Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this bird?

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Clark's nutcracker. Clark's nutcracker ("Nucifraga columbiana"), sometimes referred to as Clark's crow or woodpecker crow, is a passerine bird in the family Corvidae, native to the mountains of western North America. The nutcracker is an omnivore, but subsists mainly on pine nuts, burying seeds in the ground in the summer and then retrieving them in the winter by memory.## Etymology and history.The bird was described by the Lewis and Clark Expedition, with William Clark first observing it in 1805 along the banks of the Salmon River, a tributary of the Columbia River. Its scientific name literally means "nutcracker of the Columbia." Lewis.

Clark's nutcracker. recorded a more detailed description in 1806. A skin collected by the expedition was obtained by the ornithologist Alexander Wilson, who used it to produce an engraving for his monumental "American Ornithology".## Taxonomy.Originally placed in the genus "Corvus" by Lewis, Clark's nutcracker was later included in "Nucifraga" by Wilson, which also includes two Old World species with similar lifestyles and habitats.## Distribution and habitat.This species is present in western North America from British Columbia and western Alberta in the north to Baja California and central New Mexico in the south. There is also a small isolated population on the peak.

Clark's nutcracker. of Cerro Potosí, elevation 3,700 metres (12,200 ft), in Nuevo León, northeast Mexico. It is mainly found in mountains at altitudes of 900–3,900 metres (3,000–12,900 ft) in conifer forest. It is not migratory except in the sense of moving back and forth locally between areas of higher and lower elevation. Outside the breeding season, it may wander extensively to lower altitudes and also further east as far as Illinois (and exceptionally, Pennsylvania), particularly following any cone crop failure in its normal areas.## Description."Nucifraga columbiana" can reach an average length of 28.8 (cm). It is slightly smaller than its Eurasian relative.

Clark's nutcracker. the spotted nutcracker ("N. caryocatactes"). Most of its body has feathers that are ashy-grey and loose in texture. The wings and tail are black and white. The central tail feathers are black and the outer ones white. The bill, legs and feet are also black. The bill is long, stout, and cone-shaped.Measurements: Length: 10.6-11.8 in (27-30 cm) Weight: 3.7-5.7 oz (106-161 g) Wingspan: 24 in (61 cm)## Food.The most important food resources for this species are the seeds of pines ("Pinus" sp.), principally the two cold-climate (high altitude) species of white pine ("Pinus" subgenus "Strobus") with large seeds "P. albicaulis.

Clark's nutcracker. and "P. flexilis", but also using other high-altitude species like "P. balfouriana, P. longaeva" and "P. monticola". During migrations to lower altitudes, it also extensively uses the seeds of pinyon pines. The isolated Cerro Potosí population is strongly associated with the local endemic Potosi pinyon "Pinus culminicola". All Clark's Nutcrackers have a sublingual pouch capable of holding around 50–150 seeds, depending on the size of the seeds; the pouch greatly enhances the birds' ability to transport and store seeds.Clark's nutcrackers store seeds, usually in the ground for later consumption, in caches of 1–15 seeds (average of 3–4 seeds). Depending on.

Clark's nutcracker. the cone crop as well as the tree species, a single Clark's nutcracker can cache as many as 98,000 seeds per season. The birds regularly store more than they actually need as insurance against seed theft by other animals (squirrels, etc.), as well as low availability of alternative foods; this surplus seed is left in the cache, and may be able to germinate and grow into new trees, if the conditions are right. Through this activity of caching and over-storing, the bird is perpetuating its own habitat. Closely tied in with this storage behavior is the bird's remarkable long-term spatial.

Clark's nutcracker. memory; they are able to relocate caches of seeds with great accuracy, even nine months later, and even when the cache sites are buried under up to a meter (3 ft) of snow. Its powers of memory exemplify the high intelligence of the Corvidae. Clark's nutcrackers are known for storing a recovering large numbers of seed catches that are critical for winter survival. Short-term memory tasks reveal that nutcrackers can remember spatial information better than visual information. It was demonstrated that the catch recovery ability of Clarks nutcracker is derived from a memory system that has evolved differently for storing.

Clark's nutcracker. spatial information. The diet also includes a wide range of insect prey, berries and other fruits, small mammals and occasionally flesh from carcasses. Eggs and nestlings are sometimes devoured, and peanuts and suet have become a favorite at bird tables. Food is taken both from the ground and from trees, where the nutcrackers are very agile among the branches. The birds are able to extract food by clasping pine cones in such a way that the cones are held between one or both feet. The birds then hack the cones open with their strong bills. Rotten logs are also hacked.

