title: "Boeing 707" content: Pan Am; American Airlines was the first domestic airline to fly its own jets, on January 25, 1959. TWA started domestic 707-131 flights in March and Continental Airlines started 707-124 flights in June; airlines that had ordered only the DC-8, such as United, Delta, and Eastern, were left without jets until September and lost market share on transcontinental flights. Qantas was the first non-US airline to use the 707s, starting in 1959. The 707 quickly became the most popular jetliner of its time. Its popularity led to rapid developments in airport terminals, runways, airline catering, baggage handling, reservations systems, and


title: "Boeing 707" content: other air transport infrastructure. The advent of the 707 also led to the upgrading of air traffic control systems to prevent interference with military jet operations. As the 1960s drew to a close, the exponential growth in air travel led to the 707 being a victim of its own success. The 707 was now too small to handle the increased numbers of passengers on the routes for which it was designed. Stretching the fuselage was not a viable option because the installation of larger, more powerful engines would need a larger undercarriage, which was not feasible given the design's limited


title: "Boeing 707" content: ground clearance at takeoff. Boeing's answer to the problem was the first wide-body airliner—the Boeing 747. The 707's first-generation engine technology was also rapidly becoming obsolete in the areas of noise and fuel economy, especially after the 1973 oil crisis. In 1982, during the Falklands War, the Argentine Air Force extensively used 707s for long-range maritime patrol, with some of them being intercepted and shepherded away by Royal Navy Sea Harriers, it also led to the conversion of British Nimrods to carry Sidewinder air-to-air missiles after a casual encounter. Trans World Airlines flew the last scheduled 707 flight for passengers


title: "Boeing 707" content: by a US carrier on October 30, 1983, although 707s remained in scheduled service by airlines from other nations for much longer. Middle East Airlines of Lebanon flew 707s and 720s in front-line passenger service until the end of the 1990s. Since LADE of Argentina took its 707-320Bs from regular service in 2007, Saha Airlines of Iran was the last airline to keep 707s in scheduled passenger service until April 2013. Operations of the 707 were threatened by the enactment of international noise regulations in 1985. Shannon Engineering of Seattle developed a hush kit with funding from Tracor, Inc, of


title: "Boeing 707" content: Austin, Texas. By the late 1980s, 172 Boeing 707s had been equipped with the Quiet 707 package. Boeing acknowledged that more 707s were in service than before the hush kit was available. Most remaining 707s are in freighter form, or as business jets. Although certified as Series 100s, 200s, 300s, etc., the different 707 variants are more commonly known as Series 120s, 220s, 320s, and so on, where the "20" part of the designation is Boeing's "customer number" for its development aircraft. The 707-020 was the original designation for what ultimately became the Boeing 720. Launch customer United Air Lines


title: "Boeing 707" content: was a Douglas DC-8 customer and preferred not to be seen as buying the competing 707, hence the 720 designation. American Airlines always referred to its 720s as 707s. The 707-120 was the first production 707 variant, with a longer, wider fuselage, and greater wingspan than the Dash 80. The cabin had a full set of rectangular windows and could seat up to 189 passengers. It was designed for transcontinental routes, and often required a refueling stop when flying across the North Atlantic. It had four Pratt & Whitney JT3C-6 turbojets, civilian versions of the military J57, initially producing 13,000


title: "Boeing 707" content: lb (57.8 kN) with water injection. Maximum takeoff weight was 247,000 lb and first flight was on December 20, 1957. Major orders were the launch order for 20 707-121 aircraft by Pan Am and an American Airlines order for 30 707-123 aircraft. The first revenue flight was on October 26, 1958; 56 were built, plus seven short-bodied −138s; the last −120 was delivered to Western in May 1960. The 707-138 was a −120 with a fuselage 10 ft shorter than the others, with 5 ft (three frames) removed ahead and behind the wing, giving increased range. Maximum takeoff weight was


title: "Boeing 707" content: the same 247,000 lb as the standard version. It was a variant for Qantas, thus had its customer number 38. The seven −138s were delivered to Qantas June–September 1959 and first carried passengers that July. The 707-120B had Pratt & Whitney JT3D-1 turbofan engines, which were quieter, more powerful, and more fuel-efficient, producing each, with the later JT3D-3 version giving . (This thrust did not require water injection, eliminating both the system and 5000–6000 lb of water.) The −120B had the wing modifications introduced on the 720 and a longer tailplane; a total of 72 were built, 31 for American


title: "Boeing 707" content: and 41 for TWA, plus six short-bodied −138Bs for Qantas. American had its 23 surviving −123s converted to 123Bs, but TWA did not convert its 15 -131s. The only other conversions were Pan American's five surviving −121s and one surviving −139, the three aircraft delivered to the USAF as −153s and the seven short-bodied Qantas −138s. The first flight of the −120B was on June 22, 1960, and American carried the first passengers in March 1961; the last delivery was to American in April 1969. Maximum weight was 258,000 lb (117,025 kg) for both the long- and short-bodied versions. The


title: "Boeing 707" content: 707-220 was designed for hot and high operations with more powerful 15,800 lb (70.3 kN) Pratt & Whitney JT4A-3 turbojets. Five of these were produced, but only four were ultimately delivered, with one being lost during a test flight. All were for Braniff International Airways and carried the model number 707-227; the first entered service in December 1959. This version was made obsolete by the arrival of the turbofan-powered 707-120B. The 707-320 Intercontinental is a stretched version of the turbojet-powered 707-120, initially powered by JT4A-3 or JT4A-5 turbojets producing 15,800 lb (70.3 kN) each (most eventually got 17,500 lb (78.4


title: "Boeing 707" content: kN) JT4A-11s). The interior allowed up to 189 passengers, the same as the -120 and -220 series, but improved two-class capacity due to an 80-in fuselage stretch ahead of the wing (from to ), with extensions to the fin and horizontal stabilizer extending the aircraft's length further. The longer wing carried more fuel, increasing range by and allowing the aircraft to operate as true transoceanic aircraft. The wing modifications included outboard and inboard inserts, as well as a kink in the trailing edge to add area inboard. Takeoff weight was increased to initially and to with the higher-rated JT4As and


title: "Boeing 707" content: center section tanks. Its first flight was on January 11, 1958; 69 turbojet 707-320s were delivered through January 1963, the first passengers being carried (by Pan Am) in August 1959. The 707-420 was identical to the −320, but fitted with Rolls-Royce Conway 508 (RCo.12) turbofans (or by-pass turbojets as Rolls-Royce called them) of 18,000 lb (79 kN) thrust each. The first announced customer was Lufthansa. BOAC's controversial order was announced six months later, but the British carrier got the first service-ready aircraft off the production line. The British Air Registration Board refused to give the aircraft a certificate of airworthiness,


title: "Boeing 707" content: citing insufficient lateral control, excessive rudder forces, and the ability to over-rotate on takeoff, stalling the wing on the ground (a fault of the de Havilland Comet 1). Boeing responded by adding 40 inches to the vertical stabilizer, applying full instead of partial rudder boost, and fitting an underfin to prevent over-rotation. These modifications except to the fin under the tail became standard on all 707 variants and were retrofitted to all earlier 707s. The 37 -420s were delivered to BOAC, Lufthansa, Air-India, El Al, and Varig through November 1963; Lufthansa was the first to carry passengers, in March 1960.


title: "Boeing 707" content: The 707-320B had the application of the JT3D turbofan to the Intercontinental, but with aerodynamic refinements. The wing was modified from the −320 by adding a second inboard kink, a dog-toothed leading edge, and curved low-drag wingtips instead of the earlier blunt ones. These wingtips increased overall wingspan by 3.0 ft. Takeoff gross weight was increased to . The 175 707-320B aircraft were all new-build; no original −320 models were converted to fan engines in civilian use. First service was June 1962, with Pan Am. The 707-320B Advanced is an improved version of the −320B, adding the three-section leading-edge flaps


title: "Boeing 707" content: already seen on the −320C. These reduced takeoff and landing speeds and altered the lift distribution of the wing, allowing the ventral fin found on earlier 707s to be deleted. From 1965, -320Bs had the uprated −320C undercarriage allowing the same MTOW. These were often identified as 707-320BA-H. The 707-320C has a convertible passenger–freight configuration, which became the most widely produced variant of the 707. The 707-320C added a strengthened floor and a new cargo door to the −320B model. The wing was fitted with three-section leading-edge flaps which allowed the deletion of the underfin. Three hundred and thirty-five of


title: "Boeing 707" content: these variants were built, including a small number with JT3D-7 engines (19,000 lb or 84.6 kN takeoff thrust) and a takeoff gross weight of . Ironically, most −320Cs were delivered as passenger aircraft, airlines hoping that the cargo door would increase second-hand values. The addition of two additional emergency exits, one on either side aft of the wing raised the maximum passenger capacity to a theoretical 219. Only a few aircraft were delivered as pure freighters. One of the final orders was by the Iranian Government for 14 707-3J9C aircraft capable of VIP transportation, communication, and in-flight refuelling tasks. The


title: "Boeing 707" content: 707-700 was a test aircraft used to study the feasibility of using CFM International CFM56 engines on a 707 airframe and possibly retrofitting existing aircraft with the engine. After testing in 1979, "N707QT", the last commercial 707 airframe, was restored to 707-320C configuration and delivered to the Moroccan Air Force as a tanker aircraft via a "civilian" order. Boeing abandoned the retrofit program, since it felt it would be a threat to the Boeing 757 program. The information gathered from testing led to the eventual retrofitting of CFM56 engines to the USAF C-135/KC-135R models, and some military versions of the


title: "Boeing 707" content: 707 also used the CFM56. The Douglas DC-8 "Super 70" series with CFM56 engines was developed and extended the DC-8's life in a stricter noise regulatory environment. So, more DC-8s than 707s are in service now. The 707-620 was a proposed domestic range-stretched variant of the 707-320B. The 707-620 was to carry around 200 passengers while retaining several aspects of the 707-320B. It would have been delivered around 1968 and would have also been Boeing's answer to the stretched Douglas DC-8 Series 60. Had the 707-620 been built, it would have cost around US$8,000,000. However, engineers discovered that a longer


