title: Ichneumonoidea content: hatch inside the caterpillar and eventually consume and kill the host. Ichneumonoidea The superfamily Ichneumonoidea contains the two largest families within Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae and Braconidae. The group is thought to contain as many as 100,000 species, many of which have not yet been described. Like other parasitoid wasps, they were long placed in the "Parasitica", variously considered as an infraorder or an unranked clade, now known to be paraphyletic. The name is derived from Latin 'ichneumon', from Ancient Greek ἰχνεύμων (ikhneúmōn, "tracker"), from ἴχνος (íkhnos, "track, footstep"). The name is shared with the Egyptian mongoose, "Herpestes ichneumon". The superfamily is


title: "Margaret Weis" content: Margaret Weis Margaret Edith Weis (; born March 16, 1948) is a fantasy and science fiction writer and author of dozens of novels and short stories. Along with Tracy Hickman, Weis is one of the original creators of the "Dragonlance" game world. Margaret Weis was born on March 16, 1948, in Independence, Missouri. She discovered heroic fantasy fiction while studying at the University of Missouri (MU): "I read Tolkien when it made its first big sweep in the colleges back in 1966," she said. "A girlfriend of mine gave me a copy of the books while I was in summer


title: "The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance" content: jaw and leaves. Shinbone's residents meet to elect two delegates for a statehood convention at the territorial capital. Doniphon nominates Stoddard, because he "knows the law, and throws a mean punch." Stoddard explains that statehood will improve infrastructure, safety, and education. The cattle barons oppose statehood, and hire Valance to sabotage the effort, but Stoddard defies him again. The townspeople elect Stoddard and Dutton Peabody, publisher of the local newspaper; Valance challenges Stoddard to a gunfight. Doniphon advises Stoddard to leave town, but Stoddard believes in the rule of law, and is willing to risk his life for his principles.


title: "Ni Putes Ni Soumises" content: of the Maison de la Mixitié, the movement's premises in Paris' 20th arrondissement, took place in 2006. Then-President Jacques Chirac and then-future-President François Hollande both attended the event. In November 2016 Ni Putes Ni Soumises elected a new leadership team, with Stéphanie Rameau, a long-serving member and activist in the movement, voted president. In May 2017 Ni Putes Ni Soumises moved into its new premises at 80 rue de Paris in Montreuil, a largely working-class suburb of Paris. "Ni Putes Ni Soumises" has been criticized by various French feminists and left-wing authors (Sylvie Tissot, Elsa Dorlin, Étienne Balibar, Houria Bouteldja,


title: "The Scout Association" content: can choose to replace "duty to God" with "to uphold our Scout values". The change has been welcomed by representatives of the Church of England, the Roman Catholic Church, the Free Churches Group and the British Humanist Association. The alternative promise takes the following form: <poem>:On my honour, I promise that I will do my best, In "Scouting for Boys", Baden-Powell recommended a distinctive and practical uniform that was "very like the uniform worn by my men when I commanded the South African Constabulary". This in turn, seems to have been derived from the dress adopted by Baden-Powell in the


title: "House wren" content: House wren The house wren ("Troglodytes aedon") is a very small songbird of the wren family, Troglodytidae. It occurs from Canada to southernmost South America, and is thus the most widely distributed bird in the Americas. It occurs in most suburban areas in its range and it is the single most common wren. Its taxonomy is highly complex and some subspecies groups are often considered separate species. Adults are long, with a wingspan and weigh about . Among standard measurements, the wing chord is , the tail is , the culmen is and the tarsus is . The subspecies vary


title: "House wren" content: greatly, with upperparts ranging from dull greyish-brown to rich rufescent-brown, and the underparts ranging from brown, over buff and pale grey, to pure white. All subspecies have blackish barring to the wings and tail, and some also to the flanks. All subspecies show a faint eye-ring and eyebrow and have a long, thin bill with a blackish upper mandible, and a black-tipped yellowish or pale grey lower mandible. The legs are pinkish or grey. The short tail is typically held cocked. This bird's rich bubbly song is commonly heard during the nesting season but rarely afterwards. There is marked geographical


title: "House wren" content: variation in the song, though somewhat more gradual than in the bird's outward appearance that can strikingly differ, e.g., on neighboring islands in the Caribbean. Birds from far north and south of the species' range nonetheless have songs that differ markedly. The house wren is usually divided into three distinct subspecies groups and one or several distinct island-endemic subspecies. Some or all of these are often considered distinct species. It has also been suggested that the taxa from the Lesser Antilles represent one or more separate species, but there is less agreement as to their subdivision, because as far as


title: "House wren" content: they have been studied to date, there is little clear biogeographical structure among these populations. Three additional taxa from more oceanic islands have traditionally been included in the house wren, but are increasingly considered as separate species: The Socorro wren is a highly distinct form, appearing somewhat like a mixture between a house wren and a Bewick's wren ("Thryomanes bewickii"). In North America, the house wren is thought to achieve the highest density in floodplain forests in the western great plains where it uses woodpecker holes as nesting sites. In South and Central America it can be found in virtually


title: "House wren" content: any habitat and is, as indicated by its common name, often associated with humans. North American birds migrate to the southern United States and Mexico for winter. Most return to the breeding grounds in late April to May, and leave for winter quarters again around September to early October. These birds forage actively in vegetation. They mainly eat insects such as butterfly larvae, also spiders and snails. Southern house wrens rarely attend mixed-species feeding flocks. The nesting habits do not seem to differ significantly between the northern and southern house wrens at least. They usually construct a large cup nest


title: "House wren" content: in various sorts of cavities, taking about a week to build. The nest is made from small dry sticks and is usually lined with a variety of different materials. These include: feather, hair, wool, spider cocoons, strips of bark, rootlets, moss, and trash. The male wren finds dry sticks, which he adds to the nest. Once he is done, the female inspects at the nest; but if she does not approve of the construction, she will throw any unwanted sticks to the ground. After this process, the female lines the nest. Nest cavities are usually a few meters above ground


title: "House wren" content: at most, but occasionally on cliffs as high up as and more at least in southern populations; they may be natural or man-made, often using bird houses. House wrens are feisty and pugnacious animals considering their tiny size. They are known to occasionally destroy the eggs of other birds nesting in their territory by puncturing the eggshell. Females that sang more songs to conspecifics that were simulated by playback lost fewer eggs to ovicide by other wrens. Female bird song in this species is therefore thought to have a function in competition and is not only displayed by males. They


title: "House wren" content: are also known to fill up other birds' nests within its territory with sticks to make them unusable. Depending on the exact population, the house wrens' clutch is usually between two and eight red-blotched cream-white eggs, weighing about each and measuring c. at the widest points. Only the female incubates these, for around 12–19 days, and she will every now and then leave the nest for various reasons. While she is on the nest, the male provisions her with food. The young, which like all passerines hatch almost naked and helpless, take another 15–19 days or so to fledge. They


title: "House wren" content: are being fed by both parents, and need plenty of food given their tiny size (see also Bergmann's Rule). As the young near fledging, the parents spend much of their time procuring food for them. Brood loss due to predation was found to be light in the Southern Andean Yungas, with predation of nestling young being almost insignificant. Known predators of house wrens at the nest include cats, rats, opossums, woodpeckers, foxes, raccoons, squirrels, snakes and owls. Adults away from the nests can usually avoid these predators although both small hawks and owls occasionally take free-flying adult wrens. Migrant populations


title: "House wren" content: are nesting within 6 weeks of returning from winter quarters, leaving theoretically time for a second brood. In the subtropical montane forest of northwestern Argentina and similar habitat, the southern house wren breeds in the rainy summer months from late October to late December. In Washington, D.C. area, house wren parents made significantly more feeding trips per hour in suburban backyards compared to rural backyards. Yet rural nestlings grew at a faster rate than their suburban counterparts. In addition, suburban parents spent less time brooding (sitting on the nest) compared to rural parents. Such results suggest that suburban backyard habitats


title: "House wren" content: offer house wrens food for nestlings that is inferior in either quality or quantity to what rural habitats offer. Food items may, for example, be smaller in suburban habitats, and force adults to make more trips to the box. In South Temperate Argentina, southern house wrens dispersed more frequently between-seasons than within a season, with females dispersing more often than males. Widowed and single males dispersed more frequently than paired males, whilst within-season divorce increased the breeding success of females but not males. The house wren may have been displaced somewhat in some northern parts of its range by the


title: "House wren" content: introduction of the house sparrow, but is still common and widespread throughout most of the Americas. It is not considered threatened by the IUCN, though this would certainly not hold true for several of the island population if they turn out to be true species. Some taxa, especially from the Lesser Antilles, are rare and highly endangered or possibly already extinct. Several factors seem to have contributed to a varying degree to the decline of these birds, namely habitat destruction, predation by introduced mongooses, and hurricanes: The Saint Vincent house wren ("Troglodytes aedon musicus") of Saint Vincent was close to


title: "House wren" content: extinction in the mid-late 20th century; it has since recovered and today is not uncommon As remarked above, these are variously placed in "T. musculus" if that is considered distinct, or as one or several distinct species. John James Audubon illustrates the house wren in Birds of America (published, London 1827–38) as Plate 83. The image was engraved and colored by the Robert Havell, London workshops. The original watercolor by Audubon was purchased by the New York History Society. Troglodytes Aedon was one of the two pets of King Friday the XIII in Mister Rogers' Neighborhood. Trog, as the King


title: "House wren" content: called him, was a wooden wren on a stick, and Trog had his own song. King Friday's other pet was a mockingbird (also a wooden bird on a stick) named Mimus Polyglottos (see Neighborhood of Make-Believe). Brazilian footballer Garrincha earned his nickname from one of the names the house wren has in Rio de Janeiro. House wren The house wren ("Troglodytes aedon") is a very small songbird of the wren family, Troglodytidae. It occurs from Canada to southernmost South America, and is thus the most widely distributed bird in the Americas. It occurs in most suburban areas in its range


title: "C. R. Smith" content: C. R. Smith Cyrus Rowlett "C. R." Smith (September 9, 1899 – April 4, 1990) was the CEO of American Airlines from 1934 to 1968 and from 1973 to 1974. He was also the wartime deputy commander of the Air Transport Command, and United States Secretary of Commerce for a brief period under President Lyndon B. Johnson. He is regarded as one of the titans of U.S. airline history. Smith was born on September 9, 1899, in Minerva, Texas, located in Milam County, to Roy Edgerton Smith and the former Marion Burck. Smith attended the University of Texas despite never


