title: "Transamerica Pyramid" content: the base of the building is a small private park called Transamerica Redwood Park. It is generally open to the public during the daytime. A number of redwood trees were transplanted from the local area to this park when the tower was built. Transamerica Pyramid The Transamerica Pyramid at 600 Montgomery Street between Clay and Washington Streets in the Financial District of San Francisco, California, United States, is a 48-story futurist building and the second-tallest skyscraper in the San Francisco skyline. Its height is surpassed by Salesforce Tower. The building no longer houses the headquarters of the Transamerica Corporation, which


title: "Markov chain" content: random variables "X", "X", "X", ... with the Markov property, namely that the probability of moving to the next state depends only on the present state and not on the previous states The possible values of "X" form a countable set "S" called the state space of the chain. Markov chains are often described by a sequence of directed graphs, where the edges of graph "n" are labeled by the probabilities of going from one state at time "n" to the other states at time "n" + 1, formula_26. The same information is represented by the transition matrix from time


title: Shannara content: published in June 2019. Paladins of Shannara 01 – Allanon's Quest An e-book short story set directly before "The Sword of Shannara". Paladins of Shannara 02 – The Weapons Master's Choice An e-book short story set sometime before "The Wishsong of Shannara". Paladins of Shannara 03 – The Black Irix An e-book short story set soon after "The Sword of Shannara". Indomitable A short story published in the anthology "Legends II", set a few years after "The Wishsong of Shannara". The Dark Wraith of Shannara A Graphic Novel that shows part of the events of Indomitable, along with a continuation


title: "Boy's surface" content: be the Bryant–Kusner parametrization of Boy's surface. Then This explains the condition formula_7 on the parameter: if formula_8 then formula_9 However, things are slightly more complicated for formula_10 In this case, one has formula_11 This means that, if formula_12 the point of the Boy's surface is obtained from two parameter values: formula_13 In other words, the Boy's surface has been parametrized by a disk such that pairs of diametrically opposite points on the perimeter of the disk are equivalent. This shows that the Boy's surface is the image of the real projective plane, RP by a smooth map. That is,


title: Juneteenth content: (late president of the National Association of Juneteenth Lineage) who "successfully worked to bring national recognition to Juneteenth Independence Day", and the continued leadership of the National Juneteenth Observance Foundation. In 2018 Apple added Juneteenth to its calendars in iOS under official US holidays. Organizations such as the National Juneteenth Observance Foundation are seeking a Congressional designation of Juneteenth as a national day of observance. Juneteenth Juneteenth, also known as Juneteenth Independence Day or Freedom Day, is an American holiday that commemorates the June 19, 1865, announcement of the abolition of slavery in the U.S. state of Texas, and more


title: "Black swan" content: Black swan The black swan ("Cygnus atratus") is a large waterbird, a species of swan which breeds mainly in the southeast and southwest regions of Australia. Within Australia they are nomadic, with erratic migration patterns dependent upon climatic conditions. Black swans are large birds with mostly black plumage and red bills. They are monogamous breeders, and are unusual in that one-quarter of all pairings are homosexual, mostly between males. Both partners share incubation and cygnet rearing duties. Black swans were introduced to various countries as an ornamental bird in the 1800s, but have escaped and formed stable populations. A small


title: "Black swan" content: population of black swans exists on the River Thames at Marlow, on the Brook running through the small town of Dawlish in Devon (they have become the symbol of the town), near the River Itchen, Hampshire, and the River Tees near Stockton on Tees. Described scientifically by English naturalist John Latham in 1790, the black swan was formerly placed into a monotypic genus, "Chenopis". Black swans can be found singly, or in loose companies numbering into the hundreds or even thousands. Black swans are popular birds in zoological gardens and bird collections, and escapees are sometimes seen outside their natural


title: "Black swan" content: range. Black swans are mostly black-feathered birds, with white flight feathers. The bill is bright red, with a pale bar and tip; and legs and feet are greyish-black. Cobs (males) are slightly larger than pens (females), with a longer and straighter bill. Cygnets (immature birds) are a greyish-brown with pale-edged feathers. A mature black swan measures between in length and weighs . Its wing span is between . The neck is long (relatively the longest neck among the swans) and curved in an "S"-shape. The black swan utters a musical and far reaching bugle-like sound, called either on the water


title: "Black swan" content: or in flight, as well as a range of softer crooning notes. It can also whistle, especially when disturbed while breeding and nesting. When swimming, black swans hold their necks arched or erect and often carry their feathers or wings raised in an aggressive display. In flight, a wedge of black swans will form as a line or a V, with the individual birds flying strongly with undulating long necks, making whistling sounds with their wings and baying, bugling or trumpeting calls. The black swan is unlike any other Australian bird, although in poor light and at long range it


title: "Black swan" content: may be confused with a magpie goose in flight. However, the black swan can be distinguished by its much longer neck and slower wing beat. One captive population of black swans in Lakeland, Florida has produced a few individuals which are a light mottled grey color instead of black. The black swan is common in the wetlands of southwestern and eastern Australia and adjacent coastal islands. In the south west the range encompasses an area between North West Cape, Cape Leeuwin and Eucla; while in the east it covers a large region bounded by the Atherton Tableland, the Eyre Peninsula


title: "Black swan" content: and Tasmania, with the Murray Darling Basin supporting very large populations of black swans. It is uncommon in central and northern Australia. The black swan's preferred habitat extends across fresh, brackish and salt water lakes, swamps and rivers with underwater and emergent vegetation for food and nesting materials. Permanent wetlands are preferred, including ornamental lakes, but black swans can also be found in flooded pastures and tidal mudflats, and occasionally on the open sea near islands or the shore. Black swans were once thought to be sedentary, but the species is now known to be highly nomadic. There is no


title: "Black swan" content: set migratory pattern, but rather opportunistic responses to either rainfall or drought. In high rainfall years, emigration occurs from the south west and south east into the interior, with a reverse migration to these heartlands in drier years. When rain does fall in the arid central regions, black swans will migrate to these areas to nest and raise their young. However, should dry conditions return before the young have been raised, the adult birds will abandon the nests and their eggs or cygnets and return to wetter areas. Black swans, like many other water fowl, lose all their flight feathers


title: "Black swan" content: at once when they moult after breeding and they are unable to fly for about a month. During this time they will usually settle on large, open waters for safety. The species has a large range, with figures between one and ten million km given as the extent of occurrence. The current global population is estimated to be up to 500,000 individuals. No threat of extinction or significant decline in population has been identified with this numerous and widespread bird. Black swans were first seen by Europeans in 1697, when Willem de Vlamingh's expedition explored the Swan River, Western Australia.


title: "Black swan" content: Before the arrival of the Māori in New Zealand, a related species of swan known as the New Zealand swan had developed there, but was apparently hunted to extinction. In 1864, the Australian black swan was introduced to New Zealand as an ornamental waterfowl and populations are now common on larger coastal or inland lakes, especially Rotorua Lakes, Lake Wairarapa, Lake Ellesmere, and the Chatham Islands. Black swans have also naturally flown to New Zealand, leading scientists to consider them a native rather than exotic species, although the present population appears to be largely descended from deliberate introductions. The black


title: "Black swan" content: swan is also very popular as an ornamental waterbird in western Europe, especially Britain, and escapees are commonly reported. As yet, the population in Britain is not considered to be self-sustaining and so the species is not afforded admission to the official British List, but the Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust have recorded a maximum of nine breeding pairs in the UK in 2001, with an estimate of 43 feral birds in 2003-2004. A colony of black swans in Dawlish, Devon has become so well associated with the town that the bird has been the town's emblem for forty years. Black


title: "Black swan" content: swans used to live in Lake Junaluska, a large lake in Waynesville, North Carolina. There are also wild populations in Japan, having originally been imported during 1950-1960. Black swans have been reported in Florida, USA, but there is no evidence that these examples are breeding; persistent sightings may be due to continuing releases or escapes. Black swans can also be found in China. In 2018 one group of swans was introduced to the Shenzhen University campus on an artificial lake in Guangdong Province. The black swan is almost exclusively herbivorous, and while there is some regional and seasonal variation, the


title: "Black swan" content: diet is generally dominated by aquatic and marshland plants. In New South Wales the leaf of reedmace (genus "Typha") is the most important food of birds in wetlands, followed by submerged algae and aquatic plants such as "Vallisneria". In Queensland, aquatic plants such as "Potamogeton", stoneworts, and algae are the dominant foods. The exact composition varies with water level; in flood situations where normal foods are out of reach black swans will feed on pasture plants on shore. The black swan feeds in a similar manner to other swans. When feeding in shallow water it will dip its head and


title: "Black swan" content: neck under the water and it is able to keep its head flat against the bottom while keeping its body horizontal. In deeper water the swan up-ends to reach lower. Black swans are also able to filter feed at the water's surface. Like other swans, the black swan is largely monogamous, pairing for life (about 6% divorce rate). Recent studies have shown that around a third of all broods exhibit extra-pair paternity. An estimated one-quarter of all pairings are homosexual, mostly between males. They steal nests, or form temporary threesomes with females to obtain eggs, driving away the female after


title: "Black swan" content: she lays the eggs. Generally, black swans in the Southern hemisphere nest in the wetter winter months (February to September), occasionally in large colonies. A black swan nest is essentially a large heap or mound of reeds, grasses and weeds between 1 and 1.5 metres (3-4½ feet) in diameter and up to 1 metre high, in shallow water or on islands. A nest is reused every year, restored or rebuilt as needed. Both parents share the care of the nest. A typical clutch contains 4 to 8 greenish-white eggs that are incubated for about 35–40 days. Incubation begins after the


title: "Black swan" content: laying of the last egg, to synchronise the hatching of the chicks. Prior to the commencement of incubation the parent will sit over the eggs without actually warming them. Both sexes incubate the eggs, with the female incubating at night. The change over between incubation periods is marked by ritualised displays by both sexes. If eggs accidentally roll out of the nest both sexes will retrieve the egg using the neck (in other swan species only the female performs this feat). Like all swans, black swans will aggressively defend their nests with their wings and beaks. After hatching, the cygnets


