title: "Proposed flags of Taiwan" content: which 187 different flags were entered, the “hearts-in-harmony flag” emerged as the winner. The green field was to symbolize the natural beauty of the island and the need to protect the environment; the white in the Canadian pale was to symbolize the purity of the people on the island and the desire to preserve the natural beauty; and the device in the centre was to symbolize four hearts in harmony, representing the four population groups on the island: the indigenous peoples, Hakka, Hoklo, and mainlanders. This flag has emerged as the most well-known proposed flag of Taiwan, though it has


title: "Bob Barr" content: and six grandchildren. In 1986, Barr was appointed by President Ronald Reagan to serve as U.S. Attorney for the Northern District of Georgia – a post Barr held until 1990. His office prosecuted state and local officials, members of the Medellin drug cartel, and got a perjury indictment on then-sitting Republican Congressman Pat Swindall, who ultimately served a year in prison on the charges. From 1990 to 1991, Barr was president of the Southeastern Legal Foundation, an Atlanta-based law firm and policy center that litigates in support of "limited government, individual economic freedom, and the free enterprise system". Barr sought


title: "American bushtit" content: American bushtit The American bushtit ("Psaltriparus minimus") is the only species in the family Aegithalidae found in the New World, and the only member of the genus "Psaltriparus". In North America, it is referred to simply as "bushtit". The American bushtit inhabits mixed open woodlands, often containing oaks and a scrubby chaparral understory ; it also inhabits parks and gardens. It is a year-round resident of the western United States and highland parts of Mexico, ranging from Vancouver through the Great Basin and the lowlands and foothills of California to southern Mexico and Guatemala. The American bushtit is one of


title: "American bushtit" content: the smallest passerines in North America, at in length and in weight. It is gray-brown overall, with a large head, a short neck, a long tail, and a short stubby bill. The male has dark eyes and the adult female, yellow. Coastal forms have a brown "cap" while those in the interior have brown "mask." The American bushtit is active and gregarious, foraging for small insects and spiders in mixed-species feeding flocks containing species such as chickadees and warblers, of 10 to over 40 individuals. Members of the group constantly make contact calls to each other that can be described


title: "American bushtit" content: as a short "spit". This species produces an elaborate pendant nest of moss and lichen assembled with spider silk and lined with feathers. The "black-eared" bushtit was formerly considered a separate species ("P. melanotis"). It can be identified by its dark ear patch (the auricular). This polymorphism does not occur in the northern part of the American bushtits' range, but is first noted near the Mexican border, primarily in Texas. Most individuals with the black ear patch in that area are juvenile males, and none are adult females – some have only one or two dark lines on the face


title: "American bushtit" content: instead of a complete patch. The black-eared form becomes more common southward in the northeastern (but not the northwestern) highlands of Mexico until from central Mexico south, all males have a complete black ear patch and even adult females have a black arc over the eye and usually a black line through the eye. The nest of the American bushtit: American bushtit The American bushtit ("Psaltriparus minimus") is the only species in the family Aegithalidae found in the New World, and the only member of the genus "Psaltriparus". In North America, it is referred to simply as "bushtit". The American


title: "Willie wagtail" content: Willie wagtail The willie (or willy) wagtail ("Rhipidura leucophrys") is a passerine bird native to Australia, New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, the Bismarck Archipelago, and Eastern Indonesia. It is a common and familiar bird throughout much of its range, living in most habitats apart from thick forest. Measuring in length, the willie wagtail is contrastingly coloured with almost entirely black upperparts and white underparts; the male and female have similar plumage. Three subspecies are recognised; "Rhipidura leucophrys leucophrys" from central and southern Australia, the smaller "R. l. picata" from northern Australia, and the larger "R. l. melaleuca" from New Guinea


title: "Willie wagtail" content: and islands in its vicinity. It is unrelated to the true wagtails of the genus "Motacilla"; it is a member of the fantail genus "Rhipidura" and is a part of a "core corvine" group that includes true crows and ravens, drongos and birds of paradise. Within this group, fantails are placed either in the family Dicruridae, alongside drongos, or in their own small family, Rhipiduridae. The willie wagtail is insectivorous and spends much time chasing prey in open habitat. Its common name is derived from its habit of wagging its tail horizontally when foraging on the ground. Aggressive and territorial,


title: "Willie wagtail" content: the willie wagtail will often harass much larger birds such as the laughing kookaburra and wedge-tailed eagle. It has responded well to human alteration of the landscape and is a common sight in urban lawns, parks, and gardens. It was widely featured in Aboriginal folklore around the country as either a bringer of bad news or a stealer of secrets. The willie wagtail was first described by the English ornithologist John Latham in 1801 as "Turdus leucophrys". Its specific epithet is derived from the Ancient Greek words "leukos" "white" and "ǒphrys" "eyebrow". Other early scientific names include "Muscicapa tricolor" by


title: "Willie wagtail" content: Vieillot, and "Rhipidura motacilloides" by naturalists Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield in 1827, who erected the genus "Rhipidura". The generic term is derived from the Ancient Greek "rhipis" "fan" and "oura" "tail". John Gould and other early writers referred to the species as the black-and-white fantail, although did note the current name. However, "willie wagtail" rapidly became widely accepted sometime after 1916. "Wagtail" is derived from its active behaviour, while the origins of "willie" are obscure. The name had been in use colloquially for the pied subspecies of the white wagtail ("Motacilla alba") on the Isle of Man, and


title: "Willie wagtail" content: Northern Ireland. Other vernacular names applied include shepherd's companion (because it accompanied livestock), frogbird, morning bird, and Australian nightingale. Many Aboriginal names are onomatopoeic, based on the sound of its scolding call. "Djididjidi" is a name from the Kimberley, and ' is used by the Gunwinggu of western Arnhem Land. In Central Australia, southwest of Alice Springs, the Pitjantjatjara word is '. Among the Kamilaroi, it is '. In Bougainville Island, it is called ' in the Banoni language from the west coast, and in Awaipa of Kieta district it is '. In the Solomon Islands Pijin it is sometimes


title: "Willie wagtail" content: called the ' (police) or "" (priest) bird, because of its black-and-white colouring. The willie wagtail is unrelated to the Eurasian wagtails of the family Motacillidae. It is one of 47 members of the fantail genus "Rhipidura"; some authorities classify this group of birds as a subfamily Rhipidurinae within the drongo family Dicruridae, together with the monarch flycatchers, while others consider them distinct enough to warrant their own family Rhipiduridae. Early molecular research in the late 1980s and early 1990s revealed that the fantails belong to a large group of mainly Australasian birds known as the parvorder Corvida comprising many


title: "Willie wagtail" content: tropical and Australian passerines. More recently, the grouping has been refined somewhat and the fantails have been classified in a "core corvine" group with the crows and ravens, shrikes, birds of paradise, monarch flycatchers, drongos and mudnest builders. The following three subspecies are widely recognised: An adult willie wagtail is between in length and weighs 17–24 g (0.6–0.85 oz), with a tail 10–11 cm (approx 4 in) long. The short, slender bill measures 1.64–1.93 cm (around 0.75 in), and is tipped with a small hook. This species has longer legs than other fantails, which may be an adaptation to foraging


title: "Willie wagtail" content: on the ground. The male and female have similar plumage; the head, throat, upper breast, wings, upperparts, and tail are all black, with a white eyebrow, "whiskers" and underparts. The bill and legs are black and the iris dark brown. Immature birds in their first year after moulting from juvenile plumage may have pale tips in their wings, while juvenile birds themselves have duller plumage, their upperparts brown-tinged with some pale brown scallops on the head and breast. The wagtail is very "chatty" and has a number of distinct vocalisations. Its most-recognised sound is its alarm call which is a


title: "Willie wagtail" content: rapid "chit-chit-chit-chit", although it has more melodious sounds in its repertoire. The alarm call is sounded to warn off potential rivals and threats from its territory and also seems to serve as a signal to its mate when a potential threat is in the area. John Gould reported that it sounded like a child's rattle or "small cog-wheels of a steam mill". In his book "What Bird is That?" (1935), Neville Cayley writes that it has "a pleasant call resembling "sweet pretty little creature", frequently uttered during the day or night, especially on moonlight nights". Widespread and abundant, the willie


title: "Willie wagtail" content: wagtail is found across most of Australia and New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, the Bismarck Archipelago, and eastern Indonesia. It is sedentary across most of Australia, though some areas have recorded seasonal movements; it is an autumn and winter visitor to northeastern New South Wales and southeast Queensland, as well as the Gulf Country and parts of Cape York Peninsula in the far north. It is a vagrant to Tasmania, and on occasion reaches Lord Howe Island. There is one record from Mangere Island in the Chatham Islands archipelago east of New Zealand in 2002. The willie wagtail was released


title: "Willie wagtail" content: in Hawaii around 1922 to control insects on livestock, but the introduction was unsuccessful and the last sighting was at Koko Head in 1937. The willie wagtail is at home in a wide variety of habitats, but avoids densely forested areas such as rainforest. It prefers semi-open woodland or grassland with scattered trees, often near wetlands or bodies of water. In New Guinea, it inhabits man-made clearings and grasslands, as well as open forest and mangroves. On Guadalcanal, it was reported from open areas and coconut groves. It has responded well to human alteration of the landscape and can often


title: "Willie wagtail" content: be seen hunting in open, grassed areas such as lawns, gardens, parkland, and sporting grounds. The species spread into the Western Australian Wheatbelt after the original vegetation had been cleared for agriculture. The willie wagtail is almost always on the move and rarely still for more than a few moments during daylight hours. Even while perching it will flick its tail from side to side, twisting about looking for prey. Birds are mostly encountered singly or in pairs, although they may gather in small flocks. Unlike other fantails, much of its time is spent on the ground. It beats its


title: "Willie wagtail" content: wings deeply in flight, interspersed with a swift flying dip. It characteristically wags its tail upon landing after a short dipping flight. The willie wagtail is highly territorial and can be quite fearless in defence of its territory; it will harry not only small birds but also much larger species such as the Australian magpie ("Gymnorhina tibicen"), raven ("Corvus coronoides"), laughing kookaburra ("Dacelo novaeguineae"), or wedge-tailed eagle ("Aquila audax"). It may even attack domestic dogs, cats and humans which approach its nest too closely. It has also been observed harassing snake-neck turtles and tiger snakes in Western Australia. When harassing


title: "Willie wagtail" content: an opponent, the willie wagtail avoids the head and aims for the rear. Both the male and female may engage in this behaviour, and generally more intensely in the breeding season. Territories range from in area. A pair of birds will declare and defend their territory against other pairs in a "diving display". One bird remains still while the other loops and dives repeatedly before the roles are reversed; both sing all the while. The willie wagtail has more than 'responded well to human alteration'. It has been seen to seek out the company of individual humans, following and "chatting".


