coming from Italian-American slang for a dock worker, among whom the sandwich was popular. Others say it was called a grinder because it took a lot of chewing to eat the hard crust of the bread used. In Pennsylvania, New York, Delaware, and parts of New England the term "grinder" usually refers to a "hot" submarine sandwich (meatball; sausage; etc.), whereas a cold sandwich


title: "Submarine sandwich" content: (e.g., cold cuts) is usually just simply called a "sub". In the Philadelphia area, the term "grinder" is also applied to any hoagie (whether or not it is made with traditionally hot ingredients) that is toasted in the oven after assembly. The term "wedge" is used in Westchester County, New York, Putnam County, New York, Dutchess County, New York, and Fairfield County, Connecticut—three counties directly north of New York City. Some base the name "wedge" on a diagonal cut in the middle of the sandwich, creating two halves or "wedges", or a "wedge" cut out of the top half of


title: "Submarine sandwich" content: the bread with the fillings "wedged" in between, or a sandwich that is served between two "wedges" of bread. It has also been said "wedge" is just short for "sandwich", with the name having originated from an Italian deli owner located in Yonkers, who got tired of saying the whole word. The term "spukie" ("spukkie" or "spuckie") is unique to the city of Boston and derives from the Italian word "spucadella", meaning "long roll" The word spucadella is not typically found in Italian dictionaries, which may suggest that it could be a regional Italian dialect, or possibly a Boston Italian-American


title: "Submarine sandwich" content: innovation. Spukie is typically heard in parts of Dorchester and South Boston. Some bakeries in Boston's North End neighborhood have homemade spucadellas for sale. Rolls filled with condiments have been common in several European countries for more than a century, notably in France and Scotland. In the United States, from its origins with the Italian American labor force in the northeast, the sub began to show up on menus of local pizzerias. As time went on and popularity grew, small restaurants, called hoagie shops and sub shops, that specialized in the sandwich began to open. Subs or their national equivalents


title: "Submarine sandwich" content: were already popular in many European, Asian and Australasian countries when late 20th-century franchisee chain restaurants and fast food made them even more popular and increased the prevalence of the word "sub". Many outlets offer non-traditional ingredient combinations. In the United States, many chain restaurants have arisen that specialize in subs including Capriotti's, Submarina, Jersey Mike's Subs, Charley's Grilled Subs, Blimpie, Jimmy John's, Lenny's Sub Shop, Milio's Sandwiches, Port of Subs, Eegee's, Firehouse Subs, Penn Station, Planet Sub, Potbelly, Togo's, Tubby's, Which Wich? and D'Angelo Sandwich Shops. Major international chains include Quiznos, Mr. Sub and the largest restaurant chain in


title: "Submarine sandwich" content: the world, Subway. The sandwich is also often available at supermarkets and convenience stores. Submarine sandwich A submarine sandwich, also known as a sub, hoagie, hero, grinder, po'boy or Italian sandwich, is the name given in the United States to a type of sandwich that consists of a length of bread or roll split crosswise and filled with a variety of meats, cheeses, vegetables, and condiments. The sandwich has no standardized name, with over a dozen variations used around the world. Larger submarine sandwiches, particularly those that are longer in length or overstuffed with greater quantities of ingredients than usual,


title: "Steven Spielberg" content: the purchase was made from the King estate, led by son Dexter, while the two other surviving children, the Reverend Bernice and Martin III, immediately threatened to sue, not having given their approvals to the project. Since the mid-1980s, Spielberg has increased his role as a film producer. He headed up the production team for several cartoons, including the Warner Bros. hits "Tiny Toon Adventures", "Animaniacs", "Pinky and the Brain", "Toonsylvania", and "Freakazoid!", for which he collaborated with Jean MacCurdy and Tom Ruegger. Due to his work on these series, in the official titles, most of them say, "Steven Spielberg


