title: "Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks World Heritage Site" content: Mountain Parks site. At a 1990 meeting, "the Committee welcomed the Canadian proposal to include, in the Rocky Mountains Parks site, Mount Robson, Hamber and Assiniboine Provincial Parks, following its request at its Eighth Session in 1984." Kananaskis (renamed Peter Lougheed Provincial Park) has not been included within the Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks World Heritage site. Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks World Heritage Site The Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks World Heritage Site is located in the Canadian Rockies. It consists of seven contiguous parks including four national parks: and three British Columbia provincial parks: The parks include mountains, glaciers, and hot


title: "James Hogg" content: the end of the year. In 1825 he found a new and lucrative market for his works as he began publishing in a literary annual called the "Literary Souvenir". In 1825 Hogg's daughter Maggie was born, and he began writing a new prose work, later titled "Tales of the Wars of Montrose". In 1826 Hogg was in serious trouble with his debts, while the firm of Constable collapsed, involving Walter Scott and Hogg's friend John Aiken. In 1827 his debts began to lighten as his "Shepherd's Calendar" pieces were being published, and he was getting more and more applications to


title: "Rod Laver" content: when he started out as a pro, and 1976, when both were semi-retired from the main tour. Including tournaments and one-night stands, they played over 130 matches, all of them as professionals, with some results from the barnstorming pro tours lost or badly recorded. Overall a match score of 79–63 in favour of Laver can be documented. Against the older Pancho Gonzales, whom he played 1964 to 1970 on the pro tour, Laver had a lead of 35–19 or 38–21, depending on the source. Laver had another, even longer rivalry with his fellow Queenslander Roy Emerson. They met first on


title: "Bearing (mechanical)" content: parts. Rotary bearings hold rotating components such as shafts or axles within mechanical systems, and transfer axial and radial loads from the source of the load to the structure supporting it. The simplest form of bearing, the "plain bearing", consists of a shaft rotating in a hole. Lubrication is often used to reduce friction. In the "ball bearing" and "roller bearing", to prevent sliding friction, rolling elements such as rollers or balls with a circular cross-section are located between the races or journals of the bearing assembly. A wide variety of bearing designs exists to allow the demands of the


title: "Star Pointer" content: 28, 1897 at around 4:00 pm with quarter times of 30 sec, 29, 29, 30 for a 1:59 time. Star Pointer died of a stroke several weeks before the Christmas of 1910. His record was 22 victories and 4 seconds in 30 starts. He had a total of 60 wins in 79 heats and earnings of over $50,000. Star Pointer's remains were buried beneath the finish line of the Dean Racetrack in Palatine, IL but his remains are now lost to history. Star Pointer was owned by James A. Murphy,(born in Rome New York August 11, 1846 and died January


title: "Standard score" content: standard deviation = 1. The same results would be obtained from NORM.DIST(1800,1500,300,TRUE)= 84% or NORM.DIST(24,21,5,TRUE)=73% or by udsing normalized values of (1,0,1,TRUE) and (0.6,0,1,TRUE) "For some multivariate techniques such as multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis, the concept of distance between the units in the data is often of considerable interest and importance … When the variables in a multivariate data set are on different scales, it makes more sense to calculate the distances after some form of standardization." In principal components analysis, "Variables measured on different scales or on a common scale with widely differing ranges are often standardized." Standardization


title: "Eurasian hobby" content: Eurasian hobby The Eurasian hobby ("Falco subbuteo"), or just simply hobby, is a small slim falcon. It belongs to a rather close-knit group of similar falcons often considered a subgenus "Hypotriorchis". The first formal description of the Eurasian hobby was by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his "Systema Naturae" under the present binomial name "Falco subbuteo". The genus name "falco" derives from Late Latin "falx", "falcis", a sickle, referring to the claws of the bird. The species name "subbuteo" is from Latin "sub", "near to" and "buteo", " buzzard" . The species' English


title: "Eurasian hobby" content: name comes from Old French "hobé" or "hobet". It became the trademark for the Subbuteo games company after its creator was refused permission to register "Hobby". Currently two subspecies are recognized: Adults are slate-grey above with a dark crown and two short black moustachial stripes. The throat is unstreaked white, thighs and undertail coverts are unstreaked rufous and rest of the underparts are whitish with black streaks. Close views enable the red "trousers" and vent to be seen. Sexes are similar. Juveniles are generally much browner, with scaled upper parts and streaked buffy thighs and undertail coverts. The hobby has


title: "Eurasian hobby" content: a distinct first-summer plumage. This falcon is in length with a wingspan of and a weight of . This species breeds across Africa, Europe and Asia. It is a long-distance migrant, wintering in Africa and Asia. It is a bird of open country such as farmland, marshes, taiga and savannah. They are widespread in lowlands with scattered small woods. It is an elegant bird of prey, appearing sickle-like in flight with its long pointed wings and square tail, often resembling a swift when gliding with folded wings. It is fast and powerful in flight and will take large insects, such


title: "Eurasian hobby" content: as dragonflies, which it transfers from talons to beak and eats while soaring slowly in circles. It also captures small bats and small birds in flight. Its speed and aerobatic skills enable it to take swallows and even swifts on the wing, and barn swallows or house martins have a characteristic "hobby" alarm call. It is known to harass swallows while they are roosting and dispersing from roosts. When not breeding, it is crepuscular, hawking principally in the mornings and evenings. While on migration, they may move in small groups. Hobbies nest in old nests of crows and other birds.


title: "Eurasian hobby" content: The tree selected is most often one in a hedge or on the extreme edge of a spinney, whence the bird can observe intruders from a considerable distance. It lays 2–4 eggs. Incubation is said to take 28 days and both parents share in this duty, though the female does the greater part. It is a very bold and courageous bird and was used in falconry, trained to hawk birds like quails, larks, hoopoes, drongos, etc. Eurasian hobby The Eurasian hobby ("Falco subbuteo"), or just simply hobby, is a small slim falcon. It belongs to a rather close-knit group of


title: Kinglet content: Kinglet A kinglet, or crest, is a small bird in a group that is sometimes included in the Old World warblers, but is frequently placed in its own family, Regulidae, because of resemblance to titmice. "Regulidae" is derived from the Latin word "regulus" for "petty king" or prince, and refers to the coloured crowns of adult birds. This family has representatives in North America and Eurasia. There are seven species in this family; one, the Madeira firecrest, "Regulus madeirensis", was only recently split from common firecrest as a separate species. One species, the ruby-crowned kinglet, differs sufficiently in its voice


title: Kinglet content: and plumage to occasionally be afforded its own genus, "Corthylio". Kinglets are among the smallest of all passerines, ranging in size from and weighing ; the sexes are the same size. They have medium-length wings and tails, and small needle-like bills. The plumage is overall grey-green, offset by pale wingbars, and the tail tip is incised. Five species have a single stiff feather covering the nostrils, but in the ruby-crowned kinglet, this is replaced by several short, stiff bristles. Most kinglets have distinctive head markings, and the males possess a colourful crown patch. In the females, the crown is duller


title: Kinglet content: and yellower. The long feathers forming the central crown stripe can be erected; they are inconspicuous most of the time, but are used in courtship and territorial displays when the raised crest is very striking. There are two species in North America with largely overlapping distributions, and two in Eurasia which also have a considerable shared range. In each continent, one species (goldcrest in Eurasia and golden-crowned kinglet in North America) is a conifer specialist; these have deeply grooved pads on their feet for perching on conifer twigs, and a long hind toe and claw for clinging vertically. The two


title: Kinglet content: generalists, ruby-crowned kinglet and common firecrest hunt more in flight, and have smoother soles, shorter hind claws and a longer tail. The kinglets are a small group of birds sometimes included in the Old World warblers, but frequently given family status, especially as recent research showed that, despite superficial similarities, the crests are taxonomically remote from the warblers. The names of the family, Regulidae, and its only genus, "Regulus", are derived from the Latin "regulus", a diminutive of "rex", "a king", and refer to the characteristic orange or yellow crests of adult kinglets. The kinglets were allocated to the warbler


title: Kinglet content: genus "Sylvia" by English naturalist John Latham in 1790, but moved to their current genus by French zoologist Georges Cuvier in 1800. Several forms have only recently had their status clarified. The Madeira firecrest was formerly considered to be a subspecies, "R. i. madeirensis", of the common firecrest "R. ignicapillus". A phylogenetic analysis based on the cytochrome b gene showed that the Madeiran form is distinct at the species level from the firecrest nominate subspecies "R. i. ignicapillus". Cytochrome "b" gene divergence between the Madeira firecrest and the European bird is 8.5%, comparable with the divergence level between other recognised


title: Kinglet content: "Regulus" species, such as the 9% between the goldcrest and the golden-crowned kinglet. The split was accepted by the Association of European Rarities Committees (AERC) in 2003, but some authorities, like Clements, have not yet recognised the new species. The golden-crowned kinglet is similar in appearance to the common firecrest and has been considered to be its New World equivalent, but it is actually closer to the goldcrest. Goldcrests from the Canary Islands are particularly distinctive having a black forehead, pink-buff underparts and a darker closed wing, and have been sometimes treated either as a subspecies of the common firecrest


title: Kinglet content: or as a different "Regulus" species altogether. They were sometimes called the Tenerife goldcrest, no matter which of the islands they lived on; however, a 2006 study of the vocalisations of these birds indicate that they actually comprise two subspecies of the Goldcrest that are separable on voice; "R. r. teneriffae" occurring on Tenerife and the newly described subspecies, "R. r. ellenthalerae", occurring on the smaller islands of La Palma and El Hierro. The three goldcrest taxa on the Azores, Santa Maria goldcrest, Sao Miguel goldcrest and Western Azores goldcrest, represent recent colonisations from Europe, and are best treated as


title: Kinglet content: subspecies. The relationships of the flamecrest or Taiwan firecrest ("Regulus goodfellowi") of Taiwan have also been a source of much debate. It is sometimes viewed as a race of firecrest, but its territorial song resembles those of the Himalayan races of goldcrest, and genetic data show that it is the closest relative of that species, and, despite its alternative name, only distantly related to the firecrest. The flamecrest diverged from the Goldcrest 3.0–3.1 mya (million years ago). Most members of the genus "Regulus" are similar in size and colour pattern. The exception is the ruby-crowned kinglet, the largest species, which