title: "Laïcité" content: that of religion in order to preserve both the religious freedom of citizens and the responsibility of the state toward them." He went on: "On the other hand, [it is important] to become more aware of the irreplaceable role of religion for the formation of consciences and the contribution which it can bring to – among other things – the creation of a basic ethical consensus within society." Sarkozy later changed footing on the place of religion in French society, by publicly declaring the burqa "not welcome" in France in 2009 and favoring legislation to outlaw it, following which in


title: "Fuller Theological Seminary" content: and culture.” Fuller instructors have proposed an alternative perspective on the conservative/liberal debate: "We need to be the voice of a third way that flows out of biblical values, instead of buying into the political ideology of either the right or the left." Fuller Theological Seminary is organized into schools of theology, psychology, and intercultural studies. The seminary emphasizes integration of the three schools and many students take courses in more than one school. The seminary offers 18 degree programs, including seven master's degrees and 11 advanced degrees. The School of Theology is the oldest school at Fuller and blends


title: "1920 Nebi Musa riots" content: sticks. By the end of March, about 600 were said to be performing military drills daily in Jerusalem. Jabotinsky and Rutenberg also began organizing the collection of arms. The Nebi Musa festival was an annual spring Muslim festival that began on the Friday before Good Friday and included a procession to the Nebi Musa shrine (tomb of Moses) near Jericho. It had apparently existed since the time of Saladin. Arab educator and essayist Khalil al-Sakakini described how tribes and caravans would come with banners and weapons. The Ottoman Turks usually deployed thousands of soldiers and even artillery to keep order


title: "String Quartets Nos. 1–6, Op. 18 (Beethoven)" content: manuscripts or sketches for them have been discovered. This applies only to quartets 4, 5 and 6; the situation for the first quartet in F, especially, is different, since an entire earlier version is preserved, has been published and even recorded. While the overall set is less critically acclaimed than the "Razumovsky" quartets and the late quartets, the first quartet has been a perennially admired piece. String Quartets Nos. 1–6, Op. 18 (Beethoven) Ludwig van Beethoven's Op. 18, published in 1801 by T. Mollo et Comp in Vienna in two books of three quartets each, consisted of his first six


title: "Extreme cold weather clothing" content: wool was an effective insulator, but ineffective when wet. Goose down is the lightest insulator, and still used today. Its quality, called "loft" is a measure of its low density. It is tragically ineffective when wet. Artificial fibers have good loft, and do not lose it when wet. One effective fiber is "Hollofil" a hollow fiber of polyolefin. Outer garments are often made of nylon, which is strong and abrasion resistant. To the nylon is often bonded to a layer of polytetrafluoroethylene (trade name Teflon) in a form that has holes small enough for moisture to escape, but not allow


title: "Mills College" content: prose, and art from the Bay Area and beyond. Another annual literary journal on-campus is the "Womanist, A Women of Color Journal" which features prose, poetry, and artwork by students, alumnae, faculty, and staff of color. The publication is compiled and edited by a group of Mills students. Graduate students also create the "580 Split", an annual journal of arts and literature, publishes innovative and experimental prose, poetry, and art and was founded specifically for graduate students to participate and hone skills in editing, publishing, and creative writing. The journal has expanded its presence in the Bay Area and can


title: "Moshe Ya'alon" content: Minister (alongside Silvan Shalom) and Minister of Strategic Affairs. In March 2013, he replaced Ehud Barak as Defense Minister. As Defense Minister Ya'alon decided to continue to manufacture and purchase Merkava tanks for the IDF, after the whole project was in question due to budget issues and the overall discussion of the necessity of tanks in modern battlefields. During Ya'alon's tenure, foreign sources claimed that the Israeli Air Force launched several airstrikes on advanced weapons deposits in Syria before they were transferred to Hezbollah. In January 2015, the leader of Lehava anti-assimilation group, Ben-Zion Gopstein, voiced harsh criticism against Ya'alon


title: "Ailanthus webworm" content: Ailanthus webworm The ailanthus webworm ("Atteva aurea") is an ermine moth now found commonly in the United States. It was formerly known under the scientific name "Atteva punctella" (see Taxonomy section). This small, very colorful moth resembles a true bug or beetle when not in flight, but in flight it resembles a wasp. The ailanthus webworm is thought to be native to South Florida and the American tropics (south to Costa Rica),which were the habitat of its original larval host plants: the paradise tree ("Simarouba glauca") and "Simarouba amara". Another tree called tree-of-heaven ("Ailanthus altissima"), originally from China, has been


title: "Ailanthus webworm" content: widely introduced and naturalized, and "Atteva aurea" has been able to adapt to this new host plant, giving rise to its common name, the "ailanthus webworm". "Ailanthus", common name "tree of heaven", is considered an invasive species, although it is still sold by nurseries as a yard plant, mainly because it is one of the species that will grow in polluted or otherwise difficult places. "Atteva aurea" can be a minor pest in nurseries, although it rarely does serious damage. This tropical moth is commonly seen in summer throughout the continental US, and occasionally eastern Canada (its northern limit is


title: "Ailanthus webworm" content: eastern Ontario and south-western Quebec beyond the host range). This species appears to be either adapting to colder areas, or staying further north due to changing climates. Larvae produce nests on the host plant by pulling two or more leaflets around a network of loose webbing. Then they consume the leaflets and bark. The caterpillars have a wide, light greenish-brown stripe down their backs and several thin, alternating white and olive-green stripes along their sides. The range of colors is from light brown to dark black. The adult moth visits flowers, is diurnal, and is a pollinator. The life cycle


title: "Ailanthus webworm" content: from egg to egg can happen in 4 weeks. Due to this being a species from warmer areas, it lacks a diapause stage. Larvae can be found from mid-spring to a hard freeze. There may be many generations each summer, with eggs being laid on the webs of other larvae. This can result in a communal web, having multiple generations from egg to various larva instars to pupa. Mating happens in the mornings, with egg-laying apparently happening in the evening. Eggs are found individually, not in clusters, even though each web may contain many separate eggs. Wilson JJ et al.


title: "Ailanthus webworm" content: discovered that morphologically similar Attevid moths were assigned two different names, "Atteva ergatica" in Costa Rica and "Atteva punctella" in North America, but had identical DNA barcodes. Combining DNA barcoding, morphology and food plant records also revealed a complex of two sympatric species that are diagnosable by their DNA barcodes and their facies in Costa Rica. However, neither of the names could be correctly applied to either species, as "A. ergatica" is a junior synonym and "A. punctella" a junior homonym. By linking the specimens to type material through morphology and DNA barcoding, they determined that the species distributed from


title: "Ailanthus webworm" content: Costa Rica to southern Quebec and Ontario, should be called "A. aurea", whereas the similar and marginally sympatric species found in Central America should be called "A. pustulella". The name "Phalaena (Tinea) punctella" was recognized as a junior homonym almost immediately after its description but has been retained through several major works (Heppner and Duckworth 1983; Covell 1984; Heppner 1984). The two objective replacement names proposed were "Tinea punctella" (Fabricius, 1787) and "Crameria subtilis" (Hübner, 1822). The oldest valid name to replace Phalaena punctella is "Tinea pustulella" but this remained overlooked until recently (Heppner 2003). Over time seven more nominal


title: "Ailanthus webworm" content: taxa were synonymized under "Atteva pustulella", being "Deiopeia aurea" (Fitch, 1857), Poeciloptera compta Clemens, 1861, "Oeta compta floridana" (Neumoegen, 1891), "A. edithella" (Busck, 1908), "A. exquisita" (Busck, 1912), "A. ergatica" (Walsingham, 1914) and "A. microsticta" (Walsingham, 1914). There were early suspicions that "A. aurea" and "A. pustulella" might represent different species, the former distributed in the United States, the latter in South America, but at the time there was insufficient material to support this view (Walsingham 1897). A recent taxonomic review of New World Atteva (Becker 2009) introduced several nomenclatural changes and recognized three separate species within the long-standing concept


title: "Ailanthus webworm" content: of "A. pustulella": "A. pustulella", "A. aurea" and "A. floridana". The most recent treatment retains "A. floridana" as a synonym of "Atteva aurea" (Wilson JJ, 2010). Ailanthus webworm The ailanthus webworm ("Atteva aurea") is an ermine moth now found commonly in the United States. It was formerly known under the scientific name "Atteva punctella" (see Taxonomy section). This small, very colorful moth resembles a true bug or beetle when not in flight, but in flight it resembles a wasp. The ailanthus webworm is thought to be native to South Florida and the American tropics (south to Costa Rica),which were the


title: "HMAS Bandolier (P 95)" content: North - 098.57.55 East. The cause was not known but there were no casualties among the crew. HMAS Bandolier (P 95) HMAS "Bandolier" (P 95) was an of the Royal Australian Navy (RAN). The "Attack" class was ordered in 1964 to operate in Australian waters as patrol boats (based on lessons learned through using the s on patrols of Borneo during the Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation, and to replace a variety of old patrol, search-and-rescue, and general-purpose craft. Initially, nine were ordered for the RAN, with another five for Papua New Guinea's Australian-run coastal security force, although another six ships were ordered


title: "Bachelor of Fine Arts" content: Bachelor of Fine Arts A Bachelor of Fine Arts (BFA, B.F.A.) is the standard undergraduate degree for students in the United States and Canada seeking a professional education in the visual or performing arts. In the United States, the Bachelor of Fine Arts degree differs from a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) degree in that the majority of the program consists of a practical studio component, as contrasted with lecture and discussion classes. A typical BFA program in the United States consists of two-thirds study in the arts, with one-third in more general liberal arts studies. For a BA in Art,


title: "Eagle (Middle-earth)" content: edge of darkness". The conception of the limited world and of the layers of the firmament was rejected during the writing of "The Lord of the Rings". The eagle-shaped clouds that appeared in Númenor were one of Tolkien's recurring associations with the downfall of the island, just like the images of a sloping mountain and of an overwhelming wave; they were also introduced by him into two abandoned time-travel stories, "The Lost Road" and "The Notion Club Papers". In a sketch for the former, Tolkien projected that it would be "Sorontur" (Thorondor) himself that appeared in Númenor to the protagonist


