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Electric motor. An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Most electric motors operate through the interaction between the motor's magnetic field and electric current in a wire winding to generate force in the form of torque applied on the motor's shaft. An electric generator is mechanically identical to an electric motor, but operates with a reversed flow of power, converting mechanical energy into electrical energy.Electric motors can be powered by direct current (DC) sources, such as from batteries, or rectifiers, or by alternating current (AC) sources, such as a power grid, inverters or electrical generators.Electric.

Electric motor. braking with traction motors, electric motors can be used in reverse as generators to recover energy that might otherwise be lost as heat and friction.Electric motors produce linear or rotary force (torque) intended to propel some external mechanism, such as a fan or an elevator. An electric motor is generally designed for continuous rotation, or for linear movement over a significant distance compared to its size. Magnetic solenoids are also transducers that convert electrical power to mechanical motion, but can produce motion over only a limited distance.## History.## Early motors.Before modern electromagnetic motors, experimental motors that worked by electrostatic force.

Electric motor. persistent electric currents. Hans Christian Ørsted discovered in 1820 that an electric current creates a magnetic field, which can exert a force on a magnet. It only took a few weeks for André-Marie Ampère to develop the first formulation of the electromagnetic interaction and present the Ampère's force law, that described the production of mechanical force by the interaction of an electric current and a magnetic field. The first demonstration of the effect with a rotary motion was given by Michael Faraday on 3 September 1821 in the basement of the Royal Institution. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a.

Electric motor. pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet (PM) was placed. When a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. Faraday published the results of his discovery in the "Quarterly Journal of Science", and sent copies of his paper along with pocket-sized models of his device to colleagues around the world so they could also witness the phenomenon of electromagnetic rotations. This motor is often demonstrated in physics experiments, substituting brine for (toxic) mercury. Barlow's wheel was an early refinement.

Electric motor. to this Faraday demonstration, although these and similar homopolar motors remained unsuited to practical application until late in the century.In 1827, Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic coils. After Jedlik solved the technical problems of continuous rotation with the invention of the commutator, he called his early devices "electromagnetic self-rotors". Although they were used only for teaching, in 1828 Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three main components of practical DC motors: the stator, rotor and commutator. The device employed no permanent magnets, as the magnetic fields of both the stationary and revolving components were produced.

Electric motor. then higher performance.In 1855, Jedlik built a device using similar principles to those used in his electromagnetic self-rotors that was capable of useful work. He built a model electric vehicle that same year.A major turning point came in 1864, when Antonio Pacinotti first described the ring armature (although initially conceived in a DC generator, i.e. a dynamo). This featured symmetrically-grouped coils closed upon themselves and connected to the bars of a commutator, the brushes of which delivered practically non-fluctuating current. The first commercially successful DC motors followed the developments by Zénobe Gramme who, in 1871, reinvented Pacinotti's design and adopted.

Electric motor. from such tasks as handling grain or pumping water. Household uses (like in washing machines, dishwashers, fans, air conditioners and refrigerators (replacing ice boxes)) of electric motors reduced heavy labor in the home and made higher standards of convenience, comfort and safety possible. Today, electric motors consume more than half of the electric energy produced in the US.## AC motors.In 1824, French physicist François Arago formulated the existence of rotating magnetic fields, termed Arago's rotations, which, by manually turning switches on and off, Walter Baily demonstrated in 1879 as in effect the first primitive induction motor. In the 1880s many.

Electric motor. stator, which does not. It also includes two electrical parts, a set of magnets and an armature, one of which is attached to the rotor and the other to the stator, together forming a magnetic circuit: Field magnets - The magnets create a magnetic field that passes through the armature. These can be electromagnets or permanent magnets. The field magnet is usually on the stator and the armature on the rotor, but in some types of motor these are reversed.## Bearings.The rotor is supported by bearings, which allow the rotor to turn on its axis. The bearings are in turn.

Electric motor. supported by the motor housing.## Rotor.The rotor is the moving part that delivers the mechanical power. The rotor typically holds conductors that carry currents, which the magnetic field of the stator exerts force on to turn the shaft. Alternatively, some rotors carry permanent magnets, and the stator holds the conductors. Permanent magnets offer high efficiency over a larger operating speed and power range.An air gap between the stator and rotor allows it to turn. The width of the gap has a significant effect on the motor's electrical characteristics. It is generally made as small as possible, as a large gap.

Electric motor. weakens performance. It is the main source of the low power factor at which motors operate. The magnetizing current increases and the power factor decreases with the air gap, so narrow gaps are better. Conversely, gaps that are too small may pose mechanical problems in addition to noise and losses.The motor shaft extends through the bearings to the outside of the motor, where the load is applied. Because the forces of the load are exerted beyond the outermost bearing, the load is said to be overhung.## Stator.The stator surrounds the rotor, and usually holds field magnets, which are either electromagnets.

Electric motor. consisting of wire windings around a ferromagnetic iron core or permanent magnets. These create a magnetic field that passes through the rotor armature, exerting force on the windings. The stator core is made up of many thin metal sheets that are insulated from each other, called laminations. Laminations are used to reduce energy losses that would result if a solid core were used. Resin-packed motors, used in washing machines and air conditioners, use the damping properties of resin (plastic) to reduce noise and vibration. These motors encapsulate the stator in plastic.## Armature.The armature consists of wire windings on a ferromagnetic.

Electric motor. core. Electric current passing through the wire causes the magnetic field from the field magnet to exert a force (Lorentz force) on it, turning the rotor, which delivers the mechanical output. Windings are wires that are laid in coils, usually wrapped around a laminated, soft, iron, ferromagnetic core so as to form magnetic poles when energized with current.Electric machines come in salient- and nonsalient-pole configurations. In a salient-pole motor the ferromagnetic cores on the rotor and stator have projections called poles facing each other, with a wire winding around each pole below the pole face, which become north or south.

Electric motor. poles of the magnetic field when current flows through the wire. In a nonsalient-pole (or distributed field or round-rotor) motor, the ferromagnetic core is a smooth cylinder, with the windings distributed evenly in slots about the circumference. Supplying alternating current in the windings creates poles in the core that rotate continuously. A shaded-pole motor has a winding around part of the pole that delays the phase of the magnetic field for that pole.## Commutator.A commutator is a rotary electrical switch that supplies current to the rotor. It periodically reverses the flow of current in the rotor windings as the shaft.

Electric motor. each rotor winding would reverse with each half turn, so the rotor would stop. Commutators are inefficient and commutated motors have been mostly replaced by brushless direct current motors, permanent magnet motors, and induction motors.## Motor supply and control.## Motor supply.A DC motor is usually supplied through a split ring commutator as described above. AC motors' commutation can be achieved using either a slip ring commutator or external commutation. It can be fixed-speed or variable-speed control type, and can be synchronous or asynchronous. Universal motors can run on either AC or DC.## Motor control.DC motors can be operated at variable.

Electric motor. speeds by adjusting the voltage applied to the terminals or by using pulse-width modulation (PWM).AC motors operated at a fixed speed are generally powered directly from the grid or through motor soft starters.AC motors operated at variable speeds are powered with various power inverter, variable-frequency drive or electronic commutator technologies.The term electronic commutator is usually associated with self-commutated brushless DC motor and switched reluctance motor applications.## Types.Electric motors operate on one of three physical principles: magnetism, electrostatics and piezoelectricity.In magnetic motors, magnetic fields are formed in both the rotor and the stator. The product between these two fields gives rise.

Electric motor. to a force, and thus a torque on the motor shaft. One, or both, of these fields must change with the rotation of the rotor. This is done by switching the poles on and off at the right time, or varying the strength of the pole.The main types are DC motors and AC motors, with the latter replacing the former. AC electric motors are either asynchronous or synchronous.Once started, a synchronous motor requires synchrony with the moving magnetic field's speed for all normal torque conditions.In synchronous machines, the magnetic field must be provided by means other than induction, such as.

Electric motor. from separately excited windings or permanent magnets.A fractional-horsepower motor either has a rating below about 1 horsepower (0.746 kW), or is manufactured with a standard-frame size smaller than a standard 1 HP motor. Many household and industrial motors are in the fractional-horsepower class.Notes: Rotation is independent of the frequency of the AC voltage. Rotation is equal to synchronous speed (motor-stator-field speed). In SCIM, fixed-speed operation rotation is equal to synchronous speed, less slip speed. In non-slip energy-recovery systems, WRIM is usually used for motor-starting but can be used to vary load speed. Variable-speed operation. Whereas induction- and synchronous-motor drives are.

Electric motor. typically with either six-step or sinusoidal-waveform output, BLDC-motor drives are usually with trapezoidal-current waveform; the behavior of both sinusoidal and trapezoidal PM machines is, however, identical in terms of their fundamental aspects. In variable-speed operation, WRIM is used in slip-energy recovery and double-fed induction-machine applications. A cage winding is a shorted-circuited squirrel-cage rotor, a wound winding is connected externally through slip rings. Mostly single-phase with some three-phase.Abbreviations: BLAC – Brushless AC BLDC – Brushless DC BLDM – Brushless DC motor EC – Electronic commutator PM – Permanent magnet IPMSM – Interior permanent-magnet synchronous motor PMSM – Permanent magnet synchronous motor.

