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title: Charter hierarchical section title: Charter caption reference description: An example of a charter (Magna Carta). caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: A charter is the grant of authority or rights, stating that the granter formally recognizes the prerogative of the recipient to exercise the rights specified. It is implicit that the granter retains superiority, and that the recipient admits a limited status within the relationship, and it is within that sense that charters were historically granted, and it is that sense which is retained in modern usage of the term.
The word entered the English language from the Old French charte, via Latin charta, and ultimately from Greek χάρτης. It has come to be synonymous with a document that sets out a grant of rights or privileges.

title: Liberty section title: Politics hierarchical section title: Liberty / Politics caption reference description: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period. This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106". caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: Broadly speaking, liberty is the ability to do as one pleases. It is a synonym for the word freedom. In modern politics, liberty is the state of being free within society from oppressive restrictions imposed by authority on one's way of life, behaviour, or political views. In philosophy, liberty involves free will as contrasted with determinism. In theology, liberty is freedom from the effects of "sin, spiritual servitude, [or] worldly ties".
Sometimes liberty is differentiated from freedom by using the word "freedom" primarily, if not exclusively, to mean the ability to do as one wills and what one has the power to do; and using the word "liberty" to mean the absence of arbitrary restraints, taking into account the rights of all involved. In this sense, the exercise of liberty is subject to capability and limited by the rights of others. Thus liberty entails the responsible use of freedom under the rule of law without depriving anyone else of their freedom. Freedom is more broad in that it represents a total lack of restraint or the unrestrained ability to fulfill one's desires.

title: Free migration hierarchical section title: Free migration caption reference description: Magna Carta or "Great Charter" was one of the world's first documents containing commitments by a sovereign to his people to respect certain legal rights caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: Free migration or open immigration is the position that people should be able to migrate to whatever country they choose.

title: Parliament section title: Magna Carta and the Model Parliament hierarchical section title: Parliament / Early parliaments / England / Magna Carta and the Model Parliament caption reference description: A 1215 edition of Magna Carta, as featured on display at the British Library. caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: In modern politics and history, a parliament is a legislative body of government. Generally, a modern parliament has three functions: representing the electorate, making laws, and overseeing the government via hearings and inquiries. The term is similar to the idea of a senate, synod or congress, and is commonly used in countries that are current or former monarchies, a form of government with a monarch as the head. Some contexts restrict the use of the word parliament to parliamentary systems, although it is also used to describe the legislature in some presidential systems, even where it is not in the official name.
Historically, parliaments included various kinds of deliberative, consultative, and judicial assemblies, e.g. medieval parliaments.

title: History of human rights section title: Middle Ages hierarchical section title: History of human rights / Ancient and pre-modern eras / Middle Ages caption reference description: Magna Carta was written in 1215. caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: While belief in the sanctity of human life has ancient precedents in many religions of the world, the foundations of modern human rights began during the era of renaissance humanism in the early modern period. The European wars of religion and the civil wars of seventeenth-century Kingdom of England gave rise to the philosophy of liberalism and belief in natural rights became a central concern of European intellectual culture during the eighteenth-century Age of Enlightenment. These ideas lay at the core of the American and French Revolutions which occurred toward the end of that century. Democratic evolution through the nineteenth century paved the way for the advent of universal suffrage in the twentieth century. Two world wars led to the creation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
The post-war era saw movements arising from specific groups experiencing a shortfall in their rights, such as feminism and the civil rights of African Americans. The human rights movements of members of the Soviet bloc emerged in the 1970s along with workers' rights movements in the West.

title: Democracy section title: Middle Ages hierarchical section title: Democracy / History / Middle Ages caption reference description: Magna Carta, 1215, England caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: Democracy is a form of government in which the people have the authority to choose their governing legislation. Who people are and how authority is shared among them are core issues for democratic theory, development and constitution. Some cornerstones of these issues are freedom of assembly and speech, inclusiveness and equality, membership, consent, voting, right to life and minority rights.
Generally, there are two types of democracy: direct and representative. In a direct democracy, the people directly deliberate and decide on legislation. In a representative democracy, the people elect representatives to deliberate and decide on legislation, such as in parliamentary or presidential democracy. Liquid democracy combines elements of these two basic types. However, the noun "democracy" has, over time, been modified by more than 3,500 adjectives which suggests that it may have types that can elude and elide this duality.
The most common day-to-day decision making approach of democracies has been the majority rule, though other decision making approaches like supermajority and consensus have been equally integral to democracies.

title: Usury section title: Usury and the law hierarchical section title: Usury / Usury law / Usury and the law caption reference description: Magna Carta commands, "If any one has taken anything, whether much or little, by way of loan from Jews, and if he dies before that debt is paid, the debt shall not carry usury so long as the heir is under age, from whomsoever he may hold. And if that debt falls into our hands, we will take only the principal contained in the note."[63] caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: Usury is the practice of making unethical or immoral monetary loans that unfairly enrich the lender. The term may be used in a moral sense—condemning, taking advantage of others' misfortunes—or in a legal sense, where an interest rate is charged in excess of the maximum rate that is allowed by law. A loan may be considered usurious because of excessive or abusive interest rates or other factors defined by a nation's laws. Someone who practices usury can be called a usurer, but in contemporary English may be called a loan shark.
In many historical societies including ancient Christian, Jewish, and many modern Islamic societies, usury meant the charging of interest of any kind and was considered wrong, or was made illegal. During the Sutra period in India there were laws prohibiting the highest castes from practicing usury. Similar condemnations are found in religious texts from Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. At times, many nations from ancient Greece to ancient Rome have outlawed loans with any interest.

title: Article 12 of the Constitution of Singapore section title: Text of Article 12 hierarchical section title: Article 12 of the Constitution of Singapore / Text of Article 12 caption reference description: A copy of the Magna Carta of 1215 in the collection of the British Library. In a 1998 decision, the Court of Appeal of Singapore traced the concept of equality embodied in Article 12(1) of the Constitution to the 40th article of this document. caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: Article 12 of the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore guarantees to all persons equality before the law and equal protection of the law. The Article also identifies four forbidden classifications – religion, race, descent and place of birth – upon which Singapore citizens may not be discriminated for specific reasons. For example, discrimination on those classifications is prohibited in the appointment to any office or employment under a public authority or in the administration of any law relating to the establishing or carrying on of any trade, business, profession, vocation or employment.
Persons unable to show that one of the forbidden classifications applies to them may try to argue that they are members of a group defined by a law in a way that violates the general guarantee of equality and equal protection. To succeed, they must establish that the classification used in the law fails the rational nexus test, which is a three-stage test formulated by the courts. The first stage of the test involves an examination as to whether the law differentiates amongst classes of individuals.

title: Rights section title: History hierarchical section title: Rights / History caption reference description: Magna Carta or "The Great Charter" was one of England's first documents containing commitments by a king to his people to respect certain legal rights. It reduced the power of the monarch. caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: Rights are legal, social, or ethical principles of freedom or entitlement; that is, rights are the fundamental normative rules about what is allowed of people or owed to people according to some legal system, social convention, or ethical theory. Rights are of essential importance in such disciplines as law and ethics, especially theories of justice and deontology.
Rights are often considered fundamental to civilization, for they are regarded as established pillars of society and culture, and the history of social conflicts can be found in the history of each right and its development. According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "rights structure the form of governments, the content of laws, and the shape of morality as it is currently perceived".

