title: Sumo content: the bout, which is then announced to the audience. On rare occasions the referee or judges may award the win to the wrestler who touched the ground first. This happens if both wrestlers touch the ground at nearly the same time and it is decided that the wrestler who touched the ground second had no chance of winning, his opponent's superior "sumo" having put him in an irrecoverable position. The losing wrestler is referred to as being "shini-tai" ("dead body") in this case. Sumo matches take place in a "dohyō" (土俵): a ring, in diameter and in area, of rice-straw


title: Sumo content: bales on top of a platform made of clay mixed with sand. A new "dohyō" is built for each tournament by the bout callers (or "yobidashi"). At the center are two white lines, the "shikiri-sen", behind which the wrestlers position themselves at the start of the bout. A roof resembling that of a Shinto shrine may be suspended over the "dohyō". Women are traditionally forbidden from entering or touching the ring. Professional sumo is organized by the Japan Sumo Association. The members of the association, called "oyakata", are all former wrestlers, and are the only people entitled to train new


title: Sumo content: wrestlers. Most practicing wrestlers are members of a training stable (or "heya") run by one of the "oyakata", who is the stablemaster for the wrestlers under him. In 2007, 43 training stables hosted 660 wrestlers. All sumo wrestlers take wrestling names called , which may or may not be related to their real names. Often, wrestlers have little choice in their names, which are given to them by their trainers (or stablemasters), or by a supporter or family member who encouraged them into the sport. This is particularly true of foreign-born wrestlers. A wrestler may change his wrestling name during


title: Sumo content: his career, with some wrestlers changing theirs several times. Sumo wrestling is a strict hierarchy based on sporting merit. The wrestlers are ranked according to a system that dates back to the Edo period. Wrestlers are promoted or demoted according to their performance in six official tournaments held throughout the year. A carefully prepared "banzuke" listing the full hierarchy is published two weeks prior to each sumo tournament. In addition to the professional tournaments, exhibition competitions are held at regular intervals every year in Japan, and roughly once every two years, the top-ranked wrestlers visit a foreign country for such


title: Sumo content: exhibitions. None of these displays is taken into account in determining a wrestler's future rank. Rank is determined only by performance in grand sumo tournaments (or "honbasho"). The six divisions in sumo are: "makuuchi" (maximum 42 wrestlers), "jūryō" (fixed at 28 wrestlers), "makushita" (fixed at 120 wrestlers), "sandanme" (fixed at 200 wrestlers), "jonidan" (about 200 wrestlers), and "jonokuchi" (around 50 wrestlers). Wrestlers enter sumo in the lowest "jonokuchi" division and, ability permitting, work their way up to the top division. A broad demarcation in the sumo world can be seen between the wrestlers in the top two divisions known as


title: Sumo content: "sekitori" and those in the four lower divisions, known commonly by the more generic term "rikishi". The ranks receive different levels of compensation, privileges, and status. The topmost "makuuchi" division receives the most attention from fans and has the most complex hierarchy. The majority of wrestlers are "maegashira" and are ranked from the highest level 1 down to about 16 or 17. In each rank are two wrestlers, the higher rank is designated as "east" and the lower as "west", so the list goes #1 east, #1 west, #2 east, #2 west, etc. Above the "maegashira" are the three champion


title: Sumo content: or titleholder ranks, called the "san'yaku", which are not numbered. These are, in ascending order, "komusubi", "sekiwake", and "ōzeki". At the pinnacle of the ranking system is the rank of "yokozuna". "Yokozuna", or grand champions, are generally expected to compete for and to win the top division tournament title on a regular basis, hence the promotion criteria for "yokozuna" are very strict. In general, an "ōzeki" must win the championship for two consecutive tournaments or an "equivalent performance" to be considered for promotion to "yokozuna". More than one wrestler can hold the rank of "yokozuna" at the same time. In


title: Sumo content: antiquity, sumo was solely a Japanese sport. Since the 1900s, however, the number of foreign-born sumo wrestlers has gradually increased. In the beginning of this period, these few foreign wrestlers were listed as Japanese, but particularly since the 1960s, a number of high-profile foreign-born wrestlers became well-known, and in more recent years have even come to dominate in the highest ranks. Half of the last six wrestlers promoted to "ōzeki" have been foreign-born, and a Japanese had not been named "yokozuna" from 1998 until the promotion of Kisenosato Yutaka in 2017. This and other issues eventually led the Sumo Association


title: Sumo content: to limit the number of foreigners allowed to one in each stable. Since 1958, six Grand Sumo tournaments (Japanese: "honbasho") have been held each year: three at the Sumo Hall (or Ryōgoku Kokugikan) in Ryōgoku, Tokyo (January, May, and September), and one each in Osaka (March), Nagoya (July), and Fukuoka (November). Each tournament begins on a Sunday and runs for 15 days, ending also on a Sunday. Each wrestler in the top two divisions ("sekitori") has one match per day, while the lower-ranked wrestlers compete in seven bouts, about one every two days. Each day is structured so that the


title: Sumo content: highest-ranked contestants compete at the end of the day. Thus, wrestling starts in the morning with the "jonokuchi" wrestlers and ends at around six o'clock in the evening with bouts involving the "yokozuna". The wrestler who wins the most matches over the 15 days wins the tournament championship ("yūshō") for his division. If two wrestlers are tied for the top, they wrestle each other and the winner takes the title. Three-way ties for a championship are rare, at least in the top division. In these cases, the three wrestle each other in pairs with the first to win two in


title: Sumo content: a row take the tournament. More complex systems for championship playoffs involving four or more wrestlers also exist, but these are usually only seen in determining the winner of one of the lower divisions. The matchups for each day of the tournament are announced a day in advance. They are determined by the sumo elders who are members of the judging division of the Sumo Association. As many more wrestlers are in each division than matchups during the tournament, each wrestler only competes against a selection of opponents from the same division, though small overlaps can occur between two divisions.


title: Sumo content: With the exception of the "san'yaku"-ranked wrestlers, the first bouts tend to be between wrestlers who are within a few ranks of each other. Afterwards, the selection of opponents takes into account a wrestler's prior performance. For example, in the lower divisions, wrestlers with the same record in a tournament are generally matched up with each other and the last matchups often involve undefeated wrestlers competing against each other, even if they are from opposite ends of the division. In the top division, in the last few days, wrestlers with exceptional records often have matches against much more highly ranked


title: Sumo content: opponents, including "san'yaku" wrestlers, especially if they are still in the running for the top division championship. Similarly, more highly ranked wrestlers with very poor records may find themselves fighting wrestlers much further down the division. For the "yokozuna" and "ōzeki", the first week and a half of the tournament tends to be taken up with bouts against the top "maegashira", "komusubi", and "sekiwake", with the bouts within these ranks being concentrated into the last five days or so of the tournament (depending on the number of top-ranked wrestlers competing). Traditionally, on the final day, the last three bouts of


title: Sumo content: the tournament are between the top six ranked wrestlers, with the top two competing in the final matchup, unless injuries during the tournament prevent this. Certain match-ups are prohibited in regular tournament play. Wrestlers who are from the same training stable cannot compete against each other, nor can wrestlers who are brothers, even if they join different stables. The one exception to this rule is that training stable partners and brothers can face each other in a championship-deciding playoff match. The last day of the tournament is called "senshūraku", which literally means "the pleasure of a thousand autumns". This colorful


title: Sumo content: name for the culmination of the tournament echoes the words of the playwright Zeami to represent the excitement of the decisive bouts and the celebration of the victor. The Emperor's Cup is presented to the wrestler who wins the top-division "makuuchi" championship. Numerous other (mostly sponsored) prizes are also awarded to him. These prizes are often rather elaborate, ornate gifts, such as giant cups, decorative plates, and statuettes. Others are quite commercial, such as one trophy shaped like a giant Coca-Cola bottle. Promotion and relegation for the next tournament are determined by a wrestler's score over the 15 days. In


title: Sumo content: the top division, the term "kachikoshi" means a score of 8–7 or better, as opposed to "makekoshi", which indicates a score of 7–8 or worse. A wrestler who achieves "kachikoshi" almost always is promoted further up the ladder, the level of promotion being higher for better scores. See the "makuuchi" article for more details on promotion and relegation. A top-division wrestler who is not an "ōzeki" or "yokozuna" and who finishes the tournament with "kachikoshi" is also eligible to be considered for one of the three prizes awarded for "technique", "fighting spirit", and defeating the most "yokozuna" and "ōzeki" the


title: Sumo content: "outstanding performance" prize. For more information see "sanshō. For the list of upper divisions champions since 1909, refer to the list of top division champions and the list of second division champions. At the initial charge, both wrestlers must jump up from the crouch simultaneously after touching the surface of the ring with two fists at the start of the bout. The referee ("gyōji") can restart the bout if this simultaneous touch does not occur. Upon completion of the bout, the referee must immediately designate his decision by pointing his "gunbai" or war-fan towards the winning side. The referee's decision


title: Sumo content: is not final and may be disputed by the five judges seated around the ring. If this happens, they meet in the center of the ring to hold a "mono-ii" (a talk about things). After reaching a consensus, they can uphold or reverse the referee's decision or order a rematch, known as a "torinaoshi". The wrestlers then return to their starting positions and bow to each other before retiring. A winning wrestler in the top division may receive additional prize money in envelopes from the referee if the matchup has been sponsored. If a "yokozuna "is defeated by a lower-ranked


title: Sumo content: wrestler, it is common and expected for audience members to throw their seat cushions into the ring (and onto the wrestlers), though this practice is technically prohibited. In contrast to the time in bout preparation, bouts are typically very short, usually less than a minute (most of the time only a few seconds). Extremely rarely, a bout can go on for several minutes. If a bout lasts up to four minutes, the referee or one of the judges sitting around the ring may call a "mizu-iri" or "water break". The wrestlers are carefully separated, have a brief break, and then