title: Kinglet content: has a strongly red crest and no black crown stripes. It has distinctive vocalisations, and is different enough from the Old World kinglets and the other American species, the golden-crowned kinglet, to be sometimes assigned to a separate genus, "Corthylio". There are a few Pleistocene (2.6 million to 12,000 years BP) records from Europe of extant "Regulus" species, mostly goldcrests or unidentifiable to species. The only fossil of an extinct "Regulus" is a left ulna from 2.6–1.95 mya in Bulgaria, which was identified as belonging to an extinct species, "Regulus bulgaricus". The goldcrest lineage diverged from this apparent ancestor of


title: Kinglet content: the common firecrest in the Middle Pleistocene. Kinglets are birds of the Nearctic and Palearctic ecozones, with representatives in temperate North America, Europe and Asia, northernmost Africa, Macaronesia and the Himalayas. They are adapted to conifer forests, although there is a certain amount of adaptability and most species will use other habitats, particularly during migration. In Macaronesia, they are adapted to laurisilva and tree heaths. The tiny size and rapid metabolism of kinglets means that they must constantly forage in order to provide their energy needs. They will continue feeding even when nest building. Kinglets prevented from feeding may lose


title: Kinglet content: a third of their body weight in twenty minutes and may starve to death in an hour. Kinglets are insectivores, preferentially feeding on insects such as aphids and springtails that have soft cuticles. Prey is generally gleaned from the branches and leaves of trees, although in some circumstances prey may be taken on the wing or from the leaf litter on the ground. The nest are small, very neat cups, almost spherical in shape, made of moss and lichen held together with spiderwebs and hung from twigs near the end of a high branch of a conifer. They are lined


title: Kinglet content: with hair and feathers, and a few feathers are placed over the opening. These characteristics provide good insulation against the cold environment. The female lays 7 to 12 eggs, which are white or pale buff, some having fine dark brown spots. Because the nest is small, they are stacked in layers. The female incubates; she pushes her legs (which are well supplied with blood vessels, hence warm) down among the eggs. A unique feature of kinglets is the "size hierarchy" among eggs, with early-laid eggs being smaller than later ones. Eggs hatch asynchronously after 15 to 17 days. The young


title: Kinglet content: stay in the nest for 19 to 24 days. After being fed, nestlings make their way down to the bottom of the nest, pushing their still-hungry siblings up to be fed in their turn (but also to be cold). Kinglets are the most fecund and shortest-living of all altricial birds, and probably the shortest-lived apart from a few smaller galliform species. Adult mortality for the goldcrest is estimated at over 80 percent per year and the maximum lifespan is only six years. The four continental "Regulus" species all have very large ranges and populations. The two single-island endemics are common


title: Kinglet content: within their habitat, and are not thought to be at risk. All kinglets are therefore classed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. Kinglet A kinglet, or crest, is a small bird in a group that is sometimes included in the Old World warblers, but is frequently placed in its own family, Regulidae, because of resemblance to titmice. "Regulidae" is derived from the Latin word "regulus" for "petty king" or prince, and refers to the coloured crowns of adult birds. This family has representatives in North America and Eurasia. There are seven species in this family; one, the Madeira


title: "Gui-Jean-Baptiste Target" content: observations in extenuation of the king's actions, which, in the circumstances of the time, would have taken some courage. Target took no part in public affairs during the Reign of Terror. Under the Directory he was made a member of the Institut de France in 1796 and of the Court of Cassation in 1798. He lived to collaborate in the earlier stages of the new criminal code. Among his writings may be mentioned a paper on the grain trade (1776) and a "Mémoire sur l'état des Protestants en France" (1787), in which he pleaded for the restoration of civil rights


title: "Zack de la Rocha" content: la Rocha later said that the band was "about completely detaching ourselves from society to see ourselves as ... as spirits, and not bowing down to a system that sees you as just another pebble on a beach. I channeled all my anger out through that band." Following the dissolution of Inside Out in 1991, de la Rocha embraced hip hop and began freestyling at local clubs, at one of which he was approached by former Lock Up guitarist Tom Morello, who was impressed by de la Rocha's lyrics, and convinced him to form a band. Morello recruited former Greta


title: "Las Meninas" content: the back of Velázquez's canvas, and the strict geometry of framed paintings contrast with the animated, brilliantly lit and sumptuously painted foreground entourage. Stone writes: According to Kahr, the composition could have been influenced by the traditional Dutch Gallery Pictures such as those by Frans Francken the Younger, Willem van Haecht, or David Teniers the Younger. Teniers' work was owned by Philip IV and would have been known by Velázquez. Like "Las Meninas", they often depict formal visits by important collectors or rulers, a common occurrence, and "show a room with a series of windows dominating one side wall and


title: "Querétaro" content: There was also some mining, especially in El Doctor, Río Blando, Maconí and Escanelilla with a total of 216 mines producing silver with some producing gold, copper, lead and more. Before the end of the century, modern infrastructure such as electricity, telegraph and telephones began to appear. Industry grew and modernized, with El Hércules becoming the largest textile factory in the country. Haciendas and agricultural production also grew, especially in the north of the state. The capital was modified and expanded, and it was linked to the rest of the country via rail in 1882. Public education began in the


title: "Bubble gum" content: Bubble gum Bubble gum is a type of chewing gum, designed to be inflated out of the mouth as a bubble. In 1928, Walter Diemer, an accountant for the Fleer Chewing Gum Company in Philadelphia, was experimenting with new gum recipes. One recipe was found to be less sticky than regular chewing gum, and stretched more easily. This gum became highly successful and was eventually named by the president of Fleer as Dubble Bubble because of its stretchy texture. The original bubble gum was pink in color because that was the dye that Diemer had most on hand at the


title: "Bubble gum" content: time. In modern chewing gum, if natural rubber such as chicle is used, it must pass several purity and cleanliness tests. However, most modern types of chewing gum use synthetic gum based materials. These materials allow for longer lasting flavor, a better texture, and a reduction in tackiness. In taste tests, children tend to prefer strawberry and blue raspberry flavors, rejecting more complex flavors as they say these make them want to swallow the gum rather than continue chewing. In 1996, Susan Montgomery Williams of Fresno, California set the Guinness World Record for largest bubblegum bubble ever blown, which was


title: "Bubble gum" content: in diameter. Chad Fell holds the record for "Largest Hands-free Bubblegum Bubble" at , achieved on 24 April 2004. Bubble gum Bubble gum is a type of chewing gum, designed to be inflated out of the mouth as a bubble. In 1928, Walter Diemer, an accountant for the Fleer Chewing Gum Company in Philadelphia, was experimenting with new gum recipes. One recipe was found to be less sticky than regular chewing gum, and stretched more easily. This gum became highly successful and was eventually named by the president of Fleer as Dubble Bubble because of its stretchy texture. The original


title: "Baltimore and Ohio Railroad" content: the railroad over Rock Creek; and a short tunnel, Dalecarlia Tunnel, under the Washington Aqueduct. The line was almost completely abandoned in 1986 by CSX and is presently used in part as the right-of-way for the Capital Crescent Trail. After a flood damaged the C&O Canal in 1877, the B&O acquired a majority interest in the canal mainly to keep its property and right of way from potential use by the Western Maryland Railroad. The canal was operated by the B&O until 1924 when it was damaged in another flood. The canal's property was later transferred to the U.S. government


title: "Peoples Temple" content: member Paula Adams engaged in a romantic relationship with Guyana's Ambassador to the United States, Laurence "Bonny" Mann. Adams later married Mann. On October 24, 1983, Mann fatally shot both Adams and the couple's child, and then fatally shot himself. Defecting member Harold Cordell lost 20 family members the evening of the poisonings. The Bogues family, which had also defected, lost their daughter Marilee (age 18), while defector Vernon Gosney lost his son Mark (age 5). The mass suicide of the Peoples Temple has helped embed in the public mind the idea that all New Religious Movements are destructive. Bryan


title: "Flag of Greece" content: clothes, patriarchs' thrones etc., 15th century versions of the Byzantine Imperial Emblems and, of course, cases of usage during the Ottoman rule and the Greek revolution. On the other hand, the Great Greek Encyclopedia notes in its 1934 entry on the Greek flag that "very many things have been said for the causes which lead to this specification for the Greek flag, but without historical merit". In 1978 the sea flag was adopted as the sole national flag, with a 2:3 ratio. The flag is used on both land and sea is also the war and civil ensign, replacing all


title: "Emmanuel Pahud" content: Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra (BPO) in October. He attributes achieving both the first prize at le Concours International de Genève and being appointed for the position at the age of 22 by BPO's conductor, Claudio Abbado, to his experience with Nicolet. Being appointed as principal flutist at the BPO signalled Pahud's entrance into the international spotlight. He entered the orchestra during its rejuvenation period as the post-war generation of players began to retire. Over 40%, including Pahud's position was up for audition, or on trial. His predecessor was Karlheinz Zöller (1960–69, 1976–93). Apart from Pahud, other previous international flutists held the


title: "Concord grape" content: Concord grape The Concord grape is a cultivar derived from the grape species "Vitis labrusca" (also called fox grape) that are used as table grapes, wine grapes and juice grapes. They are often used to make grape jelly, grape juice, grape pies, grape-flavored soft drinks, and candy. The grape is sometimes used to make wine, particularly kosher wine. Traditionally, most commercially produced Concord wines have been finished sweet, but dry versions are possible if adequate fruit ripeness is achieved. It is named after the town in Massachusetts where it was developed. The skin of a Concord grape is typically dark


title: "Concord grape" content: blue or purple, and often is covered with a lighter-coloured epicuticular wax "bloom" that can be rubbed off. It is a slip-skin variety, meaning that the skin is easily separated from the fruit. Concord grapes have large seeds and are highly aromatic. The Concord grape is particularly prone to the physiological disorder Black leaf. In the United States 417,800 tons were produced in 2011. The major growing areas are the Finger Lakes District of New York, Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, Southwestern Michigan, and the Yakima Valley in Washington. Concord grapes are often used to make grape jelly and are only


title: "Concord grape" content: occasionally available as table grapes, especially in New England. They are the usual grapes used in the jelly for the traditional peanut butter and jelly sandwich, and Concord grape jelly is a staple product in U.S. supermarkets. Concord grapes are used for grape juice, and their distinctive purple color has led to grape-flavored soft drinks and candy being artificially colored purple while methyl anthranilate, a chemical present in Concord grapes, is used to give "grape" flavor. The dark colored Concord juice is used in some churches as a non-alcoholic alternative to wine in the service of communion. Concord grapes have


title: "Concord grape" content: been used to make Kosher wine and sacramental wine. The oldest sacramental winery in America, O-Neh-Da Vineyard, still produces a Concord wine for the altar. Non-toxic sprays that contain methyl anthranilate can be sprayed on the bushes as a cost-effective bird control management. The spray repellent renders the fruit and foliage unpalatable to the birds. The Concord grape was developed in 1849 by Ephraim Wales Bull in Concord, Massachusetts. Bull planted seeds from wild "Vitis labrusca" and evaluated over 22,000 seedlings before finding what he considered the ideal Concord grape. Genetic testing confirmed that "V. labrusca" has roughly one-third "V.