Electric motor. SPMSM – Surface permanent magnet synchronous motor SCIM – Squirrel-cage induction motor SRM – Switched reluctance motor SyRM – Synchronous reluctance motor VFD – Variable-frequency drive WRIM – Wound-rotor induction motor WRSM – Wound-rotor synchronous motor LRA – Locked-rotor amps: The current you can expect under starting conditions when you apply full voltage. It occurs instantly during start-up. RLA – Rated-load amps: The maximum current a motor should draw under any operating conditions. Often mistakenly called running-load amps, which leads people to believe, incorrectly, that the motor should always pull these amps. FLA – Full-load amps: Changed in 1976 to.

Electric motor. "RLA – rated-load amps".## Self-commutated motor.## Brushed DC motor.Most DC motors are small permanent magnet (PM) types. They contain a brushed internal mechanical commutation to reverse motor windings' current in synchronism with rotation.## Electrically excited DC motor.A commutated DC motor has a set of rotating windings wound on an armature mounted on a rotating shaft. The shaft also carries the commutator. Thus, every brushed DC motor has AC flowing through its windings. Current flows through one or more pairs of brushes that touch the commutator; the brushes connect an external source of electric power to the rotating armature.The rotating armature.

Electric motor. consists of one or more wire coils wound around a laminated, magnetically "soft" ferromagnetic core. Current from the brushes flows through the commutator and one winding of the armature, making it a temporary magnet (an electromagnet). The magnetic field produced interacts with a stationary magnetic field produced by either PMs or another winding (a field coil), as part of the motor frame. The force between the two magnetic fields rotates the shaft. The commutator switches power to the coils as the rotor turns, keeping the poles from ever fully aligning with the magnetic poles of the stator field, so that.

Electric motor. – A set of windings that produces a magnetic field. Commutation: A mechanical technique in which rectification can be achieved, or from which DC can be derived.The five types of brushed DC motor are: Shunt-wound Series-wound Compound (two configurations): Cumulative compound Differentially compounded Permanent magnet (not shown) Separately excited (not shown).## Permanent magnet.A permanent magnet (PM) motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame, relying instead on PMs to provide the magnetic field. Compensating windings in series with the armature may be used on large motors to improve commutation under load. This field is fixed and cannot.

Electric motor. be adjusted for speed control. PM fields (stators) are convenient in miniature motors to eliminate the power consumption of the field winding. Most larger DC motors are of the "dynamo" type, which have stator windings. Historically, PMs could not be made to retain high flux if they were disassembled; field windings were more practical to obtain the needed flux. However, large PMs are costly, as well as dangerous and difficult to assemble; this favors wound fields for large machines.To minimize overall weight and size, miniature PM motors may use high energy magnets made with neodymium; most are neodymium-iron-boron alloy. With.

Electric motor. their higher flux density, electric machines with high-energy PMs are at least competitive with all optimally designed singly-fed synchronous and induction electric machines. Miniature motors resemble the structure in the illustration, except that they have at least three rotor poles (to ensure starting, regardless of rotor position) and their outer housing is a steel tube that magnetically links the exteriors of the curved field magnets.## Electronic commutator (EC).## Brushless DC.Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the BLDC design. In this motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator is replaced by an external electronic switch.

Electric motor. synchronised to the rotor's position. BLDC motors are typically 85%+ efficient, reaching up to 96.5%, while brushed DC motors are typically 75–80% efficient.The BLDC motor's characteristic trapezoidal counter-electromotive force (CEMF) waveform is derived partly from the stator windings being evenly distributed, and partly from the placement of the rotor's permanent magnets. Also known as electronically commutated DC or inside-out DC motors, the stator windings of trapezoidal BLDC motors can be single-phase, two-phase or three-phase and use Hall effect sensors mounted on their windings for rotor position sensing and low cost closed-loop commutator control.BLDC motors are commonly used where precise speed.

Electric motor. motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers and are generally used in fans to remove heat. They make little noise, which is an advantage in equipment that is affected by vibrations.Modern BLDC motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to many kilowatts. Larger BLDC motors rated up to about 100 kW are used in electric vehicles. They also find use in electric model aircraft.## Switched reluctance motor.The switched reluctance motor (SRM) has no brushes or permanent magnets, and the rotor has no electric currents. Torque comes from a slight misalignment of poles on the.

Electric motor. rotor with poles on the stator. The rotor aligns itself with the magnetic field of the stator, while the stator field windings are sequentially energized to rotate the stator field.The magnetic flux created by the field windings follows the path of least magnetic sending the flux through rotor poles that are closest to the energized poles of the stator, thereby magnetizing those poles of the rotor and creating torque. As the rotor turns, different windings are energized, keeping the rotor turning.SRMs are used in some appliances and vehicles.## Universal AC/DC motor.A commutated, electrically excited, series or parallel wound motor is.

Electric motor. referred to as a universal motor because it can be designed to operate on either AC or DC power. A universal motor can operate well on AC because the current in both the field and the armature coils (and hence the resultant magnetic fields) synchronously reverse polarity, and hence the resulting mechanical force occurs in a constant direction of rotation.Operating at normal power line frequencies, universal motors are often used in sub-kilowatt applications. Universal motors formed the basis of the traditional railway traction motor in electric railways. In this application, using AC power on a motor designed to run on.

Electric motor. DC would experience efficiency losses due to eddy current heating of their magnetic components, particularly the motor field pole-pieces that, for DC, would have used solid (un-laminated) iron. They are now rarely used.An advantage is that AC power may be used on motors that specifically have high starting torque and compact design if high running speeds are used. By contrast, maintenance is higher and lifetimes are shortened. Such motors are used in devices that are not heavily used, and have high starting-torque demands. Multiple taps on the field coil provide (imprecise) stepped speed control. Household blenders that advertise many speeds.

Electric motor. an asynchronous AC motor where power is transferred to the rotor by electromagnetic induction, much like transformer action. An induction motor resembles a rotating transformer, because the stator (stationary part) is essentially the primary side of the transformer and the rotor (rotating part) is the secondary side. Polyphase induction motors are widely used in industry.## Cage and wound rotor.Induction motors may be divided into Squirrel Cage Induction Motors (SCIM) and Wound Rotor Induction Motors (WRIM). SCIMs have a heavy winding made up of solid bars, usually aluminum or copper, electrically connected by rings at the ends of the rotor. The.

Electric motor. bars and rings as a whole are much like an animal's rotating exercise cage.Currents induced into this winding provide the rotor magnetic field. The shape of the rotor bars determines the speed-torque characteristics. At low speeds, the current induced in the squirrel cage is nearly at line frequency and tends to stay in the outer parts of the cage. As the motor accelerates, the slip frequency becomes lower, and more current reaches the interior. By shaping the bars to change the resistance of the winding portions in the interior and outer parts of the cage, a variable resistance is effectively.

Electric motor. steering wheels.Another common application is to control the throttle of an internal combustion engine with an electronic governor. The motor works against a return spring to move the throttle in accord with the governor output. The latter monitors engine speed by counting electrical pulses from the ignition system or from a magnetic pickup and depending on the speed, makes small adjustments to the amount of current. If the engine slows down relative to the desired speed, the current increases, producing more torque, pulling against the return spring and opening the throttle. Should the engine run too fast, the governor reduces.

Electric motor. the current, allowing the return spring to pull back and reduce the throttle.## Synchronous motor.A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor. It includes a rotor spinning with coils passing magnets at the same frequency as the AC and produces a magnetic field to drive it. It has zero slip under typical operating conditions. By contrast induction motors must slip to produce torque. One type of synchronous motor is like an induction motor except that the rotor is excited by a DC field. Slip rings and brushes conduct current to the rotor. The rotor poles connect to each other and.

Electric motor. when slip rate decreases sufficiently, the rotor (a smooth cylinder) becomes temporarily magnetized. Its distributed poles make it act like a permanent magnet synchronous motor. The rotor material, like that of a common nail, stays magnetized, but can be demagnetized with little difficulty. Once running, the rotor poles stay in place; they do not drift.Low-power synchronous timing motors (such as those for traditional electric clocks) may have multi-pole permanent magnet external cup rotors, and use shading coils to provide starting torque. "Telechron" clock motors have shaded poles for starting torque, and a two-spoke ring rotor that performs like a discrete.

Electric motor. allows for a smaller electronic converter but the cost of the rotor winding and slip rings may offset the saving in the power electronics components. Difficulties affect controlling speed near synchronous speed limit applications.## Special magnetic motors.## Rotary.## Ironless or coreless rotor motor.The coreless or ironless DC motor is a specialized permanent magnet DC motor. Optimized for rapid acceleration, the rotor is constructed without an iron core. The rotor can take the form of a winding-filled cylinder, or a self-supporting structure comprising only wire and bonding material. The rotor can fit inside the stator magnets; a magnetically soft stationary cylinder.

Electric motor. inside the rotor provides a return path for the stator magnetic flux. A second arrangement has the rotor winding basket surrounding the stator magnets. In that design, the rotor fits inside a magnetically soft cylinder that can serve as the motor housing, and provides a return path for the flux.Because the rotor is much lower mass than a conventional rotor, it can accelerate much more rapidly, often achieving a mechanical time constant under one millisecond. This is especially true if the windings use aluminum rather than (heavier) copper. The rotor has no metal mass to act as a heat sink;.

