Question: What is the name of the vessel involved in this event?

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Kon-Tiki expedition. The "Kon-Tiki" expedition was a 1947 journey by raft across the Pacific Ocean from South America to the Polynesian islands, led by Norwegian explorer and writer Thor Heyerdahl. The raft was named "Kon-Tiki" after the Inca god Viracocha, for whom "Kon-Tiki" was said to be an old name. "" is also the name of Heyerdahl's book, the Academy Award–winning 1950 documentary film chronicling his adventures, and the 2012 dramatized feature film nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.Heyerdahl believed that people from South America could have reached Polynesia during pre-Columbian times. His aim in mounting the "Kon-Tiki.

Kon-Tiki expedition. expedition was to show, by using only the materials and technologies available to those people at the time, that there were no technical reasons to prevent them from having done so. Although the expedition carried some modern equipment, such as a radio, watches, charts, sextant, and metal knives, Heyerdahl argued they were incidental to the purpose of proving that the raft itself could make the journey. This idea has recently received support from statistical analysis of genetic evidence of contact between South America and Polynesia.Heyerdahl's full hypothesis of a South American origin of the Polynesian peoples is generally rejected by.

Kon-Tiki expedition. scientists today. Most archaeological, linguistic, cultural, and genetic evidence tends to support a western origin for Polynesians, from Island Southeast Asia, using sophisticated multihull sailing technologies and navigation techniques during the Austronesian expansion. However, there is evidence of some gene flow from South America to Easter Island. In 2020 some researchers published research confirming a wider impact on genetic and cultural elements in Polynesia due to South American contacts. The "Kon-Tiki" expedition was funded by private loans, along with donations of equipment from the United States Army. Heyerdahl and a small team went to Peru, where, with the help of.

Kon-Tiki expedition. dockyard facilities provided by the Peruvian authorities, they constructed the raft out of balsa logs and other native materials in an indigenous style as recorded in illustrations by Spanish conquistadores. The trip began on April 28, 1947. Heyerdahl and five companions sailed the raft for 101 days over 6,900 km (4,300 miles) across the Pacific Ocean before smashing into a reef at Raroia in the Tuamotus on August 7, 1947. The crew made successful landfall and all returned safely.Thor Heyerdahl's book about his experience became a bestseller. It was published in Norwegian in 1948 as "The Kon-Tiki Expedition: By Raft.

Kon-Tiki expedition. Across the South Seas", later reprinted as "Kon-Tiki: Across the Pacific in a Raft". It appeared with great success in English in 1950, also in many other languages. A documentary motion picture about the expedition, also called "Kon-Tiki", was produced from a write-up and expansion of the crew's filmstrip notes and won an Academy Award in 1951. It was directed by Heyerdahl and edited by Olle Nordemar. The voyage was also chronicled in the documentary TV-series "The Kon-Tiki Man: The Life and Adventures of Thor Heyerdahl", directed by Bengt Jonson.The original "Kon-Tiki" raft is now on display in the Kon-Tiki.

Kon-Tiki expedition. Museum at Bygdøy in Oslo.## Crew."Kon-Tiki" had a six-man crew, all of whom were Norwegian except for Bengt Danielsson, a Swede. Thor Heyerdahl (1914–2002) was the expedition leader. He was also the author of the book of the expedition and the narrator of the story. Heyerdahl had studied the ancient people of South America and Polynesia and believed that there was a link between the two. Erik Hesselberg (1914–1972) was the navigator and artist. He painted the large Kon-Tiki figure on the raft's sail. His children's book "Kon-Tiki and I" appeared in Norwegian in 1949 and has since been published.

Kon-Tiki expedition. in more than 15 languages. Bengt Danielsson (1921–1997) took on the role of steward, in charge of supplies and daily rations. Danielsson was a Swedish sociologist interested in human migration theory. He also served as translator, as he was the only member of the crew who spoke Spanish. He was also a voracious reader; his box aboard the raft contained many books. Knut Haugland (1917–2009) was a radio expert, decorated by the British in World War II for actions in the Norwegian heavy water sabotage that stalled what were believed to be Germany's plans to develop an atomic bomb. Haugland.

Kon-Tiki expedition. was the last surviving crew member; he died on Christmas Day, 2009 at the age of 92. Torstein Raaby (1918–1964) was also in charge of radio transmissions. He gained radio experience while hiding behind German lines during WWII, spying on the German battleship "Tirpitz". His secret radio transmissions eventually helped guide in Allied bombers to sink the ship. Herman Watzinger (1910–1986) was an engineer whose area of expertise was in technical measurements. He was the first to join Heyerdahl for the trip. He collected and recorded all sorts of data on the voyage. Much of what he recorded, such as.

Kon-Tiki expedition. weather data, was sent back to various people, since this area of the ocean was largely unstudied.The expedition also carried a pet parrot named Lorita.## Construction.The main body of the float was composed of nine balsa tree trunks up to 45 (ft) long, 2 (ft) in diameter, lashed together with 1+1/4 (in) hemp ropes. Cross-pieces of balsa logs 18 (ft) long and 1 (ft) in diameter were lashed across the logs at 3 (ft) intervals to give lateral support. Pine splashboards clad the bow, and lengths of pine 1 (in) thick and 2 (ft) wide were wedged between the balsa.

Kon-Tiki expedition. logs and used as centreboards.The main mast was made of lengths of mangrove wood lashed together to form an A-frame 29 (ft) high. Behind the main-mast was a cabin of plaited bamboo 14 (ft) long and 8 (ft) wide, about 4 - 5 (ft) high and roofed with banana leaf thatch. At the stern was a 19 (ft) long steering oar of mangrove wood, with a blade of fir. The main sail was 15 by 18 (ft) on a yard of bamboo stems lashed together. Photographs also show a top-sail above the main sail, and also a mizzen-sail, mounted at.

Kon-Tiki expedition. the stern.The raft was partially decked in split bamboo. The main spars were a laminate of wood and reeds and Heyerdahl tested more than twenty different composites before settling on one that proved an effective compromise between bulk and torsional rigidity. No metal was used in the construction.## Supplies."Kon-Tiki" carried 275 (USgal) of drinking water in 56 water cans, as well as a number of sealed bamboo rods. The purpose stated by Heyerdahl for carrying modern and ancient containers was to test the effectiveness of ancient water storage. For food "Kon-Tiki" carried 200 coconuts, sweet potatoes, bottle gourds and other.

Kon-Tiki expedition. assorted fruit and roots. The U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps provided field rations, tinned food and survival equipment. In return, the "Kon-Tiki" explorers reported on the quality and utility of the provisions. They also caught plentiful numbers of fish, particularly flying fish, "dolphin fish", yellowfin tuna, bonito and shark.Heyerdahl and crew were equipped with water-tight sports wristwatches manufactured by Swiss watchmaking firm Eterna. After the journey, Eterna decided to brand their sports watches as "Kon-Tiki".## Communications.The expedition carried an amateur radio station with the call sign of LI2B operated by former World War II Norwegian resistance radio operators Knut Haugland and.

Kon-Tiki expedition. Torstein Raaby. Haugland and Raaby maintained regular communication with a number of American, Canadian, and South American stations that relayed "Kon Tiki's" status to the Norwegian Embassy in Washington, D.C. On August 5, Haugland made contact with a station in Oslo, Norway, 10000 (mi) away."Kon Tiki's" transmitters were powered by batteries and a hand-cranked generator and operated on the 40, 20, 10, and 6-meter bands. Each unit was water resistant, used 2E30 vacuum tubes, and provided approximately 6 watts of RF output; the equivalent of a small flashlight. Two British 3-16 MHz Mark II transmitters were also carried on board,.

Kon-Tiki expedition. as was a VHF transmitter for communicating with aircraft and a hand-cranked survival radio of the Gibson Girl type for 500 and 8280 kHz.The radio receiver used throughout the voyage, a National Radio Company NC-173, once required a thorough drying out after being soaked when landing in Raratonga. The crew once used a hand-cranked emergency transmitter to send out an "all well, all well" message "just in time to head off a massive rescue attempt".The call sign LI2B was used by Heyerdahl again in 1969–70, when he built a papyrus reed raft and sailed from Morocco to Barbados in an.

Kon-Tiki expedition. attempt to show a possible link between the civilization of ancient Egypt and the New World.## The voyage."Kon-Tiki" left Callao, Peru, on the afternoon of April 28, 1947. To avoid coastal traffic it was initially towed 50 (mi) out by the Peruvian Navy fleet tug "Guardian Rios", then sailed roughly west carried along on the Humboldt Current.On 2 July Heyerdahl writes about an encounter with a rogue wave; in his book he describes a "Three Sister" phenomenon: "During a night-shift with quiet seas appears an 'abnormal huge wave' followed by two more waves. The raft is being swept up and.

Kon-Tiki expedition. down and is covered in water." After the three waves he describes the sea as quiet as before.The crew's first sight of land was the atoll of Puka-Puka on July 30. On August 4, the 97th day after departure, "Kon-Tiki" reached the Angatau atoll. The crew made brief contact with the inhabitants of Angatau Island, but were unable to land safely. Calculations made by Heyerdahl before the trip had indicated that 97 days was the minimum amount of time required to reach the Tuamotus, so the encounter with Angatau showed that they had made good time.On August 7, the voyage.

Kon-Tiki expedition. ended when the raft struck a reef and was then beached on an uninhabited islet off Raroia atoll in the Tuamotus. The team had travelled a distance of around 6980 (km) in 101 days, at an average speed of 1.5 (kn).After spending a number of days alone on the islet, the crew was greeted by men from a village on a nearby island who arrived in canoes, having seen washed-up flotsam from the raft. The crew were taken back to the native village, where they were feted with traditional dances and other festivities. Finally the crew were taken off Raroia.

Kon-Tiki expedition. to Tahiti by the French schooner "Tamara", with the salvaged "Kon-Tiki" in tow.## Anthropology.The basis of the "Kon-Tiki" expedition was pseudoscientific, racially controversial, and has not gained acceptance among scientists (even prior to the voyage). Heyerdahl believed that the original inhabitants of Easter Island (and the rest of Polynesia) were the "Tiki people", a race of "white bearded men" who supposedly originally sailed from Peru. He described these "Tiki people" as being a sun-worshipping fair-skinned people with blue eyes, fair or red hair, tall statures, and beards. He further said that these people were originally from the Middle East, and.

Kon-Tiki expedition. had crossed the Atlantic earlier to found the great Mesoamerican civilizations. By 500 CE, a branch of these people were supposedly forced out into Tiahuanaco where they became the ruling class of the Inca Empire and set out to voyage into the Pacific Ocean under the leadership of "Con Ticci Viracocha".He argued that the monumental statues known as moai resembled sculptures more typical of pre-Columbian Peru than any Polynesian designs. He believed that the Easter Island myth of a power struggle between two peoples called the Hanau epe and Hanau momoko was a memory of conflicts between the original inhabitants.

