Question: Which protected area is this building usually located in?

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Old Courthouse (St. Louis). The Old St. Louis County Courthouse was built as a combination federal and state courthouse in St. Louis, Missouri. Missouri's tallest habitable building from 1864 to 1894, it is now part of Gateway Arch National Park and operated by the National Park Service for historical exhibits and events.## History.Land for the courthouse was donated in 1816 by Judge John Baptiste Charles Lucas and St. Louis founder Auguste Chouteau. Lucas and Chouteau required the land be "used forever as the site on which the courthouse of the County of St. Louis should be erected." The Federal style courthouse was completed in.

Old Courthouse (St. Louis). around the courthouse in the center of St. Louis for the new Gateway Arch National Park, which was then known as Jefferson National Expansion Memorial. President Franklin Roosevelt declared in an Executive Order the area would be a national monument and landscape design, sidewalks and other infrastructure was added. The courthouse formally became part of the new monument area in 1940. Replaced in 1941, the roof was renovated in 1955, 1985 and 2010. The National Park Service maintains four history galleries on St. Louis and NPS offices within. The courthouse once had up to 12 courtrooms, but now there are.


Question: What country does this aircraft belong to?

Instruction: I want to find a paragraph from Wikipedia that answers my question about this image.

Dornier Flugzeugwerke. Dornier Flugzeugwerke was a German aircraft manufacturer founded in Friedrichshafen in 1914 by Claude Dornier. Over the course of its long lifespan, the company produced many designs for both the civil and military markets.## History.Originally Dornier Metallbau, Dornier Flugzeugwerke took over Flugzeugbau Friedrichshafen production facilities (Weingarten, Warnemünde, and the former Zeppelin shed at Manzell) when it failed in 1923.Dornier was well known between the two world wars as a manufacturer of large, all-metal flying boats and of land based airliners. The record-breaking 1924 Wal () was used on many long distance flights and the Do X set records for its.

Dornier Flugzeugwerke. immense size and weight. Dornier's successful landplane airliners, including the Komet ("Comet") and Merkur ("Mercury"), were used by Lufthansa and other European carriers during the 1920s and early 30s. Dornier built its aircraft outside Germany during much of this period due to the restrictions placed on German aircraft manufacturers by the Treaty of Versailles: locations included Altenrhein, Switzerland, 12 km from Zeppelin's Lindau (Bodensee) location. Foreign factories licence-building Dornier products included CMASA and Piaggio in Italy, CASA in Spain, Kawasaki in Japan, and Aviolanda in the Netherlands. Once the Nazi government came to power and abandoned the treaty's restrictions, Dornier.

Dornier Flugzeugwerke. resumed production in Germany.The success of the Wal family encouraged the development of derivatives, and of more advanced successors, such as the Do 18, and Do 24 which saw service in several armed forces, including German, into World War II.Dornier's most important World War II military aircraft design was the Do 17, nicknamed "The Flying Pencil". It first flew in 1934 as a mailplane for Lufthansa but due to its narrow fuselage (hence its nickname) it was not commercially viable and was passed over. Dornier then developed it further as a military aircraft, with a prototype bomber flying in 1935,.

Dornier Flugzeugwerke. and in 1937 it was used in by the German Condor Legion during the Spanish Civil War. Production continued in Germany and it was developed to fill multiple roles for the Luftwaffe. As a medium bomber it saw service during the early part of World War II, particularly during the Battle of Britain. It was later developed into a nightfighter to counter the RAF bomber offensive. Dornier developed the similar looking Do 217 from the Do 17 but it was a larger and completely new design. Dornier also developed the fastest piston-engined fighter of the war, the twin-engined Do 335,.

Dornier Flugzeugwerke. which was too late to see service.After WWII, aircraft production was again forbidden in Germany, and Dornier relocated to Spain and then to Switzerland where the firm provided aeronautical consultancy services until returning to Germany in 1954. Post-war, Dornier re-established itself with successful STOL Do 27 and Do 28 utility planes. In 1974 it joined a joint venture with French aircraft manufacturers Dassault-Breguet to develop the Alpha Jet.In 1983, Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) acquired a production licence for the Dornier 228 and manufactured the aircraft for the Asian market. By 2013 a total of 117 Dornier 228 aircraft had been.

Dornier Flugzeugwerke. produced by HAL with plans to build 20 more during 2013-14.In 1985, Dornier became a member of the Daimler-Benz group, integrating its aeronautic assets with the parent company. As part of this transaction, Lindauer Dornier GmbH was spun off, creating a separate, family-owned firm, concentrating on textile machinery design and manufacturing. The rest of the company was split into several subsidiaries for defence, satellites, medtech and aircraft.In 1996, the majority of Dornier Aircraft was acquired by Fairchild Aircraft, forming Fairchild Dornier. This company became insolvent in early 2002. Production of its 328 Jet was acquired by US company Avcraft. Asian.

Dornier Flugzeugwerke. groups continued to show interest in its 728 version in August 2004, but production was not restarted. Dornier 228 production was taken over by Swiss manufacturer RUAG, who then sold it off to General Atomics in 2020. Other subsidiaries became part of the EADS.The medtech division was sold to an investment company and now bears the name Dornier MedTech. Dornier Medtech manufactures medical equipment, such as the "Dornier S lithotriptor", HM3, Compact Delta to treat kidney stones. Dornier MedTech also manufactures laser devices for a wide range of applications.## Dornier Seaplane Company.The Dornier family have a spin-off company and project,.

Dornier Flugzeugwerke. the Dornier Seastar. It is a turboprop-powered amphibious aircraft built largely of composite materials. This was developed by , and later by his son Cornado by Dornier Seawings.## Dornier Technologie.Claude's grandson, , founded Dornier Technologie in 1996 to manufacture the Dornier S-Ray 007. Dornier Gs Precursor to Wal destroyed by Military Inter-Allied Commission of Control (1919) Dornier Do A Libelle (I 1921, III redesignated Do 12) Dornier Spatz Landplane version of Do A (1922) Dornier Do B Merkur Development of Do C (1926) Dornier Do C Komet (I 1921, II 1922, III 1926) Dornier Do C 2, 3, 4 Fighter.

Dornier Flugzeugwerke. unrelated to earlier Do C, redesignated Do 10 (C 2 ?, C 3 1931, C 4 1932) Dornier Do D (1929) Dornier Do E (1924) Dornier Do F (1932, redesignated Do 11, 13, 23) Dornier Do G "Grief" (Cancelled 1920 project) Dornier Do H "Falke" (1922 development of Dornier-Zeppelin D.I) Dornier Do I (1923 twin engine long range reconnaissance aircraft) Dornier Do J Wal (1922) Dornier Do K (K 1 1929, K 2 1929, K 3 1931) Dornier Do L Delphin (I 1920, II 1921, III 1927) Dornier Do N Design for Japanese as Kawasaki Ka 87 (1926) Dornier Do.

Dornier Flugzeugwerke. O Wal Custom built version of Do J (1924) Dornier Do P (1930) Dornier Do R.2 and R.4 Superwal (1924) Dornier Do S (1930) Dornier Do T (Komet/Merkur converted to Air Ambulance) Dornier Do U (Cancelled civil variant of Do Y) Dornier Do X (1929) Dornier Do Y (1930, redesignated Do 15)## Dornier aircraft projects.## Letter designations (before 1933).Additional unbuilt projects include 3 different Schneider Trophy racers from 1924, 1928 and 1931 and a large multi-engine seaplane similar to the Do X with engines buried in the wings. Dornier Do 10 Dornier Do 11 Dornier Do 12 Dornier Do 13.

Dornier Flugzeugwerke. Do 27 Dornier Do 27 Dornier Do 28 - developed from Do 27 Dornier Do 29 Dornier Do 31 Dornier Do 32 Dornier 128 Dornier Do 132 Dornier 228 - developed from Do 28 Dornier Do 231 Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet Dornier 328 Fairchild Dornier 328JET Fairchild Dornier 428JET Fairchild Dornier 728 family Dornier Aerodyne Dornier Seawings Seastar Dornier S-Ray 007 Dornier LA-2000 (Study for a stealth strike aircraft with full delta wing similar to A-12 Avenger) Dornier Delta Dornier Delta II, developed for Hymer## Dornier Faint Object Camera.Dornier GmbH built the Faint Object Camera for the Hubble Space Telescope, which.

Dornier Flugzeugwerke. was used from 1990 to 2002. The ESA funded the unit, which actually consists of two complete and independent camera systems designed to provide extremely high resolution, exceeding 0.05 arcseconds. It is designed to view very faint UV light from 115 to 650 nanometers in wavelength. It was the last original instrument on the Hubble when it was replaced by the Advanced Camera for Surveys in 2002. Dornier Viper AMC-5 (satellite) Project 621 (rocket)Dornier Museum FriedrichshafenList of RLM aircraft designationsZündapp Janus DFW's Web Page Dornier Museum Friedrichshafen.


Question: Who commissioned this building?

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Tughlaqabad Fort. Tughluqabad Fort is a ruined fort in Delhi, built by Ghiyasuddin Tughluq, the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty, of the Delhi Sultanate of India in 1321, as he established the third historic city of Delhi, which was later abandoned in 1327. It lends its name to the nearby Tughluqabad residential-commercial area as well as the Tughluqabad Institutional Area. Ghiyasuddin Tughluq also built the Qutub-Badarpur Road, which connected the new city to the Grand Trunk Road. The road is now known as Mehrauli-Badarpur Road. The entry fee for the Fort is Rs. 20 for Indians. Also, nearby is Dr. Karni Singh.


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this insect?

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Automeris io. Automeris io, the Io moth () or peacock moth, is a colorful North American moth in the family Saturniidae. The io moth is also a member of the subfamily Hemileucinae. The name Io comes from Greek mythology in which Io was a mortal lover of Zeus. The Io moth ranges from the southeast corner of Manitoba and in the southern extremes of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia in Canada, and in the US it is found from Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Colorado, New Mexico, Texas, Utah, east of those states and down to the southern end.

Automeris io. of Florida. The species was first described by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1775.## Adult description.Imagines (sexually mature, reproductive stage) have a wingspan of 2.5–3.5 inches (63–88 mm). This species is sexually dimorphic, males having bright yellow forewings, body, and legs, while females have reddish-brown to purple forewings, body, and legs. The males also have much bigger plumose (feathery) antennae than the females. Both males and females have one big black to bluish eyespot with some white in the center, on each hindwing. Some hybridizations have resulted in variations in these hindwing eyespots. Adults live 1–2 weeks.## Parasitoids.Many species of flies.