Electric motor. even small motors must be cooled. Overheating can be an issue for these designs.The vibrating alert of cellular phones can be generated by cylindrical permanent-magnet motors, or disc-shaped types that have a thin multipolar disc field magnet, and an intentionally unbalanced molded-plastic rotor structure with two bonded coreless coils. Metal brushes and a flat commutator switch power to the rotor coils.Related limited-travel actuators have no core and a bonded coil placed between the poles of high-flux thin permanent magnets. These are the fast head positioners for rigid-disk ("hard disk") drives. Although the contemporary design differs considerably from that of loudspeakers,.

Electric motor. it is still loosely (and incorrectly) referred to as a "voice coil" structure, because some earlier rigid-disk-drive heads moved in straight lines, and had a drive structure much like that of a loudspeaker.## Pancake or axial rotor motor.The printed armature or pancake motor has windings shaped as a disc running between arrays of high-flux magnets. The magnets are arranged in a circle facing the rotor spaced to form an axial air gap. This design is commonly known as the pancake motor because of its flat profile.The armature (originally formed on a printed circuit board) is made from punched copper sheets.

Electric motor. with 180 (C), Class H rating.The unique advantage of ironless DC motors is the absence of cogging (torque variations caused by changing attraction between the iron and the magnets). Parasitic eddy currents cannot form in the rotor as it is totally ironless, although iron rotors are laminated. This can greatly improve efficiency, but variable-speed controllers must use a higher switching rate (>40 kHz) or DC because of decreased electromagnetic induction.These motors were invented to drive the capstan(s) of magnetic tape drives, where minimal time to reach operating speed and minimal stopping distance were critical. Pancake motors are widely used in.

Electric motor. high-performance servo-controlled systems, robotic systems, industrial automation and medical devices. Due to the variety of constructions now available, the technology is used in applications from high temperature military to low cost pump and basic servos.Another approach (Magnax) is to use a single stator sandwiched between two rotors. One such design has produced peak power of 15 kW/kg, sustained power around 7.5 kW/kg. This yokeless axial flux motor offers a shorter flux path, keeping the magnets further from the axis. The design allows zero winding overhang; 100 percent of the windings are active. This is enhanced with the use of rectangular-crosssection.

Electric motor. copper wire. The motors can be stacked to work in parallel. Instabilities are minimized by ensuring that the two rotor discs put equal and opposing forces onto the stator disc. The rotors are connected directly to one another via a shaft ring, cancelling out the magnetic forces.Magnax motors range in size from 0.15-5.4 (m) in diameter.## Servo motor.A servo motor is a motor that is used within a position-control or speed-control feedback system. Servomotors are used in applications such as machine tools, pen plotters, and other process systems. Motors intended for use in a servomechanism must have predictable characteristics for.

Electric motor. speed, torque, and power. The speed/torque curve is important and is high ratio for a servo motor. Dynamic response characteristics such as winding inductance and rotor inertia are important; these factors limit performance. Large, powerful, but slow-responding servo loops may use conventional AC or DC motors and drive systems with position or speed feedback. As dynamic response requirements increase, more specialized motor designs such as coreless motors are used. AC motors' superior power density and acceleration characteristics tends to favor permanent magnet synchronous, BLDC, induction, and SRM drive approaches.A servo system differs from some stepper motor applications in that position.

Electric motor. feedback is continuous while the motor is running. A stepper system inherently operates open-loop—relying on the motor not to "miss steps" for short term accuracy—with any feedback such as a "home" switch or position encoder external to the motor system.## Stepper motor.Stepper motors are typically used to provide precise rotations. An internal rotor containing permanent magnets or a magnetically soft rotor with salient poles is controlled by a set of electronically switched external magnets. A stepper motor may also be thought of as a cross between a DC electric motor and a rotary solenoid. As each coil is energized in.

Electric motor. turn, the rotor aligns itself with the magnetic field produced by the energized field winding. Unlike a synchronous motor, the stepper motor may not rotate continuously; instead, it moves in steps—starting and then stopping—advancing from one position to the next as field windings are energized and de-energized in sequence. Depending on the sequence, the rotor may turn forwards or backwards, and it may change direction, stop, speed up or slow down at any time.Simple stepper motor drivers entirely energize or entirely de-energize the field windings, leading the rotor to "cog" to a limited number of positions. Microstepping drivers can proportionally.

Electric motor. made them uncompetitive—thus newer hard disk drives use voice coil-based head actuator systems. (The term "voice coil" in this connection is historic; it refers to the structure in a cone-type loudspeaker.)Stepper motors are often used in computer printers, optical scanners, and digital photocopiers to move the active element, the print head carriage (inkjet printers), and the platen or feed rollers.So-called quartz analog wristwatches contain the smallest commonplace stepping motors; they have one coil, draw little power, and have a permanent magnet rotor. The same kind of motor drives battery-powered quartz clocks. Some of these watches, such as chronographs, contain more.

Electric motor. 1978 era HP 7225A pen plotter used two linear stepper motors to move the pen along the X and Y axes.## Electromagnetism.## Force and torque.An electric motor converts electrical energy to mechanical energy through the force between two opposed magnetic fields. At least one of the two magnetic fields must be created by an electromagnet through the magnetic field caused by an electrical current.The force between a current formula_1 in a conductor of length formula_2 perpendicular to a magnetic field formula_3 may be calculated using the Lorentz force law: formula_4Note: X denotes vector cross product. The most general approaches to.

Electric motor. resistance Ir2 – square of current induced in the rotor s – motor slip; i.e., difference between synchronous speed and slip speed, which provides the relative movement needed for current induction in the rotor.## Back EMF.The movement of armature windings of a direct-current or universal motor through a magnetic field, induce a voltage in them. This voltage tends to oppose the motor supply voltage and so is called "back electromotive force (EMF)". The voltage is proportional to the running speed of the motor. The back EMF of the motor, plus the voltage drop across the winding internal resistance and brushes,.

Electric motor. enacted legislation to encourage the manufacture and use of higher-efficiency motors. Electric motors have efficiencies ranging from at least 15% for shaded pole motors, up to 98% for permanent magnet motors, with efficiency also dependent on load. Peak efficiency is usually at 75% of the rated load. So (as an example) a 10 HP motor is most efficient when driving a load that requires 7.5 HP. Efficiency also depends on motor size; larger motors tend to be more efficient. Some motors can not operate continually for more than a specified period of time (e.g. for more than an hour per.

Electric motor. run)## Goodness factor.Eric Laithwaite proposed a metric to determine the 'goodness' of an electric motor: formula_21Where: formula_22 is the goodness factor (factors above 1 are likely to be efficient) formula_23 are the cross sectional areas of the magnetic and electric circuit formula_24 are the lengths of the magnetic and electric circuits formula_25 is the permeability of the core formula_20 is the angular frequency the motor is driven atFrom this, he showed that the most efficient motors are likely to have relatively large magnetic poles. However, the equation only directly relates to non PM motors.## Performance parameters.## Torque.Electromagnetic motors derive torque.

Electric motor. from the vector product of the interacting fields. Calculating torque requires knowledge of the fields in the air gap. Once these have been established, the torque is the integral of all the force vectors multiplied by the vector's radius. The current flowing in the winding produces the fields. For a motor using a magnetic material the field is not proportional to the current.A figure relating the current to the torque can inform motor selection. The maximum torque for a motor depends on the maximum current, absent thermal considerations.When optimally designed within a given core saturation constraint and for a given.

Electric motor. active current (i.e., torque current), voltage, pole-pair number, excitation frequency (i.e., synchronous speed), and air-gap flux density, all categories of electric motors/generators exhibit virtually the same maximum continuous shaft torque (i.e., operating torque) within a given air-gap area with winding slots and back-iron depth, which determines the physical size of electromagnetic core. Some applications require bursts of torque beyond the maximum, such as bursts to accelerate an electric vehicle from standstill. Always limited by magnetic core saturation or safe operating temperature rise and voltage, the capacity for torque bursts beyond the maximum differs significantly across motor/generator types.Electric machines without a.

Electric motor. transformer circuit topology, such as that of WRSMs or PMSMs, cannot provide torque bursts without saturating the magnetic core. At that point, additional current cannot increase torque. Furthermore, the permanent magnet assembly of PMSMs can be irreparably damaged.Electric machines with a transformer circuit topology, such as induction machines, induction doubly-fed electric machines, and induction or synchronous wound-rotor doubly-fed (WRDF) machines, permit torque bursts because the EMF-induced active current on either side of the transformer oppose each other and thus contribute nothing to the transformer coupled magnetic core flux density, avoiding core saturation.Electric machines that rely on induction or asynchronous principles.

Electric motor. the air-gap area and the back-iron depth, which are determined by the power rating of the armature winding set, the speed of the machine, and the achievable air-gap flux density before core saturation. Despite the high coercivity of neodymium or samarium-cobalt permanent magnets, continuous torque density is virtually the same amongst electric machines with optimally designed armature winding sets. Continuous torque density relates to method of cooling and permissible operation period before destruction by overheating of windings or permanent magnet damage.Other sources state that various e-machine topologies have differing torque density. One source shows the following:where—specific torque density is normalized.