title: "Tommy Hilfiger" content: techniques. In 2012, all philanthropic activities of The Tommy Hilfiger Corporate Foundation were renamed Tommy Cares, a wider-reaching global initiative that further integrates the brand’s non-profit partnerships, charitable contributions, and employee involvement. On a global scale, Tommy Cares continues to support organizations such as Save the Children, the World Wildlife Fund, War Child, and Millennium Promise. Hilfiger and his wife are on the board of Autism Speaks as of 2012, and through the organization, Hilfiger became a sponsor of the Golden Door Film Festival in September 2014. The following is a selected list of awards and recognitions for Tommy Hilfiger:


title: "History of Birmingham" content: Second World War. It was later rebuilt and named "King Edward's House". It is used as an office block and on the ground floor as shops and restaurants. In the First and Second World Wars, the Longbridge car plant switched to production of munitions and military equipment, from ammunition, mines and depth charges to tank suspensions, steel helmets, Jerricans, Hawker Hurricanes, Fairey Battle fighters and Airspeed Horsa gliders, with the mammoth Avro Lancaster bomber coming into production towards the end of WWII. The Spitfire fighter aircraft was mass-produced at Castle Bromwich by Vickers-Armstrong throughout the war. Birmingham's industrial importance and


title: "Gaebler Children's Center" content: city of Waltham in 2005 in order to have some control over the development of the seven acre site. Demolition of the Gaebler Children's Center was completed in January 2011. The work cost the City of Waltham approximately $637,000. There are no current plans for the 55 acre lot. Gaebler Children's Center Gaebler Children's Center was a psychiatric institution operated by the Massachusetts Department of Mental Health for severely mentally ill children and adolescents, located in Waltham, Massachusetts. The center opened on October 8, 1955 near the grounds of the Metropolitan State Hospital and closed on January 31, 1992. It


title: "Black-throated green warbler" content: Black-throated green warbler The black-throated green warbler ("Setophaga virens") is a small songbird of the New World warbler family. It is long and weighs , and has an olive-green crown, a yellow face with olive markings, a thin pointed bill, white wing bars, an olive-green back and pale underparts with black streaks on the flanks. Adult males have a black throat and upper breast; females have a pale throat and black markings on their breast. The breeding habitat of the black-throated green warbler is coniferous and mixed forests in eastern North America and western Canada and cypress swamps on the


title: "Black-throated green warbler" content: southern Atlantic coast. These birds' nests are open cups, which are usually situated close to the trunk of a tree. These birds migrate to Mexico, Central America, the West Indies and southern Florida. One destination is to the Petenes mangroves of the Yucatán. Some birds straggle as far as South America, with the southernmost couple of records coming from Ecuador. Black-throated green warblers forage actively in vegetation, and they sometimes hover (gleaning), or catch insects in flight (hawking). Insects are the main constituents of these birds' diets, although berries will occasionally be consumed. The song of this bird is a


title: "Black-throated green warbler" content: buzzed "zee-zee-zee-zooo-zeet" or "zoo-zee-zoo-zoo-zeet". The call is a sharp "tsip". This bird is vulnerable to nest parasitism by the brown-headed cowbird. Black-throated green warbler The black-throated green warbler ("Setophaga virens") is a small songbird of the New World warbler family. It is long and weighs , and has an olive-green crown, a yellow face with olive markings, a thin pointed bill, white wing bars, an olive-green back and pale underparts with black streaks on the flanks. Adult males have a black throat and upper breast; females have a pale throat and black markings on their breast. The breeding habitat of


title: "Robert Hawker" content: out and seek the distressed members of Christ’s body. It was not limited by parish boundaries or denomination but the needs of Christians were met where they were found. One of his earliest passions, whilst still a curate, was to start a Sunday school. The Sunday School movement may have been started when in 1780 Robert Raikes in Gloucester opened the first Sunday School. Children at that time had to work six days a week, leaving little time to study after work in the week. To counter the effects of ignorance and illiteracy the Sunday school movement started. Literacy was


title: Epigraphy content: private and public, to the State and to individuals. A frequent addition is an invitation to dine in the Prytaneum at Athens. Some are inscribed on the bases of statues set up to the recipient. In early times these inscriptions are usually brief and simple. The bust of Pericles on the Acropolis held nothing but the names of Pericles himself and of the sculptor Kresilas. Later it became usual to give, in some detail, the reasons for the honours awarded; and in Hellenistic and Roman times, these became more and more detailed and fulsome in laudatory detail. These inscriptions are


title: "Cupressus macrocarpa" content: Cupressus macrocarpa Cupressus macrocarpa, (now classed as "Hesperocyparis macrocarpa"), commonly known as Monterey cypress, is a species of cypress native to the Central Coast of California. The native range of the species was confined to two small relict populations, at Cypress Point in Pebble Beach and at Point Lobos near Carmel, California. "Cupressus macrocarpa" is a medium-sized coniferous evergreen tree, which often becomes irregular and flat-topped as a result of the strong winds that are typical of its native area. It grows to heights of up to 40 meters (133 feet) in perfect growing conditions, and its trunk diameter can


title: "Cupressus macrocarpa" content: reach 2.5 meters (over 8 feet). The foliage grows in dense sprays which are bright green in color and release a deep lemony aroma when crushed. The leaves are scale-like, 2–5 mm long, and produced on rounded (not flattened) shoots; seedlings up to a year old have needle-like leaves 4–8 mm long. The seed cones are globose to oblong, 20–40 mm long, with 6–14 scales, green at first, maturing brown about 20–24 months after pollination. The pollen cones are 3–5 mm long, and release their pollen in late winter or early spring. The Latin specific epithet "macrocarpa" means "with large


title: "Cupressus macrocarpa" content: fruit". It has been widely reported that individual "C. macrocarpa" trees may be up to 2,000 years old, but this is disputed by botanists, and the longest-lived report based on physical evidence is of a tree 284 years old. The renowned Californian botanist Willis Linn Jepson wrote that "the advertisement of ["C. macrocarpa" trees] in seaside literature as 1,000 to 2,000 years old does not ... rest upon any actual data, and probably represents a desire to minister to a popular craving for superlatives". Along with other New World "Cupressus" species, it has recently been transferred to the genus "Hesperocyparis",


title: "Cupressus macrocarpa" content: on genetic evidence that the New World "Cupressus" are not very closely related to the Old World "Cupressus" species. The two native cypress forest stands are protected, within Point Lobos State Reserve and Del Monte Forest. The natural habitat is noted for its cool, moist summers, almost constantly bathed by sea fog. This species has been widely planted outside its native range, particularly along the coasts of California and Oregon. Its European distribution includes Great Britain (including the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands), France, Ireland, Greece, Italy, Portugal, and Sicily. In New Zealand, plantings have naturalized, finding conditions


title: "Cupressus macrocarpa" content: there more favorable than in its native range. It has also been grown experimentally as a timber crop in Kenya. "Cupressus macrocarpa" is also grown in South Africa. For example, a copse has been planted to commemorate South African infantry men who lost their lives in the Allied cause in Italy and North Africa during WW2. As in California, the Cape trees are gnarled and wind-sculpted, and very beautiful. Monterey cypress has been widely cultivated away from its native range, both elsewhere along the California coast, and in other areas with similar cool summer, mild winter oceanic climates. It is


title: "Cupressus macrocarpa" content: a popular private garden and public landscape tree in California. When planted in areas with hot summers, for example in interior California away from the coastal fog belt, Monterey cypress has proved highly susceptible to cypress canker, caused by the fungus "Seiridium cardinale", and rarely survives more than a few years. This disease is not a problem where summers are cool. A number of cultivars have been selected for garden use, including 'Goldcrest', with yellow-green, semi-juvenile foliage (with spreading scale-leaf tips) and 'Lutea' with yellow-green foliage. 'Goldcrest' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit (confirmed 2017). Monterey


title: "Cupressus macrocarpa" content: cypress is one of the parents of the fast-growing cultivated hybrid Leyland cypress, "Cupressus" × "Leylandii", the other parent being Nootka cypress, "Cupressus nootkatensis". The foliage is slightly toxic to livestock and can cause miscarriages in cattle. Sawn logs are used by many craftspeople, some boat builders and small manufacturers, as a furniture structural material and a decorative wood because of its fine colours. It is also a fast, hot burning, albeit sparky (therefore not suited to open fires), firewood. In Australia and New Zealand, Monterey cypress is most frequently grown as a windbreak tree on farms, usually in rows


title: "Cupressus macrocarpa" content: or shelter belts. It is also planted in New Zealand as an ornamental tree and, occasionally, as a timber tree. There, finding more favorable growing conditions than in its native range, and in the absence of many native pathogens, it often grows much larger, with trees recorded at over tall and in trunk diameter. (One specimen - with a trunk diameter of more than - is considered to be perhaps the largest in the world.) The timber of Monterey cypress was used for fence posts on New Zealand farms before electric fencing became popular. Macrocarpa cultivars grown in New Zealand


title: "Cupressus macrocarpa" content: are: Isocupressic acid, a labdane diterpenoid, is an abortifacient component of "C. macrocarpa". Monoterpenes (α- and γ-terpinene and terpinolene) are constituents of the foliage volatile oil. The oil exact composition is : α-pinene (20.2%), sabinene (12.0%), p-cymene (7.0%) and terpinen-4-ol (29.6%). Unusual sesquiterpenes can be found in the foliage. Longiborneol (also known as juniperol or macrocarpol) can also be isolated from Monterey cypresses. Cupressus macrocarpa Cupressus macrocarpa, (now classed as "Hesperocyparis macrocarpa"), commonly known as Monterey cypress, is a species of cypress native to the Central Coast of California. The native range of the species was confined to two small


title: "The NBC Mystery Movie" content: The wheel was completed with a revival of CBS' 1970s crime drama "Kojak". The wheel series ran irregularly from February 1989 until August 1990. After the series ended, ABC kept "Columbo" in production and Falk starred in an additional fourteen films before the network discontinued the series in 2003. NBC, meanwhile, brought "McCloud" back for a reunion film in 1989. The film, titled "The Return of Sam McCloud", featured Dennis Weaver in the role of United States Senator Sam McCloud. In the fall of 1993, NBC made an attempt to revive the wheel format, this time called "The NBC Friday