Automeris io. (Tachinidae) and wasps (Ichneumonidae and Braconidae) are known parasitoids. The flies: the introduced Compsilura concinnata", Lespesia sabroskyi, Chetogena" "claripennis", Carcelia "formosa", Sisyropa "eudryae, Lespesia frenchii, and Nilea dimmocki". The Ichneumonidae wasps: Hyposoter "fugitivus and Enicospilus americanus". Then the Braconidae wasps: Cotesia "electrae and Cotesia hemileucae".## Predators.Io moths have many predators. These include birds, small mammals, and spiders.## Defenses.Stinging spines of caterpillar Io moths have a very painful venom that is released with the slightest touch; a condition known as erucism. There are two hypotheses regarding where this venom originates: (1) the glandular cells on the base of the branched seta.

Automeris io. or (2) from the secretory epithelial cells. Contacting the seta is not life-threatening for humans, but still causes irritation to the dermal tissue, thought to result in a stinging sensation.Both male and female adult io moths utilize their hindwing eyespots in predatory defense when the moth is sitting in the head-down position or is touched, via shaking and exposing these eyespots.## Life cycle.Females lay small, white ova in the leaves of host plants, including: Morus alba-mulberry "Prunus pensylvanica"—pin cherry "Salix"—willow "Abies balsamea"—balsam fir "Acer rubrum"—red maple "Amorpha fruticosa"—bastard indigo "Baptisia tinctoria"—wild indigo "Carpinus caroliniana"—American hornbeam "Celtis laevigata"—sugarberry or southern hackberry.

Automeris io. "Cephalanthus occidentalis"—button-bush "Cercis canadensis"—eastern redbud "Chamaecrista fasciculata"—showy partridge pea "Comptonia peregrina"—sweetfern "Cornus florida"—flowering dogwood "Corylus avellana"—common hazel Erythrina herbacea, coral bean "Fagus"—beech "Fraxinus"—ash "Liquidambar styraciflua"—American sweetgum Lythrum salicaria, introduced Purple Loosestrife "Quercus"—oak "Paeonia—peony"The eggs have large micropyle rosettes that turn black as the fertile eggs develop. They are usually laid in clusters of more than twenty and hatch within 8–11 days. From the eggs, orange larvae emerge, usually eating their egg shell soon after hatching. They go through five instars, each one being a little different.The caterpillars are herbivorous and gregarious in all their instars, many times traveling in single.

Automeris io. file processions all over the food plant. As the larvae develop, they will lose their orange color and will turn bright green and urticating, having many spines. The green caterpillars have two lateral stripes, the upper one being bright red and the lower one being white. These caterpillars can reach sizes of 7 cm in length. When the caterpillars are ready, they spin a flimsy, valveless cocoon made from a dark, coarse silk. Some larvae will crawl to the base of the tree and make their cocoons among leaf litter on the ground, while others will use living leaves to.

Automeris io. wrap their cocoons with. The leaves will turn brown and fall to the ground during fall, taking the cocoons with them. There they pupate, the pupa being dark brown/black. The pupae also have sexual dimorphism with the females being considerably larger than the males.Adult io moths normally emerge from their cocoons in late morning or early afternoon. The emergence of the adults moths is typically from June to July. Eclosion (emergence from the cocoon) only takes a few minutes. After eclosing, the moths climb and hang on plants so that their furled wings can be inflated with fluid (hemolymph) pumped.

Automeris io. from the body. This inflation process takes about twenty minutes.Adult moths are strictly nocturnal, generally flying during the peak hours of the night. The females generally wait until nightfall and then extend a scent gland from the posterior region of the abdomen, in order to attract males via wind-borne pheromones. The males use their larger antennae to detect the pheromones. After mating, the females die following egg laying. These moths have vestigial mouthparts and do not eat in the adult stage.## Conservation Status.The io moth is currently not listed on the IUCN Red List or the US Federal List. In.

Automeris io. the eastern range of the US, the populations indicate a declining and more localized trend. "Aglais io", a butterfly speciesSite with a description and picturesIo moth on the UF / IFAS Featured Creatures Web site.


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this plant?

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Coconut. The coconut tree (Cocos nucifera) is a member of the palm tree family (Arecaceae) and the only living species of the genus "Cocos". The term "coconut" (or the archaic "cocoanut") can refer to the whole coconut palm, the seed, or the fruit, which botanically is a drupe, not a nut. The name comes from the old Portuguese word "coco", meaning "head" or "skull", after the three indentations on the coconut shell that resemble facial features. They are ubiquitous in coastal tropical regions and are a cultural icon of the tropics.The coconut tree provides food, fuel, cosmetics, folk medicine and building.

Coconut. that it may have evolved in Asia, South America, or on Pacific islands. Trees grow up to 30 (m) tall and can yield up to 75 fruits per year, though fewer than 30 is more typical. Plants are intolerant of cold weather and prefer copious precipitation, as well as full sunlight. Many insect pests and diseases affect the species and are a nuisance for commercial production. About 75% of the world's supply of coconuts is produced by Indonesia, the Philippines, and India. The coconut tree is the official state tree of Kerala, India.## Description."Cocos nucifera" is a large palm, growing.

Coconut. are believed to be largely cross-pollinated, although most dwarf varieties are self-pollinating.## Taxonomy.## Phylogeny.The evolutionary history and fossil distribution of "Cocos nucifera" and other members of the tribe Cocoseae is more ambiguous than modern-day dispersal and distribution, with its ultimate origin and pre-human dispersal still unclear. There are currently two major viewpoints on the origins of the genus "Cocos", one in the Indo-Pacific, and another in South America. The vast majority of "Cocos"-like fossils have been recovered generally from only two regions in the world: New Zealand and west-central India. However, like most palm fossils, "Cocos"-like fossils are still putative,.

Coconut. as they are usually difficult to identify.The earliest "Cocos"-like fossil to be found was ""Cocos" zeylanica", a fossil species described from small fruits, around 3.5 (cm) × 1.3 to 2.5 (cm) in size, recovered from the Miocene (~23 to 5.3 million years ago) of New Zealand in 1926. Since then, numerous other fossils of similar fruits were recovered throughout New Zealand from the Eocene, Oligocene, and possibly the Holocene. But research on them is still ongoing to determine which of them (if any) actually belong to the genus "Cocos". Endt & Hayward (1997) have noted their resemblance to members of.

Coconut. the South American genus "Parajubaea", rather than "Cocos", and propose a South American origin. Conran "et al." (2015), however, suggests that their diversity in New Zealand indicate that they evolved endemically, rather than being introduced to the islands by long-distance dispersal. In west-central India, numerous fossils of "Cocos"-like fruits, leaves, and stems have been recovered from the Deccan Traps. They include morphotaxa like "Palmoxylon sundaran", "Palmoxylon insignae", and "Palmocarpon cocoides". "Cocos"-like fossils of fruits include ""Cocos" intertrappeansis", ""Cocos" pantii", and ""Cocos" sahnii". They also include fossil fruits that have been tentatively identified as modern "Cocos nucifera". These includes two specimens.

Coconut. named ""Cocos" palaeonucifera" and ""Cocos" binoriensis", both were dated by their authors to the Maastrichtian–Danian of the early Tertiary (70 to 62 million years ago). "C. binoriensis" has been claimed by their authors to be the earliest known fossil of "Cocos nucifera".Outside of New Zealand and India, only two other regions have reported "Cocos"-like fossils, namely Australia and Colombia. In Australia, a "Cocos"-like fossil fruit, measuring 10 x 9.5 (cm), were recovered from the Chinchilla Sand Formation dated to the latest Pliocene or basal Pleistocene. Rigby (1995) assigned them to modern "Cocos nucifera" based on its size. In Colombia, a.

Coconut. single "Cocos"-like fruit was recovered from the middle to late Paleocene Cerrejón Formation. The fruit however was compacted in the fossilization process and it was not possible to determine if it had the diagnostic three pores that characterize members of the tribe Cocoseae. Nevertheless, the authors Gomez-Navarro "et al." (2009), assigned it to "Cocos" based on the size and the ridged shape of the fruit.Further complicating measures to determine the evolutionary history of "Cocos" is the genetic diversity present within "C. nucifera" as well as its relatedness to other palms. Phylogenetic evidence supports the closest relatives of "Cocos" being either.

Coconut. "Syagrus" or "Attalea", both of which are found in South America. However, "Cocos" is not thought to be indigenous to South America, and the highest genetic diversity is present in Asian "Cocos", indicating that at least the modern species "Cocos nucifera" is native to there"." In addition, fossils of potential "Cocos" ancestors have been recovered from both Colombia and India. In order to resolve this enigma, a 2014 study proposed that the ancestors of "Cocos" had likely originated on the Caribbean coast of what is now Colombia, and during the Eocene the ancestral "Cocos" performed a long-distance dispersal across the.

Coconut. Atlantic Ocean to North Africa. From here, island-hopping via coral atolls lining the Tethys Sea, potentially boosted by the ocean currents at the time, would have proved crucial to dispersal, eventually allowing ancestral coconuts to reach India. The study contended that an adaptation to coral atolls would explain the prehistoric and modern distributions of "Cocos", would have provided the necessary evolutionary pressures, and would account for morphological factors such as a thick husk to protect against ocean degradation and provide a moist medium in which to germinate on sparse atolls.## Etymology.The name "coconut" is derived from the 16th-century Portuguese word.

Coconut. cooler climates.In cooler climates (but not less than USDA Zone 9), a similar palm, the queen palm ("Syagrus romanzoffiana"), is used in landscaping. Its fruits are similar to the coconut, but smaller. The queen palm was originally classified in the genus "Cocos" along with the coconut, but was later reclassified in "Syagrus". A recently discovered palm, "Beccariophoenix alfredii" from Madagascar, is nearly identical to the coconut, more so than the queen palm and can also be grown in slightly cooler climates than the coconut palm. Coconuts can only be grown in temperatures above 18 (C) and need a daily temperature.

Coconut. (1993). "Coconut" . . International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI). (1995). Descriptors for Coconut ("Cocos nucifera" L.). . Mathur, P.N.; Muralidharan, K.; Parthasarathy, V.A.; Batugal, P.; Bonnot, F. (2008). "Data Analysis Manual for Coconut Researchers" . . Salunkhe, D.K., J.K. Chavan, R.N. Adsule, and S.S. Kadam. (1992). "World Oilseeds – Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization". Springer. .


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this plant?

