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Electric motor. An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Most electric motors operate through the interaction between the motor's magnetic field and electric current in a wire winding to generate force in the form of torque applied on the motor's shaft. An electric generator is mechanically identical to an electric motor, but operates with a reversed flow of power, converting mechanical energy into electrical energy.Electric motors can be powered by direct current (DC) sources, such as from batteries, or rectifiers, or by alternating current (AC) sources, such as a power grid, inverters or electrical generators.Electric.

Electric motor. braking with traction motors, electric motors can be used in reverse as generators to recover energy that might otherwise be lost as heat and friction.Electric motors produce linear or rotary force (torque) intended to propel some external mechanism, such as a fan or an elevator. An electric motor is generally designed for continuous rotation, or for linear movement over a significant distance compared to its size. Magnetic solenoids are also transducers that convert electrical power to mechanical motion, but can produce motion over only a limited distance.## History.## Early motors.Before modern electromagnetic motors, experimental motors that worked by electrostatic force.

Electric motor. persistent electric currents. Hans Christian Ørsted discovered in 1820 that an electric current creates a magnetic field, which can exert a force on a magnet. It only took a few weeks for André-Marie Ampère to develop the first formulation of the electromagnetic interaction and present the Ampère's force law, that described the production of mechanical force by the interaction of an electric current and a magnetic field. The first demonstration of the effect with a rotary motion was given by Michael Faraday on 3 September 1821 in the basement of the Royal Institution. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a.

Electric motor. pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet (PM) was placed. When a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. Faraday published the results of his discovery in the "Quarterly Journal of Science", and sent copies of his paper along with pocket-sized models of his device to colleagues around the world so they could also witness the phenomenon of electromagnetic rotations. This motor is often demonstrated in physics experiments, substituting brine for (toxic) mercury. Barlow's wheel was an early refinement.

Electric motor. to this Faraday demonstration, although these and similar homopolar motors remained unsuited to practical application until late in the century.In 1827, Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic coils. After Jedlik solved the technical problems of continuous rotation with the invention of the commutator, he called his early devices "electromagnetic self-rotors". Although they were used only for teaching, in 1828 Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three main components of practical DC motors: the stator, rotor and commutator. The device employed no permanent magnets, as the magnetic fields of both the stationary and revolving components were produced.

Electric motor. then higher performance.In 1855, Jedlik built a device using similar principles to those used in his electromagnetic self-rotors that was capable of useful work. He built a model electric vehicle that same year.A major turning point came in 1864, when Antonio Pacinotti first described the ring armature (although initially conceived in a DC generator, i.e. a dynamo). This featured symmetrically-grouped coils closed upon themselves and connected to the bars of a commutator, the brushes of which delivered practically non-fluctuating current. The first commercially successful DC motors followed the developments by Zénobe Gramme who, in 1871, reinvented Pacinotti's design and adopted.

Electric motor. from such tasks as handling grain or pumping water. Household uses (like in washing machines, dishwashers, fans, air conditioners and refrigerators (replacing ice boxes)) of electric motors reduced heavy labor in the home and made higher standards of convenience, comfort and safety possible. Today, electric motors consume more than half of the electric energy produced in the US.## AC motors.In 1824, French physicist François Arago formulated the existence of rotating magnetic fields, termed Arago's rotations, which, by manually turning switches on and off, Walter Baily demonstrated in 1879 as in effect the first primitive induction motor. In the 1880s many.

Electric motor. stator, which does not. It also includes two electrical parts, a set of magnets and an armature, one of which is attached to the rotor and the other to the stator, together forming a magnetic circuit: Field magnets - The magnets create a magnetic field that passes through the armature. These can be electromagnets or permanent magnets. The field magnet is usually on the stator and the armature on the rotor, but in some types of motor these are reversed.## Bearings.The rotor is supported by bearings, which allow the rotor to turn on its axis. The bearings are in turn.

Electric motor. supported by the motor housing.## Rotor.The rotor is the moving part that delivers the mechanical power. The rotor typically holds conductors that carry currents, which the magnetic field of the stator exerts force on to turn the shaft. Alternatively, some rotors carry permanent magnets, and the stator holds the conductors. Permanent magnets offer high efficiency over a larger operating speed and power range.An air gap between the stator and rotor allows it to turn. The width of the gap has a significant effect on the motor's electrical characteristics. It is generally made as small as possible, as a large gap.

Electric motor. weakens performance. It is the main source of the low power factor at which motors operate. The magnetizing current increases and the power factor decreases with the air gap, so narrow gaps are better. Conversely, gaps that are too small may pose mechanical problems in addition to noise and losses.The motor shaft extends through the bearings to the outside of the motor, where the load is applied. Because the forces of the load are exerted beyond the outermost bearing, the load is said to be overhung.## Stator.The stator surrounds the rotor, and usually holds field magnets, which are either electromagnets.

Electric motor. consisting of wire windings around a ferromagnetic iron core or permanent magnets. These create a magnetic field that passes through the rotor armature, exerting force on the windings. The stator core is made up of many thin metal sheets that are insulated from each other, called laminations. Laminations are used to reduce energy losses that would result if a solid core were used. Resin-packed motors, used in washing machines and air conditioners, use the damping properties of resin (plastic) to reduce noise and vibration. These motors encapsulate the stator in plastic.## Armature.The armature consists of wire windings on a ferromagnetic.

Electric motor. core. Electric current passing through the wire causes the magnetic field from the field magnet to exert a force (Lorentz force) on it, turning the rotor, which delivers the mechanical output. Windings are wires that are laid in coils, usually wrapped around a laminated, soft, iron, ferromagnetic core so as to form magnetic poles when energized with current.Electric machines come in salient- and nonsalient-pole configurations. In a salient-pole motor the ferromagnetic cores on the rotor and stator have projections called poles facing each other, with a wire winding around each pole below the pole face, which become north or south.

Electric motor. poles of the magnetic field when current flows through the wire. In a nonsalient-pole (or distributed field or round-rotor) motor, the ferromagnetic core is a smooth cylinder, with the windings distributed evenly in slots about the circumference. Supplying alternating current in the windings creates poles in the core that rotate continuously. A shaded-pole motor has a winding around part of the pole that delays the phase of the magnetic field for that pole.## Commutator.A commutator is a rotary electrical switch that supplies current to the rotor. It periodically reverses the flow of current in the rotor windings as the shaft.

Electric motor. each rotor winding would reverse with each half turn, so the rotor would stop. Commutators are inefficient and commutated motors have been mostly replaced by brushless direct current motors, permanent magnet motors, and induction motors.## Motor supply and control.## Motor supply.A DC motor is usually supplied through a split ring commutator as described above. AC motors' commutation can be achieved using either a slip ring commutator or external commutation. It can be fixed-speed or variable-speed control type, and can be synchronous or asynchronous. Universal motors can run on either AC or DC.## Motor control.DC motors can be operated at variable.

Electric motor. speeds by adjusting the voltage applied to the terminals or by using pulse-width modulation (PWM).AC motors operated at a fixed speed are generally powered directly from the grid or through motor soft starters.AC motors operated at variable speeds are powered with various power inverter, variable-frequency drive or electronic commutator technologies.The term electronic commutator is usually associated with self-commutated brushless DC motor and switched reluctance motor applications.## Types.Electric motors operate on one of three physical principles: magnetism, electrostatics and piezoelectricity.In magnetic motors, magnetic fields are formed in both the rotor and the stator. The product between these two fields gives rise.

Electric motor. to a force, and thus a torque on the motor shaft. One, or both, of these fields must change with the rotation of the rotor. This is done by switching the poles on and off at the right time, or varying the strength of the pole.The main types are DC motors and AC motors, with the latter replacing the former. AC electric motors are either asynchronous or synchronous.Once started, a synchronous motor requires synchrony with the moving magnetic field's speed for all normal torque conditions.In synchronous machines, the magnetic field must be provided by means other than induction, such as.

Electric motor. from separately excited windings or permanent magnets.A fractional-horsepower motor either has a rating below about 1 horsepower (0.746 kW), or is manufactured with a standard-frame size smaller than a standard 1 HP motor. Many household and industrial motors are in the fractional-horsepower class.Notes: Rotation is independent of the frequency of the AC voltage. Rotation is equal to synchronous speed (motor-stator-field speed). In SCIM, fixed-speed operation rotation is equal to synchronous speed, less slip speed. In non-slip energy-recovery systems, WRIM is usually used for motor-starting but can be used to vary load speed. Variable-speed operation. Whereas induction- and synchronous-motor drives are.

Electric motor. typically with either six-step or sinusoidal-waveform output, BLDC-motor drives are usually with trapezoidal-current waveform; the behavior of both sinusoidal and trapezoidal PM machines is, however, identical in terms of their fundamental aspects. In variable-speed operation, WRIM is used in slip-energy recovery and double-fed induction-machine applications. A cage winding is a shorted-circuited squirrel-cage rotor, a wound winding is connected externally through slip rings. Mostly single-phase with some three-phase.Abbreviations: BLAC – Brushless AC BLDC – Brushless DC BLDM – Brushless DC motor EC – Electronic commutator PM – Permanent magnet IPMSM – Interior permanent-magnet synchronous motor PMSM – Permanent magnet synchronous motor.

