title: Ethanol content: above one in a thousand are above the European Union occupational exposure limits. The fermentation of sugar into ethanol is one of the earliest biotechnologies employed by humans. The intoxicating effects of ethanol consumption have been known since ancient times. Ethanol has been used by humans since prehistory as the intoxicating ingredient of alcoholic beverages. Dried residue on 9,000-year-old pottery found in China suggests that Neolithic people consumed alcoholic beverages. The medieval Muslims used the distillation process extensively, and applied it to the distillation of alcohol. The Arab chemist Al-Kindi unambiguously described the distillation of wine in the 9th century.


title: "Eastern Caribbean dollar" content: British Guiana used dollar accounts. British Guiana used dollar accounts for the purpose of assisting in the transition from the Dutch guilder system of currency to the British pound sterling system. In the Eastern Caribbean territories the private sector preferred to use dollar accounts whereas the government preferred to use sterling accounts. In some of the Eastern Caribbean territories, notes were issued by various private banks, denominated in dollars equivalent to 4 shillings 2 pence. See Antigua dollar, Barbadian dollar, Dominican dollar, Grenadian dollar, Guyanese dollar, Saint Kitts dollar, Saint Lucia dollar, Saint Vincent dollar and Trinidad and Tobago dollar.


title: "Eastern Caribbean dollar" content: were moved to St. Kitts. Between 1965 and 1983, the Eastern Caribbean Currency Authority issued the EC$, with banknotes from 1965 and coins from 1981. The EC$ is now issued by the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank, based in the city of Basseterre, in Saint Kitts and Nevis. The bank was established by an agreement (the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank Agreement) signed at Port of Spain on 5 July 1983. The exchange rate of $4.80 = £1 sterling (equivalent to the old $1 = 4s 2d) continued right up until 1976 for the new Eastern Caribbean dollar. For a wider outline


title: Emperor content: Emperor An emperor (through Old French "empereor" from Latin "imperator") is a monarch, and usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), mother (empress dowager), or a woman who rules in her own right (empress regnant). Emperors are generally recognized to be of a higher honour and rank than kings. In Europe, the title of Emperor has been used since the Middle Ages, considered in those times equal or almost equal in dignity to that of Pope due to the latter's position as visible


title: Emperor content: head of the Church and spiritual leader of the Catholic part of Western Europe. The Emperor of Japan is the only currently reigning monarch whose title is translated into English as Emperor. Both emperors and kings are monarchs, but emperor and empress are considered the higher monarchical titles. In as much as there is a strict definition of emperor, it is that an emperor has no relations implying the superiority of any other ruler and typically rules over more than one nation, therefore a king might be obliged to pay tribute to another ruler, or be restrained in his actions


title: Emperor content: in some unequal fashion, but an emperor should in theory be completely free of such restraints. However, monarchs heading empires have not always used the title in all contexts—the British sovereign did not assume the title Empress of the British Empire even during the incorporation of India, though she was declared Empress of India. In Western Europe, the title of Emperor was used exclusively by the Holy Roman Emperor, whose imperial authority was derived from the concept of "", i.e. they claimed succession to the authority of the Western Roman Emperors, thus linking themselves to Roman institutions and traditions as


title: Emperor content: part of state ideology. Although initially ruling much of Central Europe and northern Italy, by the 19th century the Emperor exercised little power beyond the German-speaking states. Although technically an elective title, by the late 16th century the imperial title had in practice come to be inherited by the Habsburg Archdukes of Austria and following the Thirty Years' War their control over the states (outside the Habsburg Monarchy, i.e. Austria, Bohemia and various territories outside the empire) had become nearly non-existent. However, Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned Emperor of the French in 1804 and was shortly followed by Francis II, Holy


title: Emperor content: Roman Emperor, who declared himself Emperor of Austria in the same year. The position of Holy Roman Emperor nonetheless continued until Francis II abdicated that position in 1806. In Eastern Europe, the monarchs of Russia also used "translatio imperii" to wield imperial authority as successors to the Eastern Roman Empire. Their status was officially recognised by the Holy Roman Emperor in 1514, although not officially used by the Russian monarchs until 1547. However, the Russian emperors are better known by their Russian-language title of Tsar even after Peter the Great adopted the title of Emperor of All Russia in 1721.


title: Emperor content: Historians have liberally used emperor and empire anachronistically and out of its Roman and European context to describe any large state from the past or the present. Such pre-Roman titles as Great King or King of Kings, used by the Kings of Persia and others, are often considered as the equivalent. Sometimes this reference has even extended to non-monarchically ruled states and their spheres of influence such as the Athenian Empire of the late 5th century BC, the Angevin Empire of the Plantagenets and the Soviet and American "empires" of the Cold War era. However, such "empires" did not need


title: Emperor content: to be headed by an "emperor". Empire became identified instead with vast territorial holdings rather than the title of its ruler by the mid-18th century. For purposes of protocol, emperors were once given precedence over kings in international diplomatic relations, but currently precedence amongst heads of state who are sovereigns—whether they be kings, queens, emperors, empresses, princes, princesses and to a lesser degree presidents—is determined by the duration of time that each one has been continuously in office. Outside the European context, emperor was the translation given to holders of titles who were accorded the same precedence as European emperors


title: Emperor content: in diplomatic terms. In reciprocity, these rulers might accredit equal titles in their native languages to their European peers. Through centuries of international convention, this has become the dominant rule to identifying an emperor in the modern era. In the Roman tradition a large variety in the meaning and importance of the imperial form of monarchy developed: in "intention" it was always the highest office, but it could as well fall down to a redundant title for nobility that had never been near to the "Empire" they were supposed to be reigning. Also the "name" of the position split in


title: Emperor content: several branches of Western tradition, see below. The importance and meaning of coronation ceremonies and regalia also varied within the tradition: for instance Holy Roman Emperors could only be crowned emperor by the Pope, which meant the coronation ceremony usually took place in Rome, often several years after these emperors had ascended to the throne (as "king") in their home country. The first Latin Emperors of Constantinople on the other hand had to be present in the newly conquered capital of their empire, because that was the only place where they could be granted to become emperor. Early Roman Emperors


title: Emperor content: avoided any type of ceremony or regalia different from what was already usual for republican offices in the Roman Republic: the most intrusive change had been changing the color of their robe to purple. Later new symbols of worldly and/or spiritual power, like the orb, became an essential part of the imperial accessories. Rules for indicating successors also varied: there was a tendency towards "male" "inheritance" of the supreme office, but as well election by noblemen, as ruling empresses are known (for empires not too strictly under salic law). Ruling monarchs could additionally steer the succession by adoption, as often


title: "Electromagnetic spectrum" content: Electromagnetic spectrum The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of frequencies (the spectrum) of electromagnetic radiation and their respective wavelengths and photon energies. The electromagnetic spectrum covers electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging from below one hertz to above 10 hertz, corresponding to wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a fraction of the size of an atomic nucleus. This frequency range is divided into separate bands, and the electromagnetic waves within each frequency band are called by different names; beginning at the low frequency (long wavelength) end of the spectrum these are: radio waves, microwaves, terahertz waves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet,


title: "Electromagnetic spectrum" content: with solid state devices such as Gunn and IMPATT diodes. Although they are emitted and absorbed by short antennas, they are also absorbed by polar molecules, coupling to vibrational and rotational modes, resulting in bulk heating. Unlike higher frequency waves such as infrared and light which are absorbed mainly at surfaces, microwaves can penetrate into materials and deposit their energy below the surface. This effect is used to heat food in microwave ovens, and for industrial heating and medical diathermy. Microwaves are the main wavelengths used in radar, and are used for satellite communication, and wireless networking technologies such as


title: "Electromagnetic spectrum" content: not blocked well by the atmosphere, but does not cause sunburn and does less biological damage. However, it is not harmless and does create oxygen radicals, mutations and skin damage. See ultraviolet for more information. After UV come X-rays, which, like the upper ranges of UV are also ionizing. However, due to their higher energies, X-rays can also interact with matter by means of the Compton effect. Hard X-rays have shorter wavelengths than soft X-rays and as they can pass through many substances with little absorption, they can be used to 'see through' objects with 'thicknesses' less than that equivalent


title: Erasmus content: little money I buy books; and if any is left, I buy food and clothes." Erasmus Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus (; 28 October 1466 – 12 July 1536), known as Erasmus or Erasmus of Rotterdam, was a Dutch Christian humanist who was the greatest scholar of the northern Renaissance. Originally trained as a Catholic priest, Erasmus was an important figure in classical scholarship who wrote in a pure Latin style. Among humanists he enjoyed the sobriquet "Prince of the Humanists", and has been called "the crowning glory of the Christian humanists". Using humanist techniques for working on texts, he prepared important


title: "Eligible receiver" content: to a position at least one yard behind the line of scrimmage or on the end of the line, and is stationary in that position for at least one second before the snap, but is nonetheless not counted toward the seven men required on the line of scrimmage. If, for example, eight men line up on the line of scrimmage, the team loses an eligible receiver. This can often happen when a flanker or slot receiver, who is supposed to line up behind the line of scrimmage, instead lines up on the line of scrimmage between the offensive line and


title: "Enver Hoxha" content: on official business. Western European culture was looked upon with deep suspicion, resulting in arrests and bans on any unauthorised foreign material. Art was required to reflect the styles of socialist realism. Beards were banned as unhygienic in order to curb the influence of Islam (many Imams and Babas had beards) and the Eastern Orthodox faith. The justice system regularly degenerated into show trials. An American human rights group described the proceedings of one trial: "... [The defendant] was not permitted to question the witnesses and that, although he was permitted to state his objections to certain aspects of the