Electric motor. to 1.0 for the surface permanent magnet (SPM)—brushless ac, 180° current conduction.Torque density is approximately four times greater for liquid cooled motors, compared to those which are air cooled.A source comparing direct current, induction motors (IM), PMSM and SRM showed:Another source notes that PMSM up to 1 MW have considerably higher torque density than induction machines.## Continuous power density.The continuous power density is determined by the product of the continuous torque density and the constant torque speed range. Electric motors can achieve densities of up to 20KW/KG, meaning 20 Kilowatts of output power per kilogram.## Acoustic noise and vibrations.Acoustic noise.

Electric motor. and vibrations are usually classified in three sources: mechanical sources (e.g. due to bearings) aerodynamic sources (e.g. due to shaft-mounted fans) magnetic sources (e.g. due to magnetic forces such as Maxwell and magnetostriction forces acting on stator and rotor structures)The latter source, which can be responsible for the "whining noise" of electric motors, is called electromagnetically induced acoustic noise.## Standards.The following are major design, manufacturing, and testing standards covering electric motors: American Petroleum Institute: API 541 Form-Wound Squirrel Cage Induction Motors – 375 kW (500 Horsepower) and Larger American Petroleum Institute: API 546 Brushless Synchronous Machines – 500 kVA and.

Electric motor. 60072 Dimensions and output series for rotating electrical machines National Electrical Manufacturers Association: MG-1 Motors and Generators Underwriters Laboratories: UL 1004 – Standard for Electric Motors Indian Standard: IS:12615-2018 – Line Operated Three Phase a.c. Motors (IE CODE) “Efficiency Classes and Performance Specification” (Third Revision)## Non-magnetic motors.An electrostatic motor is based on the attraction and repulsion of electric charge. Usually, electrostatic motors are the dual of conventional coil-based motors. They typically require a high-voltage power supply, although small motors employ lower voltages. Conventional electric motors instead employ magnetic attraction and repulsion, and require high current at low voltages. In the.

Electric motor. produces acoustic or ultrasonic vibrations to produce linear or rotary motion. In one mechanism, the elongation in a single plane is used to make a series of stretches and position holds, similar to the way a caterpillar moves.An electrically powered spacecraft propulsion system uses electric motor technology to propel spacecraft in outer space. Most systems are based on electrically accelerating propellant to high speed, while some systems are based on electrodynamic tethers principles of propulsion to the magnetosphere. Electric generator Regenerative brake Goodness factor Motor capacitor Traction motor Motor controller Houston, Edwin J.; Kennelly, Arthur, "Recent Types of Dynamo-Electric Machinery",.


Question: Which city or region does this building locate in?

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Monument to the Great Fire of London. west side of the base displays a sculpture, by Caius Gabriel Cibber, in alto and bas relief, of the destruction of the City; with Charles II and his brother, James, the Duke of York (later King James II), surrounded by liberty, architecture, and science, giving directions for its restoration.It gives its name to the nearby London Underground station, Monument.## History.The first Rebuilding Act, passed in 1669, stipulated that "the better to preserve the memory of this dreadful visitation", a column of either brass or stone should be set up on Fish Street Hill, on or near the site of Farynor's.

Monument to the Great Fire of London. bakery, where the fire began. Christopher Wren, as surveyor-general of the King's Works, was asked to submit a design. Wren worked with Robert Hooke on the design. It is impossible to know the extent of the collaboration between Hooke and Wren, but Hooke's drawings of possible designs for the column still exist, with Wren's signature on them indicating his approval of the drawings rather than their authorship. It was not until 1671 that the City Council approved the design, and it took six years to complete the 202 (ft) column. It was two more years before the inscription (which had.

Monument to the Great Fire of London. hanging down the shaft of the stairwell, they were able to detect deformation at less than 9 parts per billion—equivalent to a one-degree twist over the length of the 50 (metre) wire.## Panoramic camera system.During the 2007–2009 refurbishment, a 360-degree panoramic camera was installed on top of the Monument. Updated every minute and running 24 hours a day, it provides a record of weather, building and ground activity in the City.## Monument Square.The Monument stands in Monument Square, formerly known as Monument Yard which was merged into Monument Street in 1911, created as part of the pedestrianisation of Monument Street.

Monument to the Great Fire of London. 'London’s Standard: Christopher Wren and the Heraldry of the Monument’, in "RES: Journal of Anthropology and Aesthetics", vol.73/74, Autumn 2020, pp. 325–39 Hart, V., "Christopher Wren: In Search of Eastern Antiquity" (Yale University Press, 2020) Jardine, L., "On a Grander Scale: The Outstanding Career of Sir Christopher Wren" ( hardback, paperback) Official Monument website City of London Monument pageHistory of The Monument with some account of the great fire of London, which it commemorates (1921), by Charles Welch3D photoscan of the base or the Monument showing Latin inscription.


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this plant?

Instruction: Retrieve a Wikipedia paragraph that provides an answer to the given query about the image.

Lysimachia ciliata. Lysimachia ciliata, the fringed loosestrife, is a species of flowering plant in the family Primulaceae. It is an erect herbaceous perennial growing to 120 (cm) tall and 60 (cm) broad, with opposite, simple leaves, and smooth green stems. The star-shaped yellow flowers are borne in midsummer. It is native to North America, including most of southern Canada and most of the United States except for the southwest. This plant is notable in that it is one of the few species of "Lysimachia" to bear elaiophores, that is, to offer oil instead of nectar as a reward to pollinators. It is.

Lysimachia ciliata. pollinated in the northern part of its range by the specialist oil bee "Macropis nuda", a native bee species whose survival depends upon this host plant.It is also cultivated as an ornamental plant. It can be aggressive, but new suckers can be removed easily to keep plant size under control. The most common cultivars of "L. ciliata" include: "L. ciliata" 'Firecracker' "L. ciliata" 'Purpurea''Firecracker' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.USDA Plants Profile for"Lysimachia ciliata" (fringed loosestrife)"Lysimachia ciliata" — U.C. Photo gallery.


Question: How many days does the gestation of this animal take?

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Gray fox. lice, nematodes, and tapeworms. In the United States, the most common parasite of the gray fox is a flea ("Pulex simulans"); however, several new parasitic arthropods were found in populations in central Mexico, and a warming climate may encourage them to migrate north.## Hunting.Gray foxes are hunted in the U.S. The intensity of the hunting has correlated with the value of their pelts. Between the 1970–1971 and 1975–1976 hunting seasons, the price of gray fox pelts greatly increased and the number of individuals hunted jumped over six-fold from 26,109 to 163,458.## Subspecies.There are 16 subspecies recognized for the gray fox."Urocyon.


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this plant?

Instruction: You have to find a Wikipedia segment that answers the question about the displayed image.

Asplenium rhizophyllum. Asplenium rhizophyllum, the (American) walking fern, is a frequently-occurring fern native to North America. It is a close relative of "Asplenium ruprechtii" (syn: "Camptosorus sibiricus") which is found in East Asia and also goes by the common name of "walking fern".## Description."Asplenium rhizophyllum" is a small fern whose undivided, evergreen leaves and long, narrow leaf tips, sometimes curving back and rooting, give it a highly distinctive appearance. It grows in tufts, often surrounded by child plants formed from the leaf tips. The leaves of younger plants tend to lie flat to the ground, while older plants have leaves more erect.

Asplenium rhizophyllum. or arching.## Roots and rhizomes.It does not spread and form new plants via the roots. Its rhizomes (underground stems) are upright or nearly so, short, about 1 (mm) in diameter, and generally unbranched. They bear dark brown or blackish, narrowly triangular or lance-shaped scales which are strongly clathrate (bearing a lattice-like pattern). The scales are 2 to 3 (mm) long and 0.5 to 1 (mm) wide (occasionally as narrow as 0.2 (mm)) with untoothed margins.## Leaves.The stipe (the stalk of the leaf, below the blade) is 0.5 to 12 (cm) long (occasionally up to 15 (cm) long), and ranges from.

Asplenium rhizophyllum. one-tenth to one and one-half times the length of the blade. The stipe is reddish-brown and sometimes shiny at the base, becoming green above, and narrowly winged. Scales like those of the rhizome are present at the stipe base, changing to tiny club-shaped hairs above.The leaf blades are not subdivided, as in most other ferns, but are narrowly triangular to linear or lance-shaped. Their shape can be quite variable, even on the same plant. They measure from 1 to 30 (cm) long and from 0.5 to 5 (cm) across and have a leathery texture with sparse hairs, more abundant below.

Asplenium rhizophyllum. than above. The rachis (leaf axis) is dull green in color and almost devoid of hairs. On the underside of the blade, the veins are difficult to see and anastomose (split and rejoin each other), forming a series of areoles (the small areas enclosed by the veins) near the rachis. Fertile fronds are usually larger than sterile fronds, but their shape is otherwise the same. The base of the blade is typically heart-shaped (with the stipe protruding from the cleft); the bulges on either side of the cleft are frequently enlarged into auricles (rounded lobes), or occasionally into sharply-pointed, tapering.

Asplenium rhizophyllum. lobes. The leaf tips may be rounded but are typically very long and attenuate (drawn out); the attenuate tips are capable of sprouting roots and growing into a new plant when the tip touches a surface suitable for growth. On rare occasions, the auricles at the leaf base will also take on an attenuate shape and form roots at the tip. The ability of the leaf tips to root and form a new plant at some distance from the parent gives the species its common name. The young leaves forming from a bud at the leaf tip are round to.