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Pseudopanax crassifolius. Pseudopanax crassifolius, the horoeka or lancewood, is a New Zealand native tree belonging to the family Araliaceae. It is found throughout New Zealand from sea level up to about 750 m. The juvenile form, which lasts for between 15 and 20 years, is very easily recognized. The leaves are stiff and leathery with a prominent central rib, about 1 cm wide and up to 1 m long with irregular teeth, all growing downwards from a central stem. The young trunk has characteristic vertical swollen ridges. As the tree gets older the stem begins to branch, producing a bushy top, and.

Pseudopanax crassifolius. the leaves become wider and shorter, losing their teeth. It is only when the tree is mature that it adopts a typical tree shape.One of the theories about this curious change of appearance is that the young plant had to protect itself against browsing by the moa, the giant flightless bird that roamed New Zealand's bush in prehistoric times. Once above moa height, it was out of danger and turns into a "regular" tree. A study of leaf colour development in "P. crassifolius" found that leaves of seedlings would blend with leaf litter, while juvenile leaf colouration would draw attention.

Pseudopanax crassifolius. to their spines. A closely related Chatham Island species, which evolved in the absence of moa, did not display these changes.Closely related is "Pseudopanax ferox", the toothed lancewood. It is similar to "P. crassifolius" except the leaves are more abundant and severely toothed, resembling remotely a bandsaw blade. Salmon J T, "The Native Trees of New Zealand", AH & AW Reed Ltd, Wellington, New Zealand, 1973. ."Flora of New Zealand", URL:"Pseudopanax crassifolius"."New Zealand Plant Conservation Network", "Pseudopanax crassifolius".


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this animal?

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Beaver. Prior to that, many considered them the same species. The difference in chromosome numbers prevents them from interbreeding. 25 subspecies have been classified for "C. canadensis" and nine for "C. fiber".## Evolution.Beavers belong to the rodent suborder Castorimorpha, along with Heteromyidae (kangaroo rats and kangaroo mice), and the gophers. Modern beavers are the only extant members of the family Castoridae. They originated in North America in the late Eocene and colonized Eurasia via the Bering Land Bridge in the early Oligocene, coinciding with the "Grande Coupure", a time of significent changes in animal species around 33million years ago (mya).The more.


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this insect?

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Lycaena hyllus. Lycaena hyllus, the bronze copper, is a butterfly of the lycaenids family found in North America.## Description.The upperside has a brown background with golden zig-zag borders along the margins of the hindwings. Females have lighter areas in the forewings with several dark spots within the lighter areas. The undersides are primarily white with dark spots and underlying orange areas. The wingspan is 23 to 38 mm.## Range.It is widespread from Alberta to northern Nevada in the west through to the east coasts of Canada and the United States. This butterfly's range is similar to that of the "Lycaena heteronea", especially.

Lycaena hyllus. in Alberta. It is listed as a species of special concern in the US state of Connecticut.## Host plants.Their hosts are plants of the family Polygonaceae, especially Water dock and curled dock.## Adult plants.Adults have been observed feeding from blackberry and red clover. "Lycaena" at Markku Savela's website on Lepidoptera.


Question: Where do you usually find this animal?

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Wolf. habitat.Wolves occur across Eurasia and North America. However, deliberate human persecution because of livestock predation and fear of attacks on humans has reduced the wolf's range to about one-third of its historic range; the wolf is now extirpated (locally extinct) from much of its range in Western Europe, the United States and Mexico, and completely in Ireland, the United Kingdom, and Japan. In modern times, the wolf occurs mostly in wilderness and remote areas. The wolf can be found between sea level and 3000 (m). Wolves live in forests, inland wetlands, shrublands, grasslands (including Arctic tundra), pastures, deserts, and rocky.

Wolf. are nocturnal predators. During the winter, a pack will commence hunting in the twilight of early evening and will hunt all night, traveling tens of kilometres. Sometimes hunting large prey occurs during the day. During the summer, wolves generally tend to hunt individually, ambushing their prey and rarely giving pursuit.When hunting large gregarious prey, wolves will try to isolate an individual from its group. If successful, a wolf pack can bring down game that will feed it for days, but one error in judgement can lead to serious injury or death. Most large prey have developed defensive adaptations and behaviours.


Question: What is the closest upper taxonomy of this animal?

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East Pacific red octopus. Octopus rubescens (Commonly the East Pacific red octopus, also known as the ruby octopus, a preferred common name due to the abundance of octopus species colloquially known as red octopus) is the most commonly occurring shallow-water octopus on much of the North American West Coast, and a ubiquitous benthic predator in these habitats. Its range extends from the southern Gulf of California at least to the Gulf of Alaska, but may also occur in the western Pacific Ocean. "O. rubescens" occurs intertidally to a depth of 300 m.## Taxonomy.In the years prior to the description of this species in 1953,.


Question: What is this building dedicated to?

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Marble Church, Bodelwyddan. of stained glass on the north and south sides, featuring Saint Margaret and Saint Kentigern. It is a popular tourist destination. The church was designated with Grade II* listed status in November 1962.Until the latter part of the 20th century the church, and in particular its high steeple, was very distinctive because it was so white. With the passage of time, pollution has resulted in the colour becoming more grey, and therefore more like other stone buildings.Local government reorganisation resulted in the church being in Flintshire until 1974, in Clwyd from 1974 until 1996, and since then in Denbighshire.## Churchyard.Immediately.


Question: What is the closest upper taxonomy of this insect?

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Sheep moth. The sheep moth, or common sheep moth ("Hemileuca eglanterina"), is a member of the family Saturniidae of silk moths and is native to western North America. In California, its range is west of the Sierran crest and the mountains of Southern California, ranging near to the coast. The moth is dayflying and appears in summer. It feeds on plants of three genera: "Ceanothus", "Rhamnus" (including coffeeberry), and "Rosa". Nuttall's sheep moth and one other species are similar, occurring in sagebrush areas east of the Sierra Nevada. The species was first described by Jean Baptiste Boisduval in 1852.The sheep moth has.


Question: Who is the creator of this building?

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Medici Fountain. the wall of the Orangerie, against which the fountain was placed, was crumbling.In 1811, at the instructions of Napoleon Bonaparte, the grotto was restored by the neoclassical architect Jean Chalgrin, the architect of the Arc de Triomphe, who replaced the simple water fountain in the niche of the grotto with two streams of water, and added a white marble statue representing Venus in her bath.In 1864, during the Second French Empire, Baron Haussmann planned to build the rue de Medicis through the space occupied by the fountain. The lateral arcades of the fountain and the crumbling old orangerie behind it.

Medici Fountain. had already been torn down in 1855. From 1858 to 1864, The new architect, Alphonse de Gisors, moved the fountain thirty meters to make room for the street, and radically changed its setting and appearance. Since the fountain no longer stood against a wall, the Fontaine de Léda, displaced from another neighborhood, was placed directly behind it. (See the Fountain of Leda, below.) He replaced the two original statues of nymphs at the top of the statue with two new statues, representing the Rivers Rhone and Seine. He restored the coat of arms of the Medici family over the fountain,.

Medici Fountain. which had been defaced during the Revolution. He inserted two statues into the niches, one representing a faun and the other a huntress, above which are two masks, one representing comedy and the other tragedy. He removed the simple basin and water spout which had been in the niche and replaced them with a long tree-shaded basin. Finally, he removed the statue of Venus and replaced her with a group of statues by Auguste Ottin, representing the giant Polyphemus, in bronze, discovering the lovers Acis and Galatea, in white marble. The fountain was completely cleaned during the summer of 2021,.


Question: What is the highest observed lifespan of this animal?

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Sea otter. with more near Kamchatka and the Commander Islands. After the years of the Great Hunt, the population in these areas, currently part of Russia, was only 750. By 2004, sea otters had repopulated all of their former habitat in these areas, with an estimated total population of about 27,000. Of these, about 19,000 are at the Kurils, 2,000 to 3,500 at Kamchatka and another 5,000 to 5,500 at the Commander Islands. Growth has slowed slightly, suggesting the numbers are reaching carrying capacity.## British Columbia.Along the North American coast south of Alaska, the sea otter's range is discontinuous. A remnant population.

Sea otter. bites, raising concerns that the population had reached a plateau. However, the population increased markedly from 2015 to 2016, with the United States Geological Survey (USGS) California sea otter survey 3-year average reaching 3,272 in 2016, the first time it exceeded the threshold for delisting from the Endangered Species Act (ESA). If populations continued to grow and ESA delisting occurred, southern sea otters would still be fully protected by state regulations and the Marine Mammal Protection Act, which set higher thresholds for protection, at approximately 8,400 individuals. However, ESA delisting seems unlikely due to a precipitous population decline recorded in.


Question: Which diocese does this building belong to?

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Manila Cathedral. (coinciding with the canonical erection of the Diocese of Manila), a new structure made from nipa, wood, and bamboo was constructed in 1581 by Domingo de Salazar, the first-ever bishop of Manila. The new structure was consecrated on December 21, 1581; formally becoming a cathedral. The structure was destroyed by fire in 1583, which started during the funeral Mass for Governor-General Gonzalo Ronquillo de Peñalosa in San Agustin Church that razed much of the city.The second cathedral, which was made of stone, was built in 1592. However, it was destroyed by an earthquake in 1600.Construction of the third cathedral began.

Manila Cathedral. the new marker installed by Manila Archbishop Most Rev. Gaudencio B. Cardinal Rosales, , the newly installed bells are the largest bells actively used in the Philippines. A total of seven carillon bells were permanently installed in the ground level of the belfry, weighing at 17 (metric ton).## 2012 renovation and 2014 reopening.The cathedral underwent repairs for earthquake retrofitting and subsidence prevention in 2012. During this time, the San Fernando de Dilao Church was designated as the temporary official church (pro-cathedral) of the Archdiocese of Manila. However, Msgr. Nestor Cerbo stated that the cathedral would finish its renovations on March.

Manila Cathedral. Italy, and was designed and made by the Istituto Internazionale d’Arte Liturgica in Rome.The original cathedra bears the coat of arms of then Archbishop Rufino Santos before he was created a cardinal. His coat of arms and the Mexican onyx was covered by a stone until its restoration in 2021.The restored cathedra now bears a carving of the coat of arms Cardinal Jose Advincula, the present archbishop, imposed on top of white Indian marble.Manila Cathedral-Basilica Re-Opening (April 9, 2014 Eucharist after Restoration and Retrofitting)Roman Catholic Archdiocese of ManilaRoman Catholicism in the PhilippinesSan Agustin ChurchIntramuros Official website of Manila Cathedral.


Question: Which place is this animal endemic to?