title: Hirohito content: Emperor". In November 1928, the Emperor's ascension was confirmed in ceremonies ("sokui") which are conventionally identified as "enthronement" and "coronation" ("Shōwa no tairei-shiki"); but this formal event would have been more accurately described as a public confirmation that his Imperial Majesty possesses the Japanese Imperial Regalia, also called the Three Sacred Treasures, which have been handed down through the centuries. The first part of Hirohito's reign took place against a background of financial crisis and increasing military power within the government, through both legal and extralegal means. The Imperial Japanese Army and Imperial Japanese Navy held veto power over the


title: "Educational psychology" content: mid 1600s. Locke was called "Father of English Psychology". One of Locke's most important works was written in 1690, named "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding". In this essay, he introduced the term "tabula rasa" meaning "blank slate." Locke explained that learning was primarily understood through experience only, and we were all born without knowledge. He followed by contrasting Plato's theory of innate learning processes. Locke believed the mind was formed by experiences, not innate ideas. Locke introduced this idea as "empiricism," or the understanding that knowledge is only built on knowledge and experience. In the late 1600s, John Locke advanced


title: Embouchure content: and lower lip (French horn), lower lip and upper lip (trumpet and cornet), and more latitude for lower brass (trombone, baritone, and tuba). For trumpet, some also advocate upper lip and lower lip. Farkas claimed placement was more important for the instruments with smaller mouthpieces. The lips should not overlap each other, nor should they roll in or out. The mouth corners should be held firm. Farkas speculated that the horn should be held in a downward angle to allow the air stream to go straight into the mouthpiece, although his later text shows that air stream direction actually is


title: "Entire function" content: Entire function In complex analysis, an entire function, also called an integral function, is a complex-valued function that is holomorphic at all finite points over the whole complex plane. Typical examples of entire functions are polynomials and the exponential function, and any finite sums, products and compositions of these, such as the trigonometric functions sine and cosine and their hyperbolic counterparts sinh and cosh, as well as derivatives and integrals of entire functions such as the error function. If an entire function "f"("z") has a root at "w", then "f"("z")/("z−w"), taking the limit value at "w", is an entire function.


title: "Entire function" content: On the other hand, neither the natural logarithm nor the square root is an entire function, nor can they be continued analytically to an entire function. A transcendental entire function is an entire function that is not a polynomial. Every entire function "f"("z") can be represented as a power series that converges everywhere in the complex plane, hence uniformly on compact sets. The radius of convergence is infinite, which implies that or Any power series satisfying this criterion will represent an entire function. If (and only if) the coefficients of the power series are all real then the function evidently


title: "Entire function" content: takes real values for real arguments, and the value of the function at the complex conjugate of "z" will be the complex conjugate of the value at "z". Such functions are sometimes called self-conjugate (the conjugate function, formula_4, being given by formula_5 If the real part of an entire function is known in a neighborhood of a point then both the real and imaginary parts are known for the whole complex plane, up to an imaginary constant. For instance, if the real part is known in a neighborhood of zero, then we can find the coefficients for "n" > 0


title: "Entire function" content: from the following derivatives with respect to a real variable "r": (Likewise, if the imaginary part is known in a neighborhood then the function is determined up to a real constant.) In fact, if the real part is known just on an arc of a circle, then the function is determined up to an imaginary constant. (For instance, if it the real part is known on part of the unit circle, then it is known on the whole unit circle by analytic extension, and then the coefficients of the infinite series are determined from the coefficients of the Fourier series


title: "Entire function" content: for the real part on the unit circle.) Note however that an entire function is not determined by its real part on all curves. In particular, if the real part is given on any curve in the complex plane where the real part of some other entire function is zero, then any multiple of that function can be added to the function we are trying to determine. For example, if the curve where the real part is known is the real line, then we can add "i" times any self-conjugate function. If the curve forms a loop, then it is


title: "Entire function" content: determined by the real part of the function on the loop since the only functions whose real part is zero on the curve are those that are everywhere equal to some imaginary number. The Weierstrass factorization theorem asserts that any entire function can be represented by a product involving its zeroes (or "roots"). The entire functions on the complex plane form an integral domain (in fact a Prüfer domain). They also form a commutative unital associative algebra over the complex numbers. Liouville's theorem states that any bounded entire function must be constant. Liouville's theorem may be used to elegantly prove


title: "Entire function" content: the fundamental theorem of algebra. As a consequence of Liouville's theorem, any function that is entire on the whole Riemann sphere (complex plane "and" the point at infinity) is constant. Thus any non-constant entire function must have a singularity at the complex point at infinity, either a pole for a polynomial or an essential singularity for a transcendental entire function. Specifically, by the Casorati–Weierstrass theorem, for any transcendental entire function "f" and any complex "w" there is a sequence formula_7 such that Picard's little theorem is a much stronger result: any non-constant entire function takes on every complex number as


title: "Entire function" content: value, possibly with a single exception. When an exception exists, it is called a lacunary value of the function. The possibility of a lacunary value is illustrated by the exponential function, which never takes on the value 0. One can take a suitable branch of the logarithm of an entire function that never hits 0, so that this will also be an entire function (according to the Weierstrass factorization theorem). The logarithm hits every complex number except possibly one number, which implies that the first function will hit any value other than 0 an infinite number of times. Similarly, a


title: "Entire function" content: non-constant, entire function that does not hit a particular value will hit every other value an infinite number of times. Liouville's theorem is a special case of the following statement: Entire functions may grow as fast as any increasing function: for any increasing function "g": [0,∞) → [0,∞) there exists an entire function "f" such that "f"("x") > "g"(|"x"|) for all real "x". Such a function "f" may be easily found of the form: for a constant "c" and a strictly increasing sequence of positive integers "n". Any such sequence defines an entire function "f"("z"), and if the powers are


title: "Entire function" content: chosen appropriately we may satisfy the inequality "f"("x") > "g"(|"x"|) for all real "x". (For instance, it certainly holds if one chooses "c" := "g"(2) and, for any integer formula_14 although this gives powers that may be about twice as high as needed.) The order (at infinity) of an entire function formula_15 is defined using the limit superior as: where "B" is the disk of radius "r" and formula_17 denotes the supremum norm of formula_15 on "B". The order is a non-negative real number or infinity (except when formula_19 for all "z"). In other words, the order of formula_15 is


title: "Effects unit" content: such example is the Pod guitar amplifier modeler. Digital effects designed for DJs are often sold in tabletop models, so that the units can be placed alongside a DJ mixer, turntables and CD scratching gear. For a DJ, a pedal located on the floor would not be practical because she/he would find it hard to adjust the knobs. Effects are often incorporated into amplifiers and even some types of instruments. Electric guitar amplifiers typically have built-in reverb and distortion, while acoustic guitar and keyboard amplifiers tend to only have built-in reverb. Some acoustic instrument amplifiers have reverb, chorus, compression and


title: Enron content: between 2000 and 2001. Head of Enron Broadband Services, Kenneth Rice, sold 1 million shares himself, earning about $70 million in returns. As prices of existing fiber optic cables plummeted due to the vast oversupply of the system, with only 5% of the 40 million miles being active wires, Enron purchased the inactive "dark fibers", expecting to buy them at low cost and then make a profit as the need for more usage by internet providers increased, with Enron expecting to lease its acquired dark fibers in 20 year contracts to providers. However, Enron's accounting would use estimates to determine


title: "Eastern Orthodox Church" content: chose the right path while the thief on the left did not. Other crosses associated with the Eastern Orthodox Church are the more traditional single-bar crosses, budded designs, the Greek cross, the Latin cross, the Jerusalem cross (cross pattée), Celtic crosses, and others. A common symbolism of the slanted foot stool is The foot-rest points up, toward Heaven, on Christ's right hand-side, and downward, to Hades, on Christ's left. "Between two thieves Thy Cross did prove to be a balance of righteousness: wherefore one of them was dragged down to Hades by the weight of his blasphemy "[the balance points


title: "Economic security" content: national security as military policy. Economic security has been proposed as a key determinant of international relations, particularly in the geopolitics of petroleum in American foreign policy after September 11, 2001. In Canada, threats to the country's overall economic security are considered economic espionage, which is "illegal, clandestine or coercive activity by a foreign government in order to gain unauthorized access to economic intelligence, such as proprietary information or technology, for economic advantage." It is widely believed that there is a tradeoff between economic security and economic opportunity. Economic security Economic security or financial security is the condition of having


title: "Exponentiation by squaring" content: to compute integer powers in a group, using the rule The method works in every semigroup and is often used to compute powers of matrices. For example, the evaluation of would take a very long time and lots of storage space if the naïve method were used: compute 13789 then take the remainder when divided by 2345. Even using a more effective method will take a long time: square 13789, take the remainder when divided by 2345, multiply the result by 13789, and so on. This will take less than formula_29 modular multiplications. Applying above "exp-by-squaring" algorithm, with "*" interpreted


title: Exxon content: Exxon Exxon was the brand name of oil and natural resources company Exxon Corporation, prior to 1972 known as Standard Oil Company of New Jersey. In 1999, Exxon Corporation merged with Mobil to form ExxonMobil. The "Exxon" brand is still used by ExxonMobil's downstream operations as a brand for certain gas stations, motor fuel and related products (the highest concentration of which are located in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Texas and in the Mid-Atlantic and Southeastern states). Standard Oil Company of New Jersey was one of the Seven Sisters that dominated the global petroleum industry from the mid-1940s to the 1970s.