title: "Willie wagtail" content: Calling out to a human who is inside a house, following (and chatting) at quite some distance from the nest is not aggressive or protective. The bird's white eyebrows become flared and more prominent in an "aggressive display", and settled and more hidden when in a submissive or "appeasement display". Willie wagtails usually pair for life. The breeding season lasts from July to December, more often occurring after rain in drier regions. Anywhere up to four broods may be raised during this time. It builds a cup-like nest on a tree branch away from leaves or cover, less than above


title: "Willie wagtail" content: the ground. Rafters and eaves may also be used. It has been observed to build its nest in the vicinity of those of the magpie-lark ("Grallina cyanoleuca"), possibly taking advantage of the latter bird's territoriality and aggression toward intruders. Similarly, it is not afraid to build near human habitation. The nest consists of grass stems, strips of bark, and other fibrous material which is bound and woven together with spider web. Even hair from pet dogs and cats may be used. It has also been observed attempting to take hair from a pet goat. An alpaca breeder in the Mudgee


title: "Willie wagtail" content: District of New South Wales has observed alpaca fleece in the nests of willy wagtails (the results of scraps of fleece not picked up at shearing time). The female lays two to four small cream-white eggs with brownish markings measuring , and incubates them for 14 days. Like all passerines, the chicks are altricial and nidicolous; they are born naked and helpless with closed eyes, and remain in the nest. Both parents take part in feeding the young, and may continue to do so while embarking on another brood. Nestlings remain in the nest for around 14 days before fledging.


title: "Willie wagtail" content: Upon leaving, the fledglings will remain hidden in cover nearby for one or two days before venturing further afield, up to away by the third day. Parents will stop feeding their fledglings near the end of the second week, as the young birds increasingly forage for themselves, and soon afterwards drive them out of the territory. The female pallid cuckoo ("Cuculus pallidus") will lay eggs in a willie wagtail nest, although the hosts often recognise and eject the foreign eggs, so successful brood parasitism is rare. Parasitism by the fan-tailed ("Cacomantis flabelliformis"), brush, ("C. variolosus"), Horsfield's bronze ("Chrysococcyx basalis"), and


title: "Willie wagtail" content: shining bronze cuckoo ("C. lucidus") has also been reported. Although the willie wagtail is an aggressive defender of its nest, predators do account for many eggs and young. About two thirds of eggs hatch successfully, and a third leave the nest as fledglings. Nestlings may be preyed upon by both pied butcherbirds, ("Cracticus nigrogularis") black butcherbirds ("C. quoyi"), the spangled drongo ("Dicrurus bracteatus"), and the pied currawong ("Strepera graculina"), as well as the feral cat ("Felis catus"), and rat species. The proximity of nesting to human habitation has also left nests open to destruction by children. The willie wagtail perches


title: "Willie wagtail" content: on low branches, fences, posts, and the like, watching for insects and other small invertebrates in the air or on the ground. It usually hunts by hawking flying insects such as gnats, flies, and small moths, but will occasionally glean from the ground. It will often hop along the ground and flit behind people and animals, such as cattle, sheep or horses, as they walk over grassed areas, to catch any creatures disturbed by their passing. It wags its tail in a horizontal fashion while foraging in this manner; the exact purpose of this behaviour is unknown but is thought


title: "Willie wagtail" content: to help flush out insects hidden in vegetation and hence make them easier to catch. The willie wagtail takes ticks from the skin of grazing animals such as cattle or pigs, even from lions asleep in a zoo. It kills its prey by bashing it against a hard surface, or holding it and pulling off the wings before extracting the edible insides. The adaptability and opportunistic diet of the willie wagtail have probably assisted it in adapting to human habitation; it eats a wide variety of arthropods, including butterflies, moths, flies, beetles, dragonflies, bugs, spiders, centipedes, and millipedes, and has


title: "Willie wagtail" content: been recorded killing small lizards such as skinks and geckos in a study in Madang on Papua New Guinea's north coast. The tailbones of these lizards have been found in their faeces although it is unclear whether the whole animal was eaten or merely the tail. Either way, lizards are only a very occasional prey item forming between 1 and 3% of the total diet. Evidence from the study in Madang suggested that the willie wagtail selectively fed nestlings larger prey. The willie wagtail was a feature in Australian Aboriginal folklore. Aboriginal tribes in parts of southeastern Australia, such as


title: "Willie wagtail" content: the Ngarrindjeri of the Lower Murray River, and the Narrunga People of the Yorke Peninsula, regard the willie wagtail as the bearer of bad news. It was thought that the willie wagtail could steal a person's secrets while lingering around camps eavesdropping, so women would be tight-lipped in the presence of the bird. The people of the Kimberley held a similar belief that it would inform the spirit of the recently departed if living relatives spoke badly of them. They also venerated the willie wagtail as the most intelligent of all animals. Its cleverness is also seen in a Tinputz


title: "Willie wagtail" content: tale of Bougainville Island, where "Singsing Tongereng" (Willie Wagtail) wins a contest among all birds to see who can fly the highest, by riding on the back of the eagle. However, the Gunwinggu in western Arnhem Land took a dimmer view and regarded it as a liar and a tattletale. The willie wagtail was held to have stolen fire and tried to extinguish it in the sea in a dreaming story of the Yindjibarndi people of the central and western Pilbara, and was able to send a strong wind if frightened. In the Noongar language dialects, the willie wagtail is


title: "Willie wagtail" content: known as the "Djiti-Djiti(pronounced Chitti-chitti)" and the "Willaring" in the Perth region. The Kalam people of New Guinea highlands called it "konmayd", and deemed it a good bird; if it came and chattered when a new garden was tilled, then there would be good crops. It is said to be taking care of pigs if it is darting and calling around them. It may also be the manifestation of the ghost of paternal relatives to the Kalam. Called the "kuritoro" bird in New Guinea's eastern highlands, its appearance was significant in the mourning ceremony by a widow for her dead


title: "Willie wagtail" content: husband. She would offer him banana flowers; the presence of the bird singing nearby would confirm that the dead man's soul had taken the offering. A tale from the Kieta district of Bougainville Island relates that a "maneka", the willie wagtail, darting along a river bank echoes a legendary daughter looking for her mother who drowned trying to cross a flooding river in a storm. The bird has been depicted on postage stamps in Palau and the Solomon Islands, and has also appeared as a character in Australian children's literature, such as "Dot and the Kangaroo" (1899), "Blinky Bill Grows


title: "Willie wagtail" content: Up" (1935), and "Willie Wagtail and Other Tales" (1929). Willie wagtail The willie (or willy) wagtail ("Rhipidura leucophrys") is a passerine bird native to Australia, New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, the Bismarck Archipelago, and Eastern Indonesia. It is a common and familiar bird throughout much of its range, living in most habitats apart from thick forest. Measuring in length, the willie wagtail is contrastingly coloured with almost entirely black upperparts and white underparts; the male and female have similar plumage. Three subspecies are recognised; "Rhipidura leucophrys leucophrys" from central and southern Australia, the smaller "R. l. picata" from northern Australia,


title: Gondolin content: founded by King Turgon in the First Age. It was originally named Ondolindë. According to "The Silmarillion", the Vala Ulmo, the Lord of Waters, revealed the location of the Vale of Tumladen to Turgon in a dream. Under this divine guidance, Turgon travelled from his kingdom in Nevrast and found the vale. Within the Echoriath, the Encircling Mountains, lay a round level plain with sheer walls on all sides and a ravine and tunnel leading out to the southwest known as the Hidden Way. In the middle of the vale there was a steep hill which was called Amon Gwareth,


title: "Near East" content: history and convention to lump together peoples of multiple, often unrelated languages, governments, loyalties and customs. In the 20th century after decades of intense warfare and political turmoil terms such as "Near East", "Far East", and "Middle East" were relegated to the experts, especially in the new field of political science. The new wave of diplomats often came from those programs. Archaeology on the international scene, although very much of intellectual interest to the major universities, fell into the shadow of international relations. Their domain became the Ancient Near East, which could no longer be relied upon to be the


title: "Lizzie Borden" content: farther away from the industrial areas of the city and much more homogeneous racially, ethnically and socioeconomically. Lizzie and her older sister, Emma Lenora Borden (March 1, 1851 – June 10, 1927) had a relatively religious upbringing and attended Central Congregational Church. As a young woman, Lizzie was very involved in church activities, including teaching Sunday school to children of recent immigrants to the United States. She was involved in Christian organizations such as the Christian Endeavor Society, for which she served as secretary-treasurer, and contemporary social movements such as the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU). She was also a


title: "God Hates Us All" content: in blood with the word "Slayer" burnt across it. The liner notes intersperse the lyrics between passages from the biblical Book of Job, partly crossed out with a black marker. The idea was suggested by the band's record company, although King wanted more time to develop a better cover. King's concept for the cover was to show nails in the shape of a pentagram, and have them miss keywords in Bible verses so it appeared as if it had been created by a sociopath who knew where every word appears. He later complained that the outcome was typical of "a


title: "Graham cracker" content: Graham cracker The graham cracker is a type of cracker that originated circa the early 1880s, and is a mass-produced product in contemporary times. It is eaten as a snack food, sometimes with honey, and is used as an ingredient in some foods. The name can be pronounced as or . The graham cracker was inspired by the preaching of Sylvester Graham, who was a part of and strongly influenced by the 19th-century temperance movement; Graham believed that a vegetarian diet anchored by home-made whole grain bread, made from wheat coarsely ground at home, as part of a lifestyle that