Clark's nutcracker. into in order to locate large beetle grubs, and animal dung may be flipped over in search of insects. Clark's nutcrackers can also be opportunistic feeders in developed areas, and are known to some as "camp robbers".## Nesting.The species usually nests in pines or other types of conifers during early spring. Two to four eggs are laid, incubation usually occurring in 16–18 days. Incubation is performed by both the male and female parents, and both the male and the female develop brood patches. The young are typically fledged by around the 22nd day. The fledglings follow their parents around for.

Clark's nutcracker. several months, possibly in order to learn the complex seed storage behavior.## Whitebark pine mutualism.Clark's nutcracker is the primary seed disperser for whitebark pine ("Pinus albicaulis"). Whitebark pine is in decline throughout its range, due to infection by white pine blister rust ("Cronartium ribicola"), widespread outbreaks of mountain pine beetle, and the long-term effects of fire suppression. The Clark's nutcracker is an integral part of the whitebark pine restoration process: the Clark's nutcracker must remain in whitebark pine forests and cache the seeds in excess, so that healthy trees will continue to grow. If whitebark pine declines into extinction, the.

Clark's nutcracker. Clark's nutcracker will lose an important source of food and may no longer be seen in areas where the tree is the primary source of seed, such as Glacier National Park.## Vocalization.The voice of this bird is extremely varied and produces many different sounds. However, the most frequent call is commonly described as "". Lanner, R. M. (1996). "Made for each other: a symbiosis of birds and pines". OUP. Balda R., Kamil C., Linking Life Zones, Life History Traits, Ecology, and Spatial Cognition in Four Allopatric Southwestern Seed Caching Corvids, 2006 NatureServe reportClark's nutcracker photo gallery VIREO Clark's nutcracker on.

Clark's nutcracker. the Internet Bird CollectionClark's nutcracker at All About BirdsWhitebark Pine Ecosystem Foundation.


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this bird?

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Yellow-crowned night heron. The yellow-crowned night heron (Nyctanassa violacea), is one of two species of night herons found in the Americas, the other one being the black-crowned night heron. It is known as the "bihoreau violacé" in French and the "pedrete corona clara" in Spanish.## Description.## General shape.The yellow-crowned night heron is a rather stocky wading bird, ranging from 55 (to(-)) and from 650 (to(-)), the females being a little smaller than the males. The yellow-crowned night heron has a wingspan ranging from 101 (to(-)). The neck, slim when extended, exposes its large head (compared to its body), with a large and heavy.

Yellow-crowned night heron. yellow-crowned night heron has changed with its expansion north: one subspecies ("Nyctanassa violacea violacea)" migrates to the northern limits of its range, moving north and west after breeding. Birds observed outside of the normal range are usually first-years or strays.Migration occurs in mid-March in lower latitude, and from mid-March to April in higher latitude.## Behavior.## Vocalizations.The most common call of the yellow-crowned night heron is a loud, sharp and quick "squawk" that the bird gives shortly after taking off or uses as an alarm call or an aggression call. The young beg for food with a soft "chu-chu-chu" call that.


Question: What is the closest upper taxonomy of this animal?

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Western cottonmouth. The western cottonmouth ("Agkistrodon piscivorus leucostoma") was once classified as a subspecies of the cottonmouth ("Agkistrodon piscivorus"). However, DNA based studies published in 2008 and 2015, revealed no significant genetic difference between the eastern cottonmouth ("Agkistrodon piscivorus piscivorus") and the western cottonmouth ("Agkistrodon piscivorus leucostoma") and synonymized the two subspecies (with the oldest published name, "A. p. piscivorus", having priority). The resulting taxonomy does not recognizes the western cottonmouth ("A. p. leucostoma") as a valid taxon. Several subsequent reviews and species accounts have followed and supported the revised taxonomy. Information on this snake can be found in the "Agkistrodon piscivorus.

Western cottonmouth. article. ## Description."Agkistrodon piscivorus leucostoma" is a stout snake with a thick, muscular body. It is the smallest of the three subspecies of "A. piscivorus". The average length of mature specimens is 27.5 (in), while the maximum reported length is 62 (in).Adult specimens are usually dark gray or brown with little or no markings, although a dorsal color pattern consisting of 10 to 15 dark crossbands can be seen in some specimens. Like other members of the species, its color darkens with age, and very old specimens may appear entirely black. Unlike the other two subspecies ("A. p. conanti" and.