title: Sumo content: return to the exact position they left, as determined by the referee. If after four more minutes, they are still deadlocked, they may have a second break, after which they start from the beginning. Further deadlock with no end of the bout in sight can lead to a draw ("hikiwake"), an extremely rare result in modern sumo. The last draw in the top division was in September 1974. A sumo wrestler leads a highly regimented way of life. The Sumo Association prescribes the behavior of its wrestlers in some detail. For example, the association prohibits wrestlers from driving cars, although


title: Sumo content: this is partly out of necessity as many wrestlers are too big to fit behind a steering wheel. Breaking the rules can result in fines and/or suspension not only for both the offending wrestler and his stablemaster. On entering sumo, they are expected to grow their hair long to form a topknot, or "chonmage", similar to the "samurai" hairstyles of the Edo period. Furthermore, they are expected to wear the "chonmage" and traditional Japanese dress when in public, allowing them to be identified immediately as wrestlers. The type and quality of the dress depends on the wrestler's rank. "Rikishi" in


title: Sumo content: "jonidan" and below are allowed to wear only a thin cotton robe called a "yukata", even in winter. Furthermore, when outside, they must wear a form of wooden sandals called "geta" that make a distinctive clip-clop sound. Wrestlers in the "makushita" and "sandanme" divisions can wear a form of traditional short overcoat over their "yukata" and are allowed to wear straw sandals, called "zōri". The higher-ranked "sekitori" can wear silk robes of their own choice, and the quality of the garb is significantly improved. They also are expected to wear a more elaborate form of topknot called an "ōichō" (big


title: Sumo content: ginkgo leaf) on formal occasions. Similar distinctions are made in stable life. The junior wrestlers must get up earliest, around 5 am, for training, whereas the "sekitori" may start around 7 am. When the "sekitori" are training, the junior wrestlers may have chores to do, such as assisting in cooking the lunch, cleaning, and preparing the bath, holding a "sekitori"'s towel, or wiping the sweat from him. The ranking hierarchy is preserved for the order of precedence in bathing after training, and in eating lunch. Wrestlers are not normally allowed to eat breakfast and are expected to have a form


title: Sumo content: of siesta after a large lunch. The most common type of lunch served is the traditional sumo meal of "chankonabe", which consists of a simmering stew of various fish, meat, and vegetables cooked at the table. It is usually eaten with rice and washed down with beer. This regimen of no breakfast and a large lunch followed by a sleep is intended to help wrestlers put on a lot of weight so as to compete more effectively. In the afternoon, the junior wrestlers again usually have cleaning or other chores, while their "sekitori" counterparts may relax, or deal with work


title: Sumo content: issues related to their fan clubs. Younger wrestlers also attend classes, although their education differs from the typical curriculum of their non-sumo peers. In the evening, "sekitori" may go out with their sponsors, while the junior wrestlers generally stay at home in the stable, unless they are to accompany the stablemaster or a "sekitori" as his "tsukebito" (manservant) when he is out. Becoming a "tsukebito" for a senior member of the stable is a typical duty. A "sekitori" has a number of "tsukebito", depending on the size of the stable or in some cases depending on the size of the


title: Sumo content: "sekitori". The junior wrestlers are given the most mundane tasks such as cleaning the stable, running errands, and even washing or massaging the exceptionally large "sekitori" while only the senior "tsukebito" accompany the "sekitori" when he goes out. The "sekitori" are given their own room in the stable, or may live in their own apartments, as do married wrestlers; the junior wrestlers sleep in communal dormitories. Thus, the world of the sumo wrestler is split broadly between the junior wrestlers, who serve, and the "sekitori", who are served. Life is especially harsh for recruits, to whom the worst jobs tend


title: Sumo content: to be allocated, and the dropout rate at this stage is high. The negative health effects of the sumo lifestyle can become apparent later in life. Sumo wrestlers have a life expectancy between 60 and 65, more than 10 years shorter than the average Japanese male, as the diet and sport take a toll on the wrestler's body. Many develop type 2 diabetes or high blood pressure, and they are prone to heart attacks due to the enormous amount of body mass and fat that they accumulate. The excessive intake of alcohol can lead to liver problems and the stress


title: Sumo content: on their joints due to their excess weight can cause arthritis. Recently, the standards of weight gain are becoming less strict, in an effort to improve the overall health of the wrestlers. Some sumo organizations have minimum height requirements for their competitors. In 1994, the Japanese Sumo Association required that all sumo wrestlers be a minimum 173 cm (5 feet 8 inches) in height. This prompted 16-year-old Takeji Harada of Japan (who had failed six previous eligibility tests) to have four separate cosmetic surgeries over a period of 12 months to add an extra 15 cm (6 inches) of silicone


title: Sumo content: to his scalp, which created a large, protruding bulge on his head. In response to this, the Japanese Sumo Association stated that they would no longer accept aspiring wrestlers who surgically enhanced their height, citing health concerns. , the monthly salary figures for "makuuchi" (in Japanese yen) were: Wrestlers lower than the second division, who are considered trainees, receive only a fairly small allowance instead of a salary. In addition to the basic salary, "sekitori" wrestlers also receive additional bonus income, called "mochikyūkin", six times a year (once every tournament, or "basho") based on the cumulative performance in their career


title: Sumo content: to date. This bonus increases every time the wrestler scores a "kachikoshi" (with larger "kachikoshi" giving larger raises). Special increases in this bonus are also awarded for winning the top division championship (with an extra large increase for a "perfect" championship victory with no losses), and also for scoring a gold star or "kinboshi" (an upset of a "yokozuna" by a "maegashira"). "San'yaku" wrestlers also receive a relatively small additional tournament allowance, depending on their rank, and "yokozuna" receive an additional allowance every second tournament, associated with the making of a new "tsuna" belt worn in their ring entering ceremony.


title: Sumo content: Also, prize money is given to the winner of each divisional championship, which increases from 100,000 yen for a "jonokuchi" victory up to 10,000,000 yen for winning the top division. In addition to prizes for a championship, wrestlers in the top division giving an exceptional performance in the eyes of a judging panel can also receive one or more of three special prizes (the "sanshō"), which are worth 2,000,000 yen each. Individual top division matches can also be sponsored by companies. In such cases, the winner of the bout typically receives around 30,000 yen net per sponsor (out of the


title: Sumo content: sponsors' contribution of 60,000 yen—much of the remainder goes in paying the wrestler's tax on the prize). These bout prizes are called "kenshōkin". For bouts involving "yokozuna" and "ōzeki", the number of sponsors of the matchup can be quite large, whereas for lower ranked matchups, no bout sponsors may be active at all unless one of the wrestlers is particularly popular, or unless a company has a policy of sponsoring all his matchups. No bout prize money is awarded for a bout decided by a "fusenshō" or forfeit victory. Sumo is also practised as an amateur sport, with participants in


title: Sumo content: college, high school, and grade school in Japan. In addition to college and school tournaments, open amateur tournaments are also held. The sport at this level is stripped of most of the ceremony. The most successful amateur wrestlers in Japan (usually college champions) can be allowed to enter professional sumo at "makushita" (third division) rather than from the very bottom of the ladder. This rank is called "makushita tsukedashi", and is currently "makushita" 10 or 15 depending on the level of amateur success achieved. Many of the current top division wrestlers entered professional sumo by this route. All amateur athletes


title: Sumo content: entering the professional ranks must be under 23 to satisfy the entry, except those who qualify for "makushita tsukedashi", who may be up to 25. The International Sumo Federation was established to encourage the sport's development worldwide, including holding international championships. A key aim of the federation is to have sumo recognized as an Olympic sport. Accordingly, amateur tournaments are divided into weight classes (men: Lightweight up to , Middleweight up to , Heavyweight over , and Open Weight (unrestricted entry), and include competitions for female wrestlers (Lightweight up to , Middleweight up to , Heavyweight over , and Open


title: Sumo content: Weight). Amateur sumo clubs are gaining in popularity in the United States, with competitions regularly being held in major cities across the country. The US Sumo Open, for example, was held in the Los Angeles Convention Center in 2007 with an audience of 3,000. The sport has long been popular on the West Coast and in Hawaii, where it has played a part in the festivals of the Japanese ethnic communities. Now, however, the sport has grown beyond the sphere of Japanese diaspora and athletes come from a variety of ethnic, cultural, and sporting backgrounds. Amateur sumo is particularly strong


title: Sumo content: in Europe. Many athletes come to the sport from a background in judo, freestyle wrestling, or other grappling sports such as sambo. Some Eastern European athletes have been successful enough to be scouted into professional sumo in Japan, much like their Japanese amateur counterparts. The most notable of these to date is the Bulgarian Kotoōshū, who is the highest-ranking foreign wrestler who was formerly an amateur sumo athlete. Brazil is another center of amateur sumo, introduced by Japanese immigrants who arrived during the first half of the twentieth century. The first Brazilian sumo tournament was held in 1914. Sumo took


title: Sumo content: root in immigrant centers in southern Brazil, especially São Paulo, which is now home to the only purpose-built sumo training facility outside Japan. Beginning in the 1990s, Brazilian sumo organizations made an effort to interest Brazilians without Japanese ancestry in the sport, and by the mid-2000s an estimated 70% of participants came from outside the Japanese-Brazilian community. Brazil is also a center for women's sumo. A small number of Brazilian wrestlers have made the transition to professional sumo in Japan, including Ryūkō Gō and Kaisei Ichirō. Sumo The sport originated in Japan, the only country where it is practiced professionally.