title: "Graham cracker" content: involved minimizing pleasure and stimulation of all kinds, was how God intended people to live and that following this natural law would keep people healthy. His preaching was taken up widely in the US in the midst of the 1829–51 cholera pandemic. His followers, Grahamites, formed one of the first vegetarian movements in the US, and graham flour, graham crackers, and graham bread were created for them and marketed to them; Graham neither invented nor profited from these products. The main ingredients in its earlier preparations were graham flour, oil, shortening or lard, molasses and salt. Graham crackers have been


title: "Graham cracker" content: a mass-produced food product in the United States since 1898, with the National Biscuit Company being the first to mass-produce it at that time. The Loose-Wiles Biscuit Company also began mass-producing the product beginning sometime in the early 1910s. The product continues to be mass-produced in the U.S. today. In earlier times, mass-produced graham crackers were typically prepared using yeast-leavened dough, which added flavor to the food via the process of fermentation, whereas contemporary mass-production of the product typically omits this process. The dough is sometimes chilled before being rolled out, which prevents blistering and breakage from occurring when the


title: "Graham cracker" content: product is baked. Graham cracker crumbs are used to create graham cracker crusts for pies and moon pie, and as a base, layer or topping for cheesecake. Graham cracker pie crusts are also mass-produced in the United States, and consumer versions of the product typically consist of a graham cracker crumb mixture pressed into an aluminum pie pan. The graham cracker is a main ingredient in the preparation of the s'more. The digestive biscuit is a very similar product that originated in the United Kingdom. It is commonly available in Australia, South Africa, Ireland and other countries. Graham cracker The


title: "Essad Pasha Toptani" content: of the most negative historical figures and the symbol of treason. Edith Durham viewed Essad Pasha as "a strange relic of the middle ages ... one with the handsome swashbucklers who sold themselves and their services to the rival monarchs, princelings and dukes in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and cheerfully transferred themselves to the enemy if he offered better pay – men in whom the sense of nationality was not developed at all, and whose sense of honour was, to put it mildly, deficient." Two shots in Paris "()" is a drama by Sheri Mita, Pëllumb Kulla with the


title: "Eastern grey kangaroo" content: Eastern grey kangaroo The eastern grey kangaroo ("Macropus giganteus") is a marsupial found in southern and eastern Australia, with a population of several million. It is also known as the great grey kangaroo and the forester kangaroo. Although a big eastern grey male typically masses around 66 kg (weight 145 lb.) and stands almost 2 m (6.6 ft.) tall, the scientific name, "Macropus giganteus" (gigantic large-foot), is misleading: the red kangaroo of the semi-arid inland is larger, weighing up to 90 kg. The eastern grey kangaroo was described by George Shaw in 1790 as "Macropus giganteus". There are two subspecies:


title: "Eastern grey kangaroo" content: The eastern grey kangaroo is the second largest and heaviest living marsupial and native land mammal in Australia. An adult male will commonly weigh around whereas females commonly weigh around . They have a powerful tail that is over 1 m long in adult males.<ref name="Green-Barber/Old 2018 blood">Green-Barber, J., Ong, O., Kanuri, A., Stannard, H. and Old, J. (2018). "Blood constituents of free-ranging eastern grey kangaroos (Macropus giganteus)" Australian Mammalogy" 40: 136-145.</ref> Large males of this species are more heavily built and muscled than the lankier red kangaroo and can occasionally exceed normal dimensions. One of these, shot in eastern


title: "Eastern grey kangaroo" content: Tasmania weighed , with a total length from nose to tail (possibly along the curves). The largest known specimen, examined by Lydekker, had a weight of and measured along the curves. When the skin of this specimen was measured it had a "flat" length of . The eastern grey is easy to recognise: its soft grey coat is distinctive, and it is usually found in moister, more fertile areas than the red. Red kangaroos, though sometimes grey-blue in colour, have a totally different face than grey kangaroos. Red kangaroos have distinctive markings in black and white beside their muzzles and


title: "Eastern grey kangaroo" content: along the sides of their face. Grey kangaroos do not have these markings, and their eyes seem large and wide open. Where their ranges overlap, it is much more difficult to distinguish between eastern grey and western grey kangaroos, which are closely related. They have a very similar body and facial structure, and their noses/muzzles are fully covered with fine hair (though that is not obvious at a distance, their noses do look noticeably different from the noses of reds and wallaroos). The eastern grey's colouration is a light-coloured grey or brownish-grey, with a lighter silver or cream, sometimes nearly


title: "Eastern grey kangaroo" content: white, belly. The western grey is a dark dusty brown colour, with more contrast especially around the head. Indigenous Australian names include "iyirrbir" (Uw Oykangand and Uw Olkola) and "kucha" (Pakanh). The highest ever recorded speed of any kangaroo was set by a large female eastern grey kangaroo. Although the red is better known, the eastern grey is the kangaroo most often encountered in Australia, due to its adaptability. Few Australians visit the arid interior of the continent, while many live in and around the major cities of the south and east coast, from where it is usually only a


title: "Eastern grey kangaroo" content: short drive to the remaining pockets of near-city bushland where kangaroos can be found without much difficulty. The eastern grey prefers open grassland with areas of bush for daytime shelter and mainly inhabits the wetter parts of Australia. It also inhabits coastal areas, woodlands, sub-tropical forests, mountain forests, and inland scrubs.<ref name="Frith/Calaby 1969">Frith, H. J. and Calaby, J. H. (1969). "Kangaroos". Melbourne, Australia: Cheshire Publishing.</ref> Like all kangaroos, it is mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, and is mostly seen early in the morning, or as the light starts to fade in the evening.<ref name="Green-Barber/Old 2018 camera">Green-Barber, J. and Old, J. (2018).


title: "Eastern grey kangaroo" content: "Is camera trap videography suitable for assessing activity patterns in eastern grey kangaroos?" Pacific Conservation Biology" 24: 134-141.</ref> In the middle of the day, kangaroos rest in the cover of the woodlands and eat there but then come out in the open to feed on the grasslands in large numbers. The eastern grey kangaroo is predominantly a grazer, eating a wide variety of grasses, whereas some other species (e.g. the red kangaroo) include significant amounts of shrubs in the diet. Eastern grey kangaroos are gregarious and form open-membership groups.<ref name="Colagross/Cockbrun 1993">Colagross, A. M. L. and Cockburn, A. (1993). "Vigilance and


title: "Eastern grey kangaroo" content: grouping in the eastern grey kangaroo, "Macropus giganteus"." "Australian Journal of Zoology" 41: 325-334.</ref> The groups contain an average of three individuals.<ref name="Green-Barber/Old 2018 camera">Green-Barber, J. and Old, J. (2018). "Is camera trap videography suitable for assessing activity patterns in eastern grey kangaroos?" Pacific Conservation Biology" 24: 134-141.</ref> Smaller groups join together to graze in preferred foraging areas, and to rest in large groups around the middle of the day.<ref name="Green-Barber/Old 2018 camera">Green-Barber, J. and Old, J. (2018). "Is camera trap videography suitable for assessing activity patterns in eastern grey kangaroos?" Pacific Conservation Biology" 24: 134-141.</ref> They exist in a


title: "Eastern grey kangaroo" content: dominance hierarchy and the dominant individuals gain access to better sources of food and areas of shade. However, kangaroos are not territorial and usually fight only when females are in estrous. Eastern grey kangaroos adjust their behavior in relation to the risk of predation with reproductive females, individuals on the periphery of the group and individuals in groups far from cover being the most vigilant. Vigilance in individual kangaroos does not seem to significantly decrease when the size of the group increases. However, there is a tendency for the proportion of individuals on the periphery of the group to decline


title: "Eastern grey kangaroo" content: as group size increases. The open membership of the group allows more kangaroos to join and thus provide more buffers against predators. Females may form strong kinship bonds with their female relatives. Females with living female relatives have a greater chance of reproducing. Most kangaroo births occur during the summer. Eastern grey kangaroos are obligate breeders in that they can only reproduce in one kind of habitat. The female kangaroo is usually permanently pregnant, except on the day she gives birth; however, she has the ability to freeze the development of an embryo until the previous joey is able to


title: "Eastern grey kangaroo" content: leave the pouch. This is known as diapause, and will occur in times of drought and in areas with poor food sources. The composition of the milk produced by the mother varies according to the needs of the joey. In addition, the mother is able to produce two different kinds of milk simultaneously for the newborn and the older joey still in the pouch. Unusually, during a dry period, males will not produce sperm, and females will only conceive if there has been enough rain to produce a large quantity of green vegetation. Females take care of the young without


title: "Eastern grey kangaroo" content: any assistance from the males. The joeys are heavily reliant on their mothers for about 550 days which is when it is weaned. Females sexually mature between 17 and 28 months while males mature at around 25 months. It is popularly thought, but not confirmed by evidence, Despite the commercial harvest and some culls, the eastern grey remains common and widespread. Eastern greys are common in suburban and rural areas where they have been observed to form larger groups than in natural areas.<ref name="Green-Barber/Old 2018 town">Green-Barber, J. and Old, J. (2018). "Town roo, country roo: a comparison of behaviour in


title: "Eastern grey kangaroo" content: eastern grey kangaroos Macropus giganteus in developed and natural landscapes" Australian Zoologist" 39: 520-533.</ref> It still covers the entire range it occupied when Europeans arrived in Australia in 1788 and it often comes into conflict with agriculture as it uses the more fertile districts that now carry crops or exotic pasture grasses, which kangaroos readily eat. Kangaroo meat has also been considered to replace beef in recent years, as their soft feet are preferable to hooves in erosion prone areas. Eastern grey kangaroo The eastern grey kangaroo ("Macropus giganteus") is a marsupial found in southern and eastern Australia, with a


title: "Second London Naval Treaty" content: was under sanctions from the League of Nations. The conference was intended to limit the growth in naval armaments until its expiration in 1942. The absence of Japan (a very significant naval power) prevented agreement on a ceiling on the numbers of warships. The treaty did limit the maximum size of the signatories' ships, and the maximum calibre of the guns which they could carry. First of all, capital ships were restricted to a standard displacement and 14-inch (356 mm) guns. However, a so-called "escalator clause" was included at the urging of American negotiators in case any of the countries


title: "American imperialism" content: in turn impose taxes on coerced subjects to pay for the legions. Instead, American bases are predicated on contractual obligations — costly to us and profitable to their hosts. We do not see any profits in Korea, but instead accept the risk of losing almost 40,000 of our youth to ensure that Kias can flood our shores and that shaggy students can protest outside our embassy in Seoul." The existence of "proconsuls", however, has been recognized by many since the early Cold War. In 1957, French Historian, Amaury de Riencourt, associated the American "proconsul" with "the Roman of our time".


