title: "Georges Sorel" content: direction at the beginning of the 19th century, Sorel said that the workers should stay away from the socialist parties, and use strikes and violence instead as their primary weapons against the middle and upper classes in parliament. That way, the workers would not only fight harder for their share of the values produced by capitalism, but also avoid the semi-feudal, corporative dystopia and oligarchy that the socialists and the conservatives were, supposedly, working towards. In his "Reflections on Violence", Sorel says that parliamentary socialism, and its middle-class of bureaucrats and newspaper-intellectuals does not understand social science, economics, or any


title: "Port Richmond, Staten Island" content: the neighborhood (roughly south of Post Avenue & east of Port Richmond Avenue) is the section with the largest percentage of Whites (almost 50%), and is sometimes referred to as "Port Richmond Center" or "Upper Port Richmond". The median household income in the neighborhood is roughly $45,000 a year. This is defining Port Richmond as everything within the boundaries of Census Tract 207, 213, and 247, as well as Block Group 1 of Tract 201. The 10302 zip code (which is mostly Port Richmond, but also includes part of Westerleigh) has the highest percentage of Hispanics of any zip code


title: "Tikkun olam" content: and homosexuals. In response to the myth of self-interest he observes that Adam Smith and the conservatives after him emphasized free markets precisely because they believed that "was" the path to the greatest public good. In addition, conservatives have always emphasized the importance of "private" efforts of "gemilut chasadim" (benevolence) and "tzedakah" (charity or philanthropy). The conservative position is that individuals and communities should not use government efforts as a substitute for the individual and collective responsibility for these "mitzvot". In response to the second myth, he argues that the right's position on family values is fundamentally a question of


title: "Maidstone United F.C." content: by the FA for four months following the incident. Old Southern League foes Ebbsfleet United (then Gravesend & Northfleet) have perhaps become the club's biggest current-day rivals, with the clubs' recent time together in the National League and National League South punctuated by ill-will both at boardroom level and on the terraces. During the club's years in the wilderness at level 8 (step 4) in the pyramid and below, permanent and telling rivalries were hard to come by due to the lack of support for opposition clubs, and also due to the club's rapid rise through these divisions. There were


title: "Andy Dick" content: and was elected homecoming king his senior year in 1983. While in high school, he tended to use his surname as a joke; and one day, he dressed in a homemade superhero costume and presented himself at school as "Super Dick". Dick graduated from Joliet West High School in 1984, and is a friend of actor Anthony Rapp, whom he had known since childhood. After high school, Dick joined Chicago's Second City, attended Columbia College Chicago, and took improv comedy classes at iO Theater. Dick started his TV comedy career as a cast member on the sketch comedy program "The


title: "Firangoji Narsala" content: Firangoji Narsala Firangoji Narsala was a Maratha warrior and military leader in the army of Shivaji Chhatrapati, a Maharaja of Maharashtra, in 17th century India. He is famous for his defence of Sangram Durg, a fort, against a Mughal army led by Shaista Khan in 1660 . Firangoji was a 'Killedar' (fortress commander) of this fort in Chakan (Pune). When Shaista Khan invaded Pune with a lakh of soldiers, he selected Sangram Durga as the first target. He attacked the fort with 20,000 soldiers on 23 June 1660. Firangoji Narasala was prepared for this attack, however, even though he had


title: "Wojciech Korfanty" content: leaders of the "Centrolew", an alliance of left-wing and centrist parties in opposition to the ruling government. In 1935, he was forced to leave Poland and emigrated to Czechoslovakia, from where he participated in the centre-right Morges Front group, founded by émigrés Ignacy Paderewski and Władysław Sikorski. After the German invasion of Czechoslovakia, Korfanty moved on to France. He returned to Poland in the April 1939, after Nazi Germany had cancelled the Polish-German non-aggression pact of 1934, hoping that the renewed threat to Polish independence would help overcome the domestic political cleavage. He was arrested immediately upon arrival. In August,


title: "Blanding's turtle" content: Blanding's turtle Blanding's turtle ("Emys blandingii" or "Emydoidea blandingii" ) is a semi-aquatic turtle of the family Emydidae. This species is native to central and eastern parts of Canada and the United States. It is considered to be an endangered species throughout much of its range. Blanding's turtles are of interest in longevity research, as they show little to no common signs of aging and are physically active and capable of reproduction into eight or nine decades of life. There are differences of opinion as to the genus for this species; both "Emys" and "Emydoidea" occur in published sources in


title: "Blanding's turtle" content: 2009, 2010, and 2011. Both the specific name, "blandingii", and the common name, Blanding's turtle, are in honor of American naturalist Dr. William Blanding (1773–1857). Blanding's turtle is a medium-sized turtle with an average straight carapace length of approximately with a maximum of . A distinguishing feature of this turtle is the bright yellow chin and throat. The carapace, or upper shell, is domed, but slightly flattened along the midline, and is oblong when viewed from above. The carapace is speckled with numerous yellow or light-colored flecks or streaks on a dark background. The plastron, or lower shell, is yellow


title: "Blanding's turtle" content: with dark blotches symmetrically arranged. The head and legs are dark, and usually speckled or mottled with yellow. Blanding's turtle is also called the "semi-box" turtle, for although the plastron is hinged, the plastral lobes do not shut as tight as the box turtle's. Blanding's turtle takes 14–20 years to reach sexual maturity. Mating probably occurs in April and early May with nesting beginning in early June and lasting throughout the month. The clutch size varies from region to region. In New York, the clutch size ranges from 5–12 eggs with an average of eight. Blanding's turtle overwinters under or


title: "Blanding's turtle" content: near water, in mud, or under vegetation or debris. This is known as Brumation. During the nesting season, a female Blanding's turtle may be found more than a kilometer from where it hibernated. It is omnivorous, eating crustaceans and other invertebrates, fish, frogs, crayfish, carrion, berries, and vegetable debris. It is capable of catching live fish. Blanding's turtle may live to be 80 years. Based on the extreme lack of aging symptoms and lack of age related decline, these turtles are considered a negligibly senescent species. Blanding's turtle is a timid turtle and may plunge into water and remain on


title: "Blanding's turtle" content: the bottom for hours when alarmed. If away from water, the turtle will withdraw into its shell. It is very gentle and rarely attempts to bite. It is very agile and a good swimmer. The geographic range of "E. blandingii" centres on the Great Lakes, and extends from central Nebraska and Minnesota (where it twice failed to become the state reptile) eastward through southern Ontario and the south shore of Lake Erie as far east as northern New York. There are also isolated populations in southeastern New York (Dutchess County), New England and Nova Scotia. Its general habitat is wetlands


title: "Blanding's turtle" content: with clean shallow water. It is known to bask on logs, and will wander far from water, particularly when nesting. It generally nests in sunny areas, with well drained soil. Younger turtles may bask on sedge and alder hummocks. Young will often travel far in search of mating sites, new habitat, or new food sources, as do elder turtles. The primary threat to Blanding's turtle is habitat fragmentation and destruction as well as nest predation by unnaturally large populations of predators. It is listed as an endangered species on the IUCN Red List as endangered in some U.S. states, and


title: "Blanding's turtle" content: as either threatened or endangered throughout Canada, though it has no federal status in the U.S. The Blanding's turtle is also not currently listed under CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) protection, but is under consideration as of 2013. The U.S. states in which it is considered endangered are Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and South Dakota. It is considered threatened in New York. Blanding's turtle is also fully protected in Michigan as a special concern species, and is not to be collected or harmed. In Nebraska, this turtle is


title: "Blanding's turtle" content: uncommon in the eastern portion of the state, but common to abundant in the Sand Hills region lakes, ponds, and streams. In Canada, the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River population in Ontario and Quebec is federally threatened and the Nova Scotia population is endangered. Conservation and recovery efforts in Nova Scotia have been in place for two decades and rely on habitat and life history monitoring based on the work of researchers and volunteers. Habitat protection has proven crucial. The population in Kejimkujik has been placed under the highest level of protection; the McGowan Lake population was initially protected by Bowater


title: "Blanding's turtle" content: but has since been taken over by the Province. In Pleasant River, Nova Scotia Nature Trust protects four separate segments of critical habitat. Blanding's turtle Blanding's turtle ("Emys blandingii" or "Emydoidea blandingii" ) is a semi-aquatic turtle of the family Emydidae. This species is native to central and eastern parts of Canada and the United States. It is considered to be an endangered species throughout much of its range. Blanding's turtles are of interest in longevity research, as they show little to no common signs of aging and are physically active and capable of reproduction into eight or nine decades


title: "Metairie Cemetery" content: Metairie Cemetery Metairie Cemetery is a cemetery in New Orleans, Louisiana, United States. The name has caused some people to mistakenly presume that the cemetery is located in Metairie, Louisiana; but it is located within the New Orleans city limits, on Metairie Road (and formerly on the banks of the since filled-in Bayou Metairie). This site was previously a horse racing track, Metairie Race Course, founded in 1838. The race track was the site of the famous Lexington-Lecomte Race, April 1, 1854, billed as the "North against the South" race. Former President Millard Fillmore attended. While racing was suspended because


title: "Metairie Cemetery" content: of the American Civil War, it was used as a Confederate Camp (Camp Moore) until David Farragut took New Orleans for the Union in April 1862. Metairie Cemetery was built upon the grounds of the old Metairie Race Course after it went bankrupt. The race track, which was owned by the Metairie Jockey Club, refused membership to Charles T. Howard, a local resident who had gained his wealth by starting the first Louisiana State Lottery. After being refused membership, Howard vowed that the race course would become a cemetery. Sure enough, after the Civil War and Reconstruction, the track went


title: "Metairie Cemetery" content: bankrupt and Howard was able to see his curse come true. Today, Howard is buried in his tomb located on Central Avenue in the cemetery, which was built following the original oval layout of the track itself. Mr. Howard died in 1885 in Dobbs Ferry, New York when he fell from a newly purchased horse. Metairie Cemetery was previously owned and operated by Stewart Enterprises, Inc., of Jefferson, Louisiana. However, in December 2013, Service Corporation International bought Metairie Cemetery and other Stewart locations. Metairie Cemetery has the largest collection of elaborate marble tombs and funeral statuary in the city. One