Electric motor. SPMSM – Surface permanent magnet synchronous motor SCIM – Squirrel-cage induction motor SRM – Switched reluctance motor SyRM – Synchronous reluctance motor VFD – Variable-frequency drive WRIM – Wound-rotor induction motor WRSM – Wound-rotor synchronous motor LRA – Locked-rotor amps: The current you can expect under starting conditions when you apply full voltage. It occurs instantly during start-up. RLA – Rated-load amps: The maximum current a motor should draw under any operating conditions. Often mistakenly called running-load amps, which leads people to believe, incorrectly, that the motor should always pull these amps. FLA – Full-load amps: Changed in 1976 to.

Electric motor. "RLA – rated-load amps".## Self-commutated motor.## Brushed DC motor.Most DC motors are small permanent magnet (PM) types. They contain a brushed internal mechanical commutation to reverse motor windings' current in synchronism with rotation.## Electrically excited DC motor.A commutated DC motor has a set of rotating windings wound on an armature mounted on a rotating shaft. The shaft also carries the commutator. Thus, every brushed DC motor has AC flowing through its windings. Current flows through one or more pairs of brushes that touch the commutator; the brushes connect an external source of electric power to the rotating armature.The rotating armature.

Electric motor. consists of one or more wire coils wound around a laminated, magnetically "soft" ferromagnetic core. Current from the brushes flows through the commutator and one winding of the armature, making it a temporary magnet (an electromagnet). The magnetic field produced interacts with a stationary magnetic field produced by either PMs or another winding (a field coil), as part of the motor frame. The force between the two magnetic fields rotates the shaft. The commutator switches power to the coils as the rotor turns, keeping the poles from ever fully aligning with the magnetic poles of the stator field, so that.

Electric motor. – A set of windings that produces a magnetic field. Commutation: A mechanical technique in which rectification can be achieved, or from which DC can be derived.The five types of brushed DC motor are: Shunt-wound Series-wound Compound (two configurations): Cumulative compound Differentially compounded Permanent magnet (not shown) Separately excited (not shown).## Permanent magnet.A permanent magnet (PM) motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame, relying instead on PMs to provide the magnetic field. Compensating windings in series with the armature may be used on large motors to improve commutation under load. This field is fixed and cannot.

Electric motor. be adjusted for speed control. PM fields (stators) are convenient in miniature motors to eliminate the power consumption of the field winding. Most larger DC motors are of the "dynamo" type, which have stator windings. Historically, PMs could not be made to retain high flux if they were disassembled; field windings were more practical to obtain the needed flux. However, large PMs are costly, as well as dangerous and difficult to assemble; this favors wound fields for large machines.To minimize overall weight and size, miniature PM motors may use high energy magnets made with neodymium; most are neodymium-iron-boron alloy. With.

Electric motor. their higher flux density, electric machines with high-energy PMs are at least competitive with all optimally designed singly-fed synchronous and induction electric machines. Miniature motors resemble the structure in the illustration, except that they have at least three rotor poles (to ensure starting, regardless of rotor position) and their outer housing is a steel tube that magnetically links the exteriors of the curved field magnets.## Electronic commutator (EC).## Brushless DC.Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the BLDC design. In this motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator is replaced by an external electronic switch.

Electric motor. synchronised to the rotor's position. BLDC motors are typically 85%+ efficient, reaching up to 96.5%, while brushed DC motors are typically 75–80% efficient.The BLDC motor's characteristic trapezoidal counter-electromotive force (CEMF) waveform is derived partly from the stator windings being evenly distributed, and partly from the placement of the rotor's permanent magnets. Also known as electronically commutated DC or inside-out DC motors, the stator windings of trapezoidal BLDC motors can be single-phase, two-phase or three-phase and use Hall effect sensors mounted on their windings for rotor position sensing and low cost closed-loop commutator control.BLDC motors are commonly used where precise speed.

Electric motor. motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers and are generally used in fans to remove heat. They make little noise, which is an advantage in equipment that is affected by vibrations.Modern BLDC motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to many kilowatts. Larger BLDC motors rated up to about 100 kW are used in electric vehicles. They also find use in electric model aircraft.## Switched reluctance motor.The switched reluctance motor (SRM) has no brushes or permanent magnets, and the rotor has no electric currents. Torque comes from a slight misalignment of poles on the.

Electric motor. rotor with poles on the stator. The rotor aligns itself with the magnetic field of the stator, while the stator field windings are sequentially energized to rotate the stator field.The magnetic flux created by the field windings follows the path of least magnetic sending the flux through rotor poles that are closest to the energized poles of the stator, thereby magnetizing those poles of the rotor and creating torque. As the rotor turns, different windings are energized, keeping the rotor turning.SRMs are used in some appliances and vehicles.## Universal AC/DC motor.A commutated, electrically excited, series or parallel wound motor is.

Electric motor. referred to as a universal motor because it can be designed to operate on either AC or DC power. A universal motor can operate well on AC because the current in both the field and the armature coils (and hence the resultant magnetic fields) synchronously reverse polarity, and hence the resulting mechanical force occurs in a constant direction of rotation.Operating at normal power line frequencies, universal motors are often used in sub-kilowatt applications. Universal motors formed the basis of the traditional railway traction motor in electric railways. In this application, using AC power on a motor designed to run on.

Electric motor. DC would experience efficiency losses due to eddy current heating of their magnetic components, particularly the motor field pole-pieces that, for DC, would have used solid (un-laminated) iron. They are now rarely used.An advantage is that AC power may be used on motors that specifically have high starting torque and compact design if high running speeds are used. By contrast, maintenance is higher and lifetimes are shortened. Such motors are used in devices that are not heavily used, and have high starting-torque demands. Multiple taps on the field coil provide (imprecise) stepped speed control. Household blenders that advertise many speeds.

Electric motor. an asynchronous AC motor where power is transferred to the rotor by electromagnetic induction, much like transformer action. An induction motor resembles a rotating transformer, because the stator (stationary part) is essentially the primary side of the transformer and the rotor (rotating part) is the secondary side. Polyphase induction motors are widely used in industry.## Cage and wound rotor.Induction motors may be divided into Squirrel Cage Induction Motors (SCIM) and Wound Rotor Induction Motors (WRIM). SCIMs have a heavy winding made up of solid bars, usually aluminum or copper, electrically connected by rings at the ends of the rotor. The.

Electric motor. bars and rings as a whole are much like an animal's rotating exercise cage.Currents induced into this winding provide the rotor magnetic field. The shape of the rotor bars determines the speed-torque characteristics. At low speeds, the current induced in the squirrel cage is nearly at line frequency and tends to stay in the outer parts of the cage. As the motor accelerates, the slip frequency becomes lower, and more current reaches the interior. By shaping the bars to change the resistance of the winding portions in the interior and outer parts of the cage, a variable resistance is effectively.

Electric motor. steering wheels.Another common application is to control the throttle of an internal combustion engine with an electronic governor. The motor works against a return spring to move the throttle in accord with the governor output. The latter monitors engine speed by counting electrical pulses from the ignition system or from a magnetic pickup and depending on the speed, makes small adjustments to the amount of current. If the engine slows down relative to the desired speed, the current increases, producing more torque, pulling against the return spring and opening the throttle. Should the engine run too fast, the governor reduces.

Electric motor. the current, allowing the return spring to pull back and reduce the throttle.## Synchronous motor.A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor. It includes a rotor spinning with coils passing magnets at the same frequency as the AC and produces a magnetic field to drive it. It has zero slip under typical operating conditions. By contrast induction motors must slip to produce torque. One type of synchronous motor is like an induction motor except that the rotor is excited by a DC field. Slip rings and brushes conduct current to the rotor. The rotor poles connect to each other and.

Electric motor. when slip rate decreases sufficiently, the rotor (a smooth cylinder) becomes temporarily magnetized. Its distributed poles make it act like a permanent magnet synchronous motor. The rotor material, like that of a common nail, stays magnetized, but can be demagnetized with little difficulty. Once running, the rotor poles stay in place; they do not drift.Low-power synchronous timing motors (such as those for traditional electric clocks) may have multi-pole permanent magnet external cup rotors, and use shading coils to provide starting torque. "Telechron" clock motors have shaded poles for starting torque, and a two-spoke ring rotor that performs like a discrete.

Electric motor. allows for a smaller electronic converter but the cost of the rotor winding and slip rings may offset the saving in the power electronics components. Difficulties affect controlling speed near synchronous speed limit applications.## Special magnetic motors.## Rotary.## Ironless or coreless rotor motor.The coreless or ironless DC motor is a specialized permanent magnet DC motor. Optimized for rapid acceleration, the rotor is constructed without an iron core. The rotor can take the form of a winding-filled cylinder, or a self-supporting structure comprising only wire and bonding material. The rotor can fit inside the stator magnets; a magnetically soft stationary cylinder.