Kon-Tiki expedition. of the island and a later wave of Native Americans from the Northwest coast, eventually leading to the annihilation of the Hanau epe and the destruction of the island's culture and once-prosperous economy. Heyerdahl described these later migrants as "Maori-Polynesians" who were supposedly Asians who crossed over the Bering land bridge into Northwest America before sailing westward towards Polynesia (the westward direction is because he refused to accept that Polynesians were capable of sailing against winds and currents). He associated them with the Tlingit and Haida peoples and characterized them as "inferior" to the Tiki people.Heyerdahl's hypothesis was part of.

Kon-Tiki expedition. early Eurocentric hyperdiffusionism and the westerner disbelief that (non-white) "stone-age" peoples with "no math" could colonize islands separated by vast distances of ocean water, even against prevailing winds and currents. He rejected the highly skilled voyaging and navigating traditions of the Austronesian peoples and instead argued that Polynesia was settled from boats following the wind and currents for navigation from South America. As such, the "Kon-Tiki" was deliberately a primitive raft and unsteerable, in contrast to the sophisticated outrigger canoes and catamarans of the Austronesian people.Heyerdahl's hypothesis of Polynesian origins is overwhelmingly rejected by scientists today. Archaeological, linguistic, cultural, and.

Kon-Tiki expedition. genetic evidence all support a western origin (from Island Southeast Asia) for Polynesians via the Austronesian expansion. "Drift voyaging" from South America was also deemed "extremely unlikely" in 1973 by computer modeling, although is in contrast with recent genetic analysis. The 1976 voyage of the "Hōkūleʻa", a performance-accurate replica of a Polynesian double-hulled "wa'a kaulua" voyaging canoe, from Hawaiʻi to Tahiti was partly a demonstration to prove that Heyerdahl was wrong. The "Hōkūleʻa" sailed against prevailing winds and exclusively used wayfinding and celestial Polynesian navigation techniques (unlike the modern equipment and charts of the "Kon-Tiki"). "Hōkūleʻa" also remains fully operational,.

Kon-Tiki expedition. and has since completed ten other voyages, including a three-year circumnavigation of the planet from 2014 to 2017, with other sister ships.Historians today consider that the Polynesians from the west were the original inhabitants and that the story of the Hanau epe is either pure myth, or a memory of internal tribal or class conflicts. In 2011, Erik Thorsby of the University of Oslo presented DNA evidence to the Royal Society which, whilst agreeing with the west origin, also identified a distinctive but smaller genetic contribution from South America. This result was questioned in 2012 because of the possibility of.

Kon-Tiki expedition. contamination by South Americans after European contact with the islands. In 2014, further work by a team including Anna-Sapfo Malaspinas (from the Natural History Museum of Denmark) analysed the genomes of 27 native Rapa Nui people and found that their DNA was on average 76 percent Polynesian, 8 percent Native American and 16 percent European. Analysis showed that "although the European lineage could be explained by contact with white Europeans after the island was 'discovered' in 1722 by Dutch sailors, the South American component was much older, dating to between about 1280 and 1495, soon after the island was first.

Kon-Tiki expedition. colonised by Polynesians in around 1200." Genetic analysis of Polynesians and Native South Americans, published in "Nature" in July 2020, has revealed that several eastern Polynesian populations have signs of an ancient genetic signature that originated from Native South American people. An initial admixture event between Native South Americans and Polynesians, discovered by statistical analysis, took place around 1150–1230 CE.## Later recreations of "Kon-Tiki".## "Seven Little Sisters".In 1954, William Willis sailed alone on a raft "Seven Little Sisters" from Peru to American Samoa, successfully completing the journey. He sailed 6,700 (mi), which was 2,200 (mi) farther than "Kon-Tiki". In a.

Kon-Tiki expedition. second great voyage ten years later, he rafted 7457 (mi) from South America to Australia with a metal raft "Age Unlimited".## "Kantuta".In 1955, the Czech explorer and adventurer Eduard Ingris attempted to recreate the "Kon-Tiki" expedition on a balsa raft called "Kantuta". His first expedition, "Kantuta I", took place in 1955–1956 and led to failure. In 1959, Ingris built a new balsa raft, "Kantuta II", and tried to repeat the previous expedition. The second expedition was a success. Ingris was able to cross the Pacific Ocean on the balsa raft from Peru to Polynesia.## "Tahiti-Nui".A French seafarer, Éric de Bisschop,.

Kon-Tiki expedition. committed himself in a project he had had for some years: he built a Polynesian raft in order to cross the eastern Pacific Ocean from Tahiti to Chile (contrary to Thor Heyerdahl's crossing); the "Tahiti-Nui" left Papeete with a crew of five on November 8, 1956. When near the Juan Fernández Islands (Chile) in May 1957, the raft was in a very poor state and they asked for a towing, but it was damaged during the operation and had to be abandoned, but they were able to preserve all the equipment that had been aboard.## "Tahiti-Nui II".A second "Tahiti-Nui" was.

Kon-Tiki expedition. built in Constitución, Chile, leaving on April 13, 1958, towards Callao, then towards the Marquesas. It missed its target and after four months, the raft began to sink. The crew built a new smaller raft, the "Tahiti Nui III", in the ocean out of the more buoyant parts of the "Tahiti Nui II". They were swept towards Cook Islands where on August 30, the raft went aground and was wrecked at Rakahanga atoll. Éric de Bisschop died in this accident.## "Tangaroa" (1965).A Peruvian expedition led by Carlos Caravedo crossed the Pacific Ocean in 1965 in 115 days in a raft.

Kon-Tiki expedition. named "Tangaroa", of which 18 days were used by the crew to cross Tuamotus, the Tuamotu Archipielago, making "Tangaroa" the only raft that has managed to cross that dangerous archipelago of French Polynesia by its own means. On November 18, 1965, the "Tangaroa" ended its journey on the Fakarava island. Fakarava is where the "Tangaroa" is currently preserved.## Las Balsas.The 1973 Las Balsas expedition was the first (and so far only) multiple-raft crossing of the Pacific Ocean in recent history. It is the longest-known raft voyage in history. The expedition was led by Spaniard Vital Alsar, who, in 1970, led.

Kon-Tiki expedition. the La Balsa expedition, only on that occasion with one raft and three companions. The crossing was successful and, at the time, the longest raft voyage in history, until eclipsed in 1973 by Las Balsas. The purpose of the 1973 expedition was three-fold: (1) to prove that the success of 1970 was no accident, (2) to test different currents in the sea, which Alsar maintained ancient mariners knew as modern humans know road maps, and (3) to show that the original expeditions, directed perhaps toward trade or colonisation, may have consisted of small fleets of balsa rafts.## "Tangaroa" (2006).In 2006,.

Kon-Tiki expedition. the Tangaroa Expedition recreated the "Kon-Tiki" voyage using a newly built raft, the "Tangaroa", named after the Māori sea-god Tangaroa. Tangaroa's six-man crew was led by Norwegian Torgeir Higraff and included Olav Heyerdahl, grandson of Thor Heyerdahl, Bjarne Krekvik (captain), Øyvin Lauten (executive officer), Swedish Anders Berg (photographer) and Peruvian Roberto Sala. "Tangaroa" was launched on the same day that "Kon-Tiki" had been—April 28—and it reached its destination on July 7, which was 30 days faster than Heyerdahl's Kon-Tiki which had taken 101 days for the voyage. Tangaroa's speed was credited to the proper use of guaras (centerboards).## "An-Tiki".On January.

Kon-Tiki expedition. 30, 2011, "An-Tiki", a raft modeled after "Kon-Tiki", began a 3000 (mi), 70-day journey across the Atlantic Ocean from the Canary Islands to the island of Eleuthera in the Bahamas. The expedition was piloted by four men, aged from 56 to 84 years, led by Anthony Smith. The trip was designed to commemorate the journey in an open boat of survivors from the British steamship "Anglo-Saxon", sunk by the German cruiser "Widder" in 1940. The raft ended its voyage in the Caribbean island of St Maarten, completing its trip to Eleuthera in the following year with Smith and a new.

Kon-Tiki expedition. crew.## "Kon-Tiki2".On 7 November 2015, two teams with two balsa rafts "Rahiti Tane" and "Tupac Yupanqui" left Lima, Peru for Easter Island. Expedition "Kon-Tiki2" got its name because it had 2 crews from many nations: Norway, Russia, UK, Mexico, New Zealand, Sweden, and Peru. It sought to double down on Heyerdahl's voyage by sailing two rafts from South America to Polynesia and then back. Expedition leader was Torgeir Higraff from Tangaroa Expedition (2006). Øyvin Lauten and Kari Skår Dahl were captains on the first leg, while Signe Meling and Ola Borgfjord were captains on the second leg. The raft reached.

Kon-Tiki expedition. Easter Island, but did not complete the return.The two rafts were made of 11 balsa logs and 10 crossbeams held together by 2000 meters (1¼ miles) of natural fiber ropes. Tens of thousands of waves, up to six meters (20') tall, hit the rafts in an El Niño year. This stress for 16 weeks weakened the ropes, but the crew could not replace all of them. On March 3, 2016, all crew members were taken on board the Hokuetsu Ushaka freight ship after 115 days of sailing and 4½ months at sea.## Documentation.## Memoir book.A book documenting the voyage and.

Kon-Tiki expedition. raft was released in 1948 by Thor Heyerdahl, called "".## Documentary film.A film documentary about the voyage and raft was released in 1950, called "Kon-Tiki". It won the 1951 Oscar for Best Documentary Feature.## In popular culture."Kon-Tiki" is a 2012 Norwegian historical dramatized feature film about the 1947 "Kon-Tiki" expedition. It starred Pål Sverre Valheim Hagen as Thor Heyerdahl and was directed by Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg. It was the highest-grossing film of 2012 in Norway and the country's most expensive production to date.Episode 5 of the tenth season of HBO's "Curb Your Enthusiasm" features Clive Owen as himself.

Kon-Tiki expedition. in a one-man play entitled "Kon Tiki".Episode 2 of the second season of Apple TV+'s "For All Mankind" mentions a Space Shuttle named Kon-Tiki. Experimental archaeology Polynesian navigation Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories Pre-Columbian rafts Chincha culture Hyperdiffusionism Tupac Inca Yupanqui Atlantis Expedition Heyerdahl, Thor; Lyon, F.H. (translator) (1950). "Kon-Tiki: Across the Pacific by Raft". Rand McNally & Company, Chicago, Ill. Hesselberg, Erik (1950). "Kon-Tiki and I : illustrations with text, begun on the Pacific on board the raft "Kon-Tiki" and completed at "Solbakken" in Borre." Allen & Unwin Andersson, Axel (2010) "A Hero for the Atomic Age: Thor Heyerdahl and.