Western cottonmouth. of North American amphibians and reptiles. Sixth edition. Chicago, Illinois, Amer. Soc. Icthyol. Herpetol.: i-viii, 1-280. Smith HM, Taylor EH. 1945. An annotated checklist and key to the snakes of Mexico. Bull. U.S. Natl. Mus., 187: 1-239. Troost G. 1836. On a new genus of serpents, and two new species of the genus "Heterodon", inhabiting Tennessee. Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist., New York, 3: 174-190. "Agkistrodon piscivorus leucostoma" in the CalPhotos photo database, University of California, Berkeley "A. piscivorus" at Herps of Texas. Accessed 31 May 2007. "A. p. leucostoma" at The Center for Reptile and Amphibian Conservation and Management. Accessed.


Question: Where do you usually find this animal?

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Hoffmann's two-toed sloth. Hoffmann's two-toed sloth ("Choloepus hoffmanni"), also known as the northern two-toed sloth is a species of sloth from Central and South America.It is a solitary, largely nocturnal and arboreal animal, found in mature and secondary rainforests and deciduous forests. The common name commemorates the German naturalist Karl Hoffmann.## Description.Hoffmann's two-toed sloth is a heavily built animal with shaggy fur and slow, deliberate movements. The fore feet have only two toes, each ending with long, curved claws, although three clawed toes are on each of the hind feet. Other features that distinguish it from three-toed sloths, which may be found in.

Hoffmann's two-toed sloth. the same geographic areas, include the longer snout, separate rather than partially fused toes of the forefeet, the absence of hair on the soles of the feet, and larger overall size. The wrist of the sloth has developed some specific traits due to their slow, yet acrobatic motions. These evolved traits include diminution and distal migration of the pisiform bone, with a loss of contact with the ulna; reduction of the distal end of the ulna to a styloid process; and extremely reduced contact between the ulna and triquetral bone.Hoffmann's two-toed sloth is, however, much easier to confuse with the.

Hoffmann's two-toed sloth. related Linnaeus's two-toed sloth, which it closely resembles. The primary physical differences between the two species relate to subtle skeletal features; for example, Hoffmann's two-toed sloth has three foramina in the upper forward part of the interpterygoid space, rather than just two, and often – but not always – has fewer cervical vertebrae.Adults range from 54 to 72 (cm) in head-body length, and weigh from 2.1 to 9 (kg). Although they do have stubby tails, just 1.5 to 3 (cm) long, this is too short to be visible through the long fur. The claws are 5 to 6.5 (cm) long.

Hoffmann's two-toed sloth. Females are larger on average than males, although with considerable overlap in size. Their fur is tan to light brown in colour, being lighter on the face, but usually has a greenish tinge because of the presence of algae living in the hairs.Its karyotype has 2n = 49–51 and FN = 61.## Distribution and habitat.Hoffmann's two-toed sloth inhabits tropical forests from sea level to 3300 (m) above sea level. It is found in the rainforest canopy in two separate regions of Central and South America, separated by the Andes. One population is found from eastern Honduras in the north to.

Hoffmann's two-toed sloth. western Ecuador in the south, and the other in eastern Peru, western Brazil, and northern Bolivia. Based on cytochrome c oxidase subunit I sequences, a divergence date of about 7 million years between these populations has been suggested. Two-toed sloths live in the canopies in the forests of the tropical rainforests. They usually tend to be relaxing in the branches of the trees that are intertwined within each other throughout the sheltering treetops. Most of the two-toed sloths activity takes place hanging upside down but when it comes time for urination and defecation they make their way to the ground.

Hoffmann's two-toed sloth. These creatures also come to the ground when in need of a new tree to live upon or to discover a new food source ## Subspecies.The five recognised subspecies of "C. hoffmanni" are:"C. h. hoffmanni", – Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama"C. h. agustinus", – Venezuela, western Colombia, northern Ecuador"C. h. capitalis", – western Ecuador"C. h. juruanus", – Brazil, Bolivia, extreme eastern Peru"C. h. pallescens", – Peru## Behavior.Two-toed sloths spend most of their time in trees, though they may travel on the ground to move to a new tree. A study of sloths on Barro Colorado Island indicated that the Hoffmann's.