title: Exxon content: managing small high-tech companies." In the early 1980's, Exxon retailed its fax machines and software through Sears. Exxon announced the closure of the venture at the end of 1984. In 1989, Exxon announced that it was moving its headquarters, including about 300 employees, from Manhattan, New York City to the Las Colinas area of Irving, Texas. Exxon sold the Exxon Building (1251 Avenue of the Americas), its former headquarters in Rockefeller Center, to a unit of Mitsui Real Estate Development Co. Ltd. in 1986 for $610 million. John Walsh, president of Exxon subsidiary Friendswood Development Company, stated that Exxon left


title: Exxon content: exclusively. In Colombia, Japan, and formerly Malaysia, both the Esso and Mobil brands are used, and Esso and Mobil in Japan will be rebranded as ENEOS in 2020, while Esso and Mobil in Malaysia were fully rebranded as Petron in 2013. Exxon Exxon was the brand name of oil and natural resources company Exxon Corporation, prior to 1972 known as Standard Oil Company of New Jersey. In 1999, Exxon Corporation merged with Mobil to form ExxonMobil. The "Exxon" brand is still used by ExxonMobil's downstream operations as a brand for certain gas stations, motor fuel and related products (the highest


title: "Exxon Valdez oil spill" content: official position was that punitive damages greater than $25 million were not justified because the spill resulted from an accident, and because Exxon spent an estimated $2 billion cleaning up the spill and a further $1 billion to settle related civil and criminal charges. Attorneys for the plaintiffs contended that Exxon bore responsibility for the accident because the company "put a drunk in charge of a tanker in Prince William Sound." Exxon recovered a significant portion of clean-up and legal expenses through insurance claims associated with the grounding of the "Exxon Valdez". Also, in 1991, Exxon made a quiet, separate


title: "Essendon Football Club" content: Your) Sunny Side Up" was the theme song for the popular Melbourne-based TV show on Channel 7 "Sunnyside Up". The official version of the song was recorded in 1972 by the Fable Singers and is still used today. The song, as with all other AFL clubs, is played prior to every match and at the conclusion of matches when the team is victorious. Songwriter Mike Brady, of "Up There Cazaly" fame, penned an updated version of the song in 1999 complete with a new verse arrangement, but it was not well received. However, this version is occasionally played at club


title: "Enid Blyton" content: them more affordable to children. After 1963 Blyton's output was generally confined to short stories and books intended for very young readers, such as "Learn to Count with Noddy" and "Learn to Tell Time with Noddy" in 1965, and "Stories for Bedtime" and the Sunshine Picture Story Book collection in 1966. Her declining health and a falling off in readership among older children have been put forward as the principal reasons for this change in trend. Blyton published her last book in the Noddy series, "Noddy and the Aeroplane", in February 1964. In May the following year she published "Mixed


title: "Electric guitar" content: Optical pickups are a type of pickup that sense string and body vibrations using infrared LED light. These pickups are not sensitive to EMI. Some "hybrid" electric guitars are equipped with additional microphone, piezoelectric, optical, or other types of transducers to approximate an acoustic instrument tone and broaden the sonic palette of the instrument. Electric guitar necks vary in composition and shape. The primary metric of guitar necks is the "scale length", which is the vibrating length of the strings from nut to bridge. A typical Fender guitar uses a scale length, while Gibson uses a scale length in their


title: "Ennio Morricone" content: has been involved with at least 19 different movies grossing over 20 million at the box office " * " = US-only figures. Other successful movies with Morricone's work are "La Luna" (1979), "Kill Bill: Volumes 1 & 2" (2003, 2004), "Inglourious Basterds" (2009) and "Django Unchained" (2012) though the tracks used are sampled from older pictures. Selected long-time collaborations with directors Ennio Morricone received his first Academy Award nomination in 1979 for the score to "Days of Heaven" (Terrence Malick, 1978). In 1984, the U.S. distributor of Sergio Leone's "Once Upon a Time in America" reportedly failed to file


title: Finland content: warmed by the Gulf Stream. The Gulf Stream combines with the moderating effects of the Baltic Sea and numerous inland lakes to explain the unusually warm climate compared with other regions that share the same latitude, such as Alaska, Siberia, and southern Greenland. Winters in southern Finland (when mean daily temperature remains below ) are usually about 100 days long, and in the inland the snow typically covers the land from about late November to April, and on the coastal areas such as Helsinki, snow often covers the land from late December to late March. Even in the south, the


title: Finland content: than many other nations, and more fish and poultry. This is mainly because of the high cost of meat in Finland. Finland has the world's highest per capita consumption of coffee. It also has the highest per capita consumption of milk, at about per day, even though 17% of the Finns are lactose intolerant. All official holidays in Finland are established by Acts of Parliament. Christian holidays include Christmas, New Year's Day, Epiphany, Easter, Ascension Day, Pentecost, Midsummer Day (St. John's Day), and All Saints' Day, while secular holidays include May Day, Independence Day, New Year's Day, and Midsummer. Christmas


title: Flavor content: Flavor Flavor (American English) or flavour (British English; see spelling differences) is the sensory impression of food or other substance, and is determined primarily by the chemical senses of taste and smell. The "trigeminal senses", which detect chemical irritants in the mouth and throat, as well as temperature and texture, are also important to the overall gestalt of flavor perception. The flavor of the food, as such, can be altered with natural or artificial flavorants which affect these senses. A "flavorant" is defined as a substance that gives another substance flavor, altering the characteristics of the solute, causing it to


title: Flavor content: become sweet, sour, tangy, etc. A flavor is a quality of something that affects the sense of taste. Of the three chemical senses, smell is the main determinant of a food item's flavor. Five basic tastes – sweet, sour, bitter, salty and umami (savory) are universally recognized, although some cultures also include pungency and oleogustus ("fattiness"). The number of food smells is unbounded; a food's flavor, therefore, can be easily altered by changing its smell while keeping its taste similar. This is exemplified in artificially flavored jellies, soft drinks and candies, which, while made of bases with a similar taste,


title: Flavor content: have dramatically different flavors due to the use of different scents or fragrances. The flavorings of commercially produced food products are typically created by flavorists. Although the terms flavoring and flavorant in common language denote the combined chemical sensations of taste and smell, the same terms are used in the fragrance and flavors industry to refer to edible chemicals and extracts that alter the flavor of food and food products through the sense of smell. Due to the high cost or unavailability of natural flavor extracts, most commercial flavorants are "nature-identical", which means that they are the chemical equivalent of


title: Flavor content: natural flavors, but chemically synthesized rather than being extracted from source materials. Identification of components of natural foods, for example a raspberry, may be done using technology such as headspace techniques, so the flavorist can imitate the flavor by using a few of the same chemicals present. Flavorings are focused on altering the flavors of natural food product such as meats and vegetables, or creating flavor for food products that do not have the desired flavors such as candies and other snacks. Most types of flavorings are focused on scent and taste. Few commercial products exist to stimulate the trigeminal


title: Flavor content: senses, since these are sharp, astringent, and typically unpleasant flavors. Three principal types of flavorings are used in foods, under definitions agreed in the EU and Australia: Most artificial flavors are specific and often complex mixtures of singular naturally occurring flavor compounds combined together to either imitate or enhance a natural flavor. These mixtures are formulated by flavorists to give a food product a unique flavor and to maintain flavor consistency between different product batches or after recipe changes. The list of known flavoring agents includes thousands of molecular compounds, and the flavor chemist (flavorist) can often mix these together


title: Flavor content: to produce many of the common flavors. Many flavorants consist of esters, which are often described as being "sweet" or "fruity". The compounds used to produce artificial flavors are almost identical to those that occur naturally. It has been suggested that artificial flavors may be safer to consume than natural flavors due to the standards of purity and mixture consistency that are enforced either by the company or by law. Natural flavors, in contrast, may contain impurities from their sources, while artificial flavors are typically more pure and are required to undergo more testing before being sold for consumption. Flavors


title: Flavor content: from food products are usually the result of a combination of natural flavors, which set up the basic smell profile of a food product, while artificial flavors modify the smell to accent it. Unlike smelling, which occurs upon inhalation, the sensing of flavors in the mouth occurs in the exhalation phase of breathing and is perceived differently by an individual. In other words, the smell of food is different depending on whether one is smelling it before or after it has entered one's mouth. While salt and sugar can technically be considered flavorants that enhance salty and sweet tastes, usually


title: Flavor content: only compounds that enhance umami, as well as other secondary flavors, are considered and referred to as taste flavorants. Artificial sweeteners are also technically flavorants. Umami or "savory" flavorants, more commonly called taste or flavor enhancers, are largely based on amino acids and nucleotides. These are typically used as sodium or calcium salts. Umami flavorants recognized and approved by the European Union include: Certain organic and inorganic acids can be used to enhance sour tastes, but like salt and sugar, these are usually not considered and regulated as flavorants under law. Each acid imparts a slightly different sour or tart


title: Flavor content: taste that alters the flavor of a food. The color of food can affect one's expectations of the flavor significantly. In one study, adding more red color to a drink increased the perceived sweetness, with darker colored solutions being rated 2–10% better than lighter ones, though it had 1% less sucrose concentration. Food manufacturers exploit this phenomenon; different colors of Froot Loops cereal and most brands of gummy bears often use the same flavorings. UK Food Law defines a natural flavor as: The UK food industry also draws a distinction between a food being "X-flavoured", where it contains some amount


title: Flavor content: of X as an ingredient, and "X-flavour", where it has the taste of X but does not contain it. The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations describes a "natural flavorant" as: The European Union's guidelines for natural flavorants are slightly different. Certain artificial flavorants are given an E number, which may be included on food labels. Food manufacturers are sometimes reluctant to inform consumers about the source and identity of flavor ingredients and whether they have been produced with the incorporation of substances such as animal byproducts. Some flavor ingredients, such as gelatin, are produced from animal products. Some, such as