title: "Concord grape" content: vinifera" parentage. In 1853, Bull's grape won first place at the Boston Horticultural Society Exhibition. It was then introduced to the market in 1854. Dr. Thomas Bramwell Welch developed the first Concord grape juice in his house in 1869. Through the process of pasteurization, the juice did not ferment. Welch transferred the juice operations to Westfield, New York, processing 300 tons of grapes into juice in 1897. Concord grape The Concord grape is a cultivar derived from the grape species "Vitis labrusca" (also called fox grape) that are used as table grapes, wine grapes and juice grapes. They are often


title: "Strategy & Tactics" content: began to spring up, with many new companies appearing in the mid- to late-1970s. Wargaming was reaching its high-water mark, just as the release of "Squad Leader" by Avalon Hill took the wargaming world by storm (eventually resulting in an unprecedented 200,000 copies sold). Such faith was placed in the future of the industry that a Game Designer's Guild was even created, in the hope that it just might be possible to earn a comfortable living providing wargames to the public. However, despite annual income declared at two million dollars, SPI's sales declined, and while monetary income remained constant, increasing


title: "Camp Nou" content: Camp Nou Camp Nou (, "new field", often referred to as the Nou Camp in English) is the home stadium of FC Barcelona since its completion in 1957. With a seating capacity of 99,354, it is the largest stadium in Spain and Europe, and the third largest football stadium in the world in capacity. It has hosted two European Cup/Champions League finals in 1989 and 1999, two UEFA Cup Winners' Cup finals, four Inter-Cities Fairs Cup final games, five UEFA Super Cup final games, four Copa del Rey finals, two Copa de la Liga final games, twenty-one Supercopa de España


title: "Camp Nou" content: final games, five matches including the opening game of the 1982 FIFA World Cup, two out of four matches at the 1964 European Nations' Cup and the football competition final at the 1992 Summer Olympics. The construction of Camp Nou started on 28 March 1954 as Barcelona's previous stadium, Camp de Les Corts, had no room for expansion. Although originally planned to be called the Estadi del FC Barcelona, the more popular name Camp Nou was used. The June 1950 signing of László Kubala, regarded as one of Barcelona's greatest players, provided further impetus to the construction of a larger


title: "Camp Nou" content: stadium. The architects were Francesc Mitjans and Josep Soteras, with the collaboration of Lorenzo García-Barbón. In May 1972, Camp Nou hosted its first European Cup Winners' Cup final between Rangers and Dynamo Moscow. Rangers won the match with a score of 3–2. The 1970s marked a turning point for Barcelona with the signing of a new player, Johan Cruyff, in 1973. Electronic scoreboards were installed in the stadium two years later. The stadium underwent an expansion in 1980, in anticipation of the 1982 FIFA World Cup, which added boxes, VIP lounges, a new press area, new markers and the construction


title: "Camp Nou" content: of the third tier, which was smaller in height than the original design by 6 metres (46.60 metres compared to the original design of 52.50 metres). The expansion of the stadium added 22,150 new seats, taking the total seating capacity to 71,731, and the standing capacity was expanded by 16,500 to 49,670, taking the total stadium capacity (seated and standing combined) to 121,401. FC Barcelona's record attendance was set on 5 March 1986 in the European Cup quarter-final against Juventus in front of 120,000 spectators, just 1,401 shy of the stadium's capacity. Camp Nou was one of several stadiums used


title: "Camp Nou" content: throughout the 1982 World Cup, hosting the inauguration ceremony on 13 June. It also hosted more matches in that tournament than any of the 16 other stadiums used all over Spain, including the opening match, where the traditional opening ceremonies took place (including the releasing of a dove). In front of 95,000, Belgium upset the defending champions Argentina 1–0 in that opening match. It then hosted three round-robin matches between the Soviet Union, Poland, and Belgium, which Poland ended up winning and qualifying from to reach the semi-finals, where they played Italy at the Camp Nou, losing 2–0; Italy went


title: "Camp Nou" content: on to win the final match, which was played at Real Madrid's Santiago Bernabéu Stadium in Madrid. The stadium's capacity has varied greatly over the years, opening at 106,146, but growing to 121,401 for the 1982 FIFA World Cup. Apart from hosting Barcelona, Camp Nou is home to the Catalan team. The stadium is frequently used for other football events. The European Cup final between Milan and Steaua București was held on 24 May 1989, with the Italian club winning 4–0. Camp Nou hosted part of the football competition, including the final, in the 1992 Summer Olympics. In preparation for


title: "Camp Nou" content: these matches, two additional tiers of seating were installed over the previous roof-line. Camp Nou underwent little change after 1982, except for the opening of the club museum in 1984. The stadium underwent a facelift in 1993–94, in which the pitch was lowered by 2.5 metres (8 feet), the security gap that separated the lawn from the galleries was removed, and standing room was eliminated in favor of individual seating. A new press box, renovation of the presidential grandstand and boxes, new parking under the main grandstand, and new lighting and sound systems were completed in time for the 1998–99


title: "Camp Nou" content: season. In 1999, UEFA outlawed standing sections in stadiums, and Camp Nou's capacity settled to its current level. The stadium hosted the 1999 UEFA Champions League Final later that year where Manchester United played Bayern Munich. United won 2–1, coming back from 0–1 down in injury time. During 1998–99, UEFA rated Camp Nou a five-star stadium for its services and functionalities. However, as per the 2010 regulations, UEFA does not publish a list of the top venues. In 2000, fans were polled concerning the stadium's name. Of the 29,102 votes the club received, a total of 19,861 (68.25%) preferred Camp


title: "Camp Nou" content: Nou to Estadi del FC Barcelona, and thus the official name was changed to the popular nickname. The facilities now include a memorabilia shop, mini-pitches for training matches, and a chapel for the players. The stadium also houses the second-most visited museum in Catalonia, FC Barcelona Museum, which receives more than 1.2 million visitors per year. On 1 October 2017, Barcelona's league match against Las Palmas was played in an empty Camp Nou due to political turmoil in the region. The club issued an international tender to remodel the stadium as a celebration of the stadium's fiftieth anniversary. The objective


title: "Camp Nou" content: was to make the facility an integrated and highly visible urban environment. The club schemed to increase the seating capacity by 13,500, with at least half of the total seating to be under cover. The intention was to make it the third-largest stadium in the world (in terms of seating capacity), after the Indianapolis Motor Speedway in the USA (297,000 capacity), and the Rungnado May Day Stadium in North Korea (114,000 capacity). On 18 September 2007, the British architect Norman Foster and his company were selected to "restructure" Camp Nou. With an estimated cost of €250 million, the plan included


title: "Camp Nou" content: the addition of roughly 6,000 seats for a maximum capacity of 105,000. The FC Barcelona board approved the sale of their former training ground (the Mini Estadi) against significant opposition in order to finance the remodeling. The project was planned to begin in 2009 and to be finished for the 2011–12 season. However, due to the 2008 financial crisis, the sale of the training ground was postponed and likewise the remodeling project. In May 2010, Sandro Rosell, then a candidate for president of FC Barcelona, dismissed the possibility of selling the Mini Estadi, saying it would be indefensible to "sell


title: "Camp Nou" content: the crown jewels", and his election on 30 June 2010 effectively halted the plan to remodel Camp Nou. In January 2014, Barcelona's board of directors rejected the option of building a new stadium due to financial constraints and instead opted to remodel the Camp Nou to bring the capacity up to 105,000. The project is expected to run from 2017 to early 2021, with a cost of around £495 million (€600 million), making it one of the most expensive expansions on a per-seat basis. A refined plan was released on 26 May 2015, showing plans to add a canopy over


title: "Camp Nou" content: the stands, and showing the plans for seating expansion in greater detail. Construction started in the summer of 2018, and estimated completion won't be until the start of the 2021-2022 La Liga season. Camp Nou has been used for various purposes other than football, often hosting major concerts. Pope John Paul II celebrated mass for a congregation of over 121,500 at Camp Nou on 17 November 1982, on the occasion being made an honorary citizen of Barcelona. In 1983, Julio Iglesias played for 60,000 people, in what was described as a "most beautifully orchestrated" concert. Other high-profile performances at Camp


title: "Camp Nou" content: Nou include those by Bruce Springsteen on 3 August 1988 during his Tunnel of Love Express Tour; and again on 19 and 20 July 2008 during his Magic Tour. On 9 August 1988, Michael Jackson appeared at the stadium in front of 95,000 fans during his Bad World Tour. On 10 September 1988, a charity concert organised by Amnesty International to support human rights featured, among others, Bruce Springsteen, Sting, Peter Gabriel, Youssou N'Dour, Tracy Chapman, and El Último de la Fila. A concert by the Three Tenors – Josep Carreras, Plácido Domingo and Luciano Pavarotti – was held on


title: "Camp Nou" content: 13 July 1997. On 3 August 1988 Bruce Springsteen appeared in front of 90,000 people on the Tunnel of Love Express Tour. He came back on 3 September 1988 to appear in front of again 90,000 on the Human Rights Now! tour. U2 performed at the stadium three times: the first one was on 7 August 2005 during their Vertigo Tour, in front of a sold out crowd of 81,269 people. The second and the third were on 30 June and 2 July 2009 during their U2 360° Tour, in front of a total crowd of 182,055 people. The encore