Hoffmann's two-toed sloth. the same time.The name "sloth" means "lazy", but the slow movements of this animal are actually an adaptation for surviving on a low-energy diet of leaves. These sloths have half the metabolic rate of a typical mammal of the same size. Sloths have very poor eyesight and hearing, and rely almost entirely on their senses of touch and smell to find food.This species often exhibits exaggerated wobbling of the head. Another trait of this sloth is it often spits when the mouth opens. The saliva often accumulates on the lower lip, giving the creature a comical appearance.Two-toed sloths hang from.

Hoffmann's two-toed sloth. tree branches, suspended by their huge, hook-like claws. The clinging behaviour is a reflex action, and sloths are found still hanging from trees after they die. The sloth spends almost its entire life, including eating, sleeping, mating, and giving birth, hanging upside down from tree branches. Usually, sloths are found right side up when they descend to the ground to defecate, which they usually do about once every three to eight days. They will also ground themselves to urinate, change trees if they wish, or mate, as well as give birth. While terrestrial locomotion is usually thought to involve the.

Hoffmann's two-toed sloth. sloth lying on the ground and pulling themselves forward, they have actually been seen walking on their palms and soles.Sloths descend about once every eight days to defecate on the ground. The reason and mechanism behind this behavior have long been debated among scientists. There are at least five hypotheses: 1) fertilize trees when feces are deposited at the base of the tree; 2) cover feces and avoid predation; 3) chemical communication between individuals; 4) pick up trace nutrients in their claws, that are then ingested and 5) favor a mutualistic relationship with populations of fur moths. More recently, a.

Hoffmann's two-toed sloth. new hypothesis has emerged, which presents evidence against the previous ones and proposes that all current sloths are descendants from species that defecated on the ground, and there simply has not been enough selective pressure to abandon this behavior, since cases of predation during defecation are actually very rare.Sloths have many predators, including the jaguars, ocelots, harpy eagles, margays, and anacondas. If threatened, sloths can defend themselves by slashing out at a predator with their huge claws or biting with their sharp cheek teeth. However, a sloth's main defense is to avoid being attacked in the first place. The two-toed.

Hoffmann's two-toed sloth. sloth can survive wounds that would be fatal to another mammal its size. The sloth's slow, deliberate movements and algae-covered fur make them difficult for predators to spot from a distance. Their treetop homes are also out of reach for many larger predators.Their long, coarse fur also protects them from sun and rain. Their fur, unlike other mammals, flows from belly to top, not top to belly, allowing rainwater to slide off the fur while the animal is hanging upside down.Hoffmann's two-toed sloth inhabits a range of different trees within its habitat, although it seems to prefer those with plentiful.

Hoffmann's two-toed sloth. lianas and direct sunlight. They have a typical home range of about 2 to 4 (ha), and may spend most of their lives travelling between just 25 or so trees.## Life history.Courtship consists of the female licking the male's face and rubbing her genitals against the male's body. Gestation lasts between 355 and 377 days, and results in the birth of a single young. The birth takes place on either the ground or in the hanging position. Newborn sloths weigh 340 to 454 (g), and are precocial, already possessing long claws and able to cling to their mothers' undersides. They.

Hoffmann's two-toed sloth. begin to take solid food at 15 to 27 days, and are fully weaned by 9 weeks. Although relatively quiet as adults, young sloths make loud bleating alarm calls if separated from their mothers.In captivity, the two-toed sloth was seen giving birth by hanging upside down and attempting to pull the infant between her hind limbs and onto her abdomen. Other sloths were seen hanging under the mother and infant to protect the infant from falling.Hoffmann's two-toed sloths reach sexual maturity at two to four years of age and have been reported to live up to 43 years in captivity.##.

Hoffmann's two-toed sloth. a sloth's weight may be the leaves in its digestive system.## Conservation status.Habitat destruction is probably causing a decrease in the wild Hoffmann's two-toed sloth population, but little reliable data is available on the number of wild individuals. Sloths and people have little contact with one another in the wild.## Reproduction.The reproduction process of the two-toed sloths has some differences when compared to the three-toed sloths. Two toed sloths tend to mate all year around; they don’t really go by a schedule. If they had to pick the most popular season to mate it would be during rainy seasons and.

Hoffmann's two-toed sloth. are sexually matured by the age 3 and are ready to start reproducing of their own.## Adaptation.Sloths are known to be heterothermic, meaning that whatever environment they’re in, they learn to adapt. Their body temperature ranges from 86-93 degrees Fahrenheit (about 30 to 34 degrees Celsius), which, compared to other mammals is on the cold side. Having these low temperatures helps the sloths conserve their energy. Sloths fur is grown specifically for a job which is to grow algae. The algae grows within their hair shaft and benefits the creatures camouflaging techniques. The hair grows in a special system of.