title: "Galata Tower" content: Galata Tower The Galata Tower ("Galata Kulesi" in Turkish) — called "Christea Turris" (the "Tower of Christ" in Latin) by the Genoese — is a medieval stone tower in the Galata/Karaköy quarter of Istanbul, Turkey, just to the north of the Golden Horn's junction with the Bosphorus. It is a high, cone-capped cylinder that dominates the skyline and offers a panoramic vista of Istanbul's historic peninsula and its environs. The nine-story tower is ( without the ornament on top, at the observation deck), and was the city's tallest structure when it was built. The elevation at ground level is above


title: "Galata Tower" content: sea-level. The tower has an external diameter of at the base, an inside diameter of , and walls that are thick. There is a restaurant and café on its upper floors which have views of Istanbul and the Bosphorus. Also located on the upper floors is a nightclub which hosts a Turkish show. There are two operating elevators that carry visitors from the lower level to the upper levels. The Romanesque style tower was built as "Christea Turris" (Tower of Christ) in 1348 during an expansion of the Genoese colony in Constantinople. Galata Tower was the tallest building in Istanbul


title: "Galata Tower" content: at when it was built in 1348. It was built to replace the old Tower of Galata, an original Byzantine tower named "Megalos Pyrgos" (English: "Great Tower") which controlled the northern end of the massive sea chain that closed the entrance to the Golden Horn. That tower was on a different site and was largely destroyed in 1203, during the Fourth Crusade of 1202–1204. The upper section of the tower with the conical cap was slightly modified in several restorations during the Ottoman period when it was used as an observation tower for spotting fires. According to the "Seyahatname" of


title: "Galata Tower" content: Ottoman historian and traveller Evliya Çelebi, in circa 1630-1632, Hezarfen Ahmet Çelebi flew as an early "intercontinental" aviator using artificial wings for gliding from this tower over the Bosphorus to the slopes of Üsküdar on the Anatolian side, nearly six kilometres away. Evliyâ Çelebi also tells of Hezarfen's brother, Lagari Hasan Çelebi, performing the first flight with a rocket in a conical cage filled with gunpowder in 1633. Starting from 1717, the Ottomans began to use the tower for spotting fires in the city. In 1794, during the reign of Sultan Selim III, the roof of the tower was made


title: "Galata Tower" content: of lead and wood, and the stairs were severely damaged by a fire. Another fire damaged the building in 1831, upon which a new restoration work took place. In 1875, during a storm, the conical roof on the top of the building was destroyed. The tower remained without this conical roof for the rest of the Ottoman period. Many years later, during the restoration works between 1965 and 1967, the conical roof was reconstructed. During this final restoration in the 1960s, the wooden interior of the tower was replaced by a concrete structure and it was commercialized and opened to


title: "Galata Tower" content: the public. From the top of the tower, the first French panorama painter, Pierre Prévost, drew his "Panorama de Constantinople" in 1818, which was later exhibited in Paris in 1825. The panorama image shown below is composed of ten photos taken from the Galata Tower by the photographic firm of Sébah & Joaillier, and is likely to have been taken in the 1880s. Galata Tower The Galata Tower ("Galata Kulesi" in Turkish) — called "Christea Turris" (the "Tower of Christ" in Latin) by the Genoese — is a medieval stone tower in the Galata/Karaköy quarter of Istanbul, Turkey, just to


title: "Double-crested cormorant" content: Double-crested cormorant The double-crested cormorant ("Phalacrocorax auritus") is a member of the cormorant family of seabirds. It occurs along inland waterways as well as in coastal areas, and is widely distributed across North America, from the Aleutian Islands in Alaska down to Florida and Mexico. Measuring in length, it is an all-black bird which gains a small double crest of black and white feathers in breeding season. It has a bare patch of orange-yellow facial skin. Five subspecies are recognized. The double-crested cormorant is found near rivers and lakes and along the coastline. It mainly eats fish and hunts by


title: "Double-crested cormorant" content: swimming and diving. Its feathers, like those of all cormorants, are not waterproof and it must spend time drying them out after spending time in the water. Once threatened by the use of DDT, the numbers of this bird have increased markedly in recent years. The double-crested cormorant was described by Rene Primevere Lesson in 1831. Its scientific name is derived from the Greek words φαλακρος ("phalakros"), "bald" and κοραξ ("korax"), "crow" or "raven", and the Latin "auritus", "eared", referring to its nuptial crests. Its common name refers to the same nuptial crests. Five subspecies are recognized: The double-crested cormorant


title: "Double-crested cormorant" content: is a large waterbird with a stocky body, long neck, medium-sized tail, webbed feet, and a medium-sized hooked bill. It has a body length of between long, with a wingspan of between . Double-crested cormorants weigh between . Males and females do not display sexual dimorphism. This species has dark-colored plumage with bare super-loral skin and gular skin that is yellow or orange. An adult in breeding plumage will be mostly black with the back and coverts being a dark grayish towards the center. Nuptial crests, for which the species is named, are either white, black or a mix of


title: "Double-crested cormorant" content: the two. These are located just above the eyes with the bare skin on the face of a breeding adult being orange. A non-breeding adult will lack the crests and have more yellowish skin around the face. The bill of the adult is dark-colored. The double-crested cormorant is very similar in appearance to the larger great cormorant, which has a more restricted distribution in North America, mainly on the Canadian maritime provinces; it can, however, be separated by having more yellow on the throat and the bill. The plumage of juvenile double-crested cormorants is more dark gray or brownish. The


title: "Double-crested cormorant" content: underparts of a juvenile are lighter than the back with a pale throat and breast that darkens towards the belly. As a bird ages, its plumage will grow darker. The bill of a juvenile will be mostly orange or yellowish. A very common and widespread species, it winters anywhere that is ice-free along both coasts, as far north as southern Alaska (on the west coast) and southern New England (on the east coast). It can be found as far south as Mexico and the Bahamas. It migrates from the coldest parts of its breeding range, such as eastern Canada, and


title: "Double-crested cormorant" content: has occurred in Europe as a very rare vagrant, for example in Great Britain, Ireland, and the Azores. The double-crested cormorant swims low in the water, often with just its neck and head visible, and dives from the surface. It uses its feet for propulsion and is able to dive to a depth of for 30–70 seconds. After diving, it spends long periods standing with its wings outstretched to allow them to dry, since they are not fully waterproofed. This species flies low over the water, with its bill tilted slightly upward, sometimes leaving the colony in long, single-file lines.


title: "Double-crested cormorant" content: Food can be found in the sea, freshwater lakes, and rivers. Like all cormorants, the double-crested dives to find its prey. It mainly eats fish, but will sometimes also eat amphibians and crustaceans. Fish are caught by diving under water. Smaller fish may be eaten while the bird is still beneath the surface but bigger prey is often brought to the surface before it is eaten. Double-crested cormorants are also considered pests to aquaculturists because of their intense predation on fish ponds which can cause thousands of dollars in losses to farmers. Cormorants regurgitate pellets containing undigested parts of their


title: "Double-crested cormorant" content: meals such as bones. These pellets can be dissected by biologists in order to discover what the birds ate. Breeding occurs in coastal areas as well as near inland rivers and lakes. They build stick nests in trees, on cliff edges, or on the ground on suitable islands. They are gregarious birds usually found in colonies, often with other aquatic birds, and have a deep, guttural grunt call. The double-crested cormorant's numbers decreased in the 1960s due to the effects of DDT. Colonies have also been persecuted from time to time in areas where they are thought to compete with


title: "Double-crested cormorant" content: human fishing. Recently the population of double-crested cormorants has increased. Some studies have concluded that the recovery was allowed by the decrease of contaminants, particularly the discontinued use of DDT. The population may have also increased because of aquaculture ponds in its southern wintering grounds. The ponds favor good over-winter survival and growth. In 1894, Thomas McIlwraith in his book, "Birds of Ontario", concludes his section on double-crested cormorants by saying: “When the young are sufficiently grown, they gather into immense flocks in unfrequented sections, and remain until the ice-lid has closed over their food supply, when they go away,


title: "Double-crested cormorant" content: not to return till the cover is lifted up in the spring.” For populations nesting in the Great Lakes region, it is believed that the colonization of the lakes by the non-native alewife (a small prey fish) has provided optimal feeding conditions and hence good breeding success. Double-crested cormorants eat other species of fish besides alewives and have been implicated in the decline of some sport-fish populations in the Great Lakes and other areas. Scientists are not in agreement about the exact extent of the role of cormorants in these declines, but some believe that double-crested cormorants may be a


title: "Double-crested cormorant" content: factor for some populations and in some locations. In light of this belief, and because of calls for action by the public, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (the U.S. federal government agency charged with their protection) has recently extended control options to some other government entities. This includes culling of populations and measures to thwart reproduction, in an effort to control their growing numbers. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service retains oversight and the control measures are not extended to the general public (no hunting season). Many government agencies at different levels in both the U.S. and Canada


title: "Double-crested cormorant" content: continue to wrestle with how best to respond to the situation. In May 2008, the Canadian government reduced significantly the number of nests of the birds on Middle Island, a small island in Lake Erie and part of Point Pelee National Park. This is an attempt to keep the small island in balance and preserve its vegetation but opponents to the plan have argued that it is based on faulty information, provided in part by anglers who view cormorants as competitors. Double-crested cormorant The double-crested cormorant ("Phalacrocorax auritus") is a member of the cormorant family of seabirds. It occurs along