title: "Metairie Cemetery" content: of the most famous is the Army of Tennessee, Louisiana Division monument, a monumental tomb of Confederate soldiers of the American Civil War. The monument includes two notable works by sculptor Alexander Doyle (1857–1922): Other notable monuments in Metairie Cemetery include: The initial construction of at least one of these elaborate final resting places – restaurateur Ruth Fertel's mausoleum – is estimated to have cost between $125,000 to $500,000 (in late 20th century dollars). Metairie Cemetery Metairie Cemetery is a cemetery in New Orleans, Louisiana, United States. The name has caused some people to mistakenly presume that the cemetery is


title: Ha-Mim content: Ha-Mim Ha-Mim () is the short form of the name Ha-Mim ibn Mann-Allah ibn Harir ibn Umar ibn Rahfu ibn Azerwal ibn Majkasa, also known as Abu Muhammad; he was a member of the Majkasa sub-tribe of the Ghomara Berbers who proclaimed himself a prophet in 925 near Tetouan in Morocco. He was named after a well-known combination of Qur'anic initial letters. His claim was widely accepted among the Ghomara of the time, and he established rules for them. He said that he received a revelation in the Berber language, portions of which historian Ibn Khaldun quotes in Arabic: "O


title: "Charles Ernest Beulé" content: Charles Ernest Beulé Charles Ernest Beulé (29 June 1826 – 4 April 1874) was a French archaeologist and politician. Born at Saumur, Maine-et-Loire, he was educated at the École Normale, and after having held the professorship of rhetoric at Moulins for a year, was sent to Athens in 1851 as one of the professors in the École Française there. He had the good fortune to discover the "propylaea" of the acropolis, and his work, "L'Acropole d'Athènes" was published by order of the minister of public instruction. On his return to France, promotion and distinctions followed rapidly upon his first successes.


title: "Glenn Ford" content: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt," recalled Glenn Ford to his son decades later, "I was thrilled when I got back to Los Angeles and found a beautiful photograph personally autographed to me. It always held a place of high honor in my home." After 35 interviews and glowing reviews for him personally, Glenn Ford had young female fans begging for his autograph, too. However, the young man was disappointed when Columbia Pictures did nothing with this prestige and new visibility and instead kept plugging him into conventional films for the rest of his 7-year contract. His next picture, "Texas", was his


title: "Coat of arms of the Isle of Wight" content: Coat of arms of the Isle of Wight The coat of arms of the Isle of Wight was granted to the former Isle of Wight County Council in 1938. The arms were transferred to the new unitary Isle of Wight Council when the county council along with Medina and South Wight district councils were abolished in 1995. The shield contains an image of Carisbrooke Castle, the historical seat of many former governors of the island, and three gold anchors. The azure (blue) field and anchors are representative of Wight's island status and maritime history. The shield is also the basis


title: "Mike Babcock" content: Mike Babcock Michael Babcock Jr. (born April 29, 1963) is a Canadian professional ice hockey head coach, currently serving as head coach of the Toronto Maple Leafs of the National Hockey League (NHL). He previously spent 10 seasons as head coach of the Detroit Red Wings, winning the Stanley Cup with them in 2008 and helping them to the Stanley Cup Playoffs every year during his tenure. He holds the record as the coach with the most wins in Red Wings history, surpassing that of Jack Adams. He has also served as head coach of the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim,


title: "Spin foam" content: edges which encode aspects of a spatial geometry. A spin network is defined as a diagram like the Feynman diagram which makes a basis of connections between the elements of a differentiable manifold for the Hilbert spaces defined over them, and for computations of amplitudes between two different hypersurfaces of the manifold. Any evolution of the spin network provides a spin foam over a manifold of one dimension higher than the dimensions of the corresponding spin network. A spin foam is analogous to quantum history. Spin networks provide a language to describe the quantum geometry of space. Spin foam does


title: "Irna Phillips" content: it onto Agnes Nixon. In 1965, Phillips was a story editor for "Days of Our Lives" and was a story consultant on "Peyton Place" before co-creating "Our Private World", the first primetime series to be spun off from a daytime serial. The series featured the "As the World Turns" character Lisa Miller; the series ran during the spring, summer and early fall of 1965, before being cancelled. She left "Love is a Many Splendored Thing" when CBS censors refused to fully tell a love story involving an Amerasian woman (born out of the love affair in the original film) and


title: "Alexander Butterfield" content: Coronado, California, and left home in 1943. Butterfield enrolled in college at the University of California, Los Angeles, where he became a friend of H. R. Haldeman and John Ehrlichman. He left the university to join the United States Air Force in 1948. Initially, Butterfield was stationed at Las Vegas Air Force Base (now Nellis Air Force Base) as a fighter-gunnery instructor before being transferred to the 86th Fighter Wing in Munich, West Germany, in November 1951, where he was a member of the Sky Blazers jet fighter acrobatic team. He later served as the operations officer of a fighter-interceptor


title: Midazolam content: to prolonged and enhanced effects. Contraindications include hypersensitivity, acute narrow-angle glaucoma, shock, hypotension, or head injury. Most are relative contraindications. Side effects of midazolam in the elderly are listed above. People experiencing amnesia as a side effect of midazolam are generally unaware their memory is impaired, unless they had previously known it as a side effect. Long-term use of benzodiazepines has been associated with long-lasting deficits of memory, and show only partial recovery six months after stopping benzodiazepines. It is unclear whether full recovery occurs after longer periods of abstinence. Benzodiazepines can cause or worsen depression. Paradoxical excitement occasionally occurs


title: "Melon Dezign" content: Melon Dezign Melon Dezign was an Amiga demoscene group founded in Denmark on October 21, 1991 by Seen (Henrik Lund Mikkelsen) and Paleface (Jacob Gorm Hansen). Originally, they were a subgroup of Crystal, where they at first exclusively created intros for cracked games. Shortly after the formation, they were joined by Bannasoft (Johan Kjeldgaard-Petersen), and after helping organise The Party, a demo event with more than 1200 attendees, several other members joined, including Walt, Mack, Performer, Audiomonster in France, Mikael and Benjamin in Norway and Mark Knight otherwise known as TDK in the UK. The group was notable in the


title: "Christian Klien" content: considerably reliable over the season, retiring only on 4 occasions out of the possible 18. Klien's only points scoring finish in his debut season came in Belgium, where Klien finished sixth; scoring 3 Championship points. He finished alongside Cristiano da Matta and Nick Heidfeld in joint 16th in the Drivers' Championship. Jaguar were bought out in November 2004 by Austrian energy drink company Red Bull and were renamed Red Bull Racing. During winter testing in 2005, Klien tested several times for Red Bull Racing alongside Vitantonio Liuzzi and David Coulthard. Klien secured the second race seat at Red Bull, alongside


title: "Variable number tandem repeat" content: sequences of minisatellites are larger than those of microsatellites, in which the repeat sequence is generally two to five nucleotides. The two types of repeat sequences are both tandem but are specified by the length of the repeat sequence. VNTRs, therefore, because they have repeat sequences of ten to one hundred nucleotides in which every repeat is exactly the same, are considered minisatellites. However, while all VNTRs are minisatellites, not all minisatellites are VNTRs. VNTRs can vary in number of repeats from individual to individual, as where some non-VNTR minisatellites have repeat sequences that repeat the same number of times


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: Longmen Grottoes The Longmen Grottoes () or Longmen Caves are some of the finest examples of Chinese Buddhist art. Housing tens of thousands of statues of Buddha and his disciples, they are located south of present-day Luoyang in Henan province, China. The images, many once painted, were carved as outside rock reliefs and inside artificial caves excavated from the limestone cliffs of the Xiangshan () and Longmenshan, running east and west. The Yi River () flows northward between them and the area used to be called Yique (). The alternative name of "Dragon's Gate Grottoes" derives from the resemblance of


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: the two hills that check the flow of the Yi River to the typical "Chinese gate towers" that once marked the entrance to Luoyang from the south. There are as many as 100,000 statues within the 2,345 caves, ranging from to in height. The area also contains nearly 2,500 stelae and inscriptions, hence the name “Forest of Ancient Stelae", as well as over sixty Buddhist pagodas. Situated in a scenic natural environment, the caves were dug from a stretch of cliff running along both banks of the river. 30% date from the Northern Wei Dynasty and 60% from the Tang


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: Dynasty, caves from other periods accounting for less than 10% of the total. Starting with the Northern Wei Dynasty in 493 AD, patrons and donors included emperors, Wu Zetian, members of the royal family, other rich families, generals, and religious groups. In 2000 the site was inscribed upon the UNESCO World Heritage List as “an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity,” for its perfection of an art form, and for its encapsulation of the cultural sophistication of Tang China. This complex is one of the three notable grottoes in China. The other two grottoes are the Yungang Caves near Datong


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: in Shanxi Province, and the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang in Gansu Province. The valley formed by the Yi River enclosed by two hills ranges of Xiangshan (to the east) and Longmenshan (to the west) hills have steep slopes on the western and eastern slopes along the river. Yi is a north flowing tributary of the Luo River. The grottoes are formed in 1 km of the stretch of this river and were carved on both banks, in limestone formations creating the Longmen Caves. Most of the work was done on the western bank, while the eastern bank caves, of smaller


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: numbers, served as residences for the large groups of monks. Within the approximately 1,400 caves, there are 100,000 statues, some of which are only high, while the largest Buddha statue is in height. There are also approximately 2500 stelae and 60 pagodas. The grottoes are located on both sides of the Yi River. Fifty large and medium-sized caves are seen on the west hill cliffs which are credited to the Northern, Sui, and Tang Dynasties, while the caves on the east hill were carved entirely during the Tang Dynasty. The plethora of caves, sculptures and pagodas in Longmen Grottoes depict


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: a definite "progression in style" with the early caves being simple and well shaped with carvings of statues of Buddha and religious people. The change of style is more distinct in the Tang Dynastic periods which are “more complex and incorporate women and court figures as well”. The caves have been numbered sequentially from north to south along the west bank of the Yi River. Entry to the caves is from the northern end. The earliest history of the creation of Longmen Grottoes is traced to the reign of Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei dynasty when he shifted his capital


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: to Luoyang from Dàtóng; Luoyang's symbolic value is borne by the fact that it served as the historic capital for 13 dynasties. The grottoes were excavated and carved with Buddhist subjects over the period from 493 AD to 1127 AD, in four distinct phases. The first phase started with the Northern Wei dynasty (493–534). The second phase saw slow development of caves as there was interruption due to strife in the region, between 524 and 626, during the reign of the Sui dynasty (581–618) and the early part of the Tang dynasty (618–907). The third phase, was during the reign


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: of the Tang dynasty when Chinese Buddhism flourished and there was a proliferation of caves and carvings from 626 to the mid 8th century. The last phase, which was the fourth, was from the later part of the Tang dynastic rule extending to the Northern Song Dynasty rule, which saw a decline in the creation of grottoes. It came to an end due to internecine war between the Jin and Yuan dynasties. Guyangdong or the Shiku Temple, credited to Emperor Xiaowen, was the first cave temple to be built at the center of the southern floor of the West Hill.