title: "Black swan" content: are tended by the parents for about 9 months until fledging. Cygnets may ride on their parent's back for longer trips into deeper water, but black swans undertake this behaviour less frequently than mute and black-necked swans. The black swan is protected in New South Wales, Australia under the "National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974" (s.5). It is evaluated as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The black swan was a literary or artistic image, even before the discovery of "Cygnus atratus". Cultural reference has been based on symbolic contrast and as a distinctive motif. The


title: "Black swan" content: black swan's role in Australian heraldry and culture extends to the first founding of the colonies in the eighteenth century. It has often been equated with antipodean identity, the contrast to the white swan of the northern hemisphere indicating 'Australianness'. The black swan is featured on the flag, and is both the state bird and state emblem of Western Australia; it also appears in the Coat of Arms and other iconography of the state's institutions. The Noongar People of the South-West of Australia refer to the black swan by various local names; "Kooldjak" along the West and South-West coast, "Gooldjak"


title: "Black swan" content: in the South East and sometimes referred to as "maali" in language schools. Works cited Black swan The black swan ("Cygnus atratus") is a large waterbird, a species of swan which breeds mainly in the southeast and southwest regions of Australia. Within Australia they are nomadic, with erratic migration patterns dependent upon climatic conditions. Black swans are large birds with mostly black plumage and red bills. They are monogamous breeders, and are unusual in that one-quarter of all pairings are homosexual, mostly between males. Both partners share incubation and cygnet rearing duties. Black swans were introduced to various countries as


title: Mayonnaise content: Mayonnaise Mayonnaise (, , also ), informally mayo (), is a thick cold sauce or dressing usually used in sandwiches and composed salads. It is a stable emulsion of oil, egg yolk, and acid, either vinegar or lemon juice. There are many variants using additional flavorings. The proteins and lecithin in the egg yolk serve as emulsifiers in mayonnaise (and hollandaise sauce). The color of mayonnaise varies from near-white to pale yellow, and its texture from a light cream to a thick gel. Commercial egg-free varieties are made for vegans and others who avoid chicken eggs or dietary cholesterol. A


title: Mayonnaise content: "mayonnaise de poulet" is mentioned by a traveler to Paris in 1804, but not described. Viard's 1806 recipe for "poulets en mayonnaise" describes a sauce involving a velouté, gelatin, vinegar, and an optional egg to thicken it, which gels like an aspic. Grimod de La Reynière's 1808 "bayonnaise" sauce is also a sort of aspic: "But if one wants to make from this cold chicken, a dish of distinction, one composes a bayonnaise, whose green jelly, of a good consistency, forms the most worthy ornament of poultry and fish salads." The word is attested in English in 1815. Mayonnaise may


title: Mayonnaise content: have existed long before: "It is highly probable that wherever olive oil existed, a simple preparation of oil and egg came about — particularly in the Mediterranean region, where "aioli" (oil and garlic) is made." The origin of the name is unclear. A common theory is that it is named for Port Mahon in Menorca, in honor of the 3rd Duke of Richelieu's victory over the British in 1756, and in fact the name "mahonnaise" is used by some authors. But the name is only attested long after that event. One version of this theory says that it was originally


title: Mayonnaise content: known as "salsa mahonesa" in Spanish, but that spelling is only attested later. Grimod de La Reynière rejected the name "mayonnaise" because the word "is not French"; he rejected "mahonnaise" because Port Mahon "is not known for good food", and thus he preferred "bayonnaise", after the city of Bayonne, which "has many innovative gourmands and ... produces the best hams in Europe. Carême preferred the spelling "magnonnaise", which he derived from the French verb "manier" 'to handle'. Another suggestion is it derives from Charles de Lorraine, duke of Mayenne, because he took the time to finish his meal of chicken


title: Mayonnaise content: with cold sauce before being defeated in the Battle of Arques. But that battle was in 1589, even further from the first attestation. Recipes for mayonnaise date back to the early nineteenth century. In 1815, Louis Eustache Ude wrote: No 58.—Mayonnaise. Take three spoonfuls of Allemande, six ditto of aspic, and two of oil. Add a little tarragon vinegar, that has not boiled, some pepper and salt, and minced ravigotte, or merely some parsley. Then put in the members of fowl, or fillets of soles, &c. Your mayonnaise must be put to ice; neither are you to put the members


title: Mayonnaise content: into your sauce till it begins to freeze. Next dish your meat or fish, mask with the sauce before it be quite frozen, and garnish your dish with whatever you think proper, as beet root, jelly, nasturtiums, &c. In an 1820 work, Viard describes something like the more familiar emulsified version: This sauce is made to "take" in many ways: with raw egg yolks, with gelatine, with veal or veal brain glaze. The most common method is to take a raw egg yolk in a small terrine, with a little salt and lemon juice: take a wooden spoon, turn it


title: Mayonnaise content: while letting a trickle of oil fall and stirring constantly; as your sauce thickens, add a little vinegar; put in too a pound of good oil: serve your sauce with good salt: serve it white or green, adding green of ravigote or green of spinach. This sauce is used for cold fish entrees, or salad of vegetables cooked in salt water. Modern mayonnaise can be made by hand with a whisk, a fork, or with the aid of an electric mixer or blender. It is made by slowly adding oil to an egg yolk, while whisking vigorously to disperse the


title: Mayonnaise content: oil. The oil and the water in the yolk form a base of the emulsion, while lecithin and protein from the yolk is the emulsifier that stabilizes it. A combination of van der Waals interactions and electrostatic repulsion determine the bond strength among oil droplets. The high viscosity of mayonnaise is attributed to the total strength created by these two intermolecular forces. Addition of mustard contributes to the taste and further stabilizes the emulsion, as mustard contains small amounts of lecithin. If vinegar is added directly to the yolk, it can emulsify more oil, thus making more mayonnaise. For large-scale


title: Mayonnaise content: preparation of mayonnaise where mixing equipment is being employed, the process typically begins with the dispersal of eggs, either powdered or liquid, into water. Once emulsified, the remaining ingredients are then added and vigorously mixed until completely hydrated and evenly dispersed. Oil is then added as rapidly as it can be absorbed. Though only a small part of the total, ingredients other than the oil are critical to proper formulation. These must be totally hydrated and dispersed within a small liquid volume, which can cause difficulties including emulsion breakdown during the oil-adding phase. Often, a long agitation process is required


title: Mayonnaise content: to achieve proper dispersal/emulsification, presenting one of the trickiest phases of the production process. Though, as technology in the food industry advances, processing has been shortened drastically, allowing roughly 1000 liters to be produced in 10 minutes. Egg-free varieties of mayonnaise are available for vegans and others who want to avoid eggs, animal fat, and cholesterol, or who have egg allergies. In the U.S., these alternatives cannot be labelled as "mayonnaise" because of the FDA's definition of mayonnaise making egg a requirement. Egg-free varieties generally contain soya or pea protein as the emulsifying agent to stabilize oil droplets in water.


title: Mayonnaise content: Well-known brands include Nasoya's Nayonaise, Vegenaise and Just Mayo in North America, and Plamil Egg Free in the UK. Mayonnaise is used commonly around the world, and is also a base for many other chilled sauces and salad dressings. For example, "sauce rémoulade", in classic French cuisine, is mayonnaise to which has been added mustard, gherkins, capers, parsley, chervil, tarragon, and possibly anchovy essence. Chile is the world's third major per capita consumer of mayonnaise and first in Latin America. Commercial mayonnaise became widely accessible in the 1980s. Guidelines issued in September 1991 by Europe's Federation of the Condiment Sauce


title: Mayonnaise content: Industries recommend that oil and liquid egg yolk levels in mayonnaise should be at least 70% and 5%, respectively. The Netherlands incorporated this guideline in 1998 into the law "Warenwetbesluit Gereserveerde aanduidingen" in article 4. Most available brands easily exceed this target. In countries influenced by French culture, mustard is also a common ingredient, but the addition of mustard turns the sauce into a remoulade with a different flavor and the mustard acts as an additional emulsifier. Japanese mayonnaise is typically made with apple cider vinegar or rice vinegar and a small amount of MSG, which gives it a different


title: Mayonnaise content: flavor from mayonnaise made from distilled vinegar. Apart from salads, it is popular with dishes such as "okonomiyaki, takoyaki" and "yakisoba" and may also accompany "katsu" and "karaage". It is most often sold in soft plastic squeeze bottles. Its texture is thicker than most Western commercial mayonnaise in part because only egg yolks and not the entire egg is used when making it. Kewpie (Q.P.) is the most popular brand of Japanese mayonnaise, advertised with a Kewpie doll logo. The vinegar is a proprietary blend containing apple and malt vinegars. The Kewpie company was started in 1925 by Tochiro Nakashima,


title: Mayonnaise content: whose goal was to create a condiment that made eating vegetables more enjoyable. Mayonnaise is very popular in Russia, where it is made with sunflower oil and soybean oil. A 2004 study showed that Russia is the only market in Europe where mayonnaise is sold more than ketchup by volume. It is used as a sauce in the most popular salads in Russia, such as Olivier salad (also known as Russian salad), dressed herring, and many others. Leading brands are Calvé (marketed by Unilever) and Sloboda (marketed by Efko). Commercial mayonnaise sold in jars originated in Philadelphia in 1907 when


title: Mayonnaise content: Amelia Schlorer decided to start selling her own mayonnaise recipe originally used in salads sold in the family grocery store. Mrs. Schlorer's mayonnaise was an instant success with local customers and eventually grew into the Schlorer Delicatessen Company. Around the same time in New York City, a family from Vetschau, Germany, at Richard Hellmann's delicatessen on Columbus Avenue, featured his wife's homemade recipe in salads sold in their delicatessen. The condiment quickly became so popular that Hellmann began selling it in "wooden boats" that were used for weighing butter. In 1912, Mrs. Hellmann's mayonnaise was mass-marketed and later was trademarked