title: "Camp Nou" content: performance of "I'll Go Crazy If I Don't Go Crazy Tonight" from the second 2009 show was filmed for the music video of the single. On 4 November 2014, Ligue Nationale de Rugby (LNR), which operates France's professional rugby union leagues, announced that the 2015–16 Top 14 final would be held at the Camp Nou on 24 June 2016. The Top 14 final is traditionally held at the Stade de France in the Paris suburb of Saint-Denis. However, the scheduling of the 2015 Rugby World Cup caused the 2015–16 French season to be shifted by several weeks, in turn causing


title: "Camp Nou" content: the Stade de France to be unavailable because it would be a major venue for UEFA Euro 2016. The match ultimately drew a crowd of 99,124, setting a new record for attendance at a domestic rugby match. Approximately 680 metres from Camp Nou there is the Trambaix Avinguda de Xile station (lines T1, T2 and T3). The stadium is accessible from the Barcelona Metro with the closest stations to Camp Nou are Palau Reial, Maria Cristina and Les Corts, on L3; Badal on L5 and Collblanc on L5 or L9 L9. All are 500 to 1,000 metres from Camp Nou,


title: "Camp Nou" content: depending on which of the gates (accesses) to Camp Nou are used. Usually metro services are increased when there is a match with significant passenger congestion nonetheless. Closest station to each access: Currently a station for Camp Nou is under construction, on L9 and L10. The bus lines with a stop close to Camp Nou are: TMB lines: AMB lines: Nitbus (approximately 22.30h-5h): Usually the lines 15, 43 and 56 service is stepped up, depending on the demand that may occur. Apart from that there are two special lines to Mossèn Jacint Verdaguer Square and to Catalunya Square when there


title: "Camp Nou" content: are matches. The stadium is a significant away from the El Prat International Airport which is a 40-minute drive considering the city's traffic. It is possible to use the L9 from the airport directly to Collblanc, and walk for about 9–12 minutes to the stadium as an alternative route. The stadium was one of the venues of the 1982 FIFA World Cup, and held the following matches: Camp Nou Camp Nou (, "new field", often referred to as the Nou Camp in English) is the home stadium of FC Barcelona since its completion in 1957. With a seating capacity of


title: Voxel content: with lots of empty or homogeneously filled space, while voxels excel at representing regularly sampled spaces that are non-homogeneously filled. Voxels are frequently used in the visualization and analysis of medical and scientific data (eg. GIS). Some volumetric displays use voxels to describe their resolution. For example, a display might be able to show 512×512×512 voxels. The word "voxel" originated by analogy with the word "pixel", with "vo" representing "volume" and "el" representing "element"; similar formations with "el" for "element" include the words "pixel" and "texel". A volume described as voxels can be visualized either by direct volume rendering or


title: "Emperor penguin" content: Emperor penguin The emperor penguin ("Aptenodytes forsteri") is the tallest and heaviest of all living penguin species and is endemic to Antarctica. The male and female are similar in plumage and size, reaching in height and weighing from . The dorsal side and head are black and sharply delineated from the white belly, pale-yellow breast and bright-yellow ear patches. Like all penguins it is flightless, with a streamlined body, and wings stiffened and flattened into flippers for a marine habitat. Its diet consists primarily of fish, but can also include crustaceans, such as krill, and cephalopods, such as squid. In


title: "Emperor penguin" content: hunting, the species can remain submerged up to 18 minutes, diving to a depth of . It has several adaptations to facilitate this, including an unusually structured haemoglobin to allow it to function at low oxygen levels, solid bones to reduce barotrauma, and the ability to reduce its metabolism and shut down non-essential organ functions. The only penguin species that breeds during the Antarctic winter, emperor penguins trek over the ice to breeding colonies which may include thousands of individuals. The female lays a single egg, which then is incubated by the male while the female returns to the sea


title: "Emperor penguin" content: to feed; parents subsequently take turns foraging at sea and caring for their chick in the colony. The typical lifespan of the emperor penguin is around 20 years in the wild, although observations suggest that some individuals may live to 50 years of age. Emperor penguins were described in 1844 by English zoologist George Robert Gray, who created the generic name from Ancient Greek word elements, ἀ-πτηνο-δύτης [a-ptēno-dytēs], "without-wings-diver". Its specific name is in honour of the German naturalist Johann Reinhold Forster, who accompanied Captain James Cook on his second voyage and officially named five other penguin species. Forster may


title: "Emperor penguin" content: have been the first person to sight the penguins in 1773–74; he recorded a sighting of what he believed to be "A. patagonicus" but, given the location, may well have been "A. forsteri". Together with the similarly coloured but smaller king penguin ("A. patagonicus"), the emperor penguin is one of two extant species in the genus "Aptenodytes". Fossil evidence of a third species—Ridgen's penguin ("A. ridgeni")—has been found in fossil records from the late Pliocene, about three million years ago, in New Zealand. Studies of penguin behaviour and genetics have proposed that the genus "Aptenodytes" is basal; in other words,


title: "Emperor penguin" content: that it split off from a branch which led to all other living penguin species. Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA evidence suggests this split occurred around 40 million years ago. Adult emperor penguins stand up to tall. The weight ranges from and varies by sex, with males weighing more than females. It is the fifth heaviest living bird species, after only the larger varieties of ratite. The weight also varies by season, as both male and female penguins lose substantial mass while raising hatchlings and incubating their egg. A male emperor penguin must withstand the Antarctic cold for more than two


title: "Emperor penguin" content: months to protect his egg from the extreme cold. He consumes no food during this entire time. Most male emperors will lose around while they wait for their eggs to hatch. The mean weight of males at the start of the breeding season is and that of females is . After the breeding season this drops to for both sexes. Like all penguin species, emperor penguins have streamlined bodies to minimize drag while swimming, and wings that are more like stiff, flat flippers. The tongue is equipped with rear-facing barbs to prevent prey from escaping when caught. Males and females


title: "Emperor penguin" content: are similar in size and colouration. The adult has deep black dorsal feathers, covering the head, chin, throat, back, dorsal part of the flippers, and tail. The black plumage is sharply delineated from the light-coloured plumage elsewhere. The underparts of the wings and belly are white, becoming pale yellow in the upper breast, while the ear patches are bright yellow. The upper mandible of the long bill is black, and the lower mandible can be pink, orange or lilac. In juveniles, the auricular patches, chin and throat are white, while its bill is black. Emperor penguin chicks are typically covered


title: "Emperor penguin" content: with silver-grey down and have black heads and white masks. A chick with all-white plumage was seen in 2001, but was not considered to be an albino as it did not have pink eyes. Chicks weigh around after hatching, and fledge when they reach about 50% of adult weight. The emperor penguin's dark plumage fades to brown from November until February (the Antarctic summer), before the yearly moult in January and February. Moulting is rapid in this species compared with other birds, taking only around 34 days. Emperor penguin feathers emerge from the skin after they have grown to a


title: "Emperor penguin" content: third of their total length, and before old feathers are lost, to help reduce heat loss. New feathers then push out the old ones before finishing their growth. The average yearly survival rate of an adult emperor penguin has been measured at 95.1%, with an average life expectancy of 19.9 years. The same researchers estimated that 1% of emperor penguins hatched could feasibly reach an age of around 50 years. In sharp contrast, only 19% of chicks survive their first year of life. Therefore, 80% of the emperor penguin population comprises adults five years and older. As the species has


title: "Emperor penguin" content: no fixed nest sites that individuals can use to locate their own partner or chick, emperor penguins must rely on vocal calls alone for identification. They use a complex set of calls that are critical to individual recognition between parents, offspring and mates, displaying the widest variation in individual calls of all penguins. Vocalizing emperor penguins use two frequency bands simultaneously. Chicks use a frequency-modulated whistle to beg for food and to contact parents. The emperor penguin breeds in the coldest environment of any bird species; air temperatures may reach , and wind speeds may reach . Water temperature is


title: "Emperor penguin" content: a frigid , which is much lower than the emperor penguin's average body temperature of . The species has adapted in several ways to counteract heat loss. Feathers provide 80–90% of its insulation and it has a layer of sub-dermal fat which may be up to thick before breeding. This resultant blubber layer impedes the mobility of emperor penguins on land compared to their less fat-insulated cousins, the Magellanic penguins. While the density of contour feathers is approximately 9 per square centimetre (58 per square inch), a combination of dense afterfeathers and down feathers (plumules) likely play a critical role


title: "Emperor penguin" content: for insulation. Muscles allow the feathers to be held erect on land, reducing heat loss by trapping a layer of air next to the skin. Conversely, the plumage is flattened in water, thus waterproofing the skin and the downy underlayer. Preening is vital in facilitating insulation and in keeping the plumage oily and water-repellent. The emperor penguin is able to thermoregulate (maintain its core body temperature) without altering its metabolism, over a wide range of temperatures. Known as the thermoneutral range, this extends from . Below this temperature range, its metabolic rate increases significantly, although an individual can maintain its


title: "Emperor penguin" content: core temperature from down to . Movement by swimming, walking, and shivering are three mechanisms for increasing metabolism; a fourth process involves an increase in the breakdown of fats by enzymes, which is induced by the hormone glucagon. At temperatures above , an emperor penguin may become agitated as its body temperature and metabolic rate rise to increase heat loss. Raising its wings and exposing the undersides increases the exposure of its body surface to the air by 16%, facilitating further heat loss. In addition to the cold, the emperor penguin encounters another stressful condition on deep dives—markedly increased pressure


title: "Emperor penguin" content: of up to 40 times that of the surface, which in most other terrestrial organisms would cause barotrauma. The bones of the penguin are solid rather than air-filled, which eliminates the risk of mechanical barotrauma. While diving, the emperor penguin's oxygen use is markedly reduced, as its heart rate is reduced to as low as 15–20 beats per minute and non-essential organs are shut down, thus facilitating longer dives. Its haemoglobin and myoglobin are able to bind and transport oxygen at low blood concentrations; this allows the bird to function with very low oxygen levels that would otherwise result in


title: "Emperor penguin" content: loss of consciousness. The emperor penguin has a circumpolar distribution in the Antarctic almost exclusively between the 66° and 77° south latitudes. It almost always breeds on stable pack ice near the coast and up to offshore. Breeding colonies are usually in areas where ice cliffs and icebergs provide some protection from the wind. Three land colonies have been reported: one (now disappeared) on a shingle spit at the Dion Islands on the Antarctic Peninsula, one on a headland at Taylor Glacier in Victoria Land, and most recently one at Amundsen Bay. Since 2009, a number of colonies have been