title: "Toyota Supra" content: with integrated lower grille (as opposed to the previous years' detachable grille), side mirrors, turn signals, upper grilles, foglights, steering wheel, door panels, climate control, window switches and bezels, and stereo. Addition of coat hooks on B-pillar and removal of rear seat pockets round out interior changes. Turbo models received three piece spoiler with an integrated LED brake light. 1989 also marked the end of headlight washers in the US and SuperMonitor; an advanced system offered by Toyota able to calculate miles able to be traveled on current tank, ability to check vehicle codes from inside the cabin, among other


title: "Lorenzo Snow" content: and was succeeded in the church presidency by Joseph F. Smith. Snow is credited with succinctly summarizing the LDS doctrines of exaltation and eternal progression, in his often repeated couplet: "As man now is, God once was: As God now is, man may be." Snow's teachings as an apostle were the 2013 course of study in the LDS Church's Sunday Relief Society and Melchizedek priesthood classes. The role of Snow was played by Francis L. Urry in the LDS Church-made film "The Windows of Heaven". Lorenzo Snow Lorenzo Snow (April 3, 1814 – October 10, 1901) was an American religious


title: "Alnus glutinosa" content: Alnus glutinosa Alnus glutinosa, the common alder, black alder, European alder or just alder, is a species of tree in the family Betulaceae, native to most of Europe, southwest Asia and northern Africa. It thrives in wet locations where its association with the bacterium "Frankia alni" enables it to grow in poor quality soils. It is a medium size, short-lived tree growing to a height of up to 30 metres (100 ft). It has short-stalked rounded leaves and separate male and female flower in the form of catkins. The small, rounded fruits are cone-like and the seeds are dispersed by


title: "Alnus glutinosa" content: wind and water. The common alder provides food and shelter to wildlife, with a number of insects, lichens and fungi being completely dependent on the tree. It is a pioneer species, colonising vacant land and forming mixed forests as other trees appear in its wake. Eventually common alder dies out of woodlands because the seedlings need more light than is available on the forest floor. Its more usual habitat is forest edges, swamps and riverside corridors. The timber has been used in underwater foundations and for manufacture into paper and fibreboard, for smoking foods, for joinery, turnery and carving. Products


title: "Alnus glutinosa" content: of the tree have been used in ethnobotany, providing folk remedies for various ailments, and research has shown that extracts of the seeds are active against pathogenic bacteria. "Alnus glutinosa" is a tree that thrives in moist soils, and grows under favourable circumstances to a height of and exceptionally up to . Young trees have an upright habit of growth with a main axial stem but older trees develop an arched crown with crooked branches. The base of the trunk produces adventitious roots which grow down to the soil and may appear to be propping the trunk up. The bark


title: "Alnus glutinosa" content: of young trees is smooth, glossy and greenish-brown while in older trees it is dark grey and fissured. The branches are smooth and somewhat sticky, being scattered with resinous warts. The buds are purplish-brown and have short stalks. Both male and female catkins form in the autumn and remain dormant during the winter. The leaves of the common alder are short-stalked, rounded, up to long with a slightly wedge-shaped base and a wavy, serrated margin. They have a glossy dark green upper surface and paler green underside with rusty-brown hairs in the angles of the veins. As with some other


title: "Alnus glutinosa" content: trees growing near water, the common alder keeps its leaves longer than do trees in drier situations, and the leaves remain green late into the autumn. As the Latin name "glutinosa" implies, the buds and young leaves are sticky with a resinous gum. The species is monoecious and the flowers are wind-pollinated; the slender cylindrical male catkins are pendulous, reddish in colour and long; the female flowers are upright, broad and green, with short stalks. During the autumn they become dark brown to black in colour, hard, somewhat woody, and superficially similar to small conifer cones. They last through the


title: "Alnus glutinosa" content: winter and the small winged seeds are mostly scattered the following spring. The seeds are flattened reddish-brown nuts edged with webbing filled with pockets of air. This enables them to float for about a month which allows the seed to disperse widely. Unlike some other species of tree, common alders do not produce shade leaves. The respiration rate of shaded foliage is the same as well-lit leaves but the rate of assimilation is lower. This means that as a tree in woodland grows taller, the lower branches die and soon decay, leaving a small crown and unbranched trunk. "Alnus glutinosa"


title: "Alnus glutinosa" content: was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, as one of two varieties of alder (the other being "A. incana"), which he regarded as a single species "Betula alnus". In 1785, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck treated it as a full species under the name "Betula glutinosa". Its present scientific name is due to Joseph Gaertner, who in 1791 accepted the separation of alders from birches, and transferred the species to "Alnus". The epithet "glutinosa" means "sticky", referring particularly to the young shoots. Within the genus "Alnus", the common alder is placed in subgenus "Alnus" as part of a closely related group of


title: "Alnus glutinosa" content: species including the grey alder, "Alnus incana", with which it hybridizes to form the hybrid "A." × "hybrida". The common alder is native to almost the whole of continental Europe (except for both the extreme north and south) as well as the United Kingdom and Ireland. In Asia its range includes Turkey, Iran and Kazakhstan, and in Africa it is found in Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. It is naturalised in the Azores. It has been introduced, either by accident or by intent, to Canada, the United States, Chile, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. Its natural habitat is in moist


title: "Alnus glutinosa" content: ground near rivers, ponds and lakes but it can also grow in drier locations and sometimes occurs in mixed woodland and on forest edges. It tolerates a range of soil types and grows best at a pH of between 5.5 and 7.2. Because of its association with the nitrogen-fixing bacterium "Frankia alni", it can grow in nutrient-poor soils where few other trees thrive. The common alder is most noted for its symbiotic relationship with the bacterium "Frankia alni", which forms nodules on the tree's roots. This bacterium absorbs nitrogen from the air and fixes it in a form available to


title: "Alnus glutinosa" content: the tree. In return, the bacterium receives carbon products produced by the tree through photosynthesis. This relationship, which improves the fertility of the soil, has established the common alder as an important pioneer species in ecological succession. The common alder is susceptible to "Phytophthora alni", a recently evolved species of oomycete plant pathogen probably of hybrid origin. This is the causal agent of phytophthora disease of alder which is causing extensive mortality of the trees in some parts of Europe. The symptoms of this infection include the death of roots and of patches of bark, dark spots near the base


title: "Alnus glutinosa" content: of the trunk, yellowing of leaves and in subsequent years, the death of branches and sometimes the whole tree. "Taphrina alni" is a fungal plant pathogen that causes alder tongue gall, a chemically induced distortion of female catkins. The gall develops on the maturing fruits and produces spores which are carried by the wind to other trees. This gall is believed to be harmless to the tree. Another, also harmless, gall is caused by a midge, "Eriophyes inangulis", which sucks sap from the leaves forming pustules. The common alder is important to wildlife all year round and the seeds are


title: "Alnus glutinosa" content: a useful winter food for birds. Deer, sheep, hares and rabbits feed on the tree and it provides shelter for livestock in winter. It shades the water of rivers and streams, moderating the water temperature, and this benefits fish which also find safety among its exposed roots in times of flood. The common alder is the foodplant of the larvae of a number of different butterflies and moths and is associated with over 140 species of plant-eating insect. The tree is also a host to a variety of mosses and lichens which particularly flourish in the humid moist environment of


title: "Alnus glutinosa" content: streamside trees. Some common lichens found growing on the trunk and branches include tree lungwort ("Lobaria pulmonaria"), "Menneguzzia terebrata" and "Stenocybe pullatula", the last of which is restricted to alders. Some 47 species of mycorrhizal fungi have been found growing in symbiosis with the common alder, both partners benefiting from an exchange of nutrients. As well as several species of "Naucoria", these symbionts include "Russula alnetorum", the milkcaps "Lactarius obscuratus" and "Lactarius cyathula", and the alder roll-rim "Paxillus filamentosus", all of which grow nowhere else except in association with alders. In spring, the catkin cup "Ciboria amentacea" grows on fallen


title: "Alnus glutinosa" content: alder catkins. As an introduced species, the common alder can affect the ecology of its new locality. It is a fast-growing tree and can quickly form dense woods where little light reaches the ground, and this may inhibit the growth of native plants. The presence of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria and the annual accumulation of leaf litter from the trees also alters the nutrient status of the soil. It also increases the availability of phosphorus in the ground, and the tree's dense network of roots can cause increased sedimentation in pools and waterways. It spreads easily by wind-borne seed, may be


title: "Alnus glutinosa" content: dispersed to a certain extent by birds and the woody fruits can float away from the parent tree. When the tree is felled, regrowth occurs from the stump, and logs and fallen branches can take root. "A. glutinosa" is classed as an environmental weed in New Zealand. The common alder is used as a pioneer species and to stabilise river banks, to assist in flood control, to purify water in waterlogged soils and to moderate the temperature and nutrient status of water bodies. It can be grown by itself or in mixed species plantations, and the nitrogen-rich leaves falling to


title: "Alnus glutinosa" content: the ground enrich the soil and increase the production of such trees as walnut, Douglas fir and poplar on poor quality soils. Although the tree can live for up to 160 years, it is best felled for timber at 60 to 70 years before heart rot sets in. On marshy ground it is important as coppice-wood, being cut near the base to encourage the production of straight poles. It is capable of enduring clipping as well as marine climatic conditions and may be cultivated as a fast-growing windbreak. In woodland natural regeneration is not possible as the seeds need sufficient


title: "Alnus glutinosa" content: nutrients, water and light to germinate. Such conditions are rarely found at the forest floor and as the forest matures, the alder trees in it die out. The species is cultivated as a specimen tree in parks and gardens, and the cultivar 'Imperialis' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. The wood is soft, white when first cut, turning to pale red; the knots are attractively mottled. The timber is not used where strength is required in the construction industry, but is used for paper-making, the manufacture of fibreboard and the production of energy. Under water the


title: "Alnus glutinosa" content: wood is very durable and is used for deep foundations of buildings. The piles beneath the Rialto in Venice, and the foundations of several medieval cathedrals are made of alder. The Roman architect Vitruvius mentioned that the timber was used in the construction of the causeways across the Ravenna marshes. The wood is used in joinery, both as solid timber and as veneer, where its grain and colour are appreciated, and it takes dye well. As the wood is soft, flexible and somewhat light, it can be easily worked as well as split. It is valued in turnery and carving,