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei followed up this activity and excavated three more caves, two in memory of his father, Emperor Xiaowen, and one in memory of his mother; all three caves are grouped under the title of the "Three Binyang Caves" (Binyangsandong), which were built by the emperor over a 24-year period. Over 30% of the caves seen now were built during this period. In 527, the Huangfugong or Shikusi grottoes, a major cave, was completed. It is a well conserved cave located to the south of the West Hill. In 675, Fengxiansi Cave, on the southern floor of


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: the West Hill was completed during the Tang dynasty rule. This marked the third phase of creation and the peak period of the gottoes' creation. It is estimated that 60% of the caves seen at Longmen came about in this period from 626 till 755. During this period, in addition to the caves which housed Buddha statues of various sizes, some Buddhist temples were also built in open spaces with scenic settings in the same complex. However, these are now mostly in ruins. During this phase, Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu Zetian were instrumental in intensifying the activity when they


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: were ruling from Luyong. During the period of 1368 to 1912, when two dynasties ruled in China, namely the Ming dynasty from 1368 to 1644, and the Qing Dynasty from 1644 to 1912, there was cultural revival and the Longmen Grottoes received recognition both at the national and international level. During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese looted the site and took many of the statues back to Japan. Many of these relics are now in Japanese museums. Vandalism occurred in the 1940s, a result of political unrest. With the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: grottoes have been declared as protected area and are being conserved. The Constitution of China, under Article 22, which among other issues also provides for protection of the natural heritage sites, has been further defined under various legal instruments enacted to protect and conserve this cultural heritage of China. The Longmen Relics Care Agency was established in 1953 under the Ministry of Culture. A 1954 site inventory was undertaken by the newly established Longmen Caves Cultural Relics Management and Conservation Office. The State Council declared the Longmen Grottoes as a national cultural monument needing special protection in 1961. In 1982,


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: it was declared as one of the first group of scenic zones to be protected at the state level. The Management and Conservation Office was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Institute in 1990; and the People’s Government of Luoyang City became responsible for the management of the heritage monuments. The governing organization was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Academy in 2002. During the Warring States period, the general Bai Qi of Qin once defeated the allied forces of Han and Wei at the site. The site was subjected to significant vandalism at several points in its history. Major artifacts were


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: removed by Western collectors and souvenir hunters during the early 20th century. The heads of many statues were also destroyed during the Cultural Revolution. Two murals taken from the grottoes are reported to be displayed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art in Kansas City, Missouri. There are several major grottoes with notable displays of Buddhist sculptures and calligraphic inscriptions. Some of the main caves and the year when work began within them include: Guyang-dong (493), Binyang-dong (505), Lianhua-dong (520s), Weizi-dong (522), Shiku-si (520s), Weizi-dong (520s), Shisku (520s), Yaofang-dong (570), Zhaifu-dong (ca.


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: 636), Huijian-dong (630s), Fahua-dong (650s), Fengxian-si (672), Wanfo-si (670-680s), Jinan-dong (684), Ganjing-si (684), and Leigutai-dong (684). The Guyang, Binyang, and Lianhua caves are horseshoe-shaped. Guyangdong, or Guyang Cave, or Old Sun Cave, is recorded as the oldest Longmen cave with carvings in the Northern Wei style. It is also the largest cave, located in the central part of the west hill. It was carved under the orders of Emperor Xiaowen. The earliest carving in this limestone cave has been now dated at 478 AD, during the period when Emperor Xiaowen is thought to have been moving his capital from Datong


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: to Luoyang. The Buddhist statues in the niches of this cave are very well sculpted. Also found here are 600 inscriptions in fine calligraphy of writings in the Northern Wei style. Many of the sculptures inside the cave were contributed by royalty; religious groups supported this activity. The cave has three very large images – the central image is of Sakyamuni Buddha with Bodhisattvas on either side. The features of the images are indicative of the Northern Wei style, typically of slim and emaciated figures. There are about 800 inscriptions on the walls and in the niches inside the cave,


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: the most in any cave in China. There are two rows of niches on the northern and southern walls of the cave, which house a very large number of images; the artists have recorded their names, the dates, and the reasons for carving them. Binyang has three caves, North Binyang Cave, Middle Binyang Cave and South Binyang Cave, of which the Middle Binyang Cave is the most prominent. Binyangzhongdong or the Middle Binyang Cave, is carved in the Datang style on the west hill, on the northern floor. It was built by Emperor Xuanwun to commemorate his father Xiaowen, and


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: also his mother. It is said that 800,000 workers created it over the period from 500 to 523. In the main wall of this cave, five very large Buddhist statues are carved all in Northern Wei style The central statue is of Sakyamuni Buddha with four images of Bodhisattvas flanking it. Two side walls also have Buddha images flanked by Bodhisattva. The Buddhas, arranged in three groups in the cave, are representative of Buddhas of the past, the present, and the future. The canopy in the roof is designed as a lotus flower. There were two large bas-reliefs of imperial


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: processions, that included Emperor Xiaowen, Empress Dowager Wenzhao, and the emperor's late parents in worship. The reliefs were stolen completely in the mid-1930s. The emperor's procession is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and two thirds of the empress's is in the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art in Kansas City. While a few statues are sculpted with "long features, thin faces, fishtail robes and traces of Greek influence", others are in Tang period natural style and heavily built. Binyangnandong, or the South Binyang Cave, has five very large images which were carved by Li Tai, the fourth


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: son of Li Shimin, the first Tang Emperor. He made them in 641 AD in memory of his mother Empress Zhangsun. The central image in a serene appearance is that of Amitabha Buddha seated on a pedestal surrounded by Bodhisattvas, also serene looking in a blend of the Northern Wei and the Tang Dynasty styles. Fengxian, or Feng Xian Si, or Li Zhi cave is the Ancestor Worshipping Cave, which is the largest of all caves carved on the west hill built between 672 and 676 for Empress Wu Zetian. The carvings are claimed to be the ultimate in architectural


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: perfection of the Tang dynasty. The shrine inside the cave measures 39 m x35m. It has the largest Buddha statue at the Longmen Grottoes. Of the nine huge carved statues, the highly impressive image of Vairocana Buddha is sculpted on the back wall of the Fengxian. The image is 17.14m high and has 2 m long ears. An inscription at the base of this figure gives 676 as the year of carving. The Bodhisattva on the left of the main image of Buddha is decorated with a crown and pearls. Also shown is a divine person trampling an evil spirit.


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: The main Vairocana image's features are plumpish and of peaceful and natural expression. Each of the other large statues are carved with expressions matching their representative roles. These were carved at the orders of Empress Wu Zetian, and are considered uniquely representative of the Tang dynasty's "vigorous, elegant and realistic style." The huge Vairocana statue is considered as "the quintessence of Buddhist sculpture in China." The Vairocana statue also provides at its base the names of the artisans who worked here, the name of the Emperor Gaozong, who was the donor, and also honors Wu Zetian. It is said that


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: Wu Zetian donated "twenty-thousand strings of her rouge and powder money" to complete this edifice. Hence, it is conjectured that the Vairocana Buddha was carved to resemble the Empress herself and termed a "Chinese Mona Lisa, Venus or as the Mother of China". All the images here, which remain undamaged, project character and animation. Statues of Kasyapa and Ananda, the two principal disciples of Vairocana, and of two Bodhisattvas with crowns flank the main statue, in addition to numerous images of "lokapalas (guardians or heavenly kings), dvarapalas (temple guards), flying devas and numerous other figures." Huangfugong, or Shikusi, a three-wall,


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: three-niche cave, is situated south of the west hill, was carved out in 527. It was completed at one stretch as a single unit and is very well preserved. There are seven Buddhas carved on the lintel which give the appearance of a wood finish. Seven very large images are seen in the main hall with the Buddha image flanked by two Bodhisattvas and two disciples. Also seen are images of Buddhist groups in the niches of the cave. A very large design of a lotus flower is carved in the roof, flanked by eight musical apsaras (water spirits or


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: nymphs). It was created by Huangfu Du, uncle of Empress Hu. Wan-fo-tung ("Cave of Ten Thousand Buddhas"), or Yung-lung-tung, was built in 680 by Gaozong and Wu Zetian. It houses 15,000 Buddhas carved in small niches, different from each other, with the smallest Buddha being in height. Yaofangdong, or the Medical Prescription Cave, has small inscriptions of 140 medical prescriptions for a wide range of medical problems from the common cold to insanity. These are seen carved right at the entrance on both walls. These carvings are dated from the late Northern Wei period to the early Tang Dynasty. Reached