title: "Usher (musician)" content: by the RIAA selling more than 7 Million copies. In spring of 2005, Usher scored a number three Hot 100 hit as a featured vocalist on Lil' Jon's "Lovers & Friends". In 2007, Usher also collaborated with R. Kelly on the track "Same Girl", for Kelly's album, Double Up. He was also featured in a remix version of Omarion's "Ice Box". Usher also appeared on the track "Shake Down" on American singer-songwriter Mary J. Blige's 2007 album "Growing Pains". According to Robert Hilburn of "Los Angeles Times", Usher was voted number-one on the executive voting based "Pop's Power List" and


title: "Usher (musician)" content: Singer-songwriter Eric Bellinger told "Rap-Up" that he, along with Jermaine Dupri, Bryan-Michael Cox, and Brian Alexander Morgan, was working on Usher's next album. Bellinger compared the album's music to Usher's "Confessions" (2004), saying that it is "more R&B, more urban" than Usher's "Looking 4 Myself". The latter declared that his next album would show that he is "still Usher". "Good Kisser", a dance-heavy throwback R&B track, was released as the first single allowing Usher to achieve his 13th no.1 on the Airplay chart, tying Drake for most leaders in the list's history. Produced by Pop & Oak, it was performed


title: "Usher (musician)" content: TLC, referred to him as "one of the country's most famous ex-boyfriends". Usher was ranked number-one on BET's "All Shades of Fine: 25 Hottest Men of the Past 25 Years" special in 2005. Madame Tussauds New York also unveiled a wax figure of Usher during a competition to launch The Usher Interactive Experience, and for the opening of a VIP room in 2007. "Rolling Stone" magazine ranks "Confessions Part II" amongst its "30 Sexiest Music Videos of All Time". After his marriage to Tameka Foster, his sexual appeal was expected to mature as "The New Yorker" writer Sasha Frere-Jones writes


title: Pink content: Pink Pink is a pale red color that is named after a flower of the same name. It was first used as a color name in the late 17th century. According to surveys in Europe and the United States, pink is the color most often associated with charm, politeness, sensitivity, tenderness, sweetness, childhood, femininity and the romantic. A combination of pink and white is associated with chastity and innocence, whereas a combination of pink and black links to eroticism and seduction. The color pink is named after the flowers, pinks, flowering plants in the genus "Dianthus," and derives from the


title: Pink content: frilled edge of the flowers. The verb "to pink" dates from the 14th century and means "to decorate with a perforated or punched pattern" (possibly from German "picken", "to peck"). While the word "pink" was first used as a noun to refer to a color in the 17th century, the verb "pink" continues to be reflected today as the name of hand-held scissors that cut a zig-zagged line to prevent fraying that are referred to as pinking shears. The color pink has been described in literature since ancient times. In the "Odyssey", written in approximately 800 BCE, Homer wrote "Then,


title: Pink content: when the child of morning, rosy-fingered dawn appeared..." Roman poets also described the color. "Roseus" is the Latin word meaning "rosy" or "pink." Lucretius used the word to describe the dawn in his epic poem "On the Nature of Things" ("De rerum natura"). Pink was not a common color in the fashion of the Middle Ages; nobles usually preferred brighter reds, such as crimson. However, it did appear in women's fashion, and in religious art. In the 13th and 14th century, in works by Cimabue and Duccio, the Christ child was sometimes portrayed dressed in pink, the color associated with


title: Pink content: the body of Christ. In the high Renaissance painting the "Madonna of the Pinks" by Raphael, the Christ child is presenting a pink flower to the Virgin Mary. The pink was a symbol of marriage, showing a spiritual marriage between the mother and child. During the Renaissance, pink was mainly used for the flesh color of faces and hands. The pigment commonly used for this was called light cinabrese; it was a mixture of the red earth pigment called sinopia, or Venetian red, and a white pigment called "Bianco San Genovese", or lime white. In his famous 15th century manual


title: Pink content: on painting, "Il Libro Dell'Arte", Cennino Cennini described it this way: "This pigment is made from the loveliest and lightest sinopia that is found and is mixed and mulled with St. John’s white, as it is called in Florence; and this white is made from thoroughly white and thoroughly purified lime. And when these two pigments have been thoroughly mulled together (that is, two parts cinabrese and the third white), make little loaves of them like half walnuts and leave them to dry. When you need some, take however much of it seems appropriate. And this pigment does you great


title: Pink content: credit if you use it for painting faces, hands and nudes on walls..." The zenith of the color pink was the 18th century, when pastel colors became very fashionable in all the courts of Europe. Pink was particularly championed by Madame de Pompadour (1721–1764), the mistress of King Louis XV of France, who wore combinations of pale blue and pink, and had a particular tint of pink made for her by the Sevres porcelain factory, created by adding nuances of blue, black and yellow. While pink was quite evidently the color of seduction in the portraits made by George Romney


title: Pink content: of Emma, Lady Hamilton, the future mistress of Admiral Horatio Nelson, in the late 18th century, it had the completely opposite meaning in the portrait of Sarah Barrett Moulton painted by Thomas Lawrence in 1794. In this painting, it symbolized childhood, innocence and tenderness. Sarah Moulton was just eleven years old when the picture was painted, and died the following year. In 19th century England, pink ribbons or decorations were often worn by young boys; boys were simply considered small men, and while men in England wore red uniforms, boys wore pink. In fact the clothing for children in the


title: Pink content: 19th century was almost always white, since, before the invention of chemical dyes, clothing of any color would quickly fade when washed in boiling water. Queen Victoria was painted in 1850 with her seventh child and third son, Prince Arthur, who wore white and pink. In late nineteenth-century France, Impressionist painters working in a pastel color palette sometimes depicted women wearing the color pink, such as Edgar Degas’ image of ballet dancers or Mary Cassatt’s images of women and children. The US presidential inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1953 when Eisenhower's wife Mamie Eisenhower wore a pink dress as


title: Pink content: her inaugural gown is thought to have been a key turning point to the association of pink as a color associated with girls. Mamie's strong liking of pink led to the public association with pink being a color that "ladylike women wear." The 1957 American musical "Funny Face" also played a role in cementing the color's association with women. In the 20th century, pinks became bolder, brighter, and more assertive, in part because of the invention of chemical dyes which did not fade. The pioneer in the creation of the new wave of pinks was the Italian designer Elsa Schiaparelli,


title: Pink content: (1890-1973) who was aligned with the artists of the surrealist movement, including Jean Cocteau. In 1931 she created a new variety of the color, called shocking pink, made by mixing magenta with a small amount of white. She launched a perfume called Shocking, sold in a bottle in the shape of a woman's torso, said to be modelled on that of Mae West. Her fashions, co-designed with artists such as Cocteau, featured the new pinks. In Nazi Germany in the 1930s and 1940s, inmates of Nazi concentration camps who were accused of homosexuality were forced to wear a pink triangle.


title: Pink content: Because of this, the pink triangle has become a symbol of the modern gay rights movement. The transition to pink as a sexually differentiating color for girls occurred gradually, through the selective process of the marketplace, in the 1930s and 40s. In the 1920s, some groups had been describing pink as a masculine color, an equivalent of the red that was considered to be for men, but lighter for boys. But stores nonetheless found that people were increasingly choosing to buy pink for girls, and blue for boys, until this became an accepted norm in the 1940s. In optics, the


title: Pink content: word "pink" can refer to any of the pale shades of colors between bluish red to red in hue, of medium to high lightness, and of low to moderate saturation. Although pink is generally considered a tint of red, the hues of most shades of pink are slightly bluish, and lie between red and magenta. A few variations of pink, such as salmon color, lean toward orange. As a ray of white sunlight travels through the atmosphere, some of the colors are scattered out of the beam by air molecules and airborne particles. This is called Rayleigh scattering. Colors with


title: Pink content: a shorter wavelength, such as blue and green, scatter more strongly, and are removed from the light that finally reaches the eye. At sunrise and sunset, when the path of the sunlight through the atmosphere to the eye is longest, the blue and green components are removed almost completely, leaving the longer wavelength orange, red and pink light. The remaining pinkish sunlight can also be scattered by cloud droplets and other relatively large particles, which give the sky above the horizon a pink or reddish glow. Raw beef is red, because the muscles of vertebrate animals, such as cows and


title: Pink content: pigs, contain a protein called myoglobin, which binds oxygen and iron atoms. When beef is cooked, the myoglobin proteins undergo oxidation, and gradually turn from red to pink to brown; that is, from rare to medium to well-done. Pork contains less myoglobin than beef and therefore is less red; when heated, it changes from pinkish-red to less pink to tan or white. Ham, though it contains myoglobins like beef, undergoes a different transformation. Traditional hams, such as prosciutto, are made by taking the hind leg or thigh of a pig, covering it with sea salt, which removes the moisture content,


title: Pink content: and then letting it dry or cure for as long as two years. The salt (sodium nitrate) permits the ham to retain its original pink color, even when dried out. Supermarket hams are made by a different and faster process; they are brined, or infused with a salt-water solution, containing sodium nitrite, which transfers nitric oxide, which bonds with the myoglobin to form the traditional pink cured ham color. The shells and flesh of crustaceans such as crabs, lobsters and shrimp contain a pink carotenoid pigment called astaxanthin. Their shells, naturally blue-green, turn pink or red when cooked. The flesh


title: Pink content: of the salmon also contains astaxanthins, which makes it pink. Farm-bred salmon are sometimes fed these pigments to improve their pinkness, and it is sometimes also used to enhance the color of egg yolks. Pink is one of the most common colors of flowers; it serves to attract the insects and birds necessary for pollination and perhaps also to deter predators. The color comes from natural pigments called anthocyanins, which also provide the pink in raspberries. In the 17th century, the word "pink" or "pinke" was also used to describe a yellowish pigment, which was mixed with blue colors to


title: Pink content: yield greenish colors. Thomas Jenner's "A Book of Drawing, Limning, Washing" (1652) categorizes "Pink & blew bice" amongst the greens (p. 38), and specifies several admixtures of greenish colors made with pink—e.g. "Grasse-green is made of Pink and Bice, it is shadowed with Indigo and Pink … French-green of Pink and Indico [shadowed with] Indico" (pp. 38–40). In William Salmon's "Polygraphice" (1673), "Pink yellow" is mentioned amongst the chief yellow pigments (p. 96), and the reader is instructed to mix it with either Saffron or Ceruse for "sad" or "light" shades thereof, respectively. According to public opinion surveys in Europe