title: Parliament in the Making hierarchical section title: Parliament in the Making caption reference description: The sealing of Magna Carta is an important event in the history of Parliament, which was commemorated by a special exhibition in the Queen's Robing Room in February 2015.[1] caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: Parliament in the Making was a programme of events organised by the Parliament of the United Kingdom to commemorate a series of anniversaries in 2015 including:
the sealing of Magna Carta, on 15 June 1215, 800 years earlier
the first representative parliament, Simon de Montfort's Parliament, on 20 January 1265, 750 years earlier
the Battle of Agincourt on 25 October 1415, 600 years earlier
the Battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815, 200 years earlier
the death of Winston Churchill on 24 January 1965, 50 years earlier
the first Race Relations Act on 8 December 1965, 50 years earlier

title: Statutes of Mortmain section title: Problems with mortmain in Bracton's time hierarchical section title: Statutes of Mortmain / Problems with mortmain in Bracton's time caption reference description: Magna Carta in 1215 began the process of abolishing the alienation of land in favour of the Church for the purpose of avoiding feudal incidents. The Great Charter of 1217 forbade the practice outright. caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: The Statutes of Mortmain were two enactments, in 1279 and 1290, passed in the reign of Edward I of England, aimed at preserving the kingdom's revenues by preventing land from passing into the possession of the Church. Possession of property by a corporation, such as the Church, was known as mortmain, which literally meant "dead hand". In medieval England, feudal estates generated taxes for the King, principally on the grant or inheritance of the estate. If an estate became owned by a religious corporation which could never die, could never attain majority, and could never be attainted for treason, these taxes never became payable. It was akin to the estates being owned by the dead, hence the term.
The Statutes of Mortmain were meant to re-establish the prohibition against donating land to the Church for the purpose of avoiding feudal services, a prohibition which had originated in the Magna Carta in 1215 and was specifically defined in the Great Charter of 1217. But King John, the author of the Magna Carta, died shortly after it was signed, and his son, Henry III, did not enforce the proscriptions and, to the contrary, showed great deference to the Church.

title: Vellum hierarchical section title: Vellum caption reference description: Magna Carta, written in Latin on vellum, held at the British Library caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: Vellum is prepared animal skin or "membrane", typically used as a material for writing on. Parchment is another term for this material, and if vellum is distinguished from this, it is by vellum being made from calfskin, as opposed to that from other animals, or otherwise being of higher quality. Vellum is prepared for writing or printing on, to produce single pages, scrolls, codices or books. The word is derived from the Latin word vitulinum meaning "made from calf", leading to Old French vélin, "calfskin".
Modern scholars and custodians increasingly use only the less specific if confusing term "membrane". Depending on factors such as the method of preparation it may be very hard to determine the animal species involved without using a laboratory, and the term avoids the need to distinguish between vellum and parchment.
Vellum is generally smooth and durable, although there are great variations depending on preparation and the quality of the skin. The manufacture involves the cleaning, bleaching, stretching on a frame, and scraping of the skin with a crescent-shaped knife. To create tension, scraping is alternated with wetting and drying.

title: Robert de Vere, 3rd Earl of Oxford hierarchical section title: Robert de Vere, 3rd Earl of Oxford caption reference description: One of only four surviving 1215 exemplifications of Magna Carta, property of the British Library caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: Robert de Vere, hereditary Master Chamberlain of England, was son of Aubrey de Vere, 1st Earl of Oxford, and Agnes of Essex. He succeeded his brother as the third Earl of Oxford, and was one of the twenty-five guarantors of Magna Carta.
Robert de Vere was the second surviving son of Aubrey de Vere, 1st Earl of Oxford, and his third wife, Agnes of Essex. The date of his birth is not known, but he was likely born after 1164. Almost nothing is known of his life until 1207, when he married Isabel de Bolebec, the widow of Henry de Nonant of Totnes, Devon. In 1206-7 Isabel and her sister Constance were co-heiresses of their niece, another Isabel de Bolebec, the countess of Oxford by her marriage to Robert's brother, Aubrey de Vere, 2nd Earl of Oxford. They divided the barony of Whitchurch. The fact that aunt and niece had identical names, Isabel de Bolbec, and were successively countesses of Oxford and heiresses of Whitchurch has led to confusion between the two women.
When Robert's brother, Aubrey de Vere, 2nd Earl of Oxford, died in the latter half of 1214, Robert succeeded to his title and estates and the hereditary office of Master Chamberlain of England.

title: Liberal Reform section title: Secret courts hierarchical section title: Liberal Reform / Policies and Issues / Secret courts caption reference description: Liberal Reform contends that the right to a fair trial, enshrined in Magna Carta in 1215 (above), is now in jeopardy since the passing of the Justice and Security Act 2013. caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: Liberal Reform is a group of members of the British Liberal Democrats. Membership of the group is open to any Liberal Democrat party member, and is free of charge. It was launched on 13 February 2012, and describes itself as a broadly centrist group that seeks to promote 'four-cornered liberalism' within the party. Each 'corner' consists respectively of economic, social, personal and political liberalism, mirroring the opening chapter of the Orange Book by David Laws. It states that it accepts that virtually all Liberal Democrats believe in four-cornered liberalism, but emphasises its belief that economic liberalism, consisting of the promotion of open markets, competition and free trade, "has to be a key component of modern liberalism". Liberal Reform organises a number of fringe events at the Liberal Democrat Federal Conference.

title: Jocelin of Wells section title: Advisor to King John hierarchical section title: Jocelin of Wells / Advisor to King John caption reference description: A copy of Magna Carta caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: Jocelin of Wells was a medieval Bishop of Bath. He was the brother of Hugh de Wells, who became Bishop of Lincoln. Jocelin became a canon of Wells Cathedral before 1200, and was elected bishop in 1206. During King John of England's dispute with Pope Innocent III, Jocelin at first remained with the king, but after the excommunication of John in late 1209, Jocelin went into exile. He returned to England in 1213, and was mentioned in Magna Carta in 1215.
Jocelin was one of the bishops that crowned John's son Henry III, and throughout the rest of Jocelin's life was involved in royal administration. He was also active in his diocese, ordering construction on the cathedral at Wells, and issuing rules for his diocesan clergy. During his time as bishop, he settled a dispute between his diocese and Glastonbury Abbey that had started during the bishopric of his predecessor. The memorial brass on his tomb in Wells Cathedral is probably one of the earliest in England.

title: History of England section title: Magna Carta hierarchical section title: History of England / England under the Plantagenets / Magna Carta caption reference description: One of only four surviving exemplifications of the 1215 text, Cotton MS. Augustus II. 106, property of the British Library caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: The British Isles became inhabited more than 800,000 years ago, as the discovery of stone tools and footprints at Happisburgh in Norfolk has revealed. The earliest evidence for early modern humans in North West Europe, a jawbone discovered in Devon at Kents Cavern in 1927, was re-dated in 2011 to between 41,000 and 44,000 years old. Continuous human habitation in England dates to around 13,000 years ago, at the end of the last glacial period. The region has numerous remains from the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age, such as Stonehenge and Avebury. In the Iron Age, all of Britain south of the Firth of Forth, was inhabited by the Celtic people known as the Britons, including some Belgic tribes in the south east. In AD 43 the Roman conquest of Britain began; the Romans maintained control of their province of Britannia until the early 5th century.
The end of Roman rule in Britain facilitated the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain, which historians often regard as the origin of England and of the English people.

title: Constitutionalism section title: Core features hierarchical section title: Constitutionalism / Core features caption reference description: Magna Carta of England (the "Great Charter") created in 1215 is regarded as one of the greatest constitutional documents of all times. [12] caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: Constitutionalism is "a compound of ideas, attitudes, and patterns of behavior elaborating the principle that the authority of government derives from and is limited by a body of fundamental law".
Political organizations are constitutional to the extent that they "contain institutionalized mechanisms of power control for the protection of the interests and liberties of the citizenry, including those that may be in the minority". As described by political scientist and constitutional scholar David Fellman:
Constitutionalism is descriptive of a complicated concept, deeply embedded in historical experience, which subjects the officials who exercise governmental powers to the limitations of a higher law. Constitutionalism proclaims the desirability of the rule of law as opposed to rule by the arbitrary judgment or mere fiat of public officials ...

title: Magna Carta hierarchical section title: Magna Carta caption reference description: Magna Carta caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: The Magna Carta was a document signed by King John after negotiations with his barons and their French and Scots allies at Runnymede, Surrey, England in 1215.
There they sealed the Great Charter, called in Latin Magna Carta. It established a council of 25 barons to see John keep to the clauses, including access to swift justice, parliamentary assent for taxation, scutage limitations, and protection from illegal imprisonment.
Because he was forced to seal the charter, John sought approval to break it, from his spiritual overlord Pope Innocent III. Denouncing it as "not only shameful and demeaning but also illegal and unjust", the Pope agreed. The Magna Carta is still considered one of the most important documents ever written, having inspired the way we view issues of justice and liberty and influenced laws regarding such throughout the world.
The Magna Carta has influenced English law down to the present day. It is one of the most celebrated documents in the History of England. It is recognized as a cornerstone of the idea of the liberty of citizens.