title: Mayonnaise content: in 1926 as Hellmann's Blue Ribbon Mayonnaise. In the United States, mayonnaise sales are about $1.3 billion per year. A typical formulation for commercially made mayonnaise (not low fat) can contain as much as 80% vegetable oil, usually soybean but sometimes olive oil. Water makes up about 7% to 8% and egg yolks about 6%. Some formulas use whole eggs instead of just yolks. The remaining ingredients include vinegar (4%), salt (1%), and sugar (1%). Low-fat formulas will typically decrease oil content to just 50% and increase water content to about 35%. Egg content is reduced to 4% and vinegar


title: Mayonnaise content: to 3%. Sugar is increased to 1.5% and salt lowered to 0.7%. Gums or thickeners (4%) are added to increase viscosity, improve texture, and ensure a stable emulsion. Mayonnaise is prepared using several methods, but on average it contains around per 100 grams, or 94 kilocalories (Cal) per tablespoon. This makes mayonnaise a calorically dense food. The nutrient content of mayonnaise (> 50% edible oil, 9–11% salt, 7–10% sugar in the aqueous phase) makes it suitable as a food source for many spoilage organisms. A set of conditions such as pH between 3.6 and 4.0, and low water activity "a"


title: Mayonnaise content: of 0.925, restricts the growth of yeasts, a few bacteria and molds. Yeasts of the genus Saccharomyces, "Lactobacillus fructivorans," and "Zygosaccharomyces bailii" are the species responsible for the spoilage of mayonnaise. The characteristics of spoilage caused by "Z. bailli" are product separation and a "yeasty" odor. A study suggests that adding encapsulated cells of "Bifidobacterium bifidum" and "B. infantis" prolongs the life of mayonnaise up to 12 weeks without microorganism spoilage. Mayonnaise, both commercially processed and home-made, has been associated with illnesses from "Salmonella" globally. The source of the "Salmonella" has been confirmed to be raw eggs. Several outbreaks with


title: Mayonnaise content: fatal cases have been recorded, with a few major incidents. In a 1955 outbreak in Denmark, 10,000 people were affected by "Salmonella" from contaminated mayonnaise made by a large kitchen. The pH of the mayonnaise was found to be 5.1, with "Salmonella" counts of 180,000 CFU/g. The second outbreak, also in Denmark, caused 41 infections with two fatalities. The pH of the contaminated mayonnaise was 6.0, with "Salmonella" counts of 6 million CFU/g. In 1976 there were serious salmonellosis outbreaks on four flights to and from Spain which caused 500 cases and 6 fatalities. In the US, 404 people became


title: Mayonnaise content: ill and nine died in a New York City hospital due to hospital-prepared mayonnaise. In all salmonellosis cases, the major reason was improper acidification of the mayonnaise, with a pH higher than the recommended upper limit of 4.1, with acetic acid as the main acidifying agent. Mayonnaise Mayonnaise (, , also ), informally mayo (), is a thick cold sauce or dressing usually used in sandwiches and composed salads. It is a stable emulsion of oil, egg yolk, and acid, either vinegar or lemon juice. There are many variants using additional flavorings. The proteins and lecithin in the egg yolk


title: "Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-19" content: those of Cuba, North Vietnam, Egypt, Pakistan, and North Korea. The aircraft saw combat during the Vietnam War, the 1967 Six-Day War, and the 1971 Bangladesh War. All Soviet-built MiG-19 variants were single-seaters only, although the Chinese developed the Shenyang JJ-6 trainer version of the Shenyang J-6. With stabilization problems and "numerous crashes", the Russians had lost faith in the MiG-19, and moved on to the newly emerging MiG-21. The J-6 remained a staple of the Chinese People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) until the 1980s and has also been developed into the Nanchang Q-5 (NATO reporting name "Fantan") attack


title: "Simone de Beauvoir" content: up some inconsistencies that many, Sartre included, have found in major existentialist works such as "Being and Nothingness". In "The Ethics of Ambiguity", de Beauvoir confronts the existentialist dilemma of absolute freedom vs. the constraints of circumstance. At the end of World War II, de Beauvoir and Sartre edited "Les Temps modernes", a political journal which Sartre founded along with Maurice Merleau-Ponty and others. De Beauvoir used "Les Temps Modernes" to promote her own work and explore her ideas on a small scale before fashioning essays and books. De Beauvoir remained an editor until her death. "The Second Sex", first


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: Trafalgar Square Trafalgar Square ( ) is a public square in the City of Westminster, Central London, built around the area formerly known as Charing Cross. Its name commemorates the Battle of Trafalgar, a British naval victory in the Napoleonic Wars with France and Spain that took place on 21 October 1805 off the coast of Cape Trafalgar. The site of Trafalgar Square had been a significant landmark since the 13th century and originally contained the King's Mews. After George IV moved the mews to Buckingham Palace, the area was redeveloped by John Nash, but progress was slow after his


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: death, and the square did not open until 1844. The Nelson's Column at its centre is guarded by four lion statues. A number of commemorative statues and sculptures occupy the square, but the Fourth Plinth, left empty since 1840, has been host to contemporary art since 1999. The square has been used for community gatherings and political demonstrations, including Bloody Sunday in 1887, the culmination of the first Aldermaston March, anti-war protests, and campaigns against climate change. A Christmas tree has been donated to the square by Norway since 1947 and is erected for twelve days before and after Christmas


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: Day. The square is a centre of annual celebrations on New Year's Eve. It was well known for its feral pigeons until their removals in the early 21st century. Trafalgar Square is owned by the Queen in Right of the Crown and managed by the Greater London Authority, while Westminster City Council owns the roads around the square, including the pedestrianised area of the North Terrace. The square contains a large central area with roadways on three sides and a terrace to the north, in front of the National Gallery. The roads around the square form part of the A4,


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: a major road running west of the City of London. The square was formerly surrounded by a one-way traffic system, but works completed in 2003 reduced the width of the roads and closed the northern side to traffic. Nelson's Column is in the centre of the square, flanked by fountains designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens between 1937 and 1939 (replacements for two of Peterhead granite, now in Canada) and guarded by four monumental bronze lions sculpted by Sir Edwin Landseer. At the top of the column is a statue of Horatio Nelson, who commanded the British Navy at the Battle


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: of Trafalgar. Surrounding the square are the National Gallery on the north side and St Martin-in-the-Fields Church to the east. Also on the east is South Africa House, and facing it across the square is Canada House. To the south west is The Mall, which leads towards Buckingham Palace via Admiralty Arch, while Whitehall is to the south and the Strand to the east. Charing Cross Road passes between the National Gallery and the church. London Underground's Charing Cross station on the Northern and Bakerloo lines has an exit in the square. The lines had separate stations, of which the


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: Bakerloo line one was called Trafalgar Square until they were linked and renamed in 1979 as part of the construction of the Jubilee line, which was rerouted to Westminster in 1999. Other nearby tube stations are Embankment connecting the District, Circle, Northern and Bakerloo lines, and Leicester Square on the Northern and Piccadilly lines. London bus routes 3, 6, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15, 23, 24, 29, 53, 87, 88, 91, 139, 159, 176, 453 pass through Trafalgar Square. A point in Trafalgar Square is regarded as the official centre of London in legislation and when measuring distances from the


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: capital. Building work on the south side of the square in the late 1950s revealed deposits from the last interglacial. Among the findings were the remains of cave lion, rhinoceros, straight-tusked elephant and hippopotamus. The site of Trafalgar Square has been a significant location since the 13th century. During Edward I's reign, the area was the site of the King's Mews, running north from the original Charing Cross, where the Strand from the City met Whitehall coming north from Westminster. From the reign of Richard II to that of Henry VII, the mews was at the western end of the


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: Strand. The name "Royal Mews" comes from the practice of keeping hawks here for moulting; "mew" is an old word for this. After a fire in 1534, the mews were rebuilt as stables, and remained here until George IV moved them to Buckingham Palace. After 1732, the King's Mews were divided into the Great Mews and the smaller Green Mews to the north by the Crown Stables, a large block, built to the designs of William Kent. Its site is occupied by the National Gallery. In 1826 the Commissioners of H.M. Woods, Forests and Land Revenues instructed John Nash to


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: draw up plans for clearing a large area south of Kent's stable block, and as far east as St Martin's Lane. His plans left open the whole area of what became Trafalgar Square, except for a block in the centre, which he reserved for a new building for the Royal Academy. The plans included the demolition and redevelopment of buildings between St Martin's Lane and the Strand and the construction of a road (now called Duncannon Street) across the churchyard of St Martin-in-the-Fields. The Charing Cross Act was passed in 1826 and clearance started soon after. Nash died soon after


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: construction started, impeding its progress. The square was to be named for William IV commemorating his ascent to the throne in 1830. Around 1835, it was decided that the square would be named after the Battle of Trafalgar as suggested by architect George Ledwell Taylor, commemorating Nelson's victory over the French and Spanish in 1805 during the Napoleonic Wars. After the clearance, development progressed slowly. The National Gallery was built on the north side between 1832 and 1838 to a design by William Wilkins, and in 1837 the Treasury approved Wilkins' plan for the laying out of the square, but


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: it was not put into effect. In April 1840, following Wilkins' death, new plans by Charles Barry were accepted, and construction started within weeks. For Barry, as for Wilkins, a major consideration was increasing the visual impact of the National Gallery, which had been widely criticised for its lack of grandeur. He dealt with the complex sloping site by excavating the main area to the level of the footway between Cockspur Street and the Strand, and constructing a high balustraded terrace with a roadway on the north side, and steps at each end leading to the main level. Wilkins had


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: proposed a similar solution with a central flight of steps. Plinths were provided for sculpture and pedestals for lighting. All the stonework was of Aberdeen granite. In 1841 it was decided that two fountains should be included in the layout. The estimated budget, excluding paving and sculptures, was £11,000. The earth removed was used to level Green Park. The square was originally surfaced with tarmacadam, which was replaced with stone in the 1920s. Trafalgar Square was opened to the public on 1 May 1844. Nelson's Column was planned independently of Barry's work. In 1838 a Nelson Memorial Committee had approached