title: Sorrel content: Sorrel Common sorrel or garden sorrel ("Rumex acetosa"), often simply called sorrel, is a perennial herb in the family Polygonaceae. Other names for sorrel include spinach dock and narrow-leaved dock. It is a common plant in grassland habitats and is cultivated as a garden herb or salad vegetable (pot herb). Sorrel is a slender herbaceous perennial plant about high, with roots that run deep into the ground, as well as juicy stems and edible, arrow-shaped (sagittate) leaves. The leaves, when consumed raw, have a sour taste. The lower leaves are in length with long petioles and a membranous ocrea formed


title: Sorrel content: of fused, sheathing stipules. The upper ones are sessile, and frequently become crimson. It has whorled spikes of reddish-green flowers, which bloom in early summer, becoming purplish. The species is dioecious, with stamens and pistils on different plants. The leaves are eaten by the larvae of several species of Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) including the blood-vein moth. "Rumex acetosa" occurs in grassland habitats throughout Europe from the northern Mediterranean coast to the north of Scandinavia and in parts of Central Asia. It occurs as an introduced species in parts of North America. Several subspecies have been named. Not all are


title: Sorrel content: cultivated: Common sorrel has been cultivated for centuries. The leaves may be puréed in soups and sauces or added to salads; they have a flavour that is similar to kiwifruit or sour wild strawberries. The plant's sharp taste is due to oxalic acid, which is mildly toxic. In northern Nigeria, sorrel is used in stews usually with spinach. In some Hausa communities, it is steamed and made into salad using "kuli-kuli" (traditional roasted peanut cakes with oil extracted), salt, pepper, onion and tomatoes. In India, the leaves are used in soups or curries made with yellow lentils and peanuts. In


title: Sorrel content: Afghanistan, the leaves are coated in a wet batter and deep fried, then served as an appetizer or if in season during Ramadan, for breaking the fast. Throughout eastern Europe, wild or garden sorrel is used to make sour soups, stewed with vegetables or herbs, meats or eggs. In rural Greece, it is used with spinach, leeks, and chard in spanakopita. In Albania, the leaves are simmered and served cold marinated in olive oil, or as an ingredient for filling "byrek" pies ("byrek me lakra"). In Armenia, the leaves are collected in spring, woven into braids, and dried for use


title: Sorrel content: during winter. The most common preparation is aveluk soup, where the leaves are rehydrated and rinsed to reduce bitterness, then stewed with onions, potatoes, walnuts, garlic and bulgur wheat or lentils, and sometimes sour plums. Sorrel Common sorrel or garden sorrel ("Rumex acetosa"), often simply called sorrel, is a perennial herb in the family Polygonaceae. Other names for sorrel include spinach dock and narrow-leaved dock. It is a common plant in grassland habitats and is cultivated as a garden herb or salad vegetable (pot herb). Sorrel is a slender herbaceous perennial plant about high, with roots that run deep into


title: Samoa content: incident, approximately one fifth of the Samoan population died in the influenza epidemic of 1918–1919. Between 1919 and 1962, Samoa was administered by the Department of External Affairs, a government department which had been specially created to oversee New Zealand's Island Territories and Samoa. In 1943, this Department was renamed the Department of Island Territories after a separate Department of External Affairs was created to conduct New Zealand's foreign affairs. In 1919, the Royal Commission of Inquiry into the Epidemic concluded that there had been no epidemic of pneumonic influenza in Western Samoa before the arrival of the SS "Talune"


title: "History of Samoa" content: E. Eliot, C.B. for Great Britain, and Freiherr Speck von Sternburg for Germany, agreed to divide the islands. The Tripartite Convention gave control of the islands west of 171 degrees west longitude to Germany, (later known as Western Samoa), containing Upolu and Savaii (the current Samoa) and other adjoining islands. These islands became known as German Samoa. The United States was given control the eastern islands of Tutuila and Manu'a, (present-day American Samoa). In exchange for Britain ceding claims in Samoa, Germany transferred their protectorates in the North Solomon Islands and other territories in West Africa. It does not appear


title: "San Marino" content: San Marino remained neutral, although it was wrongly reported in an article from "The New York Times" that it had declared war on the United Kingdom on 17 September 1940. The Sammarinese government later transmitted a message to the British government stating that they had not declared war on the United Kingdom. Three days after the fall of Benito Mussolini in Italy, PFS rule collapsed and the new government declared neutrality in the conflict. The Fascists regained power on 1 April 1944 but kept neutrality intact. Despite that, on 26 June 1944, San Marino was bombed by the Royal Air