title: Fredericton content: Old Train Bridge that spans 0.6 km across the Saint John River, providing a panoramic view of downtown Fredericton. The rail trail system in Fredericton is part of the Sentier NB Trail system and some of these trails are also part of the larger Trans-Canada Trail network. Some sections of the trail system are being paved to make it more accessible to non-motorized vehicles such as bicycles and wheelchairs. Railway service through Fredericton was discontinued by CP Rail in fall 1993 and CN Rail in spring 1996. Following abandonment, both companies sold their right-of-ways to the provincial government which developed


title: Food content: Food Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Historically, humans secured food through two methods: hunting and gathering and agriculture. Today, the majority of the food energy required by the ever increasing population of the world is supplied by the food industry. Food safety and food security are monitored by agencies like the International


title: Food content: Association for Food Protection, World Resources Institute, World Food Programme, Food and Agriculture Organization, and International Food Information Council. They address issues such as sustainability, biological diversity, climate change, nutritional economics, population growth, water supply, and access to food. The right to food is a human right derived from the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), recognizing the "right to an adequate standard of living, including adequate food", as well as the "fundamental right to be free from hunger". Most food has its origin in plants. Some food is obtained directly from plants; but even animals that


title: Food content: are used as food sources are raised by feeding them food derived from plants. Cereal grain is a staple food that provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop. Corn (maize), wheat, and rice – in all of their varieties – account for 87% of all grain production worldwide. Most of the grain that is produced worldwide is fed to livestock. Some foods not from animal or plant sources include various edible fungi, especially mushrooms. Fungi and ambient bacteria are used in the preparation of fermented and pickled foods like leavened bread, alcoholic drinks, cheese, pickles, kombucha,


title: Food content: and yogurt. Another example is blue-green algae such as Spirulina. Inorganic substances such as salt, baking soda and cream of tartar are used to preserve or chemically alter an ingredient. Many plants and plant parts are eaten as food and around 2,000 plant species are cultivated for food. Many of these plant species have several distinct cultivars. Seeds of plants are a good source of food for animals, including humans, because they contain the nutrients necessary for the plant's initial growth, including many healthful fats, such as omega fats. In fact, the majority of food consumed by human beings are


title: Food content: seed-based foods. Edible seeds include cereals (corn, wheat, rice, et cetera), legumes (beans, peas, lentils, et cetera), and nuts. Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils - sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed (including canola oil), sesame, et cetera. Seeds are typically high in unsaturated fats and, in moderation, are considered a health food. However, not all seeds are edible. Large seeds, such as those from a lemon, pose a choking hazard, while seeds from cherries and apples contain cyanide which could be poisonous only if consumed in large volumes. Fruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the seeds within. Many


title: Food content: plants and animals have coevolved such that the fruits of the former are an attractive food source to the latter, because animals that eat the fruits may excrete the seeds some distance away. Fruits, therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cultures. Some botanical fruits, such as tomatoes, pumpkins, and eggplants, are eaten as vegetables. (For more information, see list of fruits.) Vegetables are a second type of plant matter that is commonly eaten as food. These include root vegetables (potatoes and carrots), bulbs (onion family), leaf vegetables (spinach and lettuce), (bamboo shoots and asparagus), and


title: Food content: (globe artichokes and broccoli and other vegetables such as cabbage or cauliflower). Animals are used as food either directly or indirectly by the products they produce. Meat is an example of a direct product taken from an animal, which comes from muscle systems or from organs. Food products produced by animals include milk produced by mammary glands, which in many cultures is drunk or processed into dairy products (cheese, butter, etc.). In addition, birds and other animals lay eggs, which are often eaten, and bees produce honey, a reduced nectar from flowers, which is a popular sweetener in many cultures.


title: Food content: Some cultures consume blood, sometimes in the form of blood sausage, as a thickener for sauces, or in a cured, salted form for times of food scarcity, and others use blood in stews such as jugged hare. Some cultures and people do not consume meat or animal food products for cultural, dietary, health, ethical, or ideological reasons. Vegetarians choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees. Vegans do not consume any foods that are or contain ingredients from an animal source. Adulteration is a legal term meaning that a food product fails to meet the legal standards. One


title: Food content: form of adulteration is an addition of another substance to a food item in order to increase the quantity of the food item in raw form or prepared form, which may result in the loss of actual quality of food item. These substances may be either available food items or non-food items. Among meat and meat products some of the items used to adulterate are water or ice, carcasses, or carcasses of animals other than the animal meant to be consumed. Camping food includes ingredients used to prepare food suitable for backcountry camping and backpacking. The foods differ substantially from


title: Food content: the ingredients found in a typical home kitchen. The primary differences relate to campers' and backpackers' special needs for foods that have appropriate cooking time, perishability, weight, and nutritional content. To address these needs, camping food is often made up of either freeze-dried, precooked or dehydrated ingredients. Many campers use a combination of these foods. Freeze-drying requires the use of heavy machinery and is not something that most campers are able to do on their own. Freeze-dried ingredients are often considered superior to dehydrated ingredients however, because they rehydrate at camp faster and retain more flavor than their dehydrated counterparts.


title: Food content: fiber, to replace part of the flour and achieve a more significant energy reduction. Finger food is food meant to be eaten directly using the hands, in contrast to food eaten with a knife and fork, spoon, chopsticks, or other utensils. In some cultures, food is almost always eaten with the hands; for example, Ethiopian cuisine is eaten by rolling various dishes up in "injera" bread. Foods considered street foods are frequently, though not exclusively, finger foods. In the western world, finger foods are often either appetizers (hors d'œuvres) or entree/main course items. Examples of these are miniature meat pies,


title: Food content: during modern times is achieved using household freezers. Accepted advice to householders was to freeze food on the day of purchase. An initiative by a supermarket group in 2012 (backed by the UK's Waste & Resources Action Programme) promotes the freezing of food "as soon as possible up to the product's 'use by' date". The Food Standards Agency was reported as supporting the change, providing the food had been stored correctly up to that time. A functional food is a food given an additional function (often one related to health-promotion or disease prevention) by adding new ingredients or more of


title: Food content: in 1946 in The Farmer, a quarterly magazine published and edited from his farm by F. Newman Turner, a writer and pioneering organic farmer. The magazine sponsored the establishment of the Producer Consumer Whole Food Society Ltd, with Newman Turner as president and Derek Randal as vice-president. Whole food was defined as "mature produce of field, orchard, or garden without subtraction, addition, or alteration grown from seed without chemical dressing, in fertile soil manured solely with animal and vegetable wastes, and composts therefrom, and ground, raw rock and without chemical manures, sprays, or insecticides," having intent to connect suppliers and


title: Food content: food. Cooking technique, known as culinary art, generally requires the selection, measurement, and combining of ingredients in an ordered procedure in an effort to achieve the desired result. Constraints on success include the variability of ingredients, ambient conditions, tools, and the skill of the individual cook. The diversity of cooking worldwide is a reflection of the myriad nutritional, aesthetic, agricultural, economic, cultural, and religious considerations that affect it. Cooking requires applying heat to a food which usually, though not always, chemically changes the molecules, thus changing its flavor, texture, appearance, and nutritional properties. Cooking certain proteins, such as egg whites,


title: Food content: tartare are dishes made from diced or ground raw beef or salmon, mixed with various ingredients and served with baguettes, brioche, or frites. In Italy, carpaccio is a dish of very thinly sliced raw beef, drizzled with a vinaigrette made with olive oil. The health food movement known as raw foodism promotes a mostly vegan diet of raw fruits, vegetables, and grains prepared in various ways, including juicing, food dehydration, sprouting, and other methods of preparation that do not heat the food above . An example of a raw meat dish is ceviche, a Latin American dish made with raw


title: "Forward pass" content: Forward pass In several forms of football a forward pass is a throwing of the ball in the direction that the offensive team is trying to move, towards the defensive team's goal line. The forward pass is one of the main distinguishers between gridiron football (American football and Canadian football) in which the play is legal and widespread, and rugby football (union and league) from which the North American games evolved, in which the play is illegal. In some football codes, such as association football (soccer), the kicked forward pass is used so ubiquitously that it is not thought of


title: "Forward pass" content: as a distinct kind of play at all. In these sports, the concept of offside is used to regulate who can be in front of the play or be nearest to the goal. However, this has not always been the case. Some earlier incarnations of football allowed unlimited forward passing, while others had strict offside rules similar to rugby. The development of the forward pass in American football shows how the game has evolved from its rugby roots into the distinctive game it is today. Illegal and experimental forward passes had been attempted as early as 1876, but the first


title: "Forward pass" content: legal forward pass in American football took place in 1906, after a change in rules. Another change in rules occurred on January 18, 1951, which established that no center, tackle, or guard could receive a forward pass (unless such a player announces his intent to the referee he will be an eligible receiver, called a tackle-eligible play). Today, the only linemen who can receive a forward pass are the tight ends. Current rules regulate who may throw and who may receive a forward pass, and under what circumstances, as well as how the defensive team may try to prevent a


title: "Forward pass" content: pass from being completed. The primary pass thrower is the quarterback, and statistical analysis is used to determine a quarterback's success rate at passing in various situations, as well as a team's overall success at the "passing game." In American and Canadian football, a forward pass is usually referred to simply as a pass, and consists of a player throwing the football towards the opponent's goal line. This is permitted only once during a scrimmage down by the offensive team before team possession has changed, provided the pass is thrown from in or behind the neutral zone. An illegal forward


title: "Forward pass" content: pass can incur a yardage penalty and the loss of a down, although it may be legally intercepted by the opponents and advanced. If an eligible receiver on the passing team legally catches the ball, the pass is completed and the receiver may attempt to advance the ball. If an opposing player legally catches the ball (all defensive players are eligible receivers) it is an interception. That player's team immediately gains possession of the ball and he may attempt to advance the ball toward his opponent's goal. If no player is able to legally catch the ball it is an