title: "Alnus glutinosa" content: in making furniture, window frames, clogs, toys, blocks, pencils and bowls. The bark of the common alder has long been used in tanning and dyeing. The bark and twigs contain 16 to 20% tannic acid but their usefulness in tanning is limited by the strong accompanying colour they produce. Depending on the mordant and the methods used, various shades of brown, fawn, and yellowish-orange hues can be imparted to wool, cotton and silk. Alder bark can also used with iron sulphate to create a black dye which can substitute for the use of sumach or galls. The Laplanders are said


title: "Alnus glutinosa" content: to chew the bark and use their saliva to dye leather. The shoots of the common alder produce a yellowish or cinnamon-coloured dye if cut early in the year. Other parts of the tree are also used in dyeing; the catkins can yield a green colour and the fresh-cut wood a pinkish-fawn colour. It is also the traditional wood that is burnt to produce smoked fish and other smoked foods, though in some areas other woods are now more often used. It supplies high quality charcoal. The leaves of this tree are sticky and if they are spread on the


title: "Alnus glutinosa" content: floor of a room, their adhesive surface is said to trap fleas. Chemical constituents of "Alnus glutinosa" include hirsutanonol, oregonin, genkwanin, rhododendrin {3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-l-methylpropyl-β-D-glucopyranoside} and glutinic acid (2,3-pentadienedioic acid). Pollen from the common alder, along with that from birch and hazel, is one of the main sources of tree pollen allergy. As the pollen is often present in the atmosphere at the same time as that of birch, hazel, hornbeam and oak, and they have similar physicochemical properties, it is difficult to separate out their individual effects. In central Europe, these tree pollens are the second most common cause of allergic


title: "Alnus glutinosa" content: conditions after grass pollen. The bark of common alder has traditionally been used as an astringent, a cathartic, a hemostatic, a febrifuge, a tonic and a restorative (a substance able to restore normal health). A decoction of the bark has been used to treat swelling, inflammation and rheumatism, as an emetic, and to treat pharyngitis and sore throat. Ground up bark has been used as an ingredient in toothpaste, and the inner bark can be boiled in vinegar to provide a skin wash for treating dermatitis, lice and scabies. The leaves have been used to reduce breast discomfort in nursing


title: "Alnus glutinosa" content: mothers and folk remedies advocate the use of the leaves against various forms of cancer. Alpine farmers are said to use the leaves to alleviate rheumatism by placing a heated bag full of leaves on the affected areas. Alder leaves are consumed by cows, sheep, goats and horses though pigs refuse to eat them. According to some people, consumption of alder leaves causes blackening of the tongue and is harmful to horses. In a research study, extracts from the seeds of the common alder have been found to be active against all the eight pathogenic bacteria against which they were


title: "Alnus glutinosa" content: tested, which included "Escherichia coli" and methicillin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" (MRSA). The only extract to have significant antioxidant activity was that extracted in methanol. All extracts were of low toxicity to brine shrimps. These results suggest that the seeds could be further investigated for use in the development of possible anti-MRSA drugs. Alnus glutinosa Alnus glutinosa, the common alder, black alder, European alder or just alder, is a species of tree in the family Betulaceae, native to most of Europe, southwest Asia and northern Africa. It thrives in wet locations where its association with the bacterium "Frankia alni" enables it to


title: "Castanea sativa" content: Castanea sativa Castanea sativa, or sweet chestnut, is a species of flowering plant in the family Fagaceae, native to Southern Europe and Asia Minor, and widely cultivated throughout the temperate world. A substantial, long-lived deciduous tree, it produces an edible seed, the chestnut, which has been used in cooking since ancient times. The tree is commonly called the "chestnut", or "sweet chestnut" to distinguish it from the horse chestnut "Aesculus hippocastanum", to which it is only distantly related. Other common names include "Spanish chestnut", "Portuguese chestnut" and "marron" (French for "chestnut"). The Latin "sativa" means "cultivated by humans". Some selected


title: "Castanea sativa" content: varieties are smaller and more compact in growth yielding earlier in life with different ripening time: the Marigoule, the Marisol and the Maraval. "C. sativa" attains a height of with a trunk often in diameter. The bark often has a net-shaped (retiform) pattern with deep furrows or fissures running spirally in both directions up the trunk. The trunk is mostly straight with branching starting at low heights. Sweet chestnut trees live to an age of 500 to 600 years. If cultivated, sweet chestnut trees might even grow as old as 1000 years or more. Their large genetic diversity and different


title: "Castanea sativa" content: cultivars are being nursed for uses like flour, boiling, roasting, drying, candying or wood. The oblong-lanceolate, boldly toothed leaves are long and broad. The flowers of both sexes are borne in long, upright catkins, the male flowers in the upper part and female flowers in the lower part. In the northern hemisphere, they appear in late June to July, and by autumn, the female flowers develop into spiny cupules containing 3-7 brownish nuts that are shed during October. The female flowers eventually form a spiky sheath that deters predators from the seed. The sweet chestnut is self incompatible, meaning that


title: "Castanea sativa" content: the plant can’t pollinate itself, making cross-pollination necessary. Some cultivars only produce one large nut per cupule, while others produce up to three nuts. The nut itself is composed of two skins: an external, shiny brown part, and an internal skin adhering to the fruit. Inside, there is an edible, creamy-white part developed from the cotyledon. The tree requires a mild climate and adequate moisture for good growth and a good nut harvest. Its year-growth (but not the rest of the tree) is sensitive to late spring and early autumn frosts, and is intolerant of lime. Under forest conditions, it


title: "Castanea sativa" content: will tolerate moderate shade well. It can live to more than 2,000 years of age in natural conditions, see the poetically-named "hundred-horse chestnut" in eastern Sicily for example. The leaves provide food for some animals, including Lepidoptera such as the case-bearer moth "Coleophora anatipennella" and rose chafer Macrodactylus subspinosus. The two major fungal pathogens of the sweet chestnut are the chestnut blight ("Cryphonectria parasitica") and the ink disease caused by "Phytophthora cambivora" and "Phytophthora cinnamomi". In North America as well as in Southern Europe C"ryphonectria parasitica" destroyed most of the chestnut population in the 20th century. With biological control, the


title: "Castanea sativa" content: population of the sweet chestnut is not threatened anymore by the chestnut blight and is regenerating. Ink disease is infesting trees mostly in humid soils, with the mycelium invading the root and resulting in wilting of the leaf. Absence of fruit formation leads to die back of the petal. The ink disease is named after the black exudates at the base of the trunk. Nowadays there are cultivars that are resistant to the ink disease. "Phytophthora cambivora" caused serious damage in Asia and the USA, and it still continues to destroy new plantations in Europe. Another serious pest which is


title: "Castanea sativa" content: difficult to control is the gall wasp ("Dryocosmus kuriphylus") which was recently introduced in Southern Europe, originating from Asia. "C. sativa" is found across the Mediterranean region, from the Caspian Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. It is thought to have survived the last ice age in several refuges in southern Europe, on the southern coast of the Black sea with a main centre on the southern slope of the Caucasus and in the region of north-western Syria, possibly extending into Lebanon. Pollen data indicates that the first spreading of "C. sativa" due to human activity started around 2100-2050 B.C. in


title: "Castanea sativa" content: Anatolia, northeastern Greece and southeastern Bulgaria. Compared to other crops, the sweet chestnut was probably of relatively minor importance and distributed very heterogeneously throughout these regions. The first charcoal remains of sweet chestnut only date from around 850-950 B.C., making it very difficult to infer a precise origin history. A newer but more reliable source are the literary works of Ancient Greece, with the richest being Theophrastus’ "Inquiry into plants" written in the third century B.C. Theophrastus focuses mainly on the use of sweet chestnut wood as timber and charcoal, only mentioning the use of the fruit once when commenting


title: "Castanea sativa" content: on the digestive difficulties it causes, but praising its nourishing quality. Several Greek authors wrote about medicinal properties of the sweet chestnut, specifically as a remedy against lacerations of the lips and of the oesophagus. Similar to the introduction of grape vine and olive cultivation to the Latin world, "C. sativa" is thought to have been introduced during the colonisation of the Italian peninsula by the Greeks. Further clues pointing to this theory can be found in the work of Pliny the Elder, who mentions only Greek colonies in connection with sweet chestnut cultivation. Today’s phylogenetic map of the sweet


title: "Castanea sativa" content: chestnut, while not fully understood, shows greater genetic similarity between Italian and western Anatolian "C. sativa" trees compared to eastern Anatolian specimen, reinforcing these findings. Nonetheless, until the end of the pre-Christian era, the spread and use of the chestnut in Italy remained limited. Carbonised sweet chestnuts were found in the Roman Villa Torre Annunziata, destroyed by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in A.D. 79. Clues in art and literature indicate a dislike of the sweet chestnut by the Roman aristocracy. Like Theophrastus, Latin authors are sceptical of the sweet chestnut as a fruit, and Pliny the Elder even goes


title: "Castanea sativa" content: as far as admiring how well nature has hidden this fruit of apparently so little value. In the beginning of the Christian era, people probably started to realize the value and versatility of sweet chestnut wood, leading to a slow spread of the cultivation of "C. sativa" trees, a theory that is supported by pollen data and literary sources, as well as the increased use of sweet chestnut wood as poles and in supporting structures, wood works and pier building between A.D. 100 and 600. Increasing sweet chestnut pollen appearances in Switzerland, France, Germany and the Iberian peninsula in the


title: "Castanea sativa" content: first century A.D. suggests the spreading of cultivated sweet chestnut trees by the Romans. Contrary to that notion, other scientists found no indication of the Romans spreading "C. Sativa" before the fifth century. In fact, so far no center of sweet chestnut cultivation outside the Italian peninsula in Roman times has been detected. Widespread use of chestnut in western Europe started in the early Middle Ages and flourished in the late Middle Ages. Since the beginning of the 20th century, due to depopulation of the countryside and the abandonment of the sweet chestnut as a staple food as well as


title: "Castanea sativa" content: the spread of chestnut blight and ink disease, "C. sativa" cultivation has dramatically decreased. Nowadays, sweet chestnut production is sometimes seen at a turning point again, because the development of high-value sweet chestnut products combined with changing needs of an urban society is leading to a revival in "C. sativa" cultivation. The species is widely distributed throughout Europe, where in 2004 "C. sativa" was grown on 2.25 million hectares of forest, of which 1.78 million hectares were mainly cultivated for wood and 0.43 million hectares for fruit production. Italy, France, southern Switzerland, Spain, Portugal and Greece are countries with a