title: Secularism content: work has contributed to the understanding of these matters, include Carl L. Becker, Karl Löwith, Hans Blumenberg, M.H. Abrams, Peter L. Berger, Paul Bénichou and D.L. Munby, among others. Some societies become increasingly secular as the result of social processes, rather than through the actions of a dedicated secular movement; this process is known as secularization. Sociologist Peter L. Berger maintained that the modern world can no longer be described as being secular or becoming increasingly secular, instead it can best be described as being pluralistic. George Holyoake's 1896 publication "English Secularism" describes secularism as follows: Secularism is a code


title: Strontium content: the alkali metals, its strontium and barium complexes are much stronger. Organostrontium compounds contain one or more strontium–carbon bonds. They have been reported as intermediates in Barbier-type reactions. Although strontium is in the same group as magnesium, and organomagnesium compounds are very commonly used throughout chemistry, organostrontium compounds are not similarly widespread because they are more difficult to make and more reactive. Organostrontium compounds tend to be more similar to organoeuropium or organosamarium compounds due to the similar ionic radii of these elements (Sr 118 pm; Eu 117 pm; Sm 122 pm). Most of these compounds can only be prepared


title: "Stockholm School of Economics" content: state. Heckscher and Ohlin jointly developed the so-called "Heckscher-Ohlin theory", the standard international mathematical model of international trade. Bertil Ohlin received the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1977 (shared with British economist James Meade). Other prominent members of the Stockholm school were the Stockholm University professor Gustav Cassel, who developed standard economic theory of Purchasing power parity and economist Dag Hammarskjöld, Secretary-General of the United Nations in New York City, United States. For Master programmes, applicants have to have a GMAT score of over 600 and a TOEFL iBT score of over 100 in order to be considered suitable for


title: Satanism content: a Satanic group that gave her supernatural powers, such as the ability to levitate, before she escaped and embraced Christianity. In the United States during the 1960s and 1970s, various Christian preachers—the most famous being Mike Warnke in his 1972 book "The Satan-Seller"—claimed that they had been members of Satanic groups who carried out sex rituals and animal sacrifices before discovering Christianity. According to Gareth Medway in his historical examination of Satanism, these stories were "a series of inventions by insecure people and hack writers, each one based on a previous story, exaggerated a little more each time". Other publications


title: Semiconductor content: 20th Century. In 1878 Edwin Herbert Hall demonstrated the deflection of flowing charge carriers by an applied magnetic field, the Hall effect. The discovery of the electron by J.J. Thomson in 1897 prompted theories of electron-based conduction in solids. Karl Baedeker, by observing a Hall effect with the reverse sign to that in metals, theorized that copper iodide had positive charge carriers. Johan Koenigsberger classified solid materials as metals, insulators and "variable conductors" in 1914 although his student Josef Weiss already introduced the term "Halbleiter" (semiconductor in modern meaning) in PhD thesis in 1910. Felix Bloch published a theory of


title: "State (polity)" content: and economic influence, and has interests of its own. "New institutionalist" writings on the state, such as the works of Theda Skocpol, suggest that state actors are to an important degree autonomous. In other words, state personnel have interests of their own, which they can and do pursue independently of (at times in conflict with) actors in society. Since the state controls the means of coercion, and given the dependence of many groups in civil society on the state for achieving any goals they may espouse, state personnel can to some extent impose their own preferences on civil society. States


title: Sejm content: Roza Pomerantz-Meltzer, a member of the Zionist party, became the first woman ever elected to the "Sejm". The legal content of the March Constitution allowed for "Sejm" supremacy in the system of state institutions at the expense of the executive powers, thus creating a parliamentary republic out of the Polish state. An attempt to strengthen executive powers in 1926 (through the August Amendment) proved too limited and largely failed in helping avoid legislative grid-lock which had ensued as a result of too-great parliamentary power in a state which had numerous diametrically-opposed political parties sitting in its legislature. In 1935, the