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: the government proposing that a monument to the victor of Trafalgar, funded by public subscription, should be erected in the square. A competition was held and won by the architect William Railton, who proposed a Corinthinan column topped by a statue of Nelson and guarded by four sculpted lions. The design was approved, but received widespread objections from the public. Construction went ahead beginning in 1840 but with the height reduced to . The column was completed and the statue raised in November 1843. The last of the bronze reliefs on the column's pedestals was not completed until May 1854,


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: and the four lions, although part of the original design, were only added in 1867. Each lion weighs seven tons. A hoarding remained around the base of Nelson's Column for some years and some of its upper scaffolding remained in place. Landseer, the sculptor, had asked for a lion that had died at the London Zoo to be brought to his studio. He took so long to complete sketches that its corpse began to decompose and some parts had to be improvised. The statues have paws that resemble cats more than lions. Barry was unhappy about Nelson's Column being placed


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: in the square. In July 1840, when its foundations had been laid, he told a parliamentary select committee that "it would in my opinion be desirable that the area should be wholly free from all insulated objects of art". In 1940 the Nazi SS developed secret plans to transfer Nelson's Column to Berlin after an expected German invasion, as related by Norman Longmate in "If Britain Had Fallen" (1972). The square has been Grade I listed on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens since 1996. A major 18-month redevelopment of the square led by W.S. Atkins with Foster and


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: Partners as sub-consultants was completed in 2003. The work involved closing the eastbound road along the north side and diverting traffic around the other three sides of the square, demolishing the central section of the northern retaining wall and inserting a wide set of steps to the pedestrianised terrace in front of the National Gallery. The construction includes two lifts for disabled access, public toilets and a café. Access between the square and the gallery had been by two crossings at the northeast and northwest corners. Barry's scheme provided two plinths for sculptures on the north side of the square.


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: A bronze equestrian statue of George IV by Sir Francis Chantrey, originally intended to be placed on top of the Marble Arch, was installed on the eastern plinth in 1844, while the other remained empty until late in the 20th century. There are two other statues on plinths, both installed during the 19th century: General Sir Charles James Napier by George Cannon Adams in the south-west corner in 1855, and Major-General Sir Henry Havelock by William Behnes in the south-east in 1861. In 2000, the Mayor of London, Ken Livingstone, suggested replacing the statues with figures more familiar to the


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: general public. In the 21st century, the empty plinth in the north-west corner of the square, the "Fourth Plinth", has been used to show specially commissioned temporary artworks. The scheme was initiated by the Royal Society of Arts and continued by the Fourth Plinth Commission, appointed by the Mayor of London. There are three busts of admirals against the north wall of the square. Those of Lord Jellicoe (by Sir Charles Wheeler) and Lord Beatty (by William MacMillan) were installed in 1948 in conjunction with the square's fountains, which also commemorate them. The third, of the Second World War First


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: Sea Lord Admiral Cunningham (by Franta Belsky) was unveiled alongside them on 1967. On the south side of Trafalgar Square, on the site of the original Charing Cross, is a bronze equestrian statue of Charles I by Hubert Le Sueur. It was cast in 1633, and placed in its present position in 1678. The two statues on the lawn in front of the National Gallery are the statue of James II by Grinling Gibbons to the west of the portico, and of one George Washington, a replica of a work by Jean-Antoine Houdon, to the east. The latter was a


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: gift from the Commonwealth of Virginia, installed in 1921. Two statues erected in the 19th century have since been removed. One of Edward Jenner, pioneer of the smallpox vaccine, was set up in the south-west corner of the square in 1858, next to that of Napier. Sculpted by William Calder Marshall, it showed Jenner sitting in a chair in a relaxed pose, and was inaugurated at a ceremony presided over by Prince Albert. It was moved to Kensington Gardens in 1862. The other, of General Charles George Gordon by Hamo Thornycroft, was erected on an 18-foot high pedestal between the


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: fountains in 1888. It was removed in 1943 and re-sited on the Victoria Embankment ten years later. In 1841, following suggestions from the local paving board, Barry agreed that two fountains should be installed to counteract the effects of reflected heat and glare from the asphalt surface. The First Commissioner of Woods and Forests welcomed the plan because the fountains reduced the open space available for public gatherings and reduced the risk of riotous assembly. The fountains were fed from two wells, one in front of the National Gallery and one behind it connected by a tunnel. Water was pumped


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: to the fountains by a steam engine housed in a building behind the gallery. In the late-1930s it was decided to replace the pump and the centrepieces of the fountains. The new centrepieces, designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens, were memorials to Lord Jellicoe and Lord Beatty, although busts of the admirals, initially intended to be placed in the fountain surrounds were placed against the northern retaining wall when the project was completed after the Second World War. The fountains cost almost £50,000. The old ones were presented to the Canadian government and are now located in Ottawa's Confederation Park and


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: Regina's Wascana Centre. A programme of restoration was completed by . The pump system was replaced with one capable of sending an jet of water into the air. A LED lighting system that can project different combinations of colours on to the fountains was installed to reduce the cost of lighting maintenance and to coincide with the 2012 Summer Olympics. The square was once famous for feral pigeons and feeding them was a popular activity. Pigeons began flocking to the square before construction was completed and feed sellers became well known in the Victorian era. The desirability of the birds'


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: presence was contentious: their droppings disfigured the stonework and the flock, estimated at its peak to be 35,000, was considered a health hazard. A stall seller, Bernie Rayner, infamously sold bird seed to tourists at inflated prices. In February 2001, the sale of bird seed in the square was stopped and other measures were introduced to discourage the pigeons including the use of birds of prey. Supporters continued to feed the birds but in 2003 the mayor, Ken Livingstone, enacted bylaws to ban feeding them in the square. In September 2007 Westminster City Council passed further bylaws banning feeding birds


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: on the pedestrianised North Terrace and other pavements in the area. Nelson's column was repaired from years of damage from pigeon droppings at a cost of £140,000. For many years, revellers celebrating the New Year have gathered in the square despite a lack of celebrations being arranged. The lack of official events was partly because the authorities were concerned that encouraging more partygoers would cause overcrowding. Since 2003, a firework display centred on the London Eye and South Bank of the Thames has been provided as an alternative. Since 2014, New Year celebrations have been organised by the Greater London


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: Authority in conjunction with the charity Unicef, who began ticketing the event to control crowd numbers. A Christmas ceremony has been held in the square every year since 1947. A Norway spruce (or sometimes a fir) is presented by Norway's capital city, Oslo as London's Christmas tree, a token of gratitude for Britain's support during World War II. (Besides war-time support, Norway's Prince Olav and the country's government lived in exile in London throughout the war.) The Christmas tree is decorated with lights that are switched on at a seasonal ceremony. It is usually held twelve days before Christmas Day.


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: The festivity is open to the public and attracts a large number of people. The switch-on is usually followed by several nights of Christmas carol singing and other performances and events. On the twelfth night of Christmas, the tree is taken down for recycling. Westminster City Council threatened to abandon the event to save £5,000 in 1980 but the decision was reversed. The tree is selected by the Head Forester from Oslo's municipal forest and shipped, across the North Sea to the Port of Felixstowe, then by road to Trafalgar Square. The first tree was tall, but more recently has


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: been around . In 1987, protesters chained themselves to the tree. In 1990, a man sawed into the tree with a chainsaw a few hours before a New Year's Eve party was scheduled to take place. He was arrested and the tree was repaired by tree surgeons who removed gouged sections from the trunk while the tree was suspended from a crane. The square has become a social and political focus for visitors and Londoners, developing over its history from "an esplanade peopled with figures of national heroes, into the country's foremost "place politique"", as historian Rodney Mace has written.


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: Since its construction, it has been a venue for political demonstrations. The great Chartist rally in 1848, a campaign for social reform by the working class began in the square. A ban on political rallies remained in effect until the 1880s, when the emerging Labour movement, particularly the Social Democratic Federation, began holding protests. On 1886 (also known as "Black Monday"), protesters rallied against unemployment leading to a riot in Pall Mall. A larger riot (""Bloody Sunday"") occurred in the square on 1887. The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament's first Aldermaston March, protesting against the Atomic Weapons Establishment (AWE), began in


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: the square in 1958. One of the first significant demonstrations of the modern era was held in the square on 1961 by the Committee of 100, which included the philosopher Bertrand Russell. The protesters rallied for peace and against war and nuclear weapons. In March 1968, a crowd of 10,000 demonstrated against US involvement in the Vietnam War before marching to the American Embassy in Grosvenor Square. Throughout the 1980s, a continuous anti-apartheid protest was held outside South Africa House. In 1990, the Poll Tax Riots began by a demonstration attended by 200,000 people and ultimately caused rioting in the


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: surrounding area. More recently, there have been anti-war demonstrations opposing the Afghanistan War and the Iraq War. A large vigil was held shortly after the terrorist bombings in London on Thursday, 2005. In December 2009, participants from the Camp for Climate Action occupied the square for the two weeks during which the UN Conference on Climate Change took place in Copenhagen. It was billed as a UK base for direct action on climate change and saw various actions and protests stem from the occupation. In March 2011, the square was occupied by a crowd protesting against the UK Budget and


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: proposed budget cuts. During the night the situation turned violent as the escalation by riot police and protesters damaged portions of the square. In November 2015 a vigil against the terrorist attacks in Paris was held. Crowds sang the French national anthem, "La Marseillaise", and held banners in support of the city and country. Every year on the anniversary of the Battle of Trafalgar (), the Sea Cadet Corps holds a parade in honour of Admiral Lord Nelson and the British victory over the combined fleets of Spain and France at Trafalgar. The Royal British Legion holds a Silence in


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: the Square event on Armistice Day, 11 November, in remembrance of those who died in war. The event includes music and poetry readings, culminating in a bugler playing the Last Post and a two-minute silence at 11 am. In the 21st century, Trafalgar Square has been the location for several sporting events and victory parades. In June 2002, 12,000 people gathered to watch the England national football team's World Cup quarter-final against Brazil on giant video screens which had been erected for the occasion. The square was used by the England national rugby union team on 2003 to celebrate their