Asplenium rhizophyllum. pointed at their apex, not yet having developed the long-attenuate shape.Specimens of "A. rhizophyllum" with forked blades have been found in Arkansas and Missouri. The fork usually occurs in the tip, perhaps due to growth after insect damage, but one specimen was found forking from the upper part of the stipe.## Sori and spores.Fertile fronds bear a large number of sori underneath, 1 to 4 (mm) long, which are not arranged in any particular order. The sori are often fused where veins join, and may curve to follow the vein to which they are attached. The sori are covered by.

Asplenium rhizophyllum. inconspicuous thin, white indusia with untoothed edges. Each sporangium in a sorus carries 64 spores. The diploid sporophyte has a chromosome number of 72.## Similar species.The leaf shape and proliferating tips easily distinguish "A. rhizophyllum" from most other ferns. Its hybrid descendants share the long-attenuate leaf tip, but are more deeply lobed. An artificial backcross between "A. rhizophyllum" and "A. tutwilerae" was closer to "A. rhizophyllum" in morphology, but still remained some lobes in the basal part of the blade, had a shallowly undulating, rather than smoothly curved, leaf edge in the apical part, showed a maroon color in the.

Asplenium rhizophyllum. stipe up to the base of the leaf blade, and possessed the abortive spores of a sterile hybrid. "A. ruprechtii", the Asian walking fern, also possesses attenuate, proliferating tips, but has a lanceolate leaf blade, which tapers to a wedge at the base rather than forming a heart shape. "A. scolopendrium", the hart's-tongue fern, has larger, longer leaves that are glossy with a rounded tip.## Taxonomy.This species is commonly known as North American walking fern or simply walking fern, because the growth of new plants at the leaf tip allows it to "walk" across surfaces over several generations. The specific.

Asplenium rhizophyllum. epithet "rhizophyllum", meaning "root leaf", also reflects this characteristic.Linnaeus first gave the walking fern the binomial "Asplenium rhizophyllum" in his "Species Plantarum" of 1753. In 1833, J.H.F. Link placed the species in a segregate genus, "Camptosorus", because of the irregular arrangement of its sori (in contrast to the rest of "Asplenium", where the sori are confined to the edge of veins). John Smith did not feel that this character was sufficient to segregate it from the rest of "Asplenium", but placed it in the genus "Antigramma", another "Asplenium" segregate, on the basis of its reticulate venation, to the convolutions of.

Asplenium rhizophyllum. which he attributed the soral arrangement. It was commonly placed either in "Asplenium" and "Camptosorus" by later authors, the latter genus including the similar Asian species "A. ruprechtii" but phylogenetic studies have shown that "Camptosorus" is nested within "Asplenium" and its species should be treated as part of that genus. The name "Asplenium rhizophyllum" has also been applied to two other species; in current botanical practice, these are illegitimate later homonyms of Linnaeus' name of 1753. The first of these homonyms was created by Linnaeus himself in 1763, when he accidentally used the name twice, applying it first to his.

Asplenium rhizophyllum. original taxon and again to a species from the West Indies which also proliferates at the leaf tips. He had referred to the West Indian species as "A. radicans" in 1759, the name by which it is known today. In 1834, Gustav Kunze transferred the species "Caenopteris rhizophylla" to "Asplenium" without changing the epithet; George Proctor identified this species, based on a specimen from Dominica, with "A. conquisitum", now synonymized with "A. rutaceum". A global phylogeny of "Asplenium" published in 2020 divided the genus into eleven clades, which were given informal names pending further taxonomic study. "A. rhizophyllum" belongs to.

Asplenium rhizophyllum. the ""A. cordatum" subclade" of the ""Schaffneria" clade". The "Schaffneria" clade has a worldwide distribution, and members vary widely in form and habitat. There is no clear morphological feature that unites the "A. cordatum" subclade; the sister species of "A. rhizophyllum" is "A. ruprechtii", which shares an undivided leaf blade and a proliferating tip, while the other three species are scaly spleenworts of dry habitats in Africa and the Middle East.## Hybrids.Walking fern is one of the three parental species of the "Appalachian "Asplenium" complex", a group of Asplenium hybrids and their progenitors known from eastern North America. Hybridization between.

Asplenium rhizophyllum. walking fern and mountain spleenwort ("A. montanum") has given rise through chromosome doubling to a new, fertile, species, lobed spleenwort ("A. pinnatifidum"). The sterile hybrid between walking fern and ebony spleenwort ("A. platyneuron"), known as Scott's spleenwort ("A. × ebenoides"), may be found where the two parents are in contact; at one locality, in Havana Glen, Alabama, "A. × ebenoides" has undergone chromosome doubling to produce a fertile species, Tutwiler's spleenwort ("A. tutwilerae").Much more rarely, walking fern hybridizes with two other common spleenworts of eastern North America. The hybrid between walking fern and wall-rue ("A. ruta-muraria"), known as unexpected spleenwort.

Asplenium rhizophyllum. ("A. × inexpectatum"), is known from a single specimen collected on dolomite in Adams County, Ohio. The hybrid between walking fern and maidenhair spleenwort, ("A. trichomanes" ssp. "trichomanes"), Shawnee spleenwort ("A. × shawneense"), is known from one collection on sandstone in the Shawnee Hills of Illinois.A triploid hybrid between walking fern and Tutwiler's spleenwort was accidentally produced in culture. A similar plant collected from limestone in Shepherdstown, West Virginia could have originated from the same parents, from an unreduced (diploid) gametophyte of Scott's spleenwort crossed with walking fern, or from an unreduced walking fern gametophyte crossed with ebony spleenwort.## Infraspecific.

Asplenium rhizophyllum. taxa.In 1813, Henry Muhlenberg listed lobed spleenwort as "Asplenium rhizophyllum" var. "pinnatifidum", although he did not provide a description distinguishing the variety from the typical species. It was described as the species "A. pinnatifidum" by Thomas Nuttall in 1818.A number of forms have been described, of limited taxonomic value. In 1883, J. C. Arthur described walking ferns from limestone cliffs in Muscatine County, Iowa that lacked auricles at the leaf base, with the blade abruptly tapering at the base instead. In this respect, the plants closely resembled "A. ruprechtii", but the leaf shape of the Iowa plants was lanceolate (widest.

Asplenium rhizophyllum. near the base) rather than ovate (widest in the middle), and the wide point of the leaf in the Iowa plants appeared slightly lobed. He named these plants "Camptosorus rhizophyllus" var. "intermedius"; the variety was subsequently given the status of a form by Willard N. Clute. In 1922, Ralph Hoffmann gave the name "C. rhizophyllus" f. "auriculatus" to specimens with proliferating auricles, based on material on limestone from New Marlborough, Massachusetts. In 1924, Frederick W. Gray described as "C. rhizophyllus" f. "angustatus" material from a sandstone boulder in Monroe County, West Virginia. These had a short stipe, less than 1.

Asplenium rhizophyllum. (in) long, and narrow leaf blades, less than 0.375 (in) wide, with the sori almost at the margins. He argued that as they were found along with normal material, they were not solely due to sun exposure. Finally, in 1935, Carl L. Wilson described "C. rhizophyllus" f. "boycei" based on material collected from the base of a limestone boulder in Highgate Springs, Vermont by Guy Boyce. These plants had deeply lobed auricles, and erose (jagged or indented) leaf margins with rounded edges.## Distribution.The principal range of "A. rhizophyllum" is in the Appalachian Mountains and the Ozarks. It can be found.

Asplenium rhizophyllum. from southern Quebec and Ontario along the Appalachians and Piedmont southwestward to Mississippi and Alabama, along the Ohio Valley and into the Ozarks west to Nebraska and Oklahoma, and along the Mississippi Valley north to Wisconsin and Minnesota. It has become extinct in Maine and Delaware. The distribution typically follows area of limy soil; sometimes said to be rare, it is better described as locally abundant where conditions favor it.## Ecology and conservation.Walking fern grows on shaded boulders, ledges and in crevices, usually covered with moss. On rare occasions, it is found on fallen tree trunks, as an epiphyte, or.

Asplenium rhizophyllum. on the ground. It is usually found on limestone or other alkaline rocks, rarely on sandstone or other acidic rocks.While globally secure, it is endangered in some states and provinces at the edge of its range. NatureServe considers it critically imperiled (S1) in Mississippi, New Hampshire and Rhode Island, imperiled (S2) in Michigan and South Carolina, and vulnerable (S3) in North Carolina and Quebec.## Cultivation.It was introduced into cultivation in England in 1680. It prefers low to medium light levels, and a moist, basic potting mix, or soil with added lime chips. Michigan conservation plan Last report from Maine Report.

Asplenium rhizophyllum. from sandstone in Michigan Hardy Fern Library Connecticut Botanical Society Flora of Pennsylvania.


Question: What is this building named after?

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Lahori Gate, Delhi. The Lahori Gate is the main entrance to the Red Fort in Delhi. The fort is approached through a covered street flanked by arcaded apartments called the Chhatta Chowk. Situated on the western wall of the fort, the gate received its name because it led to the city of Lahore, Present Day Pakistan. The secondary entrance is the Delhi Gate.The gateway consists of three stories, each decorated with square, rectangular and cusped arched panels. These are flanked by semi-octagonal towers crowned by two open octagonal pavilions. The whole gate is clad in red sandstone, except the roofs of the pavilions,.