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Texas river cooter. The Texas river cooter ("Pseudemys texana") is a species of freshwater turtle endemic to the U.S. state of Texas. It is found in the river basins of the Brazos, San Bernard, Colorado, Guadalupe, San Antonio, Nueces, and their tributaries. It is one of three species of cooters ("Pseudemys") occurring in Texas, including the Rio Grande cooter ("Pseudemys gorzugi") and the river cooter ("Pseudemys concinna").## Description.The Texas river cooter is a relatively large turtle, capable of growing to a shell length of 12+ inches (30.5 cm). They are green in color, with yellow and black markings that fade with age. Males.

Texas river cooter. can be distinguished from females by their longer tails, longer claws, and overall smaller size.## Taxonomy.The Texas cooter was once reclassified to a subspecies of the eastern cooter, "Pseudemys concinna", but was given full species status in 1991.## Similar species.The red-eared slider ("Trachemys scripta elegans") shares its range and habits, but can easily be distinguished from the Texas cooter by red patches on either side of its head. Various species of map turtle can also look much like juvenile Texas cooters.Chelonia.org: "Pseudemys" care.


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this plant?

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Mentha pulegium. Mentha pulegium, commonly (European) pennyroyal, or pennyrile, also called mosquito plant and pudding grass, is a species of flowering plant in the mint family, Lamiaceae, native to Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. Crushed pennyroyal leaves emit a very strong fragrance similar to spearmint. Pennyroyal is a traditional folk remedy, emmenagogue, abortifacient, and culinary herb, but is toxic to the liver and has caused some deaths. European pennyroyal is related to an American species, Hedeoma pulegioides. Though they differ in genera, they share similar chemical properties.## Description.An annual to perennial plant with creeping or erect branched stems to about.

Mentha pulegium. 40 cm in height. The stems are square in cross-section and can vary from hairless on some plants to densely hairy on others, with a green to sometimes red or purplish colour. The leaves, which grow in opposite pairs, are narrowly oval, 2–3 cm long x 1 cm wide, downy, sparsely toothed towards the tip, and taper into a short stalk. All parts of the plant are strongly scented when crushed but it does not have noticeable glands on its surface. The small (6 mm) flowers are densely packed in whorls at the nodes, widely separated, above pairs of leaf-like.

Mentha pulegium. bracts. The calyx is a ribbed tube about 3 mm long, with 5 triangular teeth, the lower 2 being narrower and slightly longer than the upper 3; it is hairy both on the inside and the outside. The corolla has 4 mauve lobes or "petals" and is hairy only on the outside. The flowers are bisexual and have 4 long stamens, 2 (or all 4) of which project well beyond the corolla lobes. There is one long style which is forked to produce 2 stigmas, which also project from the flower. The fruits consist of a cluster of four brown,.

Mentha pulegium. 1-seeded nutlets, each about 0.7 mm long.The flowering period starts in June and continues into mid-summer, although in northern countries it flowers rather later, sometimes as late as September, when it can fail to set seed.Its chromosome number is 2n = 20.## Distribution.The native range of pennyroyal is thought to be around the eastern Mediterranean, where it grows in damp meadows, around pools and in stream margins. It is, however, very widely established around the world, including North and South America, throughout Africa, Asia, Australia and New Zealand. In many places it is considered a troublesome weed of agriculture. Towards.

Mentha pulegium. the northern edge of its range, as in Britain, it is considered to be rare and declining, except where introduced.## Habitat and Ecology.The habitat of pennyroyal is seasonally damp pasture, where standing water over the winter leaves bare ground in the summer, and where livestock preferentially graze other plants. An analogue of this habitat is found on roadsides, where trampling or disturbance of the ground produces similarly bare soil, particularly where there is waterlogging in winter. It is also found along watercourses, in wet woodland and in abandoned fields.In California, where it is considered an invasive species, it occupies a.

Mentha pulegium. similar niche, in seeps, streamsides, vernal pools and swales, marshes, and ditches. There is some speculation that it may displace native species in these areas.Few animals eat pennyroyal. In Britain, the only insect known to feed on it is the bug Heterogaster artemisiae Schilling, which is a seed bug that normally feeds on wild thyme.It is considered an axiophyte in many British counties, because low-intensity pasture is a rare habitat, although it has been spreading in recent decades. Its Ellenberg values in Britain are L = 8, F = 7, R = 5, N = 7, and S = 0.##.

Mentha pulegium. History.## Ancient to modern use.Documented use of pennyroyal dates back to ancient Greek, Roman, and Medieval cultures. Its name – although of uncertain etymology – is associated with Latin "pulex" (flea), alluding to the manner it was used to drive away fleas when smeared on the body. Pennyroyal was commonly incorporated as a cooking herb by the Greeks and Romans. A large number of the recipes in the Roman cookbook of Apicius called for the use of pennyroyal, often along with such herbs as lovage, oregano and coriander. Although it was commonly used for cooking also in the Middle Ages,.

Mentha pulegium. it gradually fell out of use as a culinary herb and is seldom used as such today.Records from Greek and Roman physicians and scholars contain information pertaining to pennyroyal's medicinal properties, as well as recipes used to prepared it. Pliny the Elder, in his encyclopedia "Naturalis Historia" ("Natural History"), described the plant as an emmenagogue, and that it also expelled a dead fetus. Galen only listed pennyroyal as an emmenagogue, as did Oribasius. Roman and Greek writers Quintus Serenus Sammonicus and Aspasia the Physician however both agreed that pennyroyal, when served in tepid water, was an effective abortive method. A.

Mentha pulegium. medical text on gynecology attributed to Cleopatra (though it was actually written by a female Greek physician Metrodora) recommends the use of pennyroyal with wine to induce abortions.In regard to its contraceptive properties, it was referred to in a joking manner in Aristophanes' play "Peace" (421 BCE). The god Hermes provides the male character Trygaios a female companion; when Trygaios asks if there would be a problem if she became pregnant, Hermes responds, "Not if you add a dose of pennyroyal." In a similar manner, in Aristophanes' comedy "Lysistrata", after a pregnant female character on stage is told to withhold.

Mentha pulegium. her body sexually from her husband, a slender female character, in comparison to the pregnant woman, is described as "a very lovely land Well croppy, and trimmed and spruced with pennyroyal."Early settlers in colonial Virginia used dried pennyroyal to eradicate pests. Pennyroyal was such a popular herb that the Royal Society published an article on its use against rattlesnakes in the first volume of its Philosophical Transactions in 1665. 17th century apothecary and physician Nicholas Culpeper mentioned pennyroyal in his medical text "The English Physitian", published in 1652. In addition to its abortive properties, Culpeper recommends its use for gastrointestinal.

Mentha pulegium. ailments, such as constipation and hemorrhoids, as well as itching and blemishes to the skin, and even toothaches.Pennyroyal is an essential ingredient in the North african dish, which is still eaten to the this day, called .Pennyroyal continued to be used up through the 20th and 21st centuries. Its oil is still commercially available today, though little is known about the appropriate dosages for humans. Scientists therefore likely consider it unsafe for use, as it is potentially toxic.## Uses.Pennyroyal is frequently used as an insecticide and pest repellent. As a pest repellent, it is used to keep fleas away from.

Mentha pulegium. household animals as well as on humans to ward off gnats and mosquitos. Some flea collars for pets have pennyroyal oil or the herb can be crushed in the lining. Humans have also put crushed pennyroyal stems in their pockets or on their clothing to ward off unwanted insects. However, when using the pennyroyal plant as a pest repellent, the use of the concentrated pennyroyal oil should be avoided. Pennyroyal oil can be extremely toxic to both humans and animals, even in small quantities. With the use of pennyroyal around animals and humans comes the risk of it being absorbed.

Mentha pulegium. through the skin and causing negative health effects. The less concentrated leaves of the plant should be used instead as an insect repellent.Pennyroyal has historically also been used as a mint flavoring in herbal teas and foods. Pennyroyal tea has been used for cold relief, fevers, coughs, indigestion, liver and kidney problems and headaches. The fresh or dried leaves of pennyroyal have also been used when treating influenza, abdominal cramps, to induce sweating, as well as in the treatment of diseases such as smallpox and tuberculosis. To make the tea, the leaves of the plant are boiled in hot water.

Mentha pulegium. The lower concentrations of toxic chemicals in these teas are less harmful than pennyroyal oil. It is recommended that people only drink pennyroyal tea periodically, as it is taxing on the body and should not be drunk on a regular basis. Consumption of pennyroyal tea can be fatal to infants and children.In Italy the fresh leaves of this plant, which in Rome and the surrounding area is called "menta romana", are used in the capital's cuisine to flavour lamb and tripe. In culinary use it should not be confused with lesser calamint ("Clinopodium nepeta"), which in Rome is used to.

Mentha pulegium. prepare artichokes.The pennyroyal plant has also been used as an emmenagogue or perhaps most famously as an abortifacient. Chemicals in the pennyroyal plant cause the uterine lining to contract, causing a woman's uterine lining to shed. Women who struggle with regulating their menstrual cycle or suffer from a cystic ovary syndrome may choose to drink pennyroyal tea. Pennyroyal tea is subtle enough to induce menstrual flow with minimal risk of negative health effects. More concentrated versions of the plant, such as the oil, are much more toxic and will likely force a miscarriage if ingested by a pregnant woman. Since.

Mentha pulegium. the U.S. Congress passed the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act in October 1994 all manufactured forms of pennyroyal in the United States have carried a warning label against its use by pregnant women, but pennyroyal is not regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.Rennie's 1833 supplement to the pharmacopeias admitted its use as an "expectorant, diuretic, and emmenagogue" in doses of 10 grains to 1 scruple (0.6–1.3g) of the powdered dried herb, but dismissed the use of the Pennyroyal Water (Aqua Pulegii) as "popularly but erroneously supposed" to be an abortifacient [no mention is made of toxicity].At least.

Mentha pulegium. one study has shown pennyroyal oil to have potent acaricidal activity against house dust mites.## Toxicity.Pennyroyal is toxic to humans and has differing effects dependent on the volume and concentration ingested. The most concentrated and toxic form of the pennyroyal plant is pennyroyal oil. The oil contains 80% to 92% of cyclohexanone pulegone. Pulegone, the molecule in highest concentration in the pennyroyal plant, causes a variety of ailments in those who ingest it and is what causes the plant to have its peppermint flavor.Symptoms that may persist after ingesting a small dose (<10 mL) of pennyroyal oil are nausea, vomiting,.