title: Constitution of the United Kingdom hierarchical section title: Constitution of the United Kingdom caption reference description: Magna Carta (the Great Charter), the first document beginning the UK's constitution caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: The Constitution of the United Kingdom is a set of laws and rules in the United Kingdom that governs how the country is organized and the basic rights and freedoms of the people.
The UK's constitution is not written in one single document like many other countries' are. In fact, the UK's constitution is not completely written down at all. Some of it can be found in writing, starting with the Magna Carta of 1215 and the Bill of Rights Act 1689 and including more modern Acts of Parliament. Other parts of it are considered common law and are made up of the decisions of judges over many hundreds of years in a system called legal or judicial precedence. Because of this, some people say that the United Kingdom has a de facto or "unwritten" constitution.
Using the word "unwritten" is a problem, because most British laws and rules are written as statutes, or court judgments, the law of equity and in various treaties. Most of these laws come from the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Because most of the constitution is written down in this way, it is not technically correct to call it "unwritten" or "de facto". However, these words are still used.

title: Constitution section title: Uncodified constitution hierarchical section title: Constitution / Key features / Classification / Codification / Uncodified constitution caption reference description: Magna Carta caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: A constitution is an aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organisation or other type of entity and commonly determine how that entity is to be governed.
When these principles are written down into a single document or set of legal documents, those documents may be said to embody a written constitution; if they are written down in a single comprehensive document, it is said to embody a codified constitution. Some constitutions are uncodified, but written in numerous fundamental Acts of a legislature, court cases or treaties.
Constitutions concern different levels of organizations, from sovereign countries to companies and unincorporated associations. A treaty which establishes an international organization is also its constitution, in that it would define how that organization is constituted. Within states, a constitution defines the principles upon which the state is based, the procedure in which laws are made and by whom. Some constitutions, especially codified constitutions, also act as limiters of state power, by establishing lines which a state's rulers cannot cross, such as fundamental rights.

title: John, King of England section title: Pre-war tensions and Magna Carta hierarchical section title: John, King of England / Failure in France and the First Barons' War (1215–1216) / Pre-war tensions and Magna Carta caption reference description: An original version of Magna Carta, agreed by John and the barons in 1215 caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] caption alt text description: A photograph of a page of Magna Carta, a wide page of dense, small medieval writing. content: John was King of England from 1199 until his death in 1216. He lost the Duchy of Normandy and most of his other French lands to King Philip II of France, resulting in the collapse of the Angevin Empire and contributing to the subsequent growth in power of the French Capetian dynasty during the 13th century. The baronial revolt at the end of John's reign led to the sealing of Magna Carta, a document sometimes considered an early step in the evolution of the constitution of the United Kingdom.
John was the youngest of the four surviving sons of King Henry II of England and Duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine. He was nicknamed John Lackland because he was not expected to inherit significant lands. He became Henry's favourite child following the failed revolt of 1173–74 by his brothers Henry the Young King, Richard, and Geoffrey against the King. John was appointed the Lord of Ireland in 1177 and given lands in England and on the continent. The war between Henry II and his eldest sons ended with the deaths of Henry the Young King and Geoffrey.

title: Angevin kings of England section title: Decline hierarchical section title: Angevin kings of England / Decline caption reference description: One of only four surviving exemplifications of the 1215 text of Magna Carta caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] caption alt text description: Old manuscript content: The Angevins were a royal house of French origin that ruled England in the 12th and early 13th centuries; its monarchs were Henry II, Richard I and John. In the 10 years from 1144, two successive counts of Anjou in France, Geoffrey and his son, the future Henry II, won control of a vast assemblage of lands in western Europe that would last for 80 years and would retrospectively be referred to as the Angevin Empire. As a political entity this was structurally different from the preceding Norman and subsequent Plantagenet realms. Geoffrey became Duke of Normandy in 1144 and died in 1151. In 1152 his heir, Henry, added Aquitaine by virtue of his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine. Henry also inherited the claim of his mother, Empress Matilda, the daughter of King Henry I, to the English throne, to which he succeeded in 1154 following the death of King Stephen.
Henry was succeeded by his third son, Richard, whose reputation for martial prowess won him the epithet "Cœur de Lion" or "Lionheart". He was born and raised in England but spent very little time there during his adult life, perhaps as little as six months.

title: Angevin Empire section title: Capetian invasion of England hierarchical section title: Angevin Empire / Collapse of the Angevin Empire / Capetian invasion of England caption reference description: Magna Carta, signed at Runnymede on 15 June 1215 caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: The Angevin Empire describes the possessions of the Angevin kings of England who held lands in England and France during the 12th and 13th centuries. Its rulers were Henry II, Richard I, and John. The Angevin Empire is an early example of a composite state.
The Angevins of the House of Plantagenet ruled over an area covering roughly half of France, all of England, and parts of Ireland and Wales, and had further influence over much of the remaining British Isles. The empire was established by Henry II, as King of England, Duke of Normandy, Count of Anjou, as well as Duke of Aquitaine by right of his wife, and multiple subsidiary titles. Although their title of highest rank came from the Kingdom of England, the Angevins held court primarily on the continent at Angers in Anjou, and Chinon in Touraine.
The influence and power of the House of Anjou brought them into conflict with the kings of France of the House of Capet, to whom they also owed feudal homage for their French possessions, bringing in a period of rivalry between the dynasties.

title: Social rule system theory section title: Textually encoded social rules hierarchical section title: Social rule system theory / Social rules and the patterning of action / Textually encoded social rules caption reference description: The Magna Carta from 1215 is an early English form of encoded social and legal rules. caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: Social rule system theory is an attempt to formally approach different kinds of social rule systems in a unified manner. Social rules systems include institutions such as norms, laws, regulations, taboos, customs, and a variety of related concepts and are important in the social sciences and humanities. Social rule system theory is fundamentally an institutionalist approach to the social sciences, both in its placing primacy on institutions and in its use of sets of rules to define concepts in social theory.

title: Human rights hierarchical section title: Human rights caption reference description: Magna Carta or "Great Charter" was one of the world's first documents containing commitments by a sovereign to his people to respect certain legal rights caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: Human rights are moral principles or norms that describe certain standards of human behaviour and are regularly protected as natural and legal rights in municipal and international law. They are commonly understood as inalienable, fundamental rights "to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being" and which are "inherent in all human beings", regardless of their age, ethnic origin, location, language, religion, ethnicity, or any other status. They are applicable everywhere and at every time in the sense of being universal, and they are egalitarian in the sense of being the same for everyone. They are regarded as requiring empathy and the rule of law and imposing an obligation on persons to respect the human rights of others, and it is generally considered that they should not be taken away except as a result of due process based on specific circumstances; for example, human rights may include freedom from unlawful imprisonment, torture, and execution.
The doctrine of human rights has been highly influential within international law and global and regional institutions.

title: 1215 hierarchical section title: 1215 caption reference description: A certified copy of Magna Carta caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: Year 1215 was a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar.

title: House of Plantagenet section title: Decline and the loss of Anjou hierarchical section title: House of Plantagenet / Angevin kings / Decline and the loss of Anjou caption reference description: One of only four surviving exemplifications of the 1215 text of Magna Carta, in the British Library, London. caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] caption alt text description: Photograph of one of the four surviving copies of Magna Carta held in British Museum content: The House of Plantagenet was a royal house which originated from the lands of Anjou in France. The name Plantagenet is used by modern historians to identify four distinct royal houses: the Angevins, who were also counts of Anjou; the main body of the Plantagenets following the loss of Anjou; and the Plantagenets' two cadet branches, the houses of Lancaster and York. The family held the English throne from 1154, with the accession of Henry II, until 1485, when Richard III died in battle.
Under the Plantagenets, England was transformed – although this was only partly intentional. The Plantagenet kings were often forced to negotiate compromises such as Magna Carta. These constrained royal power in return for financial and military support. The king was no longer just the most powerful man in the nation, holding the prerogative of judgement, feudal tribute and warfare. He now had defined duties to the realm, underpinned by a sophisticated justice system. A distinct national identity was shaped by conflict with the French, Scots, Welsh and Irish, and the establishment of English as the primary language.