Question: What is the brand of this vehicle?

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Dodge Caliber. The Dodge Caliber is a compact hatchback manufactured and marketed by Chrysler's Dodge division from model years 2007 to 2012, replacing the Dodge Neon and Chrysler PT Cruiser.Following the Caliber concept which debuted at the 2005 Geneva Motor Show, the pre-production version debuted at the 2006 North American International Auto Show, with market launch in March 2006.The Caliber was manufactured at the Belvidere Assembly (Illinois) plant, and across its six-year model run, just over 400,000 were produced.## Marketing.The Caliber was one of Dodge's first modern offerings in Europe and in Asian markets such as Japan, South Korea, and Singapore, as.

Dodge Caliber. it established new distribution channels there. It was also introduced in China in 2008 as Dodge's second modern vehicle offering in that market. Dodge vehicles were previously officially sold in China during the World War II era. The introduction of the Caliber marked the return of the Dodge brand to Australia since the early 1970s.The Caliber in Japan joined the Chrysler PT Cruiser in 2007, as the PT Cruiser was offered since 2000, but as with previous Chrysler products sold in Japan, the width dimension exceeded the Japanese Government dimension regulations, and Japanese consumers were liable for annual taxes for.

Dodge Caliber. driving a larger car which affected sales. As Chrysler products were considered large to the Japanese market, Chrysler offered products that offered spacious interiors with four doors and one-piece liftgates to broaden their appeal to the Japanese as a compromise for paying the annual tax for large vehicles.The marketing plan for the first year of the Caliber's production included 20% of the budget for online marketing, print ads, and TV commercials.## Features.The Dodge Caliber offered a continuously variable transmission (called "CVT2" by Dodge) sourced from Jatco (a Nissan subsidiary), the second DaimlerChrysler model to employ this technology after the Mercedes-Benz.

Dodge Caliber. A-Class. It uses a four-cylinder 1.8-2.4 L "World" gasoline engine, designed jointly by Chrysler, Mitsubishi, and Hyundai.The car features an optional electronically controlled all-wheel drive system with variable torque at speeds of 25 to 65 (mph) for optimal handling.The Caliber uses a heavily modified GS platform, co-designed with Mitsubishi Motors. The modified GS platform is now called the JS platform by Chrysler for mid-size cars and PM/MK for compact cars. It shares a portion of the platform with the Mitsubishi Lancer, but is most similar to the Jeep Compass and Jeep Patriot. The Caliber wheels have a 5-hole pattern with.

Dodge Caliber. a 114.3 mm bolt circle.## Safety.The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) gave the Caliber an overall "Good" score in frontal crash testing. The Dodge Caliber was standard with side curtain airbags, but torso side airbags were optional. The IIHS had scored the Caliber "Marginal" overall in their side impact test. However, that Caliber was not equipped with the optional torso side airbag.## Models.Three models were available at the Caliber's launch, with a fourth available in mid-2006.The base SE model features front-wheel drive and a 1.8 L 148 (hp) "World" I4 attached to a Magna Drivetrain T355 5-speed manual transmission.

Dodge Caliber. A 2.0 L 158 (hp) version of the engine paired with the CVT2 transmission was available as an option.The standard configuration for the SE lacks air conditioning, power windows, door locks, or mirrors. The grille surround is body-colored, while that of all other models is chromed. Canadian SXT and R/T models feature body-color grilles instead of chrome grilles. The Caliber SE doesn't have a tachometer or assist handles, 15 (in) steel wheels with wheel covers are standard. Some options were not available on the SE.For 2011, this model was named Express, reverting to SE for 2012. For 2012, the CVT.

Dodge Caliber. transmission option was dropped only for the SE, leaving the five-speed manual transmission as the only available transmission option for the SE. The CVT continued to be offered in the SXT and SXT Plus models for 2012.The SXT has the same engine choices as the SE but many more features are available as standard. Air conditioning is standard equipment at this level, including the Chill Zone beverage cooler inside the front lower glove compartment. The gauge cluster gains a tachometer and an (optional) trip computer. The driver's seat adds height adjustment, the passenger seat folds flat for load-carrying, and the.

Dodge Caliber. rear seats recline. Power windows, locks, mirrors, and remote keyless entry are included. The grille is chromed and 17 (in) steel wheels are standard, with 17 (in) aluminum wheels as an option. The cargo area light includes a removable and rechargeable flashlight while the front dome light incorporates two reading lamps. In Europe, this version was also commercialized equipped with a VW-built 2.0 L turbodiesel engine.Some Dodge publications mention a SXT Sport Wagon model, while others (e.g. the Dodge website) list a SXT "E" package with identical features. This consists of 17 (in) aluminum wheels, color-keyed cloth seat inserts, color-matched.

Dodge Caliber. instrument panel trim, along with fog lamps.The UK SXT Sport model has 18 (in) alloy wheels, color-keyed cloth seats and instrument panel, and a 9-speaker audio system as standard; early UK models did not have the chrome grille. The UK SXT Sport was available with a Volkswagen 2.0 L diesel engine mated to a six-speed manual transmission.For 2011, the Heat, Uptown, and Mainstreet were three available trim levels of the Caliber, reverting to SXT and SXT Plus in 2012.The R/T model has a 2.4 L 172 (hp) version of the World engine, equipped with the CVT2 transmission, and programmed with.

Dodge Caliber. an 'AutoStick' feature giving six simulated fixed ratios in a clutchless manual mode in addition to the standard CVT 'Drive' mode. All-wheel-drive was an option on the R/T model until 2009, but with automatic transmission only. Eighteen-inch aluminum wheels were standard, while chromed versions were optional. At launch, the CVT2 with all-wheel drive was the only powertrain combination available for the R/T. A front-wheel drive variant with the T355 5-speed manual transmission commenced production in late summer 2006. ABS was standard, and the suspension and steering systems were tuned for performance.Externally, the R/T is distinguishable by body-color/chrome door handles (replacing.

Dodge Caliber. black on other models), a chrome side molding, chromed exhaust tip, and front fog lights as standard, as well as R/T badging.Internally, the car came standard with color-keyed fabric seat inserts, while leather seats were an option as on the SXT. Color-keyed instrument panel trim was also standard, as well as a leather-wrapped steering wheel with audio controls and speed control, and a cargo area cover (all options on the SXT).The R/T model was discontinued in 2010.The SRT4 model that was introduced at the Chicago Auto Show in February 2006, was a replacement for the original Neon-based SRT-4 produced by.

Dodge Caliber. Chrysler's Street and Racing Technology group.The SRT4 hatchback competed with the Volkswagen GTI and the Mazdaspeed3. It featured a 2.4 L DOHC 16V turbocharged I4 with dual variable valve timing (DVVT). The engine produces 285 (hp) at 6,400 rpm, and 265 (lb.ft) of torque at 5,600 rpm using the TD04HL4S-20 turbo. Edmunds.com tested a Caliber SRT4 on a chassis dynamometer and obtained 281 (hp) and 261 (lb.ft) of torque at the wheels. Edmunds called the manufacturer's rating conservative; putting more power on the road than cars costing twice as much. This engine is mated to a Getrag six-speed manual transmission.

Dodge Caliber. and uses a front-wheel drive drivetrain. The Caliber SRT4 uses a MacPherson strut front suspension and a multilink rear suspension. The SRT4 came with large 13.4 (in) vented front disc brakes (from the Dodge Charger Police Pack version) with dual-piston calipers and 11.9 (in) rear single-piston disc brakes. It also featured four-wheel ABS, with electronic assistance. The wheels are 19 (in), five-spoke, SRT-stamped, painted aluminum and equipped with Goodyear RSA 225/45R19 tires. Package options included polished aluminum wheels, Goodyear Eagle F1 Supercar tires, SIRIUS satellite radio with Kicker SRT livin' loud audio, EVIC with performance pages, security alarm, and optional.

Dodge Caliber. paint colors.The SRT4 model of the Caliber was available through 2009.## Updates.## 2009.For the 2009 model, the Caliber underwent a minor revamp. The plain plastic black-colored door handles available on base models were replaced by painted car-colored handles previously available only on R/T. In addition, the trunk lid was reduced in weight and simplified in its opening. In the interior, all panels were made black instead of grey. The "DODGE" badge that was on top of the Ram logo at the middle was shifted to the left, while the "CALIBER" badge was moved to the right from the left, both.

Dodge Caliber. equal in font size. The car model title, previously indicated on the right, was moved to the bottom right corner of the gate lid.## 2010.The 2010 model year was unveiled at the 2009 Frankfurt Motor Show, featuring a refreshed interior design composed of metallic outlines and parts of glass to suppress the abundance of plastic materials on previous models, as well as the addition of an 8-way power driver's seat, heated mirrors, and an automatic climate control system previously available only on R/T. The dashboard also features the relocation of the glove box due to many customer complaints, which now.