title: "Anne Arundel County, Maryland" content: the established church of the Province of Maryland through an Act of the General Assembly. Ten counties had been established in the colony, and those counties were divided into 30 parishes, with vestrymen appointed within each. Ann Arrundell County was divided into four parishes: Herring Creek, South River, Middle Neck and Broad Neck. Between 1694 and 1695, the provincial capital of Maryland was moved from St. Mary's City along the northern shore of the Potomac River across from the southern colonial border with the Province of Virginia in St. Mary's County farther north along the western shore of the Chesapeake


title: Miracle content: of men, and deceiveth them that dwell on the earth by the means of those miracles which he had power to do in the sight of the beast; saying to them that dwell on the earth, that they should make an image to the beast, which had the wound by a sword, and did live." Revelation 16:14 says, "For they are the spirits of devils, working miracles, which go forth unto the kings of the earth and of the whole world, to gather them to the battle of that great day of God Almighty." Revelation 19:20 says, "And the beast


title: "Albany, New York" content: state office campus was planned in the 1950s by governor W. Averell Harriman to offer more parking and easier access for state employees. The uptown SUNY campus was built in the 1960s under Governor Rockefeller on the site of the city-owned Albany Country Club. Straying from the popular open campus layout, SUNY Albany has a centralized building layout with administrative and classroom buildings at center surrounded by four student housing towers. The design called for much use of concrete and glass, and the style has slender, round-topped columns and pillars reminiscent of those at Lincoln Center in New York City.


title: "10 BC" content: 10 BC Year 10 BC was either a common year starting on Tuesday, Wednesday or Thursday or a leap year starting on Tuesday or Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar (the sources differ, see leap year error for further information) and a common year starting on Sunday of the Proleptic Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Maximus and Antonius (or, less frequently, year 744 "Ab urbe condita"). The denomination 10 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini


title: Monticello content: Monticello Monticello () was the primary plantation of Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United States, who began designing and building Monticello at age 26 after inheriting land from his father. Located just outside Charlottesville, Virginia, in the Piedmont region, the plantation was originally , with Jefferson using slaves for extensive cultivation of tobacco and mixed crops, later shifting from tobacco cultivation to wheat in response to changing markets. Due to its architectural and historic significance, the property has been designated a National Historic Landmark. In 1987 Monticello and the nearby University of Virginia, also designed by Jefferson, were


title: Monticello content: together designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The current nickel, a United States coin, features a depiction of Monticello on its reverse side. Jefferson designed the main house using neoclassical design principles described by Italian Renaissance architect Andrea Palladio and reworking the design through much of his presidency to include design elements popular in late 18th-century Europe and integrating numerous of his own ideas. Situated on the summit of an -high peak in the Southwest Mountains south of the Rivanna Gap, the name Monticello derives from the Italian for "little mount". Along a prominent lane adjacent to the house, Mulberry


title: Monticello content: Row, the plantation came to include numerous outbuildings for specialized functions, e.g., a nailery; quarters for domestic slaves; gardens for flowers, produce, and Jefferson's experiments in plant breeding—along with tobacco fields and mixed crops. Cabins for field slaves were farther from the mansion. At Jefferson's direction, he was buried on the grounds, in an area now designated as the Monticello Cemetery. The cemetery is owned by the Monticello Association, a society of his descendants through Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson. After Jefferson's death, his daughter Martha Jefferson Randolph sold the property. In 1834 it was bought by Uriah P. Levy, a


title: Monticello content: commodore in the U.S. Navy, who admired Jefferson and spent his own money to preserve the property. His nephew Jefferson Monroe Levy took over the property in 1879; he also invested considerable money to restore and preserve it. In 1923, Monroe Levy sold it to the Thomas Jefferson Foundation (TJF), which operates it as a house museum and educational institution. Jefferson's home was built to serve as a plantation house, which ultimately took on the architectural form of a villa. It has many architectural antecedents, but Jefferson went beyond them to create something very much his own. He consciously sought


title: Monticello content: to create a new architecture for a new nation. Work began on what historians would subsequently refer to as "the first Monticello" in 1768, on a plantation of . Jefferson moved into the South Pavilion (an outbuilding) in 1770, where his new wife Martha Wayles Skelton joined him in 1772. Jefferson continued work on his original design, but how much was completed is of some dispute. In constructing and later reconstructing his home, Jefferson used a combination of free workers, indentured servants and enslaved laborers. After his wife's death in 1782, Jefferson left Monticello in 1784 to serve as Minister


title: Monticello content: of the United States to France. During his several years in Europe, he had an opportunity to see some of the classical buildings with which he had become acquainted from his reading, as well as to discover the "modern" trends in French architecture that were then fashionable in Paris. His decision to remodel his own home may date from this period. In 1794, following his service as the first U.S. Secretary of State (1790–1793), Jefferson began rebuilding his house based on the ideas he had acquired in Europe. The remodeling continued throughout most of his presidency (1801–1809). Although generally completed


title: Monticello content: by 1809, Jefferson continued work on the present structure until his death in 1826. Jefferson added a center hallway and a parallel set of rooms to the structure, more than doubling its area. He removed the second full-height story from the original house and replaced it with a mezzanine bedroom floor. The interior is centered on two large rooms, which served as an entrance-hall-museum, where Jefferson displayed his scientific interests, and a music-sitting room. The most dramatic element of the new design was an octagonal dome, which he placed above the west front of the building in place of a


title: Monticello content: second-story portico. The room inside the dome was described by a visitor as "a noble and beautiful apartment," but it was rarely used—perhaps because it was hot in summer and cold in winter, or because it could be reached only by climbing a steep and very narrow flight of stairs. The dome room has now been restored to its appearance during Jefferson's lifetime, with "Mars yellow" walls and a painted green and black checkered floor. Summertime temperatures are high in the region, with indoor temperatures of around . Jefferson himself is known to have been interested in Roman and Renaissance


title: Monticello content: texts about ancient temperature-control techniques such as ground-cooled air and heated floors. Monticello's large central hall and aligned windows were designed to allow a cooling air-current to pass through the house, and the octagonal cupola draws hot air up and out. In the late twentieth century, moderate air conditioning, designed to avoid the harm to the house and its contents that would be caused by major modifications and large temperature differentials, was installed in the house, a tourist attraction. Before Jefferson's death, Monticello had begun to show signs of disrepair. The attention Jefferson's university project in Charlottesville demanded, and family


title: Monticello content: problems, diverted his focus. The most important reason for the mansion's deterioration was his accumulating debts. In the last few years of Jefferson's life, much went without repair in Monticello. A witness, Samuel Whitcomb Jr., who visited Jefferson in 1824, thought it run down. He said, "His house is rather old and going to decay; appearances about his yard and hill are rather slovenly. It commands an extensive prospect but it being a misty cloudy day, I could see but little of the surrounding scenery." After Jefferson died on July 4, 1826, his only official surviving daughter, Martha Jefferson Randolph,


title: Monticello content: inherited Monticello. The estate was encumbered with debt and Martha Randolph had financial problems in her own family because of her husband's mental illness. In 1831 she sold Monticello to James Turner Barclay, a local apothecary. Barclay sold it in 1834 to Uriah P. Levy, the first Jewish Commodore (equivalent to today's admiral) in the United States Navy. A fifth-generation American whose family first settled in Savannah, Georgia, Levy greatly admired Jefferson and used private funds to repair, restore and preserve the house. The Confederate government seized the house as enemy property at the outset of the American Civil War


title: Monticello content: and sold it to Confederate officer Benjamin Franklin Ficklin. Levy's estate recovered the property after the war. Levy's heirs argued over his estate, but their lawsuits were settled in 1879, when Uriah Levy's nephew, Jefferson Monroe Levy, a prominent New York lawyer, real estate and stock speculator (and later member of Congress), bought out the other heirs for $10,050, and took control of Monticello. Like his uncle, Jefferson Levy commissioned repairs, restoration and preservation of the grounds and house, which had been deteriorating seriously while the lawsuits wound their way through the courts in New York and Virginia. Together, the


title: Monticello content: Levys preserved Monticello for nearly 100 years. In 1923, a private non-profit organization, the Thomas Jefferson Foundation, purchased the house from Jefferson Levy with funds raised by Theodore Fred Kuper and others. They managed additional restoration under architects including Fiske Kimball and Milton L. Grigg. Since that time, other restoration has been performed at Monticello. The Foundation operates Monticello and its grounds as a house museum and educational institution. Visitors can wander the grounds, as well as tour rooms in the cellar and ground floor. More expensive tour pass options include sunset hours, as well as tours of the second


title: Monticello content: floor and the third floor including the iconic dome. Monticello is a National Historic Landmark. It is the only private home in the United States to be designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Included in that designation are the original grounds and buildings of Jefferson's University of Virginia. From 1989 to 1992, a team of architects from the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) of the United States created a collection of measured drawings of Monticello. These drawings are held by the Library of Congress. Among Jefferson's other designs are Poplar Forest, his private retreat near Lynchburg (which he intended for


title: Monticello content: his daughter Maria, who died at age 25); the University of Virginia, and the Virginia State Capitol in Richmond. Much of Monticello's interior decoration reflects the personal ideas and ideals of Jefferson. The original main entrance is through the portico on the east front. The ceiling of this portico incorporates a wind plate connected to a weather vane, showing the direction of the wind. A large clock face on the external east-facing wall has only an hour hand since Jefferson thought this was accurate enough for slaves. The clock reflects the time shown on the "Great Clock", designed by Jefferson,


title: Monticello content: in the entrance hall. The entrance hall contains recreations of items collected by Lewis and Clark on the cross-country expedition commissioned by Jefferson to explore the Louisiana Purchase. Jefferson had the floorcloth painted a "true grass green" upon the recommendation of artist Gilbert Stuart, so that Jefferson's "essay in architecture" could invite the spirit of the outdoors into the house. The south wing includes Jefferson's private suite of rooms. The library holds many books from his third library collection. His first library was burned in an accidental plantation fire, and he 'ceded' (or sold) his second library in 1815 to


title: Monticello content: the United States Congress to replace the books lost when the British burned the Capitol in 1814. This second library formed the nucleus of the Library of Congress. As "larger than life" as Monticello seems, the house has approximately of living space. Jefferson considered much furniture to be a waste of space, so the dining room table was erected only at mealtimes, and beds were built into alcoves cut into thick walls that contain storage space. Jefferson's bed opens to two sides: to his cabinet (study) and to his bedroom (dressing room). In 2017 a room identified as Sally Hemings'