Question: Who or what maintains this building?

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Chapel of the Resurrection (Valparaiso, Indiana). The Chapel of the Resurrection is the centerpiece structure on the campus of Valparaiso University in Valparaiso, Indiana. Primarily used to facilitate many Lutheran campus worship services, the Chapel of the Resurrection also serves as a site for convocations, musical performances, guest lectures, and commencement ceremonies.The chapel's chancel is 98 (ft) high and is circular in shape; the roof of the apse is shaped like a nine-pointed star. The nave is 58 (ft) high and 193 (ft) long. The building capacity is around 2000, although this number is flexible depending upon the configuration of the chairs, which recently replaced the.

Chapel of the Resurrection (Valparaiso, Indiana). pews. To the southwest of the Chapel lies the Brandt Campanile, a 12-bell tower rising 143 (ft) tall.Clearly visible from U.S. Route 30 and throughout the surrounding community, the building is located on the highest point of ground on the Valparaiso University campus and is a Northwest Indiana landmark.## History.Groundbreaking for the Chapel construction took place in 1956. The building was designed by the architectural firm Charles Stade and Associates of Park Ridge, Illinois, though certain elements and features (e.g., the stone baptistry, the stained glass windows, etc.) were designed by other artists. Peter Dohmen Studios of St. Paul, Minnesota.

Chapel of the Resurrection (Valparaiso, Indiana). designed the 95 (ft) high stained glass windows, as well as the marble interzia altar, and the mosaic at the entrance of the chapel. Adalbert Raphael Kretzmann, pastor and brother of Valparaiso University president O. P. Kretzmann, joined Charles Stade in the building's design.The altar is 20 (ft) long, made of various types of Italian marble. Peter Dohmen designed the inlaid marble pedestals to depict, with symbols, the four evangelists. Matthew is represented by an angel, Mark by a lion, John by an eagle, and Luke by an ox.Peter Dohmen learned his skills at the top art academies of Europe.

Chapel of the Resurrection (Valparaiso, Indiana). building was dedicated in 1959, part of Valparaiso University's centennial celebration, and officially designated as the Chapel of the Resurrection at the 10th anniversary service in 1969.In July and August 2005, the university built a medieval-style prayer labyrinth on the east side of the chapel, 64 feet in diameter. The university is adding 11000 (sqft) to the building in 2014, known as the Helge Center.## Organ.The Reddel Organ in the chapel was built by organ builder Herman Schlicker of Buffalo, New York. A contract for the organ was signed on September 27, 1957 at a cost of $68,000. These funds.