title: "Forward pass" content: incomplete pass and the ball becomes dead the moment it touches the ground. It will then be returned to the original line of scrimmage for the next down. If any player interferes with an eligible receiver's ability to catch the ball it is pass interference which draws a penalty of varying degree (largely depending upon the particular league's rules). The person passing the ball must be a member of the offensive team, and the recipient of the forward pass must be an eligible receiver and must touch the passed ball before any ineligible player. The moment that a forward pass


title: "Forward pass" content: at the time. Bob Quincy stakes Carolina's claim in his 1973 book "They Made the Bell Tower Chime": John Heisman, namesake of the Heisman Trophy, wrote 30 years later that, indeed, the Tar Heels had given birth to the forward pass against the Bulldogs (UGA). It was conceived to break a scoreless deadlock and give UNC a 6–0 win. The Carolinians were in a punting situation and a Georgia rush seemed destined to block the ball. The punter, with an impromptu dash to his right, tossed the ball and it was caught by George Stephens, who ran 70 yards for


title: "Forward pass" content: the tactic remained a minor part of the game for several years. Jack Jacobs of the Winnipeg Blue Bombers is recognized, not for inventing the forward pass, but for popularizing it in the Western Interprovincial Football Union (one of the forerunner leagues to the modern Canadian Football League) in the early 1950s, thus changing the Canadian game from a more run-dominated game to the passing game as seen today. Specification of the size of the ball for the American game came in 1912, but it was still essentially a rugby ball. Increased use of the forward pass encouraged adoption of


title: "Transport in Fiji" content: public use. 203 km; 122 km navigable by motorized craft and 200-metric-ton barges Labasa, Lautoka, Levuka, Savusavu, Suva Total: 6 ships (1,000 GT or over) totaling 11,870 GT/ Ships by type: chemical tanker 2, passenger 1, petroleum tanker 1, roll-on/roll-off 1, specialized tanker 1 (1999 est.) Major airports include: Total 25 (1999 est.) Total: 3 Over 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1999 est.) Total: 22 914 to 1,523 m: 5 Under 914 m: 17 (1999 est.) Transport in Fiji Modes of transport in Fiji include rail, road, water, and air. The rail


title: "Foreign relations of Fiji" content: at how both countries can be represented there," Tavola said. In defence of the earlier incident over the Taiwanese President's visit, Tavola said that it was the Pacific way to welcome people. ""Even when considering Taiwan as a province of China," he went on, "the President of a province is a man of high profile, so when he comes there is an urge to extend hospitality."" It did not signify any modification to Fiji's adherence to the One China policy, he had explained to the Chinese ambassador. China has invested in a number of major projects in Fiji. These include


title: "Foreign relations of Fiji" content: expected to participate, according to a "Fiji Times" report on 23 February. His visit to Fiji will be the first by a senior Chinese Government official. In an interview with PACNEWS on 1 February 2006, Jeremaia Waqanisau, Fiji's ambassador to Beijing, made a stinging attack on the efficiency of the Fijian civil service, saying that it negatively affected Fiji's ability to present itself to China. Cabinet ministers visited China without the Fijian embassy being informed, he complained. Certain civil servants were extremely passive in their dealings with China, he said. Another factor inhibiting Chinese investment was the instability caused by


title: Frisbee content: his death, Headrick was cremated, and, as requested by him, his ashes were molded into memorial discs and given to family and close friends and sold to benefit The Ed Headrick Memorial Museum. Enthusiasts founded the International Frisbee Association in 1967, and the next year, the Frisbee Golf Tournament began in Kalamazoo. Also in 1967, some New Jersey teenagers invented Ultimate Frisbee, a game that remains enthusiastically played today. Still a popular toy as well as a sporting good, the Frisbee was inducted into the National Toy Hall of Fame in 1998. The IFT guts competitions in Northern Michigan, the


title: Frisbee content: Canadian Open Frisbee Championships (1972), Toronto, ON, the Vancouver Open Frisbee Championships (1974), Vancouver, BC, the Octad (1974), New Jersey, the American Flying Disc Open (1974), Rochester, NY and the World Frisbee Championships (1974), Pasadena, CA are the earliest Frisbee competitions that presented the Frisbee as a new disc sport. Before these tournaments, the Frisbee was considered a toy and used for recreation. Double disc court was invented and introduced in the early 1970s by Jim Palmeri, a sport played with two flying discs and two teams of two players. Each team defends its court and tries to land a


title: "Film crew" content: Film crew A film crew is a group of people, hired by a production company, for the purpose of producing a film or motion picture. The "crew" is distinguished from the "cast" as the "cast" are understood to be the actors who appear in front of the camera or provide voices for characters in the film. The "crew" is also separate from the "producers" as the "producers" are the ones who own a portion of either the film company or the film's intellectual property rights. A film crew is divided into different departments, each of which specializes in a specific


title: "Film crew" content: aspect of the production. Film crew positions have evolved over the years, spurred by technological change, but many traditional jobs date from the early 20th century and are common across jurisdictions and film-making cultures. Motion picture projects have three discrete stages: development, production and distribution. Within the production stage there are also three clearly defined sequential phases — pre-production, principal photography and post-production — and many film crew positions are associated with only one or two of the phases. Distinctions are also made between above-the-line personnel (such as the director, the screenwriter and the producers) who begin their involvement during


title: "Film crew" content: the project's development stage, and the below-the-line "technical" crew involved only with the production stage. A film director is a person who directs the making of a film. The director most often has the highest authority on a film set. Generally, a film director controls a film's artistic and dramatic aspects and visualizes the screenplay (or script) while guiding the technical crew and actors in the fulfillment of that vision. The director has a key role in choosing the cast members, production design, and the creative aspects of filmmaking.[1] Under European Union law, the director is viewed as the author


title: "Film crew" content: of the film.[2] The film director gives direction to the cast and crew and creates an overall vision through which a film eventually becomes realized, or noticed. Directors need to be able to mediate differences in creative visions and stay within the boundaries of the film's budget. There are many pathways to becoming a film director. [3] Some film directors started as screenwriters, cinematographers, film editors or actors. Other film directors have attended a film school. Directors use different approaches. Some outline a general plotline and let the actors improvise dialogue, while others control every aspect, and demand that the


title: "Film crew" content: actors and crew follow instructions precisely. Some directors also write their own screenplays or collaborate on screenplays with long-standing writing partners. Some directors edit or appear in their films, or compose the music score for their films.[4] "Production" is generally not considered a department as such, but rather as a series of functional groups. These include the film's producers and executive producers and production office staff such as the production manager, the production coordinator, and their assistants; the various assistant directors; the accounting staff and sometimes the locations manager and their assistants. Producer Executive producer Line producer Production assistant Production


title: "Film crew" content: manager Assistant production manager Unit manager Production coordinator Since the turn of the 21st century, several additional professionals are now routinely listed in the production credits on most major motion pictures. Grips are trained lighting and rigging technicians. Their main responsibility is to work closely with the electrical department to put in the non-electrical components of lighting set-ups required for a shot, such as flags, overheads, and bounces. On the sound stage, they move and adjust major set pieces when something needs to be moved to get a camera into position. In the US and Canada they may belong to


title: "Film crew" content: the International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees. The art department in a major feature film can often number hundreds of people. Usually it is considered to include several sub-departments: the art department proper, with its art director, set designers and draftsmen; set decoration, under the set decorator; props, under the props master; construction, headed by the construction coordinator; scenic, headed by the key scenic artist; and special effects. Within the overall art department is a sub-department, also called the art department—which can be confusing. This consists of the people who design the sets and create the graphic art. Some actors


title: "Film crew" content: or actresses have personal makeup artists or hair stylists. This department oversees the mechanical effects—also called practical or physical effects—that create optical illusions during live-action shooting. It is not to be confused with the Visual effects department, which adds photographic effects during filming to be altered later during video editing in the post-production process. Visual effects commonly refers to post-production alterations of the film's images. The on set VFX crew works to prepare shots and plates for future visual effects. This may include adding tracking markers, taking and asking for reference plates and helping the Director understand the limitations and


title: Fear content: Fear Fear is a feeling induced by perceived danger or threat that occurs in certain types of organisms, which causes a change in metabolic and organ functions and ultimately a change in behavior, such as fleeing, hiding, or freezing from perceived traumatic events. Fear in human beings may occur in response to a specific stimulus occurring in the present, or in anticipation or expectation of a future threat perceived as a risk to body or life. The fear response arises from the perception of danger leading to confrontation with or escape from/avoiding the threat (also known as the fight-or-flight response),


title: Fear content: which in extreme cases of fear (horror and terror) can be a freeze response or paralysis. In humans and animals, fear is modulated by the process of cognition and learning. Thus fear is judged as rational or appropriate and irrational or inappropriate. An irrational fear is called a phobia. Psychologists such as John B. Watson, Robert Plutchik, and Paul Ekman have suggested that there is only a small set of basic or innate emotions and that fear is one of them. This hypothesized set includes such emotions as acute stress reaction, anger, angst, anxiety, fright, horror, joy, panic, and sadness.