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: by modern, concrete stairs up the face of a cliff, Qianxisi, or Hidden Stream Temple Cave, is a large cave on the northern edge of the west hill. Made during Gaozong's reign (653–80), the cave has a statue of a huge, seated, early Tang Buddha (Amitabha Buddha), flanked by statues of the Bodhisattvas Avalokitesvara and Mahasthamaprapta. The statues are carved with a sophisticated expression typical of Tang style. It may have been sponsored by the Nanping princess, with the beneficiary being Gaozong, her recently deceased father. The Lianhua or the Lotus Flower Cave, dated to 527, belongs to the Northern


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: Wei period. The Grotto has a large lotus flower carved in high relief on its ceiling. Several small Buddhas are carved into the south wall. Also seen are shrines in the south and north wall in the niches. The Laolong or the Old Dragon Cave created during the Tang Dynasty period, named after the Old Dragon Palace, has many niches dated to Gaozong’s reign. There are the several temples at Longmen Grottoes. Some important ones include Xiangshan Temple, Bai Garden temple, and the Tomb of Bai Juyi. Others are Tongle temple, begun under Emperor Mingyuan; Lingyan and Huguo temples, under


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: Emperor Wencheng; Tiangong temple, under Xiaowen; and Chongfu temple, under Qianer. Xiangshan Temple is one of the earliest of the ten temples at Longmen. It is located in the midsection of the east hill. The name 'Xiangshan' is derived from the name of the spices "Xiangge" found extensively on these hill slopes. It was reconstructed some time in 1707, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty, patterned on an old temple that existed there. Longmen Grottoes Administration, expanded the temple in 2002, by adding the "Belfry, the Drum Tower, the Wing Room, the Hall of Mahavira and Hall of Nine


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: Persons, Eighteen Arhats, the Villa of Chiang Kai-shek and Soong Mei-ling". New additions included board walks, compound wall and a new gate from the southern end of the temple. Bai Garden is temple situated on the Pipa peak, to the north of the east hill (Xiangshan Hill). It was re-built in 1709 by Tang Youzeng of the Qing Dynasty. The temple is surrounded by thick vegetation of pine and cypress trees. The Tomb of Bai Juyi on the east bank is that of the well-known poet during the Tang Dynasty who lived in Luoyang during his later years. The tomb


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: is located on the hill top. It is approached from the west bank after crossing a bridge across the Yi River. The tomb is a circular mound of earth of 4 meters height with a circumference of 52 meters. The tomb is 2.80 meters high and has the poet's name inscribed on it as Bai Juyi. One of the major achievements in this direction is the recognition given to the monuments by UNESCO in declaring the Longmen Grottoes a heritage monument, after due evaluation over a period, and inscribing it in the World Heritage List. The recognition is based on


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: Criteria (i), (ii), and (iii): "Criterion (i), the sculptures of the Longmen Grottoes are an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity; Criterion (ii) the Longmen Grottoes illustrate the perfection of a long-established art form which was to play a highly significant role in the cultural evolution of this region of Asia; and Criterion (iii), the high cultural level and sophisticated society of Tang Dynasty China is encapsulated in the exceptional stone carvings of the Longmen Grottoes." This also enjoins the Government of China to take adequate steps to preserve the monument in its heritage status according to guidelines issued from


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: time to time after frequent inspections of the site. The Longmen Grottoes have undergone many concerted efforts of identifying, demarcating, planning, and implementing restoration works since 1951. To start with, a weather monitoring station was established near the grottoes to assess the environmental conditions prevailing in the area and to plan appropriate restoration measures. This was followed by intensive restoration works, initially in the form of strengthening the rock bases to arrest seepage of water from the roofs and sides of the grottoes. Overgrown vegetation with roots was cleared. Means of access to the caves were newly installed in the


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: form of railings, footpaths and walkways with steps. All the efforts taken by the government of China over the last nearly six decades has ensured that the grottoes are preserved in a fairly presentable state of conservation. All this has been achieved by the integrated action of three institutions, namely: the China Institution of Cultural Relics Protection, who provided the professional scientific inputs, the China University of Geosciences, and the Longmen Cultural Relics Care Agency. Funds for the studies and restoration works have been provided for under the Revised Five-Year and Ten-Year Plans approved by the People’s Government of Luoyang


title: "Longmen Grottoes" content: City in 1999. Longmen Grottoes The Longmen Grottoes () or Longmen Caves are some of the finest examples of Chinese Buddhist art. Housing tens of thousands of statues of Buddha and his disciples, they are located south of present-day Luoyang in Henan province, China. The images, many once painted, were carved as outside rock reliefs and inside artificial caves excavated from the limestone cliffs of the Xiangshan () and Longmenshan, running east and west. The Yi River () flows northward between them and the area used to be called Yique (). The alternative name of "Dragon's Gate Grottoes" derives from


title: "Marshall Crenshaw" content: Billboard's Rock Tracks chart. Crenshaw's eponymous first album included the U.S. hit, "Someday, Someway". His second album, "Field Day", was released in June 1983, sported a somewhat heavier sound, as evidenced on "Whenever You're On My Mind," that reportedly displeased a few listeners, but which is regarded by many critics as Crenshaw's best, and one of the classic power pop statements, although Crenshaw's work, somewhat like the late Alex Chilton's, transcends the genre. "Some of the stuff I've done you could call power pop," he told an interviewer, "but the term does have sort of a dodgy connotation." Although the


title: Heterosis content: than a century. These two alternative hypotheses were first stated in 1908. When a population is small or inbred, it tends to lose genetic diversity. Inbreeding depression is the loss of fitness due to loss of genetic diversity. Inbred strains tend to be homozygous for recessive alleles that are mildly harmful (or produce a trait that is undesirable from the standpoint of the breeder). Heterosis or hybrid vigor, on the other hand, is the tendency of outbred strains to exceed both inbred parents in fitness. Selective breeding of plants and animals, including hybridization, began long before there was an understanding


title: "Hans Dragendorff" content: Society of Antiquities of London (1933). Hans Dragendorff Hans Dragendorff (15 October 1870 in Dorpat (Tartu), Estonia – 29 January 1941 in Freiburg, Germany) was a Baltic German scholar who introduced the first classification system for the type of Ancient Roman pottery known as Samian ware or Terra sigillata, in 1896, using type numbers. His scheme was based on the varying forms the vessels took and although it has since been augmented and refined by others, it is still common to refer to 'Dragendorff type 37' bowls for example. Dragendorff studied in Dorpat, Berlin and Bonn with Georg Loeschcke and


title: Briard content: Briard The Briard is an ancient breed of large herding dog, originally from France. A Briard-like dog appears in Gaston Febus' "Livre de chasse" ("Book of the Hunt"), written in the late 14th century. According to legend, about the same time, a Briard fought a judicial duel with Robert Macaire to avenge the murder of its owner, Aubry of Montdidier. Charlemagne, Napoleon, Thomas Jefferson, and Lafayette are all said to have owned Briards. The breed became popular after the Paris dog show of 1863, after having been fixed with crosses with the Beauceron and the Barbet. During the First World


title: Briard content: War, the Briard was used, almost to the point of extinction, by the French army as a sentry, messenger, and to search for wounded soldiers. The Briard's modern-day roles include police, military and search-and-rescue work, as well as companion dog. They were originally bred to herd as well as guard flocks of sheep. And they were often left to their own devices in order to accomplish their assigned tasks. This makes the Briard different from those breeds that only guard and those that only herd. The breeds that just herd are often smaller in size, agile, and swift of foot.


title: Briard content: Those breeds that just guard are usually larger and heavier. Briards were used in all types of herding situations, having the ability to learn many commands and fulfill the jobs expected of them. The Briard was most commonly used as a farm dog in the more crowded farming valleys of France, where row crops were grown. Sheep were allowed to graze the grass strips between crops and Briards were responsible for keeping the sheep moving along these strips, and preventing the sheep from eating the crops. The Briard moved the sheep daily from the farm to the graze areas and


title: Briard content: back again at night. At the farm, the Briard was the shepherd's partner, helping with livestock chores. The Briard was also used to move large flocks of sheep in areas of France that had wide grazing pastures and mountain pastures in summer. The Briards were usually worked beside one or two other breeds to keep the sheep from straying and herd the sheep to the proper areas. At night, they were alert and vigilant watchdogs, protecting the shepherds and flock from wolves and thieves. The Briard can be tawny, black, grey or blue however there are variations in each color.


title: Briard content: Briards stand 58 to 69 cm (22 to 27 inches) at the withers. Ear cropping has been common in the breed, although more breeders are leaving the ears in their natural state since ear cropping is becoming illegal in most European countries, including the Briard's land of origin, France. When cropped, the ears should stand erect and parallel with the base being wide and tapering to a rounded point with hair covering the opening. Their long coat requires an extensive amount of grooming. The outer coat is coarse, hard and dry (making a dry rasping sound between the fingers). It


title: Briard content: lies down flat, falling naturally in long, slightly waving locks, having the sheen of good health. On the shoulders the length of the hair is generally six inches or more. The undercoat is fine and tight on all the body. The head is well covered with hair which lies down, forming a natural part in the center. The eyebrows do not lie flat but, instead, arch up and out in a curve that lightly veils the eyes. The hair is never so abundant that it masks the form of the head or completely covers the eyes. Briards come in a


title: Briard content: variety from different colors. The breed characteristics of the Briard, are of a medium-sized, rugged, agile dog, having harsh coat and double dewclaws mounted low on each rear leg, resembling additional toes. Each double dew claw should have bone substance and nail, giving the appearance of a wider rear foot. Bred for centuries to herd, the additional digits on each rear foot give the Briard the ability of pivoting on one foot for quick turns and complete turn-arounds, which are necessary when herding and guarding their flocks. Throughout history, the Briard has retained an appropriate balance of size and build