Electric motor. inside the rotor provides a return path for the stator magnetic flux. A second arrangement has the rotor winding basket surrounding the stator magnets. In that design, the rotor fits inside a magnetically soft cylinder that can serve as the motor housing, and provides a return path for the flux.Because the rotor is much lower mass than a conventional rotor, it can accelerate much more rapidly, often achieving a mechanical time constant under one millisecond. This is especially true if the windings use aluminum rather than (heavier) copper. The rotor has no metal mass to act as a heat sink;.

Electric motor. even small motors must be cooled. Overheating can be an issue for these designs.The vibrating alert of cellular phones can be generated by cylindrical permanent-magnet motors, or disc-shaped types that have a thin multipolar disc field magnet, and an intentionally unbalanced molded-plastic rotor structure with two bonded coreless coils. Metal brushes and a flat commutator switch power to the rotor coils.Related limited-travel actuators have no core and a bonded coil placed between the poles of high-flux thin permanent magnets. These are the fast head positioners for rigid-disk ("hard disk") drives. Although the contemporary design differs considerably from that of loudspeakers,.

Electric motor. it is still loosely (and incorrectly) referred to as a "voice coil" structure, because some earlier rigid-disk-drive heads moved in straight lines, and had a drive structure much like that of a loudspeaker.## Pancake or axial rotor motor.The printed armature or pancake motor has windings shaped as a disc running between arrays of high-flux magnets. The magnets are arranged in a circle facing the rotor spaced to form an axial air gap. This design is commonly known as the pancake motor because of its flat profile.The armature (originally formed on a printed circuit board) is made from punched copper sheets.

Electric motor. with 180 (C), Class H rating.The unique advantage of ironless DC motors is the absence of cogging (torque variations caused by changing attraction between the iron and the magnets). Parasitic eddy currents cannot form in the rotor as it is totally ironless, although iron rotors are laminated. This can greatly improve efficiency, but variable-speed controllers must use a higher switching rate (>40 kHz) or DC because of decreased electromagnetic induction.These motors were invented to drive the capstan(s) of magnetic tape drives, where minimal time to reach operating speed and minimal stopping distance were critical. Pancake motors are widely used in.

Electric motor. high-performance servo-controlled systems, robotic systems, industrial automation and medical devices. Due to the variety of constructions now available, the technology is used in applications from high temperature military to low cost pump and basic servos.Another approach (Magnax) is to use a single stator sandwiched between two rotors. One such design has produced peak power of 15 kW/kg, sustained power around 7.5 kW/kg. This yokeless axial flux motor offers a shorter flux path, keeping the magnets further from the axis. The design allows zero winding overhang; 100 percent of the windings are active. This is enhanced with the use of rectangular-crosssection.

Electric motor. copper wire. The motors can be stacked to work in parallel. Instabilities are minimized by ensuring that the two rotor discs put equal and opposing forces onto the stator disc. The rotors are connected directly to one another via a shaft ring, cancelling out the magnetic forces.Magnax motors range in size from 0.15-5.4 (m) in diameter.## Servo motor.A servo motor is a motor that is used within a position-control or speed-control feedback system. Servomotors are used in applications such as machine tools, pen plotters, and other process systems. Motors intended for use in a servomechanism must have predictable characteristics for.

Electric motor. speed, torque, and power. The speed/torque curve is important and is high ratio for a servo motor. Dynamic response characteristics such as winding inductance and rotor inertia are important; these factors limit performance. Large, powerful, but slow-responding servo loops may use conventional AC or DC motors and drive systems with position or speed feedback. As dynamic response requirements increase, more specialized motor designs such as coreless motors are used. AC motors' superior power density and acceleration characteristics tends to favor permanent magnet synchronous, BLDC, induction, and SRM drive approaches.A servo system differs from some stepper motor applications in that position.

Electric motor. feedback is continuous while the motor is running. A stepper system inherently operates open-loop—relying on the motor not to "miss steps" for short term accuracy—with any feedback such as a "home" switch or position encoder external to the motor system.## Stepper motor.Stepper motors are typically used to provide precise rotations. An internal rotor containing permanent magnets or a magnetically soft rotor with salient poles is controlled by a set of electronically switched external magnets. A stepper motor may also be thought of as a cross between a DC electric motor and a rotary solenoid. As each coil is energized in.

Electric motor. turn, the rotor aligns itself with the magnetic field produced by the energized field winding. Unlike a synchronous motor, the stepper motor may not rotate continuously; instead, it moves in steps—starting and then stopping—advancing from one position to the next as field windings are energized and de-energized in sequence. Depending on the sequence, the rotor may turn forwards or backwards, and it may change direction, stop, speed up or slow down at any time.Simple stepper motor drivers entirely energize or entirely de-energize the field windings, leading the rotor to "cog" to a limited number of positions. Microstepping drivers can proportionally.

Electric motor. made them uncompetitive—thus newer hard disk drives use voice coil-based head actuator systems. (The term "voice coil" in this connection is historic; it refers to the structure in a cone-type loudspeaker.)Stepper motors are often used in computer printers, optical scanners, and digital photocopiers to move the active element, the print head carriage (inkjet printers), and the platen or feed rollers.So-called quartz analog wristwatches contain the smallest commonplace stepping motors; they have one coil, draw little power, and have a permanent magnet rotor. The same kind of motor drives battery-powered quartz clocks. Some of these watches, such as chronographs, contain more.

Electric motor. 1978 era HP 7225A pen plotter used two linear stepper motors to move the pen along the X and Y axes.## Electromagnetism.## Force and torque.An electric motor converts electrical energy to mechanical energy through the force between two opposed magnetic fields. At least one of the two magnetic fields must be created by an electromagnet through the magnetic field caused by an electrical current.The force between a current formula_1 in a conductor of length formula_2 perpendicular to a magnetic field formula_3 may be calculated using the Lorentz force law: formula_4Note: X denotes vector cross product. The most general approaches to.

Electric motor. resistance Ir2 – square of current induced in the rotor s – motor slip; i.e., difference between synchronous speed and slip speed, which provides the relative movement needed for current induction in the rotor.## Back EMF.The movement of armature windings of a direct-current or universal motor through a magnetic field, induce a voltage in them. This voltage tends to oppose the motor supply voltage and so is called "back electromotive force (EMF)". The voltage is proportional to the running speed of the motor. The back EMF of the motor, plus the voltage drop across the winding internal resistance and brushes,.

Electric motor. enacted legislation to encourage the manufacture and use of higher-efficiency motors. Electric motors have efficiencies ranging from at least 15% for shaded pole motors, up to 98% for permanent magnet motors, with efficiency also dependent on load. Peak efficiency is usually at 75% of the rated load. So (as an example) a 10 HP motor is most efficient when driving a load that requires 7.5 HP. Efficiency also depends on motor size; larger motors tend to be more efficient. Some motors can not operate continually for more than a specified period of time (e.g. for more than an hour per.

Electric motor. run)## Goodness factor.Eric Laithwaite proposed a metric to determine the 'goodness' of an electric motor: formula_21Where: formula_22 is the goodness factor (factors above 1 are likely to be efficient) formula_23 are the cross sectional areas of the magnetic and electric circuit formula_24 are the lengths of the magnetic and electric circuits formula_25 is the permeability of the core formula_20 is the angular frequency the motor is driven atFrom this, he showed that the most efficient motors are likely to have relatively large magnetic poles. However, the equation only directly relates to non PM motors.## Performance parameters.## Torque.Electromagnetic motors derive torque.

Electric motor. from the vector product of the interacting fields. Calculating torque requires knowledge of the fields in the air gap. Once these have been established, the torque is the integral of all the force vectors multiplied by the vector's radius. The current flowing in the winding produces the fields. For a motor using a magnetic material the field is not proportional to the current.A figure relating the current to the torque can inform motor selection. The maximum torque for a motor depends on the maximum current, absent thermal considerations.When optimally designed within a given core saturation constraint and for a given.

Electric motor. active current (i.e., torque current), voltage, pole-pair number, excitation frequency (i.e., synchronous speed), and air-gap flux density, all categories of electric motors/generators exhibit virtually the same maximum continuous shaft torque (i.e., operating torque) within a given air-gap area with winding slots and back-iron depth, which determines the physical size of electromagnetic core. Some applications require bursts of torque beyond the maximum, such as bursts to accelerate an electric vehicle from standstill. Always limited by magnetic core saturation or safe operating temperature rise and voltage, the capacity for torque bursts beyond the maximum differs significantly across motor/generator types.Electric machines without a.

Electric motor. transformer circuit topology, such as that of WRSMs or PMSMs, cannot provide torque bursts without saturating the magnetic core. At that point, additional current cannot increase torque. Furthermore, the permanent magnet assembly of PMSMs can be irreparably damaged.Electric machines with a transformer circuit topology, such as induction machines, induction doubly-fed electric machines, and induction or synchronous wound-rotor doubly-fed (WRDF) machines, permit torque bursts because the EMF-induced active current on either side of the transformer oppose each other and thus contribute nothing to the transformer coupled magnetic core flux density, avoiding core saturation.Electric machines that rely on induction or asynchronous principles.