title: "Willis Tower" content: Willis Tower The Willis Tower, built as and still commonly referred to as the Sears Tower, is a 110-story, skyscraper in Chicago, Illinois. At completion in 1973, it surpassed the World Trade Center towers in New York to become the tallest building in the world, a title it held for nearly 25 years; it remained the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere until the completion of a new building at the rebuilt World Trade Center site in 2014. The building is considered a seminal achievement for its designer Fazlur Rahman Khan. The Willis Tower is the second-tallest building in the


title: "Willis Tower" content: United States and the Western hemisphere – and the 16th-tallest in the world. More than one million people visit its observation deck each year, making it one of Chicago's most-popular tourist destinations. The structure was renamed in 2009 by the Willis Group as part of its lease on a portion of the tower's space. , the building's largest tenant is United Airlines, which moved its corporate headquarters from the United Building at 77 West Wacker Drive in 2012 and today occupies around 20 floors with its headquarters and operations center. Other major tenants include the building's namesake Willis Group and


title: "Willis Tower" content: the law firms of Schiff Hardin and Seyfarth Shaw. Morgan Stanley plans to move to the building in 2019, and to become the building's fourth-largest tenant by 2020. In 1969, Sears, Roebuck & Co. was the largest retailer in the world, with about 350,000 employees. Sears executives decided to consolidate the thousands of employees in offices distributed throughout the Chicago area into one building on the western edge of Chicago's Loop. Sears asked its outside counsel, Arnstein, Gluck, Weitzenfeld & Minow (now known as Arnstein & Lehr, LLP) to suggest a location. The firm consulted with local and federal authorities


title: "Willis Tower" content: and the applicable law, then offered Sears two options: the Goose Island area northwest of downtown, and a two-block area bounded by Franklin Street on the east, Jackson Boulevard on the south, Wacker Drive on the west and Adams Street on the north, with Quincy Street running through the middle from east to west. This latter site was decided upon, and preliminary inquiries determined that the necessary permits could be obtained and Quincy Street vacated. The next step was to acquire the property; a team of attorneys from the Arnstein law firm, headed by Andrew Adsit, began buying the property


title: "Willis Tower" content: parcel by parcel. Sears purchased 15 old buildings from 100 owners and paid $2.7 million to the City of Chicago for the portion of Quincy Street that divided the property. Sears, which needed of office space for its planned consolidation and predicted that growth would require yet more, commissioned architects Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM) to produce a structure to be one of the largest office buildings in the world. Their team of architect Bruce Graham and structural engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan designed the building as nine square "tubes" (each essentially a separate building), clustered in a 3×3 matrix forming


title: "Willis Tower" content: a square base with sides. All nine tubes would rise up to the 50th floor of the building. At the 50th floor, the northwest and southeast tubes end, and the remaining seven continue up. At the 66th floor, the northeast and the southwest tubes end. At the 90th floor, the north, east, and south tubes end. The remaining west and center tubes continue up to the 108th floor. The Sears Tower was the first building to use Khan's bundled tube structure. This innovative design was structurally efficient and economic: at 1,450 feet, it provided more space and rose higher than


title: "Willis Tower" content: the Empire State Building, yet cost much less per unit area. This structural system would prove highly influential in skyscraper construction. It has been used in most supertall buildings since then, including the world's tallest building, the Burj Khalifa. To honor Khan's contributions, the Structural Engineers Association of Illinois commissioned a sculpture of him for the lobby of the Willis Tower. Sears executives decided that the space they would immediately occupy should be efficiently designed to house their Merchandise Group, and that floor space for future growth would be rented out to smaller firms and businesses until Sears could retake


title: "Willis Tower" content: it. The latter floor areas had to be designed to a smaller plate, with a high window-space to floor-space ratio, to be attractive and marketable to prospective lessees. Smaller floorplates required a taller structure to yield sufficient square footage. Skidmore architects proposed a tower with large floors in the lower part of the building, and gradually tapered areas of floorplates in a series of setbacks, which would give the Sears Tower its distinctive look. As Sears continued to offer optimistic projections for growth, the tower's proposed floor count rapidly increased into the low hundreds, surpassing the height of New York's