title: Monticello content: quarters at Monticello, adjacent to Jefferson's bedroom, was discovered in an archeological excavation. It will be restored and refurbished. This is part of the Mountaintop Project, which includes restorations in order to give a fuller account of the lives of both slave and free families at Monticello. The west front ("illustration") gives the impression of a villa of modest proportions, with a lower floor disguised in the hillside. The north wing includes two guest bedrooms and the dining room. It has a dumbwaiter incorporated into the fireplace, as well as dumbwaiters (shelved tables on casters) and a pivoting serving door


title: Monticello content: with shelves. Jefferson located one set of his slaves' quarters on Mulberry Row, a one-thousand-foot road of slave, service, and industrial structures. Mulberry Row was situated south of Monticello, with the slave quarters facing the Jefferson mansion. These slave cabins were occupied by the slaves who worked in the mansion or in Jefferson's manufacturing ventures, and not by those who labored in the fields. At one point, "Jefferson sketched out plans for a row of substantial, dignified neoclassical houses" for Mulberry Row, for enslaved blacks and white workers, "having in mind an integrated row of residences." Henry Wiencek argues: "It


title: Monticello content: was no small thing to use architecture to make a visible equality of the races." Archaeology of the site shows that the rooms of the slave cabins were much larger in the 1770s than in the 1790s. Researchers disagree as to whether this indicates that more slaves were crowded into a smaller spaces, or that fewer people lived in the smaller spaces. Earlier slave houses had a two-room plan, one family per room, with a single, shared doorway to the outside. But from the 1790s on, all rooms/families had independent doorways. Most of the cabins are free-standing, single-room structures. By


title: Monticello content: the time of Jefferson's death, some slave families had labored and lived for four generations at Monticello. Six families and their descendants were featured in the exhibit, "Slavery at Jefferson's Monticello: Paradox of Liberty" (January to October 2012) at the Smithsonian's National Museum of American History, which also examines Jefferson as slaveholder. Developed as a collaboration between the National Museum of African American History and Culture and Monticello, it is the first exhibit on the national mall to address these issues. In February 2012, Monticello opened a new outdoor exhibit on its grounds: "Landscape of Slavery: Mulberry Row at Monticello,"


title: Monticello content: to convey more about the lives of the hundreds of slaves who lived and worked at the plantation. The main house was augmented by small outlying pavilions to the north and south. A row of outbuildings (dairy, a washhouse, store houses, a small nail factory, a joinery etc.) and slave's quarters (log cabins), known as Mulberry Row, lay nearby to the south. A stone weaver's cottage survives, as does the tall chimney of the joinery, and the foundations of other buildings. A cabin on Mulberry Row was, for a time, the home of Sally Hemings, the household slave who is


title: Monticello content: widely believed to have had a 38-year relationship with the widower Jefferson and to have borne six children by him, four of whom survived to adulthood. The genealogist Helen F.M. Leary concluded that "the chain of evidence securely fastens Sally Hemings's children to their father, Thomas Jefferson." Later Hemings lived in a room in the "south dependency" below the main house. On the slope below Mulberry Row, slaves maintained an extensive vegetable garden for Jefferson and the main house. In addition to growing flowers for display and producing crops for eating, Jefferson used the gardens of Monticello for experimenting with


title: Monticello content: different species. The house was the center of a plantation of tended by some 150 slaves. There are also two houses included in the whole. In recent decades, the TJF has created programs to more fully interpret the lives of slaves at Monticello. Beginning in 1993, researchers interviewed descendants of Monticello slaves for the "Getting Word Project", a collection of oral history that provided much new insight into the lives of slaves at Monticello and their descendants. (Among findings were that no slaves adopted Jefferson as a surname, but many had their own surnames as early as the 18th century.)


title: Monticello content: New research, publications and training for guides has been added since 2000, when the Foundation's Research Committee concluded it was highly likely that Jefferson had fathered Sally Hemings' children. Some of Mulberry Row has been designated as archeological sites, where excavations and analysis are revealing much about slave life at the plantation. In the winter of 2000–2001, the slave burial ground at Monticello was discovered. In the fall of 2001, the Thomas Jefferson Foundation held a commemoration of the burial ground, in which the names of known slaves of Monticello were read aloud. Additional archeological work is providing information about


title: Monticello content: African-American burial practices. In 2003 Monticello welcomed a reunion of descendants of Jefferson from both the Wayles' and Hemings' sides of the family. It was organized by the descendants, who have created a new group called the Monticello Community. Additional and larger reunions have been held. In 2004, the trustees acquired Mountaintop Farm (also known locally as Patterson's or Brown's Mountain), the only property that overlooks Monticello. Jefferson had called the taller mountain Montalto. To prevent development of new homes on the site, the trustees spent $15 million to purchase the property. Jefferson had owned it as part of his


title: Monticello content: plantation, but it was sold off after his death. In the 20th-century, its farmhouses were divided into apartments for many University of Virginia students. The officials at Monticello had long considered the property an eyesore, and planned to acquire it when it became available. The house is similar in appearance to Chiswick House, a Neoclassical house inspired by the architect Andrea Palladio built in 1726-9 in London. Monticello was featured in Bob Vila's A&E Network production, "Guide to Historic Homes of America," in a tour which included Honeymoon Cottage and the Dome Room, which is open to the public during


title: Monticello content: a limited number of tours each year. In 2014, Prestley Blake constructed a 10,000-square-foot replica of Monticello in Somers, Connecticut. It can be seen on Rte 186 also known as Hall Hill Rd. The entrance pavilion of the Naval Academy Jewish Chapel at Annapolis is modeled on Monticello. Chamberlin Hall at Wilbraham & Monson Academy in Wilbraham, Massachusetts, built in 1962 and modeled on Monticello, serves as the location of the Academy's Middle School. Completed in August 2015, Dallas Baptist University built one of the largest replicas of Monticello, including its entry halls and a dome room. Approximately 23,000 square


title: Monticello content: feet, it is the home of the Gary Cook School of Leadership, as well as the University Chancellor's offices. Monticello's image has appeared on U.S. currency and postage stamps. An image of the west front of Monticello by Felix Schlag has been featured on the reverse of the nickel minted since 1938 (with a brief interruption in 2004 and 2005, when designs of the Westward Journey series appeared instead). It was also used as the title for the 2015 play "Jefferson's Garden", which centred on his life. Monticello also appeared on the reverse of the two-dollar bill from 1928 to


title: Monticello content: 1966, when the bill was discontinued. The current bill was introduced in 1976 and retains Jefferson's portrait on the obverse but replaced Monticello on the reverse with an engraved modified reproduction of John Trumbull's painting "Declaration of Independence". The gift shop at Monticello hands out two-dollar bills as change. Monticello Monticello () was the primary plantation of Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United States, who began designing and building Monticello at age 26 after inheriting land from his father. Located just outside Charlottesville, Virginia, in the Piedmont region, the plantation was originally , with Jefferson using slaves for


title: "Stock market" content: account's equity, and with or without notice the margined security or any others within the account may be sold by the brokerage to protect its loan position. The investor is responsible for any shortfall following such forced sales.) Regulation of margin requirements (by the Federal Reserve) was implemented after the Crash of 1929. Before that, speculators typically only needed to put up as little as 10 percent (or even less) of the total investment represented by the stocks purchased. Other rules may include the prohibition of "free-riding:" putting in an order to buy stocks without paying initially (there is normally


title: Arapaho content: Battle involved Capt. William J. Fetterman who led a force of 79 soldiers and two civilians after a group of ten Indian decoys planning on luring Fetterman's forces into an ambush. The ten decoys consisted of two Arapaho, two Cheyenne, and six Lakota. Fetterman was well known for his boastful nature and his inexperience fighting Indian warriors and despite orders to not pursue the decoys did so anyway. Famous Mountain Man and guide to the soldiers stationed at Fort Laramie Jim Bridger commented on how the soldiers "don't know anything about fighting Indians". After about a half mile pursuit the


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: Lincoln Memorial The Lincoln Memorial is an American national monument built to honor the 16th President of the United States, Abraham Lincoln. It is located on the western end of the National Mall in Washington, D.C., across from the Washington Monument. The architect was Henry Bacon; the designer of the primary statue – "Abraham Lincoln", 1920 – was Daniel Chester French; the Lincoln statue was carved by the Piccirilli Brothers; and the painter of the interior murals was Jules Guerin. Dedicated in 1922, it is one of several monuments built to honor an American president. It has always been a


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: major tourist attraction and since the 1930s has been a symbolic center focused on race relations. The building is in the form of a Greek Doric temple and contains a large seated sculpture of Abraham Lincoln and inscriptions of two well-known speeches by Lincoln, "The Gettysburg Address" and his Second Inaugural Address. The memorial has been the site of many famous speeches, including Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech, delivered on August 28, 1963, during the rally at the end of the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. Like other monuments on the National Mall –


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: including the nearby Vietnam Veterans Memorial, Korean War Veterans Memorial, and National World War II Memorial – the memorial is administered by the National Park Service under its National Mall and Memorial Parks group. It has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since October 15, 1966. It is open to the public 24 hours a day. In 2007, it was ranked seventh on the "List of America's Favorite Architecture" by the American Institute of Architects. Since 2010, approximately 6 million people visit the memorial annually. The first public memorial to Abraham Lincoln in Washington, D.C., was a


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: statue by Lot Flannery erected in front of the District of Columbia City Hall in 1868, three years after the Lincoln's assassination. Demands for a fitting national memorial had been voiced since the time of Lincoln's death. In 1867, Congress passed the first of many bills incorporating a commission to erect a monument for the sixteenth president. An American sculptor, Clark Mills, was chosen to design the monument. His plans reflected the nationalistic spirit of the time, and called for a structure adorned with six equestrian and 31 pedestrian statues of colossal proportions, crowned by a statue of Abraham Lincoln.