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: victory in the 2003 Rugby World Cup, and on 2005 for the England national cricket team's victory in the Ashes series. On 6 July 2005 Trafalgar Square hosted the announcement of London's bid to host the 2012 Summer Olympics. A countdown clock was erected in March 2011, although engineering and weather-related faults caused it to stop a day later. In 2007, it hosted the opening ceremonies of the Tour de France and was part of the course for subsequent races. The Sea Cadets hold an annual celebration of the Battle of Trafalgar victory along the square. The parade runs from


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: Horse Guard's Parade, along Whitehall to Nelson's Column. As an archetypal London location, Trafalgar Square featured in film and television productions during the Swinging London era of the late 1960s, including "The Avengers", "Casino Royale", "Doctor Who", and "The Ipcress File". It was used for filming several sketches and a cartoon backdrop in the BBC comedy series "Monty Python's Flying Circus". In May 2007, the square was grassed over with 2,000 square metres of turf for two days in a campaign by London authorities to promote "green spaces" in the city. In July 2011, due to building works in Leicester


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: Square, the world premiere of the final film in the "Harry Potter" series, "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2", was held in Trafalgar Square, with a red carpet linking the squares. Fans camped in Trafalgar Square for up to three days before the premiere, despite torrential rain. It was the first film premiere ever to be held there. A Trafalgar Square in Stepney is recorded in "Lockie's Topography of London", published in 1810. Trafalgar Square in Scarborough, North Yorkshire gives its name to the Trafalgar Square End at the town's North Marine Road cricket ground. National Heroes


title: "Trafalgar Square" content: Square in Bridgetown, Barbados, was named Trafalgar Square in 1813, before its better-known British namesake. It was renamed in 1999 to commemorate national heroes of Barbados. There is a life scale replica of the square in Bahria Town, Lahore, Pakistan where it is a tourist attraction and centre for local residents. Notes Citations Sources Trafalgar Square Trafalgar Square ( ) is a public square in the City of Westminster, Central London, built around the area formerly known as Charing Cross. Its name commemorates the Battle of Trafalgar, a British naval victory in the Napoleonic Wars with France and Spain that


title: Trifle content: Trifle Trifle in English cuisine is a dessert made with fruit, a thin layer of sponge fingers soaked in sherry or another fortified wine, and custard. It can be topped with whipped cream. The fruit and sponge layers may be suspended in fruit-flavoured jelly, and these ingredients are usually arranged to produce three or four layers. The contents of a trifle are highly variable; many varieties exist, some forgoing fruit entirely and instead using other ingredients such as chocolate, coffee or vanilla. The name trifle was used for a dessert like a fruit fool in the sixteenth century; by the


title: Trifle content: eighteenth century, Hannah Glasse records a recognisably modern trifle, with the inclusion of a gelatin jelly sometimes found in salami. Many of the ingredients used in ancient trifles can be found in meats and other products found today. According to some scholars, trifle cakes might be the origin of modern sandwich cakes. The earliest use of the name "trifle" was in a recipe for a thick cream flavoured with sugar, ginger and rosewater, in Thomas Dawson's 1585 book of English cookery "The Good Huswifes Jewell". Trifle evolved from a similar dessert known as a fool, and originally the two names


title: Trifle content: were used interchangeably. Jelly is first recorded as part of the recipe in later editions of Hannah Glasse's eighteenth century book "The Art of Cookery". In her recipe she instructed using hartshorn or bones of calves feet as the base ingredient (to supply gelatin) for the jelly. The poet Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote of trifles containing jelly in 1861. Trifles may contain a small amount of alcohol such as port, or, most commonly, sweet sherry or madeira wine. Non-alcoholic versions use sweet juices or soft drinks such as ginger ale instead, as the liquid is necessary to moisten the cake


title: Trifle content: and are simply known as "fruit trifle" without any mention of a spirit before the name of the trifle. One popular trifle variant has the sponge soaked in jelly when the trifle is made, which sets when refrigerated. The cake and jelly bind together and produce a pleasant texture if made in the correct proportions. Originally, a jelly, often containing fresh or preserved fruit, would have been presented separately next to the trifle 'proper'; which could be made with stiff custard and cream and delivered on the presentation plate directly from a large mould and then often elaborately decorated with


title: Trifle content: sweetened and flavoured piped cream, and carefully arranged pieces of glacé fruit and angelica in a neat and regimented fashion in the Georgian and Victorian styles. The Scots have a similar dish to trifle, tipsy laird, made with Drambuie or whisky. In the Southern US, a variant of trifle is known as tipsy cake. A trifle is often used for decoration as well as taste, incorporating the bright, layered colours of the fruit, jelly, jam, and the contrast of the creamy yellow custard and white cream. Trifles are often served at Christmas, sometimes as a lighter alternative to the much


title: Trifle content: denser Christmas pudding. A Creole trifle (also sometimes known as a Russian cake or a Russian Slab) is a different but related dessert item consisting of pieces of a variety of cakes mixed and packed firmly, moistened with alcohol (commonly red wine or rum) and a sweet syrup or fruit juice, and chilled. The resulting cake contains a variety of colour and flavour. A similar dessert in Germany and Austria goes by the name of Punschtorte. In Italy, a dessert similar to and probably based on trifle is known as "zuppa inglese", literally "English Soup". Trifle Trifle in English cuisine


title: "Gore Vidal" content: it clearly states that we published that article because we believed that Vidal had a right to assert his opinions, even though we did not share them". In "Gore Vidal: A Biography" (1999), Fred Kaplan said that "The court had 'not' sustained Buckley's case against "Esquire" ... [that] the court had 'not' ruled that Vidal's article was 'defamatory'. It had ruled that the case would have to go to trial "in order to determine, as a matter of fact, whether or not it was defamatory". The cash value of the settlement with "Esquire" represented 'only' Buckley's legal expenses ..." In


title: Pfizer content: interests). A spokeswoman for Pfizer said the company “wanted to make sure our voice is heard in this conversation” in regards to the company's expenditure of $25 million in 2010 to lobby health care reform. According to U.S. State Department cables released by the whistleblower site WikiLeaks, Pfizer "lobbied against New Zealand getting a free trade agreement with the United States because it objected to New Zealand's restrictive drug buying rules and tried to get rid of New Zealand's former health minister, Helen Clark, in 1990. Since 2004, Pfizer has received a 100% rating every year on the Corporate Equality


title: "Napoleon III" content: of the south wing between the Seine and the "Pavillon de l'Horloge" (Clock pavilion), facing the garden. The word "Tuilerie", plural Tuileries, means "Brickworks" or "Tile-making works". The Palace was given that name because the neighbourhood in which it had been built in 1564 was previously known for its numerous mason and tiler businesses. Napoleon III's bedroom was decorated with a talisman from Charlemagne, a symbol of good luck for the Bonaparte family, while his office featured a portrait of Julius Caesar by Ingres, and a large map of Paris, which he used to show his ideas for the reconstruction


title: Trabzon content: tax books ("Tahrir Defteri") provides detailed demographic statistics for the city of Trabzon and its surrounding areas during the Ottoman period. It is possible that the majority of the population of Trabzon and Rize (and other ancient Greek colonies in the Pontus region) — except up to the time of the Chepni Turk immigration waves — consisted of indigenous Caucasian tribes (the Colchians and the Laz) who had been partly Hellenized religiously and linguistically. Michael Meeker stresses the cultural resemblances (e.g. in village structure, house types, and pastoral techniques) between the Eastern Black Sea coast and the areas in the


title: "English Setter" content: English Setter The English Setter is a medium-size breed of dog. It is part of the setter group, which includes the red Irish Setters, Irish Red and White Setters, and black-and-tan Gordon Setters. The mainly white body coat is of medium length with long silky fringes on the back of the legs, under the belly and on the tail. The coat features flecks of colour, and the different colour varieties are referred to as belton. A gentle but at times strong-willed, mischievous gun dog, bred for a mix of endurance and athleticism, it is used to hunt for game such


title: "English Setter" content: as quail, pheasant and grouse. When working, the dog will hunt methodically seeking the airborne scent of its prey. It is sometimes referred to as the Laverack or Llewellin Setter as these were famous strains of the breed during the major development period in the 19th century. Those from hunting stock are generally of a finer build and with less coat than those bred for show exhibition. Generally reasonably healthy, they have an average life span of 11 to 12 years. The Kennel Club advises UK breeders to screen for hip dysplasia. The English Setter is a medium-sized dog which


title: "English Setter" content: should have an elegant overall appearance. Its size can range from for females up to for males. The field or hunting type can be finer in build and construction than those from bench or show lines. The breed was designed to hunt game such as quail, pheasant, and grouse so should be able to cover a lot of ground when seeking the airborne scent of the birds, carrying its head high. The head should be slightly domed with a muzzle of good depth and show chiselling under the eyes, which should be dark in colour with a kind, gentle expression.