title: "Castanea sativa" content: strong sweet chestnut tradition, with trees cultivated intensively in coppices and orchards. Countries like England, Croatia, Turkey and Georgia only have a partially developed sweet chestnut tradition due to geography or history. Nevertheless, centuries-old specimens may be found in Great Britain today. Examples can be seen particularly in the London Boroughs of Islington and Camden. In other European ountries, "C. sativa" has only been introduced recently, for example in Slovakia or the Netherlands. The species is widely cultivated for its edible seeds (also called nuts) and for its wood. A tree grown from seed may take 20 years or more


title: "Castanea sativa" content: before it bears fruits, but a grafted cultivar such as 'Marron de Lyon' or 'Paragon' may start production within five years of being planted. Both cultivars bear fruits with a single large kernel, rather than the usual two to four smaller kernels. The ornamental cultivar "C. sativa" 'Albomarginata' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit Sweet chestnut has been listed as one of the 38 substances used to prepare Bach flower remedies, a kind of alternative medicine promoted for its effect on health. However, according to Cancer Research UK, "there is no scientific evidence to prove that


title: "Castanea sativa" content: flower remedies can control, cure or prevent any type of disease, including cancer". Three different cultivation systems for the sweet chestnut can be distinguished: The field management is dependent on the cultivation system. While cleaning the soil from the leaves and pruning is the norm, the use of fertilizer, irrigation and pesticides is less common and reserved for more intensive cultivation. The sweet chestnut tree grows well on limestone-free, deeply weathered soil. The optimal pH value of the soil is between 4.5 and 6, and the tree cannot tolerate soil compaction. The tolerance to wet ground and to clay-rich soils


title: "Castanea sativa" content: is very low. It is a heat-loving tree which needs a long vegetation period. The optimal average temperature is between 8°C and 15° C and in January the temperature must not be below -1°C but it may tolerate temperatures as low as -15°C. Low temperature in autumn can damage the fruit. The maximal altitude is strongly dependent on the climate. In general, the climate should be similar to viticulture. Optimal precipitation is between 400 and 1600 mm. Before planting, seeds must be stratified at 2-3°C so germination can start 30-40 days later. After a year, the young trees are being


title: "Castanea sativa" content: transplanted. The fruit yield per tree is usually between 30-100 kg, but can get as high as 300 kg. Harvest time is between middle of September and middle of November. There are three harvesting techniques: The total world chestnut harvest was 1,17 Mio Tons in 2006, but only 151 000 Tons were "C. sativa." The most widespread treatment before storage is water curing, a process in which the sweet chestnuts are immersed in water for nine days. The aim of this practice is to limit the main storage problems threatening the sweet chestnut: fungi development and the presence of insect


title: "Castanea sativa" content: worms. As an alternative to water curing, hot water treatment is also commercially used. After water treatment, the sweet chestnuts are stored in a controlled environment with high carbon dioxide concentrations. In contrast to a cold storage system, where the fruits are stored at low temperatures in untreated air, the controlled environment method avoids flesh hardening which negatively impacts the processability of the product. The raw nuts, though edible, have a skin which is astringent and unpleasant to eat when still moist; after drying for a time the thin skin loses its astringency but is still better removed to reach


title: "Castanea sativa" content: the white fruit underneath. Cooking dry in an oven or fire normally helps remove this skin. Chestnuts are traditionally roasted in their tough brown husks after removing the spiny cupules in which they grow on the tree, the husks being peeled off and discarded and the hot chestnuts dipped in salt before eating them. Roast chestnuts are traditionally sold in streets, markets and fairs by street vendors with mobile or static braziers. The skin of raw peeled chestnuts can be relatively easily removed by quickly blanching the nuts after scoring them by a cross slit at the tufted end. Once


title: "Castanea sativa" content: cooked, chestnuts acquire a sweet flavour and a floury texture similar to the sweet potato. The cooked nuts can be used for stuffing poultry, as a vegetable or in nut roasts. They can also be used in confections, puddings, desserts and cakes. They are used for flour, bread making, a cereal substitute, coffee substitute, a thickener in soups and other cookery uses, as well as for fattening stock. A sugar can be extracted from them. The Corsican variety of polenta (called "pulenta") is made with sweet chestnut flour. A local variety of Corsican beer also uses chestnuts. The product is


title: "Castanea sativa" content: sold as a sweetened paste mixed with vanilla, , sweetened or unsweetened as chestnut purée or "purée de marron", and candied chestnuts as "marrons glacés". In Switzerland, it is often served as "Vermicelles". Roman soldiers were given chestnut porridge before going into battle. Leaf infusions are used in respiratory diseases and are a popular remedy for whooping cough. A hair shampoo can be made from infusing leaves and fruit husks. Castanea sativa is considered as having very interesting nutritional characteristics. The fruit contains significant amounts of a wide range of valuable nutrients. In the past, its characteristic and nutritional components


title: "Castanea sativa" content: gave sweet chestnut an important role in human nutrition due to its beneficial health effects. Sweet Chestnut is also appreciated in a gluten-free diet. Furthermore, this characteristic is valuable in cases of celiac diseases as well as reducing coronary heart diseases and cancer rates. Various composition and health studies have shown its big potential as a food ingredient and functional food. The fat content is very low and is dominated for the most part by unsaturated fatty acids. Sweet chestnut is a good source for starch, although it is generally true that chestnuts of all varieties contain about the same


title: "Castanea sativa" content: amount of starch. The energy value per 100 g (3.5 oz) of "C. sativa" amounts to 891 kJ (213 kcal). C. sativa is characterized by high moisture content which ranges from 41 % to 59 % and a considerable level of starch (~40 g 100 g dry matter). Regarding mineral content, the chestnut provides a good source for Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn and K. Its sugar content ranges from 14 % to 20 % dry weight depending on the cultivar; which is very important, since the sensory appeal of sweet chestnut is correlated with its sugar content. However, high sugar


title: "Castanea sativa" content: amounts seem to have a negative impact on the fiber content. Generally, glucose content in European chestnuts is very low and ranges from zero to traces. Instead, fructose is mostly responsible for the sweet taste. Sweet chestnut is suited for human nutrition. Most sweet chestnut is consumed in processed form, which has an impact on the nutrient composition. Its naturally high concentration of organic acids is a key factor influencing the organoleptic characteristics of fruits and vegetables, namely flavor. Organic acids are thought to play an important role against diseases as an antioxidant. Heat appears to be the most influencing


title: "Castanea sativa" content: factor when it comes to decreasing the organic acid content. However, even after heating sweet chestnuts, antioxidant activity remains relatively high. On the other hand, the consumer must consider that roasting, boiling or frying has a big impact on the nutritional profile of chestnut. Vitamin C significantly decreases between 25-54 % when boiled and 2-77 % when roasted. Nevertheless, roasted or boiled chestnuts may still be a solid vitamin C source, since 100 gram still represent about 20 % of the recommended daily dietary intake. The sugar content is also affected by the high temperatures. Four processes are decisive for


title: "Castanea sativa" content: the degrading process of sugar while cooking: hydrolysis of starch to oligosaccharide and monosaccharide, decomposition of sucrose to glucose and fructose, caramelization of sugars and degradation of sugars. Organic acids are also affected by high temperatures: their content decreases about 50 % after frying, and 15 % after boiling. Responsible for the aromatic characteristics of cooked chestnuts is the effect of degradation of saccharides, proteins and lipids, the caramelization of saccharides and the maillard reaction that is reducing sugar and amino acids. This tree responds very well to coppicing, which is still practised in Britain, and produces a good crop


title: "Castanea sativa" content: of tannin-rich wood every 12 to 30 years, depending on intended use and local growth rate. The tannin renders the young growing wood durable and resistant to outdoor use, thus suitable for posts, fencing or stakes. The wood is of light colour, hard and strong. It is used to make furniture, barrels (sometimes used to age balsamic vinegar), and roof beams notably in southern Europe (for example in houses of the Alpujarra, Spain, in southern France and elsewhere). The timber has a density of 560 kg per cubic meter, and due to its durability in ground contact is often used


title: "Castanea sativa" content: for external purposes such as fencing. It is also a good fuel, though not favoured for open fires as it tends to spit. Tannin is found in the following proportions on a 10% moisture basis: bark (6.8%), wood (13.4%), seed husks (10 - 13%). The leaves also contain tannin. Castanea sativa Castanea sativa, or sweet chestnut, is a species of flowering plant in the family Fagaceae, native to Southern Europe and Asia Minor, and widely cultivated throughout the temperate world. A substantial, long-lived deciduous tree, it produces an edible seed, the chestnut, which has been used in cooking since ancient


title: "Spring peeper" content: Spring peeper The spring peeper ("Pseudacris crucifer") is a small chorus frog widespread throughout the eastern United States and Canada. They are so called because of their chirping call that marks the beginning of spring. There are two subspecies: Spring peepers are tan or brown with a dark cross that roughly forms an X on their dorsa (thus the Latin name "crucifer", meaning cross-bearer), though sometimes the marking may be indistinct. They have a body length between less than to and a mass between . The species has large toe pads for climbing, although it is more at home amid


title: "Spring peeper" content: the loose debris of the forest floor. The color variations of "P. crucifer" are mostly tan, brown, olive green, and gray. Females are lighter-colored, while males are slightly smaller and usually have dark throats. Located by its throat, this frog has a vocal sac which expands and deflates like a balloon to create a short and distinct peeping sound. Only males have the ability to make this loud high-pitched noise, and they use it to attract mates. Spring peepers live primarily in forests and regenerating woodlands near ephemeral or semipermanent wetlands. This amphibious species requires marshes, ponds, or swamp regions


title: "Spring peeper" content: to support the aquatic environment the eggs and tadpoles need. In the northern reaches of their range, spring peepers must frequently endure occasional periods of subfreezing temperatures during the breeding season. The species can tolerate the freezing of some of its body fluids, and undergoes hibernation under logs or behind loose bark on trees. It is capable of surviving the freezing of its internal body fluids to temperatures as low as -8 °C. This species frequently occurs in breeding aggregations of several hundred individuals, and commonly breeds in many small wetlands, including swamps and temporary pools and disturbed habitats, such