Electric motor. the air-gap area and the back-iron depth, which are determined by the power rating of the armature winding set, the speed of the machine, and the achievable air-gap flux density before core saturation. Despite the high coercivity of neodymium or samarium-cobalt permanent magnets, continuous torque density is virtually the same amongst electric machines with optimally designed armature winding sets. Continuous torque density relates to method of cooling and permissible operation period before destruction by overheating of windings or permanent magnet damage.Other sources state that various e-machine topologies have differing torque density. One source shows the following:where—specific torque density is normalized.

Electric motor. to 1.0 for the surface permanent magnet (SPM)—brushless ac, 180° current conduction.Torque density is approximately four times greater for liquid cooled motors, compared to those which are air cooled.A source comparing direct current, induction motors (IM), PMSM and SRM showed:Another source notes that PMSM up to 1 MW have considerably higher torque density than induction machines.## Continuous power density.The continuous power density is determined by the product of the continuous torque density and the constant torque speed range. Electric motors can achieve densities of up to 20KW/KG, meaning 20 Kilowatts of output power per kilogram.## Acoustic noise and vibrations.Acoustic noise.

Electric motor. and vibrations are usually classified in three sources: mechanical sources (e.g. due to bearings) aerodynamic sources (e.g. due to shaft-mounted fans) magnetic sources (e.g. due to magnetic forces such as Maxwell and magnetostriction forces acting on stator and rotor structures)The latter source, which can be responsible for the "whining noise" of electric motors, is called electromagnetically induced acoustic noise.## Standards.The following are major design, manufacturing, and testing standards covering electric motors: American Petroleum Institute: API 541 Form-Wound Squirrel Cage Induction Motors – 375 kW (500 Horsepower) and Larger American Petroleum Institute: API 546 Brushless Synchronous Machines – 500 kVA and.

Electric motor. 60072 Dimensions and output series for rotating electrical machines National Electrical Manufacturers Association: MG-1 Motors and Generators Underwriters Laboratories: UL 1004 – Standard for Electric Motors Indian Standard: IS:12615-2018 – Line Operated Three Phase a.c. Motors (IE CODE) “Efficiency Classes and Performance Specification” (Third Revision)## Non-magnetic motors.An electrostatic motor is based on the attraction and repulsion of electric charge. Usually, electrostatic motors are the dual of conventional coil-based motors. They typically require a high-voltage power supply, although small motors employ lower voltages. Conventional electric motors instead employ magnetic attraction and repulsion, and require high current at low voltages. In the.

Electric motor. produces acoustic or ultrasonic vibrations to produce linear or rotary motion. In one mechanism, the elongation in a single plane is used to make a series of stretches and position holds, similar to the way a caterpillar moves.An electrically powered spacecraft propulsion system uses electric motor technology to propel spacecraft in outer space. Most systems are based on electrically accelerating propellant to high speed, while some systems are based on electrodynamic tethers principles of propulsion to the magnetosphere. Electric generator Regenerative brake Goodness factor Motor capacitor Traction motor Motor controller Houston, Edwin J.; Kennelly, Arthur, "Recent Types of Dynamo-Electric Machinery",.


Question: What is the closest upper taxonomy of this plant?

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Banksia. Banksia is a genus of around 170 species in the plant family Proteaceae. These Australian wildflowers and popular garden plants are easily recognised by their characteristic flower spikes, and fruiting "cones" and heads. "Banksias" range in size from prostrate woody shrubs to trees up to 30 metres (100 ft) tall. They are found in a wide variety of landscapes: sclerophyll forest, (occasionally) rainforest, shrubland, and some more arid landscapes, though not in Australia's deserts.Heavy producers of nectar, "banksias" are a vital part of the food chain in the Australian bush. They are an important food source for all sorts of.

Banksia. 1809, however Joseph Knight published the name "Josephia" before Brown published his paper with the description of "Dryandra". Brown ignored Knight's name, as did subsequent botanists.In 1891, Otto Kuntze, strictly applying the principle of priority, argued that "Pimelea" should revert to the name "Banksia" J.R.Forst & G.Forst. He proposed the new genus "Sirmuellera" to replaced "Banksia" L.f. and transferred its species to the new genus. This arrangement was largely ignored by Kuntze's contemporaries."Banksia" L.f. was formally conserved and "Sirmuellera" rejected in 1940."Banksia" belongs to the family Proteaceae, subfamily Grevilleoideae, and tribe Banksieae. There are around 170 species. The closest relatives.

Banksia. genus that was easily identified, but for which distribution and habitat was poorly known. The study mobilised over 400 volunteers, collecting over 25,000 field observations over a two-year period. Outcomes included the discovery of two new species, as well as new varieties and some rare colour variants, and discoveries of previously unknown populations of rare and threatened species. The collated data was used to create "The Banksia Atlas", which was first published in 1988.Banksias, Waratahs and Grevilleas and all other plants in the Australian Proteaceae familyWritten by J. W. Wrigley and M. Fagg, this was published by Collins Publishers in.

Banksia. 1989. A comprehensive text on all the Proteaceae genera with good historical notes and an overview of the 1975 Johnson & Briggs classification. It is out of print and hard to find.## May Gibb's "Banksia men".Perhaps the best known cultural reference to "Banksia" is the "big bad Banksia men" of May Gibbs' children's book "Snugglepot and Cuddlepie". Gibb's "Banksia men" are modelled on the appearance of aged "Banksia" "cones", with follicles for eyes and other facial features. There is some contention over which species actually provided the inspiration for the "Banksia men": the drawings most resemble the old cones of.


Question: On what date did this building officially open?

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Pro Football Hall of Fame. Village, an estimated $900 million expansion project adjacent to the Pro Football Hall of Fame, has completed Phase I of construction; preparations for beginning Phase II are currently underway.Dick McCann (April 4, 1962 – November 1967)Dick Gallagher (April 1968 – December 31, 1975)Pete Elliott (February 1979 – October 31, 1996)John Bankert (November 1, 1996 – December 31, 2005)Steve Perry (April 24, 2006 – January 2014)David Baker (January 6, 2014 – October 16, 2021)Jim Porter (2021 – present)## Inductees.Through 2021, all players in the Hall, except Buffalo Bills guard Billy Shaw, played at least some part of their professional career in.

Pro Football Hall of Fame. 2002, the ceremony was moved to Fawcett Stadium (now Tom Benson Hall of Fame Stadium), where it was held from 1963 to 1965. Since 2007, the enshrinement ceremony has been held on the Saturday night, since 2017 two days after the Hall of Fame Game. In 2022, the ceremony was moved to noon ET.## Hall of Fame Game.The Hall of Fame Game, the annual NFL preseason opener, is played in Tom Benson Hall of Fame Stadium at Hall of Fame Village in Canton, Ohio. In 2017, the Hall of Fame Game was held for the first time on Thursday night.


Question: Which road, railway or canal does this island carry?

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Confederation Bridge. The Confederation Bridge () is a box girder bridge carrying the Trans-Canada Highway across the Abegweit Passage of the Northumberland Strait, linking the province of Prince Edward Island with the province of New Brunswick on the mainland. Opened May 31, 1997, the 12.9 (km) bridge is Canada's longest bridge and the world's longest bridge over ice-covered water.Construction took place from October 1993 to May 1997 and cost C$1.3 billion. Before its official naming, Prince Edward Islanders often referred to the bridge as the "Fixed Link". It officially opened to traffic on May 31, 1997. In April 2022, the PEI legislature.

Confederation Bridge. voted unanimously in favour of renaming the bridge to "Epekwitk Crossing", whereas Epekwitk ( ) is the traditional Mi'kmaq name for Prince Edward Island. The name change would need to be approved by the Canadian federal government in order to take effect.## Structure.The bridge is a two-lane toll bridge that carries the Trans-Canada Highway between Borden-Carleton, Prince Edward Island (at Route 1) and Cape Jourimain, New Brunswick (at Route 16).It is a multi-span balanced cantilever bridge with a post-tensioned concrete box girder structure. Most of the curved bridge is 40 (m) above water with a 60 (m) navigation span for.


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this animal?

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Tiger snake. Tiger snakes ("Notechis scutatus") are a large and highly venomous snake of southern Australia, including its coastal islands and Tasmania. These snakes are often observed and locally well known by their banding, black and yellow like a tiger, although the species can be highly variable in coloration and patterning. All populations are classified within the genus Notechis (Elapidae). Their diverse characteristics have been classified either as distinct species or by subspecies and regional variation.While tiger snakes are usually ground-dwelling, they are able to swim as well as climb into trees and buildings.## Taxonomy.The genus "Notechis" is allied to the elapid.