title: Pink content: and the United States, pink is the color most associated with charm, politeness, sensitivity, tenderness, sweetness, softness, childhood, the feminine, and the romantic. Although it did not have any strong negative associations in these surveys, few respondents chose pink as their favorite color. Pink was the favorite color of only two-percent of respondents, compared with forty-five-percent who chose blue. Pink was the least-favorite color of seventeen percent of respondents; the only color more disliked was brown, with twenty percent. There was a notable difference between men and women; three percent of women chose pink as their favorite color, compared with


title: Pink content: less than one percent of men. Many of the men surveyed were unable to even identify pink correctly, confusing it with mauve. Pink was also more popular with older people than younger; twenty-five percent of women under twenty-five called pink their least favorite color, compared with only eight percent of women over fifty. Twenty-nine percent of men under the age of twenty-five said pink was their least favorite color, compared with eight percent of men over fifty. In Japan, pink is the color most commonly associated with springtime due to the blooming cherry blossoms. This is different from surveys in


title: Pink content: the United States and Europe where green is the color most associated with springtime. In many languages, the word for the color pink is based on the name of the rose flower; like "rose" in French; "roze" in Dutch; "rosa" in German, Latin, Portuguese, Catalan, Spanish, Italian, Swedish and Norwegian (Nynorsk and Bokmål); "rozoviy" in Russian; "różowy" in Polish; and "gulabi" in Urdu (and in English 'rose', too, often refers to both the flower and the color). In Danish, Faroese and Finnish, the color pink is described as a lighter shade of red: "lyserød" in Danish, "ljósareyður" in Faroese and


title: Pink content: "vaaleanpunainen" in Finnish, all meaning "light red". In Icelandic, the color is called "bleikur", originally meaning "pale". In the Japanese language, the traditional word for pink, , takes its name from the peach blossom. There is a separate word for the color of the cherry blossom: "sakura-iro". In recent times a word based on the English version, , has begun to be used. In Chinese, the color pink is named with a compound noun "粉紅色", meaning "powder red" where the powder refers to substances used for women's make-up. Early pink buildings were usually built of brick or sandstone, which takes


title: Pink content: its pale red color from hematite, or iron ore. In the 18th century - the golden age of pink and other pastel colors - pink mansions and churches were built all across Europe. More modern pink buildings usually use the color pink to appear exotic or to attract attention. According to surveys in Europe and the United States, pink is the color most associated with sweet foods and beverages. Pink is also one of the few colors to be strongly associated with a particular aroma, that of roses. Many strawberry and raspberry-flavored foods are colored pink and light red as


title: Pink content: well, sometimes to distinguish them from cherry-flavored foods that are more commonly colored dark red (although raspberry-flavored foods, particularly in the United States, are often colored blue as well). The drink Tab was packaged in pink cans, presumably to subconsciously convey a sweet taste. The pink color in most packaged and processed foods, ice creams, candies and pastries is made with artificial food coloring. The most common pink food coloring is erythrosine, also known as Red No. 3, an organoiodine compound, a derivative of fluorone, which is a cherry-pink synthetic. It is usually listed on package labels as E-127. Another


title: Pink content: common red or pink (particularly in the United States where erythrosine is less frequently used) is Allura Red AC (E-129), also known as Red No. 40. Some products use a natural red or pink food coloring, Cochineal, also called carmine, made with crushed insects of the family Dactylopius coccus. In Europe and the United States, pink is often associated with girls, while blue is associated with boys. These colors were first used as gender signifiers just prior to World War I (for either girls or boys), and pink was first established as a female gender signifier in the 1940s. In


title: Pink content: the 20th century, the practice in Europe varied from country to country, with some assigning colors based on the baby's complexion, and others assigning pink sometimes to boys and sometimes to girls. Many have noted the contrary association of pink with boys in 20th-century America. An article in the trade publication "Earnshaw's Infants' Department" in June 1918 said: One reason for the increased use of pink for girls and blue for boys was the invention of new chemical dyes, which meant that children's clothing could be mass-produced and washed in hot water without fading. Prior to this time, most small


title: Pink content: children of both sexes wore white, which could be frequently washed. Another factor was the popularity of blue and white sailor suits for young boys, a fashion that started in the late 19th century. Blue was also the usual color of school uniforms, for boys and girls. Blue was associated with seriousness and study, while pink was associated with childhood and softness. By the 1950s, pink was strongly associated with femininity but to an extent that was "neither rigid nor universal" as it later became. One study by two neuroscientists in "Current Biology" examined color preferences across cultures and found


title: Pink content: significant differences between male and female responses. Both groups favored blues over other hues, but women had more favorable responses to the reddish-purple range of the spectrum and men had more favorable responses to the greenish-yellow middle of the spectrum. Despite the fact that the study used adults, and both groups preferred blues, and responses to the color "pink" were never even tested, the popular press represented the research as an indication of an innate preference by girls for pink. The misreading has been often repeated in market research, reinforcing American culture's association of pink with girls on the basis


title: Pink content: of imagined innate characteristics. As of 2008 various feminist groups and the Breast Cancer Awareness Month use the color pink to convey empowerment of women. Breast cancer charities around the world have used the color to symbolize support for people with breast cancer and promote awareness of the disease. A key tactic of these charities is encouraging women and men to wear pink to show their support for breast cancer awareness and research. Pink has symbolized a "welcome embrace" in India and masculinity in Japan. Toys aimed at girls often display pink prominently on packaging and the toy themselves. This


title: Pink content: is a relatively recent trend, with toys from the 1920s to the 1960s not being gendered by color (though they were gendered by a focus on domesticity and nurturing). The current color-based gendering of toys can be traced back to the deregulation of children's television programs. This allowed toy companies to produce shows that were designed specifically to sell their products, and gender was an important differentiator of these shows and the toys they were advertising. In its 1957 catalog, Lionel Trains offered for sale a pink model freight train for girls. The steam locomotive and coal car were pink


title: Pink content: and the freight cars of the freight train were various pastel colors. The caboose was baby blue. It was a marketing failure because any girl who might want a model train would want a realistically colored train, while boys in the 1950s did not want to be seen playing with a pink train. However, today it is a valuable collector's item. As noted above, pink combined with black or violet is commonly associated with eroticism and seduction. Pink is often used as a symbolic color by groups involved in issues important to women, and lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people.


title: Pink content: The word pink is not used for any tincture (color) in heraldry, but there are two fairly uncommon tinctures which are both close to pink: Pink is used for the newsprint paper of several important newspapers devoted to business and sports, and the color is also connected with the press aimed at the gay community. Since 1893 the London "Financial Times" newspaper has used a distinctive salmon pink color for its newsprint, originally because pink dyed paper was less expensive than bleached white paper. Today the color is used to distinguish the newspaper from competitors on a press kiosk or


title: Pink content: news stand. In some countries, the "salmon press" identifies economic newspapers or economics sections in "white" newspapers. Some sports newspapers, such as "La Gazzetta dello Sport" in Italy, also use pink paper to stand out from other newspapers. It awards a pink jersey to the winner of Italy's most important bicycle race, the Giro d'Italia. (See #Sports). Pink Pink is a pale red color that is named after a flower of the same name. It was first used as a color name in the late 17th century. According to surveys in Europe and the United States, pink is the color


title: VH1 content: of MTV Overdrive, containing the shows aired by VH1 and music videos. Like Overdrive, it was coolly received due to a heavy reliance on broadband and advanced web technologies. VH1 returned to a traditional-style website in late 2007. As with other MTV channels, MTV Networks broadcasts international versions of VH1: VH1 VH1 (originally an initialism of Video Hits One) is an American pay television network based in New York City owned by Viacom. It was originally created by Warner-Amex Satellite Entertainment, at the time a division of Warner Communications and the original owner of MTV, and launched on January 1,


title: "What's the 411?" content: and hip-hop attitude" made her "solidly connected with an audience that has never seen a woman do new jack swing but loves it just the same". The following year, a remix album was released to further market "What's the 411?", while "Sweet Thing" reached number 28 on the pop charts as a single. In 2000, "What's the 411?" was certified three times Platinum by the RIAA. By August 2010, it had sold 3,318,000 copies in the US. "What's the 411?" received positive reviews from contemporary critics. Reviewing the album for "Entertainment Weekly" in 1992, Havelock Nelson hailed it as "one


title: "Christian hip hop" content: Worst Moments in Hip Hop", an issue the artist addressed in "Washed Up". In contrast, the GRITS song "Ooh Ahh" received positive exposure on various TV Shows and movies, such as "" and "Big Momma's House 2". It was also featured as the theme song for the second season of MTV's hit show "The Buried Life". Christian symbols and themes have also been invoked by rap artists who do not consider themselves "Christian Rappers", and do not claim to represent any particular set of religious beliefs. Examples include MC Hammer's No. 2 single "Pray"; Richie Rich and his first single


title: "Marsha Blackburn" content: April 23, 2018. During the campaign, Blackburn pledged to support President Trump's agenda and suggested that her opponent, Bredesen, would not, asking, "Do you think Phil Bredesen would vote with crying Chuck Schumer or would he vote with our president when it comes to support our troops and supporting our veterans?" Blackburn and Bredesen disclosed in mid-April 2018 that they had each raised close to $2 million during the first quarter of the year. In October 2018, pop star Taylor Swift endorsed Bredesen. The endorsement was notable given that Swift had been publicly apolitical, but spoke out because Blackburn's "voting


title: "Ambassador Bridge" content: Ambassador Bridge The Ambassador Bridge () is a suspension bridge that connects Detroit, Michigan, United States, with Windsor, Ontario, Canada. It is the busiest international border crossing in North America in terms of trade volume: more than 25% of all merchandise trade between the United States and Canada crosses the toll bridge. A 2004 Border Transportation Partnership study showed that 150,000 jobs in the region and US$13 billion in annual production depend on the Detroit–Windsor international border crossing. The bridge is owned by Grosse Pointe billionaire Manuel Moroun through the Detroit International Bridge Company in the United States and the