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Unmanned aerial vehicle. An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), commonly known as a drone, is an aircraft without any human pilot, crew, or passengers on board. UAVs are a component of an unmanned aircraft system (UAS), which includes adding a ground-based controller and a system of communications with the UAV. The flight of UAVs may operate under remote control by a human operator, as remotely-piloted aircraft (RPA), or with various degrees of autonomy, such as autopilot assistance, up to fully autonomous aircraft that have no provision for human intervention.UAVs were originally developed through the twentieth century for military missions too "dull, dirty or dangerous.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. for humans, and by the twenty-first, they had become essential assets to most militaries. As control technologies improved and costs fell, their use expanded to many non-military applications. These include forest fire monitoring, aerial photography, product deliveries, agriculture, policing and surveillance, infrastructure inspections, entertainment, science, smuggling, and drone racing.## Terminology.Many terms are used for aircraft which fly without any persons on board:The term drone has been used from the early days of aviation, being applied to remotely-flown target aircraft used for practice firing of a battleship's guns, such as the 1920s Fairey Queen and 1930s de Havilland Queen Bee. Later.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. examples included the Airspeed Queen Wasp and Miles Queen Martinet, before ultimate replacement by the GAF Jindivik. The term remains in common use. In addition to the software, autonomous drones also employ a host of advanced technologies that allow them to carry out their missions without human intervention, such as cloud computing, computer vision, artificial intelligence, machine learning, deep learning, and thermal sensors. For recreational uses, an aerial photography drone (as opposed to a UAV) is an aircraft that has first-person video, autonomous capabilities, or both.An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) is defined as a "powered, aerial vehicle that does not.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. carry a human operator, uses aerodynamic forces to provide vehicle lift, can fly autonomously or be piloted remotely, can be expendable or recoverable, and can carry a lethal or nonlethal payload". UAV is a term that is commonly applied to military use cases. However missiles with warheads are not considered UAVs because the vehicle itself is a munition. Also, the relation of UAVs to remote controlled model aircraft is unclear, UAVs may or may not include remote-controlled model aircraft. Some jurisdictions base their definition on size or weight; however, the US FAA defines any uncrewed flying craft as a UAV.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. regardless of size. The term "unmanned aircraft system" (UAS) was adopted by the United States Department of Defense (DoD) and the United States Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in 2005 according to their Unmanned Aircraft System Roadmap 2005–2030. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the British Civil Aviation Authority adopted this term, also used in the European Union's Single-European-Sky (SES) Air-Traffic-Management (ATM) Research (SESAR Joint Undertaking) roadmap for 2020. This term emphasizes the importance of elements other than the aircraft. It includes elements such as ground control stations, data links and other support equipment. A similar term is an "unmanned-aircraft.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. vehicle system" (UAVS), "remotely piloted aerial vehicle" (RPAV), "remotely piloted aircraft system" (RPAS). Many similar terms are in use. "Unoccupied" and "uninhabited" are occasionally used as alternatives to "unmanned". Under new regulations which came into effect 1 June 2019, the term RPAS (Remotely Piloted Aircraft System) has been adopted by the Canadian Government to mean "a set of configurable elements consisting of a remotely piloted aircraft, its control station, the command and control links and any other system elements required during flight operation".## Classification types.UAVs may be classified like any other aircraft, according to design configuration such as weight or.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. engine type, maximum flight altitude, degree of operational autonomy, operational role, etc. According to the United States Department of Defense, UAVs are classified into five categories below:Other classifications of UAVs include:## Range and endurance.There are usually five categories when UAVs are classified by range and endurance:## Size.There are usually four categories when UAVs are classified by size, with at least one of the dimensions (length or wingspan) meet the following respective limits:## Weight.Based on their weight, drones can be classified into five categories — nano (weighing up to 250 g), Micro air vehicles (MAV) (250 g – 2 kg), Miniature.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. UAV or small (SUAV) (2–25 kg), medium (25–150 kg), and large (over 150 kg).## Degree of autonomy.Drones could also be classified based on the degree of autonomy in their flight operations. ICAO classifies uncrewed aircraft as either remotely piloted aircraft or fully autonomous. Some UAVs offer intermediate degrees of autonomy. For example, a vehicle may be remotely piloted in most contexts but have an autonomous return-to-base operation. Some aircraft types may optionally fly manned or as UAVs, which may include manned aircraft transformed into uncrewed or Optionally Piloted UAVs (OPVs).## Altitude.Based on the altitude, the following UAV classifications have been.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. Carrier Guidance System (CACGS) for UAVs## Composite criteria.An example of classification based on the composite criteria is U.S. Military's unmanned aerial systems (UAS) classification of UAVs based on weight, maximum altitude and speed of the UAV component.## History.## Early drones.The earliest recorded use of an unmanned aerial vehicle for warfighting occurred in July 1849, with a balloon carrier (the precursor to the aircraft carrier) in the first offensive use of air power in naval aviation. Austrian forces besieging Venice attempted to launch some 200 incendiary balloons at the besieged city. The balloons were launched mainly from land; however, some were.