Tiger snake. family, venomous snakes with fixed front fangs. The classification of this genus is given as a single and highly variable species, "Notechis scutatus", or a second species "Notechis ater", and by an arrangement of subspecies or regional morphs.A 2016 genetic analysis showed that the closest relative of the tiger snakes is the rough-scaled snake ("Tropidechis carinatus").The two extensively recognized species of this genus are "Notechis scutatus" (Peters, 1861) and "Notechis ater" (Krefft, 1866), which show further variety in their characteristics. Several authors have published revisions or described subspecies of these species. Others consider the names contained by this taxonomic arrangement.

Tiger snake. to be unwarranted, and describe "Notechis" as a monotypic genus. Various authorities accept some or all the systematics previously applied, but most agree a revision of the genus is needed. Names for these subdivisions include the western types, appended to both species names as "occidentalis" (Glauert 1948) The island groups have also been described as subspecies: Chappell Island tiger snake as "N. ater serventyi" (Warrell, 1963), King Island and Tasmanian tiger snakes subspecies as "N. ater humphreysi", (Warrell, 1963) and the Peninsula tiger snake as "N. ater niger" (Kinghorn 1921).Island populations of "N. scutatus" have evolved larger heads to cope.

Tiger snake. with large prey animals. Young populations have larger heads by phenotypic plasticity, whereas large heads have become genetically assimilated in older populations."* Not including the nominate subspecies (typical form)."## Description."Notechis" is a genus of large venomous snakes in the family Elapidae restricted to subtropical and temperate regions of Australia. Tiger snakes are a large group of distinct populations, which may be isolated or overlapping, with extreme variance in size and colour. Individuals also show seasonal variation in colour. The total length is typically about 1.2 (m) The patterning is darker bands, strongly contrasting or indistinct, which are pale to very.

Tiger snake. distinct from a robust body. The giant of the tiger snakes species, it averages 1.9 m (over 6 ft) in length. Dorsally, its colour is olive-brown to almost black, sometimes with lighter crossbands. The ventral surface is usually lighter in colour. Juveniles are banded. Mid-body scales are in 17 rows; ventrals number 160 to 171, subcaudals 47 to 52 (single), and the anal scale is single. These snakes are quite docile.The King Island and Tasmanian tiger snakes each have a blunt head distinct from a robust body. Younger snakes may be slimmer and similar to other tiger snakes, eventually growing.

Tiger snake. up to 1.5 (m) in length. Dorsally, they may be jet black, jet black with lighter crossbands, grey with black flecks forming faint bands, or an unbanded grey or brown. The ventral surface is usually a lighter colour. Midbody scales are in 19, 17 or sometimes 15 rows, ventrals number 161 to 174, subcaudals 48 to 52 (single) and the anal scale is single. Tasmanian tiger snakes tend to be quiet snakes, probably due to the lower temperature ranges they inhabit.The Peninsula tiger snake has a blunt head distinct from a robust body; it averages 1.1 (m) in length. Roxby.

Tiger snake. is single.The subspecies "Notechis ater ater", found away from mainland Australia, is typically uniformly black.As with most snakes, the colours vary widely between individuals and are an unreliable means of identifying subspecies. Accurate identification is best performed with a venom test kit or scale count.## Reproduction.Tiger snakes give birth to 20 to 30 live young; an exceptional record was made of 64 from an eastern female.They usually mate in spring when it is in the warmer seasons and will give birth to live young in summer.## Habitat.Tiger snakes are usually found in coastal regions, where they favour wetlands, creeks, dams,.

Tiger snake. Identifying the snake is not necessary if bitten in Tasmania, because the same antivenom is used to treat all Tasmanian snakes' bites. The availability of antivenom has greatly reduced the incidence of fatal tiger snake bites. Among the number of deaths caused by snakebite in Australia, those from tiger snakes are exceeded only by the brown snake. The venom yield is 35-65 mg, while the lethal dose for humans is 3 mg.## Conservation.In most Australian states, they are protected species, and to kill or injure one incurs a fine up to $7,500, as well as a jail sentence of 18.

Tiger snake. months in some states. It is also illegal to export a native Australian snake.Information on bites from survivaliq.comInformation on the genus from snakeshow.netMainland Tiger Snake - Australian Reptile ParkIntegrated Taxonomic Information System - Notechis.


Question: Who is the creator of this object?

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Reflecting telescope. A reflecting telescope (also called a reflector) is a telescope that uses a single or a combination of curved mirrors that reflect light and form an image. The reflecting telescope was invented in the 17th century by Isaac Newton as an alternative to the refracting telescope which, at that time, was a design that suffered from severe chromatic aberration. Although reflecting telescopes produce other types of optical aberrations, it is a design that allows for very large diameter objectives. Almost all of the major telescopes used in astronomy research are reflectors. Reflecting telescopes come in many design variations and may.

Reflecting telescope. employ extra optical elements to improve image quality or place the image in a mechanically advantageous position. Since reflecting telescopes use mirrors, the design is sometimes referred to as a catoptric telescope.From the time of Newton to the 1800s, the mirror itself was made of metal usually speculum metal. This type included Newton's first designs and even the largest telescopes of the 19th century, the Leviathan of Parsonstown with a 1.8 meter wide metal mirror. In the 19th century a new method using a block of glass coated with very thin layer of silver began to become more popular by.

Reflecting telescope. his telescope and five years before Hooke built the first such Gregorian telescope, Isaac Newton in 1668 built his own reflecting telescope, which is generally acknowledged as the first reflecting telescope. It used a spherically ground metal primary mirror and a small diagonal mirror in an optical configuration that has come to be known as the Newtonian telescope.Despite the theoretical advantages of the reflector design, the difficulty of construction and the poor performance of the speculum metal mirrors being used at the time meant it took over 100 years for them to become popular. Many of the advances in reflecting.

Reflecting telescope. useful for terrestrial observations. Some small spotting scopes are still built this way. There are several large modern telescopes that use a Gregorian configuration such as the Vatican Advanced Technology Telescope, the Magellan telescopes, the Large Binocular Telescope, and the Giant Magellan Telescope.## Newtonian.The Newtonian telescope was the first successful reflecting telescope, completed by Isaac Newton in 1668. It usually has a paraboloid primary mirror but at focal ratios of about f/10 or longer a spherical primary mirror can be sufficient for high visual resolution. A flat secondary mirror reflects the light to a focal plane at the side of.

Reflecting telescope. seldom faster than f/15.## Off-axis designs.There are several designs that try to avoid obstructing the incoming light by eliminating the secondary or moving any secondary element off the primary mirror's optical axis, commonly called off-axis optical systems.## Herschelian.The Herschelian reflector is named after William Herschel, who used this design to build very large telescopes including the 40-foot telescope in 1789. In the Herschelian reflector the primary mirror is tilted so the observer's head does not block the incoming light. Although this introduces geometrical aberrations, Herschel employed this design to avoid the use of a Newtonian secondary mirror since the speculum.


Question: In which year was this vehicle invented or discovered?

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Steam locomotive. another trio of locomotives, concluding with the "Catch Me Who Can" in 1808.In 1812, Matthew Murray's successful twin-cylinder rack locomotive "Salamanca" first ran on the edge-railed rack-and-pinion Middleton Railway. Another well-known early locomotive was "Puffing Billy", built 1813–14 by engineer William Hedley. It was intended to work on the Wylam Colliery near Newcastle upon Tyne. This locomotive is the oldest preserved, and is on static display at the Science Museum, London.## George Stephenson.George Stephenson, a former miner working as an engine-wright at Killingworth Colliery, developed up to sixteen Killingworth locomotives, including "Blücher" in 1814, another in 1815, and a (newly.


Question: What is the weight of a male of this bird in gram?

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Kea. the forests of New Zealand five million years ago. Their closest relative is the flightless kakapo ("Strigops habroptilus"). Together, they form the parrot superfamily Strigopoidea, an ancient group that split off from all other Psittacidae before their radiation.## Description.The kea is a large parrot measuring 46 to 50 (cm) in total length, with some specimens possibly reaching 55 (cm). Adult kea weigh between 750 and 1000 (g), with males averaging 956 (g) and females averaging 779 (g). One source listed the mean adult weight as 922 (g) It has mostly olive-green plumage with a grey beak having a long, narrow,.


Question: Which city or region does this building locate in?

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Hayravank Monastery. Hayravank () is a 9th to 12th century Armenian monastery located just northeast of the village of Hayravank along the southwest shores of Lake Sevan in the Gegharkunik Province of Armenia. The monastic complex consists of a church, chapel, and gavit.Surrounding the monastery are numerous khachkars and gravestones that are part of a small cemetery. To the northwest a short distance from the site, are the remains of Bronze Age through medieval fortification walls and foundations of a settlement. A polished black vessel of the Early Bronze Age was discovered during archaeological excavations in the area. Weapons of metal and.

Hayravank Monastery. stone, tools, clay idols, numerous vessels, fireplaces and two tombs, all from the Iron Age were discovered in the vicinity as well.## Architecture.## Church and Chapel.The church at Hayravank was built during the late 9th century. It is a quatrefoil cruciform central-plan structure with four semi-circular apses that intersect to create squinches for the octagonal drum and conical dome to stand above. A small chapel was added in the 10th century, accessed from the southeastern corner of the church. A single portal leads into the church from the gavit, it is believed that this entry was added between the 12th.