title: Fear content: Fear is closely related to, but should be distinguished from, the emotion anxiety, which occurs as the result of threats that are perceived to be uncontrollable or unavoidable. The fear response serves survival by generating appropriate behavioral responses, so it has been preserved throughout evolution. Sociological and organizational research also suggests that individuals’ fears are not solely dependent on their nature but are also shaped by their social relations and culture, which guide their understanding of when and how much fear to feel. Fear is a primeval emotion that humans have known since they were very young. Even as a


title: Fear content: child, humans typically have not experienced real fear at this age, but a child develops a fear of the monster in their closet. Many physiological changes in the body are associated with fear, summarized as the fight-or-flight response. An inborn response for coping with danger, it works by accelerating the breathing rate (hyperventilation), heart rate, vasoconstriction of the peripheral blood vessels leading to blushing and sanskadania of the central vessels (pooling), increasing muscle tension including the muscles attached to each hair follicle to contract and causing "goose bumps", or more clinically, piloerection (making a cold person warmer or a frightened


title: Fear content: animal look more impressive), sweating, increased blood glucose (hyperglycemia), increased serum calcium, increase in white blood cells called neutrophilic leukocytes, alertness leading to sleep disturbance and "butterflies in the stomach" (dyspepsia). This primitive mechanism may help an organism survive by either running away or fighting the danger. With the series of physiological changes, the consciousness realizes an emotion of fear. People develop specific fears as a result of learning. This has been studied in psychology as fear conditioning, beginning with John B. Watson's Little Albert experiment in 1920, which was inspired after observing a child with an irrational fear of


title: Fear content: dogs. In this study, an 11-month-old boy was conditioned to fear a white rat in the laboratory. The fear became generalized to include other white, furry objects, such as a rabbit, dog, and even a ball of cotton. Fear can be learned by experiencing or watching a frightening traumatic accident. For example, if a child falls into a well and struggles to get out, he or she may develop a fear of wells, heights (acrophobia), enclosed spaces (claustrophobia), or water (aquaphobia). There are studies looking at areas of the brain that are affected in relation to fear. When looking at


title: Fear content: these areas (such as the amygdala), it was proposed that a person learns to fear regardless of whether they themselves have experienced trauma, or if they have observed the fear in others. In a study completed by Andreas Olsson, Katherine I. Nearing and Elizabeth A. Phelps, the amygdala were affected both when subjects observed someone else being submitted to an aversive event, knowing that the same treatment awaited themselves, and when subjects were subsequently placed in a fear-provoking situation. This suggests that fear can develop in both conditions, not just simply from personal history. Fear is affected by cultural and


title: Fear content: historical context. For example, in the early 20th century, many Americans feared polio, a disease that can lead to paralysis. There are consistent cross-cultural differences in how people respond to fear. Display rules affect how likely people are to show the facial expression of fear and other emotions. Although many fears are learned, the capacity to fear is part of human nature. Many studies have found that certain fears (e.g. animals, heights) are much more common than others (e.g. flowers, clouds). These fears are also easier to induce in the laboratory. This phenomenon is known as preparedness. Because early humans


title: Fear content: that were quick to fear dangerous situations were more likely to survive and reproduce, preparedness is theorized to be a genetic effect that is the result of natural selection. From an evolutionary psychology perspective, different fears may be different adaptations that have been useful in our evolutionary past. They may have developed during different time periods. Some fears, such as fear of heights, may be common to all mammals and developed during the mesozoic period. Other fears, such as fear of snakes, may be common to all simians and developed during the cenozoic time period. Still others, such as fear


title: Fruit content: Fruit In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants (also known as angiosperms) formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate seeds. Edible fruits, in particular, have propagated with the movements of humans and animals in a symbiotic relationship as a means for seed dispersal and nutrition; in fact, humans and many animals have become dependent on fruits as a source of food. Accordingly, fruits account for a substantial fraction of the world's agricultural output, and some (such as the apple and the pomegranate) have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings.


title: Fruit content: In common language usage, "fruit" normally means the fleshy seed-associated structures of a plant that are sweet or sour, and edible in the raw state, such as apples, bananas, grapes, lemons, oranges, and strawberries. On the other hand, in botanical usage, "fruit" includes many structures that are not commonly called "fruits", such as bean pods, corn kernels, tomatoes, and wheat grains. The section of a fungus that produces spores is also called a fruiting body. Many common terms for seeds and fruit do not correspond to the botanical classifications. In culinary terminology, a "fruit" is usually any sweet-tasting plant part,


title: Fruit content: especially a botanical fruit; a "nut" is any hard, oily, and shelled plant product; and a "vegetable" is any savory or less sweet plant product. However, in botany, a "fruit" is the ripened ovary or carpel that contains seeds, a "nut" is a type of fruit and not a seed, and a "seed" is a ripened ovule. Examples of culinary "vegetables" and nuts that are botanically fruit include corn, cucurbits (e.g., cucumber, pumpkin, and squash), eggplant, legumes (beans, peanuts, and peas), sweet pepper, and tomato. In addition, some spices, such as allspice and chili pepper, are fruits, botanically speaking. In


title: Fruit content: contrast, rhubarb is often referred to as a fruit, because it is used to make sweet desserts such as pies, though only the petiole (leaf stalk) of the rhubarb plant is edible, and edible gymnosperm seeds are often given fruit names, e.g., ginkgo nuts and pine nuts. Botanically, a cereal grain, such as corn, rice, or wheat, is also a kind of fruit, termed a caryopsis. However, the fruit wall is very thin and is fused to the seed coat, so almost all of the edible grain is actually a seed. The outer, often edible layer, is the "pericarp", formed


title: Fruit content: from the ovary and surrounding the seeds, although in some species other tissues contribute to or form the edible portion. The pericarp may be described in three layers from outer to inner, the "epicarp", "mesocarp" and "endocarp". Fruit that bears a prominent pointed terminal projection is said to be "beaked". A fruit results from maturation of one or more flowers, and the gynoecium of the flower(s) forms all or part of the fruit. Inside the ovary/ovaries are one or more ovules where the megagametophyte contains the egg cell. After double fertilization, these ovules will become seeds. The ovules are fertilized


title: Fruit content: in a process that starts with pollination, which involves the movement of pollen from the stamens to the stigma of flowers. After pollination, a tube grows from the pollen through the stigma into the ovary to the ovule and two sperm are transferred from the pollen to the megagametophyte. Within the megagametophyte one of the two sperm unites with the egg, forming a zygote, and the second sperm enters the central cell forming the endosperm mother cell, which completes the double fertilization process. Later the zygote will give rise to the embryo of the seed, and the endosperm mother cell


title: Fruit content: will give rise to endosperm, a nutritive tissue used by the embryo. As the ovules develop into seeds, the ovary begins to ripen and the ovary wall, the "pericarp", may become fleshy (as in berries or drupes), or form a hard outer covering (as in nuts). In some multiseeded fruits, the extent to which the flesh develops is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules. The pericarp is often differentiated into two or three distinct layers called the "exocarp" (outer layer, also called epicarp), "mesocarp" (middle layer), and "endocarp" (inner layer). In some fruits, especially simple fruits derived from an


title: Fruit content: inferior ovary, other parts of the flower (such as the floral tube, including the petals, sepals, and stamens), fuse with the ovary and ripen with it. In other cases, the sepals, petals and/or stamens and style of the flower fall off. When such other floral parts are a significant part of the fruit, it is called an "accessory fruit". Since other parts of the flower may contribute to the structure of the fruit, it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms. There are three general modes of fruit development: Plant scientists have grouped fruits


title: Fruit content: into three main groups, simple fruits, aggregate fruits, and composite or multiple fruits. The groupings are not evolutionarily relevant, since many diverse plant taxa may be in the same group, but reflect how the flower organs are arranged and how the fruits develop. Simple fruits can be either dry or fleshy, and result from the ripening of a simple or compound ovary in a flower with only one pistil. Dry fruits may be either dehiscent (they open to discharge seeds), or indehiscent (they do not open to discharge seeds). Types of dry, simple fruits, and examples of each, include: Fruits


title: Fruit content: in which part or all of the "pericarp" (fruit wall) is fleshy at maturity are "simple fleshy fruits". Types of simple, fleshy, fruits (with examples) include: An aggregate fruit, or "etaerio", develops from a single flower with numerous simple pistils. The pome fruits of the family Rosaceae, (including apples, pears, rosehips, and saskatoon berry) are a syncarpous fleshy fruit, a simple fruit, developing from a half-inferior ovary. Schizocarp fruits form from a syncarpous ovary and do not really dehisce, but rather split into segments with one or more seeds; they include a number of different forms from a wide range


title: February content: the 9th Sunday before Pascha (Eastern Christianity): February 4–10 Saturday of Meatfare Week (Eastern Christianity): February 10 Sunday of Meatfare week (Eastern Christianity): February 11 First Week of February (first Monday, ending on Sunday): February 5–11 First Monday: February 5 Second Day of the second week: February 6 Last Thursday before Lent (Western Christianity): February 8 Saturday before Ash Wednesday (Western Christianity): February 10 Second Saturday: February 10 Second Sunday: February 11 Sunday before Ash Wednesday (Western Christianity): February 11 Monday to Sunday following Meatfare week (Eastern Christianity): February 12–18 Monday before Ash Wednesday (Western Christianity): February 12 Second Monday:


title: February content: February 12 Second Tuesday: February 13 Tuesday before Ash Wednesday (Western Christianity): February 13 46 days before Easter (Western Christianity): February 14 Third Thursday: February 15 Friday after Ash Wednesday (Western Christianity): February 15 Thursday of the 8th week before Pascha (Eastern Christianity): February 15 Third Friday: February 16 First Sunday of Lent in (Western Christianity): February 18 Sunday of Cheesefare week (Eastern Christianity): February 18 Week of February 22: February 18–24 Monday after Sunday of Forgiveness (Eastern Christianity): February 19 Third Monday: February 19 Last Friday: February 23 First Saturday of Great Lent (Eastern Christianity): February 24 Last Saturday:


title: "Formula One" content: from this was "Premiere"—a German channel which offers all sessions live and interactive, with features such as the onboard channel. This service was more widely available around Europe until the end of 2002, when the cost of a whole different feed for the digital interactive services was thought too much. This was in large part because of the failure of the "F1 Digital +" Channel launched through Sky in the United Kingdom. Prices were too high for viewers, considering they could watch both the qualifying and the races themselves free on ITV. However, upon the commencement of its coverage for