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: Subscriptions for the project were insufficient. The matter lay dormant until the start of the 20th century, when, under the leadership of Senator Shelby M. Cullom of Illinois, six separate bills were introduced in Congress for the incorporation of a new memorial commission. The first five bills, proposed in the years 1901, 1902, and 1908, met with defeat because of opposition from Speaker Joe Cannon. The sixth bill (Senate Bill 9449), introduced on December 13, 1910, passed. The Lincoln Memorial Commission had its first meeting the following year and U.S. President William H. Taft was chosen as the commission's president.


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: Progress continued at a steady pace and by 1913 Congress had approved of the Commission's choice of design and location. There were questions regarding the commission's plan. Many thought that architect Henry Bacon's Greek temple design was far too ostentatious for a man of Lincoln's humble character. Instead they proposed a simple log cabin shrine. The site too did not go unopposed. The recently reclaimed land in West Potomac Park was seen by many to be either too swampy or too inaccessible. Other sites, such as Union Station, were put forth. The Commission stood firm in its recommendation, feeling that


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: the Potomac Park location, situated on the Washington Monument-Capitol axis, overlooking the Potomac River and surrounded by open land, was ideal. Furthermore, the Potomac Park site had already been designated in the McMillan Plan of 1901 to be the location of a future monument comparable to that of the Washington Monument. With Congressional approval and a $300,000 allocation, the project got underway. On February 12, 1914, a dedication ceremony was conducted and the following month the actual construction began. Work progressed steadily according to schedule. Some changes were made to the plan. The statue of Lincoln, originally designed to be


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: tall, was enlarged to to prevent it from being overwhelmed by the huge chamber. As late as 1920, the decision was made to substitute an open portal for the bronze and glass grille which was to have guarded the entrance. Despite these changes, the Memorial was finished on schedule. Commission president William H. Taft – who was then Chief Justice of the United States – dedicated the Memorial on May 30, 1922 and presented it to President Warren G. Harding, who accepted it on behalf of the American people. Lincoln's only surviving son, 78-year-old Robert Todd Lincoln, was in attendance.


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: The Memorial was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966. The exterior of the Memorial echoes a classic Greek temple and features Yule marble from Colorado. The structure measures and is tall. It is surrounded by a peristyle of 36 fluted Doric columns, one for each of the 36 states in the Union at the time of Lincoln's death, and two columns in-antis at the entrance behind the colonnade. The columns stand tall with a base diameter of . Each column is built from 12 drums including the capital. The columns, like the exterior walls


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: and facades, are inclined slightly toward the building's interior. This is to compensate for perspective distortions which would otherwise make the memorial appear to bulge out at the top when compared with the bottom, a common feature of Ancient Greek architecture. Above the colonnade, inscribed on the frieze, are the names of the 36 states in the Union at the time of Lincoln's death and the dates in which they entered the Union. Their names are separated by double wreath medallions in bas-relief. The cornice is composed of a carved scroll regularly interspersed with projecting lions' heads and ornamented with


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: palmetto cresting along the upper edge. Above this on the attic frieze are inscribed the names of the 48 states present at the time of the Memorial's dedication. A bit higher is a garland joined by ribbons and palm leaves, supported by the wings of eagles. All ornamentation on the friezes and cornices was done by Ernest C. Bairstow. The Memorial is anchored in a concrete foundation, in depth, constructed by M. F. Comer and Company and the National Foundation and Engineering Company, and is encompassed by a rectangular granite retaining wall measuring in height. Leading up to the shrine


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: on the east side are the main steps. Beginning at the edge of the Reflecting Pool, the steps rise to the Lincoln Memorial Circle roadway surrounding the edifice, then to the main portal, intermittently spaced with a series of platforms. Flanking the steps as they approach the entrance are two buttresses each crowned with an tall tripod carved from pink Tennessee marble by the Piccirilli Brothers. The Memorial's interior is divided into three chambers by two rows of four Ionic columns, each tall and across at their base. The central chamber, housing the statue of Lincoln, is 60 feet wide,


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: 74 feet deep, and 60 feet high. The north and south chambers display carved inscriptions of Lincoln's second inaugural address and his Gettysburg Address. Bordering these inscriptions are pilasters ornamented with fasces, eagles, and wreaths. The inscriptions and adjoining ornamentation are by Evelyn Beatrice Longman. The Memorial is replete with symbolic elements. The 36 columns represent the states of the Union at the time of Lincoln's death; the 48 stone festoons above the columns represent the 48 states in 1922. Inside, each inscription is surmounted by a mural by Jules Guerin portraying principles seen as evident in Lincoln's life: Freedom,


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: Liberty, Immortality, Justice, and the Law on the south wall; Unity, Fraternity, and Charity on the north. Cypress trees, representing Eternity, are in the murals' backgrounds. The murals' paint incorporated kerosene and wax to protect the exposed artwork from fluctuations in temperature and moisture. The ceiling consists of bronze girders ornamented with laurel and oak leaves. Between these are panels of Alabama marble, saturated with paraffin to increase translucency. But feeling that the statue required even more light, Bacon and French designed metal slats for the ceiling to conceal floodlights, which could be modulated to supplement the natural light; this


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: modification was installed in 1929. The one major alteration since was the addition of a handicapped elevator in the 1970s. Lying between the north and south chambers is the central hall containing the solitary figure of Lincoln sitting in contemplation. The statue was carved by the Piccirilli Brothers under the supervision of the sculptor, Daniel Chester French, and took four years to complete. The statue, originally intended to be only tall, was, on further consideration, enlarged so that it finally stood tall from head to foot, the scale being such that if Lincoln were standing, he would be tall. The


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: widest span of the statue corresponds to its height. Of Georgia white marble, it weighs and was shipped in twenty-eight pieces. The statue rests upon an oblong pedestal of Tennessee marble high, wide, and deep. Directly beneath this lies a platform of Tennessee marble about long, wide, and high. Lincoln's arms rest on representations of Roman fasces, a subtle touch that associates the statue with the Augustan (and imperial) theme (obelisk and funerary monuments) of the Washington Mall. The statue is discretely bordered by two pilasters, one on each side. Between these pilasters, and above Lincoln's head, is engraved an


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: epitaph of Lincoln by Royal Cortissoz. The sculpture has been at the center of two urban legends. Some have claimed that the face of General Robert E. Lee was carved onto the back of Lincoln's head, and looks back across the Potomac toward his former home, Arlington House, now within the bounds of Arlington National Cemetery. Another popular legend is that Lincoln is shown using sign language to represent his initials, with his left hand shaped to form an "A" and his right hand to form an "L", the president's initials. The National Park Service denies both legends. However, historian


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: Gerald Prokopowicz writes that, while it is not clear that sculptor Daniel Chester French intended Lincoln's hands to be formed into sign language versions of his initials, it is possible that French did intend it, because he was familiar with American Sign Language, and he would have had a reason to do so, that is, to pay tribute to Lincoln for having signed the federal legislation giving Gallaudet University, a university for the deaf, the authority to grant college degrees. The National Geographic Society's publication, "Pinpointing the Past in Washington, D.C." states that Daniel Chester French had a son who


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: was deaf and that the sculptor was familiar with sign language. Historian James A. Percoco has observed that, although there are no extant documents showing that French had Lincoln's hands carved to represent the letters "A" and "L" in American Sign Language, "I think you can conclude that it's reasonable to have that kind of summation about the hands." As Sandage (1993) demonstrates, the Memorial has become a symbolically sacred venue especially for the Civil Rights Movement. In 1939, the Daughters of the American Revolution refused to allow the African-American contralto Marian Anderson to perform before an integrated audience at


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: the organization's Constitution Hall. At the suggestion of Eleanor Roosevelt, the wife of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harold L. Ickes, the Secretary of the Interior, arranged for a performance on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial on Easter Sunday of that year, to a live audience of 75,000, and a nationwide radio audience. On August 28, 1963, the memorial grounds were the site of the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, which proved to be a high point of the American Civil Rights Movement. It is estimated that approximately 250,000 people came to the event, where they heard Martin


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: Luther King Jr., deliver his historic "I Have a Dream" speech before the memorial honoring the president who had issued the Emancipation Proclamation 100 years earlier. King's speech, with its language of patriotism and its evocation of Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, was meant to match the symbolism of the Lincoln Memorial as a monument to national unity. The D.C. police also appreciated the location because it was surrounded on three sides by water, so that any incident could be easily contained. Twenty years later, on August 28, 1983, crowds gathered again to mark the 20th Anniversary Mobilization for Jobs, Peace and


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: Freedom, to reflect on progress in gaining civil rights for African Americans and to commit to correcting continuing injustices. King's speech is such a part of the Lincoln Memorial story, that the spot on which King stood, on the landing eighteen steps below Lincoln's statue, was engraved in 2003 in recognition of the 40th anniversary of the event. At the memorial on May 9, 1970, President Richard Nixon had a middle-of-the-night impromptu, brief meeting with protesters who, just days after the Kent State shootings, were preparing to march against the Vietnam War. In September 1962, vandals painted the words "nigger


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: lover" in foot-high pink letters on the rear wall. On the morning of July 26, 2013, the memorial was shut down after the statue's base and legs were splashed with green paint. It reopened later that day. A 58-year-old Chinese national, Jiamei Tian, was later found responsible for the vandalism. Following her arrest at the Washington National Cathedral, she was admitted to St. Elizabeths Hospital, a psychiatric facility, and was later found to be incompetent to stand trial; she has since been released from the hospital. On February 27, 2017, graffiti written in permanent marker was found at the memorial,


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: the Washington Monument, the District of Columbia War Memorial, and the National World War II Memorial, saying "Jackie shot JFK", "blood test is a lie", as well as other claims. Street signs and utility boxes were also defaced. Authorities believed that a single person was responsible for all the vandalism. On August 15, 2017, graffiti that Reuters reported "appeared to read 'fuck law'" was spray painted in red on one of the columns. The initials "M+E" were etched on the same pillar. A "mild, gel-type architectural paint stripper" was used to remove the paint without damaging the memorial. However, the