title: "Emperor penguin" content: reported on shelf ice rather than sea ice, in some cases moving to the shelf in years when sea ice forms late. The northernmost breeding population is on Snow Island, near the northern tip of the Peninsula. Individual vagrants have been recorded on Heard Island, South Georgia, and in New Zealand. The total population was estimated in 2009 to be at around 595,000 adult birds, in 46 known colonies spread around the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic; around 35% of the known population lives north of the Antarctic Circle. Major breeding colonies were located at Cape Washington, Coulman Island in Victoria Land,


title: "Emperor penguin" content: Halley, Cape Colbeck, and Dibble Glacier. Colonies are known to fluctuate over time, often breaking into "suburbs" which move apart from the parent group, and some have been known to disappear entirely. The Cape Crozier colony on the Ross Sea shrank drastically between the first visits by the "Discovery" Expedition in 1902–03 and the later visits by the "Terra Nova" Expedition in 1910–11; it was reduced to a few hundred birds, and may have come close to extinction due to changes in the position of the ice shelf. By the 1960s it had rebounded dramatically, but by 2009 was again


title: "Emperor penguin" content: reduced to a small population of around 300. In 2012 the emperor penguin was uplisted from a species of least concern to near threatened by the IUCN. Along with nine other species of penguin, it is currently under consideration for inclusion under the US Endangered Species Act. The primary causes for an increased risk of species endangerment are declining food availability, due to the effects of climate change and industrial fisheries on the crustacean and fish populations. Other reasons for the species's placement on the Endangered Species Act's list include disease, habitat destruction, and disturbance at breeding colonies by humans.


title: "Emperor penguin" content: Of particular concern is the impact of tourism. One study concluded that emperor penguin chicks in a crèche become more apprehensive following helicopter approach to . Population declines of 50% in the Terre Adélie region have been observed due to increased adult mortality, especially of males, during an abnormally prolonged warm period in the late 1970s, which resulted in reduced sea-ice coverage. On the other hand, egg hatching success rates declined when the sea-ice extent increased. The species is therefore considered to be highly sensitive to climatic changes. In 2009, the large Dion Islands colony, which has been extensively studied


title: "Emperor penguin" content: since 1948, was reported to have completely disappeared at some point over the previous decade, the first confirmed loss of an entire colony. A Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution study in January 2009 found that emperor penguins could be pushed to the brink of extinction by the year 2100 due to global climate change. The study constructed a mathematical model to predict how the loss of sea ice from climate warming would affect a big colony of emperor penguins at Terre Adélie, Antarctica. The study forecasted an 87% decline in the colony's population, from three thousand breeding pairs in 2009 to


title: "Emperor penguin" content: four hundred breeding pairs in 2100. In June 2014 a study by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution concluded that emperor penguins are at risk from global warming, which is melting the sea ice. This study predicted that by 2100 all 45 colonies of emperor penguins will be declining in numbers, mostly due to loss of habitat. Loss of ice reduces the supply of krill, which is a primary food for emperor penguins. The emperor penguin is a social animal in its nesting and its foraging behaviour; birds hunting together may coordinate their diving and surfacing. Individuals may be active day


title: "Emperor penguin" content: or night. A mature adult travels throughout most of the year between the breeding colony and ocean foraging areas; the species disperses into the oceans from January to March. The American physiologist Gerry Kooyman revolutionized the study of penguin foraging behaviour in 1971 when he published his results from attaching automatic dive-recording devices to emperor penguins. He found that the species reaches depths of , with dive periods of up to 18 minutes. Later research revealed a small female had dived to a depth of near McMurdo Sound. It is possible that emperor penguins can dive even deeper, as the


title: "Emperor penguin" content: accuracy of the recording devices is diminished at greater depths. Further study of one bird's diving behaviour revealed regular dives to in water around deep, and shallow dives of less than , interspersed with deep dives of more than in depths of . This was suggestive of feeding near or at the sea bottom. Both male and female emperor penguins forage for food up to from colonies while collecting food to feed chicks, covering per individual per trip. A male returning to the sea after incubation heads directly out to areas of permanent open water, known as polynyas, around from


title: "Emperor penguin" content: the colony. An efficient swimmer, the emperor penguin exerts pressure with both its upward and downward strokes while swimming. The upward stroke works against buoyancy and helps maintain depth. Its average swimming speed is . On land, the emperor penguin alternates between walking with a wobbling gait and tobogganing—sliding over the ice on its belly, propelled by its feet and wing-like flippers. Like all penguins, it is flightless. The emperor penguin is a very powerful bird. In one case, a crew of six men, trying to capture a single male penguin for a zoo collection, were repeatedly tossed around and


title: "Emperor penguin" content: knocked over before all of the men had to collectively tackle the bird, which weighs about half as much as a man. As a defence against the cold, a colony of emperor penguins forms a compact huddle (also known as the turtle formation) ranging in size from ten to several hundred birds, with each bird leaning forward on a neighbour. As the wind chill is the least severe in the center of the colony, all the juveniles are usually huddled there. Those on the outside upwind tend to shuffle slowly around the edge of the formation and add themselves to


title: "Emperor penguin" content: its leeward edge, producing a slow churning action, and giving each bird a turn on the inside and on the outside. The emperor penguin's predators include birds and aquatic mammals. Southern giant petrels ("Macronectes giganteus") are the predominant land predator of chicks, responsible for over one-third of chick deaths in some colonies though they often scavenge dead penguins as well. The south polar skua ("Stercorarius maccormicki") mainly scavenges for dead chicks, as the live chicks are usually too large to be attacked by the time of its annual arrival in the colony. Occasionally, a parent may defend their chick from


title: "Emperor penguin" content: attack, although it may be more passive if the chick is weak or sickly. The only known predators thought to attack healthy adults, and who attack emperor penguins in the water, are both mammals. The first is the leopard seal ("Hydrurga leptonyx"), which takes adult birds and fledglings soon after they enter the water. Orcas ("Orcinus orca"), are known to attack adult birds, and they are believed to take large numbers of fledglings which have entered the sea to feed for the first time. Emperor penguins can breed at around three years of age, and usually start courtship and breeding


title: "Emperor penguin" content: at around five to six years. The yearly reproductive cycle begins at the start of the Antarctic winter, in March and April, when all mature emperor penguins travel to colonial nesting areas, often walking inland from the edge of the pack ice. The start of travel appears to be triggered by decreasing day lengths; emperor penguins in captivity have been induced successfully into breeding by using lighting systems mimicking seasonal Antarctic day lengths. The penguins start courtship in March or April, when the temperature can be as low as . A lone male gives an ecstatic display, where it stands


title: "Emperor penguin" content: still and places its head on its chest before inhaling and giving a courtship call for 1–2 seconds; it then moves around the colony and repeats the call. A male and female then stand face to face, with one extending its head and neck up and the other mirroring it; they both hold this posture for several minutes. Once in pairs, couples waddle around the colony together, with the female usually following the male. Before copulation, one bird bows deeply to its mate, its bill pointed close to the ground, and its mate then does the same. Emperor penguins are


title: "Emperor penguin" content: serially monogamous. They have only one mate each year, and stay faithful to that mate. However, fidelity between years is only about 15%. The narrow window of opportunity available for mating appears to be an influence, as there is a priority to mate and breed which often precludes waiting for the appearance of the previous year's partner. The female penguin lays one egg in May or early June; it is vaguely pear-shaped, pale greenish-white, and measures around . It represents just 2.3% of its mother's body weight, making it one of the smallest eggs relative to the maternal weight in


title: "Emperor penguin" content: any bird species. 15.7% of the weight of an emperor penguin egg is shell; like those of other penguin species, the shell is relatively thick, which minimizes risk of breakage. After laying, the mother's food reserves are exhausted and she very carefully transfers the egg to the male, and then immediately returns to the sea for two months to feed. The transfer of the egg can be awkward and difficult, especially for first-time parents, and many couples drop or crack the egg in the process. When this happens, the chick inside is quickly lost, as the egg cannot withstand the


title: "Emperor penguin" content: freezing temperatures on the icy ground for more than one to two minutes. The male spends the dark winter incubating the egg in his brood pouch, balancing it on the tops of his feet, for around 64 consecutive days until hatching. The emperor penguin is the only species where this behaviour is observed; in all other penguin species both parents take shifts incubating. By the time the egg hatches, the male will have fasted for around 115 days since arriving at the colony. To survive the cold and winds of up to , the males huddle together, taking turns in


title: "Emperor penguin" content: the middle of the huddle. They have also been observed with their backs to the wind to conserve body heat. In the four months of travel, courtship, and incubation, the male may lose as much as , from a total mass of . Hatching may take as long as two or three days to complete, as the shell of the egg is thick. Newly hatched chicks are semi-altricial, covered with only a thin layer of down and entirely dependent on their parents for food and warmth. The chick usually hatches before the mother's return, and the father feeds it a


title: "Emperor penguin" content: curd-like substance composed of 59% protein and 28% lipid, which is produced by a gland in his oesophagus. This ability to produce a sort of "milk" in birds is only found in pigeons, flamingos and male Emperor penguins. The young chick is brooded in what is called the "guard phase", spending time balanced on its parent's feet and sheltered in the brood pouch. The female penguin returns at any time from hatching to around ten days afterwards, from mid-July to early August. She finds her mate among the hundreds of fathers by his vocal call and takes over caring for


title: "Emperor penguin" content: the chick, feeding it by regurgitating the food that she has stored in her stomach. The male is often reluctant to surrender the chick he has been caring for to its mother, but he soon leaves to take his turn at sea, spending around 24 days feeding there before returning. The parents then take turns, one brooding while the other forages at sea. If either parent is delayed or fails to return to the colony, the lone parent will return to the sea to feed, leaving the chick to die. Abandoned eggs do not hatch and orphaned chicks never survive.