Hayravank Monastery. and 13th centuries. There is a second entrance through the church's exterior on its south side. Exterior walls of the structure differ from the construction of the rest of the complex in that rubble masonry has been incorporated into the façade. The original drum and dome had collapsed completely: their current rebuilt form dates from a restoration undertaken between 1977 and 1989.## Gavit.The gavit is located west of and adjacent to the church and was added in the 12th century. A main portal leads into the structure from the western wall, and has an arched tympanum with a worn inscription.

Hayravank Monastery. located above the lintel. Another portal leads into the gavit from the southern wall. Two thick columns situated at the western half of the building and two semi-columns at the eastern wall support large arches and a cupola above. The cupola consists of a short octagonal drum (only seen from the interior) as well as a short octagonal conical dome above decorated with "Harlequin Patterned" stonemasonry. The pattern alternates with reddish and a lighter grayish colored tufa. This example is considered to be one of the earliest examples of polychrome decorative masonry that was to become widespread in the following.

Hayravank Monastery. centuries in sacred buildings throughout Armenia. An oculus at the peak of the dome lets light into the room below. Armeniapedia.org: Hayravank Monastery Armenica.org: Hayravank Monastery.


Question: What is the basionym of this plant?

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Ipomopsis aggregata. herbivores on "Ipomopsis aggregata".In its first year, the plant appears as a group of leaves, which collect energy into the taproot, from which it rapidly grows in its second year.## Synonyms.Synonyms include: "Cantua aggregata" "Gilia aggregata" ## Chemistry.Patuletin glycosides can be found in "I. aggregata" as well as eupalitin and eupatolitin.## Taxonomy.Since its discovery in 1814 by Frederick Pursch, the plant has undergone many name modifications. The current scientific name of "Ipomopsis", Latin for "similar to "Ipomoea"" or morning glories, refers to its similarities between the morning glories' similar red tubular flowers. "Aggregata", "brought together" in Latin refers to its.


Question: What is the source of energy of this vehicle?

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Steam locomotive. A steam locomotive is a locomotive that provides the force to move itself and other vehicles by means of the expansion of steam. It is fuelled by burning combustible material (usually coal, oil or, rarely, wood) to heat water in the locomotive's boiler to the point when it becomes gaseous and its volume increases 1,700 times. Functionally, it is a steam engine on wheels.In most locomotives, the steam is admitted alternately to each end of its cylinders, in which pistons are mechanically connected to the locomotive's main wheels. Fuel and water supplies are usually carried with the locomotive, either on.

Steam locomotive. a train along the tramway from the Pen-y-darren ironworks, near Merthyr Tydfil, to Abercynon in South Wales. Accompanied by Andrew Vivian, it ran with mixed success. The design incorporated a number of important innovations that included using high-pressure steam which reduced the weight of the engine and increased its efficiency.Trevithick visited the Newcastle area in 1804 and had a ready audience of colliery (coal mine) owners and engineers. The visit was so successful that the colliery railways in north-east England became the leading centre for experimentation and development of the steam locomotive. Trevithick continued his own steam propulsion experiments through.

Steam locomotive. Völklingen), but neither could be returned to working order after being dismantled, moved and reassembled. On 7 December 1835, the "Adler" ran for the first time between Nuremberg and Fürth on the Bavarian Ludwig Railway. It was the 118th engine from the locomotive works of Robert Stephenson and stood under patent protection.In Russia, the first steam locomotive was built in 1834 by Cherepanovs, however, it suffered from the lack of coal in the area and was replaced with horse traction after all the woods nearby had been cut down. The first Russian Tsarskoye Selo steam railway started in 1837 with.

Steam locomotive. Hungary which used the water-tube Brotan boiler.A boiler consists of a firebox where the fuel is burned, a barrel where water is turned into steam and a smokebox which is kept at a slightly lower pressure than outside the firebox.Solid fuel, such as wood, coal or coke, is thrown into the firebox through a door by a fireman, onto a set of grates which hold the fuel in a bed as it burns. Ash falls through the grate into an ashpan. If oil is used as the fuel, a door is needed for adjusting the air flow, maintaining the firebox,.

Steam locomotive. This pressure difference causes air to flow up through the coal bed and keeps the fire burning.The search for thermal efficiency greater than that of a typical fire-tube boiler led engineers, such as Nigel Gresley, to consider the water-tube boiler. Although he tested the concept on the LNER Class W1, the difficulties during development exceeded the will to increase efficiency by that route.The steam generated in the boiler not only moves the locomotive, but is also used to operate other devices such as the whistle, the air compressor for the brakes, the pump for replenishing the water in the boiler.

Steam locomotive. in various configurations, including two tanks alongside (side tanks or pannier tanks), one on top (saddle tank) or one between the frames (well tank).The fuel used depended on what was economically available to the railway. In the UK and other parts of Europe, plentiful supplies of coal made this the obvious choice from the earliest days of the steam engine. Until 1870, the majority of locomotives in the United States burned wood, but as the Eastern forests were cleared, coal gradually became more widely used until it became the dominant fuel worldwide in steam locomotives. Railways serving sugar cane farming.

Steam locomotive. operations burned bagasse, a byproduct of sugar refining. In the US, the ready availability and low price of oil made it a popular steam locomotive fuel after 1900 for the southwestern railroads, particularly the Southern Pacific. In the Australian state of Victoria, many steam locomotives were converted to heavy oil firing after World War II. German, Russian, Australian and British railways experimented with using coal dust to fire locomotives.During World War 2, a number of Swiss steam shunting locomotives were modified to use electrically heated boilers, consuming around 480 kW of power collected from an overhead line with a pantograph.

Steam locomotive. These locomotives were significantly less efficient than electric ones; they were used because Switzerland was suffering a coal shortage because of the War, but had access to plentiful hydroelectricity.A number of tourist lines and heritage locomotives in Switzerland, Argentina and Australia have used light diesel-type oil.Water was supplied at stopping places and locomotive depots from a dedicated water tower connected to water cranes or gantries. In the UK, the US and France, water troughs ("track pans" in the US) were provided on some main lines to allow locomotives to replenish their water supply without stopping, from rainwater or snowmelt that.

Steam locomotive. be removed by hand at the end of the run. As with the arrestor, a screen was incorporated to retain any large embers.Locomotives of the British Railways standard classes fitted with self-cleaning smokeboxes were identified by a small cast oval plate marked "S.C.", fitted at the bottom of the smokebox door. These engines required different disposal procedures and the plate highlighted this need to depot staff.## Stokers.A factor that limits locomotive performance is the rate at which fuel is fed into the fire. In the early 20th century some locomotives became so large that the fireman could not shovel coal.

Steam locomotive. such equipment.Booster engines were also fitted to tender trucks in the US and known as auxiliary locomotives. Two and even three truck axles were connected together using side rods which limited them to slow-speed service.## Firedoor.The firedoor is used to cover the firehole when coal is not being added. It serves two purposes, first, it prevents air being drawn over the top of the fire, rather forcing it to be drawn through it. The second purpose is to safeguard the train crew against blowbacks. It does, however, have a means to allow some air to pass over the top of.

Steam locomotive. of smoke for the engine driver to breathe as the locomotive passed through mountain tunnels and snow sheds. Another variation was the Camelback locomotive, with the cab situated halfway along the boiler. In England, Oliver Bulleid developed the SR Leader class locomotive during the nationalisation process in the late 1940s. The locomotive was heavily tested but several design faults (such as coal firing and sleeve valves) meant that this locomotive and the other part-built locomotives were scrapped. The cab-forward design was taken by Bulleid to Ireland, where he moved after nationalisation, where he developed the "turfburner". This locomotive was more.

Steam locomotive. steam is either a by-product or is cheaply available). The water vessel ("boiler") is heavily insulated, the same as with a fired locomotive. Until all the water has boiled away, the steam pressure does not drop except as the temperature drops.Another class of fireless locomotive is a compressed-air locomotive.## Mixed power.## Steam diesel hybrid locomotive.Mixed power locomotives, utilising both steam and diesel propulsion, have been produced in Russia, Britain and Italy.## Electric-steam locomotive.Under unusual conditions (lack of coal, abundant hydroelectricity) some locomotives in Switzerland were modified to use electricity to heat the boiler, making them electric-steam locomotives.## Steam-electric locomotive.A steam-electric.

Steam locomotive. railways used dynamometer cars to measure tractive force at speed in actual road testing.British railway companies have been reluctant to disclose figures for drawbar horsepower and have usually relied on continuous tractive effort instead.## Relation to wheel arrangement.Classification is indirectly connected to locomotive performance. Given adequate proportions of the rest of the locomotive, power output is determined by the size of the fire, and for a bituminous coal-fuelled locomotive, this is determined by the grate area. Modern non-compound locomotives are typically able to produce about 40 drawbar horsepower per square foot of grate. Tractive force, as noted earlier, is largely.