title: George Ferrers hierarchical section title: George Ferrers caption reference description: Magna Carta,  Cotton MS. Augustus II. 106, property of the British Library caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: George Ferrers was a courtier and writer. In an incident which arose in 1542 while he was a Member of Parliament for Plymouth in the Parliament of England, he played a key role in the development of parliamentary privilege.
As a writer, he is best remembered for his contributions to The Mirror for Magistrates. He apparently wrote plays for court performance, and was particularly praised as a writer of tragedies, but these were never published and are now lost.

title: Hugh de Neville section title: Chief Forester hierarchical section title: Hugh de Neville / Chief Forester caption reference description: A 1215 copy of Magna Carta, which records de Neville as one of the royal councillors caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: Hugh de Neville was the Chief Forester under the kings Richard I, John and Henry III of England; he was the sheriff for a number of counties. Related to a number of other royal officials as well as a bishop, Neville was a member of Prince Richard's household. After Richard became king in 1189, Neville continued in his service and accompanied him on the Third Crusade. Neville remained in the royal service following Richard's death in 1199 and the accession of King John to the throne, becoming one of the new king's favourites and often gambling with him. He was named in Magna Carta as one of John's principal advisers, and considered by a medieval chronicler to be one of King John's "evil counsellors". He deserted John after the French invasion of England in 1216 but returned to pledge his loyalty to John's son Henry III after the latter's accession to the throne later that year. Neville's royal service continued until his death in 1234, though by then he was a less significant figure than he had been at the height of his powers.

title: Magna Carta hierarchical section title: Magna Carta caption reference description: Cotton MS. Augustus II. 106, one of only four surviving exemplifications of the 1215 text caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: Magna Carta Libertatum, commonly called Magna Carta, is a royal charter of rights agreed to by King John of England at Runnymede, near Windsor, on 15 June 1215. First drafted by Archbishop of Canterbury Stephen Langton to make peace between the unpopular king and a group of rebel barons, it promised the protection of church rights, protection for the barons from illegal imprisonment, access to swift justice, and limitations on feudal payments to the Crown, to be implemented through a council of 25 barons. Neither side stood behind their commitments, and the charter was annulled by Pope Innocent III, leading to the First Barons' War.
After John's death, the regency government of his young son, Henry III, reissued the document in 1216, stripped of some of its more radical content, in an unsuccessful bid to build political support for their cause. At the end of the war in 1217, it formed part of the peace treaty agreed at Lambeth, where the document acquired the name Magna Carta, to distinguish it from the smaller Charter of the Forest which was issued at the same time. Short of funds, Henry reissued the charter again in 1225 in exchange for a grant of new taxes.

title: Right of return section title: Ancient precedents hierarchical section title: Right of return / History / Ancient precedents caption reference description: Cotton MS. Augustus II. 106, one of only four surviving exemplifications of the 1215 text caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: The right of return is a principle in international law which guarantees everyone's right of voluntary return to, or re-entry to, their country of origin or of citizenship. The right of return is part of the broader human rights concept freedom of movement and is also related to the legal concept of nationality. While many states affords its citizens the right of abode, the right of return is not restricted to citizenship or nationality in the formal sense. It allows stateless persons and for those born outside their country to return for the first time, so long as they have maintained a "genuine and effective link."
The right is formulated in several modern treaties and conventions, most notably in the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the 1948 Fourth Geneva Convention. Legal scholars have argued that one or more of these international human rights instruments have attained the status of customary international law and that the right of return is therefore binding on non-signatories to these conventions.

title: Right of revolution section title: Medieval Europe hierarchical section title: Right of revolution / History / Early examples / Medieval Europe caption reference description: Magna Carta marks one of the earliest attempts to limit a sovereign's authority and it is seen as a symbol of the rule of law. caption attribution description: English: The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period, authenticated with the Great Seal of King John. The original wax seal was lost over the centuries.[1] This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106".[2] content: In political philosophy, the right of revolution is the right or duty of the people of a nation to overthrow a government that acts against their common interests and/or threatens the safety of the people without cause. Stated throughout history in one form or another, the belief in this right has been used to justify various revolutions, including the American Revolution, French Revolution, the Russian Revolution, and the Iranian Revolution.


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title: Whim, U.S. Virgin Islands section title: History hierarchical section title: Whim, U.S. Virgin Islands / History caption reference description: Windmill and chimney of Estate Whim. content: Whim is a settlement on the island of Saint Croix in the United States Virgin Islands.
It is located east of Frederiksted off Centerline Road.


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title: Augusto Roa Bastos section title: Yo, el Supremo hierarchical section title: Augusto Roa Bastos / Major works / Yo, el Supremo caption reference description: Roa Bastos portrayed the nineteenth-century Paraguayan dictator José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia in his novel Yo, el Supremo. caption attribution description: José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, dictator of Paraguay content: Augusto Roa Bastos was a Paraguayan novelist and short story writer. As a teenager he fought in the Chaco War between Paraguay and Bolivia, and he later worked as a journalist, screenwriter and professor. He is best known for his complex novel Yo el Supremo and for winning the Premio Miguel de Cervantes in 1989, Spanish literature's most prestigious prize. Yo el Supremo explores the dictations and inner thoughts of José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, the eccentric dictator of Paraguay who ruled with an iron fist, from 1814 until his death in 1840.
Roa Bastos' life and writing were marked by experience with dictatorial military regimes. In 1947 he was forced into exile in Argentina, and in 1976 he fled Buenos Aires for France in similar political circumstances. Most of Roa Bastos' work was written in exile, but this did not deter him from fiercely tackling Paraguayan social and historical issues in his work. Writing in a Spanish that was at times heavily augmented by Guaraní words, Roa Bastos incorporated Paraguayan myths and symbols into a Baroque style known as magical realism. He is considered a late-comer to the Latin American Boom literary movement.

title: Ubalda García de Cañete hierarchical section title: Ubalda García de Cañete caption reference description: Her father; José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia caption attribution description: José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, dictator of Paraguay content: Ubalda García de Cañete was the eldest daughter of the Paraguayan dictator José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia.
Ubalda's mother was María Juana García, a mistress of Francia. Although his daughter was illegitimate, and he was not known for any acts of kindness, Francia nonetheless respected his daughter. One day he found her prostituting herself near his residence, and rather than punishing her, he declared prostitution a decent profession. He also ordered that prostitutes had to wear golden combs in their hair, in the style of Spanish ladies.
At some point, Ubalda married Juan de la Cruz Cañete. She gave birth to a daughter, Francisca del Rosario, in 1842, two years after Francia's death. She died in 1890, aged 83.

title: Paraguay section title: Independence and rule of Francia hierarchical section title: Paraguay / History / Independence and rule of Francia caption reference description: José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, Paraguay's first dictator. caption attribution description: José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, dictator of Paraguay content: Paraguay, officially the Republic of Paraguay, is a country in South America. It is bordered by Argentina to the south and southwest, Brazil to the east and northeast, and Bolivia to the northwest. Although it is one of only two landlocked countries in South America, the country has coasts, beaches and ports on the Paraguay and Paraná rivers that give exit to the Atlantic Ocean through the Paraná-Paraguay Waterway. Due to its central location in South America, it is sometimes referred to as Corazón de Sudamérica.
Spanish conquistadores arrived in 1524 after navigating northwards from the Río de la Plata to the Paraná River, and finally up the Paraguay River. In 1537, they established the city of Asunción, which was the first capital of the Governorate of Paraguay and Río de la Plata. Paraguay was the center of the Jesuit Missions, where the Guaraní people were educated and introduced to Christianity and European culture under the direction of the Society of Jesus in Jesuit reductions, mainly during the 17th century. However, after the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spanish territories in 1767, Paraguay increasingly became a peripheral colony, with few urban centers and settlers.

title: José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia y Velasco hierarchical section title: José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia y Velasco caption attribution description: José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, dictator of Paraguay content: José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia y Velasco was the dictator of Paraguay. He helped Paraguay become independent from Spain. Paraguay became independent from Spain in 1811. Francia y Velasco reigned from 1814 until his death in 1840.
Francia y Velasco believed that Paraquay should be self-sufficient. During his reign, almost no goods were imported, and only yerba mate was exported. Leaves and twigs of this herb, Ilex paraguariensis, are the basis of the drink called "mate".