Kon-Tiki expedition. the Kon-Tiki Expedition" (Peter Lang) "Kon-Tiki" Museum National NC-173 receiver Quick Facts: Comparing the Two Rafts: Kon-Tiki and Tangaroa "Azerbaijan International", Vol 14:4 (Winter 2006) Testing Heyerdahl's Theories about Kon-Tiki 60 Years Later: Tangaroa Pacific Voyage (Summer 2006) "Azerbaijan International", Vol 14:4 (Winter 2006) Kon-Tiki in Reverse: The Tahiti-Nui Expedition TV2Sumo WebTV programme "Ekspedisjonen Tangaroa" (Tangaroa Expedition) – Norsk Acali 1973 – expedition by raft across Atlantic Librarything, 2007 Hsu-Fu 1993 – bamboo raft across Pacific (west to east) personal.psu.edu "Kon-Tiki" 1947 Documentary.


Question: Which structure replaced this bridge?

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Franz Joseph Bridge. Franz Joseph Bridge (), later renamed Štefanik Bridge (), was a suspension bridge over the Vltava in Prague, opened in 1868.The bridge was designed by the English engineer Rowland Mason Ordish. The design, which used the Ordish–Lefeuvre system, was originally created for the Albert Bridge over the River Thames in London. However, after construction of the Albert Bridge was delayed, Ordish decided to build a bridge in Prague first. The foundation stone was laid on 19 October 1865, and engineer František Schön was charged with supervising the construction work. Emperor Franz Joseph, after whom the bridge was named, attended the.


Question: Which historic county does this building belong to?

Instruction: Retrieve a Wikipedia paragraph that provides an answer to the given query about the image.

Brooklands. Brooklands was a 2.767 (mi) motor racing circuit and aerodrome built near Weybridge in Surrey, England, United Kingdom. It opened in 1907 and was the world's first purpose-built 'banked' motor racing circuit as well as one of Britain's first airfields, which also became Britain's largest aircraft manufacturing centre by 1918, producing military aircraft such as the Wellington and civil airliners like the Viscount and VC-10.The circuit hosted its last race in August 1939 and today part of it forms the Brooklands Museum, a major aviation and motoring museum, as well as a venue for vintage car, motorcycle and other transport-related.

Brooklands. Heritage and increased by the DCMS in 2002). A draft Brooklands Conservation Plan was instigated by English Heritage and prepared in 2003 for DaimlerChrysler by DCUK consultants Terence O'Rourke. A Brooklands Heritage Partnership (BHP) was formed in 2010 as an informal partnership of Brooklands Museum, Elmbridge Borough Council, English Heritage and Surrey County Council, to address increasing conservation issues and concerns. In April 2013, a £32,540 grant was secured from English Heritage (now Historic England) to enable the BHP to appoint professional consultants to research and compile a comprehensive reference document on all aspects of Brooklands’ heritage. A draft version.


Question: What is the spore print color of this plant?

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Fomitopsis pinicola. thick. Its surface is more or less smooth, at first orange-yellow with a white margin, later dark reddish to brown and then frequently with an orange margin. The pore surface is pale yellow to leather-brown, 3–4 pores per mm. It grows as thick shelves on live and dead coniferous or (less commonly) deciduous trees. The spores are pale yellow and smooth. The species also grows as a layer of tubes on the bottom of fallen wood.The fruiting body of "Fomitopsis pinicola" is called the "conk". It is a woody, pileate fruiting body with pores lined with basidia on its underside.


Question: What country does this building belong to?

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Palau Nacional. was contracted to represent ‘in a tremendous way, the grandeur of Spain, justified in a symbolic composition defined by four fields: Religion, Science, Fine Arts and Land’.Religion: The scene of Christ crucified, at his sides are the figures of a martyr and an angel, at his feet, an infidel. Another scene depicts a Saracen leader handing over the keys of a city to the Christian army.Science: A female allegory of geometry and triumphs of science, accompanied by Miguel Servet and his investigation of the circulatory system; Blasco de Garay, the inventor of navigation with use of the paddle wheel; and.

Palau Nacional. and depict four allegories relating to the former kingdoms of León, Castille, Navarre and the Crown of Aragon. Under the shells, four sculptures are located in niches representing to one side, "Law" and "Force" by sculptor Josep Dunyach; and to the other side, "Work" and "Religion", by sculptor Enric Casanovas.## Art in Spain.The 1929 International Exhibition was organised around three thematic areas: Industry, Sport and Art, the last of which led to a grand exhibition in the National Palace titled "el arte en España" (‘Art in Spain’).A ‘Regulation and Guarantee of the dedicated section of "Art in Spain" at the.

Palau Nacional. National Palace’ was developed, whereby the purpose of the collection was outlined: The organisers chose highlights of the history of art, particularly for their value and significance, soliciting the works from their owners as well as accepting proposals. They gathered in total some 5,000 works of diverse nature from museums, individuals, religious institutions, libraries and archives from different parts of Spain. In total the works are said to have had a value of some 800 million pesetas.The collection was organised in chronological order, from the epoch of Roman Spain to the period of Isabella II. Months later, a pre-historic section.

Palau Nacional. was added to the exhibition, which was located in the basement of the Palace.Amongst the pieces created exclusively for the collection were a number of commissioned dioramas which highlight the history of Spain, realised by the same artists that had participated in the decoration of the Palace. There were fifteen final themes in total, part of the twenty-seven initially planned for the exhibition:RecceswinthAl-MansurThe Exile of El CidRomanesque PaintingJames I Cries at the Bodies of the Montcada BrothersAlfonso X the WisePeter the CruelThe Entrance of Alfonso V to NaplesThe Arrival of Columbus to Barcelona Friar Luis de LeónCharles V at YustePhilip.


Question: What is the oldest age of this animal?

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Red panda. word (""), meaning "cat". The specific epithet "fulgens" is Latin for "shining, bright".## Taxonomy.The red panda was described and named in 1825 by Frederic Cuvier, who gave it its current scientific name "Ailurus fulgens". Cuvier's description was based on zoological specimens, including skin, paws, jawbones and teeth "from the mountains north of India", as well as an account by Alfred Duvaucel. The red panda was described earlier by Thomas Hardwicke in 1821, but his paper was only published in 1827. In 1902, Oldfield Thomas described a skull of a male red panda specimen under the name "Ailurus fulgens styani" in.

Red panda. to glaciation events on the southern Tibetan Plateau in the Pleistocene.## Phylogeny.The placement of the red panda on the evolutionary tree has been debated. In the early 20th century, various scientists placed it in the family Procyonidae with raccoons and their allies. At the time, most prominent biologists also considered the red panda to be related to the giant panda, which would eventually be found to be a bear. A 1982 study examined the similarities and differences in the skull between the red panda and the giant panda, other bears and procyonids, and placed the species in its own family.

Red panda. Ailuridae. The author of the study considered the red panda to be more closely related to bears. A 1995 mitochondrial DNA analysis revealed that the red panda has close affinities with procyonids. Further genetic studies in 2005, 2018 and 2021 have placed the red panda within the clade Musteloidea, which also includes Procyonidae, Mustelidae (weasels and relatives) and Mephitidae (skunks and relatives).## Fossil record.The family Ailuridae appears to have evolved in Europe in either the Late Oligocene or Early Miocene, about . The earliest member "Amphictis" is known from its 10 (cm) skull and may have been around the same.

Red panda. 24 (C). Throughout this range, it has been recorded at elevations of 2000-4300 (m).In Nepal, it lives in six protected area complexes within the Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests ecoregion. The westernmost records to date were obtained in three community forests in Kalikot District in 2019. Panchthar and Ilam Districts represent its easternmost range in the country, where its habitat in forest patches is surrounded by villages, livestock pastures and roads. The metapopulation in protected areas and wildlife corridors in the Kangchenjunga landscape of Sikkim and northern West Bengal is partly connected through old-growth forests outside protected areas. Forests in this.

Red panda. (km2) and the six females of 0.94 (km2) within a forest cover of at least 19.2 (ha). The females travelled 419–841 (m) per day and the males 660–1473 (m). In the mating season from January to March, adults travelled a mean of 795 (m) and subadults a mean of 861 (m). They all had larger home ranges in areas with low forest cover and reduced their activity in areas that were disturbed by people, livestock and dogs.## Diet and feeding.The red panda is largely herbivorous and feeds primarily on bamboo, mainly the genera "Phyllostachys", "Sinarundinaria", "Thamnocalamus" and "Chimonobambusa". It also.

Red panda. its habitat, the causes of which include increasing human population, deforestation, the unlawful taking of non-wood forest material and disturbances by herders and livestock. Trampling by livestock inhibits bamboo growth, and clearcutting decreases the ability of some bamboo species to regenerate. The cut lumber stock in Sichuan alone reached 2661000 (m3) in 1958–1960, and around 3597.9 (km2) of red panda habitat were logged between the mid 1970s and late 1990s. Throughout Nepal, the red panda habitat outside protected areas is negatively affected by solid waste, livestock trails and herding stations, and people collecting firewood and medicinal plants. Threats identified in.

Red panda. protect and monitor red panda habitats in other parts of Nepal. Community outreach programs have been initiated in eastern Nepal using information boards, radio broadcasting and the annual International Red Panda Day in September; several schools endorsed a red panda conservation manual as part of their curricula. Since 2010, community-based conservation programmes have been initiated in 10 districts in Nepal that aim to help villagers reduce their dependence on natural resources through improved herding and food processing practices and alternative income possibilities. The Nepali government ratified a five-year Red Panda Conservation Action Plan in 2019. From 2016 to 2019, 35.

Red panda. the giant panda and golden snub-nosed monkey, with which it overlaps in range.## In captivity.The London Zoo received two red pandas in 1869 and 1876, the first of which was caught in Darjeeling. The Calcutta Zoo received a live red panda in 1877, the Philadelphia Zoo in 1906, and Artis and Cologne Zoos in 1908. In 1908, the first captive red panda cubs were born in an Indian zoo. In 1940, the San Diego Zoo imported four red pandas from India that had been caught in Nepal; their first litter was born in 1941. Cubs that were born later were.

Red panda. sent to other zoos; by 1969, about 250 red pandas had been exhibited in zoos. The Taronga Conservation Society started keeping red pandas in 1977.In 1978, a breed registry, the "International Red Panda Studbook", was set up, followed by the Red Panda European Endangered Species Programme in 1985. Members of international zoos ratified a global master plan for the captive breeding of the red panda in 1993. By late 2015, 219 red pandas lived in 42 zoos in Japan. The Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park participates in the Red Panda Species Survival Plan and kept about 25 red pandas by.

Red panda. 2016. By the end of 2019, 182 European zoos kept 407 red pandas. Regional captive breeding programmes have also been established in North American, Australasian and South African zoos.## Cultural significance.The red panda's role in the culture and folklore of local people is limited. A drawing of a red panda exists on a 13th-century Chinese scroll. In Nepal's Taplejung District, red panda claws are used for treating epilepsy; its skin is used in rituals for treating sick people, making hats, scarecrows and decorating houses. In western Nepal, Magar shamans use its skin and fur in their ritual dresses and believe.