title: "Boeing 707" content: fuselage and wing meant a painstaking redesign of the wing and landing-gear structures. Rather than spend money on upgrading the 707, engineer Joe Sutter stated the company "decided spending money on the 707 wasn't worth it". The project was cancelled in 1966 in favor of the newer Boeing 747. The 707-820 was a proposed intercontinental stretched variant of the 707-320B. It was to be powered by four Pratt & Whitney JT3D-15 turbofan engines and would have had a extension in wingspan. Two variations were proposed, the 707-820(505) model and the 707-820(506) model. The 505 model would have had a fuselage


title: "Boeing 707" content: longer than the 707-320B and would have carried 209 passengers in mixed-class configuration and 260 passengers in all-economy configuration. The 506 model would have had a fuselage longer than the 707-320B and would have carried 225 passengers in mixed class configuration and 279 passengers in all economy configuration. Like the 707-620, the 707-820 was also set to compete with the stretched DC-8s. The design was being pitched to American, TWA, BOAC, and Pan Am at the time of its proposal in early 1965. The 707-820 would have cost US$10,000,000. Like the 707-620, the 707-820 would have required a massive structural


title: "Boeing 707" content: redesign to the wing and gear structures. The 707-820 was also cancelled in 1966 in favor of the 747. The militaries of the US and other countries have used the civilian 707 aircraft in a variety of roles, and under different designations. (The 707 and U.S. Air Force's KC-135 were developed in parallel from the Boeing 367–80 prototype.) The Boeing E-3 Sentry is a US military airborne warning and control system (AWACS) aircraft based on the Boeing 707 that provides all-weather surveillance, command, control, and communications. The VC-137C variant of the Stratoliner was a special-purpose design meant to serve as


title: "Boeing 707" content: Air Force One, the secure transport for the President of the United States. These models were in operational use from 1962 to 1990. The two aircraft remain on display: SAM 26000 is at the National Museum of the United States Air Force near Dayton, Ohio and SAM 27000 is at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California. The Canadian Forces also operated the Boeing 707 with the designation CC-137 Husky (707-347C) from 1971 to 1997. Boeing 717 was the company designation for C-135 Stratolifter and KC-135 Stratotanker derivatives of the 367-80. The designation was later reused in renaming


title: "Boeing 707" content: the McDonnell Douglas MD-95 to Boeing 717 after the company was merged with Boeing. Boeing's customer codes used to identify specific options and livery specified by customers was started with the 707, and has been maintained through all Boeing's models. In essence the same system as used on the earlier Boeing 377, the code consisted of two digits affixed to the model number to identify the specific aircraft version. For example, Pan American World Airways was assigned code "21". Thus, a 707-320B sold to Pan Am had the model number 707-321B. The number remained constant as further aircraft were purchased;


title: "Boeing 707" content: thus, when Pan American purchased the 747-100, it had the model number 747-121. In the 1980s, the USAF acquired around 250 used 707s to provide replacement turbofan engines for the KC-135E Stratotanker program. The 707 is no longer operated by major airlines. American actor John Travolta owned an ex-Qantas 707-138B, with the registration "N707JT." In May 2017, he donated the plane to the Historical Aircraft Restoration Society near Wollongong, Australia. The plane will be flown to Illawarra Regional Airport, where HARS is based, once repairs to ensure safe flying condition have been completed. Boeing As of September 2015, the 707


title: "Boeing 707" content: has been in a total of 246 major aviation occurrences and, 172 hull-loss occurrences with 3,022 fatalities. Boeing 707 The Boeing 707 is a mid-sized, long-range, narrow-body, four-engine jet airliner built by Boeing Commercial Airplanes from 1958 to 1979. Its name is commonly pronounced as "seven oh seven". Versions of the aircraft have a capacity from 140 to 219 passengers and a range of . Developed as Boeing's first jet airliner, the 707 is a swept-wing design with podded engines. Although it was not the first jetliner in service, the 707 was the first to be commercially successful. Dominating passenger


title: "Second Triumvirate" content: expected 20. The Caesarean background of the Triumvirs made it no surprise that immediately after the conclusion of the first civil war of the post-Caesar period, they immediately set about prosecuting a second: Caesar's murderers Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus had usurped control of most of the Eastern provinces, including Macedonia, Asia Minor, and Syria. In 42 BC, Octavian and Antony set out to war, defeating Brutus and Cassius in two battles fought at Philippi. After the victory, Antony and Octavian agreed to divide the provinces of the Republic into spheres of influence. Octavian — who had begun


title: "Demographics of France" content: law by a minimum level of French language tested and by the demonstration that he/she endorses the main French constitutional principles". France, along with other EU countries, have still not signed their agreement to the United Nations Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families of 1990. This Convention is a treaty to protect migrant workers' rights, in recognition of their human rights. Alternative policies have been discussed in formulating immigration policy, such as a quota system. At the beginning of 2008, as the government was rethinking its orientation on immigration policy


title: "Quercus montana" content: Quercus montana Quercus montana, the chestnut oak, is a species of oak in the white oak group, "Quercus" sect. "Quercus". It is native to the eastern United States, where it is one of the most important ridgetop trees from southern Maine southwest to central Mississippi, with an outlying northwestern population in southern Michigan. It is also sometimes called "rock oak" because of its presence in montane and other rocky habitats. As a consequence of its dry habitat and ridgetop exposure, it is not usually a large tree, typically tall; occasional specimens growing in better conditions can however become large, with


title: "Quercus montana" content: trees up to tall known. They tend to have a similar spread of . A 10-year-old sapling grown in full sun will stand about tall. This species is often an important canopy species in an oak-heath forest. Extensive confusion between the chestnut oak ("Quercus montana") and the swamp chestnut oak ("Quercus michauxii") has occurred, and some botanists have considered them to be the same species in the past. The name "Quercus prinus" was long used by many botanists and foresters for either the chestnut oak or the swamp chestnut oak, with the former otherwise called "Q. montana" or the latter


title: "Quercus montana" content: otherwise called "Q. michauxii". The application of the name "Q. montana" to the chestnut oak is now accepted, since "Q. prinus" is of uncertain position, unassignable to either species. The Latin specific epithet "montana" refers to mountains or coming from mountains. The chestnut oak is readily identified by its massively-ridged dark gray-brown bark, the thickest of any eastern North American oak. The leaves are long and broad, shallowly lobed with 10–15 rounded lobes on each margin; they are virtually identical to the leaves of swamp chestnut oak and chinkapin oak, but the trees can readily be distinguished by the bark,


title: "Quercus montana" content: that of the chinkapin oak being a light ash-gray and somewhat peeling like that of the white oak and that of swamp chestnut oak being paler ash-gray and scaly. The chinkapin oak also has much smaller acorns than the chestnut oak. The chestnut oak is easily distinguished from the swamp white oak because that tree has whitened undersides on the leaves. Another important distinction between the chestnut oak and the swamp chestnut oak is by the habitat; if it grows on a ridge, it is chestnut oak, and if it grows in wet bottomlands, it is probably the more massive


title: "Quercus montana" content: swamp chestnut oak; however, this is not fully reliable. Characteristics of the chestnut oak include: The acorns of the chestnut oak are long and broad, among the largest of Native American oaks, surpassed in size only by the bur oak and possibly swamp chestnut oak. This species is a predominant ridge-top tree in eastern North American hardwood forests. It often grows with multiple trunks, often as a result of logging or prior injury to the main stem. It is a long-lived tree, with high-quality timber when well-formed. The acorns of the chestnut oak are a valuable wildlife food. Chestnut oak


title: "Quercus montana" content: trees are generally not the best timber trees because they are usually branched low and not very straight, but when they grow in better conditions, they are valuable for timber, which is marketed as 'mixed white oak'. Quercus montana Quercus montana, the chestnut oak, is a species of oak in the white oak group, "Quercus" sect. "Quercus". It is native to the eastern United States, where it is one of the most important ridgetop trees from southern Maine southwest to central Mississippi, with an outlying northwestern population in southern Michigan. It is also sometimes called "rock oak" because of its


title: "Squeeze (band)" content: Yolanda Charles and the addition of Dirty Vegas frontman Steve Smith as percussionist and backing vocalist. The band also announced an Australian tour for 2018, and revealed that they were in the midst of recording a new album. In August 2017, Squeeze revealed the title of their fifteenth studio album as "The Knowledge". A new single, "Innocence in Paradise", was released ahead of the album. "The Knowledge" was released on 13 October 2017. Squeeze (band) Squeeze are a British rock band that came to prominence in the United Kingdom during the new wave period of the late 1970s, and continued


title: Placentalia content: Placentalia Placentalia ("Placentals") is one of the three extant subdivisions of the class of animals Mammalia; the other two are Monotremata and Marsupialia. The Placentals are partly distinguishable from other mammals in that the fetus is carried in the uterus of its mother to a relatively late stage of development. It is somewhat of a misnomer since marsupials also nourish their fetuses via a placenta. Placental mammals are anatomically distinguished from other mammals by: Analysis of retroposon presence/absence patterns has provided a rapid, unequivocal means for revealing the evolutionary history of organisms: this has resulted in a revision in the


title: Placentalia content: classification of placentals. There are now thought to be three major subdivisions or lineages of placental mammals: Boreoeutheria, Xenarthra, and Afrotheria, all of which diverged from common ancestors. The orders of placental mammals in the three groups are: The exact relationships among these three lineages is currently a subject of debate, and three different hypotheses have been proposed with respect to which group is basal or diverged first from other placentals. These hypotheses are Atlantogenata (basal Boreoeutheria), Epitheria (basal Xenarthra), and Exafroplacentalia (basal Afrotheria). Estimates for the divergence times among these three placental groups range from 105 to 120 million


title: Placentalia content: years ago (MYA), depending on the type of DNA (e.g. nuclear or mitochondrial) and varying interpretations of paleogeographic data. Cladogram based on Amrine-Madsen, H. "et al". (2003) and Asher, R.J. "et al". (2009) True placental mammals (the crown group including all modern placentals) arose from stem-group members of the clade Eutheria, which had existed since at least the Middle Jurassic period, about 170 MYA). These early eutherians were small, nocturnal insect eaters, with adaptations for life in trees. True placentals may have originated in the Late Cretaceous around 90 MYA, but the earliest undisputed fossils are from the early Paleocene,