title: José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia section title: Political career hierarchical section title: José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia / Political career caption reference description: Depiction of José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia. caption attribution description: José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, dictator of Paraguay content: José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia y Velasco was a Paraguayan lawyer and politician, and the first dictator of Paraguay following its 1811 independence from the Spanish Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. His official title was "Supreme and Perpetual Dictator of Paraguay", but he was popularly known as El Supremo.
He is considered to be the chief ideologue and political leader of the faction that advocated for the full independence of Paraguay from the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata and from the Empire of Brazil.

title: I, the Supreme section title: Characters hierarchical section title: I, the Supreme / Characters caption reference description: José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, the historical figure who appears as the novel's main character caption attribution description: José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, dictator of Paraguay caption alt text description: Three-quarter-length drawing of a middle aged man with hair pulled back, in a heavy coat with large cuffs. content: I, the Supreme is a historical novel written by exiled Paraguayan author Augusto Roa Bastos. It is a fictionalized account of the nineteenth-century Paraguayan dictator José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, who was also known as "Dr. Francia." The book's title derives from the fact that Francia referred to himself as "El Supremo" or "the Supreme." The first in a long line of dictators, the Supreme was a severe, calculating despot. The central themes of the novel are power and language and the relation between the two. The Supreme believes himself to be above all power and history: "I don't write history. I make it. I can remake it as I please, adjusting, stressing, enriching its meaning and truth." Yet this assertion is constantly challenged by the very fact that while he achieves power by means of writing and dictating, these very same methods can be used by others to dispute his authority. Not even his own identity, represented by the personal pronoun I, is safe and can easily be usurped as is demonstrated by the incident of the pasquinade.


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title: 1715 section title: Births hierarchical section title: 1715 / Births caption reference description: Queen Elisabeth Christine caption attribution description: Portrait of Elisabeth Christine von Braunschweig-Bevern (1715-1797) content: 1715 was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar, the 1715th year of the Common Era and Anno Domini designations, the 715th year of the 2nd millennium, the 15th year of the 18th century, and the 6th year of the 1710s decade. As of the start of 1715, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.

title: List of Prussian consorts section title: Queens in Prussia hierarchical section title: List of Prussian consorts / Queens in Prussia caption attribution description: Portrait of Elisabeth Christine von Braunschweig-Bevern (1715-1797) content: The Queen of Prussia was the queen consort of the ruler of the Kingdom of Prussia, from its establishment in 1701 to its abolition in 1918. As all rulers of Prussia had to be male, there was never a Queen regnant of Prussia. Until 1806, the Queen of Prussia was also Electress of Brandenburg; after 1871, she was also German Empress. Until 1772, her title was Queen in Prussia.

title: Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel-Bevern hierarchical section title: Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel-Bevern caption reference description: Portrait by Antoine Pesne, c. 1739 caption attribution description: Portrait of Elisabeth Christine von Braunschweig-Bevern (1715-1797) content: Duchess Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel-Bevern was Queen of Prussia and Electress of Brandenburg as the wife of Frederick the Great. She was the longest-serving Queen with a tenure of more than 48 years. She was praised for her charity work during the Seven Years' War.

title: Wolfenbüttel section title: Notable people hierarchical section title: Wolfenbüttel / Notable people caption reference description: Elisabeth Christine around 1739 caption attribution description: Portrait of Elisabeth Christine von Braunschweig-Bevern (1715-1797) content: Wolfenbüttel is a town in Lower Saxony, Germany, the administrative capital of Wolfenbüttel District. It is best known as the location of the internationally renowned Herzog August Library and for having the largest concentration of timber-framed buildings in Germany. It is an episcopal see of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Brunswick. It is also home to the Jägermeister distillery, houses a campus of the Ostfalia University of Applied Sciences, and the Landesmusikakademie of Lower Saxony.


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title: Fort de Roovere hierarchical section title: Fort de Roovere caption reference description: The Moses Bridge or Loopgraafbrug (Trench Bridge) caption attribution description: English: I was lucky enough to be able to visit Fort de Roovere in The Netherlands and spend some time exploring Moses Bridge. This is an image of rijksmonument number 19997 content: Fort De Roovere is an earthen fort, constructed as part of the Dutch Water Line, a series of water-based defences conceived by Maurice of Nassau in 1628 during the Eighty Years War where it defended against Spanish attackers. It is located near Halsteren.
In 1747, during the Austrian War of Succession the fort was under siege by the French. This siege has been extensively documented. Eventually, the fortress Bergen op Zoom fell and the siege was abandoned.
During the Napoleonic Wars Bergen op Zoom was besieged again, this time by the English as they chased the French back to their homeland. During this time the Fort de Roovere seems to have received some upkeep but was not attacked. After the end of this conflict the fort was abandoned.
The fort is open from the ‘back’, and the ‘front’ consists of two bastions. Until the renovation in 2010 the fort's moat was dry and the surrounding area and banks were overgrown with trees.


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title: SS Booker T. Washington hierarchical section title: SS Booker T. Washington caption reference description: Captain and crew of the new Liberty Ship SS Booker T. Washington just after it completed its maiden voyage to England. (L-R) C. Lastic, Second Mate; T. J. Young, Midshipman; E. B. Hlubik, Midshipman; C. Blackman, Radio Operator; T. A. Smith, Chief Engineer; Hugh Mulzac, Captain of the ship; Adolphus Fokes, Chief Mate; Lt. H. Kruley; E. P. Rutland, Second Engineer; and H. E. Larson, Third Engineer." Captain Hugh Mulzac is fourth from the left on the first row. 8 February 1943. content: Booker T. Washington was a United States Maritime Commission Liberty ship and the first major oceangoing ship and first of 17 Liberty ships that were named after African-Americans. The ship was named for Booker T. Washington, notable educator, author, orator, and advisor to presidents of the United States. At launch Mary McLeod Bethune gave the address and notable singer Marian Anderson christened the ship.
Hugh Mulzac, the first African-American earn a United States Merchant Marine master's license and only African American to have such license was selected to command a ship after acceptance trials. In 1942, the ship has an integrated crew of 18 nationalities. Between 1942 and 1947, it had made 22 round trip voyages ferrying troops and supplies to Europe and the Pacific theatre.

title: Hugh Mulzac section title: World War II hierarchical section title: Hugh Mulzac / Life and career / World War II caption reference description: Captain Mulzac and his crew in England after the maiden voyage of the SS Booker T. Washington. content: Hugh Nathaniel Mulzac was an African-Caribbean member of the United States Merchant Marine. He earned a Master rating in 1918 which should have qualified him to command a ship, but this did not happen until September 29, 1942 because of racial discrimination.


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title: 2015 ATP World Tour Finals section title: Singles hierarchical section title: 2015 ATP World Tour Finals / Qualified players / Singles caption reference description: Novak Djokovic won 3 of the slams in 2015. caption attribution description: Novak Djokovic content: The 2015 ATP World Tour Finals was a men's tennis tournament that was played at the O₂ Arena in London, United Kingdom, between 15 and 22 November 2015. It was the season-ending event for the best singles players and doubles teams on the 2015 ATP World Tour.

title: 2015 ATP World Tour hierarchical section title: 2015 ATP World Tour caption reference description: Novak Djokovic finished as ATP world No. 1 for the second consecutive year. caption attribution description: Novak Djokovic content: The 2015 ATP World Tour was the global elite professional tennis circuit organized by the Association of Tennis Professionals for the 2015 tennis season. The 2015 ATP World Tour calendar comprises the Grand Slam tournaments, the ATP World Tour Masters 1000, the ATP World Tour 500 series, the ATP World Tour 250 series, the Davis Cup and the ATP World Tour Finals. Also included in the 2015 calendar is the Hopman Cup, which is organized by the ITF and does not distribute ranking points.
In singles, Novak Djokovic won three major titles, a record six Masters 1000 titles, and the ATP World Tour Finals. He had a 4-0 record versus Rafael Nadal, a 5-3 record against Roger Federer, and a 6-1 record against Andy Murray.

title: List of Grand Slam men's singles champions hierarchical section title: List of Grand Slam men's singles champions caption reference description: Novak Djokovic is the only player to hold all four major titles on three different surfaces simultaneously. He has 17 major titles and he holds the all-time record of 8 Australian Open titles. caption attribution description: Novak Djokovic content: Some major changes have taken place in history and have affected the number of titles that have been won by various players. These have included the opening of the French national championships to international players in 1925, the elimination of the challenge round in 1922, and the admission of professional players in 1968.
Note: All of these tournaments have been listed since they began, rather than when they officially became majors. The Australian and US tournaments have only been officially regarded as majors by the ILTF since 1924. The French Championships have only been a major since 1925.
Before 1924 there were 3 official majors: Wimbledon, the World Hard Court Championships and the World Covered Court Championships.