title: Briard content: that is required for both herding and protection of their flocks. They are not too large to tire during herding yet large enough to fend off predators such as foxes and wolves. The Briard is a very loyal and protective breed, and is sometimes called "a heart of gold wrapped in fur". Once they have bonded to their family members, they will be very protective. They can be aloof with strangers - new introductions should be on the dog's terms, including furniture or the addition of a new baby into the household. They require showing that the new intrusion is


title: Briard content: friendly and free of conflict. They must be taught that it is a good thing and not harmful. They have proven to be a very good breed to have around children of all ages. Indeed, these dogs rapidly develop an affection to their owners. They are very emotional, capable of crying for a long time after their owners' departure and celebrate their return in a very enthusiastic way. It is also important that the Briard be introduced to several different individuals of all ages and in all types of situations. Socialization starting at a very young age is mandatory. Briards


title: Briard content: should be walked as often as possible, to many different places, and they will develop into a well rounded animal. Pet stores, city parks and malls are a good place to start. The Briard has been bred for centuries to herd and to protect their flocks. To domesticated briards, their family is the flock and all strangers may appear to be predators. Letting them know that the public in general are friendly and not harmful will help them establish a lifelong socialization pattern which will result in an outgoing and happy dog. This socialization with the public in general will


title: Briard content: not diminish their capacity for protecting and guarding their family. The Briard has a very good memory. Once a lesson is learned, good or bad, the knowledge will be retained for a long time to come. Sometimes they may appear to be strong minded and stubborn but these are a few of the Briard's characteristics. They were bred for centuries to think for themselves and to act upon their conclusions, sometimes to the point of thinking what the "flock" will do ahead of time. These are some of the traits that the Briard has retained throughout history. Even if a


title: Briard content: Briard is a city dweller, they have a degree of herding ability within them. If ever, during their lifetime, they are introduced to sheep or cattle, they will automatically start doing what they were bred to do, herding. They will even herd humans by nibbling on their ankles or guiding with their heads and guide them to his master if ordered. Briards have been used in a variety of service and therapy roles to help those with disabilities and comfort those in hospitals, schools and retirement communities. Briards are also being trained as autism service dogs and PTSD service dogs


title: Briard content: for both adults and children. With their keen intelligence, tactile coat interaction, and loyalty, they can make a difference in the quality of life for those with disabilities or in recovery. With their breed tendency toward a dominant working temperament, aggression, and high prey drive due to their history as a working guardian type dog, they also can be very problematic, even dangerous, used for service or therapy work in the public setting. Some bloodlines have more issues with temperament than others. One needs to exercise caution. If inappropriately trained they have a higher potential to attack other dogs (including


title: Briard content: other service dogs) or strangers around them so careful selection, thorough training, and appropriate pairing of the individual dog with a handler appropriate to that particular dog is extremely important for success as a service dog with this breed. The potential for aggression, especially towards other dogs and strangers is something that one who is training them for service work or similar pursuits needs to be aware of (and truthfully educate potential handlers about if placing in another home). While a small portion of Briards certainly have the proper temperament needed to participate in service work and similar, a larger


title: Briard content: portion are only suited for, and will do fine with an experienced handler and another portion not even then. Being a dog tending to a dominant temperament, and a powerful working breed, with often a high prey drive, any pairing with the inexperienced, small children, the physically fragile and the like should be undertaken with caution for the safety of the handler and the public around them . This is not a breed, among others, that most trainers or service dog training establishments would choose or recommend for public service work with handlers that lack experience with these types of


title: Briard content: dogs. Potential handlers need to do their homework on a breed before committing to it. "Breeds classified as Guard Dogs, Flock Guardians or Fighting Dogs have aggression related breed traits that are particularly worrisome. Assistance dog partners who do not have previous experience handling a dog with a strong Protection drive, a fierce Territorial instinct or a hereditary dog aggression problem should not attempt a partnership with one of these breeds. Those who do choose to work with one of these breeds must respect the darker side of its nature, learn how to avoid triggering it and never ignore the


title: Briard content: potential for a misunderstanding. This accurately describes the Briard and many other working breeds perfectly. "The Briard is probably not the breed for you if you lack leadership skills, believe in giving in to every wish and desire of your pets or don't have the time, energy or commitment to bring out the best in a new Briard puppy." Briards can compete in dog agility trials, obedience, showmanship, flyball, Schutzhund, tracking, and herding events. Herding instincts and trainability can be measured at noncompetitive herding tests. Briards exhibiting basic herding instincts can be trained to compete in herding trials. This breed


title: Briard content: is also commonly screened for congenital stationary night blindness (SNB) with a DNA test. SNB is inherited through recessive genes. Progressive retinal atrophy PRA, is a disease that causes nerve cells at the back of the eye to degenerate. The condition usually begins in older pets and can lead to blindness. Progressive retinal degeneration or atrophy (PRD/PRA) represents a group of inherited eye diseases characterized by abnormal development or premature degeneration of the retina. There are two types of photoreceptors in the retina and these are the light-sensitive rods and cones. They are responsible for detecting light and converting it


title: Briard content: into an electrical signal that travels to the brain. When the photoreceptor cells deteriorate, vision is lost because the animal has no way to generate an image from the light reaching the retina. Puppies are usually blind before one year of age. For the first time ever, animals (Briards) that were born blind gained the ability to see after undergoing gene therapy, according to research from the University of Florida, Cornell University and the University of Pennsylvania. UF researchers had established that the apparently harmless adeno-associated virus can carry healthy copies of a gene into the cells of the retina,


title: Briard content: which is composed of layers of light-sensitive nerve cells. The healthy gene's mission: to produce a protein critical to translating light waves into nerve impulses that can be interpreted as images by the brain. The study was successful and the puppies could see in the eye that was treated. Officials from the Foundation Fighting Blindness, which supported the study with grant funds, said the success in reversing blindness in dogs is an important advance. Briard The Briard is an ancient breed of large herding dog, originally from France. A Briard-like dog appears in Gaston Febus' "Livre de chasse" ("Book of


title: "Yungang Grottoes" content: Yungang Grottoes The Yungang Grottoes, formerly the Wuzhoushan Grottoes, are ancient Chinese Buddhist temple grottoes near the city of Datong in the province of Shanxi. They are excellent examples of rock-cut architecture and one of the three most famous ancient Buddhist sculptural sites of China. The others are Longmen and Mogao. The site is located about 16 km west of the city of Datong, in the valley of the Shi Li river at the base of the Wuzhou Shan mountains. They are an outstanding example of the Chinese stone carvings from the 5th and 6th centuries. There are 53 major


title: "Yungang Grottoes" content: caves, along with 51,000 niches housing the same number of Buddha statues. Additionally, there are around 1,100 minor caves. A Ming Dynasty-era fort is still located on top of the cliff housing the Yungang Grottoes. The grottoes were excavated in the south face of a sandstone cliff about 2600 feet long and 30 to 60 feet high. In 2001, the Yungang Grottoes were made a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Yungang Grottoes are considered by UNESCO to be a "masterpiece of early Chinese Buddhist cave art... [and] ...represent the successful fusion of Buddhist religious symbolic art from south and central


title: "Yungang Grottoes" content: Asia with Chinese cultural traditions, starting in the 5th century CE under Imperial auspices." It is classified as a AAAAA scenic area by the China National Tourism Administration. After the decline of the Jin Dynasty, the northern parts of China came under the control of the Northern Wei. They made the city of Pingcheng, now known as Datong, their capital. Due to its promotion, Pingcheng saw an increase in construction work. The Northern Wei early adopted Buddhism as their state religion. Buddhism arrived in this location via travel on the ancient North Silk Road, the northernmost route of about 2600


title: "Yungang Grottoes" content: kilometres in length, which connected the ancient Chinese capital of Xi'an to the west over the Wushao Ling Pass to Wuwei and emerging in Kashgar before linking to ancient Parthia. The work on this first period of carving lasted until the year 465 AD, and the caves are now known as caves 16–20. Beginning around the year 471 AD, in a second construction phase that lasted until 494 AD, the twin caves 5/6, 7/8, and 9/10 as well as the caves 11, 12, and probably 13 were constructed under the supervision and support of the imperial court. The imperial patronage


title: "Yungang Grottoes" content: ended 494 AD with the move of the Wei court to the new capital of Luoyang. All other caves emerged under private patronage in a third construction period, lasting until 525, when the construction came to a final halt due to uprisings in the area. Since the end of the works, the sandstone of the grottoes has been exposed to heavy weathering. Many of the grottoes are exposed to the open air, and are therefore vulnerable to various forms of pollution and deterioration. Windblown dust and air pollution from the industrial city of Datong, as well as dust from mines


title: "Yungang Grottoes" content: and highways near the site pose a threat to the preservation of the ancient statues. The site is also in proximity of the Gobi Desert, the storms of which can contribute to the decay of the statues. The ensuing centuries therefore saw several attempts to preserve the caves and to repair sustained damage. During the Liao Dynasty the caves saw some renewing of statues and the buildup of the "10 temples of Yungang" from 1049 to 1060, that were meant to protect the main caves. However, they were destroyed again just some 60 years later in a fire. The wooden


title: "Yungang Grottoes" content: buildings extant in front of caves 5 and 6 were constructed in 1621, during the early Qing Dynasty. Since the 1950s, cracks in the sandstone have been sealed by grouting, and forestation has been implemented in an effort to reduce the weathering due to sandstorms. During April and May 1991, Caltech personnel conducted air pollutant measurement experiments in the Yungang Grottoes. It was found that nearly all of the airborne matter was mineral dust or carbon particles, allowing a focus of attention on sources of these kinds of matter. Cave 6 is one of the richest of the Yungang sites.


title: "Yungang Grottoes" content: It was constructed between 465 and 494 C.E. by Emperor Xiao Wen. The cave’s surface area is approximately 1,000 square meters. The entire interior of the cave is carved and painted. There is a stupa pillar in the center of the room extending from the floor to the ceiling. The walls are divided into two stories. The walls of the upper stories are host to carvings of standing Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, and monks among other celestial figures. All of the carvings were painted, but because the caves have been repainted evidently up to twelve times, determining the original scheme is difficult.