title: "Emperor penguin" content: Female emperors who failed to find a mate to breed with, or have lost their own chick may attempt to steal the chick of another female. The mother of the chick and neighboring females will fight to protect the chick or reclaim it, if it has been successfully stolen. These fights among several birds often result in the chick being smothered or trampled to death. These adopted chicks are quickly abandoned once again, as the female is unable to feed and care for the chick alone. These orphans will attempt to seek food and protection from other adults, but they


title: "Emperor penguin" content: are always brusquely driven away. The orphaned chicks will rapidly die of starvation, or freeze to death. About 45–50 days after hatching, the chicks form a crèche, huddling together for warmth and protection. During this time, both parents forage at sea and return periodically to feed their chicks. A crèche may comprise up to several thousand chicks densely packed together and is essential for surviving the fierce winds and low Antarctic temperatures. From early November, chicks begin moulting into juvenile plumage, which takes up to two months and is often not completed when they leave the colony; adults cease feeding


title: "Emperor penguin" content: them during this time. All birds make the considerably shorter trek to the sea in December or January and spend the rest of the summer feeding in the sea. The emperor penguin's diet consists mainly of fish, crustaceans and cephalopods, although its composition varies from population to population. Fish are usually the most important food source, and the Antarctic silverfish ("Pleuragramma antarcticum") makes up the bulk of the bird's diet. Other prey commonly recorded include other fish of the family Nototheniidae, the glacial squid ("Psychroteuthis glacialis"), and the hooked squid species "Kondakovia longimana", as well as Antarctic krill ("Euphausia superba").


title: "Emperor penguin" content: The emperor penguin searches for prey in the open water of the Southern Ocean, in either ice-free areas of open water or tidal cracks in pack ice. One of its feeding strategies is to dive to around , where it can easily spot sympagic fish like the bald notothen ("Pagothenia borchgrevinki") swimming against the bottom surface of the sea-ice; it swims up to the bottom of the ice and catches the fish. It then dives again and repeats the sequence about half a dozen times before surfacing to breathe. Since the 1930s, there have been several attempts at keeping emperor


title: "Emperor penguin" content: penguins in captivity, but until the 1960s these attempts were unsuccessful, as knowledge of penguin keeping in general was limited and acquired by trial and error. The first to achieve a level of success was Aalborg Zoo where a chilled house was built especially for this Antarctic species. One individual lived for 20 years at the zoo and a chick was hatched there, but died shortly after. Today, the species is kept at just a few zoos and public aquariums in North America and Asia. Emperor penguins were first successfully bred at SeaWorld San Diego; more than 20 birds have


title: "Emperor penguin" content: hatched there since 1980. Considered a flagship species, 55 individuals were counted in captivity in North American zoos and aquaria in 1999. In China, the emperor penguin was first bred at Nanjing Underwater World in 2009, followed by Laohutan Ocean Park in Dalian in 2010. Since then it has been kept and bred at a few other facilities in China, and the only confirmed twin emperor penguins (the species normally only lays one egg) hatched at Sun Asia Ocean World in Dalian in 2017. In Japan, the species is housed at Port of Nagoya Public Aquarium and Wakayama Adventure World,


title: "Emperor penguin" content: with successful hatching in the latter place. In June 2011, a juvenile emperor penguin was found on the beach at Peka Peka, north of Wellington in New Zealand. He had consumed of sand, which he had apparently mistaken for snow, as well as sticks and stones, and had to undergo a number of operations to remove these to save his life. Following recovery, on 4 September, the juvenile, named "Happy Feet" (after the 2006 film), was fitted with a tracking device and released into the Southern Ocean north of Campbell Island. However, 8 days later scientists lost contact with the


title: "Emperor penguin" content: bird, suggesting that the transmitter had fallen off (considered likely) or that he had been eaten by a predator (considered less likely). The species' unique life cycle in such a harsh environment has been described in print and visual media. Apsley Cherry-Garrard, the Antarctic explorer, said: "Take it all in all, I do not believe anybody on Earth has a worse time than an emperor penguin". Widely distributed in cinemas in 2005, the French documentary "La Marche de l'empereur", which was also released with the English title "March of the Penguins", told the story of the penguins' reproductive cycle. The


title: "Emperor penguin" content: subject has been covered for the small screen five times by the BBC and presenter David Attenborough: first in episode five of the 1993 series on the Antarctic "Life in the Freezer", again in the 2001 series "The Blue Planet", once again in the 2006 series "Planet Earth", in "Frozen Planet" in 2011 and a one hour programme dedicated to the species in the 2018 series Dynasties. The computer-animated movie "Happy Feet" (2006) features emperor penguins as its primary characters, with one in particular that loves to dance; although a comedy, it too depicts their life cycle and promotes an


title: "Emperor penguin" content: underlying serious environmental message of threats from global warming and depletion of food sources by overfishing. The computer-animated movie "Surf's Up" (2007) features a surfing emperor penguin named Zeke "Big-Z" Topanga. More than 30 countries have depicted the bird on their stamps – Australia, Great Britain, Chile and France have each issued several. It has also been depicted on a 1962 10 franc stamp as part of an Antarctic expedition series. Canadian band The Tragically Hip composed the song "Emperor Penguin" for their 1998 album "Phantom Power". Emperor penguin The emperor penguin ("Aptenodytes forsteri") is the tallest and heaviest of


title: "John W. Snow" content: House, CSX sold its international port operations to the UAE company, Dubai Transport. During Ronald Reagan's campaign for the presidency in 1980, Snow was a member of Governor Reagan's four-man advisory group on regulatory policy. Following his election victory, President-Elect Reagan named Snow as Vice Chairman of his Transportation Transition Team. Snow would go on to serve on the White House Conference for a Drug Free America; the Services Policy Advisory Committee of the U.S. Trade Representative; as Co-Chair of the National Commission on Financial Institution Reform, Recovery and Enforcement; the National Commission on Intermodal Transportation; the National Commission on


title: "National Labor Relations Board" content: enumerated new employer rights, defined union-committed ULPs, gave states the right to opt out of federal labor law through right-to-work laws, required unions to give an 80-days' strike notice in all cases, established procedures for the President to end a strike in a national emergency, and required all union officials to sign an anti-Communist oath. Organizationally, the act made the General Counsel a presidential appointee, independent of the board itself, and gave the General Counsel limited powers to seek injunctions without referring to the Justice Department. It also banned the NLRB from engaging in any mediation or conciliation, and formally


title: "War Admiral" content: of the Year Busher (ranked #40 in Blood-Horse magazine List of the Top 100 U.S. Racehorses of the 20th Century). He was the Leading Broodmare Sire of 1962 and 1964. Although War Admiral's sire line no longer exists, he remains a significant influence in modern pedigrees due to his daughters. Their descendants include the likes of Swaps, Buckpasser, Numbered Account, as well as two Triple Crown winners, Seattle Slew and Affirmed. Other descendants of note include Dr. Fager, Alysheba, Cigar and Zenyatta. War Admiral's name appears eight times in the pedigree of the 2015 Triple Crown winner, American Pharoah. War


title: "River Trent" content: an inland navigation’. Extended in 2012, the route now runs from Trent Lock in the south through to Alkborough where the river meets the Humber. It combines riverside and towpath sections, with other paths to villages and places of interest in the wider valley. Historically swimming in the river was popular, in 1770 at Nottingham there were two bathing areas on opposite banks at Trent Bridge which were improved in 1857 with changing sheds and an assistant. Similar facilities were present in 1870 on the water meadows at Burton-on-Trent, which also had its own swimming club. Open water swimming still


title: "Yankee Station" content: August 3, 1966. Yankee Station Yankee Station (officially Point Yankee) was a fixed coordinate off the coast of Vietnam where U.S. Navy aircraft carriers and support ships loitered in open waters over a nine-year period during the Vietnam War. The location was used primarily by aircraft carriers of Task Force 77 to launch strikes over North Vietnam. While the coordinate's official designation was "Point Yankee", it was universally referred to as Yankee Station. Carriers conducting air operations at Yankee Station were said to be "on the line" (in combat) and statistical summaries were based on days on the line. Yankee


title: Cinerama content: West Was Won" was released, offering a recreation of Cinerama for home viewing. The three Cinerama images were digitally stitched together so that the resulting image does not have the visible seams of older copies. Furthermore, as a second viewing option, 3D mapping technology was used to produce an image that approximates the curved screen, called "SmileBox". On January 14, 2012, an original Cinerama camera was used to film a sequence at the Lasky-DeMille Barn, the original home to Famous Players-Lasky, later to be renamed Paramount Pictures. This was the first film photographed in the Cinerama process in almost 50


title: "Mir Castle Complex" content: Mir Castle Complex The Mir Castle Complex (, Łacinka: Mirski zamak, , ) is a UNESCO World Heritage site in Belarus. It is in the town of Mir, in the Kareličy District of the Hrodna voblast, at , north-west of another World Heritage site, Niasviž Castle. Mir Castle Complex is above sea level. From 1921 to 1939 the castle belonged to the territory of Poland. Duke Juryj Ivanavič Illinič () began construction of the castle near the village of Mir after the turn of the 16th century in the Belarusian Gothic style. Five towers surrounded the courtyard of the citadel,


title: "Mir Castle Complex" content: the walls of which formed a square of on each side. In 1568, when the Ilyinich dynasty died out, the Mir Castle passed into the hands of Mikołaj Krzysztof "the Orphan" Radziwiłł, who refitted it with a two-winged, three-story stately residence along the eastern and northern inner walls of the castle. Plastered facades were decorated with limestone portals, plates, balconies and porches in the Renaissance style. In 1817, after the castle had been abandoned for nearly a century and had suffered severe damage in the Battle of Mir (1812), owner Dominik Hieronim Radziwiłł died of battle injuries and the castle


title: "Mir Castle Complex" content: passed to his daughter Stefania, who married Ludwig zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg. Later the castle became a possession of their daughter Maria, who married Prince Chlodwig Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst. Their son, Maurice Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst, sold the castle to Mikalaj Sviatapolk-Mirski, of the Bialynia clan, in 1895. Nikolai's son Michael began to rebuild the castle according to the plans of architect Teodor Bursze. The Sviatapolk-Mirski family owned the castle until 1939, when the Soviet Union occupied eastern Poland. When German forces invaded the Soviet Union in 1941, they occupied the castle and converted it to a ghetto for the local Jewish population, prior to their liquidation.