Dodge Caliber. occupies the spot over the radio panel and comprises a "push-open" lock instead of the previous "squeeze-and-lift" opening mechanism.The 1.8 L engine was dropped from the SE and SXT models, and the SRT-4 model is discontinued. European market models receive a new 2.2 L diesel engine with 163 (hp) and 236 (lb·ft) of torque that provides a combined city and highway fuel efficiency of 40.6 (mpgus).For the United States market, the models were promptly renamed and rebranded, with SE becoming "Main Street", SXT — "Heat" and R/T — "Rush". Two more models were launched in 2010: a luxury all-included variant.

Dodge Caliber. "Uptown" and a base variant "Express" in which the black plastic handles returned. "Express" was the only model not to feature automatic climate control as an option, the "Main Street" featured speed control, an anti-lock brake system, and electronic stability control, which were previously unavailable as options for SE. All models except "Express" featured 17-inch wheels.## 2011.The 2011 model brought six new paint schemes, standard stability control except on Express models, Sirius traffic when equipped with a navigation system, 18-inch chrome-clad wheels available on Uptown models (17" painted are standard), updated steering except on Express models, and new shocks and.

Dodge Caliber. a thicker rear anti-roll bar on Rush and Heat models. The Caliber and the Nitro were the only two cars in the Dodge vehicle lineup to still feature the Ram logo on both fascia, rear, and the steering wheel. The Dodge Nitro also featured driver and passenger floor mats. The logo was removed from the mats in Calibers with the 2009 model.## 2012.For the 2012 model year, the models were renamed back to SE, SXT, and SXT Plus. The Plus version includes all the SXT items and 18-inch aluminum wheels with performance tires, as well as a 6-way power-adjustable driver.

Dodge Caliber. seat. The SXT Plus was not sold in Canada.## Discontinuation.The 2010 Caliber was the last model sold in Europe. The 2011 model ended production on 23 November 2011, in United States, with the remainder being sold as the 2012 model year Caliber in both U.S. and Canada. A successor called the Dart, based on the Alfa Romeo Giulietta's platform, went on sale in June 2012 for the 2013 model-year as the compact vehicle in Dodge's lineup. Dodge Caliber official website (archived).


Question: What equipment or engine is used by this vehicle to provide power?

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Dodge Caliber. A-Class. It uses a four-cylinder 1.8-2.4 L "World" gasoline engine, designed jointly by Chrysler, Mitsubishi, and Hyundai.The car features an optional electronically controlled all-wheel drive system with variable torque at speeds of 25 to 65 (mph) for optimal handling.The Caliber uses a heavily modified GS platform, co-designed with Mitsubishi Motors. The modified GS platform is now called the JS platform by Chrysler for mid-size cars and PM/MK for compact cars. It shares a portion of the platform with the Mitsubishi Lancer, but is most similar to the Jeep Compass and Jeep Patriot. The Caliber wheels have a 5-hole pattern with.


Question: Who is the creator of this building?

Instruction: You have to find a Wikipedia segment that answers the question about the displayed image.

Jeanne d'Arc (Frémiet). Jeanne d'Arc is an 1874 French gilded bronze equestrian sculpture of Joan of Arc by Emmanuel Frémiet. The outdoor statue is prominently displayed in the Place des Pyramides in Paris. == History == The original statue was commissioned by the French government after the defeat of the country in the 1870 Franco-Prussian War. It is the only public commission of the state from 1870 to 1914, called the Golden Age of statuary in Paris, the other statues were funded by private subscriptions. The sculptor took as his model Aimée Girod (1856–1937), a young woman from Domrémy, Joan of Arc's village.


Question: Which location has this bird invaded?

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Egyptian goose. The Egyptian goose (Alopochen aegyptiaca) is a member of the duck, goose, and swan family Anatidae. It is native to Africa south of the Sahara and the Nile Valley.Egyptian geese were considered sacred by the Ancient Egyptians, and appeared in much of their artwork. Because of their popularity chiefly as an ornamental bird, escapees are common and feral populations have become established in Western Europe, the United States, and New Zealand.## Taxonomy.The Egyptian goose is believed to be most closely related to the shelducks (genus "Tadorna") and their relatives, and is placed with them in the subfamily Tadorninae. It is.

Egyptian goose. grass and suitable nesting locations (either islands, holes in old trees or amongst epicormic shoots on old trees). During the winter, they are widely dispersed within river valleys, where they feed on short grass and cereals. In the United Kingdom in 2009, it was officially declared a non-native species. Accordingly, Egyptian geese in Great Britain may be shot without special permission if they cause problems.In Europe, the species has been included since 2017 in the list of Invasive Alien Species of Union concern (the Union list). This implies that this species cannot be imported, bred, transported, commercialized, used, exchanged or.


Question: What product does this place produce?

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Falun Mine. Falun Mine (Swedish: "Falu Gruva") was a mine in Falun, Sweden, that operated for a millennium from the 10th century to 1992. It produced as much as two-thirds of Europe's copper needs and helped fund many of Sweden's wars in the 17th century. Technological developments at the mine had a profound influence on mining globally for two centuries. The mine is now a museum and in 2001 was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.## History.There are no written accounts establishing exactly when mining operations at Falun Mine began. Archaeological and geological studies indicate, with considerable uncertainty, that mining operations started.

Falun Mine. sometime around the year 1000. No significant activities had begun before 850, but the mine was definitely operating by 1080. Objects from the 10th century have been found containing copper from the mine. In the beginning, operations were of a small scale, with local farmers gathering ore, smelting it, and using the metal for household needs.Around the time of Magnus III, king of Sweden from 1275 to 1290, a more professional operation began to take place. Nobles and foreign merchants from Lübeck had taken over from farmers. The merchants transported and sold the copper in Europe but also influenced the.

Falun Mine. copper was heating the rock via large fires, known as fire-setting. When the rock cooled down, it would become brittle and crack, allowing manual tools such as wedges and sledge hammers to be brought to bear. After the ore had been transported out of the mine it was roasted to reduce sulfur content in open hearths. The thick, poisonous smoke produced would be a distinguishing feature of the Falun area for centuries. After the roasting, the ore was smelted; the output of which was a copper rich material. The cycle of roasting and smelting was repeated several times until crude.

Falun Mine. copper was produced. This was the final output from the mine; further refinement took place at copper refineries elsewhere. This process was used without any major change for seven centuries, until the end of the 19th century. It is likely that the methods and technology for fire-setting and drainage were imported from German mines, such as in the Harz Mountains.## Free miners.The organizational structure of Falun Mine created under the 1347 charter was advanced for its time. Free miners owned shares of the operation, proportional to their ownership of copper smelters. The structure was precursor to modern joint stock companies,.

Falun Mine. and Stora Enso, the modern successor to the old mining company, is often referred to as the oldest joint stock company still operational in the world.## Golden era.In the 17th century, production capacity peaked. During this time, the output from the mine was used to fund various wars of Sweden during its great power era. The Privy Council of Sweden referred to the mine as the nation's treasury and stronghold. The point of maximum production occurred in 1650, with over 3,000 tonnes of copper produced.The mountain had been mined for nearly half a millennium towards the end of its golden.

Falun Mine. is one of the great wonders of Sweden but as horrible as hell itself". Linnaeus' description of the environment the miners worked in is as follows: "Soot and darkness surrounded them on all sides. Stones, gravel, corrosive vitriol, drips, smoke, fumes, heat, dust, were everywhere".## Economic impact.Sweden had a virtual monopoly on copper which it retained throughout the 17th century. The only other country with a comparable copper output was Japan, but European imports from Japan were insignificant. In 1690, Erik Odhelius, a prominent metallurgist, was dispatched by the King to survey the European metal market. Although copper production had.

Falun Mine. already begun to decline by the time he made his report, something Odhelius made no secret of, he stated, "For the production of copper Sweden has always been like a mother, and although in many places within and without Europe some copper is extracted it counts for nothing next to the abundance of Swedish copper".By modern standards, however, the output was not large. Peak production barely reached 3,000 tonnes of copper per year, falling to less than 2,000 tonnes by 1665; from 1710 to 1720 it was barely 1,000 tonnes per year. Present worldwide copper production is 18.3 million tons.

Falun Mine. per year; Chuquicamata, a modern copper mine in Chile, has maintained an annual output exceeding 500,000 tonnes for decades.## Modern history.Copper production declined during the 18th century, and the mining company began diversifying. It supplemented copper extraction with iron and timber production. Production of the iconic falu red paint began in earnest. In the 19th century, iron and forest products continued to grow in their importance. In 1881 gold was discovered in Falun Mine, resulting in a short-lived gold rush. A total of 5 tonnes of gold would eventually be produced.By the late 20th century, the mine was no longer.


Question: What is the closest upper taxonomy of this insect?

Instruction: Retrieve a Wikipedia paragraph that provides an answer to the given query about the image.

Western conifer seed bug. The western conifer seed bug ("Leptoglossus occidentalis"), sometimes abbreviated as WCSB, is a species of true bug (Hemiptera) in the family Coreidae. It is native to North America west of the Rocky Mountains (California to British Columbia, east to Idaho and Nevada) but has in recent times expanded its range to eastern North America, to include Ontario, Nova Scotia, Maine, Pennsylvania, New York, Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire, and has become an accidental introduced species in parts of Europe.This species is a member of the insect family Coreidae, or leaf-footed bugs, which also includes the similar "Leptoglossus phyllopus" and "Acanthocephala.


Question: Who occupies this building?

Instruction: Determine the Wikipedia snippet that matches the question of this image.