Red panda. that it protects against evil spirits. People in central Bhutan consider red pandas to be reincarnations of Buddhist monks. Some tribal people in northeast India and the Yi people believe that it brings good luck to wear red panda tails or hats made of its fur. In China, the fur is used for local cultural ceremonies. At weddings, the bridegroom traditionally carries the hide. Hats made of red panda tails are also used by local newlyweds as a "good-luck charm".The red panda was recognised as the state animal of Sikkim in the early 1990s and was the mascot of the.


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this plant?

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Ornithogalum umbellatum. Ornithogalum umbellatum, the garden star-of-Bethlehem, grass lily, nap-at-noon, or eleven-o'clock lady, a species of the genus "Ornithogalum", is a perennial bulbous flowering plant in the asparagus family (Asparagaceae). "O. umbellatum" is a relatively short plant, occurring in tufts of basal linear leaves, producing conspicuous white flowers, in a stellate pattern, in mid to late spring. The flowers open late in the day (hence some of its common names), but when closed have a green stripe on the outside. It is native throughout most of southern and central Europe, and north-western Africa. "O. umbellatum" is often grown as a garden ornamental,.

Ornithogalum umbellatum. but in North America and other areas it has escaped cultivation and can be found in many areas, where it may become an invasive noxious weed. Parts of the plant are considered poisonous, but are used in some regional cuisines. Essences are also sold as patent remedies. "O. umbellatum" has been depicted in art by artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, and folklore has suggested it originally grew from fragments of the star of Bethlehem, hence its horticultural name.## Description."O. umbellatum" is a perennial herbaceous bulbous plant (geophyte), dying back after flowering, to an underground storage bulb. The following year,.

Ornithogalum umbellatum. it regrows from the often shallow rooted bulbs, which are ovoid with a membranous coat, 15 - 25 (mm) long and 18 - 32 (mm) in diameter. The bulbs form multiple leaf-bearing bulbils that soon separate but remain close by. Initially the plant forms 6–10 basal leaves, that arise in tufts from the bulbs. The leaves are grooved (canaliculate), smooth (glabrous) and linear with a white to light green linear midrib on the upper surface, and grow up to 30 (cm) long and 8 (mm) broad."O. umbellatum" is scapose, with a glabrous flower stem (scape) that emerges from the leaf.

Ornithogalum umbellatum. tufts later and is about 10 - 30 (cm) in height, tapering at its tip. The inflorescence bears 6–20 flat star shaped flowers on ascending stems (pedicels) (3 - 3.5 (cm)) associated with membranaceous leaflets (bracts) (2.5 - 3 (cm)) in an open branching umbrella (umbel) shaped terminal cluster, described as a corymbose raceme. The petal-like perianth is radially symmetric (actinomorphic), which is 1.5 - 2 (cm) in diameter, consists of six lanceolate tepals which are white with a green stripe on the underside (outside), 15 (mm) in length and 5 (mm) wide. From the outside the closed flower appears.

Ornithogalum umbellatum. green with white margins.The reproductive parts consist of both male (androecium) and female (gynoecium) parts (hermaphrodite). The androecium has six yellow-brown stamens that are free of the perianth and form two groups, each of about 5 - 8 (mm), with filaments that are simple and flattened and oblong anthers that are 2 - 4 (mm). The gynoecium has a single pistil with a superior (i. e. above the floral parts) ovary that is ovoid to obovoid, 3 - 4 (mm), and longer than the style that extends above it. The fruit is a capsule which is oblong-ovoid with 3 sides.

Ornithogalum umbellatum. and 6 ribs. Within it, each locule contains many seeds with a black coat of phytomelan ("see Floral diagram"). The species is polyploid (having more than two sets of chromosomes).## Taxonomy."Ornithogalum umbellatum" has been known and described for a long time, according to some authors, as far back as Dioscorides in the first century. In 16th-century England, William Turner (1562) mentions it. In Henry Lyte's 1586 "New Herbal" (a translation into English of Dodoens' 1554 "Cruydeboeck"), reference is made to an "Ornithogalum" as the White Field Onion. John Gerard, in his "Herball" of 1597, describes "Ornithogalum" as the "star of.

Ornithogalum umbellatum. Bethlem". The species known today as "Ornithogalum umbellatum" was first formally described by Linnaeus (1753), who is the botanical authority for the species (L.). "O. umbellatum" is the type species of the genus "Ornithogalum", which contains about 50 species. The lectotype (reference specimen) was established by Stearn in 1983.## Etymology.The species epithet reflects the flower formation as an umbel. The plant's many common names include garden star-of-Bethlehem, sleepydick, nap-at-noon, grass lily, summer snowflake, snowdrop, starflower, bird's milk, chinkerichee, ten-o'clock lady, eleven-o'clock lady, Bath asparagus, and star of Hungary. The references to the time of day reflect the opening times of.

Ornithogalum umbellatum. the flowers, opening late and closing at night or in cloudy conditions. The star names indicate the arrangement of the petals and bird's milk is a literal translation of ornithogalum. It has also been called dove's dung, equating it with a plant described in the bible. The name star-of-Bethlehem is shared by a number of species of "Ornithogalum", due to the white stellate flowers, and the folklore relating the flower to the biblical star-of-Bethlehem ("see In popular culture").## Distribution and habitat.A native of most of Europe, North Africa and western Asia, "Ornithogalum umbellatum" has been adopted as an ornamental garden.

Ornithogalum umbellatum. plant from where it has escaped and naturalised widely in North America, where it is considered an aggressive noxious weed of lawns, gardens and no-till agricultural land, which can be difficult to eradicate. In Europe its range extends from Ireland and Portugal in the west, Italy in the south, north to parts of France and east to Turkey and the Levant."O. umbellatum" prefers damp habitats, being found along rivers, streams, and lower, wet areas of pastures. It is tolerant to shade and soil type.## Ecology.## Life cycle."Ornithogalum umbellatum" is thermoperiodic, requiring a cold winter to complete its life cycle. It.

Ornithogalum umbellatum. first appears in early spring as tufts of leaves, prior to flowering (proteranthous), which occurs in late spring (May–June), the leaves fading prior to blooming. It reproduces by its bulbs, which form many offsetting bulbils that can be dispersed by water. Like many bulb plants from temperate regions, a period of exposure to cold is necessary before spring growth can begin. This protects the plant from growth during winter when intense cold may damage it. Warmer spring temperatures then initiate growth from the bulb. "O. umbellatum" spreads aggressively in clumps by means of these offsets.## Pollination.The flowers are insect pollinated,.

Ornithogalum umbellatum. but may also be self-fertile, forming seeds in summer (June–July). Seed dispersal plays a relatively minor role in propagation, but accounts for isolated blooms.## Effect of light.The petals exhibit photoperiodism, often opening at noon and closing at night or on cloudy days.## Cultivation."Ornithogalum umbellatum" requires considerable moisture during winter and spring, but can tolerate summer drought. It can be grown in a woodland garden as semi-shade is preferable. It is hardy to zone 5 UK, 4–9 USDA, and can become invasive. It is produced commercially as an ornamental garden plant. To control invasive tendencies, it is best to plant in.

Ornithogalum umbellatum. a container or an edged area. "O. umbellatum" may be grown as an indoor plant.## Toxicity.The plant, especially the bulb and flowers, contains cardiac glycosides, specifically convallatoxin and convalloside which are toxic to humans and livestock. Symptoms of poisoning include nausea, salivation, vomiting, diarrhea, and shortness of breath, as well as pain, burning, and swelling of lips, tongue, and throat. Prolonged contact may lead to skin irritation.## Uses.Despite the known toxicities, the plant has been described as edible for 2000 years and incorporated into some traditional regional cuisines (e.g. Turkey) and traditional medicine (e.g. India). In Britain, the plant has.

Ornithogalum umbellatum. long been the subject of herbals for its claimed culinary and medicinal properties. This includes drying and grinding the bulbs, or boiling them and baking the flowers into bread. Essences are sold as patent remedies and for aromatherapy, such as Bach flower remedies. Medical authorities advise against ingesting any part of the plant.## In history.Leonardo da Vinci drew "O. umbellatum" and included the plant in one of his depictions of Leda and the Swan (1508–1515), in which the flowers are held in Leda's left hand. In folklore, the biblical star of Bethlehem is said to have fallen to the earth.

Ornithogalum umbellatum. and shattered into pieces which became the ubiquitous white flowers. Legend has also associated it with the journeys of Crusaders and pilgrims to the Holy Land.A biblical passage in "2 Kings" 6:25 relates an account of a siege in Samaria in which the desperate population consumed the excrement of doves (chiriyonim). "There was a great famine in Samaria; and behold, they besieged it, until a donkey's head was sold for eighty shekels of silver, and a fourth of a kab of dove's dung for five shekels of silver". There has been considerable discussion as to the exact meaning of this.

Ornithogalum umbellatum. term. In notes taken by Paul Dietrich Giseke from a lecture by Linnaeus it is suggested that this "Stercus Columbarum" was in fact the plant "Ornithogalum umbellatum", which grew abundantly in Palestine and "unde Anglis "Bethlem's Star" dicitur" (is known to the English as Bethlem's Star), the white colour of which resembled the excrement of birds, hence the name "lac Avium" (bird milk or "Ornithogalum"), and which was still eaten by the poor of that country.Culturally, the flower has been associated with purity and hope, atonement and reconciliation.## In popular culture.Naked Snake fought his mentor, The Boss, in a field.

Ornithogalum umbellatum. full of white grass lillies in "". In , Arlington National Cemetery, where The Boss's and Big Boss's graves are, is also full of the flowers. In , besides Snake's hospital bed, there is a vase of the flowers, when an assassin tries to kill him, the vase falls and petals float in slow motion in front of him. "see also" Flora Europaea Historical sources("full text at " BHL), "see" Smith's Bible Dictionary.


Question: What is the basionym of this plant?

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Pseudognaphalium californicum. Pseudognaphalium californicum (syn. "Gnaphalium californicum") is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae known by several common names, including ladies' tobacco, California rabbit tobacco, California cudweed, and California everlasting.The plant is native to the west coast of North America from Washington to Baja California, where it is a member of the flora of many habitats, including chaparral.## Description."Pseudognaphalium californicum" is an annual or biennial herb growing a branching stem reaching 20 to 80 centimeters in height. Stem branches bear linear to somewhat lance-shaped leaves 2 to 20 centimeters long. The green herbage is glandular and scented. The leaves.


Question: Who designed this bridge?