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title: Alfred Rehder section title: Life hierarchical section title: Alfred Rehder / Life caption reference description: Rehder's birthplace, Waldenburg Castle caption attribution description: English: The picture shows the castle in Waldenburg, Saxony / Germany. Deutsch: Das Bild zeigt Schloss Waldenburg in Sachsen/Deutschland. content: Alfred Rehder was a German-American botanical taxonomist and dendrologist who worked at the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. He is generally regarded as the foremost dendrologist of his generation.

title: Waldenburg, Saxony hierarchical section title: Waldenburg, Saxony caption reference description: Waldenburg Castle caption attribution description: English: The picture shows the castle in Waldenburg, Saxony / Germany. Deutsch: Das Bild zeigt Schloss Waldenburg in Sachsen/Deutschland. caption alt text description: Waldenburg Castle content: Waldenburg is a town in the district Zwickau in Saxony, Germany. The castle was owned by the House of Schönburg from 1378 until 1945. Neighborhood municipalities are Callenberg, the city of Glauchau and Limbach-Oberfrohna, Oberwiera and Remse as well as Göpfersdorf, Jückelberg and Ziegelheim.

title: Schönburg family section title: Former properties of the Princes of Schönburg-Waldenburg hierarchical section title: Schönburg family / Former properties of the Princes of Schönburg-Waldenburg caption attribution description: English: The picture shows the castle in Waldenburg, Saxony / Germany. Deutsch: Das Bild zeigt Schloss Waldenburg in Sachsen/Deutschland. content: Schönburg is an old European noble family of princely and historically sovereign rank. It formerly owned large properties in present-day Saxony, Thuringia and Bohemia. As a former ruling and mediatized family, it belongs to the Hochadel. The family today includes a princely and a comital branch.

title: Waldenburg, Saxony hierarchical section title: Waldenburg, Saxony caption reference description: Waldenburg Castle caption attribution description: English: The picture shows the castle in Waldenburg, Saxony / Germany. Deutsch: Das Bild zeigt Schloss Waldenburg in Sachsen/Deutschland. caption alt text description: Waldenburg Castle content: Waldenburg is a town in the rural district Zwickau, Saxony, Germany. It is near Glauchau, northeast to Zwickau.


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title: LaSalle—Émard—Verdun hierarchical section title: LaSalle—Émard—Verdun caption reference description: LaSalle—Émard—Verdun in relation to other federal electoral districts in Montreal and Laval content: LaSalle—Émard—Verdun is a federal electoral district in Montreal, Quebec. It was created by the 2012 federal electoral boundaries redistribution and was legally defined in the 2013 representation order. It came into effect upon the call of the 42nd Canadian federal election, scheduled for 19 October 2015. It was created out of parts of Jeanne-Le Ber and LaSalle—Émard plus a small section of territory between the Lachine Canal and the Le Sud-Ouest borough boundary taken from Westmount—Ville-Marie and an adjacent uninhabited section from Notre-Dame-de-Grâce—Lachine.
The riding was originally intended to be named LaSalle—Verdun.
The former Member of Parliament for the LaSalle—Émard riding, Hélène Leblanc, sought reelection in the new riding for the NDP.


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title: Merchants Exchange Building (San Francisco) section title: Design hierarchical section title: Merchants Exchange Building (San Francisco) / History / Design caption reference description: The Merchants Exchange Building (center, large flag) after the 1906 earthquake content: The Merchants Exchange Building is an office building located at 465 California Street, San Francisco, completed in 1904. The property is owned by real estate investor Clint Reilly.


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title: Margaret Dreier Robins section title: Early life hierarchical section title: Margaret Dreier Robins / Early life caption reference description: Margaret Dreier Robins, LaFollette's Magazine, January 1, 1911 content: Margaret Dreier Robins was an American labor leader.


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title: Utah's 4th congressional district hierarchical section title: Utah's 4th congressional district caption reference description: Utah's 4th congressional district since January 3, 2013 content: Utah's 4th congressional district is a congressional district created by the state legislature as a result of reapportionment by Congress after the 2010 Census showed population increases in the state relative to other states. Prior to 2010 reapportionment, Utah had three congressional districts.
Some 85 percent of the new district is concentrated in Salt Lake County and it includes a portion of Salt Lake City, which is shared with the 2nd and 3rd districts; it also includes parts of Utah, Juab, and Sanpete counties. Candidates first appeared on the 2012 ballot.
As a result of redistricting, the 2012 party candidates included Democratic U.S. Congressman Jim Matheson, who had previously represented Utah's 2nd congressional district 2001–2013. The Republican nominee was Mia Love, mayor of Saratoga Springs and running for Congress for the first time. She won the Republican nomination in 2012 over two state representatives, Stephen Sandstrom and Carl Wimmer, at the Republican state convention.
Democratic candidate Matheson narrowly won the election against Love on November 6, 2012, and represented Utah's 4th Congressional District until January 2015.


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title: Grymes Hill, Staten Island section title: Education hierarchical section title: Grymes Hill, Staten Island / Education caption reference description: Augustinian Academy content: Grymes Hill is a 374 feet tall hill formed of serpentine rock on Staten Island, New York. It is the second highest natural point on the island and in the five boroughs of New York City. The neighborhood of the same name encompasses an area of 0.894 square miles and has a population of 8,263 people. The hill also includes parts of the Silver Lake neighborhood. The area includes part of zip codes 10301 and 10304.


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title: Anoka Post Office hierarchical section title: Anoka Post Office caption reference description: The Anoka Post Office viewed from the north caption attribution description: English: Anoka Post Office (now Emerald Isle Antiques & Gifts), 300 E Main St, Anoka, Minnesota, USA. Viewed from the north. This is an image of a place or building that is listed on the National Register of Historic Places in the United States of America. Its reference number is 79001180 content: The Anoka Post Office is a former post office building in Anoka, Minnesota, United States. It was built in 1916 in a Colonial Revival design credited to architect James Knox Taylor. It remained in service as a U.S. Post Office until 1977, after which it has housed a variety of commercial tenants. The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979 for its local significance in the theme of architecture. It was nominated for its status as Anoka's oldest surviving public building and most architecturally significant non-residential property.

title: National Register of Historic Places listings in Anoka County, Minnesota section title: Current listings hierarchical section title: National Register of Historic Places listings in Anoka County, Minnesota / Current listings caption attribution description: English: Anoka Post Office (now Emerald Isle Antiques & Gifts), 300 E Main St, Anoka, Minnesota, USA. Viewed from the north. This is an image of a place or building that is listed on the National Register of Historic Places in the United States of America. Its reference number is 79001180 caption alt text description: Anoka Post Office content: This is a list of the National Register of Historic Places listings in Anoka County, Minnesota. It is intended to be a complete list of the properties and districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Anoka County, Minnesota, United States. The locations of National Register properties and districts for which the latitude and longitude coordinates are included below, may be seen in an online map.
There are 18 properties and districts listed on the National Register in the county. A supplementary list includes one additional site that was formerly listed on the National Register.
This National Park Service list is complete through NPS recent listings posted February 28, 2020.

title: List of United States Post Offices section title: Minnesota hierarchical section title: List of United States Post Offices / Minnesota caption reference description: Anoka Post Office, Anoka, Minnesota caption attribution description: English: Anoka Post Office (now Emerald Isle Antiques & Gifts), 300 E Main St, Anoka, Minnesota, USA. Viewed from the north. This is an image of a place or building that is listed on the National Register of Historic Places in the United States of America. Its reference number is 79001180 content: This is a List of United States Post Offices that are individually notable and that have operated under the authority of the United States Post Office Department or of the United States Postal Service. Notable U.S. Post Offices include individual buildings, whether still in service or not, which have architectural or community-related significance. Many of these are listed on the National Register of Historic Places and/or state and local historic registers.