title: "Pinus longaeva" content: in fascicles of five, stout, long, deep green to blue-green on the outer face, with stomata confined to a bright white band on the inner surfaces. The leaves show the longest persistence of any plant, with some remaining green for 45 years (Ewers & Schmid 1981). The cones are ovoid-cylindrical, long and broad when closed, green or purple at first, ripening orange-buff when 16 months old, with numerous thin, fragile scales, each scale with a bristle-like spine long. The cones open to broad when mature, releasing the seeds immediately after opening. The seeds are long, with a wing; they are


title: "Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse" content: States". This would enable abused Iraqis to file suit against contractor CACI International. Employees of CACI International are being accused of encouraging torture and abuse as well as taking part in it as the four Iraqi's contend that they were "repeatedly shot in the head with a taser gun", "beaten on the genitals with a stick", and forced to watch the "rape [of] a female detainee", during their time at the prison. Critics consider the Military Commissions Act of 2006 an amnesty law for crimes committed in the War on Terror by retroactively rewriting the War Crimes Act. It abolished


title: "Raglan Castle" content: Raglan Castle Raglan Castle () is a late medieval castle located just north of the village of Raglan in the county of Monmouthshire in south east Wales. The modern castle dates from between the 15th and early 17th-centuries, when the successive ruling families of the Herberts and the Somersets created a luxurious, fortified castle, complete with a large hexagonal keep, known as the Great Tower or the Yellow Tower of Gwent. Surrounded by parkland, water gardens and terraces, the castle was considered by contemporaries to be the equal of any other in England or Wales. During the English Civil War


title: "Raglan Castle" content: the castle was held on behalf of Charles I and was taken by Parliamentary forces in 1646. In the aftermath, the castle was slighted, or deliberately put beyond military use; after the restoration of Charles II, the Somersets declined to restore the castle. Raglan Castle became first a source of local building materials, then a romantic ruin. It now attracts visitors as a modern tourist attraction. Following the Norman invasion of Wales, the area around the village of Raglan was granted to William FitzOsbern, the Earl of Hereford. Some historians, such as John Kenyon, suspect that an early motte and


title: "Raglan Castle" content: bailey castle may have been built on the Raglan site during this period: the location had strategic importance and archaeologists have discovered the remains of a possible bailey ditch on the site. The local manor was held by the Bloet family from the late 12th century until the late 14th century, and the family built a manor house somewhere on the site during this period, surrounded by a park. By the late medieval period the Raglan site was surrounded by the large deer parks of Home Park and Red Deer Park, the latter being enclosed at the end of the


title: "Raglan Castle" content: period. The current Raglan Castle was begun by Sir William ap Thomas, the lesser son of a minor Welsh family who rose through the ranks of mid-15th century politics, profiting from the benefits of the local offices he held. William married first Elizabeth, a wealthy heiress, and then Gwladus ap Thomas, another heiress who would prove to be a powerful regional figure in her own right. In 1432 William purchased the manor of Raglan, where he had already been staying as a tenant, for 1,000 marks (£666) and commenced a programme of building work that established the basic shape of


title: "Raglan Castle" content: the castle as seen today, although most of it — with the exception of the South Gate and the Great Tower — was later built over. William's son dropped the Welsh version of his name, calling himself William Herbert. He continued to rise in prominence, supporting the House of York during the War of the Roses, fighting in the Hundred Years War in France but making his fortune from the Gascon wine trade. He was also closely associated with Welsh politics and status, being the first Welshman to be made an earl and being described by contemporary poets as the


title: "Raglan Castle" content: "national deliverer" who might achieve Welsh independence. In the 1460s William used his increasing wealth to remodel Raglan on a much grander scale. The symbolism of the castle architecture may have reflected the Welsh family roots — historian Matthew Johnson has suggested that the polygonal towers were possibly designed to imitate those of Caernarfon Castle, whose architecture carries numerous allusions to the eventual return of a Roman Emperor to Wales. The resulting castle was what historian Anthony Emery has described as one of the "last formidable displays of medieval defensive architecture". There was an important link between the Raglan Castle


title: "Raglan Castle" content: and the surrounding parkland, in particular the Home Park and the Red Deer Park. Historian Robert Liddiard suggests that on the basis of the views from the castle at this time, the structured nature of the parks would have contrasted with the wilderness of the mountain peaks framing the scene beyond, making an important statement about the refinement and cultured nature of the castle lord. In the 15th century there were also extensive orchards and fish ponds surrounding the castle, favourably commented upon by contemporaries. William Herbert was executed in 1469 as a Yorkist supporter after the Battle of Edgecote


title: "Raglan Castle" content: Moor. Building work may have stopped for a period under his son, also called William Herbert, before recommencing in the late 1470s. By 1492, the castle passed to Elizabeth Somerset, William Herbert's daughter, who married Sir Charles Somerset, passing the castle into a new family line. Sir Charles Somerset was politically successful under both Henry VII and Henry VIII, being made the Earl of Worcester. His son, Henry Somerset, died shortly after inheriting Raglan, but not before using lead reclaimed from Tintern Abbey to help the building work at Raglan Castle during the dissolution of the monasteries. His son and


title: "Raglan Castle" content: grandson, William Somerset and Edward Somerset, proved to be what John Kenyon describes as "wealthy, brilliant and cultured men". William rebuilt much of the Pitched Stone Court, including the hall, adding the Long Gallery and developing the gardens into the new Renaissance style. The Somerset family owned two key castles in the region, Raglan and Chepstow, and these appeared to have figured prominently as important status symbols in paintings owned by the family. Edward Somerset made minor improvements to the interior of the castle at the start of the 17th century, but focused primarily on the exterior, expanding and developing


title: "Raglan Castle" content: the gardens and building the moat walk around the Great Tower. The resulting gardens were considered the equal of any other others in the kingdom at the time. Upon inheriting Raglan in 1628, Henry Somerset, then the 5th Earl of Worcester, continued to live a grand lifestyle in the castle in the 1630s, with a host of staff, including a steward, Master of Horse, Master of Fishponds, surveyors, auditors, ushers, a falconer and many footmen. The interior walls were hung with rich tapestries from Arras in France, while an inventory taken in 1639 recorded a large number of silver and


title: "Raglan Castle" content: gilt plate kept in the Great Tower, including a basket for the consumption of oranges and lemons, then luxury items in Wales. Mead was a popular drink in the castle, but contemporaries described the castle as being a particular sober and respectful community. Henry developed the entrance route to the castle, including building the Red Gate. His son Edward, Lord Herbert became famous for building a "water commanding machine" in the Great Tower, which used steam to pump a huge spout of water high into the air from the moat. However, in 1642 civil war broke out between the rival


title: "Raglan Castle" content: Royalist supporters of King Charles I and Parliament. Raglan Castle was still held by Henry, then an elderly man, supported by his son, Lord Herbert. Both men were firm royalists. King Charles sent his own son, Prince Charles, on a fund-raising tour of friendly regions, starting with Raglan Castle in October 1642, following which Henry was promoted to be the first Marquess of Worcester. Tensions grew in the immediate region, partially driven by religious tensions between some of the more Protestant local people and the Roman Catholic Marquess; on one of these occasions a local group attempted to search the


title: "Raglan Castle" content: castle, but were reportedly driven away by the sudden noise of Lord Herbert's steam-engine. The defences of Raglan were improved after this, with modern earthwork bastions built around the castle and a powder mill created; a garrison of around 300 men was established at a cost of £40,000. Heavier cannon were installed in the bastions, with lighter pieces placed in the castle towers. Lord Herbert left the castle to join the campaign against Parliament, returning at intervals to acquire more funds for the war. Charles I himself visited the castle twice, first in June 1645 after the battle of Naseby


title: "Raglan Castle" content: and again in 1646, when he enjoyed playing bowls on the castle's green. The Royalist cause was now close to military collapse, and the Marquess started to send some valuables, including the oak panelling from the parlour, some plaster ceiling and many pictures, to his brother at nearby Troy House for safe-keeping. Lord Herbert was captured in Ireland, and an attack on Raglan itself appeared imminent. In the expectation of a siege, the castle garrison was increased to around 800 soldiers; the avenue of trees outside the castle gates were cut down, and neighbouring buildings destroyed to avoid them being


title: "Raglan Castle" content: used by Parliamentary forces. Large amounts of food were brought in to support the growing castle community, which also included a number of the wider Herbert family and other regional Royalist leaders who had sought shelter there. The first Parliamentary army arrived in early June, under the command of Colonel Morgan and Sir Trevor Williams. After several calls for the castle to surrender, a siege ensued, lasting through the summer months. In August, additional Parliamentary forces under General Fairfax arrived, and calls for the castle to surrender were renewed. Fairfax's men began to dig trenches towards the castle, and used


title: "Raglan Castle" content: these to move mortars forward, probably including the famous "Roaring Meg", bringing the interior of the castle into artillery range. Facing a hopeless situation, the Marquess surrendered the castle on 19 August on relatively generous terms for the garrison. The Marquess himself was arrested and sent to Windsor Castle, where he died shortly afterwards. Informed shortly before his death that Parliament had granted his request to be buried in the family vault at Windsor, the Marquess remarked; "Why then I shall have a better castle when I am dead, than they took from me when alive." Fairfax ordered the castle


title: "Raglan Castle" content: to be totally destroyed under the supervision of Henry Herbert, a descendant of William ap Thomas. The fortifications proved too strong, however, and only a few of the walls were destroyed, or slighted. Historian Matthew Johnson describes the event as having the atmosphere of a "community festival", as local people dredged the castle moat in search of treasure, and emptied the fishponds of valuable carp. The castle's library, including an important collection of Welsh documents and books, was either stolen or destroyed. Despite some immediate confiscations after the siege, by the time of the Restoration of Charles II, the Somerset