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Zubizuri. The Zubizuri (Basque for "white bridge"), also called the Campo Volantin Bridge or Puente del Campo Volantin, is a tied arch footbridge across the Nervion River in Bilbao, Spain. Designed by architect Santiago Calatrava, the bridge links the "Campo Volantin" right bank and "Uribitarte" left bank of the river.## Description.Opened in 1997, the bridge's unusual design consists of a curved walkway which is supported by steel suspension cables from an overhead arch. The structure of the bridge is painted white and the bridge deck consists of translucent glass bricks. Access ramps and stairways are located on both banks. The Zubizuri.


Question: What kind of effect does this item have?

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Alarm device. An alarm device is a mechanism that gives an audible, visual or other kind of alarm signal to alert someone to a problem or condition that requires urgent attention.## Etymology.The word "alarm" comes from the Old French "a l'arme" meaning "to the arms", or "to the weapons", telling armed men to pick up their weapons and get ready for action because an enemy may have suddenly appeared.The word "alarum" is an archaic form of "alarm". It was sometimes used as a call to arms in the stage directions of Elizabethan dramas. The term comes from the Italian "all'armi" and appears.

Alarm device. either case. A person in such a state can be characterized as "alarmed".## False alarms.With any kind of alarm, you must balance between the danger of false alarms (called "false positives") — the signal going off in the absence of a problem — or an alarm failing to signal an actual problem (called a "false negative"). False alarms can waste resources expensively and can even be dangerous. For example, false alarms of a fire can waste firefighter manpower, making them unavailable for a real fire, and risk injury to firefighters and others as the fire engines race to the alleged.

Alarm device. fire's location. In addition, false alarms may acclimatise people to ignore alarm signals, and thus possibly to ignore an actual emergency: Aesop's fable of "The Boy Who Cried Wolf" exemplifies this problem.A false alarm is one of the most significant issues with conventional alarm systems. They can be triggered for several reasons, such as the movement of pets, typing in the wrong security codes, or loud sounds from windows or doors. In the case of fire alarms, aerosol sprays, smoking, or burning food can all lead to a false alarm.Many avoid the risk of false alarms by ensuring their alarms.

Alarm device. fire alarm which is used to give occupants of a building early warning of a potential fire and give them time to evacuate. warning devices on a vehicle that sound when it is moving in an unexpected direction, such as reversing, a siren, often accompanied by flashing coloured lights, on emergency vehicles responding to an emergencyAlarm devices, by category, include: burglar alarms, designed to warn of burglaries. This is often a silent alarm; law enforcement or guards are warned without alerting the burglar, which increases the chances of stopping the theft while in progress. alarm clocks can beep, buzz or.


Question: What is this plant named after?

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Hickory. Hickory is a common name for trees composing the genus Carya, which includes around 18 species. Five or six species are native to China, Indochina, and India (Assam), as many as twelve are native to the United States, four are found in Mexico, and two to four are native to Canada. A number of hickory species are used for products like edible nuts or wood.Hickories are temperate forest trees with pinnately compound leaves and large nuts. Hickory flowers are small, yellow-green catkins produced in spring. They are wind-pollinated and self-incompatible. The fruit is a globose or oval nut, 2 –.

Hickory. name "Carya" is , "káryon", meaning "nut".## Species and classification.The genus "Carya" is in the walnut family, Juglandaceae. In the APG system, this family is included in the order Fagales. Several species are known to hybridize, with around nine accepted, named hybrids. Beaked hickory ("Annamocarya sinensis") is a species formerly classified as "Carya sinensis", but now considered its own genus, "Annamocarya".## Asian hickories.Carya" sect. "Sinocarya"Carya dabieshanensis" – Dabie Shan hickory (may be synonymous with "C. cathayensis")"Carya cathayensis" – Chinese hickory"Carya hunanensis" – Hunan hickory"Carya kweichowensis" – Guizhou hickory"Carya poilanei" – Poilane's hickory"Carya tonkinensis" – Vietnamese hickory## North American hickories.Carya" sect.

Hickory. "Carya – typical hickories"Carya floridana" – scrub hickory"Carya glabra" – pignut hickory, pignut, sweet pignut, coast pignut hickory, smoothbark hickory, swamp hickory, broom hickory"Carya laciniosa" – shellbark hickory, shagbark hickory, bigleaf shagbark hickory, kingnut, big shellbark, bottom shellbark, thick shellbark, western shellbark"Carya myristiciformis" – nutmeg hickory, swamp hickory, bitter water hickory"Carya ovalis" – red hickory, spicebark hickory, sweet pignut hickory (treated as a synonym of "C. glabra" by "Flora N. Amer.")"Carya ovata" – shagbark hickory"C. o." var. "ovata" – northern shagbark hickory"C. o." var. "australis" – southern shagbark hickory, Carolina hickory (syn. "C. carolinae-septentrionalis")"Carya pallida" – sand hickory"Carya texana" –.

Hickory. black hickory"Carya tomentosa" – mockernut hickory (syn. "C. alba")†"Carya washingtonensis" – Miocene of Kittitas County, WashingtonCarya" sect. "Apocarya – pecans"Carya aquatica" – bitter pecan or water hickory"Carya cordiformis" – bitternut hickory"Carya illinoinensis" – pecan"Carya palmeri" – Mexican hickory## Ecology.Hickory is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species. These include: Luna moth ("Actias luna") Brown-tail moth ("Euproctis chrysorrhoea") "Coleophora" case-bearers, "C. laticornella" and "C. ostryae" Regal moths ("Citheronia regalis"), whose caterpillars are known as hickory horn-devils Walnut sphinx ("Amorpha juglandis") The bride (nominate subspecies "Catocala neogama neogama") Hickory tussock moth ("Lophocampa caryae")The hickory leaf stem gall.

Hickory. also found feeding on galls of the hickory leaf stem gall phylloxera.The banded hickory borer ("Knulliana cincta") is also found on hickories.## Evolutionary history.The oldest fossils attributed to "Carya" are Cretaceous pollen grains from Mexico and New Mexico. Fossil and molecular data suggest the genus "Carya" may have diversified during the Miocene. Modern "Carya" first appear in Oligocene strata 34 million years ago. Recent discoveries of "Carya" fruit fossils further support the hypothesis that the genus has long been a member of Eastern North American landscapes, however its range has contracted and Carya is no longer extant west of the.

Hickory. Rocky Mountains.Fossils of early hickory nuts show simpler, thinner shells than modern species with the exception of pecans, suggesting that the trees gradually developed defenses to rodent seed predation. During this time, the genus had a distribution across the Northern Hemisphere, but the Pleistocene Ice Age beginning 2 million years ago obliterated it from Europe. The distribution of Carya in North America also contracted and it completely disappeared from the continent west of the Rocky Mountains. Since fossil records show North America as having the largest number of Juglandaceae species, it is likely that the genus originated there and later.

Hickory. spread to Europe and Asia.## Fruit.Some fruits are borderline and difficult to categorize. Hickory nuts ("Carya") and walnuts ("Juglans") in the Juglandaceae family grow within an outer husk; these fruits are sometimes considered to be drupes or drupaceous nuts, rather than true botanical nuts. "Tryma" is a specialized term for such nut-like drupes.## Nutrition.Dried hickory nuts are 3% water, 18% carbohydrates, 13% protein, and 64% fats (table). In a 100 gram (3.5 oz) reference amount, dried hickory nuts supply 657 calories, and are a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of several B vitamins and dietary.

Hickory. regarded by some as the finest nut trees. Pecans are the most important nut tree native to North America.When cultivated for their nuts, clonal (grafted) trees of the same cultivar cannot pollinate each other because of their self-incompatibility. Two or more cultivars must be planted together for successful pollination. Seedlings (grown from hickory nuts) will usually have sufficient genetic variation. Hican WalnutPhilips, Roger. "Trees of North America and Europe". Random House, Inc., New York. , 1979. "Carya" images at the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University Plant Image Database Damery, Jonathan. "The "Carya" Collection." "Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University website." Accessed.


Question: What is the closest upper taxonomy of this plant?

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Cordyline australis. Cordyline australis, commonly known as the cabbage tree, tī kōuka or cabbage-palm, is a widely branched monocot tree endemic to New Zealand.It grows up to 20 (m) tall with a stout trunk and sword-like leaves, which are clustered at the tips of the branches and can be up to 1 (m) long. With its tall, straight trunk and dense, rounded heads, it is a characteristic feature of the New Zealand landscape. Its fruit is a favourite food source for the kererū and other native birds. It is common over a wide latitudinal range from the far north of the North.

Cordyline australis. Island at 34° 25′S to the south of the South Island at 46° 30′S. Absent from much of Fiordland, it was probably introduced by Māori to the Chatham Islands at 44° 00′S and to Stewart Island / Rakiura at 46° 50′S. It grows in a broad range of habitats, including forest margins, river banks and open places, and is abundant near swamps. The largest known tree with a single trunk is growing at Pakawau, Golden Bay / Mohua. It is estimated to be 400 or 500 years old, and stands 17 (m) tall with a circumference of 9 (m) at.

Cordyline australis. the base.Known to Māori as , the tree was used as a source of food, particularly in the South Island, where it was cultivated in areas where other crops would not grow. It provided durable fibre for textiles, anchor ropes, fishing lines, baskets, waterproof rain capes and cloaks, and sandals. Hardy and fast growing, it is widely planted in New Zealand gardens, parks and streets, and numerous cultivars are available. The tree can also be found in large numbers in island restoration projects such as Tiritiri Matangi Island, where it was among the first seedling trees to be planted.It is.

Cordyline australis. also grown as an ornamental tree in higher latitude Northern Hemisphere countries with maritime climates, including parts of the upper West Coast of the United States, Canada and the British Isles, where its common names include Torbay palm and Torquay palm. It does not do well in hot tropical climates like the Caribbean, Queensland, Southeast Asia or Florida.## Description."Cordyline australis" grows up to 20 (m) tall with a stout trunk 1.5 to 2 (m) in diameter. Before it flowers, it has a slender unbranched stem. The first flowers typically appear at 6 to 10 years old, in spring. The right.

Cordyline australis. conditions can reduce the first flowering age to 3 years (Havelock North, 2015 mast year). After the first flowering, it divides to form a much-branched crown with tufts of leaves at the tips of the branches. Each branch may fork after producing a flowering stem. The pale to dark grey bark is corky, persistent and fissured, and feels spongy to the touch.The long narrow leaves are sword-shaped, erect, dark to light green, 40 to 100 (cm) long and 3 to 7 (cm) wide at the base, with numerous parallel veins. The leaves grow in crowded clusters at the ends of.

Cordyline australis. the branches, and may droop slightly at the tips and bend down from the bases when old. They are thick and have an indistinct midrib. The fine nerves are more or less equal and parallel. The upper and lower leaf surfaces are similar.In spring and early summer, sweetly perfumed flowers are produced in large, dense panicles (flower spikes) 60 to 100 (cm) long, bearing well-spaced to somewhat crowded, almost sessile to sessile flowers and axes. The flowers are crowded along the ultimate branches of the panicles. The bracts which protect the developing flowers often have a distinct pink tinge before.