title: "Spring peeper" content: as farm ponds and borrow pits. The southern spring peeper's habitat includes the Gulf Coast from southeastern Texas to southeastern Georgia and northern Florida, United States. Its northern conspecific occurs in the entire United States east of the Mississippi and spreads to eastern and central Canada. Spring peepers are nocturnal insectivores, emerging at night to feed primarily on small invertebrates, such as beetles, ants, flies, and spiders. They do not climb high into trees, but hunt in low vegetation. Spring peepers living in deep, damp forests are active hunters both day and night, whereas those found in woodland edges restrict


title: "Spring peeper" content: most hunting and other activity to night. Tadpoles feed on algae and other organisms in the water. Their predators include great diving beetle larvae (when in tadpole form), snakes, skunks, and larger frogs. As their common name implies, the spring peeper has a high-pitched call similar to that of a young chicken, only much louder and rising slightly in tone. They are among the first frogs in the regions to call in the spring. As a chorus, they resemble the sounds of sleigh bells. They are heard early in spring not long after the ice melts on the wetlands. The


title: "Spring peeper" content: males usually call from the edges of the bodies of water in which they breed, hidden near the bases of shrubs or grasses. Even when calling, they may be difficult to locate, and are most easily seen when in amplexus in the shallows. As in other frogs, an aggressive call is made when densities are high. This call is a rising trill closely resembling the breeding call of the southern chorus frog ("Pseudacris nigrita nigrita"). Spring peepers breed in southern areas from October to March, depending on the local temperature. In northern areas, they breed between March and June, when


title: "Spring peeper" content: the warm rains start. "P. crucifer" typically lays around 900 eggs per clutch, but up to 1000 are possible. Egg clusters are hidden under vegetation or debris at the water base. About eight weeks after hatching, they transform into frogs and are ready to leave the water. In very cold weather, they hibernate under logs and loose bark. Spring peepers often call day and night as long as the temperature is above freezing, but they are mostly heard and usually not seen because they hide in dense plants. They are especially easy to hear due to their extremely loud mating


title: "Spring peeper" content: call which gives them the name "peeper", but it is often hard to pinpoint the source of the sound, especially when many are peeping at once. The peepers generally breed close to dusk and throughout the evening and early morning hours. Their calls can be heard from as far as one to two and a half miles, depending on their numbers. The spring peeper can live an estimated three years in the wild. The spring peeper has no special status in most areas. They are common and widespread frogs in the eastern regions. However, their habitats are quickly changing due


title: "Spring peeper" content: to loss of wetlands. In some areas, their populations have decreased significantly. The species is listed as threatened in both Iowa and Kansas. Spring peeper The spring peeper ("Pseudacris crucifer") is a small chorus frog widespread throughout the eastern United States and Canada. They are so called because of their chirping call that marks the beginning of spring. There are two subspecies: Spring peepers are tan or brown with a dark cross that roughly forms an X on their dorsa (thus the Latin name "crucifer", meaning cross-bearer), though sometimes the marking may be indistinct. They have a body length between


title: "Westland Wasp" content: "Manned Torpedo-Carrying Helicopter" (MATCH). Contemporary shipboard weapons did not have the necessary range, therefore MATCH was in essence a stand-off weapon with the helicopter carrying the torpedo or other weapon to the target and being instructed when and where to drop it. Unlike the larger Wessex, the Wasp carried no sonar of its own, and was limited strictly to working in partnership with its parent ship, other ships or other ASW units. The first prototype Saro P.531 flew on 20 July 1958, with the prototypes being subject to detailed testing by the Royal Navy, including the evaluation of several different


title: "National Association of Realtors" content: regard to these types of limitations on the display of data were the product of a conspiracy to restrain trade by excluding brokers who used the Internet to operate differently from traditional brick-and-mortar brokers. (For a description of the DOJ action, see "Antitrust Case filings for US v. National Association of Realtors".) Meanwhile, various real estate trends such as expanded consumer access and the Internet are consolidating existing local MLS organizations into larger and more statewide or regional MLS systems, such as in California and Virginia/Maryland/Washington DC's Metropolitan Regional Information Systems. In response to the case, NAR had proposed setting


title: "Todd Bertuzzi" content: During the second round of the 2010 playoffs, Bertuzzi recorded a career-high five-point contest (a goal and four assists) in a Game 4 victory against the San Jose Sharks. Bertuzzi finished with a playoffs career-high 11 points in 12 games. In the off-season, Bertuzzi signed a two-year, $3.875 million contract extension with the Red Wings on June 16, 2010. During the 2010–11 season, he appeared in his 1,000th NHL game on February 20, 2011, against the Minnesota Wild. Bertuzzi scored a shootout goal to help Detroit win the game 2–1. Dressing for 81 games that season, he ranked seventh in


title: "El Tatio" content: El Tatio El Tatio is a geyser field located in the Andes Mountains of northern Chile at above mean sea level. Various etymologies have been proposed for the name "El Tatio", which might mean "oven" or "grandfather". It is the third-largest geyser field in the world and the largest in the Southern Hemisphere. El Tatio lies at the western foot of a series of stratovolcanoes, which run along the border between Chile and Bolivia. This series of volcanoes is part of the Central Volcanic Zone, one of several volcanic belts in the Andes, and there are no recorded historical eruptions


title: "El Tatio" content: at the Tatio volcanoes. El Tatio is also part of the Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex (APVC), a system of large calderas and associated ignimbrites, which have been the sources of supereruptions. Some of these calderas may be the source of heat for the El Tatio geothermal system. El Tatio is a geothermal field with many geysers, hot springs, and associated sinter deposits. These hot springs eventually form the Rio Salado, a major tributary of the Rio Loa, and a major source of arsenic pollution in the river. The vents are sites of populations of extremophile microorganisms and have been studied as


title: "El Tatio" content: analogs for the early Earth and possible past life on Mars. The field is a major tourism destination in northern Chile. It was prospected over the last century for the potential of geothermal power production, but development efforts were discontinued after a major incident in 2009 in which drilling well blew out, creating a steam column. The term "tatio" is Kunza and means "to appear", "oven", but it has also been translated as "grandfather" or "burnt". The geyser field is also known as the Copacoya geysers. The earliest mentions of geysers in the region are from the late 19th century,


title: "El Tatio" content: and they were already well known by 1952. The first geothermal prospecting of the field occurred in the 1920s and the field was mentioned in academic literature in 1943, but more systematic research took place in 1967-1982; most research on this geothermal field was done in the context of geothermal prospecting. <mapframe latitude="-22.350" longitude="-68.027" zoom="4" width="400" height="300" align="right" text="Location of El Tatio in northern Chile close to the border between Chile and Bolivia.">{ }</mapframe>El Tatio lies in the Antofagasta Province of northern Chile close to the border between Chile and Bolivia. The field is located - north of the town


title: "El Tatio" content: San Pedro de Atacama and east of the town of Calama; Chile Route B-245 connects El Tatio to San Pedro de Atacama. Towns close to El Tatio are Toconce to the north, Caspana to the west, Machuca to the south and a workers' camp for a sulfur mine at Volcan Tatio, which was reported to exist in 1959. The old Inca trail from San Pedro de Atacama to Siloli crossed the geyser field; the Inca also operated a mountain sanctuary on Volcan Tatio. There are several unpaved roads and all parts of the field are easily accessible. El Tatio is


title: "El Tatio" content: part of the Central Volcanic Zone, a segment of the Andes between 14° and 28° southern latitude where the Andes are volcanically active. This volcanism manifests itself with about 10 silicic caldera complexes of the Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex and more than 50 recently active volcanoes; Lascar in 1993 erupted and produced a tall eruption column. Andesitic stratovolcanoes reaching elevations of about are found at El Tatio east of the field, while the Sierra de Tucle lies to the southwest of it. From north to south the andesitic stratovolcanoes include the high Cerro Deslinde, the high Cerro El Volcan, the high


title: "El Tatio" content: Cordillera del Tatio and the high Volcan Tatio, and they collectively form the El Tatio volcanic group. The geothermal field of El Tatio lies in a graben between the stratovolcanoes in the east and the Serrania de Tucle-Loma Lucero horst in the west. Mountains southwest of El Tatio include the Alto Ojo del Cablor, while high Cerro Copacoya is situated northwest of the geothermal field. Dacitic volcanism, older than the easterly stratovolcanoes, has occurred west of El Tatio; this volcanism was known as the "liparitic formation" and it covers large areas in the region. Firn and snow fields were reported


title: "El Tatio" content: in the middle 20th century on the El Tatio volcanic group, at elevations of . The region is too dry to support glaciers today, but in the past higher moisture allowed their formation on mountains of this part of the Andes; glacially eroded mountains and moraines testify to their existence. A large moraine complex, including both terminal structures and well-developed lateral moraines, can be found north of the geyser field. Two more moraine systems extend westward both northeast and southeast of El Tatio, and the terrain surrounding the geyser field is covered by sands that are interpreted as glacial outwash


title: "El Tatio" content: sands. Drainage in the area is generally from east to west down the Western Cordillera, often in form of steeply incised valleys. The Rio Salado drains most of the hot spring water and has its headwaters in the field where it is joined by the Rio Tucle. Temperature measurements of the water flowing to the Rio Salado have yielded values of , while the discharge of the Rio Salado amounts to . The Rio Salado eventually joins the Rio Loa, a major source of freshwater for the region; thus, El Tatio plays an important role in the regional water supply.