title: "Raglan Castle" content: family had managed to recover most of their possessions, including Raglan Castle. Henry Somerset, the 3rd Marquess, decided to prioritise the rebuilding of his other houses at Troy and Badminton, rather than Raglan, reusing some of the property sent away for safety before the war, or salvaged after the slighting. For the first half of the 18th century, the castle continued to deteriorate, with the Somerset family allowing their stewards to quarry stone from the castle for the repair of other estate buildings. One particular estate surveyor called Hopkins became known as the "Grand Dilapidator", due to the number of


title: "Raglan Castle" content: chimneys, window frames and staircases he had removed from the castle. Henry Somerset, the 5th Duke, finally put an end to this practice in 1756, and the castle became a tourist attraction, part of the popular Wye Tour. Seats, fences and bridges were installed, and the first guidebook to the site was published in the early 19th century. The Great Hall was temporarily re-roofed in the 1820s, when the castle was used for a "Grand Entertainment" by the Somersets, and in 1830 Jeffrey Wyattville was employed to reinstate the Grand Staircase. The Monmouthshire antiquarian Joseph Bradney recorded a visit to


title: "Raglan Castle" content: the castle by Edward VII and Queen Alexandra, then Prince and Princess of Wales, in October 1881. In 1938 Henry Somerset, the 10th Duke, entrusted guardianship of Raglan Castle to the Commissioner of Works, and the castle became a permanent tourist attraction. Today, the castle is classed as a Grade I listed building and as a Scheduled Monument, administered by Cadw. Raglan Castle was built in several phases, initial work occurring in the 1420s and 1430s, a major phase in the 1460s, with various alterations and additions at the end of the 16th century. The castle was built in stone,


title: "Raglan Castle" content: initially pale sandstone from Redbrook, and later Old Red Sandstone, with Bath Stone used for many of the detailed features. Like similar properties of the period, the castle of the 1460s was almost certainly designed to be approached and entered in a particular way, maximising the aesthetic and political value of the fortification. At Raglan, the design highlighted the Great Tower: a typical senior visitor would ride through Raglan village, and first the tower and then the rest of the castle would appear suddenly over the slight rise on the hill. A visitor would have needed to circle the Great


title: "Raglan Castle" content: Tower and the moat, before coming in through the gatehouse, into the Pitched Stone Court, around the edge of the communal hall, before reaching the previously hidden, and more refined, inner Fountain Court. Only then would a privileged guest be able to enter the Great Tower itself, overlooking the Herbert family's own chambers. Many less senior visitors or servants would never have entered this far, seeing only the external elements of the castle, but perhaps having been impressed by the outside of the Great Tower as they arrived. There has been much discussion amongst academics about the extent to which


title: "Raglan Castle" content: Raglan was influenced by contemporary French designs; one school of thought suggests that it was heavily influenced by designs that were then popular in the south of France; others oppose this "diffusionist" school of thought, and argue that there is insufficient evidence to draw such a conclusion. Another line of debate has been over the nature of the castle's defences, in particular its gunloops. Many castles built around the same time as Raglan appear to have been built with less concern for defences than in the past, their military features more symbolic than real. At Raglan, there are numerous gunloops


title: "Raglan Castle" content: throughout the castle's defences, but many were ill-placed if the intention was to use them in a conflict; some could barely have been used at all. Traditionally, an evolutionary explanation for this was given: Raglan's gunloops were of an early period, later surpassed in other castles. More recent explanations emphasis the prestigious symbolism of gunloops for the Herbert family when they built the castle, even if many might have been impossible to use. Anthony Emery notes that Raglan's gunloops were better sited than many at the time, and at least "the owner was up to date in his symbolism"; Robert


title: "Raglan Castle" content: Liddiard suggests that the poor placing of some of the gunloops for aesthetic purposes might have actually been a conversation point for those visitors with experience of fighting in France and the "correct" placing of such defences. The three-storey gatehouse to Raglan Castle dates from the 1460s and is approached over a stone bridge restored in 1949. Characterised by extensive machicolations and gunloops, the gatehouse would originally have had a twin-set of portcullises and a drawbridge. The intention of the design was at least partially defensive, but was also intended to provide a dramatic and impressive entrance for senior visitors


title: "Raglan Castle" content: to the castle. The upper part of the gatehouse provided chambers for the constable of the castle. Immediately to the west of the gatehouse was the castle library, once famous for its collection of Welsh literature. On the east side of the gatehouse is the three-storey Closet Tower; this was designed to be integral to the gatehouse, and may have contained the original castle treasury, conveniently accessible by the constable. The Closet Tower was partly altered in later years, possibly to allow the basement to be used as a magazine in the English Civil War. The Pitched Stone Court forms


title: "Raglan Castle" content: the north-east corner of the castle, and provided a centre for the castle services and servants; it takes its name from the late-Tudor cobbling, or pitched stones. On the east side of the court is the former office wing, a 16th-century construction mostly destroyed during the siege of 1646. The castle kitchens and pantries are on the north side, containing two large fireplaces and storage facilities for food and supplies in their cellars. In the 1460s, the first floors to these buildings included chambers for the senior servants. The buttery in the north-west corner would have been used to store


title: "Raglan Castle" content: and serve beer and wine. On the south-west side of the court is the hall, a 16th-century design incorporating an earlier hall on the same site. wide, the hall was originally high, with a roof made of Irish oak, lit and ventilated by a cupola in the middle. A large oriel window lit the end of the hall occupied at dinner by the earls of Worcester, which by the time Raglan was built would have been used only for larger formal occasions. Originally, the hall would have been fitted with carved wooden panelling and a minstrel's gallery. The Fountain Court


title: "Raglan Castle" content: lies to the west of the Pitched Stone Court, and is named after a marble fountain that once stood in the centre of it, featuring a white horse on a black marble base, complete with a flow of running water. The fountain was probably installed somewhat after the initial construction of the court in the 1460s, dating instead to Edward Somerset in the late 16th century; the horse symbolised Edward's prestigious role as Master of the Horse. The Fountain Court was built to provide luxurious accommodation for the family and guests – by the 15th century, it was important to


title: "Raglan Castle" content: be able to provide private chambers for visitors, and this court could hold up to four distinct groups of visitors in comfort. The Fountain Court as a whole is marked by what Augustus Pugin described as extremely fine, elegant and delicate stonework. The castle chapel runs alongside the east side of the court, long and originally laid with bright yellow and tiles and decorated with gold and silver vestments. The Long Gallery stretches across the whole east first-floor of the Fountain Court and, although now ruined, would have been a show-piece for the earls' wealth and power. The gallery was


title: "Raglan Castle" content: long and during the Tudor period it would have been wood-panelled throughout and lined with tapestries and paintings. The Long Galley was intended to allow family and guests to relax inside and to admire the gardens, water gardens and the deer park to the north of the castle. Although most of this decoration has since been lost, two caryatid statues can still be seen on the walls of the Long Gallery, modelled on a work by the French artist Hugues Sambin. The west side of the Fountain Court comprises the apartments, with a number of bay windows and window seats


title: "Raglan Castle" content: facing west and north across the park. The Grand Staircase divides the apartments; restored between 2010 and 2011, the staircase would originally have had a substantial porch, similar to the one that survives in the Pitched Stone Court, and would have been a centre-piece of the Fountain Court. Although examples of such straight-flight staircases can be found in other late-medieval buildings, the architectural historian John Newman considers the Grand Staircase had "a grandeur hard to parallel in 15th century England." The apartments to the west of the staircase are more complex than the others, designed to create somewhat greater privacy,


title: "Raglan Castle" content: and overlooked the gardens to the west of the castle. On the south side of the court is the South Gate, the original entrance to the castle prior to the 1460s reconstruction. The fan vaulted gatehouse closely resembles the contemporary cloisters at Gloucester Cathedral, but by the 16th century had been converted to the entrance to the bowling green in the terrace beyond. On the south-east side of the court were the 16th-century parlour and, on the first-floor, the dining room, both . These were intended to provide rooms that were more private than the main hall, but more public


title: "Raglan Castle" content: than a personal chamber. Now ruined, they would originally have been decorated with carved wainscoting and elaborate, carved chimney-pieces. Alongside these rooms, overlooking the Great Tower, were the private rooms for the lord's family, of higher quality than the other accommodation in the castle. Some of the carved badges and shields on the external walls of these state apartments still remain intact, as in the hall; these were a popular contemporary feature of 15th-century great castles, and would have created a similar effect to those at Warkworth and Raby Castle. The Great Tower at Raglan Castle, sometimes called the Yellow


title: "Raglan Castle" content: Tower of Gwent, sits outside the rest of the castle, protected by a moat and linked to the Fountain Court by a bridge. The fortification is representative of a trend during the 15th and 16th centuries in British castle building: tower keeps such as this, large, solid buildings designed for private accommodation, probably inspired by those in France, had started to appear in the 14th century at Dudley and Warkworth. In the 15th century the fashion spread, with the creation of French-influenced palatial castles featuring complex tower keeps, such as those at Wardour and Tattershall. These were expensive buildings to


title: "Raglan Castle" content: construct, each built to a unique design and, as historian Norman Pounds has suggested, "were designed to allow very rich men to live in luxury and splendour". The hexagonal Great Tower was probably begun in the 1430s and 1440s, possibly on the motte of a previous castle. The tower today has lost not only one of its walls but part of its upper structure, and would originally have been three storeys high with probably additional machicolations on top similar to those on the gatehouse. It was designed to be a self-contained fortification, with its own water and food supplies, and


title: "Raglan Castle" content: luxurious quarters lit by large windows on the upper floors. Originally the tower was reached by a bascule drawbridge, usually considered to be drawn from contemporary French designs, such as those at Ferté-Milon and Vannes. This drawbridge was designed to have two parts — a wide, heavy bridge that would be raised or lowered when the family was in residence, and a thinner bridge, easier to lift, designed for the use of servants at other times. The Herberts used the bridge as their badge, and it can be seen in the carved window designs around the castle. The drawbridge was