Steam locomotive. solids on the inside the surfaces of pipes and heat exchangers. This precipitation is principally caused by thermal decomposition of bicarbonate ions but also happens in cases where the carbonate ion is at saturation concentration. The resulting build-up of scale restricts the flow of water in pipes. In boilers, the deposits impair the flow of heat into the water, reducing the heating efficiency and allowing the metal boiler components to overheat.The reciprocating mechanism on the driving wheels of a two-cylinder single expansion steam locomotive tended to pound the rails (see hammer blow), thus requiring more maintenance. Raising steam from coal.

Steam locomotive. took a matter of hours, and created serious pollution problems. Coal-burning locomotives required fire cleaning and ash removal between turns of duty. Diesel or electric locomotives, by comparison, drew benefit from new custom-built servicing facilities. The smoke from steam locomotives was also deemed objectionable; the first electric and diesel locomotives were developed in response to smoke abatement requirements, although this did not take into account the high level of less-visible pollution in diesel exhaust smoke, especially when idling. In some countries, however, power for electric locomotives is derived from steam generated in power stations, which are often run by coal.##.

Steam locomotive. Unknown Warrior" project, GWR "47xx 4709, 2999 "Lady of Legend", 1014 "County of Glamorgan" and 6880 "Betton Grange" projects. These United Kingdom based new build projects are further complemented by the new build Pennsylvania Railroad 5550 project in the United States. One of the group's goals is to surpass the steam locomotive speed record held by the 4468 "Mallard" when the 5550 is completed and for the 5550 to fill in a huge gap in steam locomotive preservation.In 1980, American financier Ross Rowland established American Coal Enterprises to develop a modernised coal-fired steam locomotive. His ACE 3000 concept attracted considerable.

Steam locomotive. same company also rebuilt a German DR Class 52.80 2-10-0 locomotive to new standards with modifications such as roller bearings, light oil firing and boiler insulation.## Climate change.The future use of steam locomotives in the United Kingdom is in doubt because of government policy on climate change. The Heritage Railway Association is working with the All-Party Parliamentary Group on Heritage Rail in an effort to continue running steam locomotives on coal.Many tourist railroads use oil-fired steam locomotives (or have converted their locomotives to run on oil) to reduce their environmental footprint, and because fuel oil can be easier to obtain.

Steam locomotive. than coal of the proper type and sizing for locomotives. For example, the Grand Canyon Railway runs its steam locomotives on used vegetable oil.An organization called the Coalition for Sustainable Rail (CSR) is developing an environmentally friendly coal substitute made from torrefied biomass. In early 2019, they performed a series of tests using Everett Railroad to evaluate the performance of the biofuel, with positive results. The biofuel was found to burn slightly faster and hotter than coal. The goal of the project is primarily to find a sustainable fuel for historic steam locomotives on tourist railroads, but CSR has also.


Question: Which country does this park come from?

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Huis Ten Bosch (theme park). Is a theme park in Sasebo, Nagasaki, Japan, which recreates the Netherlands by displaying life-sized copies of old Dutch buildings. The name "Huis Ten Bosch" translates into English as "House at the Woods/Forest". It is named after Huis ten Bosch in The Hague, one of the three official residences of the Dutch Royal Family.## Overview.The park features many Dutch-style buildings such as hotels, villas, theatres, museums, shops and restaurants, along with canals, windmills, amusement rides, and a park planted in seasonal flowers. Huis Ten Bosch, which opened on March 25, 1992, is located around 12 km southeast of Sasebo. It.

Huis Ten Bosch (theme park). is on Hario Island, essentially an area of reclaimed marshland on the main coastline of Kyushu facing Ōmura Bay. Its location in this area of the country reflects the historical relations between the Netherlands and Japan, which began in 1609 when a trading post was opened by the Dutch in Hirado, an island off the coast of Kyushu around 35 km northwest of central Sasebo.The Huis Ten Bosch park is open daily from 9.00 a.m. to 9.30 p.m. (9.00 a.m. to 8.30 p.m. from December to February). A day "passport" ticket, covering entry and a number of attractions within the.

Huis Ten Bosch (theme park). park costs 5,600 yen for adults and 4,400 yen for children. The park can be reached by JR train or bus from Nagasaki. It can also be reached by boat from Nagasaki Airport or from Sasebo.The park recorded the peak of 4.25 million visitors in 1996. However, due to the fall of the number of visitors caused by economic slump in Japan, the park declared bankruptcy in 2003 with debt of 220 billion yen. The rebuilding plan was sponsored by Nomura Principal Finance Company until March 2010, when H.I.S., a travel agency, took over the management by injecting 2 billion.


Question: What event does this building commemorate?

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Wallace Monument. The National Wallace Monument (generally known as the Wallace Monument) is a 67 metre tower on the shoulder of the Abbey Craig, a hilltop overlooking Stirling in Scotland. It commemorates Sir William Wallace, a 13th- and 14th-century Scottish hero.The tower is open to the public for an admission fee. Visitors approach by foot from the base of the crag on which it stands. On entry there are 246 steps to the final observation platform, with three exhibition rooms within the body of the tower. The tower is not accessible to disabled visitors.## Background.The tower was constructed following a fundraising campaign,.

Wallace Monument. first heroines to be celebrated in the hall.## Statue of Wallace.The original Victorian statue of Wallace stands on the corner of the monument and is by the Edinburgh sculptor David Watson Stevenson.## "Braveheart" statue.In 1996 Tom Church carved a statue of Wallace called "Freedom", which was inspired by the film "Braveheart". It has the face of Mel Gibson, the actor who played William Wallace in the film. Church leased the statue to Stirling Council, who in 1997 installed it in the car park of the visitor centre at the foot of the craig. The statue was deeply unpopular, being described.

Wallace Monument. decapitated governor of York. In April 2016, it was reported in local press that the statue might be moved to Ardrossan's old Barony Church. In September 2021, it was moved to Glebe Park stadium in Brechin.Statue of William Wallace, AberdeenWallace's Monument, AyrshireStatue of William Wallace, BemersydeWallace's Monument at ElderslieNational Monument of ScotlandIn Stirling's page on the monument.


Question: What is the closest upper taxonomy of this animal?

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Tegula funebralis. Tegula funebralis, the black turban snail or black tegula, is a species of medium-sized marine sea snail in the family Tegulidae. This eastern Pacific Ocean species was previously known as "Chlorostoma funebralis".## Description.Most adults have shells which are 20 to 50 mm (or about an inch, to an inch and three quarters) in diameter. Adults weigh anywhere from 2 to 20 grams. Individuals can live anywhere from 7 to 30 years; studies have shown that individuals inhabiting the more northern portions of the organism's range are larger and live longer on average than organisms inhabiting the southern portions.In 1971, a.

Tegula funebralis. new sense organ was discovered in this marine snail. Chemoreceptor organs were found near the base on the border of the leaflets of the ctenidium (comb-like respiratory gills), one on each leaflet. They form a light swelling near the base of the leaflet with a pocket lying within the swelling. Together they are termed a "bursicle".## Distribution and habitat.Black turban snails are found along the Pacific coast of North America from British Columbia to Baja California, where they are one of the most abundant snail species. Studies have recorded densities of up to 1,400 individuals per m2 near Monterey, California.

Tegula funebralis. Local densities are influenced by many factors, including abundance of food, predators, and suitable habitat.This species inhabits rocky intertidal zones, between low and high tide lines. Juveniles are found mostly under rocks and among coarse sands. Empty black turban snail shells are often utilized by another common intertidal animal, the hermit crab.## Diet."Tegula funebralis" is primarily herbivorous. Food for "T. funebralis" can be categorized as either rock encrusting algae, macroscopic algae, or organic detritus. Studies into the macroscopic algal preferences of "T. funebralis" revealed a strong preference for "Nereocystis luetkana" and "Macrocystis integrifolia". Macroscopic algae species preferred by "T. funebralis.

Tegula funebralis. are similar in that they are non-calcareous, non-filamentous, and softer in comparison to other macroscopic algae in the region. These species do not grow in the intertidal, so they are only available to "T. funebralis" as drift material.## Threats.Predators of "T. funebralis" include sea stars, crabs, octopuses, sea gulls, and sea otters. Experiments showed that "T. funebralis" will flee if it detects a predator nearby, and if already in motion, can increase its speed from 2–3 cm per minute to around 8 cm per minute. If the anterior portion of "T. funebralis" is touched by a predator, it can raise.

Tegula funebralis. the front of the foot and make a 90° turn to escape. Additionally, if "T. funebralis" detects a predator while on a steep surface, it can detach itself and roll down the incline.## Human use.Archaeological evidence shows that humans have utilized black turban snails for over 12,000 years. The edible portion of the snail can range in weight from less than a gram to 8 grams. It is estimated that the average human would need to consume around 400 snails a day to meet their minimum caloric needs if it were the only food consumed.Evidence for human consumption of black.

Tegula funebralis. turban snails includes the discovery of shell middens in association with tools referred to by researchers as "turban crackers". Evidence from several late Holocene middens suggest that harvesting increased around 3,000 years ago. The analysis of middens found near Point Conception reveal that black turban snails comprised up to 60% of meat yields for the native people in that area. Researchers speculate that the prevalence of eating these snails was probably influenced by the abundance of individuals and the ease of collection. photo of operculum.