title: "The Metamorphosis" content: on how dreary life as a traveling salesman is. As he looks at the wall clock, he notices that he has overslept and missed his train for work. He ponders the consequences of this delay. Gregor becomes annoyed at how his boss never accepts excuses or explanations from any of his employees no matter how hard-working they are, displaying an apparent lack of trusting abilities. Gregor's mother knocks on the door, and he answers her. She is concerned for Gregor because he is late for work, which is unorthodox for him. Gregor answers his mother and realizes that his voice


title: Flanders content: Flanders Flanders ( , , ) is the Dutch-speaking northern portion of Belgium and one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium. However, there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, language, politics and history, and sometimes involving neighbouring countries. The demonym associated with Flanders is Fleming, while the corresponding adjective is Flemish. The official capital of Flanders is Brussels, although the Brussels Capital Region has an independent regional government, and the government of Flanders only oversees the community aspects of Flanders life in Brussels such as (Flemish) culture and education. Flanders, despite not being the


title: Flanders content: and "F.C. De Kampioenen". The five most successful Flemish films were "Loft" (2008; 1,186,071 visitors), "Koko Flanel" (1990; 1,082,000 tickets sold), "Hector" (1987; 933,000 tickets sold), "Daens" (1993; 848,000 tickets sold) and "De Zaak Alzheimer" (2003; 750,000 tickets sold). The first and last ones were directed by Erik Van Looy, and an American remake is being made of both of them, respectively "The Loft" (2012) and "The Memory of a Killer". The other three ones were directed by Stijn Coninx. Newspapers are grouped under three main publishers: De Persgroep with "Het Laatste Nieuws", the most popular newspaper in Flanders, "De


title: "French fries" content: other snacks. Traditionally fries are served in a "cornet de frites" (French), "patatzak"/"frietzak"/"fritzak" (Dutch/Flemish), or "Frittentüte" (German), a white cardboard cone, then wrapped in paper, with a spoonful of sauce (often mayonnaise) on top. "Friteries" and other fast food establishments tend to offer a number of different sauces for the fries and meats. In addition to ketchup and mayonnaise, popular options include: aioli, sauce andalouse, sauce Americaine, "Bicky" Dressing (Gele Bicky-sauce), curry mayonnaise, mammoet-sauce, peanut sauce, samurai-sauce, sauce "Pickles", pepper-sauce, tartar sauce, zigeuner sauce, and à la zingara. In Spain, fried potatoes are called "patatas fritas" or "papas fritas". Another


title: "Field hockey" content: that a ball lifted above knee height and at an opponent who is within 5m of the ball is certainly dangerous. The velocity of the ball is not mentioned in the rules concerning a dangerously played ball. A ball that hits a player above the knee may on some occasions not be penalized, this is at the umpire's discretion. A jab tackle, for example, might accidentally lift the ball above knee height into an opponent from close range but at such low velocity as not to be, in the opinion of the umpire, dangerous play. In the same way a


title: "Fundamental interaction" content: of electric and magnetic forces acting between charged particles moving relative to each other. Electromagnetism has infinite range like gravity, but is vastly stronger, and therefore describes a number of macroscopic phenomena of everyday experience such as friction, rainbows, lightning, and all human-made devices using electric current, such as television, lasers, and computers. Electromagnetism fundamentally determines all macroscopic, and many atomic levels, properties of the chemical elements, including all chemical bonding. In a four kilogram (~1 gallon) jug of water there are formula_1 of total electron charge. Thus, if we place two such jugs a meter apart, the electrons in


title: Fencing content: include the Regional Youth Circuit program in the USA and the Leon Paul Youth Development series in the UK. In recent years, attempts have been made to introduce fencing to a wider and younger audience, by using foam and plastic swords, which require much less protective equipment. This makes it much less expensive to provide classes, and thus easier to take fencing to a wider range of schools than traditionally has been the case. There is even a competition series in Scotland – the Plastic-and-Foam Fencing FunLeague – specifically for Primary and early Secondary school-age children using this equipment. The


title: Force content: constant velocity, Aristotelian physics would have the cannonball fall straight down while the ship moved beneath it. Thus, in an Aristotelian universe, the falling cannonball would land behind the foot of the mast of a moving ship. However, when this experiment is actually conducted, the cannonball always falls at the foot of the mast, as if the cannonball knows to travel with the ship despite being separated from it. Since there is no forward horizontal force being applied on the cannonball as it falls, the only conclusion left is that the cannonball continues to move with the same velocity as


title: Fractal content: trade, and architecture. Circular houses appear in circles of circles, rectangular houses in rectangles of rectangles, and so on. Such scaling patterns can also be found in African textiles, sculpture, and even cornrow hairstyles. Hokky Situngkir also suggested the similar properties in Indonesian traditional art, batik, and ornaments found in traditional houses. In a 1996 interview with Michael Silverblatt, David Foster Wallace admitted that the structure of the first draft of "Infinite Jest" he gave to his editor Michael Pietsch was inspired by fractals, specifically the Sierpinski triangle (a.k.a. Sierpinski gasket), but that the edited novel is "more like a


title: Fluid content: Fluid In physics, a fluid is a substance that continually deforms (flows) under an applied shear stress. Fluids are a phase of matter and include liquids, gases and plasmas. They are substances with zero shear modulus, or, in simpler terms, substances which cannot resist any shear force applied to it. Although the term "fluid" includes both the liquid and gas phases, in common usage, "fluid" is often used as a synonym for "liquid", with no implication that gas could also be present.This colloquial usage of the term is also common in medicine and in nutrition ("take plenty of fluids"). Liquids


title: Fluid content: form a free surface (that is, a surface not created by the container) while gases do not. Viscoelastic fluids like Silly Putty appear to behave similar to a solid when a sudden force is applied. Also substances with a very high viscosity such as pitch appear to behave like a solid (see pitch drop experiment). Fluids display properties such as: These properties are typically a function of their inability to support a shear stress in static equilibrium. In contrast, solids respond to shear either with a spring-like restoring force, which means that deformations are reversible, or they require a certain


title: Fluid content: initial stress before they deform (see plasticity). Solids respond with restoring forces to both shear stresses, and to normal stresses—both compressive and tensile. In contrast, ideal fluids only respond with restoring forces to normal stresses, called pressure: fluids can be subjected to both compressive stress, corresponding to positive pressure, and to tensile stress, corresponding to negative pressure. Both solids and liquids also have tensile strengths, which when exceeded in solids makes irreversible deformation and fracture, and in liquids causes the onset of cavitation. Both solids and liquids have free surfaces, which cost some amount of free energy to form. In


title: Fluid content: the case of solids, the amount of free energy to form a given unit of surface area is called surface energy, whereas for liquids the same quantity is called surface tension. The ability of liquids to flow results in different behaviour in response to surface tension than in solids, although in equilibrium both will try to minimise their surface energy: liquids tend to form rounded droplets, whereas pure solids tend to form crystals. Gases do not have free surfaces, and freely diffuse. In a solid, shear stress is a function of strain, but in a fluid, shear stress is a


title: Fluid content: function of strain rate. A consequence of this behavior is Pascal's law which describes the role of pressure in characterizing a fluid's state. Depending on the relationship between shear stress, and the rate of strain and its derivatives, fluids can be characterized as one of the following: The behavior of fluids can be described by the Navier–Stokes equations—a set of partial differential equations which are based on: The study of fluids is fluid mechanics, which is subdivided into fluid dynamics and fluid statics depending on whether the fluid is in motion. Fluid In physics, a fluid is a substance that


title: "Eric Cheney" content: After the demise of BSA in 1972, Cheney joined with former BSA factory rider John Banks to develop and campaign a highly successful BSA powered motocross bike. Some of Cheney's motorcycle designs are now famous in their own right, such as the competition BSA Gold Stars of Jerry Scott and Keith Hickman and the John Banks replica which used a BSA B50 engine specially tuned by Cheney. He also built some racing frames for Suzuki Grand Prix motorcycles in 1968 and, it has been suggested that Suzuki engineers incorporated features of Cheney's designs, such as magnesium hubs and lower fork


title: "Emperor Saga" content: (交野女王), Prince Yamaguchi's daughter Court lady: Takashina no Kawako (高階河子), Takashina no Kiyoshina's daughter Court lady: Hiroi no Otona's daughter Court lady: Fuse no Musashiko (布勢武蔵子) Court lady: A daughter of Kamitsukeno clan (上毛野氏の娘) Court lady: Abe no Yanatsu's daughter Court lady: Kasa no Tsugiko (笠継子), Kasa no Nakamori's daughter Court lady: A daughter of Awata clan (粟田氏の娘) Court lady: Ōhara no Matako (大原全子), Ōhara no Mamuro's daughter Court lady: A daughter of Ki clan (紀氏の娘) Court lady: Kura no Kageko (内蔵影子) Court lady: Kannabi no Iseko (甘南備伊勢子) Court lady: Fun'ya no Fumiko (文屋文子), Fun'ya no Kugamaro's daughter Court lady:


title: "Functional programming" content: style Printing a list with first 10 Fibonacci numbers, with generators Printing a list with first 10 Fibonacci numbers, functional expression style Printing first 10 Fibonacci numbers, recursive style Printing first 10 Fibonacci numbers, functional expression style Printing a list with first 10 Fibonacci numbers, functional expression style Printing the 11th Fibonacci number, functional expression style Printing the 11th Fibonacci number, functional expression style, tail recursive Printing the 11th Fibonacci number, functional expression style with recursive lists Printing the 11th Fibonacci number, functional expression style with primitives for recursive lists Printing the 11th Fibonacci number, functional expression style with primitives


title: "February 29" content: February 29 February 29, also known as leap day or leap year day, is a date added to most years that are divisible by 4, such as 2012, 2016, 2020, 2024, and 2028. A leap day is added in various solar calendars (calendars based on the Earth's revolution around the Sun), including the Gregorian calendar standard in most of the world. Lunisolar calendars (whose months are based on the phases of the Moon) instead add a leap or intercalary month. In the Gregorian calendar, years that are divisible by 100, but not by 400, do not contain a leap day.