Mentha pulegium. abdominal pain and dizziness. Larger volumes may result in multiorgan failure that could lead to death. There are no current toxicokinetics studies performed on humans for the effects of pulegone, but there are some studies performed on other mammals. When pulegone is ingested, it is broken down by the liver and reacts to form multiple toxic metabolites that can wreak havoc in the body. Some identified metabolites are menthofuran, piperitenone, piperitone, and menthone.## Chemistry.## Structure and reactivity.The active chemical in pennyroyal is pulegone. Pulegone is a ketone and on the cellular level, ketones can act as enzyme inhibitors. The carbonyl.

Mentha pulegium. center of the pulegone structure acts as a strong electrophile, causing active sites on enzymes to bind with pulegone instead of the target protein.The exocyclic double bond found in pulegone is vital to the activation and binding mechanism of the molecule and causes it to be an effective hepatotoxin. When ingested, pulegone targets the liver and kidney, among other organs. Studies have been conducted on rats show that one of the main effects is the inhibition of contractile activity in the myometrium and death by kidney failure. Also found in the study, long term exposure to pennyroyal increased incidences of.

Mentha pulegium. urinary bladder tumors.## Mechanism of action.The exact mechanism of action by which pennyroyal induces menses and abortions in humans is still unknown. Studies using animal models speculate the source of liver toxicity is due to one of the many constituents the plant contains: pulegone, a monoterpene. Pulegone is metabolized by cytochrome P450 (CYP 1A2 and 2E1) and converted to several toxins. Both "in vitro" and "in vivo" studies have found the pulegone metabolite menthofuran to be an inhibitor of CYP2A6, accounting for a significant degree of pennyroyal's hepatotoxicity.The exact pathway pulegone undergoes to be converted to menthofuran is unknown, but.

Mentha pulegium. one study strongly suggested it included allylic oxidation of a methyl group (from CYP450), intramolecular cyclization to form a hemiketal, and subsequent dehydration to form the furan. Additionally, pulegone and menthofuran may deplete glutathione levels, leaving hepatocytes vulnerable to free radical damage.## Treatment.There is no known antidote for pennyroyal toxicity. Case studies involving pennyroyal poisonings have reported the use of gastric lavages and administration of emetics or vomiting inducing agents, or absorbents like activated charcoal. As glutathione depletion has been shown to regulate liver toxification, administration of N-acetylcysteine in similar doses as given for acetaminophen toxicity have been given to.

Mentha pulegium. patients.A study testing pulegone toxicity found inhibitors of cytochrome P450, such as cobaltous chloride or piperonyl butoxide, blocked toxicity. Such testing has not been expanded to humans, however, as the pennyroyal mechanism of toxicity is still not entirely understood. "Hedeoma pulegioides" (American pennyroyal, a distantly related species)ARKive - images and movies of the Pennyroyal "(Mentha pulegium).


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this plant?

Instruction: Retrieve a Wikipedia paragraph that provides an answer to the given query about the image.

Amanita muscaria. Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly amanita, is a basidiomycete of the genus "Amanita". It is also a muscimol mushroom. Native throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere, "Amanita muscaria" has been unintentionally introduced to many countries in the Southern Hemisphere, generally as a symbiont with pine and birch plantations, and is now a true cosmopolitan species. It associates with various deciduous and coniferous trees.Arguably the most iconic toadstool species, the fly agaric is a large white-gilled, white-spotted, usually red mushroom, and is one of the most recognizable and widely encountered in popular.

Amanita muscaria. culture, including in video games—e.g., the extensive use of a recognizable "Amanita muscaria" in the Mario franchise and its Super Mushroom power up—and television—e.g., the houses in The Smurfs franchise.Despite its easily distinguishable features, "Amanita muscaria" is a fungus with several known variations, or subspecies. These subspecies are slightly different, some having yellow or white caps, but they are all usually called fly agarics, and they are most of the time recognizable by their notable white spots. Recent DNA fungi research, however, has shown that some of these variations are not the same species at all, such as the peach-colored.

Amanita muscaria. fly agaric ("Amanita persicina") for example, but the common name 'fly agaric' clings on.Although poisonous, death due to poisoning from "A. muscaria" ingestion is quite rare. Parboiling twice with water draining weakens its toxicity and breaks down the mushroom's psychoactive substances; it is eaten in parts of Europe, Asia, and North America. All "Amanita muscaria" varieties, but in particular "A. muscaria" var. "muscaria", are noted for their hallucinogenic properties, with the main psychoactive constituents being the neurotoxins ibotenic acid and muscimol. A local variety of the mushroom was used as an intoxicant and entheogen by the indigenous peoples of Siberia.

Amanita muscaria. and by the Sámi, and has a religious significance in these cultures. There has been much speculation on possible traditional use of this mushroom as an intoxicant in other places such as the Middle East, Eurasia, North America, and Scandinavia.## Taxonomy and naming.The name of the mushroom in many European languages is thought to derive from its use as an insecticide when sprinkled in milk. This practice has been recorded from Germanic- and Slavic-speaking parts of Europe, as well as the Vosges region and pockets elsewhere in France, and Romania. Albertus Magnus was the first to record it in his.

Amanita muscaria. work "De vegetabilibus" some time before 1256, commenting "vocatur fungus muscarum, eo quod in lacte pulverizatus interficit muscas", "it is called the fly mushroom because it is powdered in milk to kill flies."The 16th-century Flemish botanist Carolus Clusius traced the practice of sprinkling it into milk to Frankfurt in Germany, while Carl Linnaeus, the "father of taxonomy", reported it from Småland in southern Sweden, where he had lived as a child. He described it in volume two of his "Species Plantarum" in 1753, giving it the name "Agaricus muscarius", the specific epithet deriving from Latin "musca" meaning "fly". It gained.

Amanita muscaria. its current name in 1783, when placed in the genus "Amanita" by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, a name sanctioned in 1821 by the "father of mycology", Swedish naturalist Elias Magnus Fries. The starting date for all the mycota had been set by general agreement as January 1, 1821, the date of Fries's work, and so the full name was then "Amanita muscaria" (L.:Fr.) Hook. The 1987 edition of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature changed the rules on the starting date and primary work for names of fungi, and names can now be considered valid as far back as May 1, 1753,.

Amanita muscaria. the date of publication of Linnaeus's work. Hence, Linnaeus and Lamarck are now taken as the namers of "Amanita muscaria" (L.) Lam..The English mycologist John Ramsbottom reported that "Amanita muscaria" was used for getting rid of bugs in England and Sweden, and "bug agaric" was an old alternative name for the species. French mycologist Pierre Bulliard reported having tried without success to replicate its fly-killing properties in his work "" (1784), and proposed a new binomial name "Agaricus pseudo-aurantiacus" because of this. One compound isolated from the fungus is 1,3-diolein (1,3-di(cis-9-octadecenoyl)glycerol), which attracts insects.It has been hypothesised that the flies.

Amanita muscaria. intentionally seek out the fly agaric for its intoxicating properties.An alternative derivation proposes that the term "fly-" refers not to insects as such but rather the delirium resulting from consumption of the fungus. This is based on the medieval belief that flies could enter a person's head and cause mental illness. Several regional names appear to be linked with this connotation, meaning the "mad" or "fool's" version of the highly regarded edible mushroom "Amanita caesarea". Hence there is ' "mad oriol" in Catalan, "mujolo folo" from Toulouse, ' from the Aveyron department in Southern France, "" from Trentino in Italy.

Amanita muscaria. A local dialect name in Fribourg in Switzerland is "tsapi de diablhou", which translates as "Devil's hat".## Classification."Amanita muscaria" is the type species of the genus. By extension, it is also the type species of "Amanita" subgenus "Amanita", as well as section "Amanita" within this subgenus. "Amanita" subgenus "Amanita" includes all "Amanita" with inamyloid spores. "Amanita" section "Amanita" includes the species with patchy universal veil remnants, including a volva that is reduced to a series of concentric rings, and the veil remnants on the cap to a series of patches or warts. Most species in this group also have a.

Amanita muscaria. bulbous base. "Amanita" section "Amanita" consists of "A. muscaria" and its close relatives, including "A. pantherina" (the panther cap), "A. gemmata", "A. farinosa", and "A. xanthocephala". Modern fungal taxonomists have classified "Amanita muscaria" and its allies this way based on gross morphology and spore inamyloidy. Two recent molecular phylogenetic studies have confirmed this classification as natural.## Controversy."Amanita muscaria" varies considerably in its morphology, and many authorities recognize several subspecies or varieties within the species. In "The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy", German mycologist Rolf Singer listed three subspecies, though without description: "A. muscaria" ssp. "muscaria", "A. muscaria" ssp. "americana", and "A.

Amanita muscaria. muscaria" ssp. "flavivolvata".However, a 2006 molecular phylogenetic study of different regional populations of "A. muscaria" by mycologist József Geml and colleagues found three distinct clades within this species representing, roughly, Eurasian, Eurasian "subalpine", and North American populations. Specimens belonging to all three clades have been found in Alaska; this has led to the hypothesis that this was the centre of diversification for this species. The study also looked at four named varieties of the species: var. "alba", var. "flavivolvata", var. "formosa" (including var. "guessowii"), and var. "regalis" from both areas. All four varieties were found within both the Eurasian and.

Amanita muscaria. North American clades, evidence that these morphological forms are polymorphisms rather than distinct subspecies or varieties. Further molecular study by Geml and colleagues published in 2008 show that these three genetic groups, plus a fourth associated with oak–hickory–pine forest in the southeastern United States and two more on Santa Cruz Island in California, are delineated from each other enough genetically to be considered separate species. Thus "A. muscaria" as it stands currently is, evidently, a species complex. The complex also includes at least three other closely related taxa that are currently regarded as species: "A. breckonii" is a buff-capped mushroom.

Amanita muscaria. associated with conifers from the Pacific Northwest, and the brown-capped "A. gioiosa" and "A. heterochroma" from the Mediterranean Basin and from Sardinia respectively. Both of these last two are found with "Eucalyptus" and "Cistus" trees, and it is unclear whether they are native or introduced from Australia."Amanitaceae.org" lists four varieties , but says that they will be segregated into their own taxa "in the near future". They are:## Description.A large, conspicuous mushroom, "Amanita muscaria" is generally common and numerous where it grows, and is often found in groups with basidiocarps in all stages of development.Fly agaric fruiting bodies emerge from.

Amanita muscaria. the soil looking like white eggs. After emerging from the ground, the cap is covered with numerous small white to yellow pyramid-shaped warts. These are remnants of the universal veil, a membrane that encloses the entire mushroom when it is still very young. Dissecting the mushroom at this stage reveals a characteristic yellowish layer of skin under the veil, which helps identification. As the fungus grows, the red colour appears through the broken veil and the warts become less prominent; they do not change in size, but are reduced relative to the expanding skin area. The cap changes from globose.