title: "English Setter" content: The top of the ears (sometimes the ears are referred to as "leathers") are positioned in line with the eyes and lie in an elegant fold. It has a long muscular neck, well angled shoulders and a brisket of good depth. The body is of a moderate length proportionate to its height and it has strong powerful hindquarters. It carries its tail in line with its back and the tail should be long enough to reach the hock. The main body coat is short to medium length, lies flat and has a silky texture. Long silky coat – usually called


title: "English Setter" content: "feathering", forms fringes on the outside of the ears, neck, chest, down the back of the front legs, under the belly and on the back legs. The tail is also feathered with long coat. The body coat and feathering should be straight and flat but not profuse and never curly although a slight wave can be seen. The bench or show type has a long, flowing coat that requires regular grooming. The field or hunting type has a shorter coat that requires less grooming. The base colour of the coat is white with differing coloured ticking also called flecks or


title: "English Setter" content: speckling. The various speckled coat colours when occurring in English Setters are referred to as "belton"; valid combinations are white with black flecks ("blue belton"), white with orange flecks ("orange belton"), white with orange flecks and lighter nose ("lemon belton"), white with liver flecks ("liver belton"), or "tricolour", which is blue or liver belton with tan markings on the face, chest, and legs. The flecking should not form large patches on the body and the flecks should be distributed all over the body. The use of the word "belton" was first coined by Laverack, who developed the breed in the


title: "English Setter" content: 19th-century, to describe his ideal for flecking and is also the name of a village in the extreme north of England. Puppies' coats may not have all the markings that they have as adults. This breed's standard temperament is best described as a "Gentleman by Nature". However, it can also be strong-willed and mischievous, especially if coming from working/field breeding lines. English Setters are energetic, people-oriented dogs, that are well suited to families who can give them attention and activity, or to working with a hunter, where they have a job to do. They are active dogs that need plenty


title: "English Setter" content: of exercise and up to two hours a day of exercise is recommended. Inside they tend to be lower energy and love to be couch potatoes and lap dogs; the breed is described as "intensely friendly," "good natured," and "adores visitors and is particularly happy with children." They rank 37th in Stanley Coren's "The Intelligence of Dogs", being of above average working/obedience intelligence. English Setters are very intelligent and can be trained to perform about any task another breed can do, with the exception of herding. However, they are not always easy to train, as their natural bird instinct tends


title: "English Setter" content: to distract them in outdoor environments. Their temperament is considered to be gentle and as English Setters can be very sensitive to criticism, positive reinforcement training methods using treats and praise work best when undertaking basic training. Dogs, both pedigree and cross breeds, can be affected with genetic problems. Those known to sometimes occur in English Setters can include congenital deafness, which was reported as affecting 12.4 percent of the 701 English Setters tested by the Louisiana State University in 2010. As at 2013, there has not been any detailed research on this condition undertaken in the UK; autoimmune thyroiditis,


title: "English Setter" content: which was shown to affect 26.2 percent of 747 English Setters examined between January 1974 until December 2012 in an Orthopedic Foundation for Animals listing; canine hypothyroidism; elbow dysplasia; and allergies, which can include some sensitivity to certain food ingredients and also skin conditions, are known to occur. In 2004, the U.K. Kennel Club established the Accredited Breeders Scheme, which was later called the Assured Breeders Scheme (ABS). The scheme received UKAS accreditation in April 2013. ABS members are required to adhere to additional criteria than those necessary for basic KC registration. Among the extra requirements is "Ensuring that the


title: "English Setter" content: parents of each litter are readily identifiable by either Microchip, Tattoo or DNA profile." As at March 2013, breeders of English Setters who are members of the ABS must screen for hip dysplasia. Some members of the breed may be affected by cancer and this was identified as the most common cause of death of English Setters in a survey undertaken by the Kennel Club; the age of death from this disease was mainly after reaching ten years of age. However, the survey had only received a small response rate. Life expectancy is between 11 and 12 years, though 13


title: "English Setter" content: to 15 years is not uncommon. Setters hunt by ranging over large distances in a systematic, methodical manner, silently seeking game by scent. When prey is found by scenting the air, the dog will freeze rather than give chase. The dog will stop in a sort of crouch or "set" by freezing in a standing position upon finding their quarry and this distinctive stance is how the term “setter” evolved. Once the dog has indicated where the birds are by freezing on point, on command it would then slowly creep forward to disturb the birds into flight. Once the birds


title: "English Setter" content: were in flight the hunter who had been following the dog would release hawks to capture the birds in the air. When netting superseded the use of hawks, setting dogs would still be used to indicate the whereabouts of the birds, but the hunter would come up behind the dog and throw a net over the birds. In the mid-1600s, guns became more readily available and shooting game birds became a popular pastime of the landed gentry. The basic work of setters was still to find and point to the location of game birds but it also had to be


title: "English Setter" content: steady to shot. The scent of game birds is airborne so to pick up this scent the setter carries its head well up and should never follow foot scent. Most setters are born with a natural proclivity to hunting. Dogs that show excitement and interest in birds are described as being "birdy", and trainers look for puppies that show this particular trait. Training is usually done with quail as a first choice or domesticated pigeons. Writing in 1876, Arnold Burges described the "pure-blooded English Setter" as "the best animal for American upland shooting" in his book "The American Kennel and


title: "English Setter" content: Sporting Field". "Setting dogges" is an ancient term used for setters and the original purpose of the English Setter was to set or point upland game birds. From the best available information, it appears that the English Setter was a trained bird dog in England more than 400 years ago and there are works of art created in the early 15th century showing dogs that are discernible as being of a “setter type”. There is evidence that the English Setter originated in crosses of the Spanish Pointer, large Water Spaniel, and English Springer Spaniel, which combined to produce an excellent


title: "English Setter" content: bird dog with a high degree of proficiency in finding and pointing game in open country. Writing in 1576, Dr Johannes Caius states: "There is also at this date among us a new kind of dogge brought out of Fraunce, and they bee speckled all over with white and black, which mingled colours incline to a marble blewe". Argue speculates this may be a description of the blue belton colour found in English Setters. Caius went on to describe the dog called a setter using the Latin name index: By the 17th century setters, or "setting dogges", had become established


title: "English Setter" content: and were widespread on British estates, although the evolution into the more specific individual breeds of setters occurred at a later date. The interbreeding of the different colours was still taking place during this period but it gradually changed and sportsman/breeders began to segregate matings to dogs adapted to the terrain it was required to work on. The modern English Setter owes its appearance to Edward Laverack (1800–1877), who developed his own strain of the breed by careful breeding during the 19th century in England and to another Englishman, R. Purcell Llewellin (1840–1925), who founded his strain using Laverack's best


title: "English Setter" content: dogs and outcrossed them with the Duke, Rhoebe and later Duke's littermate Kate bloodlines with the best results. Historically, many dogs descending from the same bloodline were referred to by the name of their breeder or owner and the nomenclatures "Laverack Setter" and "LLewellin Setter" describe English Setters bred by Laverack and Llewellin. Horace Lytle, one time gundog editor of "Field & Stream", author and a well-known gundog trainer, clarified this in the book "How to train your bird dog", which he wrote in 1928: Around 1826, Reverend A Harrison of Carlisle in Cumbria sold a male dog called "Ponto"


title: "English Setter" content: and a female named "Old Moll" to Laverack and this pair formed the foundation of his English Setters. Laverack did not know the exact pedigree of these dogs but maintained the strain had been pure-bred for the previous thirty-five years. Laverack closely inbred to these two dogs for generations and his bloodline was successful in dog shows and as a working dog in field trials. In 1874, C. H. Raymond from Morris Plains, New Jersey imported the first English Setter from the Laverack bloodline to America. The working setter Count Noble descended from these early imports and is commemorated in


title: "English Setter" content: the Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh. Llewellin's strain was based on Laverack's best dogs, which were then outcrossed with the bloodlines of his dogs Duke, Rhoebe and later Duke's littermate, Kate. It was Kate bred with Laverack's best hunting males that produced Llewellin's ideals Fd.Ch.Ch. Armstrong's Dash II and later Fd.Ch.Ch Dashing Bondhu. They were the foundation of Llewellin's personal strain known as "Dashing Bondhu". William Humphrey (1882–1963) inherited them from Llewellin in 1925 and continued them pure until his death in 1963. Jim the Wonder Dog, described as a Llewellin setter, was said to have "possessed an occult power" and


title: "English Setter" content: there is a bronze statue of him in a memorial garden on the square in Marshall, Missouri, built to commemorate him. The field type and show type English Setter look very different, even though they are the same breed. Field type setters are often smaller and are seen with less feathering and usually more distinctive spotting than show type setters. Both traits are beneficial in the field: less feathering makes getting burs out of their coat easier and the spotting makes them easier to see in the field. English Setters are classified within the gundog group in the UK and


title: "English Setter" content: the Sporting group in America and Canada. The FCI place them in section 2, British and Irish Pointers and Setters, of Group 7. In the English Setter breed, compared to other breeds, there are very few Dual Champions. The Kennel Club have four champion titles available to be achieved by setters competing in the UK. These are Show Champion (Sh Ch) which is awarded to dogs who have won three Challenge Certificates (CCs) under three different judges with at least one CC won after 12 months of age; Champion (Ch) is the title gained by dogs who have won a


title: "English Setter" content: Sh Ch title plus a field trial award, Diploma of Merit or a Show Gundog Working Certificate; Field Trial Champion (Ft Ch) means the dog has won a pointer or setter open stake or two first prizes at two different stakes under two different A Panel judges. There must be no less than 16 runners entered; and a Dual Champion – the highest award available to setters – is a dog who has achieved the titles of Show Champion and Field Trial Champion. An English Setter called "Countess" was the first gun dog to ever attain a Dual Champion title.


title: "English Setter" content: She was sired by Dash 2nd and her dam was Moll 3rd. Her breeder was Laverack, who sold her to Sam Lang; he in turn passed her on to Llewellin in whose name she was entered in field trials. In the U.K., the breed has been successful at Crufts and secured the award of Best in Show in 1964, 1977 and 1988. At the Westminster show in America an English Setter won the Best in Show title in 1938. He was only 11 months old and at his very first show. This was before entry to the show was restricted


title: "English Setter" content: to Champions in 1992. As of 2013, he is the only setter to achieve Best in Show at Westminster since the award of Best in Show started to be made in 1907. When the American Kennel Club was established in 1878, English Setters, together with eight other sporting breeds, were accepted as the first pure-bred registrations by the Club. The very first dog registered with the AKC and the holder of registration number one was an English Setter named "Adonis". He was born in 1875 and is recorded as sired by "Leicester" out of a bitch named "Dart". His colours


title: "English Setter" content: were given as black, white and tan. He was owned by his breeder George E. Delano of New Bedford, MA. English Setters were especially popular in the UK during the 1960s, 70s and 80s and registrations of puppies reached 1344 during 1974. In 2012, the Kennel Club listed the English Setter amongst the Vulnerable Native Breeds as only 234 puppies were registered. A decade earlier, in 2002, there were 568 English Setter puppies registered. However, during 2012 the number of English Setter puppies registered increased to 314, so the breed was moved to the Kennel Club's "At Watch" list, which


title: "English Setter" content: is for breeds with registrations from 300–450. In 2015 registrations fell to 289 resulting in a return to the Vulnerable Native Breeds list for 2016. The breed is still fairly well represented in Italy, where it is popular as a working gun-dog. Even in Italy, however the breed is in sharp decline, going from 20,999 registrations in 2002, to 14510 registrations in 2011. In contrast, the American Kennel Club stated that 2011 was the "year of the setters, with all four making big jumps over the past year". English Setters had previously ranked at 101 in 2010 but moved up