title: "Ambassador Bridge" content: Canadian Transit Company in Canada. In 1979, when the previous owners of the bridge put it on the New York Stock Exchange and shares were traded, Moroun was able to buy shares, eventually acquiring the bridge. The bridge carries 60 to 70 percent of commercial truck traffic in the region. Moroun also owns the Ammex Detroit Duty Free Stores at both the bridge and the tunnel. After the American Civil War, Detroit–Windsor was a destination stop for railroads in the area. The Michigan Central and the Great Western railroads in addition to others operated on either side of the border


title: "Ambassador Bridge" content: connecting Chicago with the Atlantic Seaboard. To cross the Detroit River, these railroads operated ferries between docks on either side. The ferries lacked the capacity to handle the shipping needs of the railroads, and frequently there were 700–1,000 freight cars waiting to cross the river, with numerous passengers delayed in transit. Warehouses in Chicago were forced to store grain that could not be shipped to eastern markets and foreign goods were stored in eastern warehouses waiting shipment to the western United States. The net effect of these delays increased commodity prices in the country, and both merchants and farmers wanted


title: "Ambassador Bridge" content: a solution from the railroads. The Michigan Central proposed the construction of a tunnel under the river with the support of their counterparts at the Great Western Railway. Construction started in 1871 and continued until ventilating equipment failed the next year; work was soon abandoned. Attention turned in 1873 to the alternative of building a railroad bridge over the river. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers commissioned a study of a bridge over the Detroit River. Representatives of the shipping industry on the Great Lakes opposed any bridge with piers in the river as a hazard to navigation. Discussions continued


title: "Ambassador Bridge" content: for the remainder of the decade to no avail; a bridge over the Detroit River was not approved. The U.S. Congress requested a new study for a bridge in 1889, but no bridge was approved. Finally, the Michigan Central built the Detroit River Tunnel in 1909–10 to carry trains under the river. This tunnel benefited the Michigan Central and Great Western railroads, but the Canada Southern Railway and other lines still preferred a bridge over the river. Plans for a bridge were revived in 1919 to commemorate the end of World War I and to honor the "youth of Canada


title: "Ambassador Bridge" content: and the United States who served in the Great War". The Ambassador Bridge opened November 15, 1929, its total cost of $23.5 million reportedly 1% under the budget. A Canadian immigration inspector jumped to his death in April 1930, shortly after the bridge opened. The bridge has been used by other suicide jumpers. After it opened, high divers considered it as a venue for a record; but after measurements of the height and currents were taken into account, they were dissuaded and abandoned the attempt. The bridge over the Detroit River had the longest suspended central span in the world


title: "Ambassador Bridge" content: when it was completed in 1929—. This was a record until the George Washington Bridge opened between New York and New Jersey in 1931. The bridge's total length is 7,500 feet (2,286 m). Construction began in 1927 and was completed in 1929. The architect was the McClintic-Marshall Company of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The bridge is made up of 21,000 short tons (19,000 tonnes) of steel, and the roadway rises as high as 152 feet (46 m) above the Detroit River. Only the main span over the river is supported by suspension cables; the approaches to the main pillars are held up


title: "Ambassador Bridge" content: by steel in a cantilever truss structure. The bridge's only sidewalk is located on the southwest side of the structure. After the September 11 attacks pedestrians and bicycles were formally prohibited from traveling across the bridge due to increased security measures. For years prior to September 11, 2001, the sidewalk was closed due to on-going maintenance projects and repainting. Originally painted gloss black, the bridge underwent a five-year refurbishment between 1995 and 2000, which included stripping and repainting the bridge teal. Granite blocks originally used on the U.S. side were given to the Windsor Parks and Recreation Department, and now


title: "Ambassador Bridge" content: grace many of the pathways in Windsor parks. The Ambassador Bridge is the busiest crossing on the Canada–United States border. The four-lane bridge carries more than 10,000 commercial vehicles on a typical weekday. The Gateway Project, a major redesign of the U.S. plaza completed in July 2009, provides direct access to Interstate 96 (I-96) and I-75 on the American side and Highway 3 on the Canadian side. The Canadian end of the bridge connects to busy city streets in west Windsor, leading to congestion. The privately owned bridge carries approximately 25% of trade between Canada and the United States. A


title: "Ambassador Bridge" content: new bridge, the Gordie Howe International Bridge, proposed by the Detroit River International Crossing (DRIC) commission, has been approved for construction by the Canadian and United States governments. The new bridge further downriver between Detroit and Windsor will be owned and operated by the Windsor-Detroit Bridge Authority, a Crown corporation owned by the Canadian federal government. Manuel "Matty" Moroun, private owner of the Ambassador Bridge, has spoken out against this proposal. He has sued the governments of Canada and Michigan to stop its construction, and released a proposal to build a second span of the Ambassador Bridge (which he would


title: "Ambassador Bridge" content: own) instead. Critics suggest that Moroun's opposition is fueled by the prospect of lost profits from duty-free gasoline sales, which are exempt from about 60 cents per gallon in taxes even though the pump price to consumers is only a few cents lower. On May 5, 2011, a judge dismissed the case, citing a lack of reasoning for it to proceed. The company which owns the Ambassador Bridge contends that the new bridge would affect its proposal for a second span which would be built next to the Ambassador Bridge. Michigan and Canadian authorities continued to support the Gordie Howe


title: "Ambassador Bridge" content: International Bridge proposal, since it directly connects the Canadian E.C. Row Expressway and the 2015 extension of Highway 401 (which runs concurrently as a shared highway for to the future crossing as the Windsor–Essex Parkway) with I-75 and I-96 in Michigan, bypasses Windsor's surface streets and reduces congestion. An agreement announced on June 15, 2012, ensures the new bridge could proceed, with the Canadian federal government funding bridge construction, land acquisition in Michigan and the construction of ramps from I-75. The Canadian contribution will be repaid from bridge tolls, although to date no study has shown toll revenue forecasts. The


title: "Ambassador Bridge" content: company which owns the Ambassador Bridge proposed its own twin span with six lanes to be built across the Detroit River. Cost estimates range from one to two billion U.S. dollars to build a second span. The new span would be a cable-stayed bridge and would accommodate the bulk of the cross-border traffic with the original span being used for overflow traffic. However, a twin span adjacent to the Ambassador Bridge, by itself, does not address Canadian concerns about traffic on Huron Church Road in Windsor. While many of the stop lights commonly cited have been removed by the expansion


title: "Ambassador Bridge" content: of the 401 which will connect to the downriver NITC bridge, the final approach to the Ambassador Bridge remains on overcrowded Windsor surface streets. In April 2013, the U.S. State Department issued a Presidential permit to the state of Michigan for a new international crossing between the United States and Canada. Moroun has filed a lawsuit attempting to block the issuance of this permit, claiming that the Presidential permit process is unconstitutional. The private ownership of the bridge has been controversial as the bridge carries approximately 25% of trade between Canada and the United States. Although alternate routes exist, including


title: "Ambassador Bridge" content: the nearby Detroit-Windsor Tunnel, preventing monopoly status, the route is of significant value since it passes directly through major metropolitan areas. It is the shortest possible route from Toronto to many areas in the American Midwest of Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. (The aforementioned tunnel prohibits certain vehicles). In 2010 and 2011, the Wayne County Circuit Court found the Detroit International Bridge Company in contempt for failing to directly connect bridge access roads to I-75 and I-96, and making other required improvements as part of the Gateway Project. These improvements would normally be under the control of the state government;


title: "Ambassador Bridge" content: however, the Detroit International Bridge Company withheld the improvements as part of a negotiation strategy. At one point, Matty Moroun and his chief deputy at the Detroit International Bridge Co, Dan Stamper, were jailed for non-compliance with orders to complete the on-ramps. After many years of legal battles, activism by local people against neighborhood truck traffic, and stalling by Matty Moroun, the Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT) took over the I-75/I-96 on-ramp project and opened the ramps in September 2012 after a six-month construction period. One possible motive for the Gateway Project delays is Moroun's desire to route traffic past


title: "Ambassador Bridge" content: his lucrative duty-free store and fuel pumps, one of only two border locations to sell untaxed fuel (the other is International Falls, Minnesota). Critics of the duty-free fuel operation object that sixty cents from each U.S. gallon goes not to paving Michigan's underfunded highways but instead directly to Matty Moroun. Operators of large trucks under the International Fuel Tax Agreement, which in theory should impose Ontario tax and partially refund Michigan tax on fuel purchased in Detroit and consumed on Ontario's highway 401, may be disqualified for the Michigan IFTA refund, as the tax was never paid. In a 2012


title: "Ambassador Bridge" content: lawsuit, the Michigan Department of Agriculture and Rural Development sued Moroun's company, Ammex, claiming it mislabeled motorcar fuels to advertise 93 octane while tests showed as little as 91.2 octane. In recent years the bridge has been criticized for its decaying appearance and crumbling concrete. Ambassador Bridge The Ambassador Bridge () is a suspension bridge that connects Detroit, Michigan, United States, with Windsor, Ontario, Canada. It is the busiest international border crossing in North America in terms of trade volume: more than 25% of all merchandise trade between the United States and Canada crosses the toll bridge. A 2004 Border


title: "Defense of infancy" content: Court could not agree on a minimum age for criminal responsibility, they chose to solve the question procedurally and excluded the jurisdiction of the Court for persons under eighteen years. Some countries refuse to set a fixed minimum age, but leave discretion to prosecutors to argue or the judges to rule on whether the child or adolescent ("juvenile") defendant understood that what was being done was wrong. If the defendant did not understand the difference between "right" and "wrong", it may not be considered appropriate to treat such a person as culpable. Alternatively, the lack of real fault in the


title: "Price elasticity of demand" content: because of the inverse nature of the relationship between price and quantity demanded (i.e., the law of demand), the two effects affect total revenue in opposite directions. But in determining whether to increase or decrease prices, a firm needs to know what the net effect will be. Elasticity provides the answer: The percentage change in total revenue is approximately equal to the percentage change in quantity demanded plus the percentage change in price. (One change will be positive, the other negative.) The percentage change in quantity is related to the percentage change in price by elasticity: hence the percentage change


title: "Biosphere 2" content: Biosphere 2 Biosphere 2 is an American Earth system science research facility located in Oracle, Arizona. It has been owned by the University of Arizona since 2011. Its mission is to serve as a center for research, outreach, teaching, and lifelong learning about Earth, its living systems, and its place in the universe. It is a structure originally built to be an artificial, materially closed ecological system, or vivarium. It remains the largest closed system ever created. Biosphere 2 was originally meant to demonstrate the viability of closed ecological systems to support and maintain human life in outer space. It


title: "Biosphere 2" content: was designed to explore the web of interactions within life systems in a structure with different areas based on various biological biomes. In addition to the several biomes and living quarters for people, there was an agricultural area and work space to study the interactions between humans, farming, technology and the rest of nature as a new kind of laboratory for the study of the global ecology. Its mission was a two-year closure experiment with a crew of eight humans ("biospherians"). Long-term it was seen as a precursor to gain knowledge about the use of closed biospheres in space colonization.