title: "February 29" content: Thus, 1700, 1800, and 1900 did not contain a leap day; neither will 2100, 2200, and 2300. Conversely, 1600 and 2000 did and 2400 will. Years containing a leap day are called leap years. Years not containing a leap day are called common years. February 29 is the 60th day of the Gregorian calendar, in such a year, with 306 days remaining until the end of the year. In the Chinese calendar, this day will only occur in years of the monkey, dragon, and rat. A leap day is observed because the Earth's period of orbital revolution around the Sun


title: "February 29" content: takes approximately 6 hours longer than 365 whole days. A leap day compensates for this lag, realigning the calendar with the Earth's position in the Solar System; otherwise, seasons would occur later than intended in the calendar year. The Julian calendar used in Christendom until the 16th century added a leap day every four years; but this rule adds too many days (roughly 3 every 400 years), making the equinoxes and solstices shift gradually to earlier dates. By the 16th century the vernal equinox had drifted to March 11, and the Gregorian calendar was introduced both to shift it back


title: "February 29" content: by omitting several days, and to reduce the number of leap years via the "century rule" to keep the equinoxes more or less fixed and the date of Easter consistently close to the vernal equinox. Although most modern calendar years have 365 days, a complete revolution around the Sun (one solar year) takes approximately 365 days and 6 hours. An extra 24 hours thus accumulates every four years, requiring that an extra calendar day be added to align the calendar with the Sun's apparent position. Without the added day, in future years the seasons would occur later in the calendar,


title: "February 29" content: eventually leading to confusion about when to undertake activities dependent on weather, ecology, or hours of daylight. A solar year is actually slightly shorter than 365 days and 6 hours (365.25 days), which had been known since the 2nd century BC when Hipparchus stated that it lasted 365 + − days, but this was ignored by Julius Caesar and his astronomical adviser Sosigenes. The Gregorian calendar corrected this by adopting the length of the tropical year stated in three medieval sources, the Alfonsine tables, De Revolutionibus, and the Prutenic Tables, truncated to two sexagesimal places, 365 days or 365 +


title: "February 29" content: − days or 365.2425 days. The length of the tropical year in 2000 was 365.24217 mean solar days, Adding a calendar day every four years, therefore, results in an excess of around 44 minutes every four years, or about 3 days every 400 years. To compensate for this, three days are removed every 400 years. The Gregorian calendar reform implements this adjustment by making an exception to the general rule that there is a leap year every four years. Instead, a year divisible by 100 is not a leap year unless that year is also divisible by 400. This means


title: "February 29" content: that the years 1600, 2000, and 2400 are leap years, while the years 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, 2300, and 2500 are common years. The Gregorian calendar repeats itself every 400 years, which is exactly 20,871 weeks including 97 leap days (146,097 days). Over this period, February 29 falls on Sunday, Tuesday, and Thursday 13 times each; 14 times each on Friday and Saturday; and 15 times each on Monday and Wednesday. Excepting when a century mark that is not a multiple of 400 intervenes, consecutive leaps days fall in order Thursday, Tuesday, Sunday, Friday, Wednesday, Monday, and Saturday; then


title: "February 29" content: repeating with Thursday again. The calendar of the Roman king Numa Pompilius had only 355 days (even though it was not a lunar calendar) which meant that it would quickly become unsynchronized with the solar year. An earlier Roman solution to this problem was to lengthen the calendar periodically by adding extra days to February, the last month of the year. February consisted of two parts, each with an odd number of days. The first part ended with the "Terminalia" on the 23rd, which was considered the end of the religious year, and the five remaining days formed the second


title: "February 29" content: part. To keep the calendar year roughly aligned with the solar year, a leap month, called "Mensis Intercalaris" ("intercalary month"), was added from time to time between these two parts of February. The (usual) second part of February was incorporated in the intercalary month as its last five days, with no change either in their dates or the festivals observed on them. This followed naturally, because the days after the Ides (13th) of February (in an ordinary year) or the Ides of Intercalaris (in an intercalary year) both counted down to the Kalends of March (i.e. they were known as


title: "February 29" content: "the "n"th day before the Kalends of March"). The Nones (5th) and Ides of Intercalaris occupied their normal positions. The third-century writer Censorinus says: The set leap day was introduced in Rome as a part of the Julian reform in the 1st century BC. As before, the intercalation was made after February 23. The day following the Terminalia (February 23) was doubled, forming the ""bis sextum""—literally 'twice sixth', since February 24 was 'the sixth day before the Kalends of March' using Roman inclusive counting (March 1 was the Kalends of March and was also the first day of the calendar


title: "Formal language" content: Formal language In mathematics, computer science, and linguistics, a formal language consists of words whose letters are taken from an alphabet and are well-formed according to a specific set of rules. The alphabet of a formal language consist of symbols, letters, or tokens that concatenate into strings of the language. Each string concatenated from symbols of this alphabet is called a word, and the words that belong to a particular formal language are sometimes called "well-formed words" or "well-formed formulas". A formal language is often defined by means of a formal grammar such as a regular grammar or context-free grammar,


title: "Formal language" content: which consists of its formation rules. The field of formal language theory studies primarily the purely syntactical aspects of such languages—that is, their internal structural patterns. Formal language theory sprang out of linguistics, as a way of understanding the syntactic regularities of natural languages. In computer science, formal languages are used among others as the basis for defining the grammar of programming languages and formalized versions of subsets of natural languages in which the words of the language represent concepts that are associated with particular meanings or semantics. In computational complexity theory, decision problems are typically defined as formal languages,


title: "Formal language" content: and complexity classes are defined as the sets of the formal languages that can be parsed by machines with limited computational power. In logic and the foundations of mathematics, formal languages are used to represent the syntax of axiomatic systems, and mathematical formalism is the philosophy that all of mathematics can be reduced to the syntactic manipulation of formal languages in this way. The first formal language is thought to be the one used by Gottlob Frege in his "Begriffsschrift" (1879), literally meaning "concept writing", and which Frege described as a "formal language of pure thought." Axel Thue's early semi-Thue


title: "Formal language" content: system, which can be used for rewriting strings, was influential on formal grammars. An alphabet, in the context of formal languages, can be any set, although it often makes sense to use an alphabet in the usual sense of the word, or more generally a character set such as ASCII or Unicode. The elements of an alphabet are called its letters. An alphabet may contain an infinite number of elements; however, most definitions in formal language theory specify alphabets with a finite number of elements, and most results apply only to them. A word over an alphabet can be any


title: "Formal language" content: finite sequence (i.e., string) of letters. The set of all words over an alphabet Σ is usually denoted by Σ (using the Kleene star). The length of a word is the number of letters it is composed of. For any alphabet, there is only one word of length 0, the "empty word", which is often denoted by e, ε, λ or even Λ. By concatenation one can combine two words to form a new word, whose length is the sum of the lengths of the original words. The result of concatenating a word with the empty word is the original


title: "Formal language" content: word. In some applications, especially in logic, the alphabet is also known as the "vocabulary" and words are known as "formulas" or "sentences"; this breaks the letter/word metaphor and replaces it by a word/sentence metaphor. A formal language "L" over an alphabet Σ is a subset of Σ, that is, a set of words over that alphabet. Sometimes the sets of words are grouped into expressions, whereas rules and constraints may be formulated for the creation of 'well-formed expressions'. In computer science and mathematics, which do not usually deal with natural languages, the adjective "formal" is often omitted as redundant.


title: "Formal language" content: While formal language theory usually concerns itself with formal languages that are described by some syntactical rules, the actual definition of the concept "formal language" is only as above: a (possibly infinite) set of finite-length strings composed from a given alphabet, no more and no less. In practice, there are many languages that can be described by rules, such as regular languages or context-free languages. The notion of a formal grammar may be closer to the intuitive concept of a "language," one described by syntactic rules. By an abuse of the definition, a particular formal language is often thought of


title: "Formal language" content: as being equipped with a formal grammar that describes it. The following rules describe a formal language over the alphabet Σ = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, +, = }: Under these rules, the string "23+4=555" is in , but the string "=234=+" is not. This formal language expresses natural numbers, well-formed additions, and well-formed addition equalities, but it expresses only what they look like (their syntax), not what they mean (semantics). For instance, nowhere in these rules is there any indication that "0" means the number zero, "+" means addition, "23+4=555" is false,


title: "Formal language" content: etc. For finite languages, one can explicitly enumerate all well-formed words. For example, we can describe a language as just = {"a", "b", "ab", "cba"}. The degenerate case of this construction is the empty language, which contains no words at all ( = ∅). However, even over a finite (non-empty) alphabet such as Σ = {a, b} there are an infinite number of finite-length words that can potentially be expressed: "a", "abb", "ababba", "aaababbbbaab", …. Therefore, formal languages are typically infinite, and describing an infinite formal language is not as simple as writing "L" = {"a", "b", "ab", "cba"}. Here


title: "Formal language" content: are some examples of formal languages: Formal languages are used as tools in multiple disciplines. However, formal language theory rarely concerns itself with particular languages (except as examples), but is mainly concerned with the study of various types of formalisms to describe languages. For instance, a language can be given as Typical questions asked about such formalisms include: Surprisingly often, the answer to these decision problems is "it cannot be done at all", or "it is extremely expensive" (with a characterization of how expensive). Therefore, formal language theory is a major application area of computability theory and complexity theory. Formal