Amanita muscaria. to hemispherical, and finally to plate-like and flat in mature specimens. Fully grown, the bright red cap is usually around 8 – 20 (cm) in diameter, although larger specimens have been found. The red colour may fade after rain and in older mushrooms.The free gills are white, as is the spore print. The oval spores measure 9–13 by 6.5–9 μm; they do not turn blue with the application of iodine. The stipe is white, 5 – 20 (cm) high by 1 – 2 (cm) wide, and has the slightly brittle, fibrous texture typical of many large mushrooms. At the base.

Amanita muscaria. is a bulb that bears universal veil remnants in the form of two to four distinct rings or ruffs. Between the basal universal veil remnants and gills are remnants of the partial veil (which covers the gills during development) in the form of a white ring. It can be quite wide and flaccid with age. There is generally no associated smell other than a mild earthiness.Although very distinctive in appearance, the fly agaric has been mistaken for other yellow to red mushroom species in the Americas, such as "Armillaria" cf. "mellea" and the edible "Amanita basii"—a Mexican species similar to.

Amanita muscaria. "A. caesarea" of Europe. Poison control centres in the U.S. and Canada have become aware that (Spanish for 'yellow') is a common name for the "A. caesarea"-like species in Mexico. "Amanita caesarea" is distinguished by its entirely orange to red cap, which lacks the numerous white warty spots of the fly agaric. Furthermore, the stem, gills and ring of "A. caesarea" are bright yellow, not white. The volva is a distinct white bag, not broken into scales. In Australia, the introduced fly agaric may be confused with the native vermilion grisette ("Amanita xanthocephala"), which grows in association with eucalypts. The.

Amanita muscaria. latter species generally lacks the white warts of "A. muscaria" and bears no ring.## Distribution and habitat."Amanita muscaria" is a cosmopolitan mushroom, native to conifer and deciduous woodlands throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere, including higher elevations of warmer latitudes in regions such as Hindu Kush, the Mediterranean and also Central America. A recent molecular study proposes that it had an ancestral origin in the Siberian–Beringian region in the Tertiary period, before radiating outwards across Asia, Europe and North America. The season for fruiting varies in different climates: fruiting occurs in summer and autumn across most.

Amanita muscaria. of North America, but later in autumn and early winter on the Pacific coast. This species is often found in similar locations to "Boletus edulis", and may appear in fairy rings. Conveyed with pine seedlings, it has been widely transported into the southern hemisphere, including Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and South America, where it can be found in the southern Brazilian states of Paraná and Rio Grande do Sul.Ectomycorrhizal, "Amanita muscaria" forms symbiotic relationships with many trees, including pine, oak, spruce, fir, birch, and cedar. Commonly seen under introduced trees, "A. muscaria" is the fungal equivalent of a weed.

Amanita muscaria. in New Zealand, Tasmania and Victoria, forming new associations with southern beech ("Nothofagus"). The species is also invading a rainforest in Australia, where it may be displacing the native species. It appears to be spreading northwards, with recent reports placing it near Port Macquarie on the New South Wales north coast. It was recorded under silver birch ("Betula pendula") in Manjimup, Western Australia in 2010. Although it has apparently not spread to eucalypts in Australia, it has been recorded associating with them in Portugal. Commonly found throughout the great Southern region of western Australia, it is regularly found growing on.

Amanita muscaria. Pinus radiata.## Toxicity."Amanita muscaria" poisoning has occurred in young children and in people who ingested the mushrooms for a hallucinogenic experience. Occasionally it has been ingested in error, because immature button forms resemble puffballs. The white spots sometimes wash away during heavy rain and the mushrooms then may appear to be the edible "A. caesarea"."Amanita muscaria" contains several biologically active agents, at least one of which, muscimol, is known to be psychoactive. Ibotenic acid, a neurotoxin, serves as a prodrug to muscimol, with a small amount likely converting to muscimol after ingestion. An active dose in adults is approximately 6.

Amanita muscaria. mg muscimol or 30 to 60 mg ibotenic acid; this is typically about the amount found in one cap of "Amanita muscaria". The amount and ratio of chemical compounds per mushroom varies widely from region to region and season to season, which can further confuse the issue. Spring and summer mushrooms have been reported to contain up to 10 times more ibotenic acid and muscimol than autumn fruitings.Deaths from this fungus "A. muscaria" have been reported in historical journal articles and newspaper reports, but with modern medical treatment, fatal poisoning from ingesting this mushroom is extremely rare. Many books list.

Amanita muscaria. "Amanita muscaria" as deadly, but according to David Arora, this is an error that implies the mushroom is far more toxic than it is. Furthermore, The North American Mycological Association has stated that there were "no reliably documented cases of death from toxins in these mushrooms in the past 100 years".The active constituents of this species are water-soluble, and boiling and then discarding the cooking water at least partly detoxifies "A. muscaria". Drying may increase potency, as the process facilitates the conversion of ibotenic acid to the more potent muscimol. According to some sources, once detoxified, the mushroom becomes edible.

Amanita muscaria. Dr Patrick Harding describes the Sami custom of processing the fly agaric through reindeer.## Pharmacology.Muscarine, discovered in 1869, was long thought to be the active hallucinogenic agent in "A. muscaria". Muscarine binds with muscarinic acetylcholine receptors leading to the excitation of neurons bearing these receptors. The levels of muscarine in "Amanita muscaria" are minute when compared with other poisonous fungi such as "Inosperma erubescens", the small white "Clitocybe" species "C. dealbata" and "C. rivulosa". The level of muscarine in "A. muscaria" is too low to play a role in the symptoms of poisoning.The major toxins involved in "A. muscaria" poisoning.

Amanita muscaria. are muscimol (3-hydroxy-5-aminomethyl-1-isoxazole, an unsaturated cyclic hydroxamic acid) and the related amino acid ibotenic acid. Muscimol is the product of the decarboxylation (usually by drying) of ibotenic acid. Muscimol and ibotenic acid were discovered in the mid-20th century. Researchers in England, Japan, and Switzerland showed that the effects produced were due mainly to ibotenic acid and muscimol, not muscarine. These toxins are not distributed uniformly in the mushroom. Most are detected in the cap of the fruit, a moderate amount in the base, with the smallest amount in the stalk. Quite rapidly, between 20 and 90 minutes after ingestion, a.

Amanita muscaria. substantial fraction of ibotenic acid is excreted unmetabolised in the urine of the consumer. Almost no muscimol is excreted when pure ibotenic acid is eaten, but muscimol is detectable in the urine after eating "A. muscaria", which contains both ibotenic acid and muscimol.Ibotenic acid and muscimol are structurally related to each other and to two major neurotransmitters of the central nervous system: glutamic acid and GABA respectively. Ibotenic acid and muscimol act like these neurotransmitters, muscimol being a potent GABAA agonist, while ibotenic acid is an agonist of NMDA glutamate receptors and certain metabotropic glutamate receptors which are involved in.

Amanita muscaria. the control of neuronal activity. It is these interactions which are thought to cause the psychoactive effects found in intoxication.Muscazone is another compound that has more recently been isolated from European specimens of the fly agaric. It is a product of the breakdown of ibotenic acid by ultra-violet radiation. Muscazone is of minor pharmacological activity compared with the other agents. "Amanita muscaria" and related species are known as effective bioaccumulators of vanadium; some species concentrate vanadium to levels of up to 400 times those typically found in plants. Vanadium is present in fruit-bodies as an organometallic compound called amavadine. The.

Amanita muscaria. biological importance of the accumulation process is unknown.## Symptoms.Fly agarics are best known for the unpredictability of their effects. Depending on habitat and the amount ingested per body weight, effects can range from mild nausea and twitching to drowsiness, cholinergic crisis-like effects (low blood pressure, sweating and salivation), auditory and visual distortions, mood changes, euphoria, relaxation, ataxia, and loss of equilibrium (like with tetanus.)In cases of serious poisoning the mushroom causes delirium, somewhat similar in effect to anticholinergic poisoning (such as that caused by "Datura stramonium"), characterised by bouts of marked agitation with confusion, hallucinations, and irritability followed by periods.

Amanita muscaria. of central nervous system depression. Seizures and coma may also occur in severe poisonings. Symptoms typically appear after around 30 to 90 minutes and peak within three hours, but certain effects can last for several days. In the majority of cases recovery is complete within 12 to 24 hours. The effect is highly variable between individuals, with similar doses potentially causing quite different reactions. Some people suffering intoxication have exhibited headaches up to ten hours afterwards. Retrograde amnesia and somnolence can result following recovery, although never easy.## Treatment.Medical attention should be sought in cases of suspected poisoning. If the delay.

Amanita muscaria. between ingestion and treatment is less than four hours, activated charcoal is given. Gastric lavage can be considered if the patient presents within one hour of ingestion. Inducing vomiting with syrup of ipecac is no longer recommended in any poisoning situation.There is no antidote, and supportive care is the mainstay of further treatment for intoxication. Though sometimes referred to as a deliriant and while muscarine was first isolated from "A. muscaria" and as such is its namesake, muscimol does not have action, either as an agonist or antagonist, at the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor site, and therefore atropine or physostigmine as.

Amanita muscaria. an antidote is not recommended. If a patient is delirious or agitated, this can usually be treated by reassurance and, if necessary, physical restraints. A benzodiazepine such as diazepam or lorazepam can be used to control combativeness, agitation, muscular overactivity, and seizures. Only small doses should be used, as they may worsen the respiratory depressant effects of muscimol. Recurrent vomiting is rare, but if present may lead to fluid and electrolyte imbalances; intravenous rehydration or electrolyte replacement may be required. Serious cases may develop loss of consciousness or coma, and may need intubation and artificial ventilation. Hemodialysis can remove the.

Amanita muscaria. toxins, although this intervention is generally considered unnecessary. With modern medical treatment the prognosis is typically good following supportive treatment.## Psychoactive use.The wide range of psychoactive effects have been variously described as depressant, sedative-hypnotic, psychedelic, dissociative, or deliriant; paradoxical effects such as stimulation may occur however. Perceptual phenomena such as synesthesia, macropsia, and micropsia may occur; the latter two effects may occur either simultaneously or alternatingly, as part of Alice in Wonderland syndrome, collectively known as dysmetropsia, along with related distortions pelopsia and teleopsia. Some users report lucid dreaming under the influence of its hypnotic effects. Unlike "Psilocybe cubensis", "A.