title: "Willis Tower" content: unfinished World Trade Center to become the world's tallest building. The height was restricted by a limit imposed by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to protect air traffic. The financing of the tower was provided by the Sears company. It was topped with two antennas to permit local television and radio broadcasts. Sears and the City of Chicago approved the design, and the first steel was put in place in April 1971. The structure was completed in May 1973. The construction cost about US$150 million at the time, equivalent to $ million in 2019. By comparison, Taipei 101, built in


title: "Willis Tower" content: 2004 in Taiwan, cost around the equivalent of US$2.21 billion in 2018 dollars. Black bands appear on the tower around the 29th–32nd, 64th–65th, 88th–89th, and 104th–108th floors. These are louvres that allow ventilation for service equipment and obscure the structure's belt trusses. Even though regulations did not require a fire sprinkler system, the building was equipped with one from the beginning. There are around 40,000 sprinkler heads in the building, installed at a cost of $4 million. In February 1982, two television antennas were added to the structure, increasing its total height to . The western antenna was later extended,


title: "Willis Tower" content: bringing the overall height to on June 5, 2000, to improve reception of local NBC station WMAQ-TV. As the construction of the building neared the 50th floor, lawsuits for an injunction were filed seeking to stop the building from exceeding 67 floors. The suits alleged that above that point television reception would deteriorate and cause property values to plummet. The first suit was filed by the State's Attorney in neighboring Lake County on March 17, 1972. A second suit was filed on March 28 in the Cook County Circuit Court by the Villages of Skokie, Northbrook and Deerfield, Illinois. Sears


title: "Willis Tower" content: filed motions to dismiss the Lake County and the Cook County lawsuits and on May 17, 1972, Judge LaVerne Dickson, Chief of the Lake County Circuit Court dismissed the suit, saying, "I find nothing that gives television viewers the right to reception without interference. They will have to find some other means of ensuring reception such as taller antennas." The Lake County State's Attorney filed a Notice of Appeal and the Supreme Court agreed to permit bypassing the appellate court and to hear the matter on an expedited basis. The State's Attorney then asked the Illinois Supreme Court for a


title: "Willis Tower" content: temporary injunction to stop the construction and his request was denied. On June 12, Judge Charles R. Barrett granted Sears' motion to dismiss the suit filed by the three Chicago suburbs on the grounds that interference with television reception caused by construction of the Sears building did not violate constitutional rights and that the suburbs involved in the suit do not have any right to undistorted television reception. This decision was also appealed and consolidated with the Lake County appeal with the Supreme Court of Illinois. Meanwhile, an Illinois Citizens' Committee for Broadcasting requested the Federal Communications Commission to halt


title: "Willis Tower" content: construction so that the building would not interfere with area television reception. On May 26, 1972, the Commission declined to take action on the grounds that it did not have jurisdiction to do so. On June 30, 1972, the Illinois Supreme Court affirmed the previous rulings by Lake and Cook County Circuit Courts, by a letter order with a written opinion to follow. On September 8, 1972, the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit upheld the decision by the Federal Communications Commission to dismiss the complaint brought by the Illinois Citizens Committee for Broadcasting charging that the


title: "Willis Tower" content: building would drastically affect reception in the Chicago market and requesting the FCC to halt construction. The Supreme Court of Illinois written opinion was filed on September 20, 1972. In affirming the judgments of lower courts the Court held, "Considering the foregoing, it is clear to us that absent legislation to the contrary defendant has a propriety right to construct a building to its desired height and that completion of the project would not constitute a nuisance under the circumstances of this case." Sears' optimistic growth projections were not met. Competition from its traditional rivals (like Montgomery Ward) continued, with


title: "Willis Tower" content: new competition by retailing giants such as Kmart, Kohl's, and Walmart. The fortunes of Sears & Roebuck declined in the 1970s as the company lost market share; its management grew more cautious. Nor did the Sears Tower draw as many tenants as Sears had hoped. The tower stood half-vacant for a decade as a surplus of office space was erected in Chicago in the 1980s. In 1990, the law firm of Keck, Mahin & Cate decided to move out of its space in the Sears Tower and into a development that would become 77 West Wacker Drive, rebuffing Sears' attempts