title: "English Setter" content: to 87 in 2011, a position the breed maintained in 2012. English Setter The English Setter is a medium-size breed of dog. It is part of the setter group, which includes the red Irish Setters, Irish Red and White Setters, and black-and-tan Gordon Setters. The mainly white body coat is of medium length with long silky fringes on the back of the legs, under the belly and on the tail. The coat features flecks of colour, and the different colour varieties are referred to as belton. A gentle but at times strong-willed, mischievous gun dog, bred for a mix of


title: Dingo content: Dingo The dingo is a type of dog that is native to Australia. Its taxonomic status is debated and it is classified as "Canis familiaris" or "Canis familiaris dingo" or "Canis lupus dingo" or "Canis dingo". The first British colonists to arrive established a settlement at Port Jackson in 1788 and recorded dingoes living there with indigenous Australians. Although members live in the wild, it is regarded as a feral dog, as it descended from domesticated ancestors. It associates with humans, but has not undergone the selective breeding that typifies other domesticated animals. It is a medium-sized canid that possesses


title: Dingo content: a lean, hardy body adapted for speed, agility and stamina. The dingo's three main coat colours are described as being either light ginger (or tan), black and tan, or creamy white. The head is the widest part of the dingo, is wedge-shaped, and large in proportion to the body. The dingo skull differs to that of the domestic dog by its larger palatal width, longer rostrum, shorter skull height, and wider sagittal crest. One can regard the dingo as an ecotype or an ecospecies which has adapted to Australia's unique environment. It is listed as a "vulnerable species" on the


title: Dingo content: IUCN Red List due to declining numbers caused by hybridization with the domestic dog. Genetic studies indicate that the dingo is closely related to the New Guinea singing dog, that their lineage split early from the lineage that led to today's domestic dog, and that their lineage can be traced back through the Malay Archipelago to Asia. In the archaeological record, the earliest known dingo skeletal remains in Australia (from the Madura Caves on the Nullarbor Plain, south-eastern Western Australia) date to 3,450 years before present (YBP), which led to the widely-held belief that dingoes arrived with seafarers to Australia


title: Dingo content: 5,000 YBP. The comparison of these early fossils with modern dingoes indicates that dingo morphology has not changed over the past 3,500 years. This suggests that there has been no artificial selection over this period and that the dingo represents an early form of dog from 4,000–5,000 years ago. They have lived, bred, and undergone natural selection in the wild, isolated from other canids until the arrival of European settlers, resulting in a unique canid. Accordingly, some scientists argue that the dingo should be recognised as a distinct taxon that should be classified under its original Latin name, "Canis dingo".


title: Dingo content: A recent genetic study shows that the lineage of those dingoes found today in the northwestern part of the Australian continent split from the lineage of the New Guinea singing dog and southeastern dingo 8,300 YBP, followed by a split between the New Guinea singing dog lineage from the southeastern dingo lineage 7,800 YBP. The study proposes that there were two dingo migrations when sea levels were lower and Australia and New Guinea formed one landmass named Sahul that existed until 6,500–8,000 years ago. The dingo is recognised as a native animal under the laws of all Australian jurisdictions. The


title: Dingo content: dingo's distribution covers a variety of habitats, including the temperate regions of eastern Australia, the alpine moorlands of the eastern highlands, the arid hot deserts of Central Australia, and the tropical forests and wetlands of Northern Australia. Dingos prey on mammals up to the size of the large red kangaroo, in addition to birds, reptiles, fish, crabs, frogs, insects and seeds. The dingo's competitors include the native quoll, the introduced European red fox and the feral cat. A dingo pack usually consists of a mated pair, their offspring from the current year and sometimes offspring from the previous year. Livestock


title: Dingo content: farming commenced expanding across Australia from the early 19th century, which led to conflict between the dingo and graziers. Sheep, and to a lesser extent cattle, are an easy target for dingoes. The pastoralists and the government bodies that support their industry have shot, trapped, and poisoned dingoes or destroyed dingo pups in their dens. After two centuries of persecution, the dingo or dingo–dog hybrids can still be found across most of the continent. The dingo plays a prominent role in the dreamtime stories of indigenous Australians; however, it rarely appears depicted in their cave paintings when compared with the


title: Dingo content: extinct thylacine. The name "dingo" comes from the Dharug language used by the Indigenous Australians of the Sydney area. The first British colonists to arrive in Australia in 1788 established a settlement at Port Jackson and noted "dingoes" living with indigenous Australians. The name was first recorded in 1789 by Watkin Tench in his "Narrative of the Expedition to Botany Bay": The variants include "tin-go" for a bitch, "din-go" for a dog, and "wo-ri-gal" for a big dog. The dingo has been given different names in the Indigenous Australian languages, including "boolomo", "dwer-da", "joogoong", "kal", "kurpany", "maliki", "mirigung", "noggum", "papa-inura",


title: Dingo content: and "wantibirri". Some authors propose that there was a difference between camp dingoes and wild dingoes as they had different names among indigenous tribes. The people of the Yarralin, Northern Territory region frequently call those dingoes that live with them "walaku", and those that live in the wilderness "ngurakin". They also use the name "walaku" to refer to both dingoes and dogs. The colonial settlers of New South Wales wrote using the name dingo only for camp dogs. It is proposed that in New South Wales the camp dingoes only became wild after the collapse of aboriginal society. Dogs associated


title: Dingo content: with natives were first recorded by Jan Carstenszoon in the Cape York Peninsula area in 1623. In 1699, Captain William Dampier visited the coast of what is now Western Australia and recorded that "...my men saw two or three beasts like hungry wolves, lean like so many skeletons, being nothing but skin and bones...". In 1788, the First Fleet arrived in Botany Bay under the command of Australia's first colonial governor, Arthur Phillip, who took ownership of a dingo and in his journal made a brief description with an illustration of the "Dog of New South Wales". In 1793, based


title: Dingo content: on Phillip's brief description and illustration, the "Dog of New South Wales" was classified by Friedrich Meyer as "Canis dingo". In 1999, a study of mitochondrial DNA indicated that the domestic dog may have originated from multiple grey wolf populations, with the dingo and New Guinea singing dog "breeds" having developed at a time when human populations were more isolated from each other. In the third edition of "Mammal Species of the World" published in 2005, the mammalogist listed under the wolf "Canis lupus" its wild subspecies, and proposed two additional subspecies: ""familiaris" Linneaus, 1758 [domestic dog]" and ""dingo" Meyer,


title: Dingo content: 1793 [domestic dog]". Wozencraft included "hallstromi" - the New Guinea singing dog - as a taxonomic synonym for the dingo. Wozencraft referred to the mDNA study as one of the guides in forming his decision. The inclusion of "familiaris" and "dingo" under a "domestic dog" clade has been noted by other mammalogists. This classification by Wozencraft is debated among zoologists. The dingo is regarded as a feral dog because it descended from domesticated ancestors. The dingo's relationship with indigenous Australians can be described as commensalism – "the process by which two organisms live in close association but they do not


title: Dingo content: depend on each other for survival". They will both hunt and sleep together. The dingo is therefore comfortable enough around humans to associate with them, but is still capable of living independently. Any free-ranging unowned dog can be socialized to become an owned dog, as some dingoes do when they join human families. Although the dingo exists in the wild, it associates with humans but has not been selectively bred similarly to other domesticated animals. Therefore, its status as being a domestic animal is not clear. Whether the dingo was a wild or domesticated species was not clarified from Meyer's


title: Dingo content: original description, which translated from the German language ambiguously reads: It is not known if it is the only dog species in New South Wales, and if it can also still be found in the wild state; however, so far it appears to have lost little of its wild condition; moreover, no divergent varieties have been discovered. The oldest reliable date for dog remains found in mainland Southeast Asia is from Vietnam at 4,000 years before present (YBP), and in island southeast Asia from Timor-Leste at 3,000 YBP. The earliest dingo remains in the Torres Straits date to 2,100 YBP.


title: Dingo content: In New Guinea, the earliest dog remains date to 2,500–2,300 YBP from Caution Bay near Port Moresby but no ancient New Guinea singing dog remains have been found. The earliest dingo skeletal remains in Australia are estimated at 3,450 YBP from the Mandura Caves on the Nullarbor Plain, south-eastern Western Australia; 3,320 YBP from Woombah Midden near Woombah, New South Wales; and 3,170 YBP from Fromme's Landing on the Murray River near Mannum, South Australia. Dingo bone fragments were found in a rock shelter located at Mount Burr, South Australia in a layer that was originally dated 7,000-8,500 YBP. Excavations


title: Dingo content: later indicated that the levels had been disturbed, and the dingo remains "probably moved to an earlier level." The dating of these early Australian dingo fossils led to the widely-held belief that dingoes first arrived in Australia 4,000 YBP and then took 500 years to disperse around the continent. However, the timing of these skeletal remains were based on the dating of the sediments in which they were discovered, and not the specimens themselves. In 2018, the oldest skeletal bones from the Madura Caves were directly carbon dated between 3,348–3,081 YBP, providing firm evidence of the earliest dingo and that


title: Dingo content: dingoes arrived later than had previously been proposed. The next most reliable timing is based on desiccated flesh dated 2,200 YBP from Thylacine Hole, 110 km west of Eucla on the Nullarbor Plain, south-eastern Western Australia. When dingoes first arrived they would have been taken up by Indigenous Australians, who then provided a network for their swift transfer around the continent. Based on the recorded distribution time for dogs across Tasmania and cats across Australia once Indigenous Australians had acquired them, the dispersal of dingoes from their point of landing until they occupied continental Australia is proposed to have taken


title: Dingo content: only 70 years. The red fox is estimated to have dispersed across the continent in only 60–80 years. Based on a comparison with these early fossils, dingo morphology has not changed over thousands of years. This suggests that there has been no artificial selection over this period and that the dingo represents an early form of dog. They have lived, bred, and undergone natural selection in the wild, isolated from other canines until the arrival of European settlers, resulting in a unique canid. Whole genome sequencing indicates the dog to be a genetically divergent subspecies of the gray wolf, the