title: "El Tatio" content: El Tatio is well known as a geothermal field in Chile, and is the largest geyser field in the southern hemisphere with about 8% of all geysers in the world and is (together with Sol de Mañana) the highest geyser field in the world. Only Yellowstone in the United States and Dolina Geizerov in Russia are larger and their geysers are taller than these at El Tatio. The geothermal field covers an area of at elevations of , and is characterized by fumaroles, hot springs, steam vents known as soffioni and steaming soil. Stronger geothermal activity is located within three


title: "El Tatio" content: discrete areas covering a total of surface, and includes boiling water fountains, hot springs, geysers, mudpots, mud volcanoes and sinter terraces; further, chimneys of extinct geysers have been noted. One of these three areas lies within a valley, the second on a flat surface and the third along the banks of the Rio Salado. The first area offers a notable contrast between the snow-covered Andes, the coloured hills that surround the field and the white deposits left by the geothermal activity. Most geysers of El Tatio are found here and are particularly noticeable in cold weather. A similar landscape exists


title: "El Tatio" content: at the third (lower) area, with the presence of the Rio Salado river adding an additional element to the landscape. The second area is located between a creek and a hill and includes an artificial pool for tourists. The field once numbered 67 geysers and more than three hundred hot springs. Many vents are linked to fractures that run northwest-southeast or southwest-northeast across the field. Some geyser fountains reached heights greater than ; usually, however, they do not exceed . A few geysers have received names, such as Boiling Geyser, El Cobreloa, El Cobresal, El Jefe, Terrace Geyser, Tower Geyser


title: "El Tatio" content: and Vega Rinconada. An additional geothermal system lies southeast of and at elevations above El Tatio and is characterized by steam-heated ponds fed by precipitation water, and solfataric activity has been reported on the stratovolcanoes farther east. Deposition of sinter from the waters of the geothermal field has given rise to spectacular landforms, including, but not limited to mounds, terraced pools, geyser cones and the dams that form their rims. Small scale features include cones, crusts, mollusc-shaped formations and waterfall-like surfaces. High contents of silica give the waters a blueish colour, organic compounds such as carotenoids conversely often colour the


title: "El Tatio" content: sinter with orange-brown, and greenish hues are owing to iron-oxidizing bacteria. Subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South American Plate is responsible for the formation of the Andes. Volcanism does not occur along the entire length of the Andes; there are three volcanic zones called the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone and the Southern Volcanic Zone, all separated by areas with no recent volcanism. El Tatio and a number of other geothermal fields such as Sol de Mañana are part of the Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex. The region was dominated by andesitic volcanism producing lava flows until the


title: "El Tatio" content: late Miocene, then large scale ignimbrite activity took place between 10 and 1 million years ago. This ignimbrite volcanism is part of the APVC proper and produced about of ignimbrites, covering a surface area of . The APVC activity continued into the Holocene with the emission of voluminous lava domes and lava flows; the present-day uplift of the Uturunku volcano in Bolivia may signal ongoing activity of the APVC. The Laguna Colorada caldera lies east of El Tatio. The terrain at El Tatio is formed by Jurassic–Cretaceous sediments of marine and volcanic origin, Tertiary–Holocene volcanic formations that were emplaced in


title: "El Tatio" content: various episodes, and recent sediments formed by glaciers, alluvium, colluvium and material formed by the geothermal field, such as sinter. Volcanic formations fill the Tatio graben, including the Miocene Rio Salado ignimbrite and related volcanics which reach thicknesses of in some places, the Sifon ignimbrite, the Pliocene Puripicar ignimbrite and the Pleistocene Tatio ignimbrite; the Puripicar ignimbrite crops out farther west. Active volcanoes in the area include Putana and Tocorpuri. Hydrothermal alteration of country rock has occurred at El Tatio, it has yielded large deposits of alteration minerals such as illite, nobleite, smectite, teruggite and ulexite. Likewise, the summit parts


title: "El Tatio" content: of several volcanoes of the El Tatio volcanic group have been bleached and discoloured by hydrothermal activity. Most of the water that is discharged by the hot springs appears to be precipitation, which enters the ground east and southeast of El Tatio. The source of heat of the whole complex appears to be the Laguna Colorada caldera, the El Tatio volcanic group or the Cerro Guacha and Pastos Grandes calderas. The movement of the water in the ground is controlled by the permeability of the volcanic material and the Serrania de Tucle–Loma Lucero tectonic block west of El Tatio that


title: "El Tatio" content: acts as an obstacle. As it moves through the ground, it acquires heat and minerals and loses steam through evaporation. Unlike geothermal fields in wetter parts of the world, given the dry climate of the area, local precipitation has little influence on the hot springs hydrology at El Tatio. The time the water takes to traverse the whole path from precipitation to the springs is about 15 years. The water travels through a number of aquifers that correspond to permeable rock formations, such as the Salado and Puripicar ignimbrites, as well as through faults and fractures in the rock. Magmatic


title: "El Tatio" content: brine is mixed into this water and the mixture ultimately becomes the water that emerges at El Tatio. Two separate geothermal reservoirs have been identified, one encompassing the Salado and Puripicar ignimbrites and the other a dacite, the Tucle dacite. The Puripicar ignimbrite appears to be the main hydrothermal reservoir, with temperatures reaching . The total heat output of El Tatio is about . The hydrothermal system beneath El Tatio appears to extend to the neighbouring La Torta de Tocorpuri system. Depending on the season, the hot springs yield of water at temperatures reaching the local boiling point. The water


title: "El Tatio" content: is rich in minerals, especially sodium chloride. Other compounds and elements in ascending tendency are antimony, rubidium, strontium, bromine, magnesium, caesium, lithium, arsenic, sulfate, boron, potassium, silica and calcium. Some of these minerals are toxic, especially arsenic which pollutes a number of waters in the region. Arsenic concentrations in waters at El Tatio can reach , and in sediments. El Tatio is a principal source of arsenic in the Rio Loa system, and arsenic pollution in the region has been linked to health issues in the population. Composition of these hot springs is not uniform in El Tatio, with chloride


title: "El Tatio" content: content decreasing from the northern springs over the southwestern ones to the eastern springs, where sulfate is more frequent. This sulfate enrichment appears to be driven by the steam-driven evaporation of the hot spring water, with the sulfate forming when hydrogen sulfide is oxidized by atmospheric oxygen. The decreasing chloride content on the other hand appears to be due to drainage coming from the east diluting the southern and western and especially eastern spring systems. Steam vents are particularly noticeable in the morning hours when the steam columns emanating from them are particularly visible, and temperatures of have been found.


title: "El Tatio" content: Carbon dioxide is the most important fumarole gas, followed by hydrogen sulfide. The amount of water relative to these two gases is variable, probably due to condensation of water in the ground. Additional components include argon, helium, hydrogen, methane, neon, nitrogen and oxygen. Characteristically for fumarole gases on convergent plate boundaries, much of this nitrogen is non-atmospheric, although atmospheric air is also involved in generating the chemistry of the El Tatio fumarole gases. Opal is the most important component of sinter associated with hot springs; halite, sylvite and realgar are less common. This dominance of opal is because usually conditions


title: "El Tatio" content: favour its precipitation from water but not of other minerals, and it occurs both in subaqueous environments and on surfaces that are only occasionally wetted. During the precipitation, the opal forms tiny spheres which can aggregate as well as glassy deposits. Halite and other evaporites are more commonly encountered on the sinter surfaces outside of the hot springs, and while opal dominates in these environments as well sassolite and teruggite are found in addition to the aforementioned four minerals in the discharge deposits. Volcanic rock fragments such as plagioclase and quartz are found within cavities of the sinter. Cahnite has


title: "El Tatio" content: also been identified in sinter deposits. Finally, antimony, arsenic and calcium form sulfidic deposits in some springs. Microorganisms and material like pollen is found integrated within the sinter deposits. The rate at which sinter is deposited has been estimated at . The climate is dry with most precipitation falling between December and March, a precipitation pattern mediated by the South American monsoon. The region is additionally rather windy, which influences the hot springs by enhancing evaporation. Apart from precipitation, the area is characterized by extreme temperature variations between day and night. The Chilean Dirección General del Agua operates a weather


title: "El Tatio" content: station at El Tatio; according to data from this station air temperatures average and precipitation . El Tatio further features high ultraviolet (UV) insolation. The whole Central Andes were wetter in the past, resulting in the formation of lakes such as Lake Tauca in the Altiplano. This, and a colder climate, resulted in the development of glaciers at El Tatio, which have left moraines. Surface exposure dating indicates that some moraines were emplaced at or before the Last Glacial Maximum and others in a time period 35,000 to 40,000 years before present. The dry grassland vegetation of the region is


title: "El Tatio" content: classified as Central Andean dry puna. Tussock grasses like "Anatherostipa", "Festuca" and "Stipa" occur at elevation, while rosette and cushion plants reach elevations of ; these include "Azorella", "Chaetanthera", "Mulinum", "Senecio", "Lenzia", "Pycnophyllum" and "Valeriana". Riparian vegetation occurs along the Rio Salado. Among the animals in the region are chinchillas and viscachas and llamas, mainly the vicuña. The geothermal field El Tatio is populated by various plants, microbes and animals. The vents are an extreme environment, given the presence of arsenic and the large amount of UV radiation that El Tatio receives. Hot springs have characteristic microbial communities associated with


title: "El Tatio" content: them that leave characteristic fossil traces in the spring deposits; environmental conditions on the early Earth resembled these of hot springs with potentially high UV radiation exposure, as the ozone layer did not yet exist and life probably developed within such conditions. In addition, microbial metabolism of arsenic influences its toxicity and the effects of arsenic pollution. Biofilms and microbial mats are omnipresent at El Tatio, including "Calothrix", "Lyngbya" and "Phormidium" cyanobacteria, which form mats within the hot springs covering the solid surfaces, including oncoids and the sinter. In other places, the aforementioned three genera form stromatolithic structures. "Chroococcidiopsis" is


title: "El Tatio" content: another cyanobacterium that can be found in hot waters of El Tatio. There is a thermal gradation of microorganisms, with the hottest waters supporting "Chloroflexus" green bacteria and hyperthermophiles, cyanobacteria at less than water temperature and diatoms at even lower temperatures. Microbial mats have been found at other hot springs in the world such as Yellowstone and Steamboat Springs, both in the United States, and New Zealand, but they are thinner at El Tatio. These mats often have their organic material replaced with opal and thus end up forming much of the sinter, which has thus characteristic biogenix textures, such


title: "El Tatio" content: as filaments and laminae. Such biogenic textures have been observed on sinter deposits around the world and are usually microbial in origin. In the case of El Tatio, these biogenic textures are particularly well preserved in the sinter deposited by water flowing away from springs. "Chloroflexus" is a thermophilic filamentous green bacterium found in hot waters at Yellowstone; filamentous structures within geyser cones at El Tatio may have been formed by this bacterium. In splash cones "Synechococcus"-like microbes are instead responsible for the structures, which resemble those of hot springs. The presence of microorganisms in sinter has been implicated in