title: "Biosphere 2" content: As an experimental ecological facility it allowed the study and manipulation of a mini biospheric system without harming Earth's biosphere. Its seven biome areas were a rainforest, an ocean with a coral reef, a mangrove wetlands, a savannah grassland, a fog desert, and two anthropogenic biomes: a agricultural system and a human habitat with living spaces, laboratories and workshops. Below ground was an extensive part of the technical infrastructure. Heating and cooling water circulated through independent piping systems and passive solar input through the glass space frame panels covering most of the facility, and electrical power was supplied into Biosphere


title: "Biosphere 2" content: 2 from an onsite natural gas energy center. Biosphere 2 was only used twice for its original intended purposes as a closed-system experiment: once from 1991 to 1993, and the second time from March to September 1994. Both attempts, though heavily publicized, ran into problems including low amounts of food and oxygen, die-offs of many animals and plants included in the experiment (though this was anticipated since the project used a strategy of deliberately "species-packing" anticipating losses as the biomes developed), group dynamic tensions among the resident crew, outside politics and a power struggle over management and direction of the


title: "Biosphere 2" content: project. Nevertheless, the closure experiments set world records in closed ecological systems, agricultural production, health improvements with the high nutrient and low caloric diet the crew followed, and insights into the self-organization of complex biomic systems and atmospheric dynamics. The second closure experiment achieved total food sufficiency and did not require injection of oxygen. In June 1994, during the middle of the second experiment, the managing company, Space Biosphere Ventures, was dissolved, and the facility was left in limbo. Columbia University assumed management of the facility in 1995 and used it to run experiments until 2003. It then looked in


title: "Biosphere 2" content: danger of being demolished to make way for housing and retail stores, but was taken over for research by the University of Arizona in 2007. The University of Arizona took full ownership of the structure in 2011. Biosphere 2 was originally constructed between 1987 and 1991 by Space Biosphere Ventures, a joint venture whose principal officers were John P. Allen, inventor and executive chairman; Margaret Augustine, CEO; Marie Harding, vice-president of finance; Abigail Alling, vice president of research; Mark Nelson, director of space and environmental applications, William F. Dempster, director of system engineering, and Norberto Alvarez-Romo, vice president of mission


title: "Biosphere 2" content: control. Project funding came primarily from the joint venture's financial partner, Ed Bass's Decisions Investment. The project cost US$200 million from 1985 to 2007. It was named "Biosphere 2" because it was meant to be the second fully self-sufficient biosphere, after the Earth itself. The glass and spaceframe facility is located in Oracle, Arizona at the base of the Santa Catalina Mountains, about 50 minutes north of Tucson. Its elevation is around above sea level. The above-ground physical structure of Biosphere 2 was made of steel tubing and high-performance glass and steel frames. The frame and glazing materials were designed


title: "Biosphere 2" content: and made to specification by a firm run by a one-time associate of Buckminster Fuller, Peter Jon Pearce (Pearce Structures, Inc.). The window seals and structures had to be designed to be almost perfectly airtight, such that the air exchange would be extremely low, permitting tracking of subtle changes over time. The patented airtight sealing methods, developed by Pearce and William Dempster, achieved a remarkable leak rate of less than 10% per year. Without such tight closure, the slow decline of oxygen which occurred at a rate of less than 1/4% per month during the first two-year closure experiment might


title: "Biosphere 2" content: not have been observed. During the day, the heat from the sun caused the air inside to expand and during the night it cooled and contracted. To avoid having to deal with the huge forces that maintaining a constant volume would create, the structure had large diaphragms kept in domes called "lungs" or variable volume structures. Since opening a window was not an option, the structure also required a sophisticated system to regulate temperatures within desired parameters, which varied for the different biomic areas. Though cooling was the largest energy need, heating had to be supplied in the winter and


title: "Biosphere 2" content: closed loop pipes and air handlers were key parts of the energy system. An energy center on site provided electricity and heated and cooled water, employing natural gas and backup generators, ammonia chillers and water cooling towers. The first closed mission lasted from September 26, 1991 to September 26, 1993. The crew were: medical doctor and researcher Roy Walford, Jane Poynter, Taber MacCallum, Mark Nelson, Sally Silverstone, Abigail Alling, Mark Van Thillo, and Linda Leigh. The agricultural system produced 83% of the total diet, which included crops of bananas, papayas, sweet potatoes, beets, peanuts, lablab and cowpea beans, rice, and


title: "Biosphere 2" content: wheat. No toxic chemicals could be used, since they would impact health and water and nutrients were recycled back into the farm soils. Especially during the first year the eight inhabitants reported continual hunger. Calculations indicated that Biosphere 2's farm was amongst the highest producing in the world "exceeding by more than five times that of the most efficient agrarian communities of Indonesia, southern China, and Bangladesh.” They consumed the same low-calorie, nutrient-dense diet which Roy Walford had studied in his research on extending lifespan through diet. Medical markers indicated the health of the crew during the two years was


title: "Biosphere 2" content: excellent. They showed the same improvement in health indices such as lowering of blood cholesterol, blood pressure, enhancement of immune system. They lost an average of 16% of their pre-entry body weight before stabilizing and regaining some weight during their second year. Subsequent studies showed that the biospherians' metabolism became more efficient at extracting nutrients from their food as an adaptation to the low-calorie, high nutrient diet. "The overall health of the biospherians crews inside Biosphere 2 confirm that the original design of the Biosphere 2 technosphere systems did avoid a buildup of toxins, and the bioregenerative technologies and life


title: "Biosphere 2" content: systems inside Biosphere 2 maintained a healthy environment." Some of the domestic animals that were included in the agricultural area during the first mission included four African pygmy goats and one billy goat, 35 hens and three roosters (a mix of Indian jungle fowl ("Gallus gallus"), Japanese silky bantam, and a hybrid of these), two sows and one boar Ossabaw dwarf pigs, as well as tilapia fish grown in a rice and azolla pond system originating millennia ago in China. A strategy of "species-packing" was practiced to ensure that food webs and ecological function could be maintained if some species


title: "Biosphere 2" content: did not survive. The fog desert area became more chaparral in character due to condensation from the space frame. The savannah was seasonally active; its biomass was cut and stored by the crew as part of their management of carbon dioxide. Rainforest pioneer species grew rapidly, but trees there and in the savannah suffered from etiolation and weakness caused by lack of stress wood, normally created in response to winds in natural conditions. Corals reproduced in the ocean area, and crew helped maintain ocean system health by hand-harvesting algae from the corals, manipulating calcium carbonate and pH levels to prevent


title: "Biosphere 2" content: the ocean becoming too acidic, and by installing an improved protein skimmer to supplement the algae turf scrubber system originally installed to remove excess nutrients. The mangrove area developed rapidly but with less understory than a typical wetland possibly because of reduced light levels. Nevertheless, it was judged to be a successful analogue to the Everglades area of Florida where the mangroves and marsh plants were collected. Biosphere 2 because of its small size and buffers, concentration of organic materials and life, had greater fluctuations and more rapid biogeochemical cycles than are found in Earth's biosphere. Most of the introduced


title: "Biosphere 2" content: vertebrate species and virtually all of the pollinating insects died, though there was reproduction of plants and animals. Insect pests, like cockroaches, flourished. Many insects had been included in original species mixes in the biomes but a globally invasive tramp ant species, "Paratrechina longicornis", unintentionally sealed in, had come to dominate other ant species. The planned ecological succession in the rainforest and strategies to protect the area from harsh incident sunlight and salt aerosols from the ocean worked well, and a surprising amount of the original biodiversity persisted. Biosphere 2 in its early ecological development was likened to an island


title: "Biosphere 2" content: ecology. Much of the evidence for isolated human groups comes from psychological studies of scientists overwintering in Antarctic research stations. The study of this phenomenon is "confined environment psychology", and according to Jane Poynter it was known to be a challenge and often crews split into factions. Before the first closure mission was half over, the group had split into two factions and, according to Poynter, people who had been intimate friends had become implacable enemies, barely on speaking terms. Others point out that the crew continued to work together as a team to achieve the experiment's goals, mindful that


title: "Biosphere 2" content: any action that harmed Biosphere 2 might imperil their own health. This is in contrast to other expeditions where internal frictions can lead to unconscious sabotage of each other and the overall mission. All of the crew felt a very strong and visceral bond with their living world. They kept air and water quality, atmospheric dynamics and health of the life systems constantly in their attention in a very visceral and profound way. This intimate “metabolic connection” enabled the crew to discern and respond to even subtle changes in the living systems. (Alling et al., 2002; Alling and Nelson, 1993).


title: "Biosphere 2" content: "Appreciation of the value of biosphere interconnectedness and interdependency was appreciated as both an everyday beauty and a challenging reality", Walford later acknowledged "I don't like some of them, but we were a hell of a team. That was the nature of the factionalism... but despite that, we ran the damn thing and we cooperated totally". The factions inside the bubble formed from a rift and power struggle between the joint venture partners on how the science should proceed, as biospherics or as specialist ecosystem studies (perceived as reductionist). The faction that included Poynter felt strongly that increasing research should