Amanita muscaria. muscaria" cannot be commercially cultivated, due to its mycorrhizal relationship with the roots of pine trees. However, following the outlawing of psilocybin mushrooms in the United Kingdom in 2006, the sale of the still legal "A. muscaria" began increasing.Professor Marija Gimbutienė, a renowned Lithuanian historian, reported to R. Gordon Wasson on the use of this mushroom in Lithuania. In remote areas of Lithuania, "Amanita muscaria" has been consumed at wedding feasts, in which mushrooms were mixed with vodka. The professor also reported that the Lithuanians used to export "A. muscaria" to the Sami in the Far North for use in.

Amanita muscaria. shamanic rituals. The Lithuanian festivities are the only report that Wasson received of ingestion of fly agaric for religious use in Eastern Europe.## Siberia."Amanita muscaria" was widely used as an entheogen by many of the indigenous peoples of Siberia. Its use was known among almost all of the Uralic-speaking peoples of western Siberia and the Paleosiberian-speaking peoples of the Russian Far East. There are only isolated reports of "A. muscaria" use among the Tungusic and Turkic peoples of central Siberia and it is believed that on the whole entheogenic use of "A. muscaria" was not practised by these peoples. In.

Amanita muscaria. western Siberia, the use of "A. muscaria" was restricted to shamans, who used it as an alternative method of achieving a trance state. (Normally, Siberian shamans achieve trance by prolonged drumming and dancing.) In eastern Siberia, "A. muscaria" was used by both shamans and laypeople alike, and was used recreationally as well as religiously. In eastern Siberia, the shaman would take the mushrooms, and others would drink his urine. This urine, still containing psychoactive elements, may be more potent than the "A. muscaria" mushrooms with fewer negative effects such as sweating and twitching, suggesting that the initial user may act.

Amanita muscaria. as a screening filter for other components in the mushroom.The Koryak of eastern Siberia have a story about the fly agaric ("wapaq") which enabled Big Raven to carry a whale to its home. In the story, the deity "Vahiyinin" ("Existence") spat onto earth, and his spittle became the "wapaq", and his saliva becomes the warts. After experiencing the power of the "wapaq", Raven was so exhilarated that he told it to grow forever on earth so his children, the people, could learn from it. Among the Koryaks, one report said that the poor would consume the urine of the wealthy,.

Amanita muscaria. who could afford to buy the mushrooms. It was reported that the local reindeer would often follow an individual intoxicated by the muscimol mushroom, and if said individual were to urinate in snow the reindeer would become similarly intoxicated and the Koryak people's would use the drunken state of the reindeer to more easily rope and hunt them.## Other reports of use.The Finnish historian T. I. Itkonen mentions that "A. muscaria" was once used among the Sami people: sorcerers in Inari would consume fly agarics with seven spots. In 1979, Said Gholam Mochtar and Hartmut Geerken published an article in.

Amanita muscaria. which they claimed to have discovered a tradition of medicinal and recreational use of this mushroom among a Parachi-speaking group in Afghanistan. There are also unconfirmed reports of religious use of "A. muscaria" among two Subarctic Native American tribes. Ojibwa ethnobotanist Keewaydinoquay Peschel reported its use among her people, where it was known as (an abbreviation of the name "oshtimisk wajashkwedo" (= "red-top mushroom")). This information was enthusiastically received by Wasson, although evidence from other sources was lacking. There is also one account of a Euro-American who claims to have been initiated into traditional Tlicho use of "Amanita muscaria". The.

Amanita muscaria. flying reindeer of Santa Claus, who is called Joulupukki in Finland, could symbolize the use of "A. muscaria" by Sámi shamans.## Vikings.The notion that Vikings used "A. muscaria" to produce their berserker rages was first suggested by the Swedish professor Samuel Ödmann in 1784. Ödmann based his theories on reports about the use of fly agaric among Siberian shamans. The notion has become widespread since the 19th century, but no contemporary sources mention this use or anything similar in their description of berserkers. Muscimol is generally a mild relaxant, but it can create a range of different reactions within a.

Amanita muscaria. group of people. It is possible that it could make a person angry, or cause them to be "very jolly or sad, jump about, dance, sing or give way to great fright". Comparative analysis of symptoms have, however, since shown "Hyoscyamus niger" to be a better fit to the state that characterises the berserker rage.## Fly trap."Amanita muscaria" is traditionally used for catching flies possibly due to its content of ibotenic acid and muscimol.Recently, an analysis of nine different methods for preparing "A. muscaria" for catching flies in Slovenia have shown that the release of ibotenic acid and muscimol did.

Amanita muscaria. not depend on the solvent (milk or water) and that thermal and mechanical processing led to faster extraction of ibotenic acid and muscimol.## In religion.## Soma.In 1968, R. Gordon Wasson proposed that "A. muscaria" was the "soma" talked about in the Rigveda of India, a claim which received widespread publicity and popular support at the time. He noted that descriptions of "Soma" omitted any description of roots, stems or seeds, which suggested a mushroom, and used the adjective "hári" "dazzling" or "flaming" which the author interprets as meaning red. One line described men urinating "Soma"; this recalled the practice of.

Amanita muscaria. recycling urine in Siberia. Soma is mentioned as coming "from the mountains", which Wasson interpreted as the mushroom having been brought in with the Aryan migrants from the north. Indian scholars Santosh Kumar Dash and Sachinanda Padhy pointed out that both eating of mushrooms and drinking of urine were proscribed, using as a source the "Manusmṛti".In 1971, Vedic scholar John Brough from Cambridge University rejected Wasson's theory and noted that the language was too vague to determine a description of Soma. In his 1976 survey, "Hallucinogens and Culture", anthropologist Peter T. Furst evaluated the evidence for and against the identification.

Amanita muscaria. of the fly agaric mushroom as the Vedic Soma, concluding cautiously in its favour. Kevin Feeney and Trent Austin compared the references in the Vedas with the filtering mechanisms in the preparation of Amanita muscaria and published findings supporting the proposal that fly-agaric mushrooms could be a likely candidate for the sacrament. Other proposed candidates include "Psilocybe cubensis", "Peganum harmala," and "Ephedra."## Speculated role in Christianity.While far from widely accepted, philologist, archaeologist, and Dead Sea Scrolls scholar John Marco Allegro postulated that early Christian theology was derived from a fertility cult revolving around the entheogenic consumption of "A. muscaria" in.

Amanita muscaria. his 1970 book "The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross." This theory has found little support by scholars outside the field of ethnomycology. The book was widely criticized by academics and theologians, including Sir Godfrey Driver, Emeritus Professor of Semitic Philology at Oxford University and Henry Chadwick, the Dean of Christ Church, Oxford. Christian author John C. King wrote a detailed rebuttal of Allegro's theory in the 1970 book "A Christian View of the Mushroom Myth"; he notes that neither fly agarics nor their host trees are found in the Middle East, even though cedars and pines are found there, and.

Amanita muscaria. highlights the tenuous nature of the links between biblical and Sumerian names coined by Allegro. He concludes that if the theory were true, the use of the mushroom must have been "the best kept secret in the world" as it was so well concealed for two thousand years.## Culinary use.The toxins in "A. muscaria" are water-soluble: parboiling "A. muscaria" fruit bodies can detoxify them and render them edible, although consumption of the mushroom as a food has never been widespread. The consumption of detoxified "A. muscaria" has been practiced in some parts of Europe (notably by Russian settlers in Siberia).

Amanita muscaria. since at least the 19th century, and likely earlier. The German physician and naturalist Georg Heinrich von Langsdorff wrote the earliest published account on how to detoxify this mushroom in 1823. In the late 19th century, the French physician Félix Archimède Pouchet was a populariser and advocate of "A. muscaria" consumption, comparing it to manioc, an important food source in tropical South America that must be detoxified before consumption.Use of this mushroom as a food source also seems to have existed in North America. A classic description of this use of "A. muscaria" by an African-American mushroom seller in Washington,.

Amanita muscaria. D.C., in the late 19th century is described by American botanist Frederick Vernon Coville. In this case, the mushroom, after parboiling, and soaking in vinegar, is made into a mushroom sauce for steak. It is also consumed as a food in parts of Japan. The most well-known current use as an edible mushroom is in Nagano Prefecture, Japan. There, it is primarily salted and pickled.A 2008 paper by food historian William Rubel and mycologist David Arora gives a history of consumption of "A. muscaria" as a food and describes detoxification methods. They advocate that "Amanita muscaria" be described in field.

Amanita muscaria. guides as an edible mushroom, though accompanied by a description on how to detoxify it. The authors state that the widespread descriptions in field guides of this mushroom as poisonous is a reflection of cultural bias, as several other popular edible species, notably morels, are toxic unless properly cooked.## Cultural depictions.The red-and-white spotted toadstool is a common image in many aspects of popular culture. Garden ornaments and children's picture books depicting gnomes and fairies, such as the Smurfs, often show fly agarics used as seats, or homes. Fly agarics have been featured in paintings since the Renaissance, albeit in a.

Amanita muscaria. subtle manner. For instance, in Hieronymus Bosch's painting, The Garden of Earthly Delights, the mushroom can be seen on the left-hand panel of the work. In the Victorian era they became more visible, becoming the main topic of some fairy paintings. Two of the most famous uses of the mushroom are in the "Mario" franchise (specifically two of the Super Mushroom power-up items and the platforms in several stages which are based on a fly agaric), and the dancing mushroom sequence in the 1940 Disney film "Fantasia".An account of the journeys of Philip von Strahlenberg to Siberia and his descriptions.

Amanita muscaria. of the use of the "mukhomor" there was published in English in 1736. The drinking of urine of those who had consumed the mushroom was commented on by Anglo-Irish writer Oliver Goldsmith in his widely read 1762 novel, "Citizen of the World". The mushroom had been identified as the fly agaric by this time. Other authors recorded the distortions of the size of perceived objects while intoxicated by the fungus, including naturalist Mordecai Cubitt Cooke in his books "The Seven Sisters of Sleep" and "A Plain and Easy Account of British Fungi". This observation is thought to have formed the.

Amanita muscaria. basis of the effects of eating the mushroom in the 1865 popular story "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland". A hallucinogenic "scarlet toadstool" from Lappland is featured as a plot element in Charles Kingsley's 1866 novel "Hereward the Wake" based on the medieval figure of the same name. Thomas Pynchon's 1973 novel "Gravity's Rainbow" describes the fungus as a "relative of the poisonous Destroying angel" and presents a detailed description of a character preparing a cookie bake mixture from harvested "Amanita muscaria". Fly agaric shamanism is also explored in the 2003 novel "Thursbitch" by Alan Garner. List of "Amanita" species Legal status.