title: Placentalia content: 66 MYA, following the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. The species "Protungulatum donnae" was thought to be a stem-ungulate known 1 meter above the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary in the geological stratum that marks the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event and "Purgatorius", previously considered a stem-primate, appears no more than 300,000 years after the K-Pg boundary; both species, however, are now considered non-placental eutherians. The rapid appearance of placentals after the mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous suggests that the group had already originated and undergone an initial diversification in the Late Cretaceous, as suggested by molecular clocks. The lineages leading to Xenarthra and


title: Placentalia content: Afrotheria probably originated around 90 MYA, and Boreoeutheria underwent an initial diversification around 70-80 MYA, producing the lineages that eventually would lead to modern primates, rodents, insectivores, artiodactyls, and carnivorans. However, modern members of the placental orders originated in the Paleogene around 66 to 23 MYA, following the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. The evolution of crown orders such modern primates, rodents, and carnivores appears to be part of an adaptive radiation that took place as mammals quickly evolved to take advantage of ecological niches that were left open when most dinosaurs and other animals disappeared following the Chicxulub asteroid impact. As


title: Placentalia content: they occupied new niches, mammals rapidly increased in body size, and began to take over the large herbivore and large carnivore niches that had been left open by the decimation of the dinosaurs. Mammals also exploited niches that the dinosaurs had never touched: for example, bats evolved flight and echolocation, allowing them to be highly effective nocturnal, aerial insectivores; and whales first occupied freshwater lakes and rivers and then moved into the oceans. Primates, meanwhile, acquired specialized grasping hands and feet which allowed them to grasp branches, and large eyes with keener vision which allowed them to forage in the


title: Placentalia content: dark. The evolution of land placentals followed different pathways on different continents since they cannot easily cross large bodies of water. An exception is smaller placentals such as rodents and primates, who left Laurasia and colonized Africa and then South America via rafting. In Africa, the Afrotheria underwent a major adaptive radiation, which led to elephants, elephant shrews, tenrecs, golden moles, aardvarks, and manatees. In South America a similar event occurred, with radiation of the Xenarthra, which led to modern sloths, anteaters, and armadillos, as well as the extinct ground sloths and glyptodonts. Expansion in Laurasia was dominated by Boreoeutheria,


title: Placentalia content: which includes primates and rodents, insectivores, carnivores, perissodactyls and artiodactyls. These groups expanded beyond a single continent when land bridges formed linking Africa to Eurasia and South America to North America. Placentalia Placentalia ("Placentals") is one of the three extant subdivisions of the class of animals Mammalia; the other two are Monotremata and Marsupialia. The Placentals are partly distinguishable from other mammals in that the fetus is carried in the uterus of its mother to a relatively late stage of development. It is somewhat of a misnomer since marsupials also nourish their fetuses via a placenta. Placental mammals are anatomically


title: "Dactylorhiza fuchsii" content: Dactylorhiza fuchsii Dactylorhiza fuchsii, the common spotted orchid, is a species of flowering plant in the orchid family Orchidaceae. "Dactylorhiza fuchsii" is one of Europe's commonest wild orchids. It is widespread across much of Europe, with the range extending eastward into Siberia, Mongolia and Xinjiang. The species is also reportedly naturalised in the Canadian Province of Ontario. "Dactylorhiza fuchsii" is a herbaceous perennial plant ranging from in height. The inflorescence is a dense-flowered spike, produced in June–August, that is at first conical then cylindrical. The flower colour can vary from white to pale purple with purple spots, a symmetrical pattern


title: "Dactylorhiza fuchsii" content: of dark purple loops or dots and dashes. The lip has three lobes. The bracts are usually shorter than the flower. The lip is smaller than that of the very similar "Dactylorhiza maculata" and has three deeper cuts. The middle lobe is more than half as large as a lateral lobe. Some colonies are highly perfumed, attractive to day-flying moths. The leaves are narrow lanceolate, keeled and often dark-spotted. The orchids that are most similar belong to the "Dactylorhiza maculata" group. "D. maculata" ssp. "maculata" is distinguished by having the lip less deeply trilobed, while "D. maculata" subsp. "saccifera" has


title: "Dactylorhiza fuchsii" content: one spur large and saccular (sac-shaped) and the bracts of the inflorescence as long as or longer than the flowers. Outside of the "maculata group", "D. majalis" is very similar to "D. fuchsii", but is distinguished by the following characters: the spots of the leaves are less elongated, the bracts of the inflorescence are longer and the lower transcend the inflorescence itself; it tends to be less cylindrical (a little more 'globular'), the stem is hollow (not solid) and the leaves are slightly larger. Other similar orchids are "D. incarnata" and "D. lapponica" but these species have hollow stems and


title: "Dactylorhiza fuchsii" content: different habitat (fens and bogs). "D. fuchsii" is a Eurosiberian species occurring over Europe from Ireland in the west eastwards to Mongolia, the Altai Mountains and across northern Asia. It is sympatric with "D. maculata". Typical habitats are, variously across the range, conifer, beech and chestnut forests, moderately wet meadows, bogs and margins of streams. The preferred substrate is supposedly calcareous although it seems not to be particularly linked to this type of substrate. In mountain, subalpine and alpine ecosystems "D. fuchsii" is found from 900 to 2300 m above sea level. Elsewhere it is found from sea level. The


title: "Dactylorhiza fuchsii" content: full list of areas (World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions) for "D. fuchsii" is Finland, Great Britain, Iceland, Ireland, Norway, Sweden, Austria, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Netherlands, Poland, Switzerland, Corsica, Italy. Romania, Yugoslavia, Belarus, Baltic States, Central European Russia, East European Russia, North European Russia, South European Russia, Northwest European Russia, Ukraine, Altay, Buryatiya, Chita, Irkutsk, Krasnoyarsk, Tuva, West Siberia, Yakutiya, Xinjiang, Mongolia. In Italy it is found mainly in the Alps in the northern Apennines. In Britain it is widespread, the most common orchid, occurring from alkaline marshes to chalk downland. After the bee orchid, "Ophrys apifera", it


title: "Dactylorhiza fuchsii" content: is the most successful orchid coloniser of waste land. Pollination may be by bumblebees, or the longhorn beetle "Alosterna tabacicolor". "Dactylorhiza fuchsii" forms mycorrhizal associations with fungi in the Tulasnellaceae and Ceratobasidium groups. "Dactylorhiza" is Ancient Greek for finger root, referring to the shape of the plant's roots. The species name "fuchsii" honours the 16th Century German botanist Leonhart Fuchs. The English name 'common spotted' refers to the species' abundance and the spots on its leaves. The French and German common names also honour Leonhart Fuchs. This plant belongs to a problematic group of orchids. "D. fuchsii" is very variable


title: "Dactylorhiza fuchsii" content: in flower colour and flower morphology, plant height and the scent of flowers. This is due to the ease of introgression (the transfer of genetic material from one sympatric species to another, only partially isolated from the first, through interspecific hybridization and repeated backcrossing to a parental species), the ability of these plants to adapt quickly and easily to habitat and different substrates and possibly other causes. As a result, a multitude of forms have been defined for this plant. The World Checklist of Kew Gardens lists over 25 varieties, of which 7 are recognized as valid. Hybrids with other


title: "Dactylorhiza fuchsii" content: species of the same genus are frequent. Species include: This plant hybridizes easily with species of different genera (intergeneric hybridization). The list below shows some of these intergeneric hybrids (these hybrids are not always recognized by all botanists): Dactylorhiza fuchsii Dactylorhiza fuchsii, the common spotted orchid, is a species of flowering plant in the orchid family Orchidaceae. "Dactylorhiza fuchsii" is one of Europe's commonest wild orchids. It is widespread across much of Europe, with the range extending eastward into Siberia, Mongolia and Xinjiang. The species is also reportedly naturalised in the Canadian Province of Ontario. "Dactylorhiza fuchsii" is a herbaceous


title: "Ulam spiral" content: Ulam spiral The Ulam spiral or prime spiral (in other languages also called the Ulam cloth) is a graphical depiction of the set of prime numbers, devised by mathematician Stanislaw Ulam in 1963 and popularized in Martin Gardner's "Mathematical Games" column in "Scientific American" a short time later. It is constructed by writing the positive integers in a square spiral and specially marking the prime numbers. Ulam and Gardner emphasized the striking appearance in the spiral of prominent diagonal, horizontal, and vertical lines containing large numbers of primes. Both Ulam and Gardner noted that the existence of such prominent lines


title: "Invasive species" content: Invasive species An invasive species is a species that is not native to a specific location (an introduced species), and that has a tendency to spread to a degree believed to cause damage to the environment, human economy or human health. The criteria for invasive species has been controversial, as widely divergent perceptions exist among researchers as well as concerns with the subjectivity of the term "invasive". Several alternate usages of the term have been proposed. The term as most often used applies to introduced species (also called "non-indigenous" or "non-native") that adversely affect the habitats and bioregions they invade


title: "Transport in Antigua and Barbuda" content: Transport in Antigua and Barbuda Antigua and Barbuda's transport systems include both public and privately run services. Roads in the country are steep, winding, unpaved, and full of potholes. Driving is on the left-hand side. Volcanic ash which sometimes covers roads can make them slippery. The speed limit is set at 40 mph, but it isn't well-enforced. Because there are few traffic signs, driving in unfamiliar areas can be confusing. Public transportation vehicles contain the letters "BUS" for buses or "TX" for taxis on their yellow licence plates. The government regulates taxi service, setting fixed fares rather than using a


title: "Transport in Argentina" content: cities with numerous lines. Fares might be fixed for the whole city, or they might depend on the destination. "Colectivos" often cross municipal borders into the corresponding metropolitan areas. In some cases there are "diferenciales" (special services) which are faster, and notably more expensive. Bus lines in a given city might be run by different private companies and/or by the municipal state, and they might be painted in different colours for easier identification. The city of Buenos Aires has in recent years been expanding its Metrobus BRT system to compliment its existing Underground network and it is estimated that, along


title: "Politics of Azerbaijan" content: is prohibited.The Supreme Court of Azerbaijan is a supreme judicial body on civil, criminal and other cases related to the execution of general and specialized courts. The Constitutional Court of Azerbaijan is the supreme body of constitutional justice on the matters attributed to its jurisdiction by the Constitution, with authority to interpret and apply the Constitution of Azerbaijan. The Constitutional Court consists of nine judges appointed for a non-renewable 15-year term. Judges of Constitutional Court of the Republic of Azerbaijan are appointed by Milli Majlis (National Assembly) of the Republic of Azerbaijan on recommendation by the President of the Republic