title: "Willis Tower" content: to entice the firm to stay. Two years later, Sears began moving its own offices out of the Sears Tower. In 1994, Sears sold the building to Boston-based AEW Capital Management, with financing from MetLife. At the time, it was one-third vacant. By 1995, Sears had completely left the building, moving to a new office campus in Hoffman Estates, Illinois. In 1997, Toronto-based TrizecHahn Corporation (the owner of the CN Tower at the time) purchased the building for $110 million, and assumption of $4 million in liabilities, and a $734 million mortgage. In 2003, Trizec surrendered the building to lender


title: "Willis Tower" content: MetLife. In 2004, MetLife sold the building to a group of investors, including New York-based Joseph Chetrit, Joseph Moinian, Lloyd Goldman, Joseph Cayre and Jeffrey Feil, and Skokie, Illinois-based American Landmark Properties. The quoted price was $840 million, with $825 million held in a mortgage. The building lost several major tenants in the early 2000s, due in part to perceived terrorism risk following the September 11 attacks. In June 2006, seven men were arrested by the FBI and charged with plotting to destroy the tower. Deputy FBI Director John Pistole described their plot as "more aspirational than operational". The case


title: "Willis Tower" content: went to court in October 2007; after three trials, five of the suspects were convicted and two were acquitted. The alleged leader of the group, Narseal Batiste, was sentenced to 13½ years in prison in November 2009. Meanwhile, the building's largest tenant at this time, Ernst & Young, decided to move to a new building on North Wacker Drive in early 2009. In February 2009, the owners announced they were considering a plan to paint the structure silver; this plan was later dropped. The paint would have "rebranded" the building and highlighted its advances in energy efficiency. The estimated cost


title: "Willis Tower" content: was $50 million. Since 2007, the building owners considered building a hotel on the north side of Jackson, between Wacker and Franklin, at the plaza that is the entrance to the tower's observation deck. The tower's parking garage is beneath the plaza. Building owners say the second building was considered in the original design. The plan was eventually cancelled as city zoning does not permit construction of such a tall tower there. Although Sears' naming rights expired in 2003, the building continued to be called the Sears Tower for several years. In March 2009, London-based insurance broker Willis Group Holdings


title: "Willis Tower" content: agreed to lease a portion of the building, and obtained the building's naming rights. On July 16, 2009, the building was officially renamed Willis Tower. On August 13, 2012, United Airlines announced it would move its corporate headquarters from 77 West Wacker Drive to Willis Tower. In 2015, the Blackstone Group completed purchase of the tower for a reported $1.3 billion, the highest price ever paid for a U.S. property outside New York City. In 2017, Blackstone announced a $500 million "facelift" for the property to include a six-story commercial complex in the tower's plaza area. The Willis Tower observation


title: "Willis Tower" content: deck, called the Skydeck, opened on June 22, 1974. Located on the tower's 103rd floor, it is high, making it the highest observation deck in the United States and one of Chicago's most famous tourist attractions. Tourists can experience how the building sways on a windy day. They also can see far over the plains of Illinois and across Lake Michigan to Indiana, Michigan, and Wisconsin on a clear day. Elevators take tourists to the top in about 60 seconds, and allow tourists to feel the pressure change as they rise up. The Skydeck competes with the John Hancock Center's


title: "Willis Tower" content: observation floor a mile and a half away, which is lower. Some 1.7 million tourists visit the Skydeck annually. A second Skydeck on the 99th floor is also used if the 103rd floor is closed. The tourist entrance can be found on the south side of the building along Jackson Boulevard. In January 2009, Willis Tower's owners began a major renovation of the Skydeck, including the installation of retractable glass balconies, which can be extended approximately from the facade of the 103rd floor, overlooking South Wacker Drive. The all-glass boxes, informally dubbed "The Ledge", allow visitors to look through the