Amanita muscaria. of psychoactive "Amanita" mushrooms Webpages on "Amanita species" by Tulloss and Yang Zhuliang Amanita on erowid.org Aminita muscaria, Amanita pantherina and others (Group PIM G026) by IPCS INCHEM.


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Octagon. angles total 360°.If squares are constructed all internally or all externally on the sides of an octagon, then the midpoints of the segments connecting the centers of opposite squares form a quadrilateral that is both equidiagonal and orthodiagonal (that is, whose diagonals are equal in length and at right angles to each other).The midpoint octagon of a reference octagon has its eight vertices at the midpoints of the sides of the reference octagon. If squares are constructed all internally or all externally on the sides of the midpoint octagon, then the midpoints of the segments connecting the centers of opposite.

Octagon. squares themselves form the vertices of a square.## Regular octagon.A regular octagon is a closed figure with sides of the same length and internal angles of the same size. It has eight lines of reflective symmetry and rotational symmetry of order 8. A regular octagon is represented by the Schläfli symbol {8}.The internal angle at each vertex of a regular octagon is 135° (formula_1 radians). The central angle is 45° (formula_2 radians).## Area.The area of a regular octagon of side length "a" is given byformula_3In terms of the circumradius "R", the area isformula_4In terms of the apothem "r" (see also.


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Transport. has become focused on containerization, although bulk transport is used for large volumes of durable items. Transport plays an important part in economic growth and globalization, but most types cause air pollution and use large amounts of land. While it is heavily subsidized by governments, good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow and restrain urban sprawl.## Human-powered.Human-powered transport, a form of sustainable transport, is the transport of people and/or goods using human muscle-power, in the form of walking, running, and swimming. Modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human power. Human-powered transport remains popular for reasons of.

Transport. and timings of travel is not available to other modes of transport. It is possible to provide door-to-door service only by road transport.Automobiles provide high flexibility with low capacity, but require high energy and area use, and are the main source of harmful noise and air pollution in cities; buses allow for more efficient travel at the cost of reduced flexibility. Road transport by truck is often the initial and final stage of freight transport.## Water.Water transport is movement by means of a watercraft—such as a barge, boat, ship, or sailboat—over a body of water, such as a sea, ocean,.

Transport. there is too much traffic and many—if not all—of the negative impacts that come with it. It is only in recent years that traditional practices have started to be questioned in many places; as a result of new types of analysis which bring in a much broader range of skills than those traditionally relied on—spanning such areas as environmental impact analysis, public health, sociology, and economics—the viability of the old mobility solutions is increasingly being questioned.## Environment.Transport is a major use of energy and burns most of the world's petroleum. This creates air pollution, including nitrous oxides and particulates, and.


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Cucurbita moschata. Cucurbita moschata is a species originating in either Central America or northern South America. It includes cultivars known as squash or pumpkin. "C. moschata" cultivars are generally more tolerant of hot, humid weather than cultivars of "C. maxima" or "C. pepo". They also generally display a greater resistance to disease and insects, especially to the squash vine borer. Commercially made pumpkin pie mix is most often made from varieties of "C. moschata". The ancestral species of the genus "Cucurbita" were present in the Americas before the arrival of humans. Evolutionarily speaking the genus is relatively recent in origin as no.

Cucurbita moschata. species within the genus is genetically isolated from all the other species. "C. moschata" acts as the genetic bridge within the genus and is closest to the genus' progenitor.All species of squashes and pumpkins are native to the Western Hemisphere. "C. moschata", represented by such varieties as Cushaw and Winter Crookneck Squashes, and Japanese Pie and Large Cheese Pumpkins, is a long-vining plant native to Mexico and Central America. This species and "C. pepo" apparently originated in the same general area, Mexico and Central America. Both are important food plants of the original people of the region, ranking next to.

Cucurbita moschata. maize and beans. The flowers and the mature seeds, and the flesh of the fruit are eaten in some areas.Before the arrival of Europeans, "C. moschata" and "C. pepo" had been carried over all parts of North America where they could be grown. Still, they had not been carried into South America as had beans, which originated in the same general region. They were generally grown by indigenous people all over what is now the United States. Many of these peoples, particularly in the west, still grow a diversity of hardy squashes and pumpkins not to be found in commercial.

Cucurbita moschata. markets.## Varieties.Cultivars include: Al Hachi – a winter squash used in Kashmir, usually dried Aehobak – a summer squash, also called "Korean zucchini" Brazilian crook neck, Abóbora de pescoço or Abóbora seca – a large, curved-neck variety with deep orange flesh and dark green skin with light orange highlights found in Brazil. Butternut squash – a popular winter squash in much of North America Calabaza – a commonly grown winter squash in the Caribbean, tropical America, and the Philippines Dickinson pumpkin – Libby's uses a proprietary strain of Dickinson for its canned pumpkin. Giromon – a large, green cultivar, grown.

Cucurbita moschata. primarily in the Caribbean. Haitians use it to make the traditional "soupe giromon". Golden Cushaw – Similar in shape but a different species than the common "Cucurbita argyrosperma" "cushaw" type. Loche – a landrace of squashes from Peru. Liscia – grows early in the season, reaching maturation after 115 to 130 days Long Island cheese pumpkin – the exterior resembles a wheel of cheese in shape, color, and texture Musquée de Provence, Moscata di Provenza or Fairytale pumpkin – a large hybrid from France with sweet, fragrant, deep-orange flesh often sold by the slice due to its size. Naples long.

Cucurbita moschata. squash or Courge pleine de Naples – a large, long squash with deep green skin and small bulb at the end. It is 10 to 25 kg on average and found in France and Italy São Paulo pumpkin or Abóbora paulista is a butternut-shaped variety with well-defined white and green stripes along its length Seminole pumpkin – an heirloom variety originally cultivated by the Seminole Native Americans of Florida Tromboncino – a summer squash, also known as "Zucchetta.


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Hexagon. of the circumscribed circle or circumcircle, which equals formula_1 times the apothem (radius of the inscribed circle). All internal angles are 120 degrees. A regular hexagon has six rotational symmetries ("rotational symmetry of order six") and six reflection symmetries ("six lines of symmetry"), making up the dihedral group D6. The longest diagonals of a regular hexagon, connecting diametrically opposite vertices, are twice the length of one side. From this it can be seen that a triangle with a vertex at the center of the regular hexagon and sharing one side with the hexagon is equilateral, and that the regular hexagon.

Hexagon. adding alternating squares and equilateral triangles around it. This pattern repeats within the rhombitrihexagonal tiling.## Self-crossing hexagons.There are six self-crossing hexagons with the vertex arrangement of the regular hexagon:## Hexagonal structures.From bees' honeycombs to the Giant's Causeway, hexagonal patterns are prevalent in nature due to their efficiency. In a hexagonal grid each line is as short as it can possibly be if a large area is to be filled with the fewest hexagons. This means that honeycombs require less wax to construct and gain much strength under compression.Irregular hexagons with parallel opposite edges are called parallelogons and can also tile.

Hexagon. the plane by translation. In three dimensions, hexagonal prisms with parallel opposite faces are called parallelohedrons and these can tessellate 3-space by translation.## Tesselations by hexagons.In addition to the regular hexagon, which determines a unique tessellation of the plane, any irregular hexagon which satisfies the Conway criterion will tile the plane.## Hexagon inscribed in a conic section.Pascal's theorem (also known as the "Hexagrammum Mysticum Theorem") states that if an arbitrary hexagon is inscribed in any conic section, and pairs of opposite sides are extended until they meet, the three intersection points will lie on a straight line, the "Pascal line.

Hexagon. of that configuration.## Cyclic hexagon.The Lemoine hexagon is a cyclic hexagon (one inscribed in a circle) with vertices given by the six intersections of the edges of a triangle and the three lines that are parallel to the edges that pass through its symmedian point.If the successive sides of a cyclic hexagon are "a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", then the three main diagonals intersect in a single point if and only if .If, for each side of a cyclic hexagon, the adjacent sides are extended to their intersection, forming a triangle exterior to the given side, then the segments.

Hexagon. connecting the circumcenters of opposite triangles are concurrent.If a hexagon has vertices on the circumcircle of an acute triangle at the six points (including three triangle vertices) where the extended altitudes of the triangle meet the circumcircle, then the area of the hexagon is twice the area of the triangle.## Hexagon tangential to a conic section.Let ABCDEF be a hexagon formed by six tangent lines of a conic section. Then Brianchon's theorem states that the three main diagonals AD, BE, and CF intersect at a single point.In a hexagon that is tangential to a circle and that has consecutive sides.

Hexagon. "a", "b", "c", "d", "e", and "f",formula_16## Equilateral triangles on the sides of an arbitrary hexagon.If an equilateral triangle is constructed externally on each side of any hexagon, then the midpoints of the segments connecting the centroids of opposite triangles form another equilateral triangle.## Skew hexagon.A skew hexagon is a skew polygon with six vertices and edges but not existing on the same plane. The interior of such an hexagon is not generally defined. A "skew zig-zag hexagon" has vertices alternating between two parallel planes.A regular skew hexagon is vertex-transitive with equal edge lengths. In three dimensions it will be.


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Little blue heron. The little blue heron (Egretta caerulea) is a small heron belonging to the genus "Egretta". Found throughout the New World, from the United States to South America, they live in a variety of aquatic ecosystems. They are small and darkly colored as adults, although juveniles are white. They are predators that hunt fish and other animals, typically alone. They nest in trees with other species of birds. They lay anywhere between two and five eggs, with the number varying significantly throughout their range. Their numbers are declining, for reasons not entirely understood.## Taxonomy.The little blue heron was first described as.

Little blue heron. "Ardea caerulea" by Carl Linnaeus in his 10th edition of "Systema Naturae". It is now a member of the genus "Egretta".## Distribution and habitat.## Distribution."Egretta caerulea" can be found regularly in the United States, Mexico, Central America, northern South America (including Venezuela, Colombia, and Peru), and numerous Caribbean islands (including Cuba, Jamaica, and Hispaniola). They have been recorded as a vagrant in Greenland, Portugal, and South Africa. Whether or not their range is declining is unknown. In the United States, they can be found from Missouri to Virginia to Florida. They are more common in peninsular Florida than the Florida.

Little blue heron. "Egretta caerulea" are not well researched. They could include development along coastlines, habitat disturbance, predators, pesticide exposure, and parasites. The metals cadmium and lead have been found to lead to slower growth rates and higher death rates, repectively, of young birds. Field guide on Flickr Florida Bird Sounds - Florida Museum of Natural History.