title: "Raglan Castle" content: replaced with a grander stone bridge in the 1460s, probably at a cost of around £900 to £1000. An apron wall with six turrets was also added around the tower at around the same time. The original moat around the tower would have been a simple design, but it was redesigned in the 1460s to provide a walkway around the outside of the Great Tower. The niches in the walls of the walkway are of 17th-century origin, and would originally have held classical statues - the walkway would have provided a dignified way of admiring the Great Tower. It is


title: "Raglan Castle" content: likely that fish would have been bred in the moat. The former 16th- and 17th-century gardens of Raglan Castle are still visible in the form of several long terraces to the north of the castle, overlooking the lower ground beyond. First created in the second half of the 16th century, these terraces would originally have included a number of knot gardens, probably with Italianate sculpture and carved stone balustrades. The gardens at their peak would have probably resembled those at Nonsuch Palace, where the Somersets also had an interest as the royal keepers. The valley below retains some signs of


title: "Raglan Castle" content: the drainage ditches that once formed part of the water gardens that flooded the bottom of the site, although the original "water-parterre" to the north-west of the castle, another water garden in the south, and the extensive gardens around the south-west of the castle are now no longer visible. The castle's bowling green still survives, on a terrace just beyond the South Gate entrance. The castle's parks reverted to agricultural use by the 19th century, and Raglan is now surrounded by fields. Raglan Castle Raglan Castle () is a late medieval castle located just north of the village of Raglan


title: "County council" content: County council A county council is the elected administrative body governing an area known as a county. This term has slightly different meanings in different countries. The county councils created under British rule in 1899 continue to exist in Ireland, although they are now governed under legislation passed by Oireachtas Éireann, principally the Local Government Act 2001. The Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898 introduced county councils to Ireland. The administrative and financial business carried by county grand juries and county at large presentment sessions were transferred to the new councils. Principal among these duties were the maintenance of highways and


title: "Loch Lubnaig" content: two principal deep depressions. The northern half trends in a north-west and south-east direction, while the southern half trends almost directly north and south. There are two depressions in which the depth exceeds 100 feet, with an isolated sounding of 106 feet between them. The larger depression is contained in the southern half of the loch, and is over half a mile in length with a maximum width of about 280 yards wide. The smaller but deeper depression is situated at the base of the northern half of the loch, occupying a central position and is over 0.25 miles in


title: "Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne" content: "Marquis de Castries". Neither part of du Fresne's mission could be achieved; Ahu-toru died of smallpox shortly after embarkation at Port Louis, and the expedition did not locate the Australian mainland. Instead, du Fresne discovered first the Prince Edward Islands and then the Crozet Islands before sailing towards New Zealand and Australia. His ships spent several days in Tasmania, where Marion Bay in the south-east is named after him. He was the first European to explore the island and, due to his interaction with Aboriginal Tasmanians, was the first person to show that Tasmania was not "terra nullius". Du Fresne


title: "Great Eastern Railway" content: heavier as the railways prospered. Classes S46, D56 and H88 (LNER D14, D15, and D16) were collectively nicknamed "Claud Hamiltons" because the first S46 (built at Straford in 1900, numbered 1900) was named after the then-current chairman of the GER, Lord Claud Hamilton. Most of the "Clauds" were later rebuilt by the LNER; the final one was withdrawn in 1960 and scrapped. Local suburban traffic was dealt with by numerous 2-4-2T and 0-6-0T locomotives belonging to several different classes. Stratford Engine Shed, for instance, had 163 2-4-2T engines of four classes. As trains got heavier, these locomotives were replaced by


title: "Sphecius speciosus" content: Sphecius speciosus Sphecius speciosus, often simply referred to as the cicada killer or the cicada hawk, is a large digger wasp species. Cicada killers are large, solitary wasps in the family Crabronidae. The name may be applied to any species of crabronid which preys on cicadas, though in North America it is typically applied to a single species, "S. speciosus". However, since there are multiple species of related wasps, it is more appropriate to call it the eastern cicada killer. This species occurs in the eastern and midwest U.S. and southwards into Mexico and Central America including Louisiana. They are


title: "Sphecius speciosus" content: so named because they hunt cicadas and provision their nests with them. In North America they are sometimes called sand hornets, although they are not hornets, which belong to the family Vespidae. Cicada killers exert a measure of natural control on cicada populations and thus may directly benefit the deciduous trees upon which their cicada prey feed. The most recent review of this species' biology is found in the posthumously published comprehensive study by noted entomologist Howard Ensign Evans. Adult eastern cicada-killer wasps are large, long, robust wasps with hairy, reddish and black areas on the thorax (middle part), and


title: "Sphecius speciosus" content: are black to reddish brown marked with light yellow stripes on the abdominal (rear) segments. The wings are brownish. Coloration superficially resembles that of some yellowjacket and hornet species. The females are somewhat larger than the males, and both are among the largest wasps seen in the Eastern United States, their unusual size giving them a uniquely fearsome appearance. European hornets ("Vespa crabro") are often mistaken for Eastern cicada killers, though at about long they are smaller than the largest cicada killers. The males are smaller than the females because the females must carry the cicadas they have killed to


title: "Sphecius speciosus" content: a burrow for nesting; whereas, the males do not need to carry their prey. Solitary wasps (such as the eastern cicada killer) are very different in their behavior from the social wasps such as hornets, yellowjackets, and paper wasps. Cicada killer females use their sting to paralyze their prey (cicadas) rather than to defend their nests; unlike most social wasps and bees, they do not attempt to sting unless handled roughly. Adults feed on flower nectar and other plant sap exudates. Adults emerge in summer, typically beginning around late June or early July and die off in September or October.


title: "Sphecius speciosus" content: They are present in a given area for 60 to 75 days, usually until mid-September. The large females are commonly seen skimming around lawns seeking good sites to dig burrows and searching for cicadas in trees and taller shrubs. The males are more often seen in groups, vigorously challenging one another for position on the breeding aggregation from which they emerged, and generally investigate anything that moves or flies near them. It is not unusual to see two or three male wasps locked together in apparent midair combat, the aggregate adopting an erratic flight path until one of the wasps


title: "Sphecius speciosus" content: breaks away. The male wasp's aggressive behavior is similar to that of another robust insect of the area, the male carpenter bee. In both cases, while the males' vigorous territorial defense can be frightening and intimidating to human passersby, the males pose no danger whatsoever. Male cicada killers will only grapple with other insects, and cannot sting. This ground-burrowing wasp may be found in well-drained, sandy soils to loose clay in bare or grass-covered banks, berms and hills as well as next to raised sidewalks, driveways and patio slabs. Females may share a burrow, digging their own nest cells off


title: "Sphecius speciosus" content: the main tunnel. A typical burrow is deep and about wide. In digging a burrow, the female dislodges the soil with her jaws and, using her hind legs, pushes loose soil behind her as she backs out of the burrow. Her hind legs are equipped with special spines that help her push the dirt behind her. The excess soil pushed out of the burrow forms a mound with a trench through it at the burrow entrance. Cicada killers may nest in planters, window boxes, flower beds or under shrubs, ground cover, etc. Nests often are made in the full sun


title: "Sphecius speciosus" content: where vegetation is sparse. After digging a nest chamber in the burrow, female cicada killers capture cicadas, paralyzing them with a sting. After paralyzing a cicada, the female wasp holds it upside down beneath her and takes off toward her burrow; this return flight to the burrow is difficult for the wasp because the cicada is often more than twice her weight. A wasp will often lug its prey up into the nearest tree, to gain altitude for the flight to the burrow. After putting one or more cicadas in her nest cell, the female deposits an egg on a


title: "Sphecius speciosus" content: cicada and closes the cell with dirt. Male eggs are laid on a single cicada but female eggs are given two or sometimes three cicadas; this is because the female wasp is twice as large as the male and must have more food. New nest cells are dug as necessary off of the main burrow tunnel and a single burrow may eventually have 10 or more nest cells. The egg hatches in one or two days, and the cicadas serve as food for the grub. The larvae complete their development in about 2 weeks. Overwintering occurs as a mature larva


title: "Sphecius speciosus" content: within an earth-coated cocoon. Pupation occurs in the nest cell in the spring and lasts 25 to 30 days. There is only one generation per year and no adults overwinter. This wasp is frequently attacked by the parasitic "velvet ant" wasp, "Dasymutilla occidentalis", also known as the "cow-killer" wasp. It lays an egg in the nest cell of the cicada killer, and when the cicada killer larva pupates, the parasitoid larva consumes the pupa. Although cicada killers are large, female cicada-killer wasps are not aggressive and rarely sting unless they are grasped roughly, stepped upon with bare feet, or caught


title: "Sphecius speciosus" content: in clothing. One author who has been stung indicates that, for him, the stings are not much more than a "pinprick". Males aggressively defend their perching areas on nesting sites against rival males but they have no stinger. Although they appear to attack anything that moves near their territories, male cicada killers are actually investigating anything that might be a female cicada killer ready to mate. Such close inspection appears to many people to be an attack, but male and female cicada killers do not land on people and attempt to sting. If handled roughly, females will sting, and males


title: "Sphecius speciosus" content: will jab with a sharp spine on the tip of their abdomen. Both sexes are well equipped to bite, as they have large jaws, but they do not appear to grasp human skin and bite. They are generally not aggressive towards humans and usually fly away when swatted at, rather than attacking. The North American cicada-killer wasps all belong to the genus "Sphecius", of which there are 21 species worldwide. The remaining three cicada-killing species in the genus in North America are: It is suspected that the western cicada killer represents more than one species. There is also evidence to


title: "Sphecius speciosus" content: suggest that the eastern cicada killer has either a subspecies or a closely related species that mimics the Pacific cicada killer. Alternatively, when they were already distinct species, significant hybridization has occurred between them, though not enough to fully overcome their present reproductive isolation. The spectacled cicada killer, "Sphecius spectabilis" , is found in the South American countries of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, French Guiana, Paraguay, Surinam and Venezuela. Sixteen other cicada-killer wasp species in the genus "Sphecius" are found in Europe, the Middle East, Africa and Asia. There are also other genera of cicada-killing wasps (e.g., "Liogorytes" in