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: etching was deemed "permanent damage." A Smithsonian Institution directional sign several blocks away was also defaced. On September 18, 2017, Nurtilek Bakirov from Kyrgyzstan was arrested when a police officer saw him vandalizing the Memorial at around 1:00 PM EDT. Bakirov used a penny to carve the letters "HYPT MAEK" in what appeared to Cyrillic letters into the fifth pillar on the north side. , police do not know what the words mean, although there is a possibility that they contain a reference to the vandal's name. Court documents indicate that the letters can not be completely removed, but could


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: be polished at the cost of approximately $2,000. A conservator for the National Park Service said that the stone would weather over time, helping to obscure the letters, although she characterized it as "permanent damage". As one of the most prominent American monuments, the Lincoln Memorial is often featured in books, films, and television shows that take place in Washington; by 2003 it had appeared in over 60 films, and in 2009, Mark S. Reinhart compiled some short sketches of dozens of uses of the Memorial in film and television. Some examples of films include "Mr. Smith Goes to Washington",


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: in a key scene where the statue and its inscription provide inspiration to freshman Senator Jefferson Smith, played by James Stewart – the Park Service did not want director Frank Capra to film at the Memorial, so he sent a large crew elsewhere as a distraction while a smaller crew filmed Stewart and Jean Arthur at the Memorial; "The Day the Earth Stood Still", a science fiction film in which the alien Klaatu visits the Memorial and is impressed by Lincoln's words carved there; the 2001 version of "Planet of the Apes"; ""; the 2011 film "", where Megatron destroys


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: the statue of Lincoln and then sits on the chair as a throne; and the 2016 horror movie "", in which the Lincoln Memorial is shown with dead and burning bodies on the steps and the columns defaced with giant letters that spell out "PURGE", written in human blood. Other films and television programs which have featured the Memorial include "In the Line of Fire"; "National Treasure", in which the main characters discuss the possibility of stealing the Declaration of Independence while sitting on the steps of the Memorial; the comedy "", where the statue of Lincoln helps defeat the


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: Horus warriors; the "Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington" episode of "The Simpsons"; the scene from "Forrest Gump", in which Forrest (Tom Hanks) delivers a speech standing on a podium in front of the Memorial facing the reflecting pool; and the 2013 film "White House Down", in which the President (Jamie Foxx) requests a fly-by of the Lincoln Memorial, at both the beginning and the end of the movie to pay homage to his hero. Many of the appearances of the Lincoln Memorial are actually digital visual effects, due to restrictive filming rules. As of 2017, according to the National Park


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: Service, "Filming/photography is prohibited above the white marble steps and the interior chamber of the Lincoln Memorial." Mitchell Newton-Matza argued in 2016, "Reflecting its cherished place in the hearts of Americans, the Lincoln Memorial has often been featured prominently in popular culture, especially motion pictures." According to Tracey Gold Bennett, "The majesty of the Lincoln Memorial is a big draw for film location scouts, producers, and directors because this landmark has appeared in a considerable number of films." Jay Sacher writes: From high to low, the memorial is cultural shorthand for both American ideals and 1960s radicalism. From Forrest Gump's


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: Zelig-like insertion into anti-war rallies on the steps of the memorial, to the villainous Decepticon robots discarding the Lincoln statue and claiming it as a throne. ... The memorial's place in the culture is assured even as it is parodied. From 1959 (the 150th anniversary of Lincoln's birth) to 2008, the memorial, with statue visible through the columns, was depicted on the reverse of the United States one-cent coin, which since 1909 has depicted a bust of Lincoln on its front. The memorial has appeared on the back of the U.S. five-dollar bill since 1929. The front of the bill


title: "Lincoln Memorial" content: bears Lincoln's portrait. Informational notes Citations Bibliography Lincoln Memorial The Lincoln Memorial is an American national monument built to honor the 16th President of the United States, Abraham Lincoln. It is located on the western end of the National Mall in Washington, D.C., across from the Washington Monument. The architect was Henry Bacon; the designer of the primary statue – "Abraham Lincoln", 1920 – was Daniel Chester French; the Lincoln statue was carved by the Piccirilli Brothers; and the painter of the interior murals was Jules Guerin. Dedicated in 1922, it is one of several monuments built to honor an


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: Roosevelt Island Roosevelt Island is a narrow island in New York City's East River. It lies between Manhattan Island to its west and the borough of Queens, on Long Island, to its east. It is politically part of the borough of Manhattan. Running from the equivalent of East 46th to 85th Streets on Manhattan Island, it is about long, with a maximum width of , and a total area of . Together with Mill Rock, Roosevelt Island constitutes Manhattan's Census Tract 238, which has a land area of , and had a population of 9,520 as of the 2000 United


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: States Census. It had a population of 11,661 as of the 2010 United States Census. The island was called Minnehanonck by the Lenape and Varkens Eylandt (Hog Island) by New Netherlanders, and during the colonial era and later as Blackwells Island. It was known as Welfare Island when it was used principally for hospitals, from 1921 to 1973. It was renamed Roosevelt Island (after Franklin D. Roosevelt) in 1973. Roosevelt Island is owned by the city but was leased to New York state's Urban Development Corporation for 99 years in 1969. Most of the residential buildings on Roosevelt Island are


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: rental buildings. There is also a cooperative (Rivercross) and a condominium building (Riverwalk). One rental building (Eastwood) has left New York State's Mitchell-Lama Housing Program, though current residents are still protected. There are attempts to privatize three other buildings, including the cooperative. In 1637, Dutch Governor Wouter van Twiller purchased the island, then known as Hog Island, from the Canarsie Indians. After the English defeated the Dutch in 1666, Captain John Manning seized the island, which became known as Manning's Island, and twenty years later, Manning's son-in-law, Robert Blackwell, became the island's new owner and namesake. In 1796, Blackwell's great-grandson


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: Jacob Blackwell constructed the Blackwell House, which is the island's oldest landmark, New York City's sixth oldest house, and one of the city's few remaining examples of 18th-century architecture. Through the 19th century, the island housed several hospitals and a prison. In 1828, the City of New York purchased the island for $32,000 (), and four years later, the city erected a penitentiary on the island; the Penitentiary Hospital was built to serve the needs of the prison inmates. By 1839, the New York City Lunatic Asylum opened, including the Octagon Tower, which still stands but as a residential building;


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: it was renovated and reopened in April 2006. The asylum, which was designed by Alexander Jackson Davis, at one point held 1,700 inmates, twice its designed capacity. In 1852, a workhouse was built on the island to hold petty violators in 220 cells. The Smallpox Hospital, designed by James Renwick, Jr., opened in 1856, and two years later, the Asylum burned down and was rebuilt on the same site; Penitentiary Hospital was destroyed in the same fire. In 1861, prisoners completed construction of Renwick's City Hospital (renamed Charity Hospital in 1870), which served both prisoners and New York City's poorer


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: population. In 1877, the hospital opened a School of Nursing, the fourth such training institution in the nation. During the impeachment process of New York State Supreme Court Justice George G. Barnard in 1872, the first charge that the New York City Bar Association brought against Barnard was that he discharged at least 39 prisoners from the Blackwell's Island penitentiary before their sentence was expired. In 1872, the Blackwell Island Light, a Gothic style lighthouse later added to the National Register of Historic Places, was built by convict labor on the island's northern tip under Renwick's supervision. Seventeen years later,


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: in 1889, the Chapel of the Good Shepherd, designed by Frederick Clarke Withers, opened. By 1895, inmates from the Asylum were being transferred to Ward's Island, and patients from the hospital there were transferred to Blackwell's Island. The Asylum was renamed Metropolitan Hospital. However, the last convicts were not moved off the island until 1935, when the penitentiary on Rikers Island opened. The 20th century was a time of change for the island. The Queensboro Bridge started construction in 1900 and opened in 1909; it passed over the island but did not provide direct vehicular access to it at the


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: time. In 1921, Blackwell's Island was renamed Welfare Island after the City Hospital on the island. In 1930, a vehicular elevator to transport cars and passengers on Queensboro Bridge started to allow vehicular and trolley access to the island. In 1939, Goldwater Memorial Hospital, a chronic care facility, opened, with almost a thousand beds in 7 buildings on . Thirteen years later, Bird S. Coler Hospital, another chronic care facility, opened, and three years after the Coler Hospital's opening, Metropolitan Hospital moved to Manhattan, leaving the Lunatic Asylum buildings abandoned. The same year, 1955, the Welfare Island Bridge from Queens


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: opened, allowing automobile and truck access to the island and the only non-aquatic means in and out of the island; the vehicular elevator to Queensboro Bridge then closed, but wasn't demolished until 1970. As late as August 1973, though, another passenger elevator ran from the Queens end of the bridge to the island. More changes came in the latter half of the century. In 1968, the Delacorte Fountain, opposite the headquarters of the United Nations, opened. Mayor John V. Lindsay named a committee to make recommendations for the island's development in the same year. A year later, the New York


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: State Urban Development Corporation (UDC) signed a 99-year lease for the island, and architects Philip Johnson and John Burgee created a plan for apartment buildings housing 20,000 residents. In 1973, Welfare Island was renamed Roosevelt Island in honor of Franklin D. Roosevelt, and two years later, planning for his eponymous park, Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park, started. Federal funding for redevelopment came from the New Community Act. In 1976, the Roosevelt Island Tramway opened, connecting the island directly with Manhattan, but it was eight years before the New York State legislature created the Roosevelt Island Operating Corporation (RIOC) to


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: operate the tramway, with a nine-person board of directors appointed by the Governor, two suggested by the Mayor of New York City, and three of whom are residents of the island. The tramway was meant as a temporary solution to the then-lack of subway service to the island, which began in 1989 with the opening of the Roosevelt Island subway station, on what is now the . During the 21st century, the area became more gentrified. In 1998, the Blackwell Island Light was restored by an anonymous donor. In 2006, the restored Octagon Tower opened, serving as the central lobby