Palais de Chaillot. Niclausse and Félix-Alexandre Desruelles.The buildings now house a number of museums: the "Musée national de la Marine" (naval museum) and the "Musée de l'Homme" (prehistory and anthropology) in the southern ("Passy") wing, the "Cité de l'Architecture et du Patrimoine", including the "Musée national des Monuments Français", in the eastern ("Paris") wing, from which one also enters the "Théâtre national de Chaillot", a theatre below the esplanade.It was on the front terrace of the palace that Adolf Hitler was pictured during his short tour of the city in 1940, with the Eiffel Tower in the background. This became an iconic image.


Question: What has this building crossed over?

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Preobrazhensky Metro Bridge. Preobrazhenskiy Metro Bridge is the shortest (330 metres) of four rail bridges in Moscow, Russia. It is located in the Eastern Administrative Okrug of the city. It spans over Yauza River and is a part of the Sokolnicheskaya Line of Moscow Metro. It connects the stations Preobrazhenskaya Ploshchad and Sokolniki.Metro Bridge was opened on 31 December 1965 together with the Preobrazhenskaya Ploshchad metro station. Preobrazhenskiy Metro Bridge at metromost.com.


Question: Who is the architect of this building?

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Palau Nacional. The (Catalan for ‘National Palace’) is a building on the hill of Montjuïc in Barcelona. It was the main site of the 1929 International Exhibition. It was designed by Eugenio Cendoya and Enric Catà under the supervision of Pere Domènech i Roura. Since 1934 it has been home to the National Art Museum of Catalonia.With a ground surface of 32,000 m2, the Spanish Renaissance-inspired building has a rectangular floor plan flanked by two side and one rear square sections, with an elliptical dome in the centre. The fountains by the staircases leading to the palace are the work of Carles.

Palau Nacional. Barcelona, Darius Rumeu i Freixa. The winning project also included the collaboration of the constructor Antoni Montseny, and in some publications, the name Pere Domènech i Roura appears, who was already the general manager of construction of the Exhibition.## Executive project.During 1925 the competition, winners made the implementation plan of their project. One of the most important factors was the guarantee of development of the work in a given timeframe. A mechanism to bring the construction time forward was found in the rationalization of architectonic elements; searching for repetition that would serve to save time during the building process. Three.

Palau Nacional. authorities including the president of the executive committee of the Exhibition, Mariano de Foronda, the mayor of Barcelona Darius Rumeu i Freixa, and the director of construction Pere Domènech i Roura.## Architecture.The design of the National Palace is a unified style of Spanish Renaissance architecture with an air of academic classicism.It is the result of different functional forms and construction procedures, resolved by a technical language attributed to the .The construction of the Palace consists of the combination of traditional systems based on symmetry, as clearly outlined in its composition and, that of the building procedure dominated by more modern.

Palau Nacional. II and the Duchess of AlbaQuevedo on the Steps of San FelipeCharles IIIInauguration of the first Barcelona-Mataró railway## Restoration.Architects Eugenio Cendoya, Enric Catà and Pere Domènech i Roura constructed Palau Nacional as a temporary building for the Exhibition of 1929. The speed of the construction and the modesty of the materials used meant that a restoration of the structure was called for in 1934, when it became the National Art Museum of Catalonia. It was the ground floor rooms which underwent the most important transformation. The architect Ramon Reventós was appointed in charge of the renovation, in which they removed.


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this animal?

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Black-footed ferret. The black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes), also known as the American polecat or prairie dog hunter, is a species of mustelid native to central North America.The black-footed ferret is roughly the size of a mink and is similar in appearance to the European polecat and the Asian steppe polecat. It is largely nocturnal and solitary, except when breeding or raising litters. Up to 90% of its diet is composed of prairie dogs.The species declined throughout the 20th century, primarily as a result of decreases in prairie dog populations and sylvatic plague. It was declared extinct in 1979, but a residual wild.

Black-footed ferret. ferret, a female named Elizabeth Ann, was introduced to the public.## Evolution.Like its close relative, the Asian steppe polecat (with which it was once thought to be conspecific), the black-footed ferret represents a more progressive form than the European polecat in the direction of carnivory. The black-footed ferret's most likely ancestor was "Mustela stromeri" (from which the European and steppe polecats are also derived), which originated in Europe during the Middle Pleistocene. Molecular evidence indicates that the steppe polecat and black-footed ferret diverged from "M. stromeri" between 500,000 and 2,000,000 years ago, perhaps in Beringia. The species appeared in the.

Black-footed ferret. Institution – North American Mammals: Mustela nigripes.


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this plant?

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Viburnum opulus. Viburnum opulus, the guelder-rose or guelder rose () is a species of flowering plant in the family Adoxaceae (formerly Caprifoliaceae) native to Europe, northern Africa and central Asia.## Description."Viburnum opulus" is a deciduous shrub growing to 4 - 5 (m) tall. The leaves are opposite, three-lobed, 5 - 10 (cm) long and broad, with a rounded base and coarsely serrated margins; they are superficially similar to the leaves of some maples, most easily distinguished by their somewhat wrinkled surface with impressed leaf venation. The leaf buds are green, with valvate bud scales.The hermaphrodite flowers are white, produced in corymbs 4.

Viburnum opulus. - 11 (cm) in diameter at the top of the stems; each corymb comprises a ring of outer sterile flowers 1.5–2 cm in diameter with conspicuous petals, surrounding a center of small (5 mm), fertile flowers; the flowers are produced in early summer, and pollinated by insects. The fruit is a globose bright red drupe 7–10 mm diameter, containing a single seed. The seeds are dispersed by birds.## Names.The common name 'guelder rose' relates to the Dutch province of Gelderland, where a popular cultivar, the snowball tree, supposedly originated. Other common names include water elder, cramp bark, snowball tree, common.

Viburnum opulus. snowball, and European cranberrybush, though this plant is not closely related to the cranberry. Some botanists also include the North American species "Viburnum trilobum" as "V. opulus" var. "americanum" Ait., or as "V. opulus" subsp. "trilobum" (Marshall) Clausen.## Phylogeny."Viburnum opulus" is a member of the "Viburnum" genus which contains 160 to 170 species. It is classified in the subsection Opulus, which usually contains 5 species. Phylogenetic analyses suggest the following relationship between those species:## Cultivation."Viburnum opulus" is grown as an ornamental plant for its flowers and berries, growing best on moist, moderately alkaline soils, though tolerating most soil types well.

Viburnum opulus. Several cultivars have been selected, including 'Roseum', in which all the flowers are only of the larger sterile type, with globular flower heads.The shrub is also cultivated as a component of hedgerows, cover plantings, and as part of other naturalistic plantings in its native regions.It is naturalised in North America.The cultivars 'Notcutt’s Variety', 'Roseum' and the yellow-fruited 'Xanthocarpum' have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.## Uses.The fruit is edible in small quantities, with a very acidic taste; it can be used to make jelly. It is however mildly toxic, and may cause vomiting or diarrhea if eaten.

Viburnum opulus. in large amounts.The term 'cramp bark' is related to the bark's ability to reduce smooth muscle tightness. Relieving this type of muscle tightness is most often associated with relieving menstrual (period) cramps. However, the bark can also be used during pregnancy for cramps or pain and general muscle cramping.## Cultural meaning.Mentions of the viburnum can be found throughout Ukrainian folklore such as songs, decorative art, Ukrainian embroidery, and poetry. Its symbolic roots can be traced to the Slavic paganism of millennia ago. According to a legend, "kalyna" was associated with the birth of the Universe, the so-called "Fire Trinity": the.

Viburnum opulus. Sun, the Moon, and the Star. Its berries symbolize one's home and native land, blood, and family roots. Kalyna is often depicted on Ukrainian embroidery: ritual cloths and shirts. In Slavic paganism kalyna also represents the beauty of a young lady, which rhymes well in the Ukrainian language: "ka-ly-na – div-chy-na." The song "Chervona Kalyna" was the anthem of the Ukrainian Sich Riflemen and the Ukrainian Insurgent Army; along with these national liberating movements in 20th century guelder rose was established as a symbol of riflemen honor, and state independence."Viburnum opulus" ("kalina") is also one of the national symbols of.

Viburnum opulus. Russia. In Russia the Viburnum fruit is called "kalina" ("калина)" and is considered a national symbol. "Kalina" derived in Russian language from "kalit"' or "raskalyat'," which means "to make red-hot". The red fiery color of the berries represents beauty in Russian culture and together with sweet raspberries it symbolises the passionate love of a beautiful maiden, since berries were always an erotic symbol in Russia. The bitter side of the red fruit also symbolizes love separation in Russian folk culture. The name of the Russian song "Kalinka" is a diminutive of "Kalina." "Viburnum opulus" is also an important symbol of.

Viburnum opulus. the Russian national ornamental wood painting handicraft style called Khokhloma.In Romanian, which has been influenced by East Slavic culture, "Viburnum opulus" is called "călin". Călin is also used as both a given name and a surname.Blamey, M. & Grey-Wilson, C. (1989). "Flora of Britain and Northern Europe". Hodder & Stoughton. Huxley, A., ed. (1992). "New RHS Dictionary of Gardening". Macmillan. Flora Europaea: "Viburnum opulus" Plants for a Future: "Viburnum opulus.