Cordyline australis. the flowers open. In south Canterbury and North Otago the bracts are green.The individual flowers are 5 to 6 (mm) in diameter, the tepals are free almost to the base, and reflexed. The stamens are about the same length as the tepals. The stigmas are short and trifid. The fruit is a white berry 5 to 7 (mm) in diameter which is greedily eaten by birds. The nectar attracts great numbers of insects to the flowers.Large, peg-like rhizomes, covered with soft, purplish bark, up to 3 (m) long in old plants, grow vertically down beneath the ground. They serve to.

Cordyline australis. anchor the plant and to store fructose in the form of fructan. When young, the rhizomes are mostly fleshy and are made up of thin-walled storage cells. They grow from a layer called the secondary thickening meristem.## Regional diversity.New Zealand's native "Cordyline" species are relics of an influx of tropical plants that arrived from the north 15 million years ago in the warm Miocene era. Because it has evolved in response to the local climate, geology and other factors, "C. australis" varies in appearance from place to place. This variation can alter the overall appearance of the tree, canopy shape.

Cordyline australis. and branch size, the relative shape and size of the leaves, and their colour and stiffness. There may also be invisible adaptations for resistance to disease or insect attack. Some of these regional provenances are different enough to have been named by North Island Māori: in the north, in the central uplands, in the east and in the west.In Northland, "C. australis" shows a great deal of genetic diversity—suggesting it is where old genetic lines have endured. Some trees in the far north have floppy, narrow leaves, which botanist Philip Simpson attributes to hybridisation with "C. pumilio", the dwarf cabbage.

Cordyline australis. tree. In eastern Northland, "C. australis" generally has narrow, straight dark green leaves, but some trees have much broader leaves than normal and may have hybridised with the Three Kings cabbage tree, "C. obtecta", which grows at North Cape and on nearby islands. These "obtecta"-like characteristics appear in populations of "C. australis" along parts of the eastern coastline from the Karikari Peninsula to the Coromandel Peninsula. In western Northland and Auckland, a form often called grows. When young, are generally very spindly, and are common in young kauri forests. When growing in the open, can become massive trees with numerous,.

Cordyline australis. long thin branches and relatively short, broad leaves.In the central Volcanic Plateau, cabbage trees are tall, with stout, relatively unbranched stems and large stiff straight leaves. Fine specimens are found along the upper Whanganui River. On old trees, the leaves tend to be relatively broad. The leaves radiate strongly, suggesting that tī manu is adapted to the cold winters of the upland central plateau. It may have originated in the open country created by lava, volcanic ash, and pumice. Trees of the tī manu type are also found in northern Taranaki, the King Country and the Bay of Plenty lowlands.Tarariki.

Cordyline australis. are found in the east of the North Island from East Cape to the Wairarapa. Māori valued the narrow spiky leaves as a source of particularly tough, durable fibre. Tarariki's strong leaf fibres may be an adaptation to the region's hot, dry summers. In parts of the Wairarapa, the trees are particularly spiky, with stiff leaves and partially rolled leaf-blades. The trees near East Cape, by contrast, have leaves that hang laxly on the tree. In Hawke's Bay, some trees have greener, broader leaves, and this may be because of wharanui characteristics brought in across the main divide through the.

Cordyline australis. Manawatū Gorge.Wharanui grow to the west of the North Island's main divide. They have long, broad flaccid leaves, which may be an adaptation to persistent westerly winds. The wharanui type occurs in Wellington, Horowhenua and Whanganui, and extends with some modifications to the southern Taranaki coast. In Taranaki, cabbage trees generally have a compact canopy with broad straight leaves. In the South Island, wharanui is the most common form, but it is variable. The typical form grows, with little variation, from Cape Campbell to the northern Catlins, and from the eastern coast to the foothills of the Southern Alps /.

Cordyline australis. Kā Tiritiri o te Moana. In Marlborough's Wairau Valley, cabbage trees tend to retain their old, dead leaves, lending them an untidy appearance. The climate there is an extreme one, with hot, dry summers and cold winters.In north-west Nelson, there are three ecotypes defined by soil and exposure. Trees growing on limestone bluffs have stiff, blue-green leaves. On the river flats, the trees are tall with narrow, lax, dark green leaves, and an uneven canopy. They resemble the cabbage trees of the North Island's East Cape. Along the coast to the far west, the trees are robust with broad, bluish.

Cordyline australis. leaves. The latter two forms extend down the West Coast, with the lax-leaved forms growing in moist, fertile, sheltered river valleys while the bluish-leaved forms prefer rocky slopes exposed to the full force of the salt-laden coastal winds. In Otago, cabbage trees gradually become less common towards the south until they come to an end in the northern Catlins. They reappear on the south coast at Waikawa, Southland, but they are not the wharanui type. Rather they are vigorous trees with broad, green leaves and broad canopies. They extend along the coast towards Fiordland, and inland to the margins of.

Cordyline australis. some of the glacier-fed lakes. Very vigorous when they are young, these trees seem well adapted to the very cold winters of the south.A study of seedlings grown from seed collected in 28 areas showed a north-south change in leaf shape and dimensions. Seedling leaves get longer and narrower southwards. Seedlings often have leaves with red-brown pigmentation which disappears in older plants, and this coloration becomes increasingly common towards the south. The changes in shape—leaves getting narrower and more robust from north to south and from lowland to montane—suggest adaptations to colder weather.## Taxonomy and names."Cordyline australis" was collected in.

Cordyline australis. 1769 by Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Daniel Solander, naturalists on the "Endeavour" during Lieutenant James Cook's first voyage to the Pacific. The type locality is Queen Charlotte Sound / Tōtaranui. It was named "Dracaena australis" by Georg Forster who published it as entry 151 in his "Florulae Insularum Australium Prodromus" of 1786. It is sometimes still sold as a "Dracaena", particularly for the house plant market in Northern Hemisphere countries. In 1833, Stephan Endlicher reassigned the species to the genus,"Cordyline".The genus name "Cordyline" derives from an Ancient Greek word for a club ("kordyle"), a reference to the enlarged underground.

Cordyline australis. stems or rhizomes, while the species name "australis" is Latin for "southern". The common name "cabbage tree" is attributed by some sources to early settlers having used the young leaves as a substitute for cabbage. However the name probably predates the settlement of New Zealand — Georg Forster, writing in his "Voyage round the World" of 1777 about the events of Friday, April 23, 1773, refers on page 114 to the discovery of a related species in Fiordland as "not the true cabbage palm" and says "the central shoot, when quite tender, tastes something like an almond's kernel, with a.

Cordyline australis. little of the flavour of cabbage." Forster may have been referring to the cabbage palmetto ("Sabal palmetto") of Florida, which resembles the Cordyline somewhat, and was named for the cabbage-like appearance of its terminal bud."Cordyline australis" is the tallest of New Zealand's five native "Cordyline" species. Of these, the commonest are "C. banksii", which has a slender, sweeping trunk, and "C. indivisa", a handsome plant with a trunk up to 8 (m) tall bearing a massive head of broad leaves up to 2 (m) long. In the far north of New Zealand, "C. australis" can be distinguished by its larger.

Cordyline australis. heavily branched tree form, narrower leaves and smaller seeds from "C. obtecta", the Three Kings cabbage tree, its closest relative. "C. australis" is rather variable, and forms from the northern offshore islands may be hybrids with "C. obtecta". Hybrids with "C. pumilio" and "C. banksii" also occur often where the plants are in close vicinity, because they flower at about the same time and share the chromosome number 2n=38, with "C. australis".The tree was well known to Māori before its scientific discovery. The generic Māori language term for plants in the genus "Cordyline" is "tī", and names recorded as specific.

Cordyline australis. to "C. australis" include "tī kōuka", "tī kāuka", "tī rākau", "tī awe", "tī pua", and "tī whanake". Each tribe had names for the tree depending on its local uses and characteristics. Simpson reports that the names highlight the characteristics of the tree that were important to Māori. These include what the plant looked like—whether it was a large tree ("tī rākau", "tī pua"), the whiteness of its flowers ("tī puatea"), whether its leaves were broad ("tī wharanui"), twisted along the edges ("tī tahanui"), or spiky ("tī tarariki"). Other names refer to its uses—whether its fruit attracted birds ("tī manu"), or.

Cordyline australis. the leaves were particularly suitable for making ropes ("tī whanake") and nets ("tī kupenga"). The most widely used name, "tī kōuka", refers to the use of the leaf hearts as food.## Ecology.## Habitat.A quote from Philip Simpson sums up the wide range of habitats the cabbage tree occupied in early New Zealand, and how much its abundance and distinctive form shaped the impression travellers received of the country:"In primeval New Zealand cabbage trees occupied a range of habitats, anywhere open, moist, fertile and warm enough for them to establish and mature: with forest; around the rocky coast; in lowland swamps,.

Cordyline australis. around the lakes and along the lower rivers; and perched on isolated rocks. Approaching the land from the sea would have reminded a Polynesian traveller of home, and for a European traveller, conjured up images of the tropical Pacific"."Cordyline australis" occurs from North Cape to the very south of the South Island, where it becomes less and less common, until it reaches its southernmost natural limits at Sandy Point (46° 30' S), west of Invercargill near Oreti Beach. It is absent from much of Fiordland, probably because there is no suitable habitat, and is unknown on the subantarctic islands to.

Cordyline australis. the south of New Zealand, probably because it is too cold. It occurs on some offshore islands—Poor Knights, Stewart and the Chathams—but was probably introduced by Māori. In the Stewart Island region, it is rare, growing only on certain islands, headlands and former settlement sites where it may have been introduced by muttonbird collectors, while on the Chatham Islands it is also largely "a notable absentee".Generally a lowland species, it grows from sea level to about 1000 (m), reaching its upper limits on the volcanoes of the central North Island, where eruptions have created open spaces for it to exploit,.

Cordyline australis. and in the foothills of the Southern Alps in the South Island, where deforestation may have played a part in giving it room to grow. In the central North Island, it has evolved a much sturdier form (with the Māori name "tī manu", meaning "with branches bearing broad, straight upright leaves"). This form resembles that found in the far south of the South Island, suggesting that they are both adapted to cold conditions."Cordyline australis" is a light-demanding pioneer species, and seedlings die when overtopped by other trees. To grow well, young plants require open space so they are not shaded.

Cordyline australis. out by other vegetation. Another requirement is water during the seedling stage. Although adult trees can store water and are drought resistant, seedlings need a good supply of water to survive. This stops the species from growing in sand dunes unless there are wet depressions present, and from hillsides unless there is a seepage area. The fertility of the soil is another factor—settlers in Canterbury used the presence of the species to situate their homesteads and gardens. The fallen leaves of the tree also help to raise the fertility of the soil when they break down. Another factor is temperature,.