title: "Politics of Bahrain" content: definition of terrorism so that it could be differentiated from other criminal activities or activities such as rightful struggles against foreign occupation for example. Politics of Bahrain Politics of Bahrain takes place since 2002 in a framework of a constitutional monarchy where the government is appointed by the King of Bahrain, King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa. The head of the government since 1971 is Prime Minister Prince Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa and the Crown Prince is Prince Salman bin Hamad Al Khalifa, who serves as Commander of the Bahrain Defence Force. The parliament is a bi-cameral legislature, with


title: Bullet content: increased the lethality of the battlefield. The latest advancement in bullet shape was the boat tail, a streamlined base for spitzer bullets. The vacuum created as air moving at high speed passes over the end of a bullet slows the projectile. The streamlined boat tail design reduces this form drag by allowing the air to flow along the surface of the tapering end. The resulting aerodynamic advantage is currently seen as the optimum shape for rifle technology. The first combination spitzer and boat-tail bullet, named Balle "D" from its inventor (a lieutenant-colonel Desaleux), was introduced as standard military ammunition in


title: "American robin" content: American robin The American robin ("Turdus migratorius") is a migratory songbird of the true thrush genus and Turdidae, the wider thrush family. It is named after the European robin because of its reddish-orange breast, though the two species are not closely related, with the European robin belonging to the Old World flycatcher family. The American robin is widely distributed throughout North America, wintering from southern Canada to central Mexico and along the Pacific Coast. It is the state bird of Connecticut, Michigan, and Wisconsin. According to some sources, the American robin ranks behind only the red-winged blackbird (and just ahead


title: "American robin" content: of the introduced European starling and the not-always-naturally-occurring house finch) as the most abundant extant land bird in North America. It has seven subspecies, but only "T. m. confinis" of Baja California Sur is particularly distinctive, with pale gray-brown underparts. The American robin is active mostly during the day and assembles in large flocks at night. Its diet consists of invertebrates (such as beetle grubs, earthworms, and caterpillars), fruits, and berries. It is one of the earliest bird species to lay eggs, beginning to breed shortly after returning to its summer range from its winter range. Its nest consists of


title: "American robin" content: long coarse grass, twigs, paper, and feathers, and is smeared with mud and often cushioned with grass or other soft materials. It is one of the first birds to sing at dawn, and its song consists of several discrete units that are repeated. The adult robin is preyed upon by hawks, cats, and snakes. When feeding in flocks, it can be vigilant, watching other birds for reactions to predators. Brown-headed cowbirds ("Molothrus ater") lay eggs in robin nests (see brood parasite), but the robins usually reject the eggs. This species was first described in 1766 by Carl Linnaeus in the


title: "American robin" content: twelfth edition of his "Systema Naturae" as "Turdus migratorius". The binomial name derives from two Latin words: "turdus", "thrush", and "migratorius" from "migrare" "to go". The term "robin" for this species has been recorded since at least 1703. There are about 65 species of medium to large thrushes in the genus "Turdus", characterized by rounded heads, longish pointed wings, and usually melodious songs. A study of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene indicates that the American robin is not part of the Central/South American clade of "Turdus" thrushes; instead it shows genetic similarities to the Kurrichane thrush, "T. libonyanus", and the


title: "American robin" content: olive thrush, "T. olivaceus", both African species. This conflicts with a 2007 DNA study of 60 of 65 "Turdus" species which places the American robin's closest relative as the rufous-collared thrush ("T. rufitorques") of Central America. Though having distinct plumage, the two species are similar in vocalization and behavior. Beyond this, it lies in a small group of four species of otherwise Central American distribution, suggesting it recently spread northwards into North America. Seven subspecies of American robin are recognized. These subspecies intergrade and are only weakly defined. The nominate subspecies of the American robin is long with a wingspan


title: "American robin" content: ranging from , with similar size ranges across all races. The species averages about in weight, with males ranging from and females ranging from . Among standard measurements, the wing chord is , the culmen is and the tarsus is . The head varies from jet black to gray, with white eye arcs and white supercilia. The throat is white with black streaks, and the belly and undertail coverts are white. The robin has a brown back and a reddish-orange breast, varying from a rich red maroon to peachy orange. The bill is mainly yellow with a variably dark tip,


title: "American robin" content: the dusky area becoming more extensive in winter, and the legs and feet are brown. The sexes are similar, but the female tends to be duller than the male, with a brown tint to the head, brown upperparts and less-bright underparts. However, some birds cannot be accurately sexed on the sole basis of plumage. The juvenile is paler in color than the adult male and has dark spots on its breast, and whitish wing coverts. First-year birds are not easily distinguishable from adults, but they tend to be duller, and a small percentage retains a few juvenile wing coverts or


title: "American robin" content: other feathers. This bird breeds throughout most of North America, from Alaska and Canada southward to northern Florida and Mexico. While robins occasionally overwinter in the northern part of the United States and southern Canada, most migrate to winter south of Canada from Florida and the Gulf Coast to central Mexico, as well as along the Pacific Coast. Most depart south by the end of August and begin to return north in February and March (exact dates vary with latitude and climate). This species is actually a rare vagrant to western Europe, where the majority of records, more than 20,


title: "American robin" content: have been in Britain. In autumn 2003, migration was displaced eastwards leading to massive movements through the eastern U.S., and presumably this is what led to no fewer than three American robins being found in Britain, with two attempting to overwinter in 2003–2004, although one was taken by a sparrowhawk. A sighting occurred in Britain in January 2007. This species has also occurred as a vagrant to Greenland, Jamaica, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and Belize. Vagrants to Europe, where identified to subspecies, are nominate "T. m. migratorius", but the Greenland birds also included "T. m. nigrideus", and some of the southern


title: "American robin" content: overshots may have been "T. m. achrusterus". The American robin's breeding habitat is woodland and more open farmland and urban areas. It becomes less common as a breeder in the southernmost part of the Deep South of the United States, and there prefers large shade trees on lawns. Its winter habitat is similar but includes more open areas. The American robin has an extensive range, estimated at , and a large population of about 320 million individuals. The species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e., declining more than


title: "American robin" content: 30% in ten years or three generations), and is therefore evaluated as least concern. At one point, the bird was killed for its meat, but it is now protected throughout its range in the United States by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act. Birds in central California of the subspecies "propinquus" are considered to be still increasing their range, and this is probably the case elsewhere in the U.S. The American robin is a known reservoir (carrier) for West Nile virus. While crows and jays are often the first noticed deaths in an area with West Nile virus, the American robin


title: "American robin" content: is suspected to be a key host, and holds a larger responsibility for the transmission of the virus to humans. This is because, while crows and jays die quickly from the virus, the American robin survives the virus longer, hence spreading it to more mosquitoes, which then transmit the virus to humans and other species. The American robin is active mostly during the day, and on its winter grounds it assembles in large flocks at night to roost in trees in secluded swamps or dense vegetation. The flocks break up during the day when the birds feed on fruits and


title: "American robin" content: berries in smaller groups. During the summer, the American robin defends a breeding territory and is less social. The American robin's diet generally consists of around 40 percent small invertebrates (mainly insects), such as earthworms, beetle grubs, caterpillars and grasshoppers, and 60 percent wild and cultivated fruits and berries. Their ability to switch to berries allows them to winter much farther north than most other North American thrushes. They will flock to fermented "Pyracantha" berries, and after eating sufficient quantities will exhibit intoxicated behavior such as falling over while walking. Robins forage primarily on the ground for soft-bodied invertebrates, and


title: "American robin" content: find worms by sight (and sometimes by hearing), pouncing on them and then pulling them up. Nestlings are fed mainly on worms and other soft-bodied animal prey. In some areas, robins, particularly of the coastal race "T. m. caurinus", will feed on beaches, taking insects and small mollusks. The robin uses auditory, visual, olfactory and possibly vibrotactile cues to find prey, but vision is the predominant mode of prey detection. It is frequently seen running across lawns picking up earthworms, and its "running and stopping" behavior is a distinguishing characteristic. In addition to hunting visually, it also has the ability


title: "American robin" content: to hunt by hearing. Experiments have discovered that it can find worms underground by simply using its listening skills. It typically will take several short hops and then cock its head left, right or forward to detect movement of its prey. In urban areas, robins will gather in numbers soon after lawns are mowed or where sprinklers are in use. They also are attracted to freshly turned earth in gardens, where worms and grubs are abundant targets. Occasionally, they may visit bird feeders if mealworms or animal-fat suet is offered. Juvenile robins and eggs are preyed upon by squirrels, snakes,


title: "American robin" content: and some birds, such as blue jays, Steller's jay, common grackles, American crows, and common ravens. Adults are primarily taken by "Accipiter" hawks, cats, dogs, and larger snakes (especially rat snakes). They may be taken by nearly every variety of North American accipitrid, from the smallest, the sharp-shinned hawk, to one of the two largest, the golden eagle, most every North American falcon from the smallest, the American kestrel, to the largest, the gyrfalcon, and almost all owl species from northern pygmy owls to snowy owls. Overall, 28 raptorial bird species are known to hunt robins. Adult robins are most


title: "American robin" content: vulnerable when distracted by breeding activities though may also be attacked on the ground or even in flight. However, when feeding in flocks, the American robin is able to remain vigilant and watch other flock members for reactions to predators. The American robin is known to be a rejecter of cowbird eggs, so brood parasitism by the brown-headed cowbird is rare. Even when it occurs, the parasite's chick does not normally survive to fledging. In a study of 105 juvenile robins, 77.1% were infected with one or more species of endoparasite, with "Syngamus" species the most commonly encountered, found in


title: "American robin" content: 57.1% of the birds. The American robin begins to breed shortly after returning to its summer range. It is one of the first North American bird species to lay eggs, and normally has two to three broods per breeding season, which lasts from April to July. The nest is most commonly located above the ground in a dense bush or in a fork between two tree branches, and is built by the female alone. The outer foundation consists of long coarse grass, twigs, paper, and feathers. This is lined with smeared mud and cushioned with fine grass or other soft


title: "American robin" content: materials. A new nest is built for each brood, and in northern areas the first clutch is usually placed in an evergreen tree or shrub while later broods are placed in deciduous trees. The American robin does not shy away from nesting close to human habitation and will frequently construct nests under eaves or awnings on human homes when such locations provide adequate shelter. Robins are not cavity nesters, and so will generally not use a bird house, but will take advantage of artificial nesting platforms. A clutch consists of three to five light-blue eggs, and is incubated by the


title: "American robin" content: female alone. The eggs hatch after 14 days, and the chicks leave the nest a further two weeks later. The altricial chicks are naked and have their eyes closed for the first few days after hatching. While the chicks are still young, the mother broods them continuously. When they are older, the mother will brood them only at night or during bad weather. The chicks are fed worms, insects, and berries. Waste accumulation does not occur in the nest because adults collect and take it away. Chicks are fed, and then raise tails for elimination of waste, a solid white


title: "American robin" content: clump that is collected by a parent prior to flying off. All chicks in the brood leave the nest within two days of each other. Even after leaving the nest, the juveniles will follow their parents around and beg food from them. Juveniles become capable of sustained flight two weeks after fledging. The adult male and female both are active in protecting and feeding the fledged chicks until they learn to forage on their own. The adult robin gives alarm calls and dives in a threatening manner towards creatures it considers potential predators, such as approaching cats, dogs and humans.