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: of a two-wing, 500-unit apartment building. In 2010, the Roosevelt Island Tramway reopened after renovations. A year later, Southpoint Park opened south of Goldwater Memorial Hospital, near the island's southern end, Cornell Tech, a joint venture between Technion – Israel Institute of Technology and Cornell University, was announced the same year. In 2012, the Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park was dedicated and opened to the public as a state park. Construction of the new Cornell Tech campus began in January 2014 with the arrival of equipment on Roosevelt Island for the building of a fence around the construction site


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: and for the demolition of the existing Coler-Goldwater Specialty Hospital's south campus; demolition began in March 2014, but city officials say they do not have plans to close the north campus of the hospital. The school began operations on the island in fall 2017. In June 2015, Hillary Clinton officially launched her 2016 presidential campaign with a campaign rally and kickoff speech at Four Freedoms Park. Though small, Roosevelt Island has a distinguished architectural history. It has several architecturally significant buildings, and has been the site of numerous important unbuilt architectural competitions and proposals. The island's master plan, adopted by


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: the New York State Urban Development Corporation in 1969, was developed by the firm of Philip Johnson and John Burgee. The plan divided the island into three residential communities, and it forbade the use of automobiles on the island; the plan intended for residents to park their cars in a large garage and use public transportation to get around. Another innovation was the plan's development of a 'mini-school system,' in which classrooms for the island's public intermediate school were distributed among all the residential buildings in a campus-like fashion (as opposed to being centralized in one large building). The first


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: phase of Roosevelt Island's development was called "Northtown". It consists of four housing complexes: Westview, Island House, Rivercross, and Eastwood (also known as the WIRE buildings). Rivercross is a Mitchell-Lama co-op, while the rest of the buildings in Northtown are rentals. Eastwood, the largest apartment complex on the island, and Westview were designed by noted architect Josep Lluis Sert, then dean of Harvard Graduate School of Design. Eastwood, along with Peabody Terrace (in Cambridge, Massachusetts), is a prime example of Sert's high-rise multiple-dwelling residential buildings. It achieves efficiency by triple-loading corridors with duplex apartment units, such that elevators and public


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: corridors are only needed every three floors. Island House and Rivercross were designed by Johansen & Bhavnani. The two developments were noteworthy for their use of pre-fabricated cladding systems. Subsequent phases of the island's development have been less innovative, architecturally. Northtown Phase II was developed by the Starrett Corporation and designed by the firm, Gruzen Samton, in a pseudo-historical post-modern style. It was completed in 1989, over a decade after Northtown. Southtown (also referred to as Riverwalk by the developers) is the third phase of the island's development. This phase, also designed by Gruzen Samton, was not started until 1998,


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: and is still in the process of development. When complete, Southtown will have 2,000 units in nine buildings. The Octagon, one of the island's six landmarks, was restored in April 2006, and the national landmark building is now a high-end apartment community. It also houses the largest array of solar panels on any building in New York City. When The Octagon opened its doors, many young, affluent tenants started to occupy the studios and one-, two-, and three-bedroom units; 100 of the units therein are set aside for middle-income residents. In 2006, ENYA (Emerging New York Architects) made the island's


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: abandoned southern end the subject of one of its annual competitions. In addition to Louis Kahn's Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park at that tip, whose public dedication on October 17, 2012 was tangled in litigation, the island has also been the site of numerous other architectural speculations. Rem Koolhaas and the Office of Metropolitan Architecture proposed two projects for the Island in his book "Delirious New York": the Welfare Island Hotel and the Roosevelt Island Redevelopment Proposal (both in 1975–76). That proposal was Koolhaas's entry into a competition held for the development of Northtown Phase II. Other entrants included


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: Peter Eisenman, Robert A. M. Stern, and Oswald Mathias Ungers. , six of the Southtown buildings, with a total of 1,200 units, have been completed. Residential development of Southtown has brought new retail businesses to Roosevelt Island, including a Starbucks and a Duane Reade. Roosevelt Island has long had a limited variety of restaurants; however, as a result of Southtown development, four new restaurantsNonno's Focacceria (January 2008), Fuji East (April 2008), Riverwalk Bar & Grill (2009), and Pier NYC (2012)appeared on the West Promenade. Although Roosevelt Island is located directly under the Queensboro Bridge, it is no longer directly accessible


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: from the bridge itself. A trolley used to connect passengers from Queens and Manhattan to a stop in the middle of the bridge, where passengers took an elevator down to the island. The trolley operated from the bridge's opening in 1909 until April 7, 1957. Between 1930 and 1955, the only vehicular access to the island was provided by an elevator system in the Elevator Storehouse that transported cars and commuters between the bridge and the island. The elevator was closed to the public after the construction of the Roosevelt Island Bridge between the island and Astoria in Queens in


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: 1955; the elevator was demolished in 1970, but a similar elevator ran from the Queensboro Bridge to the island as late as 1973. In 1976, the Roosevelt Island Tramway was constructed to provide access to Midtown Manhattan. The tram was closed from March to November 2010, during which time all of the components of the tramway, except for the tower bases, were replaced. New York City Subway access to the rest of Manhattan and to Long Island City in Queens via the IND 63rd Street Line began in 1989, but access to the rest of Queens did not start until


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: 2001. Located more than below ground level, the Roosevelt Island station () is one of the deepest stations below sea level in the system. Roosevelt Island's residential community was not designed to support automobile traffic during its planning in the early 1970s. Automobile traffic has become common even though much of the island remains a car-free area. Visitors can access the island by car over the Roosevelt Island Bridge but must park in the Motorgate Garage. MTA Bus's route, operating between the island and Queens, obviates the need for automobiles to some extent. However, RIOC operates the Red Bus, a


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: free on-island shuttle bus service, using easily visible bright red buses, that competes directly with the Q102 and connects apartment buildings to the subway and tramway. Roosevelt Island has been served by NYC Ferry's Astoria route since August 2017. As of the 2000 US Census, Roosevelt Island had a population of 9,520. Fifty-two percent of the population (4,995) were female, and 4,525, or 48%, were male. The population was spread out with 5% under the age of 5, 20% under the age of 18, 67% between the ages of 18 and 65, and 15% over the age of 65. The


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: racial makeup of the island was 45% white (non-Hispanic), 27% black (non-Hispanic), 14% Hispanics or Latinos of any race, 11% Asian or Pacific Islander, and .3% other races. The median income was $49,976. 37% had an income under $35,000. 40% had incomes between $35,001 and $99,999, and 23% had an income over $100,000. 55% of the total households were family households, and 45% were non-family households. 17% of the residents were married couples with children, and 19% were married couples without children. 36% of the households were one-person households, and 9% were two or more non-family households. 3% were male-based


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: households with related and unrelated children, and 16% were female-based households with related and unrelated children. As of the 2010 US Census, Roosevelt Island had a population of 11,661. The racial makeup of the island was 54.4% white, 23.4% black, 14.9% Hispanics or Latinos of any race, 20.0% Asian, 0.6% Native American or Pacific Islander, and 5.4% other races. 42.7% of the population was born outside the US. The median income was $76,250. 69.3% of households earned more than $50,000. 30.5% earned less than $50,000. The neighborhood is part of Manhattan Community Board 8. The Roosevelt Island Operating Corporation operates


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: and maintains the island's government and infrastructure. The United States Postal Service operates the Roosevelt Island Station at 694 Main Street. Garbage on Roosevelt Island is collected by an automated vacuum collection (AVAC) system using a system of pneumatic tubes that collects of trash each day; this is one of the world's largest AVAC systems. Roosevelt Island, as with all parts of New York City, is served by the New York City Department of Education. Residents are zoned to P.S./I.S. 217 Roosevelt Island School, which opened in 1992, combining schools at various locations on the island. Some of the locations


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: that formerly housed the fragments of P.S./I.S. 217 now house The Child School and Legacy High School, which serve K–12 special needs children with learning and emotional disabilities. On December 19, 2011, Mayor Michael Bloomberg announced that Cornell Tech, a Cornell University-Technion-Israel Institute of Technology graduate school of applied sciences, would be built on the island. The $2 billion facility will include 2 million square feet of space on an 11 acre city-owned site, which is currently used for a hospital. Classes will begin off-site in September 2012, with the first classes in the new facility scheduled to start in