title: "Willis Tower" content: glass floor to the street below. The boxes, which can bear of weight, opened to the public on July 2, 2009. On May 29, 2014, the laminated glass covering the floor of one of the glass boxes shattered while visitors were sitting on it, but caused no injuries. The broken glass was replaced within days, and tourist operations resumed as before. The Willis Tower remains the second tallest building in the Americas (after One World Trade Center) and the Western Hemisphere. With a pinnacle height of , it is the third-tallest freestanding structure in the Americas, as it is shorter


title: "Willis Tower" content: than Toronto's CN Tower. Willis Tower is the eighth-tallest freestanding structure in the world by pinnacle height. At tall, including decorative spires, the Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, laid claim to replacing the Sears Tower as the tallest building in the world in 1998. Not everyone agreed, and in the ensuing controversy, four different categories of "tallest building" were created. Of these, Petronas was the tallest in the first category (height to top of architectural elements, meaning spires but not antennas), giving it the title of world's tallest building. Taipei 101 in Taiwan claimed the record in three


title: "Willis Tower" content: of the four categories in 2004 to become recognized as the tallest building in the world. Taipei 101 surpassed the Petronas Twin Towers in spire height and the Sears Tower in roof height and highest occupied floor. The Sears Tower retained one record: its antenna exceeded Taipei 101's spire in height. In 2008, the Shanghai World Financial Center claimed the records of tallest building by roof and highest occupied floor. On August 12, 2007, the Burj Khalifa in Dubai, United Arab Emirates was reported by its developers to have surpassed the Sears Tower in all height categories. Upon completion, One


title: "Willis Tower" content: World Trade Center in New York City surpassed the Willis Tower through its structural and pinnacle heights, but not by roof, observation deck elevation, or highest occupied floor. Until 2000, the Sears Tower did not hold the record for being the tallest building by pinnacle height. From 1969 to 1978, this record was held by the John Hancock Center, whose antenna reached a height of , or taller than the Sears Tower's original height of . In 1978, One World Trade Center became taller by pinnacle height due to the addition of a antenna, which brought its total height to


title: "Willis Tower" content: . In 1982, two antennas were installed on top of the Sears Tower which brought its total height to , making it taller than the John Hancock Center but not One World Trade Center. However, the extension of the Sears Tower's western antenna in June 2000 to allowed it to just barely claim the title of tallest building by pinnacle height. On May 25, 1981, Dan Goodwin, wearing a homemade Spider-Man suit while using suction cups, camming devices, and sky hooks, and despite several attempts by the Chicago Fire Department to stop him, made the first successful outside ascent of


title: "Willis Tower" content: the Sears Tower. Goodwin was arrested at the top after the seven-hour climb, and he was later charged with trespassing. Goodwin stated that the reason he made the climb was to call attention to shortcomings in high-rise rescue and firefighting techniques. After a lengthy interrogation by Chicago's District Attorney and Fire Commissioner, Goodwin was officially released from jail. In August 1999, French urban climber Alain "Spiderman" Robert, using only his bare hands and bare feet, scaled the building's exterior glass and steel wall all the way to the top. A thick fog settled in near the end of his climb,


title: "Willis Tower" content: making the last 20 stories of the building's glass and steel exterior slippery. Although Sears sold the Tower in 1994 and had completely vacated it by 1995, the company retained the naming rights to the building through 2003. The new owners were rebuffed in renaming deals with CDW Corp in 2005 and the U.S. Olympic Committee in 2008. London-based insurance broker Willis Group Holdings, Ltd. leased more than of space on three floors in 2009. A Willis spokesman said the naming rights were obtained as part of the negotiations at no cost to Willis, and the building was renamed Willis


title: "Willis Tower" content: Tower on July 16, 2009. The naming rights are valid for 15 years, so it is possible that the building's name could change again in 2024 or later. The "Chicago Tribune" joked that the building's new name reminded them of the oft-repeated "What you talkin' 'bout, Willis?" catchphrase from the 1980s American television sitcom "Diff'rent Strokes" and considered the name-change ill-advised in "a city with a deep appreciation of tradition and a healthy ego, where some Chicagoans still mourn the switch from Marshall Field's to Macy's". This feeling was confirmed in a July 16, 2009 CNN article in which some