Question: What is this plant named after?

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Abelia. Taxonomy.The generic name commemorates Clarke Abel, a keen naturalist who accompanied Lord Amherst's unsuccessful embassy to China in 1816 as a surgeon, under the sponsorship of Sir Joseph Banks. All of Abel's seeds and plants were lost in a shipwreck on the homeward voyage, however; living plants of "Abelia chinensis" (now "Linnaea chinensis") were first imported to England in 1844 by Robert Fortune.Some species placed in "Abelia" were transferred to "Linnaea" at various times from 1872 onwards, but these transfers were not accepted by most botanists. Molecular phylogenetic studies showed that a number of genera traditionally placed in the tribe.


Question: Where is this insect native to?

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Nyctemera annulata. Nyctemera annulata, the magpie moth, is a moth of the family Erebidae. The species was first described by Jean Baptiste Boisduval in 1832. It is endemic to New Zealand and found in all parts of the country.## Description.The magpie moth's "woolly bear" caterpillars are around 35–38 mm when fully grown and predominantly black with lines of red down its sides and back, blue spots and tufts of hair on each segment. Its liking for the introduced ragwort causes its caterpillars to be sometimes misidentified as those of the cinnabar moth which was introduced as a biological control for ragwort. By.

Nyctemera annulata. can be seen flying over the tops of host plants."Nyctemera annulata" is closely related to "Nyctemera amica", an Australian species which also occurs in New Zealand. The two species may be able to interbreed."Nyctemera annulata annulata" (New Zealand)"Nyctemera annulata antipodea" (Antipodes Islands)## Distribution.## Natural global range."Nyctemera annulata" is only found in New Zealand.## New Zealand range."Nyctemera annulata" is found all over New Zealand, both in the North and South Islands as well as on smaller outlying islands. The "N. annulata" caterpillar have the ability to freeze themselves and survive. This tolerance of cold weather and freezing temperatures has ensured they.

Nyctemera annulata. are able to exist throughout New Zealand.## Habitat preferences."Nyctemera annulata" are only present in habitats where "Senecio" species occur. They are found most commonly in natural habitats but were also found to occur modified and urban habitats as long as "Senecio" host plants were present, either naturalized or native.## Life cycle/phenology.The life cycle of "Nyctemera annulata" takes 6–7 weeks to complete and requires warm weather with the winter being passed in the pupa stage. The moth will lay yellow eggs on the undersides of herbaceous Senecio species. The eggs gradually become dark and will hatch after approximately 6 – 7.

Nyctemera annulata. of year.## Diet and foraging.The primary food source of "Nyctemera annulata" are plants from the tribe Senecioinae of the Asteraceae. Thirty three species are known to exist in the wild and New Zealand has 19 native "Senecio" species with 14 of them naturalised exotics. "N. annulata" diet is specifically limited to one specific plant. Even though the magpie moth is a native, it has been found that they do not restrict themselves to only the native Senecio species in New Zealand and will also feed on exotic introduced species."N. annulata" is a monophagous herbivore insect meaning that their diet is.

Nyctemera annulata. limited to a species of plant. A study found that "N. annulata" did not restrict itself to the native "Senecio" although the insects were found more frequently in the native forested areas than in the urban/rural area These findings are based on research in the Auckland area, and the study found that the numbers of "Nyctemera" would be far fewer if there were not the naturalised exotic species available to them.The most common form of "Senecio" found in New Zealand is the introduced 'ragwort' ("Jacobaea vulgaris") - a weed in most cultivated areas of the country and the magpie moth.

Nyctemera annulata. answer would depend on which way the pupa wriggled – up to indicate "yes" and down was for "no".There has been some research into the role of plant metabolites, particularly pyrrolizidine alkaloids that are sequestered by "N. annulata". The alkaloids are produced by the plant as a defence against herbivory and the larvae of the moth take them up, potentially also as a form of defense suggested by the high levels of toxin found in the moth. This may be another reason there is not much predation of either the larvae or moth.Species info at Monarch.org.nz.


Question: What is the conservation status of this animal? (The status is assigned by the international union for conservation of nature. Choose one among Endangered,Least Concern,Critically Endangered,extinct species,extinct in the wild,Vulnerable,Near Threatened,Data Deficient).

Instruction: Retrieve a Wikipedia paragraph that provides an answer to the given query about the image.

Leatherback sea turtle. initiatives."D. coriacea" is listed on CITES Appendix I, which makes export/import of this species (including parts) illegal. It has been listed as an EDGE species by the Zoological Society of London.The species is listed in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as VU (Vulnerable), and additionally with the following infraspecific taxa assessments: East Pacific Ocean subpopulation: CR (Critically Endangered) Northeast Indian Ocean subpopulation: DD (Data Deficient) Northwest Atlantic Ocean subpopulation: EN (Endangered) Southeast Atlantic Ocean subpopulation: DD (Data Deficient) Southwest Atlantic Ocean subpopulation CR (Critically Endangered) Southwest Indian Ocean subpopulation CR (Critically Endangered) West Pacific Ocean subpopulation CR (Critically.


Question: What is the length of this lake in kilometre?

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Pfäffikersee. Pfäffikersee (or "Lake Pfäffikon") is a lake in the canton of Zürich, Switzerland, near the town of Pfäffikon. It is 2.5 km long and 1.3 km wide at the middle. The lake was created in the last ice age when a moraine blocked off the ability for the lake to empty north towards Winterthur. There is also a hiking trail around the lake that people often bike and walk on, and the area is considered protected lands, among them the "Robenhauser Ried" and the prehistoric settlement Wetzikon–Robenhausen, discovered and researched by Jakob Messikommer (1828–1917), which became a serial site of.


Question: In which year did this building officially open?

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Saxon Railway Museum. The Saxon Railway Museum ("Sächsisches Eisenbahnmuseum" or "SEM") is located in Chemnitz, in the state of Saxony, eastern Germany. It is situated on the site of the former locomotive depot ("Bahnbetriebswerk" or "Bw") for goods train locomotives in the district Hilbersdorf.After the locomotive depot was closed in 1992, the society moved into the buildings which were protected as historical monuments. As a result, the museum has two roundhouses with 20 (m) turntables. In addition there are coaling and sanding facilities, water cranes, a working jack for inspection pits and a range of other equipment found in an operational depot.The exhibition.


Question: Which geographic area is this plant found?

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Jujube. more likely introduced there. The plant in Arabic and Persian is known as "Enab (عناب)", and is known as the "hinap" or "finab" in the eastern part of Bulgaria. It grows wild but is also a garden shrub, kept for its fruit. The fruit is picked in the autumn.The tree tolerates a wide range of temperatures and rainfall, though it requires hot summers and sufficient water for acceptable fruiting. Unlike most of the other species in the genus, it tolerates fairly cold winters, surviving temperatures down to about −15 (°C), and the tree is, for instance, commonly cultivated in Beijing.


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this insect?

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Forest tent caterpillar moth. The forest tent caterpillar moth (Malacosoma disstria) is a moth found throughout North America, especially in the eastern regions. Unlike related tent caterpillar species, the larvae of forest tent caterpillars do not make tents, but rather, weave a silky sheet where they lie together during molting. They also lay down strands of silk as they move over branches and travel as groups along these pheromone-containing silk trails. The caterpillars are social, traveling together to feed and massing as a group at rest. Group behavior diminishes as the caterpillars increase in size, so that by the fifth instar (molt) the caterpillars.


Question: What is the location of this facility?

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Library of Celsus. The Library of Celsus () is an ancient Roman building in Ephesus, Anatolia, now part of Selçuk, Turkey. The building was commissioned in the 110s A.D. by a consul, Gaius Julius Aquila, as a funerary monument for his father, former proconsul of Asia Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus, and completed during the reign of Hadrian, sometime after Aquila's death. The library is considered an architectural marvel, and is one of the only remaining examples of a library from the Roman Empire. The Library of Celsus was the third-largest library in the Roman world behind only Alexandria and Pergamum, believed to have.

Library of Celsus. Honorific Portrait Statues in the Greek East in the Second Century A.D." "The Journal of Roman Studies" 88 (1998): 56-93. doi:10.2307/300805. classics.uc.edu, Architecture, classical studies, bibliography (Archived) Virtual reconstruction of the Celsus library in Ephesus, Turkey.


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this animal?

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European green lizard. The European green lizard ("Lacerta viridis") is a large lizard distributed across European midlatitudes from Slovenia and eastern Austria to as far east as the Black Sea coasts of Ukraine and Turkey. It is often seen sunning on rocks or lawns, or sheltering amongst bushes.## Taxonomy.There is an ongoing discussion as to whether "Lacerta viridis" and "Lacerta bilineata" are separate species. Genetic data weakly supports their separation into two species but more investigation needs to be done.## Description.The lizard reaches up to 15 (cm) from the tip of the muzzle to the cloaca. The tail can be up to twice.