title: "American robin" content: The fledglings are able to fly short distances after leaving the nest. The wings of juvenile birds develop rapidly, and it only takes a couple of weeks for them to become proficient at flying. The cryptically colored young birds perch in bushes or trees for protection from predators. Bird banders have found that only 25% of young robins survive the first year. The longest known lifespan in the wild of an American robin is 14 years; the average lifespan is about 2 years. The male American robin, as with many thrushes, has a complex and almost continuous song. Its song


title: "American robin" content: is commonly described as a "cheerily" carol, made up of discrete units, often repeated, and spliced together into a string with brief pauses in between. The song varies regionally, and its style varies by time of day. The song period is from late February or early March to late July or early August; some birds, particularly in the east, sing occasionally into September or later. The American robin is often among the first songbirds singing as dawn rises or hours before, and last as evening sets in. It usually sings from a high perch in a tree. The song of


title: "American robin" content: "T. m. confinis" is weaker than that of the nominate subspecies, and lacks any clear notes. The robin also sings when storms approach and again when storms have passed. In addition to its song, the American robin has a number of calls used for communicating specific information such as when a ground predator approaches, and when a nest or robin is being directly threatened. Even during nesting season, when robins exhibit mostly competitive and territorial behavior, they may still band together to drive away a predator. The American robin is the state bird of Connecticut, Michigan, and Wisconsin. It was


title: "American robin" content: also depicted on the 1986 Birds of Canada series Canadian $2 note, but this note has since been withdrawn. "Robin's egg blue" is a color named after the bird's eggs. The American robin has a place in Native American mythology. The story of how the robin got its red breast by fanning the dying flames of a campfire to save a Native American man and a boy is similar to those that surround the European robin. The Tlingit people of Northwestern North America held it to be a culture hero created by Raven to please the people with its song.


title: "American robin" content: One of the houses of the Raven Tribe from the Nisga'a Nation holds the robin as a house crest. The Peace Bridge robins were a family of American robins that attracted minor publicity in the mid-1930s for their prominent nest on the Canadian side of the Peace Bridge connecting Buffalo, New York to Fort Erie, Ontario. The robin is considered a symbol of spring. A well-known example is a poem by Emily Dickinson, "I Dreaded That First Robin So". Among other 19th-century poems about the first robin of spring is "The First Robin" by Dr. William H. Drummond, which according


title: "American robin" content: to the author's wife is based on a Quebec superstition that whoever sees the first robin of spring will have good luck. The association has continued down to the present day, as, for example, in one Calvin and Hobbes cartoon from 1990 that had Calvin celebrating his inevitable wealth and fame after seeing the first robin of spring. The harbinger of spring sobriquet is borne out by the fact that robins tend to follow the isotherm north in spring, but also south in fall. American popular songs featuring this bird include "When the Red, Red Robin (Comes Bob, Bob, Bobbin'


title: "American robin" content: Along)", written by Harry M. Woods and a hit for Al Jolson and others, and "Rockin' Robin", written by Roger Thomas and a hit for Bobby Day and others. Although the comic-book superhero Robin was inspired by an N. C. Wyeth illustration of Robin Hood, a later version had his mother nicknaming him Robin because he was born on the first day of spring. His red shirt suggests the bird's red breast. American robin The American robin ("Turdus migratorius") is a migratory songbird of the true thrush genus and Turdidae, the wider thrush family. It is named after the European


title: Chestnut content: Chestnut The chestnuts are a group of eight or nine species of deciduous trees and shrubs in the genus "Castanea", in the beech family Fagaceae. They are native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. The name also refers to the edible nuts they produce. Chestnuts belong to the family Fagaceae, which also includes oaks and beeches. The four main species groups are commonly known as American, European, Chinese, and Japanese chestnuts. Chestnuts should not be confused with horse chestnuts or buckeyes (genus "Aesculus"), which are not related to "Castanea" and are named for producing nuts of similar appearance, but


title: Chestnut content: which are mildly poisonous to humans. Nor should they be confused with water chestnut, which are tubers of an aquatic herbaceous plant in the sedge family Cyperaceae. Other trees commonly mistaken for chestnut trees are the chestnut oak ("Quercus prinus") and the American beech ("Fagus grandifolia"), both of which are also in the Fagaceae. The name "chestnut" is derived from an earlier English term "chesten nut", which descends from the Old French word "chastain" (Modern French, "châtaigne"). The French word in turn derives from Latin "Castanea" (also the scientific name of the tree), which traces to the Ancient Greek word


title: Chestnut content: κάστανον (sweet chestnut). A possible source of the Greek word is the ancient town of Kastanea in Thessaly; however, it probable is that the town took its name from the tree growing around it. In the Mediterranean climate zone, chestnut trees are rarer in Greece because the chalky soil is not conducive to the tree's growth. Kastania is located on one of the relatively few sedimentary or siliceous outcrops. They grow so abundantly there, their presence would have determined the place's name. Still others take the name as coming from the Greek name of "Sardis glans" (Sardis acorn) – Sardis


title: Chestnut content: being the capital of Lydia, Asia Minor, from where the fruit had spread. The name is cited twice in the King James Version of the Bible. In one instance, Jacob puts peeled twigs in the water troughs to promote healthy offspring of his livestock. Although it may indicate another tree, it indicates the fruit was a local staple food in the early 17th century. These synonyms are or have been in use: "Fagus Castanea" (used by Linnaeus in first edition of "Species Plantarum", 1753), Sardian nut, Jupiter's nut, husked nut, and Spanish chestnut (U.S.). Chestnut trees are of moderate growth


title: Chestnut content: rate (for the Chinese chestnut tree) to fast-growing for American and European species. Their mature heights vary from the smallest species of chinkapins, often shrubby, to the giant of past American forests, "C. dentata" that could reach . Between these extremes are found the Japanese chestnut ("C. crenata") at average; followed by the Chinese chestnut ("C. mollissima") at about , then the European chestnut ("C. sativa") around . The Chinese and more so the Japanese chestnuts are both often multileadered and wide-spreading, whereas European and especially American species tend to grow very erect when planted among others, with little tapering


title: Chestnut content: of their columnar trunks, which are firmly set and massive. When standing on their own, they spread on the sides and develop broad, rounded, dense crowns at maturity. The latter two's foliage has striking yellow autumn coloring. Its bark is smooth when young, of a vinous maroon or red-brown color for the American chestnut, grey for the European chestnut. With age, American species' bark becomes grey and darker, thick, and deeply furrowed; the furrows run longitudinally, and tend to twist around the trunk as the tree ages; it sometimes reminds one of a large cable with twisted strands. The leaves


title: Chestnut content: are simple, ovate or lanceolate, long and wide, with sharply pointed, widely spaced teeth, with shallow rounded sinuates between. The flowers follow the leaves, appearing in late spring or early summer or into July. They are arranged in long catkins of two kinds, with both kinds being borne on every tree. Some catkins are made of only male flowers, which mature first. Each flower has eight stamens, or 10 to 12 for "C. mollissima". The ripe pollen carries a heavy, sweet odor that some people find too sweet or unpleasant. Other catkins have these pollen-bearing flowers, but also carry near


title: Chestnut content: the twig from which these spring, small clusters of female or fruit-producing flowers. Two or three flowers together form a four-lobed prickly calybium, which ultimately grows completely together to make the brown hull, or husk, covering the fruits. Chestnut flowers are not self-compatible, so two trees are required for pollination. All "Castanea" species readily hybridize with each other. The fruit is contained in a spiny (very sharp) cupule in diameter, also called "bur" or "burr". The burrs are often paired or clustered on the branch and contain one to seven nuts according to the different species, varieties, and cultivars. Around


title: Chestnut content: the time the fruits reach maturity, the burrs turn yellow-brown and split open in two or four sections. They can remain on the tree longer than they hold the fruit, but more often achieve complete opening and release the fruits only after having fallen on the ground; opening is partly due to soil humidity. The chestnut fruit has a pointed end with a small tuft at its tip (called "flame" in Italian), and at the other end, a hilum – a pale brown attachment scar. In many varieties, the fruit is flattened on one or two sides. It has two


title: Chestnut content: skins. The first one is a hard, shiny, brown outer hull or husk, called the pericarpus; the industry calls this the "peel". Underneath the pericarpus is another, thinner skin, called the pellicle or episperm. The pellicle closely adheres to the seed itself, following the grooves usually present at the surface of the fruit. These grooves are of variable sizes and depths according to the species and variety. The fruit inside these shows two cotyledons with a creamy-white flesh throughout, except in some varieties which show only one cotyledon, and whose episperm is only slightly or not intruded at all. Usually,


title: Chestnut content: these varieties have only one large fruit per burr, well rounded (no flat face) and which is called "marron" ("marron de Lyon" in France, "marron di Mugello" in Italy, or "paragon"). Chestnut fruit have no epigeal dormancy and germinate right upon falling to the ground in the autumn, with the roots emerging from the seed right away and the leaves and stem the following spring. Because the seeds lack a coating or internal food supply, they lose viability soon after ripening and must be planted immediately. The superior fruiting varieties among European chestnuts have good size, sweet taste, and easy-to-remove