title: "Willis Tower" content: Chicago area residents expressed reluctance to accept the Willis Tower name, and in an article that appeared in the October 2010 issue of "Chicago" magazine that ranked the building among Chicago's 40 most important, the author pointedly refused to acknowledge the name change and referred to the building as the "Sears Tower". "Time" magazine called the name change one of the top 10 worst corporate name changes and pointed to negative press coverage by local news outlets and online petitions from angry residents. The naming rights issue continued into 2013, when Eric Zorn noted in the "Chicago Tribune" that "We're


title: "Willis Tower" content: stubborn about such things. This month marked four years since the former Sears Tower was re-christened Willis Tower, and the new name has yet to stick." Many broadcast station transmitters are located at the top of Willis Tower. Each list is ranked by height from the top down. Stations at the same height on the same mast indicate the use of a diplexer into the same shared antenna. Due to its extreme height, FM stations (all class B) are very limited in power output. Also, NOAA Weather Radio station KWO39 transmits off the top of Willis Tower, at 162.550 MHz.


title: "Willis Tower" content: KWO39, programmed by the National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office in Chicago, is equipped with Specific Area Message Encoding (SAME), which sets off a siren on specially-programmed weather radios to alert of an impending hazard, such as a tornado or civil emergency. The building has appeared in numerous films and television shows set in Chicago such as "Ferris Bueller's Day Off", where Ferris and company watch the streets of Chicago from the observation deck. The television show "Late Night with Conan O'Brien" introduced a character called The Sears Tower Dressed In Sears Clothing when the show visited Chicago in 2006.


title: "Willis Tower" content: The building is also featured in History Channel's "Life After People", in which it and other human-made landmarks suffer from neglect without humans around, and it collapses two hundred years after people are gone. In an episode of the television series "Monk", Adrian Monk tries to conquer his fear of heights by imagining that he is on top of the Sears Tower. Also, in an episode of "Kenan and Kel", Kenan Rockmore and Kel Kimble decide to climb to the top of the Sears Tower, so that Kenan can declare his love for a girl. The Chicago Franchise frequently features


title: "Willis Tower" content: locations where the Tower is visible in the distance. In the movie "", the tower is damaged by a tornado. In "1969", a Season 2 episode of the science-fiction series "Stargate SG-1", the SG-1 team accidentally travels back in time to the titular year. At one point, the team travels though Chicago and the Sears Tower is shown (erroneously, since construction did not begin on the tower until two years later in 1971). In the 2004 film "I, Robot", the tower is shown updated in the year 2035 with new triangular antennas. The tower is shown surpassed in height by


title: "Willis Tower" content: the USR (United States Robotics) Building. In the 2008 film "The Dark Knight", the tower is part of Gotham City. In the 2011 film "", the tower is featured in a number of scenes. The most notable one is when the N.E.S.T team tries to enter the city using V-22 Osprey helicopters. They use Willis Tower for cover before using wing suits to descend into the city streets. In the movie, the tower is shown to be severely damaged by the Decepticon invasion of the city. In the 2013 film "Man of Steel", the tower's interior and parts of its


title: "Willis Tower" content: exterior portrayed the offices of the "Daily Planet". In the 2014 film "Divergent", the tower is shown abandoned and decayed in a future Chicago. In the 2015 film "Jupiter Ascending", the tower is featured prominently as the place where Caine and Jupiter await a spaceship to lift them off the planet. In the 2018 film "Rampage", the Energyne corporation is headquartered in the building, and uses tower's antenna to broadcast an echolocation signal that would bring three mutated monsters to town. After the antenna is destroyed by the beasts, the entire building topples to the ground. Older versions of "Microsoft


title: "Willis Tower" content: Flight Simulator" would begin with the player on the runway of Meigs Field, facing a virtual version of the tower. In Sufjan Stevens' 2005 album "Illinois", the tower is referenced in the track "Seer's Tower", whose title is a play on the tower's now-former name, Sears Tower. Willis Tower The Willis Tower, built as and still commonly referred to as the Sears Tower, is a 110-story, skyscraper in Chicago, Illinois. At completion in 1973, it surpassed the World Trade Center towers in New York to become the tallest building in the world, a title it held for nearly 25 years;