Cordyline australis. especially the degree of frost. Young trees are killed by frost, and even old trees can be cut back. This is why "C. australis" is absent from upland areas and from very frosty inland areas.Early European explorers of New Zealand described "jungles of cabbage trees" along the banks of streams and rivers, in huge swamps and lowland valleys. Few examples of this former abundance survive today—such areas were the first to be cleared by farmers looking for flat land and fertile soil. In modern New Zealand, cabbage trees usually grow as isolated individuals rather than as parts of a healthy.

Cordyline australis. ecosystem.## Reproduction.The cabbage tree's year begins in autumn among the tight spike of unopened leaves projecting from the centre of each tuft of leaves. Some of the growing tips have changed from making leaves to producing inflorescences for the coming spring, and around these, two or three buds begin to produce leaves. The inflorescence and the leaf buds pass the winter protected by the enveloping spike of unopened leaves. Months later in spring or early summer, it bears its flowers on the outside of the tree, exposed to insects and birds.Flowering takes place over a period of four to six.

Cordyline australis. weeks, giving maximum exposure to pollinating insects. The flowers produce a sweet perfume which attracts large numbers of insects. The nectar produced by the flowers contains aromatic compounds, mainly esters and terpenes, which are particularly attractive to moths. Bees use the nectar to produce a light honey to feed their young and increase the size of the hive in the early summer. It takes about two months for the fruit to ripen, and by the end of summer a cabbage tree can have thousands of small fruits available for birds to eat and disperse. The strong framework of the inflorescence.

Cordyline australis. can easily bear the weight of heavy birds like the New Zealand pigeon, which was formerly the major disperser of the seeds.Each fruit contains three to six shiny, black seeds which are coated in a charcoal-like substance called phytomelan. The latter may serve to protect the seeds from the digestive process in the gut of a bird. The seeds are also rich in linoleic acid as a food source for the developing embryo plant, a compound which is also important in the egg-laying cycle of birds. Because it takes about two years for a particular stem to produce an inflorescence,.

Cordyline australis. cabbage trees tend to flower heavily in alternative years, with a bumper flowering every three to five years. Each inflorescence bears 5,000 to 10,000 flowers, so a large inflorescence may carry about 40,000 seeds, or one million seeds for the whole tree in a good flowering year—hundreds of millions for a healthy grove of trees.## Response to fire."Cordyline australis" is one of the few New Zealand forest trees that can recover from fire. It can renew its trunk from buds on the protected rhizomes under the ground. This gives the tree an advantage because it can regenerate itself quickly and.

Cordyline australis. the fire has eliminated competing plants. Cabbage tree leaves contain oils which make them burn readily. The same oils may also slow down the decay of fallen leaves, so that they build up a dense mat that prevents the seeds of other plants from germinating. When the leaves do break down, they form a fertile soil around the tree. Cabbage tree seed also has a store of oil, which means it remains viable for several years. When a bushfire has cleared the land of vegetation, cabbage tree seeds germinate in great numbers to make the most of the light and.

Cordyline australis. space opened up by the flames.Older trees sometimes grow epicormic shoots directly from their trunks after storm or fire damage. Aerial rhizomes can also be produced from the trunk if it sustains damage or has become hollow, and grow down into the soil to regenerate the plant. Such regeneration can lead to trees of great age with multiple trunks.## Biodiversity.Many plants and animals are associated with "C. australis" in healthy ecosystems. The most common epiphytes are ferns, astelias and orchids. Old trees often carry large clumps of the climbing fern "Asplenium", and in moist places, filmy ferns and kidney ferns.

Cordyline australis. cling to the branches. "Astelia" species and "Collospermum" often establish in the main fork of the tree, and one tree can host several species of native orchid. Other common epiphytes include "Griselinia lucida", as well as a range of mosses, liverworts, lichens and fungi. Two fungus species which infect living tissue—"Phanaerochaeta cordylines" and "Sphaeropsis cordylines"—occur almost exclusively on "C. australis".Animals and birds associated with "C. australis" include lizards which forage among the flowers, including the gold-striped gecko which is well camouflaged for life among the leaves of the tree. New Zealand bellbirds like to nest under the dead leaves or.

Cordyline australis. among the flower stalks, and paradise shelducks commonly build their nests in the base of an old cabbage tree standing in the middle of a field. Red-crowned parakeets are often seen foraging in cabbage trees. In South Canterbury, long-tailed bats shelter during the day in the hollow branches, which would once have provided nesting holes for many birds.The berries of "C. australis" are enjoyed by bellbirds, tūī, and kererū. Māori sometimes planted groves of cabbage trees () to attract kererū which could be snared when they came to eat the berries. Reminiscing in 1903 about life in New Zealand sixty.

Cordyline australis. or more years earlier, George Clarke describes how such a tapu grove of cabbage trees would attract huge numbers of pigeons: "About four miles from our house, there was a great preserve of wood pigeons, that was made as tapu as the native chiefs could devise. At a certain season, the pigeons came in vast flocks to feed on the white berries of the Ti tree (bracœna) [sic] and got so heavy with fat that they could hardly fly from one tree to another. No gun was allowed in the place. The Maoris, with a long slender rod and a.

Cordyline australis. slip noose at the end, squatted under the leaves and noiselessly slipped the noose over the necks of the stupid pigeons as they were feeding." As the native birds have vanished from much of New Zealand with the clearing of forests, it is now flocks of starlings which descend upon the fruit.The nectar of the flowers is sought after by insects, bellbirds, tūī, and stitchbirds. The leaves and the rough bark provide excellent homes for insects such as caterpillars and moths, small beetles, fly larvae, wētā, snails and slugs. Many of these are then eaten by birds such as saddlebacks.

Cordyline australis. and robins. The rough bark also provides opportunities for epiphytes to cling and grow, and lizards hide amongst the dead leaves, coming out to drink the nectar and to eat the insects. Good flowering seasons occur every few years only. While it is said that they foretell dry summers, it has been observed that they tend to follow dry seasons.Insects, including beetles, moths, wasps and flies, use the bark, leaves and flowers of the tree in various ways. Some feed or hide camouflaged in the skirt of dead leaves, a favourite dry place for wētā to hide in winter. Many.

Cordyline australis. of the insect companions of the tree have followed it into the domesticated surroundings of parks and home gardens. If the leaves are left to decay, the soil underneath cabbage trees becomes a black humus that supports a rich array of amphipods, earthworms and millipedes.There are nine species of insect only found on "C. australis", of which the best known is "Epiphryne verriculata", the cabbage tree moth, which is perfectly adapted to hide on a dead leaf. Its caterpillars eat large holes and wedges in the leaves. The moth lays its eggs at the base of the central spike of.

Cordyline australis. unopened leaves. The caterpillars eat holes in the surface of the leaves and leave characteristic notches in the leaf margins. They can infest young trees but seldom damage older trees, which lack the skirt of dead leaves where the parent moths like to hide.## Threats, pests and diseases.## Sudden decline.Cases of sick and dying trees of "C. australis" were first reported in the northern part of the North Island in 1987. The syndrome, eventually called Sudden Decline, soon reached epidemic proportions in Northland and Auckland. Affected trees usually suffer total defoliation within 2 to 12 months. The foliage turns yellow,.

Cordyline australis. and the oldest leaves wither and fall off. Growth of leaves ceases, and eventually all the leaves fall, leaving dead branches, often with the dried-out flowering panicles still attached. At the same time, the bark on the trunk becomes loose and detaches easily. The greatest number of dead trees (18 to 26 percent) was recorded around Auckland.For some years, the cause of the disease was unknown, and hypotheses included tree ageing, fungi, viruses, and environmental factors such as an increase in ultra-violet light. Another hypothesis was that a genetic problem may have been induced in Northland and Auckland by the.

Cordyline australis. thousands of cabbage trees brought into the area from elsewhere and planted in gardens and parks. The Lands and Survey Department had a native plant nursery at Taupo in the central North Island, which was used to grow plants for use in parks, reserves and carparks. In many Northland parks, cabbage trees from the central North Island were growing and flowering within metres of natural forms. Any offspring produced might have been poorly adapted to local conditions. After nearly five years of work, scientists found the cause was a bacterium "Phytoplasma australiense", which may be spread from tree to tree.

Cordyline australis. by a tiny sap-sucking insect, the introduced passion vine hopper.Populations of "C. australis" were decimated in some parts of New Zealand because of Sudden Decline. In some areas, particularly in the north, no big trees are left. Although Sudden Decline often affects cabbage trees in farmland and open areas, trees in natural forest patches continue to do well. Trees in the southern North Island and northern South Island are generally unaffected with few dead branches and no symptoms of Sudden Decline. By 2010, there was evidence to suggest the severity of the disease was lessening.## Rural decline.The plight of "Cordyline.

Cordyline australis. australis" in the Sudden Decline epidemic drew attention to another widespread threat to the tree in rural areas throughout New Zealand. Rural Decline was the name proposed by botanists to refer to a decline in health of older trees in pasture and grazed shrubland, leading over many years to the loss of upper branches and eventual death.Often farmers would leave a solitary cabbage tree—or even groves of trees—standing after the swamps were drained. Most of these trees will slowly die out because livestock eat the seedlings and damage the trunks and roots of adult trees. When a cabbage tree is.

Cordyline australis. the only shade in a field, stock will shelter underneath it, damaging the bark by rubbing against it, and compacting the soil around the tree. Cows, sheep, goats, and deer eat the nutritious tissue under the bark of cabbage trees. Once the trunk has been damaged by animals, it seldom heals and the wounds get bigger over time. Eventually the tissue in the centre of the stem rots away and a cavity forms along its entire length. The trunk becomes misshapen or completely ring-barked for a metre above the ground. Often the growth layer dies and the injuries may lead.

Cordyline australis. to bacterial or fungal infections that spread into the branches until the canopy too begins to die. Other factors thought to contribute to Rural Decline include wood-rotting fungi like "Phanerochaete cordylines", micro-organisms which cause saprobic decay and leaf-feeding caterpillars.Other mammals can be destructive. Possums tend not to eat the leaves of the tree, but are very fond of eating the sugar-rich flowering stalks as they emerge. They also like using the tree as a sleeping place. Rabbits can be more destructive, especially during periods of drought, when they have been seen to eat through the base until a tree falls,.

Cordyline australis. and then eating the fallen tree completely. Horses can also fell a tree by eating through the trunk.## Māori cultural uses.In traditional times, Māori had a rich knowledge of the cabbage tree, including spiritual, ecological and many practical aspects of its use. While much of that specialised knowledge was lost after the European settlement of New Zealand, the use of the tree as food and medicine has persisted, and the use of its fibres for weaving is becoming more common.## Food.The stems and fleshy rhizomes of "C. australis" are high in natural sugars and were steam-cooked in earth ovens ("umu.