title: Chestnut content: inner skins. American chestnuts are usually very small (around ), but sweet-tasting with easy-to-remove pellicles. Some Japanese varieties have very large nuts (around ), with typically difficult-to-remove pellicles. Chinese chestnut pellicles are usually easy to remove, and their sizes vary greatly according to the varieties, although usually smaller than the Japanese chestnut. The sweet chestnut was introduced into Europe from Sardis, in Asia Minor; the fruit was then called the Sardian nut. It has been a staple food in southern Europe, Turkey, and southwestern and eastern Asia for millennia, largely replacing cereals where these would not grow well, if at


title: Chestnut content: all, in mountainous Mediterranean areas. Evidence of its cultivation by man is found since around 2000 BC. Alexander the Great and the Romans planted chestnut trees across Europe while on their various campaigns. A Greek army is said to have survived their retreat from Asia Minor in 401–399 BC thanks to their stores of chestnuts. Ancient Greeks, such as Dioscorides and Galen, wrote of chestnuts to comment on their medicinal properties—and of the flatulence induced by eating too much of it. To the early Christians, chestnuts symbolized chastity. Until the introduction of the potato, whole forest-dwelling communities which had scarce


title: Chestnut content: access to wheat flour relied on chestnuts as their main source of carbohydrates. In some parts of Italy, a cake made of chestnuts is used as a substitute for potatoes. In 1583, Charles Estienne and Jean Liébault wrote, "an infinity of people live on nothing else but (the chestnut)". In 1802, an Italian agronomist said of Tuscany that "the fruit of the chestnut tree is practically the sole subsistence of our highlanders", while in 1879 it was said that it almost exclusively fed whole populations for half the year, as "a temporary but complete substitution for cereals". Boundary records compiled


title: Chestnut content: in the reign of John already showed the famous Tortworth Chestnut in South Gloucestershire, as a landmark; and it was also known by the same name of "Great Chestnut of Tortworth" in the days of Stephen. This tree measured over in circumference at from the ground in 1720. The Hundred Horse Chestnut in the chestnut forests on Mount Etna is the oldest living chestnut tree and is said to be even larger. Chestnut trees particularly flourish in the Mediterranean basin. In 1584, the governor of Genua, which dominated Corsica, ordered all the farmers and landowners to plant four trees yearly,


title: Chestnut content: among which a chestnut tree – plus olive, fig and mulberry trees (this assumedly lasted until the end of Genoese rule over Corsica in 1729). Many communities owe their origin and former richness to the ensuing chestnut woods. In France, the "marron glacé", a candied chestnut involving 16 different processes in a typically French cooking style, is always served at Christmas and New Year's time. In Modena, Italy, they are soaked in wine before roasting and serving, and are also traditionally eaten on Saint Simon's Day in Tuscany. In the Romagna region, roasted chestnuts are often served with a traditional


title: Chestnut content: wine, the Cagnina di Romagna. It is traditional to eat roasted chestnuts in Portugal on St. Martin's Day. Their popularity declined during the last few centuries, partly due to their reputation of "food for poor people". Many people did not want to take chestnut bread as "bread" because chestnut flour does not rise. Some slandered chestnut products in such words as the bread which "gives a sallow complexion" written in 1770, or in 1841 "this kind of mortar which is called a soup". The last decades' worldwide renewal may have profited from the huge reforestation efforts started in the 1930s


title: Chestnut content: in the United States to establish varieties of "C. sativa" which may be resistant to chestnut blight, as well as to relieve the strain on cereal supplies. The main region in Italy for chestnut production is the Mugello region; in 1996, the European Community granted the fruit Protected Geographic Indication (equivalent to the French Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée) status to the Mugello sweet chestnut. It is markedly sweet, peels easily, is not excessively floury or astringent, and has notes of vanilla, hazelnut, and, more subtly, fresh bread. There is no unpleasant aroma, such as yeast, fungus, mold or paper, which sometimes


title: Chestnut content: occur with other chestnuts. The main regions in France for chestnut production are the départements of Ardèche, with the famous "Châtaigne d'Ardèche" (A.O.C), of the Var (Eastern Provence), of the Cévennes (Gard and Lozère départements) and of the Lyon region. France annually produces over 1,000 metric tons, but still imports about 8,000 metric tons, mainly from Italy. In Portugal's archipelago of Madeira, chestnut liquor is a traditional beverage, and it is gaining popularity with the tourists and in continental Portugal. Always served as part of the New Year's menu in Japan, chestnuts represent both success and hard times—mastery and strength.


title: Chestnut content: The Japanese chestnut ("kuri") was in cultivation before rice and the Chinese chestnut ("C. mollissima") possibly for 2,000 to 6,000 years. During British colonial rule in the mid-1700s to 1947, the sweet chestnut "(C. sativa)" was widely introduced in the temperate parts of the Indian subcontinent, mainly in the lower- to middle Himalayas. They are widely found in British-founded hill stations in northern India, and to a lesser extent in Bhutan and Nepal. They are mainly used as an ornamental tree and are found in almost all British-founded botanical gardens and official governmental compounds (such as larger official residences) in


title: Chestnut content: temperate parts of the Indian subcontinent. China has about 300 chestnut cultivars. Moreover, the 'Dandong chestnut' (belonging to the Japanese chestnut "C. crenata") is a major cultivar in Liaoning Province. American Indians were eating the American chestnut species, mainly "C. dentata" and some others, long before European immigrants introduced their stock to America, and before the arrival of chestnut blight. In some places, such as the Appalachian Mountains, one-quarter of hardwoods were chestnuts. Mature trees often grew straight and branch-free for , up to 100 feet, averaging up to 5 ft in diameter. For three centuries, most barns and homes


title: Chestnut content: east of the Mississippi River were made from it. In 1911, the food book "The Grocer's Encyclopedia" noted that a cannery in Holland included in its "vegetables-and-meat" ready-cooked combinations, a "chestnuts and sausages" casserole besides the more classic "beef and onions" and "green peas and veal". This celebrated the chestnut culture that would bring whole villages out in the woods for three weeks each autumn (and keep them busy all winter), and deplored the lack of food diversity in the United States's shop shelves. Soon after that, though, the American chestnuts were nearly wiped out by chestnut blight. The discovery


title: Chestnut content: of the blight fungus on some Asian chestnut trees planted on Long Island, New York, was made public in 1904. Within 40 years, the nearly four billion-strong American chestnut population in North America was devastated; only a few clumps of trees remained in Michigan, Wisconsin, California and the Pacific Northwest. Due to disease, American chestnut wood almost disappeared from the market for decades, although quantities can still be obtained as reclaimed lumber. Today, they only survive as single trees separated from any others (very rare), and as living stumps, or "stools", with only a few growing enough shoots to produce


title: Chestnut content: seeds shortly before dying. This is just enough to preserve the genetic material used to engineer an American chestnut tree with the minimal necessary genetic input from any of the disease-immune Asiatic species. Efforts started in the 1930s are still ongoing to repopulate the country with these trees, in Massachusetts and many places elsewhere in the United States. In the 1970s, geneticist Charles Burnham began back-breeding Asian chestnut into American chestnut populations to confer blight resistance with the minimum difference in genes. In the 1950s, the Dunstan chestnut was developed in Greensboro, N.C., and constitutes the majority of blight-free chestnuts


title: Chestnut content: produced in the United States annually. Today, the nut's demand outstrips supply. The United States imported 4,056 metric tons of European in-shell chestnuts worth $10 million in 2007. The U.S. chestnut industry is in its infancy, producing less than 1% of total world production. Since the mid-20th century, most of the US imports are from Southern Italy, with the large, meaty, and richly flavored Sicilian chestnuts being considered among the best quality for bulk sale and supermarket retail. Some imports come from Portugal and France. The next two largest sources of imports are China and South Korea. The French varieties


title: Chestnut content: of marrons are highly favored and sold at high prices in gourmet shops. A study of the sector in 2005 found that US producers are mainly part-timers diversifying an existing agricultural business, or hobbyists. Another recent study indicates that investment in a new plantation takes 13 years to break even, at least within the current Australian market. Starting a small-scale operation requires a relatively low initial investment; this is a factor in the small size of the present production operations, with half of them being between . Another determining factor in the small productivity of the sector is that most


title: Chestnut content: orchards have been created less than 10 years ago, so have young trees which are as now barely entering commercial production. Assuming a yield for a 10-year-old tree is a reliable conservative estimate, though some exceptional specimens of that age have yielded . So, most producers earn less than $5,000 per year, with a third of them not having sold anything so far. Moreover, the plantings have so far been mostly of Chinese species, but the products are not readily available. The American Chestnut Foundation recommends waiting a while more before large-scale planting, because its associates (the American Chestnut Cooperators'


title: Chestnut content: Foundation and many others from education, research and industry sectors contributing to the program) and it are at the last stages of developing a variety that is as close as possible to the American chestnut, while having incorporated the blight-resistant gene of the Asiatic species. Considering the additional advantage that chestnut trees can be easily grown organically, and assuming the development of brands in the market and everything else being equal, home-grown products would reach higher prices than imports, the high volume of which indicates a market with expanding prospects. As of 2008, the price for chestnuts sold fresh in


title: Chestnut content: the shell ranges from $1.50/lb ($3.30/kg) wholesale to about $5/lb ($11/kg) retail, depending mainly on the size. The Australian gold rush of the 1850s and 1860s led to the first recorded plantings of European chestnut trees, brought in from Europe by the first settlers. Along the years, most chestnut tree plantations were "C. sativa" stock, which is still the dominant species. Some of these are still standing today. Some trees in northern Victoria are around 120 years old and up to 60 m tall. <br>Chestnuts grow well in southwest Western Australia, which has cold winters and warm to hot summers.


title: Chestnut content: As of 2008, the country has just under 350 growers, annually producing around 1,200 metric tons of chestnuts, of which 80% come from northeast Victoria. The produce is mostly sold to the domestic fresh fruit market. Chestnuts are now slowly gaining popularity in Australia. A considerable increase in production is expected in the next 10 years, due to the increase in commercial plantings during the last 15 to 25 years. By far, the most common species in Australia is the European chestnut, but small numbers of the other species, as well as some hybrids have been planted.<br>The Japanese chestnut ("C.