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title: Sainthia Junction railway station hierarchical section title: Sainthia Junction railway station caption reference description: Sainthia Railway Station at around 8'o clock morning, on a normal weekday. caption attribution description: English: Sainthia Railway Station at around 8'o clock morning, on a normal weekday.  content: Sainthia Junction railway station is one of the oldest stations in India serves Sainthia city of Birbhum district in the Indian state of West Bengal. The railway station is under the administrative control of Howrah Division of Eastern Railway. Sainthia Junction comes under the jurisdiction of Sainthia GRP Police Station. There is a total of 74 train arrivals and departures per day happening at this railway station. This makes the Sainthia Junctiion 3rd most busiest railway station in Birbhum district. It also serves as the originating station of 4 important trains.


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title: Leonel Brizola section title: Early life and rise to prominence (1922–1964) hierarchical section title: Leonel Brizola / Early life and rise to prominence (1922–1964) caption reference description: Brizola (left) greets President Juscelino Kubitschek in October 1958 content: Leonel de Moura Brizola was a Brazilian politician. Launched in politics by Getúlio Vargas Brazil's caudillo in the 1930-50s, Brizola was the only politician to serve as elected governor of two Brazilian states, before and after the 1964-1985 military dictatorship. An engineer by training, Brizola organized the youth wing of the Brazilian Labour Party and served as state representative for Rio Grande do Sul and mayor of its capital, Porto Alegre. In 1958 he was elected governor and subsequently played a major role in thwarting a coup attempt by sectors of the armed forces in 1961, who wished to stop his brother-in-law João Goulart from taking power, under allegations of communist ties, in a constitutional crisis caused by Jânio Quadros' resignation, leading a civil and military disobedience campaign dubbed the Campanha da Legalidade. In the 1964 Brazilian coup d'état, Brizola again attempted to resist but Goulart did not want to risk the possibility of civil war, and Brizola was exiled in Uruguay.


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title: Plain tobacco packaging section title: Belgium hierarchical section title: Plain tobacco packaging / By country / Belgium caption reference description: A used plain cigarette packet from Belgium caption attribution description: English: Plain tobacco packaging in Belgium. content: Plain tobacco packaging, also known as generic, neutral, standardised or homogeneous packaging, is packaging of tobacco products, typically cigarettes, without any branding, including only the brand name in a mandated size, font and place on the pack, in addition to the health warnings and any other legally mandated information such as toxic constituents and tax-paid stamps. The appearance of all tobacco packs is standardised, including the colour of the pack.
The removal of branding on cigarette packaging is a regulation of nicotine marketing and aims to deter smoking by removal of positive associations of brands with the consumption of tobacco. It also aims to remove an available avenue of brand advertising for cigarette companies.
Australia was the first country in the world to introduce plain packaging, with all packets sold from 1 December 2012 being sold in logo-free, drab dark brown packaging. There has been opposition from tobacco companies to plain packaging laws, some of which have sued the Australian government. Since the Australian government won the court cases, several other countries have enacted plain packaging laws.


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title: Wehrmacht section title: Army hierarchical section title: Wehrmacht / Branches / Army caption reference description: A tank destroyer battalion, part of the 21 Panzer Division of the Afrika Korps caption alt text description: Armored vehicle convoy moving through a dessert content: The Wehrmacht was the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945. It consisted of the Heer, the Kriegsmarine and the Luftwaffe. The designation "Wehrmacht" replaced the previously-used term Reichswehr, and was the manifestation of the Nazi regime's efforts to rearm Germany to a greater extent than the Treaty of Versailles permitted.
After the Nazi rise to power in 1933, one of Adolf Hitler's most overt and audacious moves was to establish the Wehrmacht, a modern offensively-capable armed force, fulfilling the Nazi régime's long-term goals of regaining lost territory as well as gaining new territory and dominating its neighbours. This required the reinstatement of conscription, and massive investment and defense spending on the arms industry.
The Wehrmacht formed the heart of Germany's politico-military power. In the early part of the Second World War, the Wehrmacht employed combined arms tactics to devastating effect in what became known as Blitzkrieg. Its campaigns in France, the Soviet Union, and North Africa are regarded as acts of boldness.

title: Kampfgruppe hierarchical section title: Kampfgruppe caption reference description: The Panzerjäger-Abteilung 39 (part of "Kampfgruppe Gräf", from the 21st Panzer Division) of the Afrika Korps on the move. The vehicles are a Sd.Kfz. 231 8-rad and motorcycle sidecar combination content: In military history, the German term Kampfgruppe can refer to a combat formation of any kind, but most usually to that employed by the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany and its allies during World War II and, to a lesser extent, of the German Empire in World War I.
It also referred to bomber groups in Luftwaffe usage, which themselves consisted of three or four Staffeln, and usually existed within Kampfgeschwader bomber wings of three or four Kampfgruppen per wing.

title: Axis powers section title: Germany hierarchical section title: Axis powers / Founding members of the Axis / Germany caption reference description: German vehicles advancing during the Second Battle of El Alamein in the North African campaign content: The Axis powers, also known as "Rome–Berlin–Tokyo Axis" was a military alliance that fought in World War II against the Allies. The Axis powers agreed on their opposition to the Allies, but did not completely coordinate their activity.
The Axis grew out of the diplomatic efforts of Germany, Italy, and Japan to secure their own specific expansionist interests in the mid-1930s. The first step was the treaty signed by Germany and Italy in October 1936. Benito Mussolini declared on 1 November 1936 that all other European countries would from then on rotate on the Rome–Berlin axis, thus creating the term "Axis". The almost simultaneous second step was the signing in November 1936 of the Anti-Comintern Pact, an anti-communist treaty between Germany and Japan. Italy and Spain joined the Pact in 1937. The "Rome–Berlin Axis" became a military alliance in 1939 under the so-called "Pact of Steel", with the Tripartite Pact of 1940 leading to the integration of the military aims of Germany, Italy and Japan.
At its zenith in 1942 during World War II, the Axis presided over territories that occupied large parts of Europe, North Africa, and East Asia.

title: Tanks in France section title: Bir Hakeim hierarchical section title: Tanks in France / History / World War II / Bir Hakeim caption reference description: The advance of the 21st panzer division content: French development into tanks began during World War I as an effort to overcome the stalemate of trench warfare, and largely at the initiative of the manufacturers. The Schneider CA1 was the first tank produced by France, and 400 units were built. The French also experimented with various tank designs, such as the Frot-Laffly landship, Boirault machine and Souain experiment. Another 400 Saint-Chamond tanks were manufactured from April 1917 to July 1918, however these tanks were largely underpowered and of limited utility due to the design of the caterpillar tracks, which were too short in comparison with the tank's length and weight. The most significant French tank development during the war was the Renault FT light tank, which set the general layout for future tank designs and was used or redesigned by various military forces, including those of the United States.

title: Battle of Alam el Halfa order of battle hierarchical section title: Battle of Alam el Halfa order of battle caption reference description: The Panzerjäger-Abteilung 39 (part of "Kampfgruppe Gräf", part of the 21st Panzer Division) of the Afrika Korps on the move, 1942 content: This is the order of battle for the Battle of Alam el Halfa, a World War II battle between the British Commonwealth and the European Axis Powers Germany and Italy in North Africa between 30 August and 5 September 1942.

title: First Battle of El Alamein section title: Retreat from Gazala hierarchical section title: First Battle of El Alamein / Background / Retreat from Gazala caption reference description: Afrika Korps tank hunters with an Sd.Kfz. 232 armoured car in front. content: The First Battle of El Alamein was a battle of the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War, fought in Egypt between Axis forces of the Panzer Army Africa, which included the Afrika Korps under Field Marshal Erwin Rommel and Allied forces of the Eighth Army.
The British prevented a second advance by the Axis forces into Egypt. Axis positions near El Alamein, only 66 mi from Alexandria, were dangerously close to the ports and cities of Egypt, the base facilities of the Commonwealth forces and the Suez Canal. However, the Axis forces were too far from their base at Tripoli in Libya to remain at El Alamein indefinitely, which led both sides to accumulate supplies for more offensives, against the constraints of time and distance.