Cordyline australis. tī", a large type of "hāngi") to produce "kāuru", a carbohydrate-rich food used to sweeten other foods. The growing tips or leaf hearts were stripped of leaves and eaten raw or cooked as a vegetable, when they were called "kōuka"—the origin of the Māori name of the tree. The southern limit of kūmara (sweet potato) cultivation was at Banks Peninsula at 43°S, and south of there a culture developed around "C. australis". Natural and planted groves of the cabbage tree were harvested.Large parties trimmed the cut stems, and left them to dry for days or weeks. As well as stems,.

Cordyline australis. the rhizomes—extensions of the trunk below the surface of the ground shaped like enormous carrots—were also dug up to be cooked. In the early 1840s, Edward Shortland said Māori preferred rhizomes from trees growing in deep rich soil. They dug them in spring or early summer just before the flowering of the plant, when they were at their sweetest. November was the favourite month for preparing kāuru in the South Island.After drying, the harvested stems or rhizomes were steamed for 24 hours or more in the umu tī pit. Steaming converted the carbohydrate fructan in the stems to very sweet.

Cordyline australis. fructose. The cooked stems or rhizomes were then flattened by beating and carried back to villages for storage. Kāuru could be stored dry until the time came to add it to fern root and other foods to improve their palatability. The sugar in the stems or rhizomes would be partially crystallised, and could be found mixed in a sugary pulp with other matter between the fibres of the root, which were easily separated by tearing them apart. Kāuru could also be dipped in water and chewed, and was said to smell and taste like molasses.Evidence of large cooking pits (umu.

Cordyline australis. tī) can still be found in the hills of South Canterbury and North Otago, where large groves of cabbage trees still stand. Europeans used the plant to make alcohol, and the often fearsome brews were relished by whalers and sealers.The kōata, the growing tip of the plant, was eaten raw as medicine. When cooked, it was called the kōuka. If the spike of unopened leaves and a few outer leaves is gripped firmly at the base and bent, it will snap off. The leaves can be removed, and what remains is like a small artichoke heart that can be steamed,.

Cordyline australis. roasted or boiled to make kōuka, a bitter vegetable available at any time of the year. Kōuka is delicious as a relish with fatty foods like eel, muttonbirds, or pigeons, or in modern times, pork, mutton and beef. Different trees were selected for their degree of bitterness, which should be strong for medicinal use, but less so when used as a vegetable.## Fibre.A tough fibre was extracted from the leaves of "C. australis", and was valued for its strength and durability especially in seawater. The leaves are suitable for weaving in its raw state, without any need to further process.

Cordyline australis. the fibres. The leaves were used for making anchor ropes and fishing lines, cooking mats, baskets, sandals and leggings for protection when travelling in the South Island high country, home of the prickly speargrasses ("Aciphylla") and tūmatakuru or matagouri ("Discaria toumatou"). Because of the water-resistant properties of the plant, the leaves were traditionally used for cooking baskets. Morere swings provided a source of amusement for Māori children. The ropes had to be strong, so they were often made from the leaves or fibre of "C. australis", which were much tougher than the fibres of New Zealand flax. The leaves were.

Cordyline australis. also used for rain capes, although the mountain cabbage tree "C. indivisa", was preferred. The fibre made from cabbage tree leaves is stronger than that made from New Zealand flax.## Medicine.The Māori used various parts of "Cordyline australis" to treat injuries and illnesses, either boiled up into a drink or pounded into a paste. The kōata, the growing tip of the plant, was eaten raw as a blood tonic or cleanser. Juice from the leaves was used for cuts, cracks and sores. An infusion of the leaves was taken internally for diarrhoea and used externally for bathing cuts. The leaves.

Cordyline australis. were rubbed until soft and applied either directly or as an ointment to cuts, skin cracks and cracked or sore hands. The young shoot was eaten by nursing mothers and given to children for colic. The liquid from boiled shoots was taken for other stomach pains. The seeds of "Cordyline australis" are high in linoleic acid, one of the essential fatty acids.## Cultivation today."Cordyline australis" is one of the most widely cultivated New Zealand native trees. In Northwest Europe and other cool oceanic climates, it is very popular as an ornamental tree because it looks like a palm tree. Hardy.

Cordyline australis. forms from the coldest areas of the southern or inland South Island tolerate Northern Hemisphere conditions best, while North Island forms are much more tender. It can also be grown successfully in Mediterranean climates. It is easily grown from fresh seed — seedlings often spontaneously appear in gardens from bird-dispersed seed — and can be grown very easily from shoot, stem and even trunk cuttings. It does well in pots and tubs.It grows well as far north as the eastern coast of Scotland, including the village of Portgower. It is more common in Southern England and in Ireland where it.

Cordyline australis. is grown all over the island. Although not a palm, it is locally named Cornish palm, Manx palm or Torbay palm. The last name is due to its extensive use in Torbay, it being the official symbol of that area, used in tourist posters promoting South Devon as the English Riviera. It also grows in southern Europe, California and Japan. Even though its natural distribution ranges from 34° S to 46°S, and despite its ultimately subtropical origins, it also grows at about five degrees from the Arctic Circle in Masfjorden, Norway, latitude 61ºN, in a microclimate protected from arctic winds.

Cordyline australis. and moderated by the Gulf Stream.## Cultivars.In the North Island, Māori cultivated selected forms of "C. australis" for food. One of these, called tī para or tī tāwhiti, was grown because it suckers readily and forms multiple fleshy rhizomes. A dwarf non-flowering selection of "C. australis", it has a rubbery, pulpy stem, and thick green leaves. Although it was recorded by the early naturalists, botanists only rediscovered it in the 1990s, being grown by gardeners as the cultivar "Cordyline" 'Thomas Kirk'. Recent and unpublished DNA work suggests it derives from "C. australis" of the central North Island."Cordyline" 'Ti Tawhiti' was.

Cordyline australis. "the subject of an intense discussion amongst the leading botanists of New Zealand at a meeting of the Royal Society ... in Wellington 100 years ago. It was saved from extinction because its dwarf form found favour with gardeners and it came to be known as Cordyline 'Kirkii' recording the interest Thomas Kirk had in the plant. Its origin as a Maori selection was forgotten until rediscovered in 1991. The name 'Tawhiti' is equivalent to 'Hawaiki' and indicates the traditional belief that the plant was introduced to Aotearoa by the ancestral canoes of Maori. However, it is more probable that.

Cordyline australis. the name arose from it being moved around its native land as a domesticated plant."Numerous cultivars of "C. australis" are sold within New Zealand and around the world. Like other "Cordyline" species, "C. australis" can produce sports which have very attractive colouration, including pink stripes and leaves in various shades of green, yellow or red. An early cultivar was published in France and England in 1870: "Cordyline australis" 'Lentiginosa' was described as having tinted leaves with brownish red spots. Other early cultivars included 'Veitchii' (1871) with crimson midribs, 'Atrosanguinea' (1882) with bronze leaves infused with red, 'Atropurpurea' (1886) and 'Purpurea'.

Cordyline australis. (1890) with purple leaves, and a range of variegated forms: 'Doucetiana' (1878), 'Argento-striata' (1888) and 'Dalleriana' (1890). In New Zealand and overseas, hybrids with other "Cordyline" species feature prominently in the range of cultivars available. New Plymouth plant breeders Duncan and Davies included hybrids of "C. australis" and "C. banksii" in their 1925 catalogue, and have produced many new cultivars since. In New Zealand, some of the coloured forms and hybrids seem to be more susceptible to attacks from the cabbage tree moth.Immature forms have become a popular annual house or ornamental plant under the name 'Spikes', or "Dracaena" 'Spikes'.

Cordyline australis. To add to the confusion, these may be misidentified as "Cordyline indivisa" (syn. "Dracaena indivisa")."C. australis" is hardy to USDA zones 8–11.## AGM cultivars.In cultivation in the United Kingdom, the following have received the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:"C. australis" 'Albertii' 'Sundance' 'Torbay Dazzler', 'Torbay Red' (confirmed 2017) Barry L. Frankhauser, an archaeologist and anthropologist, whose Ph.D. thesis (published 1986) was a study of historical uses of the cabbage treeScheele, S. (2007). The 2006 Banks Memorial Lecture: Cultural uses of New Zealand native plants. "New Zealand Garden Journal" 1:10–16. Retrieved 2010-04-04.Arkins, A. (2003). "The Cabbage Tree". Auckland. Reed.

Cordyline australis. Publishing.Harris, W. (2001). Horticultural and conservation significance of the genetic variation of cabbage trees (Cordyline spp.). In: Oates, M. R. ed. "New Zealand plants and their story: proceedings of a conference held in Wellington 1–3 October 1999". Lincoln, Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture. pp. 87–91.Harris, W. (2002). The cabbage tree. "Journal of the Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture", 5, 3–9.Harris, W. (2003). Genotypic variation of height growth and trunk diameter of Cordyline australis (Lomandraceae) grown at three locations in New Zealand. "New Zealand Journal of Botany", 41, 637–652.Harris, W. (2004). Genotypic variation of dead leaf retention by Cordyline.

Cordyline australis. australis (Lomandraceae) populations and influence on trunk surface. "New Zealand Journal of Botany", 42, 833–844.


Question: What is the closest upper taxonomy of this bird?

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Least grebe. The least grebe ("Tachybaptus dominicus"), an aquatic bird, is the smallest member of the grebe family. It occurs in the New World from the southwestern United States and Mexico to Argentina, and also on Trinidad and Tobago, the Bahamas and the Greater Antilles.## Description.The least grebe ranges in length from 21 – 27 (cm) (depending on the subspecies) and in weight from 112 – 180 (g). Weights are variable based on region and subspecies, being smaller in Panama, where males weighed a mean of 129 (g) against the females 116 (g) and larger in the West Indies, where the sexes.

Least grebe. is found in the northern Caribbean, including the Bahamas, Greater Antilles, Virgin Islands and southern Florida. "T. d. brachyrhynchus" or "T. d. speciosus" – : is found in South America, from Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago south to northern Argentina and southern Brazil. "T. d. eisenmanni" – : is restricted to the lowlands of western Ecuador. This subspecies is not recognized by all authorities.Its genus name, "Tachybaptus", is a combination of two Greek words—"takhus" meaning fast and "baptos" meaning diving, or sinking under. The specific name "dominicus" refers to the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, which was formerly known as Santo.

Least grebe. Domingo. As its English name suggests, the least grebe is overall the smallest member of the grebe family. It is the only member of its genus found in the New World; the four other members of the genus "Tachybaptus" reside in the Old World and Australasia.## Habitat and range.Least grebes are found in a wide variety of wetland habitats, including freshwater ponds, lakes, and marshes, slow-flowing streams and rivers, roadside ditches, and mangrove swamps. In general, they prefer bodies of water with significant amounts of vegetative cover, particularly along the edges; they will even use wetlands which are almost completely.