title: Chestnut content: crenata") does well in wet and humid weather and in hot summers (about 30 °C); and was introduced to New Zealand in the early 1900s, more so in the upper North Island region Chestnuts depart from the norm for culinary nuts in that they have very little protein or fat, their calories coming chiefly from carbohydrates. Fresh chestnut fruits have about 180 Cal or kcal (800 kJ) per 100 g of edible parts, which is much lower than walnuts, almonds, other nuts, and dried fruit (about 600 kcal/100 g). Chestnuts contain very little fat, mostly unsaturated, and no gluten. Their


title: Chestnut content: carbohydrate content compares with that of wheat and rice; chestnuts have twice as much starch as the potato on an as-is basis. In addition, chestnuts contain about 8% of various sugars, mainly sucrose, glucose, fructose, and, in a lesser amount, stachyose and raffinose, which are fermented in the lower gut, producing gas. In some areas, sweet chestnut trees are called "the bread tree". When chestnuts are just starting to ripen, the fruit is mostly starch and is very firm under finger pressure from the high water content. As the chestnuts ripen, the starch is slowly converted into sugars, and moisture


title: Chestnut content: content also starts decreasing. Upon pressing the chestnut, a slight 'give' can be felt; the hull is not so tense, and space occurs between it and the flesh of the fruit. They are the only "nuts" that contain vitamin C, with about 40 mg per 100 g of raw product, which is about 65% of the U.S. recommended daily intake. The amount of vitamin C decreases by about 40% after heating. Fresh chestnuts contain about 52% water by weight, which evaporates relatively quickly during storage; they can lose as much as 1% of weight in one day at 20 °C


title: Chestnut content: (68 °F) and 70% relative humidity. Tannin is contained in the bark as well as in the wood, leaves, and seed husks. The husks contain 10–13% tannin. Chestnuts produce a better crop when subjected to chill temperatures during the dormant period. Frosts and snowfalls are beneficial rather than harmful to the trees. The dormant plant is very cold-hardy in Britain. Chestnut is hardy to zone 5, which is 22 °C (39.6 °F) lower in average minimal temperature than London in zone 9. The young growth in spring, even on mature plants, though, is frost-tender; bud-burst is later than most other


title: Chestnut content: fruit trees, so late frosts can be damaging to young buds. Trees can be found at altitudes between 200 and 1000 m above sea level; some mention between 300 and 750 m altitude, while the famous Chestnut Tree of One Hundred Horses on Mount Etna stands at 1200 metres. They can tolerate maritime exposure, although growth is reduced. Seeds germinate in late winter or early spring, but the life length is short. If kept moist, they can be stored in a cool place for a few months, but must be checked regularly for signs of germination. Low temperature prolongs dormancy.


title: Chestnut content: Sowing them as soon as ripe is better, either in cold frames or seedbeds outdoors, where they can be left "in situ" for 1 to 2 years before being planted in their permanent positions, or in pots, where the plants can be put out into their permanent positions in summer or autumn. They must be protected from the cold in their first winter, and also from mice and squirrels. Chestnuts are considered self-sterile, so at least two trees are needed for pollination. "Castanea" grows best in a soil with good drainage and adequate moisture. The tree prefers sloping, deep soils;


title: Chestnut content: it does not like shallow or heavy soils with impermeable, clay subsoils. The Chinese chestnut prefers a fertile, well-drained soil, but it grows well in fairly dry, rocky, or poor soils. Although "Castanea" can grow in very acid soil, and while these soils are reasonably well tolerated, the preferred range is from pH 5.5-6.0. It does not grow well on alkaline soils, such as chalk, but thrives on soils such as those derived from granite, sandstone, or schist. On alkaline soils, chestnut trees can be grown by grafting them onto oak rootstocks. <br> Recently cleared land is best avoided to


title: Chestnut content: help resist the root rot, "Armillaria mellia". "Castanea" likes a full sun position. An experiment with "C. dentata" seedlings in Ohio confirmed the need for sun for optimal growth. The butt of the tree is sometimes painted with white paint to protect the tree from sunburn until it has developed enough canopy. <br> Wide spacing between the trees encourages low, broad crowns with maximum exposure to sunshine to increase fruit production. Where chestnut trees touch, virtually no fruit is produced. Current industrial planting spacings can range from 7 x 7 to 20 x 20 m. The closer plantings, which are


title: Chestnut content: more popular, mean quicker increases in short-term production, but heavy pruning or even tree removal is required later. The optimum rainfall for chestnut trees is or more, ideally in even distribution throughout the year. Mulching during summer is recommended. Rainfall below per year needs be complemented with, for example, a drip irrigation system. This should water the soil at the outer half of the circle formed by the drip line to encourage root growth. Independently from annual rainfall, watering young trees is recommended at least during summer and early autumn. Once established, they resist droughts well. In addition to being


title: Chestnut content: consumed fresh, chestnuts can also be canned, pureed, or preserved in sugar or syrup ("marrons glacés"). Shelled and cooked nuts should be covered, refrigerated, and used within 3–4 days. Cooked chestnuts, either whole, chopped, or pureed, may be frozen in an airtight container and held up to 9 months. Because of their high water content, transpiration rates, and consequent loss weight, the nuts react as fresh fruits (not as nuts). They should be kept cool at all times, including in shops when on display for sale. To preserve their freshness for a few months with no artificial refrigeration, the chestnuts


title: Chestnut content: can be soaked in cold water for about 20 hours immediately after harvest, after which they are dried in the shade, then layered in dry sand. <br>Chestnuts behave similarly to seeds in that they produce very little ethylene, and their respiration rate is low, varying between 5 and 20 mg/(kg·h) depending on the temperature. Most chestnut wood production is done by coppice systems, cut on a 12-year rotation to provide small timber which does not split as badly as large logs. In southern England (particularly in Kent), sweet chestnut has traditionally been grown as coppices, being recut every 10 years


title: Chestnut content: or so on rotation for poles used for firewood, fencing (fence posts and chestnut paling), and especially to support the strings up when hops are grown. An excellent soil-enriching understory in pine forests, sustainable forest management incorporates more mixed plantings of proven efficiency, as opposed to monosylviculture. A study presented in 1997 has evaluated positively the potential increase in productivity with mixed stands and plantations, compared to plots of only one species. The relative yield total values of the mixed plantings steadily increase with time. "C. sativa" responds well to competitive pressure from "Pseudotsuga menziesii", the latter also showing a


title: Chestnut content: higher productivity. "C. dentata" seedlings in Ohio reforestation efforts are best achieved by planting them in places with little or no arboreous land cover, because of the need for light. The fruit can be peeled and eaten raw, but it can be somewhat astringent, especially if the pellicle is not removed. Another method of eating the fruit involves roasting, which does not require peeling. Roasting requires scoring the fruit beforehand to prevent explosion of the fruit due to expansion. Once cooked, its texture is slightly similar to that of a baked potato, with a delicate, sweet, and nutty flavour. This


title: Chestnut content: method of preparation is popular in many countries, where the scored chestnuts may be cooked mixed with a little sugar. Chestnuts can be dried and milled into flour, which can then be used to prepare breads, cakes, pies, pancakes, pastas, polenta (known in Corsica as "pulenda"), or used as thickener for stews, soups, and sauces. Chestnut cake may be prepared using chestnut flour. In Corsica, the flour is fried into doughnut-like fritters called "fritelli" and made into "necci, pattoni, castagnacci," and "cialdi". The flour can be light beige like that from Castagniccia, or darker in other regions. It is a


title: Chestnut content: good solution for long storage of a nutritious food. Chestnut bread can stay fresh as long as two weeks. The nuts can also be eaten candied, boiled, steamed, deep-fried, grilled, or roasted in sweet or savory recipes. They can be used to stuff vegetables, poultry, fowl, and other edibles. They are available fresh, dried, ground, or canned (whole or in puree). Candied chestnuts (whole chestnuts candied in sugar syrup, then iced) are sold under the French name "marrons glacés" or Turkish name "kestane şekeri" ("sugared chestnuts"). They appeared in France in the 16th century. Towards the end of 19th century,


title: Chestnut content: Lyon went into a recession with the collapse of the textile market, notably silk. Clément Faugier, a civil engineer, was looking for a way to revitalize the regional economy. In 1882 at Privas, he invented the technology to make "marrons glacés" on an industrial scale (although a great number of the more than 20 necessary steps from harvest to the finished product are still accomplished manually). Chestnuts are picked in autumn, and candied from the start of the following summer for the ensuing Christmas. Thus, the "marrons glacés" eaten at Christmas are those picked the year before. In Hungarian cuisine,


title: Chestnut content: cooked chestnuts are puréed, mixed with sugar (and usually rum), forced through a ricer, and topped with whipped cream to make a dessert called "gesztenyepüré" (chestnut purée). In Swiss cuisine, a similar dish made with kirsch and butter is called "vermicelles". A French version is known as "Mont Blanc". A fine granular sugar can be obtained from the fermentation of the juice, as well as a beer; the roasted fruit provides a coffee substitute. Parmentier, who among other things was a famous potato promoter, extracted sugar from chestnuts and sent a chestnut sugarloaf weighing several pounds to the Academy of


title: Chestnut content: Lyon. The continental blockade following shortly after (1806–1814) increased the research into developing chestnuts as a source of sugar, but Napoleon chose beets instead. Sweet chestnuts are not easy to peel when cold. One kilogram of untainted chestnuts yields about 700 g of shelled chestnuts. Chestnuts are often added to animal fodder. A first soak in limewater removes their bitter flavour, then they are ground and mixed with the ordinary provender. Other methods of preparation are also used. It is given to horses and cattle in the Orient, and to pigs in England, France and other places. The leaves are


title: Chestnut content: not as prone to be insect-eaten as those of the oak, and are also used for fodder. Chestnut is of the same family as oak, and likewise its wood contains many tannins. This renders the wood very durable, gives it excellent natural outdoor resistance, and saves the need for other protection treatment. It also corrodes iron slowly, although copper, brass, or stainless metals are not affected. Chestnut timber is decorative. Light brown in color, it is sometimes confused with oak wood. The two woods' textures are similar. When in a growing stage, with very little sap wood, a chestnut tree


title: Chestnut content: contains more timber of a durable quality than an oak of the same dimensions. Young chestnut wood has proved more durable than oak for woodwork that has to be partly in the ground, such as stakes and fences. After most growth is achieved, older chestnut timber tends to split and warp when harvested. The timber becomes neither as hard nor as strong as oak. The American chestnut "C. dentata" served as an important source of lumber, because that species has long, unbranched trunks. In Britain, chestnut was formerly used indiscriminately with oak for the construction of houses, millwork, and household


title: Chestnut content: furniture. It grows so freely in Britain that it was long considered a truly native species, partly because the roof of Westminster Hall and the Parliament House of Edinburgh were mistakenly thought to be constructed of chestnut wood. Chestnut wood, though, loses much of its durability when the tree is more than 50 years old, and despite the local chestnut's quick growth rate, the timber used for these two buildings is considerably larger than a 50-year-old chestnut's girth. It has been proven that the roofs of these buildings are actually Durmast oak, which closely resembles chestnut in grain and color.