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. also launched from the Austrian ship . At least one bomb fell in the city; however, due to the wind changing after launch, most of the balloons missed their target, and some drifted back over Austrian lines and the launching ship "Vulcano".The Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo introduced a radio-based control-system called the "Telekino" at the Paris Academy of Science in 1903 with the intention of testing an airship of his own design without risking human lives.Significant development of drones started in the 1900s, and originally focused on providing practice targets for training military personnel. The earliest attempt at.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. a powered UAV was A. M. Low's "Aerial Target" in 1916. Low confirmed that Geoffrey de Havilland's monoplane was the one that flew under control on 21 March 1917 using his radio system. Following this successful demonstration in the spring of 1917 Low was transferred to develop aircraft controlled fast motor launches D.C.B.s with the Royal Navy in 1918 intended to attack shipping and port installations and he also assisted Wing Commander Brock in preparations for the Zeebrugge Raid. Other British unmanned developments followed, leading to the fleet of over 400 de Havilland 82 Queen Bee aerial targets that went.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. in the late 1930s.## World War II.In 1940 Denny started the Radioplane Company and more models emerged during World War II used both to train antiaircraft gunners and to fly attack-missions. Nazi Germany produced and used various UAV aircraft during the war, like the Argus As 292 and the V-1 flying bomb with a jet engine.## Postwar period.After World War II development continued in vehicles such as the American JB-4 (using television/radio-command guidance), the Australian GAF Jindivik and Teledyne Ryan Firebee I of 1951, while companies like Beechcraft offered their Model 1001 for the U.S. Navy in 1955. Nevertheless, they.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. were little more than remote-controlled airplanes until the Vietnam War.In 1959 the U.S. Air Force, concerned about losing pilots over hostile territory, began planning for the use of uncrewed aircraft. Planning intensified after the Soviet Union shot down a U-2 in 1960. Within days, a highly-classified UAV program started under the code name of "Red Wagon". The August 1964 clash in the Tonkin Gulf between naval units of the U.S. and the North Vietnamese Navy initiated America's highly-classified UAVs (Ryan Model 147, Ryan AQM-91 Firefly, Lockheed D-21) into their first combat missions of the Vietnam War. When the Chinese government.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. showed photographs of downed U.S. UAVs via "Wide World Photos", the official U.S. response was "no comment".During the War of Attrition (1967–1970) in the Middle East, Israeli intelligence tested the first tactical UAVs installed with reconnaissance cameras, which successfully returned photos from across the Suez Canal. This was the first time that tactical UAVs that could be launched and landed on any short runway (unlike the heavier jet-based UAVs) were developed and tested in battle.In the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Israel used UAVs as decoys to spur opposing forces into wasting expensive anti-aircraft missiles. After the 1973 Yom Kippur war,.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. a few key people from the team that developed this early UAV joined a small startup company that aimed to develop UAVs into a commercial product, eventually purchased by Tadiran and leading to the development of the first Israeli UAV.In 1973 the U.S. military officially confirmed that they had been using UAVs in Southeast Asia (Vietnam). Over 5,000 U.S. airmen had been killed and over 1,000 more were missing or captured. The USAF 100th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing flew about 3,435 UAV missions during the war at a cost of about 554 UAVs lost to all causes. In the words of.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. USAF General George S. Brown, Commander, Air Force Systems Command, in 1972, "The only reason we need (UAVs) is that we don't want to needlessly expend the man in the cockpit." Later that year, General John C. Meyer, Commander in Chief, Strategic Air Command, stated, "we let the drone do the high-risk flying ... the loss rate is high, but we are willing to risk more of them ...they save lives!"During the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Soviet-supplied surface-to-air missile-batteries in Egypt and Syria caused heavy damage to Israeli fighter jets. As a result, Israel developed the IAI Scout as the.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. first UAV with real-time surveillance. The images and radar decoys provided by these UAVs helped Israel to completely neutralize the Syrian air defenses at the start of the 1982 Lebanon War, resulting in no pilots downed. In Israel in 1987, UAVs were first used as proof-of-concept of super-agility, post-stall controlled flight in combat-flight simulations that involved tailless, stealth-technology-based, three-dimensional thrust vectoring flight-control, and jet-steering.## Modern UAVs.With the maturing and miniaturization of applicable technologies in the 1980s and 1990s, interest in UAVs grew within the higher echelons of the U.S. military. In the 1990s, the U.S. DoD gave a contract to.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. AAI Corporation along with Israeli company Malat. The U.S. Navy bought the AAI Pioneer UAV that AAI and Malat developed jointly. Many of these UAVs saw service in the 1991 Gulf War. UAVs demonstrated the possibility of cheaper, more capable fighting-machines, deployable without risk to aircrews. Initial generations primarily involved surveillance aircraft, but some carried armaments, such as the General Atomics MQ-1 Predator, that launched AGM-114 Hellfire air-to-ground missiles.CAPECON, a European Union project to develop UAVs, ran from 1 May 2002 to 31 December 2005. the United States Air Force (USAF) employed 7,494 UAVs almost one in three USAF aircraft.