title: Dingo content: dog is not a descendant of the extant gray wolf but these are sister taxa which share a common ancestor from a ghost population of wolves that went extinct at the end of the Late Pleistocene, and the dog and the dingo are not separate species. The dingo and the basenji are basal members of the domestic dog clade. "The term basal taxon refers to a lineage that diverges early in the history of the group and lies on a branch that originates near the common ancestor of the group." Mitochondrial genome sequences indicates that the dingo falls within the


title: Dingo content: domestic dog clade, and that the New Guinea singing dog is genetically closer to those dingoes that live in southeastern Australia than to those that live in the northwest. The dingo and New Guinea singing dog lineage can be traced back through the Malay Archipelago to Asia. Gene flow from the genetically divergent Tibetan wolf forms 2% of the dingo's genome, which likely represents ancient admixture in eastern Eurasia. At the end of the Last glacial maximum and the associated rise in sea levels, Tasmania became separated from the Australian mainland 12,000 YBP, and New Guinea 6,500–8,500 YBP by the


title: Dingo content: inundation of the Sahul Shelf. Fossil remains in Australia date to approximately 3,500 YBP and no dingo remains have been uncovered in Tasmania, therefore the dingo is estimated to have arrived in Australia at a time between 3,500-12,000 YBP. To reach Australia through the Malay Archipelago even at the lowest sea level of the Last Glacial Maximum, a journey of at least 50 km over open sea between ancient Sunda and Sahul was necessary, indicating that the dingo arrived by boat. The dingo is a medium-sized canid with a lean, hardy body that is designed for speed, agility and stamina.


title: Dingo content: The head is the widest part of the body, is wedge-shaped and large in proportion to the body. Early studies identified the skull as being more like that of the golden jackal than it is to the wolf or coyote. Compared with the skull of the dog, the dingo possesses a longer muzzle, longer carnassial teeth, longer and more slender canine teeth, a larger auditory bullae, a flatter cranium with a larger sagittal crest and larger nuchal lines. In 2014, a study was conducted on pre-20th century dingo specimens that are unlikely to have been influenced by later hybridisation. The


title: Dingo content: dingo skull was found to differ relative to the domestic dog by its larger palatal width, longer rostrum, shorter skull height, and wider sagittal crest. Based on a comparison with the remains of a dingo found at Fromme's Landing, the dingo's skull and skeleton have not changed over the past 3,000 years. Compared to the wolf, the dingo possesses a paedomorphic cranium similar to domestic dogs. However, the dingo has a larger brain size compared to dogs of the same body weight, with the dingo being more comparable with the wolf than dogs are. In this respect, the dingo resembles


title: Dingo content: two similar mesopredators, the dhole and the coyote. Captive dingoes are longer and heavier than wild dingoes as they have access to better food and veterinary care. The average wild dingo male weighs and the female , compared with the captive male and the female . The average wild dingo male length is and the female , compared with the captive male and the female . The average wild dingo male stands at the shoulder height of and the female , compared with the captive male and the female . Dingoes rarely carry excess fat and the wild ones display


title: Dingo content: exposed ribs. Dingoes from northern and northwestern Australia are often larger than those found in central and southern Australia. The dingo's three main coat colours are described as being either light ginger (or tan), black and tan, or creamy white. The ginger colour ranges from a deep rust to a pale cream and can be found in 74% of dingoes. There is often small white markings on the tip of the tail, the feet, and the chest but there are no large white patches. Some do not exhibit white tips. The black and tan dingoes possess a black coat with


title: Dingo content: a tan muzzle, chest, belly, legs and feet and can be found in 12% of dingoes. Solid white can be found in 2% of dingoes and solid black 1%. Coat colours with sable, ticking, or brindle indicates some hybridisation and can be found in 12% of dingoes. There are only 3 genes that affect coat colour in the dingo compared with 9 genes in the domestic dog. The ginger colour is dominant and carries the other three main colours - black, tan and white. White dingoes breed true, and black and tan dingoes breed true; when these cross the result


title: Dingo content: is a sandy colour. The coat is not oily, nor does not have a dog-like odour. The dingo has a single coat in the tropical north of Australia and a double thick coat in the cold mountains of the south, the undercoat being a wolf-grey colour. The dingo's tail is flatish, tapering after mid-length and does not curve over the back but is carried low. The ears are erect and occur high on the skull. The eyes are triangular (or almond) shaped and are hazel to dark in colour with dark rims. When walking, the dingo's rear foot steps in


title: Dingo content: line with the front foot, and these do not possess dewclaws. Dingoes in the wild live between 3–5 years with few living past 7–8 years. Some have been recorded living up to 10 years. In captivity dingoes live between 12–14 years of age. One dingo has been recorded to live just under 20 years of age. The dingo is similar to the New Guinea singing dog in morphology apart from the dingo's greater height at the withers. The wolf-like canids are a group of large carnivores that are genetically closely related because their chromosomes number 78, therefore they can potentially


title: Dingo content: interbreed to produce fertile hybrids. In the Australian wild there exists dingoes, feral dogs, and the crossings of these two which produces dingo-dog hybrids. Most studies looking at the distribution of dingoes focus on the distribution of dingo-dog hybrids instead. Dingoes occurred throughout mainland Australia before European settlement. Dingoes are not found in the fossil record of Tasmania, therefore they arrived in Australia after Tasmania had separated from the mainland due to rising sea levels. The introduction of agriculture reduced dingo distribution, and by the early 1900s large barrier fences, including the Dingo Fence, excluded them from the sheep grazing


title: Dingo content: areas. Land clearance, poisoning, and trapping caused the extinction of the dingo and hybrids from most of their former range in southern Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia. Today, they are absent from most of New South Wales, Victoria, the south-eastern third of South Australia, and the south-western tip of Western Australia. They are sparse in eastern half of Western Australia and the adjoining areas of the Northern Territory and South Australia. They are regarded as common across the remainder of the continent. The dingo could be considered an ecotype or an ecospecies which has adapted to Australia's


title: Dingo content: unique environment. The dingo's present distribution covers a variety of habitats, including the temperate regions of eastern Australia, the alpine moorlands of the eastern highlands,the arid hot deserts of Central Australia, and the tropical forests and wetlands of Northern Australia. The occupation of, and adaption to, these habitats may have been assisted by their relationship with indigenous Australians. A twenty-year study of the dingo's diet was conducted across Australia by the federal and state governments. These examined a total of 13,000 stomach contents and fecal samples. For the fecal samples, it was possible to determine the matching tracks of foxes


title: Dingo content: and feral cats and not include these samples in the study, but it was impossible to distinguish between the tracks left by dingoes from those of dingo hybrids or feral dogs. The study found that these canines prey on 177 species represented by 72.3% mammals (71 species), 18.8% birds (53 species), 3.3% vegetation (seeds), 1.8% reptiles (23 species), and 3.8% insects, fish, crabs, and frogs (28 species). The relative proportions of prey is much the same across Australia, apart from more birds being eaten in the north and south-east coastal regions, and more lizards in Central Australia. Some 80% of


title: Dingo content: the diet consisted of 10 species: red kangaroo, swamp wallaby, cattle, dusky rat, magpie goose, common brushtail possum, long-haired rat, agile wallaby, European rabbit, and the common wombat. Of the mammals eaten, 20% could be regarded as large. However, the relative proportions of the size of prey mammals varied across regions. In the tropical coast region of the Northern Territory, agile wallabies, dusky rats and magpie geese formed 80% of the diet. In Central Australia, the rabbit has become a substitute for native mammals, and during droughts cattle carcasses provide most of the diet. On the Barkly Tableland, there are


title: Dingo content: no rabbits nor does any native species dominate the diet, except for long-haired rats that form plagues every 9 years. In the Fortescue River region, the large red kangaroo and euro dominate the diet as there are few smaller mammals in this area. On the Nullarbor Plain, rabbits and red kangaroos dominate the diet, and twice as much rabbit eaten as red kangaroo. In the temperate mountains of eastern Australia, swamp wallaby and red-necked wallaby dominate the diet on the lower slopes and wombat on the higher slopes. Possums are commonly eaten here when found on the ground. In coastal


title: Dingo content: regions dingoes patrol the beaches for washed-up fish, seals, penguins and other birds. Dingoes drink approximately one litre of water each day in the summer and half a litre in winter. In arid regions during the winter, dingoes may live from the liquid in the bodies of their prey, as long as the number of prey is sufficient. In arid Central Australia, weaned pups draw most of their water from their food. There, regurgitation of water by the females for the pups was observed. During lactation, captive females have no higher need of water than usual, since they consume the


title: Dingo content: urine and feces of the pups and therefore recycle the water and keep the den clean. Tracked dingoes in the Strzelecki Desert regularly visited water-points every 3–5 days, with two dingoes surviving 22 days without water during both winter and summer. Dingoes, dingo hybrids and feral dogs usually attack from the rear as they pursue their prey. They kill their prey by biting the throat, which damages the trachea and the major blood vessels of the neck. The size of the hunting pack is determined by the type of prey targeted, with large packs formed to help hunt large prey.


title: Dingo content: Large prey can include kangaroos, cattle, water buffalo and wild horses. Dingoes will assess and target prey based on the prey's ability to inflict damage on dingoes. Large kangaroos are the most commonly killed prey. The main tactic is to sight the kangaroo, bail it up, then kill it. Dingoes typically hunt large kangaroos by having lead dingoes chase the quarry toward the paths of their packmates, which are skilled at cutting corners in chases. The kangaroo becomes exhausted and is then killed. This same tactic is used by wolves, African hunting dogs, and hyenas. Another tactic shared with African


title: Dingo content: hunting dogs is a relay pursuit until the prey is exhausted. A pack of dingoes is three times as likely to bring down a kangaroo than an individual because the killing is done by those following the lead chaser, which has also become exhausted. There are two patterns of the final stage of the attack. An adult or juvenile kangaroo is nipped at the hamstrings of the hind legs to slow it before an attack to the throat. A small adult female or juvenile is bitten on the neck or back by dingoes running beside them. In one area of