title: Chestnut content: It is therefore uncommon to find large pieces of chestnut in building structures, but it has always been highly valued for small outdoor furniture pieces, fencing, cladding (shingles) for covering buildings, and pit-props, for which durability is an important factor. In Italy, chestnut is also used to make barrels used for aging balsamic vinegar and some alcoholic beverages, such as whisky or lambic beer. Of note, the famous 18th-century "berles" in the French Cévennes are cupboards cut directly from the hollowed trunk. Dry, chestnut firewood is best burned in a closed log-burner, because of its tendency to spit when on


title: Chestnut content: an open fire. The tree is noted for attracting wildlife. The nuts are an important food for jays, pigeons, wild boar, deer, and squirrels. American and Chinese chinquapins ("Castanea pumila" and "Castanea henryi") have very small nuts that are an important source of food for wildlife. Chestnut wood is a useful source of natural tannin and was used for tanning leather before the introduction of synthetic tannins. On a 10% moisture basis, the bark contains 6.8% tannin and the wood 13.4%. The bark imparts a dark color to the tannin, and has a higher sugar content, which increases the percentage


title: Chestnut content: of soluble non-tans, or impurities, in the extract; so it was not employed in this use. Chestnut tannin is obtained by hot-water extraction of chipped wood. It is an ellagic tannin and its main constituents are identified by castalagin (14.2%) and vescalagin (16.2%).<br>It has a naturally low pH value, relatively low salts content, and high acids content. This determines its astringency and its capability to fix raw hides. These properties make chestnut extract especially suitable for the tanning of heavy hides and to produce leather soles for high-quality shoes in particular. It is possible to obtain a leather with high


title: Chestnut content: yield in weight, which is compact, firm, flexible, and waterproof. Chestnut-tanned leathers are elastic, lightfast, resistant to traction and abrasion, and have warm color. Chestnut tannin is one of the pyrogallol class of tannins (also known as hydrolysable tannin). As it tends to give a brownish tone to the leather, it is most often used in combination with quebracho, mimosa, tara, myrabolans, and valonia. <br> The wood seems to reach its highest tannin content after the trees reach 30 years old. The southern European chestnut wood usually contains at least 10 to 13% more tannin than chestnut trees in northern


title: Chestnut content: climates. Fabric can be starched with chestnut meal. Linen cloth can be whitened with chestnut meal. The leaves and the skins (husk and pellicle) of the fruits provide a hair shampoo. Hydrolysable chestnut tannins can be used for partial phenol substitution in phenolic resin adhesives production and also for direct use as resin. Chestnut extracts were evaluated through several biochemical assays showing evident antioxidant properties. Chestnut buds have been listed as one of the 38 substances used to prepare Bach flower remedies, a kind of alternative medicine promoted for its effect on health. However, according to Cancer Research UK, "there


title: Chestnut content: is no scientific evidence to prove that flower remedies can control, cure or prevent any type of disease, including cancer". Chestnut The chestnuts are a group of eight or nine species of deciduous trees and shrubs in the genus "Castanea", in the beech family Fagaceae. They are native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. The name also refers to the edible nuts they produce. Chestnuts belong to the family Fagaceae, which also includes oaks and beeches. The four main species groups are commonly known as American, European, Chinese, and Japanese chestnuts. Chestnuts should not be confused with horse chestnuts


title: "Northern Dancer" content: from the Derby. Northern Dancer settled into third place with Hill Rise tracking just behind. Quadrangle moved to the lead down the backstretch and Northern Dancer started to make his move around the far turn. Hartack had yet to ask Northern Dancer for his run, while the jockeys of both Hill Rise and Quadrangle were working hard to maintain their position. Turning into the stretch, Hartack hit Northern Dancer once and he surged to a commanding lead. Near the finish line, Northern Dancer started to tire but Hartack was not overly worried. "If he was tired, the horses behind us


title: "David Ben-Gurion" content: David Ben-Gurion David Ben-Gurion (; , born David Grün; 16 October 1886 – 1 December 1973) was the primary national founder of the State of Israel and the first Prime Minister of Israel. Ben-Gurion's passion for Zionism, which began early in life, led him to become a major Zionist leader and Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization in 1946. As head of the Jewish Agency from 1935, and later president of the Jewish Agency Executive, he was the "de facto" leader of the Jewish community in Palestine, and largely led its struggle for an independent Jewish state in Mandatory


title: "Anna Nicole Smith" content: issued a new ruling that reduced the award to $88 million. On December 30, 2004, a three-judge panel of the U.S. 9th Circuit Court of Appeals reversed that decision on the grounds that the federal courts lacked jurisdiction to overrule the probate court decision. In September 2005, the Supreme Court of the United States decided to hear the appeal of that decision. The George W. Bush administration directed Paul Clement, the United States Solicitor General, to intercede on Smith's behalf out of an interest in expanding federal court jurisdiction over state probate disputes. On May 1, 2006, the Supreme Court


title: "Computer chess" content: was a competitive market for dedicated chess computers. This market changed in the mid-90s when computers with dedicated processors could no longer compete with the fast processors in personal computers. Nowadays, most dedicated units sold are of beginner and intermediate strength. Recently, some hobbyists have been using the Multi Emulator Super System to run the chess programs created for Fidelity or Hegener & Glaser's Mephisto computers on modern 64 bit operating systems such as Windows 10. The author of Rebel, Ed Schröder has also adapted three of the Hegener & Glaser Mephisto's he wrote to work as UCI engines. These


title: "Pedro de Valdivia" content: joined the expedition, attracted by Valdivia's fame as a brilliant leader. These conquistadores had formed part of the failed campaigns to the highlands of Bolivia and all in all around 150 Spaniards joined the expedition. Valdivia resolved to avoid the road over the Andes, which had proved fatal to Almagro's army, and set out resolutely through the Atacama Desert. On the way, Pedro Sancho de Hoz, seeking sole leadership, tried to murder Valdivia but failed. He was pardoned but from then on had to accept subordinate status. The natives of the region were not pleased by the return of the


title: Akrabbim content: the tribe of Dan in the hills southwest of Ephraim. Flavius Josephus, in The Wars of the Jews (ed. William Whiston, A.M.) book 3, section 48, places a toparchy called Acrabbene at the border between Samaria and Judea, as the southernmost part of Samaria: "Now as to the country of Samaria, it lies between Judea and Galilee; it begins at a village that is in the great plain called Ginea, and ends at the Acrabbene toparchy, and is entirely of the same nature with Judea; for both countries are made up of hills and valleys, and are moist enough for


title: "Alarm device" content: Alarm device An alarm device or system of alarm devices gives an audible, visual or other form of alarm signal about a problem or condition. Alarm devices are often outfitted with a siren. Alarm devices include: Alarms have the capability of causing a fight-or-flight response in humans; a person under this mindset will panic and either flee the perceived danger or attempt to eliminate it, often ignoring rational thought in either case. A person in such a state can be characterised as "alarmed". With any kind of alarm, the need exists to balance between on the one hand the danger


title: "Alarm device" content: of false alarms (called "false positives") — the signal going off in the absence of a problem — and on the other hand failing to signal an actual problem (called a "false negative"). False alarms can waste resources expensively and can even be dangerous. For example, false alarms of a fire can waste firefighter manpower, making them unavailable for a real fire, and risk injury to firefighters and others as the fire engines race to the alleged fire's location. In addition, false alarms may acclimatise people to ignore alarm signals, and thus possibly to ignore an actual emergency: Aesop's fable


title: "Alarm device" content: of "The Boy Who Cried Wolf" exemplifies this problem. The word came from the Old French "A l'arme" meaning "To the arms", "To the weapons", telling armed men to pick up their weapons and get ready for action, because an enemy may have suddenly appeared. Alarm device An alarm device or system of alarm devices gives an audible, visual or other form of alarm signal about a problem or condition. Alarm devices are often outfitted with a siren. Alarm devices include: Alarms have the capability of causing a fight-or-flight response in humans; a person under this mindset will panic and


title: "Arc lamp" content: Arc lamp An arc lamp or arc light is a lamp that produces light by an electric arc (also called a voltaic arc). The carbon arc light, which consists of an arc between carbon electrodes in air, invented by Humphry Davy in the first decade of the 1800s, was the first practical electric light. It was widely used starting in the 1870s for street and large building lighting until it was superseded by the incandescent light in the early 20th century. It continued in use in more specialized applications where a high intensity point light source was needed, such as


title: "Arc lamp" content: searchlights and movie projectors until after World War II. The carbon arc lamp is now obsolete for most of these purposes, but it is still used as a source of high intensity ultraviolet light. The term is now used for gas discharge lamps, which produce light by an arc between metal electrodes through an inert gas in a glass bulb. The common fluorescent lamp is a low-pressure mercury arc lamp. The xenon arc lamp, which produces a high intensity white light, is now used in many of the applications which formerly used the carbon arc, such as movie projectors and


title: "Arc lamp" content: searchlights. An "arc" is the discharge that occurs when a gas is ionized. A high voltage is pulsed across the lamp to "ignite" or "strike" the arc, after which the discharge can be maintained at a lower voltage. The "strike" requires an electrical circuit with an "igniter" and a ballast. The ballast is wired in series with the lamp and performs two functions. First, when the power is first switched on, the igniter/starter (which is wired in parallel across the lamp) sets up a small current through the ballast and starter. This creates a small magnetic field within the ballast