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title: Joint Expeditionary Base Fort Story section title: Historic features hierarchical section title: Joint Expeditionary Base Fort Story / History / Historic features caption reference description: Memorial Cross content: Joint Expeditionary Base-Fort Story, commonly called simply Fort Story is a sub-installation of Joint Expeditionary Base Little Creek–Fort Story, which is operated by the United States Navy. Located in the independent city of Virginia Beach, Virginia at Cape Henry at the entrance of the Chesapeake Bay, it offers a unique combination of features including dunes, beaches, sand, surf, deep-water anchorage, variable tide conditions, maritime forest and open land. The base is the prime location and training environment for both Army amphibious operations and Joint Logistics-Over-the-Shore training events.
The base includes 1,451 acres of sandy trails, cypress swamps, maritime forest, grassy dunes and soft and hard sand beaches. The western beaches are wide, gently sloped and washed by the waters of the Chesapeake Bay. Eastern beaches are exposed to the rougher waters of the Atlantic surf.

title: Robert Hunt (chaplain) section title: Cape Henry: First Landing hierarchical section title: Robert Hunt (chaplain) / Cape Henry: First Landing caption reference description: First Landing Memorial Cross at Cape Henry content: Robert Hunt, a vicar in the Church of England, was chaplain of the expedition that founded the first successful English colony in the New World, at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607.

title: Cape Henry Memorial hierarchical section title: Cape Henry Memorial caption reference description: Memorial cross content: The Cape Henry Memorial commemorates the first landfall at Cape Henry, in Virginia Beach, Virginia, of colonists bound for the Jamestown settlement. After landing on April 26, 1607, they explored the area, named the cape, and set up a cross before proceeding up the James River. A stone cross, set up in 1935 by the Daughters of the American Colonists, stands in the quarter-acre site. The memorial marks the First Landing, the very beginning of what would become British North America and subsequently Anglo Canada and the United States of America.
The Memorial also overlooks the scene of the Battle of the Virginia Capes, in which the French navy prevented the British from reinforcing General Cornwallis, and led to the Franco-American victory at Yorktown. A statue of Admiral Comte de Grasse and a granite memorial honor those who fought in the battle.
Although not memorialized at the park, this was also the location of the earlier smaller naval Battle of Cape Henry in which British and French naval squadrons fought in 1781.
The Cape Henry Memorial is within Joint Expeditionary Base East, but is an isolated unit of Colonial National Historical Park.

title: History of Virginia Beach, Virginia section title: European arrivals hierarchical section title: History of Virginia Beach, Virginia / European arrivals caption reference description: Cape Henry Memorial Cross near the site of the First Landing of English settlers in 1607 content: The history of Virginia Beach, Virginia, goes back to the Native Americans who lived in the area for thousands of years before the English colonists landed at Cape Henry in April 1607 and established their first permanent settlement at Jamestown a few weeks later. The Colonial Virginia period extended until 1776 and the American Revolution, and the area has been part of the Commonwealth of Virginia ever since.
Since 1634, area known today as Virginia Beach has been part of the same unit of local government, except for 11 years. In 1952, when 2-square-mile resort Town of Virginia Beach became an independent city, followed by the rest of Princess Anne County which whom it was reunited and politically consolidated by mutual approval of residents to form a new independent city in 1963. Selecting the better-known name of the oceanfront strip area, Virginia Beach has since grown to become the most populated of the city in Hampton Roads, which are each linked by the Hampton Roads Beltway which crosses the harbor of Hampton Roads through two large bridge-tunnels.


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title: Dala (band) section title: Discography hierarchical section title: Dala (band) / Discography caption reference description: Dala performing at the 2011 Hillside Festival caption attribution description: English: Dala performing at the 2011 Hillside Festival content: Dala is a Canadian acoustic-folk two-piece musical group, made up by Sheila Carabine and Amanda Walther, both of Scarborough, Ontario.


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title: Alice Parker Lesser hierarchical section title: Alice Parker Lesser caption reference description: Alice Parker Lesser, from an 1897 publication. content: Alice Parker Lesser was an American lawyer, suffragist, and clubwoman based in Boston, Massachusetts.


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title: Central of Georgia Railway hierarchical section title: Central of Georgia Railway caption reference description: CG Railway logo under one of the historic viaducts in Savannah. content: The Central of Georgia Railway started as the Central Rail Road and Canal Company in 1833. As a way to better attract investment capital, the railroad changed its name to Central Rail Road and Banking Company of Georgia. This railroad was constructed to join the Macon and Western Railroad at Macon, Georgia, in the United States, and run to Savannah. This created a rail link from Chattanooga, on the Tennessee River, to seaports on the Atlantic Ocean. It took from 1837 to 1843 to build the railroad from Savannah to the eastern bank of the Ocmulgee River at Macon; a bridge into the city was not built until 1851.
During the Savannah Campaign of the American Civil War, conducted during November and December 1864, federal troops tore up the rails and converted them into "Sherman's neckties."


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title: Mohammad Reza Pahlavi section title: Wealth hierarchical section title: Mohammad Reza Pahlavi / Wealth caption reference description: The Shah of Persia, body by Carrozzeria Touring caption attribution description: 1959 Maserati 5000 GT Coupe Photographed by Jagvar at the Greenwich Concours d'Elegance in Greenwich, CT on June 4, 2006. Italiano: Maserati 5000 GT "Persia" del 1959, telaio n.AM-103-004, secondo prototipo pre-serie, allestito da Touring Superleggera per Basil Read content: Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, also known as Mohammad Reza Shah, was the last Shah of Iran from 16 September 1941 until his overthrow in the Iranian Revolution on 11 February 1979. Due to his status as the last Shah of Iran, he is often known as simply the Shah.
Mohammad Reza Shah took the title Shahanshah on 26 October 1967. He was the second and last monarch of the House of Pahlavi. Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi held several other titles, including that of Aryamehr and Bozorg Arteshtaran. His dream of what he referred to as a "Great Civilisation" in Iran led to a rapid industrial and military modernisation, as well as economic and social reforms.
Mohammad Reza came to power during World War II after an Anglo-Soviet invasion forced the abdication of his father, Reza Shah Pahlavi. During Mohammad Reza's reign, the British owned oil industry was briefly nationalized by Iranian Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh until a UK- and US-backed coup d'état deposed Mosaddegh and brought back foreign oil firms under the Consortium Agreement of 1954.

title: Carrozzeria Touring Superleggera section title: List of Touring cars hierarchical section title: Carrozzeria Touring Superleggera / List of Touring cars caption reference description: Maserati 5000 GT  Scià di Persia (1959) caption attribution description: 1959 Maserati 5000 GT Coupe Photographed by Jagvar at the Greenwich Concours d'Elegance in Greenwich, CT on June 4, 2006. Italiano: Maserati 5000 GT "Persia" del 1959, telaio n.AM-103-004, secondo prototipo pre-serie, allestito da Touring Superleggera per Basil Read content: Carrozzeria Touring Superleggera is an Italian automobile coachbuilder. Originally established in Milan in 1925, Carrozzeria Touring became well known for both the beauty of its designs and patented superleggera construction methods. The business folded in 1966. In 2006 its brands and trademarks were purchased and a new firm established nearby to provide automotive design, engineering, coachbuilding, homologation services, non-automotive industrial design, and restoration of historic vehicles.
Carrozzeria Touring was established on 25 March 1926 by Felice Bianchi Anderloni and Gaetano Ponzoni. After achieving success through the middle of the 20th century, the business began to decline as automobile manufacturers replaced body-on-frame automobile construction with unitary design and increasingly took coachbuilding in-house.
After the original firm ceased production in 1966, Carlo Felice Bianchi Anderloni and Carrozzeria Marazzi preserved the "Touring Superleggera" trademark and used it on several occasions to support the company's heritage.


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title: Roscommon Courthouse hierarchical section title: Roscommon Courthouse caption reference description: Roscommon Courthouse caption attribution description: English: Old postcard showing Roscommon Courthouse content: Roscommon Courthouse is a judicial facility in Roscommon, County Roscommon, Ireland.


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title: Minecon section title: 2015 hierarchical section title: Minecon / Events by year / 2015 caption reference description: The Expo Hall at MineCon 2015 caption attribution description: English: The Expo Hall at MineCon 2015. I took the picture myself. content: Minecon is an annual interactive live stream and previous fan convention about the video game Minecraft, hosted by Mojang. The first gathering in 2010 was known as MinecraftCon. The MINECON 2011 convention was held in Las Vegas and celebrated the launch of the game with Minecraft-related discussion panels and gaming areas. The most recent convention, held in Anaheim, had 12,000 attendees. Since 2017, MINECON has taken the form of an interactive live stream, and as such MINECON 2016 was the last full MineCon convention currently. However, similar conventions, now to be known as Minecraft Festival, will be held in the future as announced in MINECON Live 2019.