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: 2018. The campus will take almost 30 years to be fully complete. The New York Public Library operates the Roosevelt Island Branch at 524 Main Street. The library began in a community room, then moved to its own building in 1979. In 1998, the library became a branch of the NYPL system. Roosevelt Island has three dedicated news sources. Due to its proximity to the United Nations Headquarters, Roosevelt Island has long been a popular neighborhood for diplomats and United Nations staff. Current residents Former residents Literature Film Television Video games Other Informational notes Citations RIOC: Community resources, news, events,


title: "Roosevelt Island" content: issues: Other: Roosevelt Island Roosevelt Island is a narrow island in New York City's East River. It lies between Manhattan Island to its west and the borough of Queens, on Long Island, to its east. It is politically part of the borough of Manhattan. Running from the equivalent of East 46th to 85th Streets on Manhattan Island, it is about long, with a maximum width of , and a total area of . Together with Mill Rock, Roosevelt Island constitutes Manhattan's Census Tract 238, which has a land area of , and had a population of 9,520 as of the


title: "Eschscholzia californica" content: Eschscholzia californica Eschscholzia californica (California poppy, golden poppy, California sunlight, cup of gold) is a species of flowering plant in the Papaveraceae family, native to the United States and Mexico. It is an ornamental plant flowering in summer, with showy cup-shaped flowers in brilliant shades of red, orange and yellow (occasionally pink). It is also used as food or a garnish. It became the official state flower of California in 1903. It is a perennial or annual plant growing to tall with alternately branching glaucous blue-green foliage. The leaves are alternately divided into round, lobed segments. The flowers are solitary


title: "Eschscholzia californica" content: on long stems, silky-textured, with four petals, each petal long and broad; flower color ranges through yellow, orange and red (with some pinks). Flowering occurs from February to September in the northern hemisphere (spring, summer, fall). The petals close at night (or in cold, windy weather) and open again the following morning, although they may remain closed in cloudy weather. The fruit is a slender, dehiscent capsule long, which splits in two to release numerous small black or dark brown seeds. It survives mild winters in its native range, dying completely in colder climates. Its native habitat includes California and


title: "Eschscholzia californica" content: extends to Oregon, Washington, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, Sonora and northwest Baja California. The Antelope Valley California Poppy Reserve is located in northern Los Angeles County. At the peak of the blooming season, orange flowers seem to cover all 1,745 acres (706 ha) of the reserve. Other prominent locations of California poppy meadows are in Bear Valley (Colusa County) and Point Buchon (San Luis Obispo County). "Eschscholzia californica" was the first named species of the genus "Eschscholzia", named by the German botanist Adelbert von Chamisso after the Baltic German botanist Johann Friedrich von Eschscholtz, his friend and colleague on Otto


title: "Eschscholzia californica" content: von Kotzebue’s scientific expedition to California and the greater Pacific circa 1810 aboard the Russian ship "Rurik". California poppy is highly variable, with over 90 synonyms. Some botanists accept two subspecies — one with four varieties (e.g., Leger and Rice, 2003) — though others do not recognize them as distinct (e.g., Jepson 1993): A UK study of meadow flowers that focused on commercial mixes, but which also tested various common weeds such as ragwort and dandelion, ranked the California poppy highly in pollen production, although it did not produce a significant amount of nectar. On a per-flower basis it ranked


title: "Eschscholzia californica" content: second, with a rate of 8.3±1.1μl. The corn poppy, "Papaver rhoeas", topped the list for per-flower pollen production with its rate of 13.3 ± 2.8μl. When measuring the entire capitulum the top two species were the ox-eye daisy, "Leucanthemum vulgare", with 15.9 ± 2μl, and "Cosmos bipinnatus", which had a rate nearly equivalent to that of the corn poppy. As poppies are not wind-pollinated, their pollen poses no allergy risk via inhalation. California poppy leaves are used as food or garnish, while the seeds are used in cooking. "E. californica" is drought-tolerant, self-seeding, and easy to cultivate. It is best


title: "Eschscholzia californica" content: grown as an annual in full sun and sandy, well-drained soil or loam. Horticulturalists have produced numerous cultivars with a range of colors and blossom and stem forms. These typically do not breed true on reseeding. Seeds are often sold as mixtures. The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:- Because of its beauty and ease of growing, the California poppy was introduced into several regions with similar Mediterranean climates. It is commercially sold and widely naturalized in Australia, and was introduced to South Africa, Chile, and Argentina. It is recognized as a potentially invasive


title: "Eschscholzia californica" content: species within the United States, although no indications of ill effects have been reported for this plant where it has been introduced outside of California. The golden poppy has been displaced in large areas of its original habitat, such as Southern California, by more invasive exotic species, such as mustard or annual grasses. In Chile, it was introduced from multiple sources between the mid-19th century and the early 20th century. It appears to have been both intentionally imported as an ornamental garden plant, and accidentally introduced along with alfalfa seed grown in California. Since Chile and California have similar climatic


title: "Eschscholzia californica" content: regions and have experienced much agricultural exchange, it is perhaps not surprising that it was introduced to Chile. Once there, its perennial forms spread primarily in human-disturbed environments (Leger and Rice, 2003). The introduced Chilean populations of California poppy appear to be larger and more fecund in their introduced range than in their native range (Leger and Rice, 2003). Introduced populations have been noted to be larger and more reproductively successful than native ones (Elton, 1958), and there has been much speculation as to why. Increase in resource availability, decreased competition, and release from enemy pressure have all been proposed


title: "Eschscholzia californica" content: as explanations. One hypothesis is that the plant's resources devoted in the native range to a defense strategy can, in the absence of enemies, be devoted to increased growth and reproduction (the EICA Hypothesis, Blossey & Nötzold, 1995). However, this is not the case with introduced populations of "E. californica" in Chile: the Chilean populations were actually more resistant to Californian caterpillars than native populations (Leger and Forister, 2005). During the 1890s Sarah Plummer Lemmon advocated for the adoption of the golden poppy as the state flower of California, eventually writing the bill passed by the California Legislature and signed


title: "Eschscholzia californica" content: by Governor George Pardee in 1903. It was selected as the state flower by the "California State Floral Society" in December 1890, besting the Mariposa lily (genus "Calochortus") and the Matilija poppy ("Romneya coulteri") by a wide margin, but the state legislature did not make the selection official until 1903. Its "golden" blooms were deemed a fitting symbol for the "Golden" State. April 6 is designated as "California Poppy Day". As the official state flower of California, "Eschscholzia californica" is pictured on welcome signs along highways entering California and official Scenic Route signs. To commemorate Meghan Markle's Californian origins, Clare


title: "Eschscholzia californica" content: Waight Keller included the golden poppy in the embroidery of Markle's wedding veil. It is also included in the Duchess of Sussex's coat of arms, displayed with wintersweet in the compartment. Eschscholzia californica Eschscholzia californica (California poppy, golden poppy, California sunlight, cup of gold) is a species of flowering plant in the Papaveraceae family, native to the United States and Mexico. It is an ornamental plant flowering in summer, with showy cup-shaped flowers in brilliant shades of red, orange and yellow (occasionally pink). It is also used as food or a garnish. It became the official state flower of California


title: "Star Wars (film)" content: aesthetically significant". At the time, it was the most recent film on the registry and the only one chosen from the 1970s. In 2005, the British Film Institute included it in their list of the 50 films you should see by the age of 14. Its soundtrack was added to the U.S. National Recording Registry in 2004. Today, it is regarded as one of the most important films in the history of motion pictures. It launched an industry of tie-in products, including spin-off TV series, novels, comic books, video games, amusement park attractions, and merchandise including toys, games, and clothing.


title: "Delaware River" content: Gap, between nearly vertical walls of sandstone, quartzite, and conglomerate, and then passes through a quiet and charming country of farm and forest, diversified with plateaus and escarpments, until it crosses the Appalachian plain and enters the hills again at Easton, Pennsylvania. From this point it is flanked at intervals by fine hills, and in places by cliffs, of which the finest are the Nockamixon Rocks, long and above high. The Appalachian Trail, which traverses the ridge of Kittatinny Mountain in New Jersey, and Blue Mountain in Pennsylvania, crosses the Delaware River at the Delaware Water Gap near Columbia, New


title: "Final Fantasy VII" content: their vision, Square postponed the release date almost a full year. "Final Fantasy VII" was released on January 31, 1997. It was published in Japan by Square. A re-release of the game based on its Western version, titled "Final Fantasy VII International", was released on October 2, 1997. This improved "International" version would kickstart the trend for Square to create an updated version for Japanese release, based on the enhanced Western versions. The "International" version was re-released as a physical disc as part of the "Final Fantasy 25th Anniversary Ultimate Box" Japanese package on December 18, 2012. While its success


title: "Androgen insensitivity syndrome" content: and physicist Fortuné Affaitati in 1549, French surgeon Ambroise Paré in 1573, French physician and sexology pioneer Nicolas Venette in 1687 (under the pseudonym Vénitien Salocini), and French zoologist Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire in 1832. All five of these authors used the colloquial term "hermaphrodite" as the foundation of their taxonomies, although Simpson himself questioned the propriety of the word in his publication. Use of the word "hermaphrodite" in the medical literature has persisted to this day, although its propriety is still in question. An alternative system of nomenclature has been recently suggested, but the subject of exactly which word or


title: Marimba content: Marimba The marimba () is a percussion instrument consisting of a set of wooden bars struck with yarn or rubber mallets to produce musical tones. Resonators or pipes suspended underneath the bars amplify their sound. The bars of a chromatic marimba are arranged like the keys of a piano, with the groups of two and three accidentals raised vertically, overlapping the natural bars to aid the performer both visually and physically. This instrument is a type of idiophone, but with a more resonant and lower-pitched tessitura than the xylophone. A person who plays the marimba is called a "marimbist" or


title: Marimba content: a "marimba player". Modern uses of the marimba include solo performances, woodwind and brass ensembles, marimba concertos, jazz ensembles, marching band (front ensembles), drum and bugle corps, and orchestral compositions. Contemporary composers have used the unique sound of the marimba more and more in recent years. Xylophones are widely used in music of west and central Africa. In Latin America, enslaved Africans recreated them in the 16th and 17th centuries. The name "marimba" stems from Bantu "marimba" or "malimba", 'xylophone'. According to some Western sources, the word 'marimba' is formed from "ma" 'many' and "rimba" 'single-bar xylophone,' however the use


title: Marimba content: of the term marimba and/or derivative terms is not present in any West African language. The instrument itself is present, but is called balafon or heri in Mali and/or Guinea, while it is known as gyil among the Akan peoples in and around Ghana. The word marimba and derivative words is used widely in East, Central and Southern Africa. A survey of the literature on the African marimba and related instruments, like the Xylorimba, likembe and ilimba indicate a relationship between the word marimba and the various lamellaphones found all over Central and East Africa. Other sources credit the creation


title: Marimba content: of the marimba and the kalimba to Queen Marimba of the Wakambi people, who live south of Lake Victoria. In the Shona language "imba" means song. Kuimba is to sing. Marimba, is said to be the "mother of song" and the creator of all the instruments, including the marimba. Mama means mother in Kiswahili, so it makes perfect sense that the word mother would be combined with the word "imba" which is the unconjugated verb for 'sing'. The karimba is also said to have been created by Queen Marimba. In much of East & Central Africa the karimba is seen