title: "Mir Castle Complex" content: Between 1944 and 1956, the castle was used as a housing facility, resulting in damage to the castle's interior. In December 2000, the Mir Castle was listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. Mir Castle Complex The Mir Castle Complex (, Łacinka: Mirski zamak, , ) is a UNESCO World Heritage site in Belarus. It is in the town of Mir, in the Kareličy District of the Hrodna voblast, at , north-west of another World Heritage site, Niasviž Castle. Mir Castle Complex is above sea level. From 1921 to 1939 the castle belonged to the territory of Poland. Duke


title: Performance content: they are extra roles that are indirectly related to organizational performance. Citizenship performance like contextual performance means a set of individual activity/contribution (prosocial organizational behavior) that supports the organizational culture. In the performing arts, a performance generally comprises an event in which a performer or group of performers present one or more works of art to an audience. In instrumental music (and in drama), performance is typically described as "play". Usually the performers participate in rehearsals beforehand. An effective performance is determined by achievement skills and competency of the performer - level of skill and knowledge. Spencer and McClelland in


title: "Nine Years' War" content: as devoted to the common cause, and all protected their own interests; some never hesitated to exact a high price for continuing their support. Charles XI of Sweden supplied the contingents due from his German possessions to the Allied cause (6,000 men and 12 warships), while in August 1689 Christian V of Denmark agreed to a treaty to supply William III with 7,000 troops in return for a subsidy. However, in March 1691 Sweden and Denmark put aside their mutual distrust and made a treaty of armed neutrality for the protection of their commerce and to prevent the war spreading


title: "Sarah Kane" content: "The argument is made through form, through the shifts in styles in "Blasted". That's how she constructs the argument, by taking this setting in an English Northern industrial town and suddenly transporting the action to a war zone." The critical realism that the first scene sets up is "literally blasted apart" in Scene Two. The critic Ken Urban says that "for Kane, hell is not metaphysical: it is hyperreal, reality magnified". "Skin" was an eleven-minute screenplay written for Channel 4, a British TV station, depicting a violent relationship between a black woman and a racist skinhead. It was first shown


title: "Workers' Party (Brazil)" content: inception the party has been led by the following: There are about thirty factions ("tendências") within PT, ranging from Articulação, the centre-left group that Lula is a part of, to Marxists and Christian socialists. Considered the right-wing of the party, i.e. going from centre to centre-left. Its members are known as "petistas", from the Portuguese acronym PT. Workers' Party (Brazil) The Workers' Party (, PT) is a democratic socialist political party in Brazil. Launched in 1980, it is one of the largest movements of Latin America. PT governed at the federal level in a coalition government with several other parties


title: "Ice Hockey World Championships" content: the time, the Olympics were strictly for amateur players. A compromise was reached that the AHA team would be allowed to compete but would be considered unofficial and unable to win a medal. By the end of the tournament, the AHA team finished fourth in the standings. Both Czechoslovakia and the RCAF Flyers of Canada won seven games and tied when they played each other. The gold medal winner was determined by goal average: Canada won the gold because they had an average of 13.8 compared to Czechoslovakia's average of 4.3. At the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo, Norway, the


title: Tekken content: exclusive characters for different console versions and featured Heihachi Mishima, a character that has been in all "Tekken" games and the protagonist of "Tekken 2", exclusive to the PlayStation 2 version. He was also playable in "PlayStation All-Stars Battle Royale" and is Harada's favorite character in the series. Jin Kazama, the protagonist of the series, is often recognized as a PlayStation mascot. "Tekken 7"s PlayStation 4 announcement trailer featured a retrospective celebration of "20 Years of "Tekken"", and the PlayStation 4 version of the game features exclusive content from previous titles in the series, including character costumes and musical tracks.


title: "Mahabodhi Temple" content: can support the weight of the Buddha's attainment. Another Buddhist tradition claims that when the world is destroyed at the end of a kalpa, the Bodhimanda is the last spot to disappear, and will be the first to appear when the world emerges into existence again. Tradition also claims that a lotus will bloom there, and if a Buddha is born during that the new kalpa, the lotus flowers in accordance with the number of Buddhas expected to arise. According to legend, in the case of Gautama Buddha, a Bodhi tree sprang up on the day he was born. In


title: "Lord Chancellor" content: in both spiritual and temporal matters. Thus, the position emerged as one of the most important ones in government. He was only outranked in government by the Justiciar (now obsolete). As one of the King's ministers, the Lord Chancellor attended the "curia regis" or Royal Court. If a bishop, the Lord Chancellor received a writ of summons; if an ecclesiastic of a lower degree or, if a layman, he attended without any summons. The "curia regis" would later evolve into Parliament, the Lord Chancellor becoming the prolocutor of its upper house, the House of Lords. As was confirmed by a


title: "Eleanor of England, Queen of Castile" content: Alfonso yielded on the claim. Decades later, their great-grandson Alfonso X of Castile would claim the duchy on the grounds that her dowry had never been fully paid. Of all Eleanor of Aquitaine's daughters, her namesake was the only one who was enabled, by political circumstances, to wield the kind of influence her mother had exercised. In her own marriage treaty, and in the first marriage treaty for her daughter Berengaria, Eleanor was given direct control of many lands, towns, and castles throughout the kingdom. She was almost as powerful as Alfonso, who specified in his will in 1204 that


title: "Sri Lankan Civil War" content: a number of large arms smuggling vessels that belonged to the LTTE,<ref name="mod-kkd-10/08/07"></ref> and an international crackdown on the funding for the Tamil Tigers, the government took control of the entire area previously controlled by the Tamil Tigers, including their de facto capital Kilinochchi, main military base Mullaitivu and the entire A9 highway,<ref name="blm-1/26-rebelbase">Sri Lankan Forces Capture Last Major Rebel Base in Northeast , "Bloomberg".</ref> leading the LTTE to finally admit defeat on 17 May 2009. Following the LTTE's defeat, pro-LTTE Tamil National Alliance dropped its demand for a separate state, in favour of a federal solution. In May 2010,


title: "Latrodectus mactans" content: Latrodectus mactans Latrodectus mactans, known as southern black widow or simply black widow, and the shoe-button spider, is a venomous species of spider in the genus "Latrodectus". The females are well known for their distinctive black and red coloring and for the fact that they will occasionally eat their mate after reproduction. The species is native to North America. The venom is seldom fatal to healthy humans. "Latrodectus mactans" was first described by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1775, placing it in the genus "Aranea". It was transferred to the genus "Latrodectus" in 1837 by Charles Walckenaer and is currently placed


title: "Latrodectus mactans" content: in the Theridiidae family of the order Araneae. The species is closely related to "Latrodectus hesperus" (western black widow) and "Latrodectus variolus" (northern black widow). Members of the three species are often confused with the genus "Steatoda", the false widows. Prior to 1970, when the current taxonomic divisions for North American black widows were set forth by Kaston, all three varieties were classified as a single species, "L. mactans". As a result, there exist numerous references which claim that "black widow" (without any geographic modifier) applies to "L. mactans" alone. Common usage of the term "black widow" makes no distinction


title: "Latrodectus mactans" content: between the three species. The body length (excluding legs) of the mature female is , for males. Legs are long in proportion to body. Females are shiny and black in color, with a red marking in the shape of an hourglass on the ventral (under) side of her very rounded abdomen. There is much variation in female size, particularly in egg-carrying (gravid) females. The abdomen of a gravid female can be more than in diameter. Many female widows also have an orange or red patch just above the spinnerets on the top of the abdomen. Juveniles have a distinctly different


title: "Latrodectus mactans" content: appearance from the adults; the abdomen is grayish to black with white stripes running across it and is spotted with yellow and orange. Males are either purple, or closer to the appearance of the juveniles in color. The web of the black widow spider is a three-dimensional tangled cobweb of exceptionally strong silk. The southern widow is primarily found in (and is indigenous to) the southeastern United States, ranging as far north as Ohio and as far west as Texas. The northern black widow "(L. variolus)" is found primarily in the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada, though its range


title: "Latrodectus mactans" content: overlaps with that of "L. mactans". In Canada, black widows range in the southern parts of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Quebec and Ontario. In the Dominican Republic it is found throughout the whole country. "Latrodectus mactans", along with "Latrodectus hesperus" and "Latrodectus geometricus" (the "brown widow spider"), is established in the Hawaiian Islands (USA). One pathway of entry into Hawaii for at least one of these black widow species is imported produce (which is also considered an important potential pathway for widow spiders elsewhere). When a male is mature, he spins a sperm web, deposits semen on it, and


title: "Latrodectus mactans" content: charges his palpal bulbs with the sperm. Black widow spiders reproduce sexually when the male inserts his palpal bulbs into the female's spermathecal openings. The female deposits her eggs in a globular silken container in which they remain camouflaged and guarded. A female black widow spider can produce four to nine egg sacs in one summer, each containing about 100–400 eggs. Usually, eggs incubate for twenty to thirty days. It is rare for more than a hundred to survive this process. On average, thirty will survive through the first molting, because of cannibalism, lack of food, or lack of proper


title: "Latrodectus mactans" content: shelter. It takes two to four months for black widow spiders to mature enough to breed, however full maturation typically takes six to nine months. The females can live for up to three years, while a male's lifespan is about three to four months. The female may eat the male after mating. Black widow spiders typically prey on a variety of insects, but occasionally they do feed on woodlice, diplopods, chilopods and other arachnids. The spider's web is even strong enough to catch animals as large as mice. When the prey is entangled by the web, "Latrodectus mactans" quickly comes


title: "Latrodectus mactans" content: out of its retreat, wraps the prey securely in its strong web, then bites and envenoms its prey. The venom takes about ten minutes to take effect; in the meantime, the prey is held tightly by the spider. When movements of the prey cease, digestive enzymes are released into the wound. The black widow spider then carries its prey back to its retreat before feeding. There are various parasites and predators of widow spiders in North America, though apparently none of these have ever been evaluated in terms of augmentation programs for improved biocontrol. Parasites of the egg sacs include


title: "Latrodectus mactans" content: the flightless scelionid wasp "Baeus latrodecti", and members of the chloropid fly genus "Pseudogaurax". Predators of the adult spiders include a few wasps, most notably the blue mud dauber, "Chalybion californicum", and the spider wasp "Tastiotenia festiva". Other species including Mantis or Centipede also will occasionally and opportunistically take widows as prey, but the preceding all exhibit some significant specific preference for "Latrodectus". Furthermore, in 2012, researchers published a paper suggesting that the black widow's close relative, the brown widow, may be competing for territory with, and ultimately displacing black widows in Southern California. Although the reputation of these spiders


title: "Latrodectus mactans" content: is notorious and their venom does affect humans, only mature females are capable of envenomation in humans; their chelicerae—the hollow, needle-like mouthparts that inject venom—are, at approximately 1 mm., or .04 in., long enough to inject venom into humans, unlike those of the much smaller males. The actual amount injected, even by a mature female, is variable. The venom injected by the female black widow is known as alpha-latrotoxin which binds to receptors at the neuromuscular motor end plate of both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves, resulting in increased synaptic concentration of catecholamines. The symptoms are caused by lymphatic absorption and


title: "Latrodectus mactans" content: vascular dissemination of the neurotoxin. The symptoms that result from a black widow spider bite are collectively known as "latrodectism." Deaths in healthy adults from "Latrodectus" bites are exceedingly rare, with no deaths despite two thousand bites yearly. On the other hand, the geographical range of the widow spiders is vast. Epidemics of mostly European Widow spider bites had been recorded from 1850 to 1950, and during that time period, deaths were reported from 2/1000 to 50/1000 bites. Deaths from the Western Black Widow had been reported as 50/1000 in the 1920s. At that same time, antivenom was introduced. The


title: "Latrodectus mactans" content: LD-50 of "L. mactans" venom has been measured in mice as 1.39 mg/kg, and separately as 1.30 mg/kg (with a confidence interval of 1.20–2.70). In 1933, Allan Blair famously allowed himself to be bitten by the spider in order to investigate the toxicity of its venom in humans and as a means of convincing skeptics at the time who thought that the spider's venom might not be dangerous to humans. There are a number of active components in the venom: The venom is neurotoxic. Latrodectus mactans Latrodectus mactans, known as southern black widow or simply black widow, and the shoe-button


title: "Program optimization" content: real software systems such as C++. Some high-level languages (Eiffel, Esterel) optimize their programs by using an intermediate language. Grid computing or distributed computing aims to optimize the whole system, by moving tasks from computers with high usage to computers with idle time. Sometimes, the time taken to undertake optimization therein itself may be an issue. Optimizing existing code usually does not add new features, and worse, it might add new bugs in previously working code (as any change might). Because manually optimized code might sometimes have less "readability" than unoptimized code, optimization might impact maintainability of it as well.


title: "Glacier National Park (U.S.)" content: Glacier National Park (U.S.) Glacier National Park is an American national park located in northwestern Montana, on the Canada–United States border, adjacent to the Canadian provinces of Alberta and British Columbia. The park encompasses over and includes parts of two mountain ranges (sub-ranges of the Rocky Mountains), over 130 named lakes, more than 1,000 different species of plants, and hundreds of species of animals. This vast pristine ecosystem is the centerpiece of what has been referred to as the "Crown of the Continent Ecosystem," a region of protected land encompassing . The region that became Glacier National Park was first


title: "Glacier National Park (U.S.)" content: inhabited by Native Americans. Upon the arrival of European explorers, it was dominated by the Blackfeet in the east and the Flathead in the western regions. Under pressure, the Blackfeet ceded the mountainous parts of their treaty lands in 1895 to the federal government; it later became part of the park. Soon after the establishment of the park on May 11, 1910, a number of hotels and chalets were constructed by the Great Northern Railway. These historic hotels and chalets are listed as National Historic Landmarks and a total of 350 locations are on the National Register of Historic Places.


title: "Glacier National Park (U.S.)" content: By 1932 work was completed on the Going-to-the-Sun Road, later designated a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark, which provided greater accessibility for automobiles into the heart of the park. The mountains of Glacier National Park began forming years ago when ancient rocks were forced eastward up and over much younger rock strata. Known as the Lewis Overthrust, these sedimentary rocks are considered to have some of the finest examples of early life fossils on Earth. The current shapes of the Lewis and Livingston mountain ranges and positioning and size of the lakes show the telltale evidence of massive glacial action,


title: "Glacier National Park (U.S.)" content: which carved U-shaped valleys and left behind moraines which impounded water, creating lakes. Of the estimated 150 glaciers which existed in the park in the mid-19th century, only 25 active glaciers remained by 2010. Scientists studying the glaciers in the park have estimated that all the active glaciers may disappear by 2030 if current climate patterns persist. Glacier National Park has almost all its original native plant and animal species. Large mammals such as grizzly bears, moose, and mountain goats, as well as rare or endangered species like wolverines and Canadian lynxes, inhabit the park. Hundreds of species of birds,


title: "Glacier National Park (U.S.)" content: more than a dozen fish species, and a few reptile and amphibian species have been documented. The park has numerous ecosystems ranging from prairie to tundra. The easternmost forests of western redcedar and hemlock grow in the southwest portion of the park. Large forest fires are unusual in the park; however, more than 13% of the park burned in 2003. Glacier National Park borders Waterton Lakes National Park in Canada—the two parks are known as the Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park and were designated as the world's first International Peace Park in 1932. Both parks were designated by the United Nations


title: "Glacier National Park (U.S.)" content: as Biosphere Reserves in 1976, and in 1995 as World Heritage sites. In April 2017, the joint park received a provisional Gold Tier designation as Waterton-Glacier International Dark Sky Park through the International Dark Sky Association, the first transboundary dark sky park. According to archeological evidence, Native Americans first arrived in the Glacier area some 10,000 years ago. The earliest occupants with lineage to current tribes were the Flathead (Salish) and Kootenai, Shoshone, and Cheyenne. The Blackfeet arrived around the beginning of the 18th century and soon dominated the eastern slopes of what later became the park, as well as


title: "Glacier National Park (U.S.)" content: the Great Plains immediately to the east. The park region provided the Blackfeet shelter from the harsh winter winds of the plains, allowing them to supplement their traditional bison hunts with other game meat. Today, the Blackfeet Indian Reservation borders the park in the east, while the Flathead Indian Reservation is located west and south of the park. When the Blackfeet Reservation was first established in 1855 by the Lame Bull Treaty, it included the eastern area of the current park up to the Continental Divide. To the Blackfeet, the mountains of this area, especially Chief Mountain and the region


title: "Glacier National Park (U.S.)" content: in the southeast at Two Medicine, were considered the "Backbone of the World" and were frequented during vision quests. In 1895 Chief White Calf of the Blackfeet authorized the sale of the mountain area, some , to the U.S. government for , with the understanding that they would maintain usage rights to the land for hunting as long as the ceded stripe will be "public land of the United States". This established the current boundary between the park and the reservation. While exploring the Marias River in 1806, the Lewis and Clark Expedition came within of the area that is


title: "Glacier National Park (U.S.)" content: now the park. A series of explorations after 1850 helped to shape the understanding of the area that later became the park. In 1885 George Bird Grinnell hired noted explorer (and later well regarded author) James Willard Schultz to guide him on a hunting expedition into what would later become the park. After several more trips to the region, Grinnell became so inspired by the scenery that he spent the next two decades working to establish a national park. In 1901 Grinnell wrote a description of the region in which he referred to it as the "Crown of the Continent".


title: "Glacier National Park (U.S.)" content: His efforts to protect the land make him the premier contributor to this cause. A few years after Grinnell first visited, Henry L. Stimson and two companions, including a Blackfoot, climbed the steep east face of Chief Mountain in 1892. In 1891 the Great Northern Railway crossed the Continental Divide at Marias Pass , which is along the southern boundary of the park. In an effort to stimulate use of the railroad, the Great Northern soon advertised the splendors of the region to the public. The company lobbied the United States Congress. In 1897 the park was designated as a


title: "Glacier National Park (U.S.)" content: forest preserve. Under the forest designation, mining was still allowed but was not commercially successful. Meanwhile, proponents of protecting the region kept up their efforts. In 1910, under the influence of the Boone and Crockett Club, spearheaded by Club members George Bird Grinnell, Henry L. Stimson, and the railroad, a bill was introduced into the U.S. Congress which redesignated the region from a forest reserve to a national park. This bill was signed into law by President William Howard Taft on May 11, 1910. In 1910 George Bird Grinnell wrote, "This Park, the country owes to the Boone and Crockett


title: "Glacier National Park (U.S.)" content: Club, whose members discovered the region, suggested it being set aside, caused the bill to be introduced into congress and awakened interest in it all over the country". From May until August 1910, the forest reserve supervisor, Fremont Nathan Haines, managed the park's resources as the first acting superintendent. In August 1910, William Logan was appointed the park's first superintendent. While the designation of the forest reserve confirmed the traditional usage rights of the Blackfeet, the enabling legislation of the national park does not mention the guarantees to the Native Americans. It is the position of the United States government


title: "Glacier National Park (U.S.)" content: that with the special designation as a National Park the mountains ceded their multi-purpose "public land status" and the former rights ceased to exist as it was confirmed by the Court of Claims in 1935. Some Blackfeet held that their traditional usage rights still exist "de jure". In the 1890s, armed standoffs were avoided narrowly several times. The Great Northern Railway, under the supervision of president Louis W. Hill, built a number of hotels and chalets throughout the park in the 1910s to promote tourism. These buildings, constructed and operated by a Great Northern subsidiary called the Glacier Park Company,


title: "Glacier National Park (U.S.)" content: were modeled on Swiss architecture as part of Hill's plan to portray Glacier as "America's Switzerland". Hill was especially interested in sponsoring artists to come to the park, building tourist lodges that displayed their work. His hotels in the park never made a profit but they attracted thousands of visitors who came via the Great Northern. Vacationers commonly took pack trips on horseback between the lodges or utilized the seasonal stagecoach routes to gain access to the Many Glacier area in the northeast. The chalets, built between 1910 and 1913, included Belton, St. Mary, Going-to-the-Sun, Many Glacier, Two Medicine, Sperry,


title: "Glacier National Park (U.S.)" content: Granite Park, Cut Bank, and Gunsight Lake. The railway also built Glacier Park Lodge, adjacent to the park on its east side, and the Many Glacier Hotel on the east shore of Swiftcurrent Lake. Louis Hill personally selected the sites for all of these buildings, choosing each for their dramatic scenic backdrops and views. Another developer, John Lewis, built the Lewis Glacier Hotel on Lake McDonald in 1913–1914. The Great Northern Railway bought the hotel in 1930 and it was later renamed Lake McDonald Lodge. Some of the chalets were in remote backcountry locations accessible only by trail. Today, only