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. The Central Intelligence Agency also operated UAVs. By 2013 at least 50 countries used UAVs. China, Iran, Israel, Pakistan, Turkey, and others designed and built their own varieties. The use of drones has continued to increase. Due to their wide proliferation, no comprehensive list of UAV systems exists.The development of smart technologies and improved electrical-power systems led to a parallel increase in the use of drones for consumer and general aviation activities. As of 2021, quadcopter drones exemplify the widespread popularity of hobby radio-controlled aircraft and toys, however the use of UAVs in commercial and general aviation is limited by.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. a lack of autonomy and by new regulatory environments which require line-of-sight contact with the pilot.In 2020 a Kargu 2 drone hunted down and attacked a human target in Libya, according to a report from the UN Security Council's Panel of Experts on Libya, published in March 2021. This may have been the first time an autonomous killer-robot armed with lethal weaponry attacked human beings.Superior drone technology played a role in Azerbaijan's successes in the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war against Armenia.UAVs are also used in NASA missions. The Dragonfly spacecraft is being developed, and is aiming to reach and examine Saturn's.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. moon Titan. Its primary goal is to roam around the surface, expanding the amount of area to be researched previously seen by Landers. As a UAV, Dragonfly allows examination of potentially diverse types of soil. The drone is set to launch in 2027, and is estimated to take a seven more years to reach the Saturnian system.## Design.Crewed and uncrewed aircraft of the same type generally have recognizably similar physical components. The main exceptions are the cockpit and environmental control system or life support systems. Some UAVs carry payloads (such as a camera) that weigh considerably less than an adult.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. human, and as a result, can be considerably smaller. Though they carry heavy payloads, weaponized military UAVs are lighter than their crewed counterparts with comparable armaments.Small civilian UAVs have no life-critical systems, and can thus be built out of lighter but less sturdy materials and shapes, and can use less robustly tested electronic control systems. For small UAVs, the quadcopter design has become popular, though this layout is rarely used for crewed aircraft. Miniaturization means that less-powerful propulsion technologies can be used that are not feasible for crewed aircraft, such as small electric motors and batteries.Control systems for UAVs are.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. often different than crewed craft. For remote human control, a camera and video link almost always replace the cockpit windows; radio-transmitted digital commands replace physical cockpit controls. Autopilot software is used on both crewed and uncrewed aircraft, with varying feature sets.## Aircraft configuration.The primary difference from manned aeroplanes is the lack of need for a cockpit area and its windows. However some types are adapted from piloted examples, or are designed for optional piloted or unmanned operational modes. Air safety is also less of a critical requirement for unmanned aircraft, allowing the designer greater freedom to experiment. These two factors.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. have led to a great variety of airframe and engine configurations in UAVs.For conventional flight the flying wing and blended wing body offer light weight combined with low drag and stealth, and are popular configurations. Larger types which carry a variable payload are more likely to feature a distinct fuselage with a tail for stability, control and trim, although the wing configurations in use vary widely.For vertical flight, the tailless quadcopter requires a relatively simple control system and is common for smaller UAVs. However the mechanism does not scale well to larger aircraft, which tend to use a conventional single.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. rotor with collective and cyclic pitch control, along with a stabilising tail rotor.## Propulsion.Traditional internal combustion and jet engines remain in use for drones requiring long range. However for shorter-range missions electric power has almost entirely taken over. The distance record for a UAV (built from balsa wood and mylar skin) across the North Atlantic Ocean is held by a gasoline model airplane or UAV. Manard Hill "in 2003 when one of his creations flew 1,882 miles across the Atlantic Ocean on less than a gallon of fuel" holds this record.Besides the traditional piston engine, the Wankel rotary engine is.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. used by some drones. This type offers high power output for lower weight, with quieter and more vibration-free running. Claims have also been made for improved reliability and greater range.Small drones mostly use lithium-polymer batteries (Li-Po), while some larger vehicles have adopted the a hydrogen fuel cell. The energy density of modern Li-Po batteries is far less than gasoline or hydrogen. However electric motors are cheaper, lighter and quieter. Complex multi-engine, multi-propeller installations are under development with the goal of improving aerodynamic and propulsive efficiency. For such complex power installations, Battery elimination circuitry (BEC) may be used to centralize power.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. distribution and minimize heating, under the control of a microcontroller unit (MCU).## Ornithopters – wing propulsion.Flapping-wing ornithopters, imitating birds or insects, have been flown as microUAVs. Their inherent stealth recommends them for spy missions.Sub-1g microUAVs inspired by flies, albeit using a power tether, have been able to "land" on vertical surfaces. Other projects mimic the flight of beetles and other insects.## Computer control systems.UAV computing capability followed the advances of computing technology, beginning with analog controls and evolving into microcontrollers, then system-on-a-chip (SOC) and single-board computers (SBC).System hardware for small UAVs is often called the flight controller (FC), flight controller.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. board (FCB) or autopilot.## Architecture.## Sensors.Position and movement sensors give information about the aircraft state. Exteroceptive sensors deal with external information like distance measurements, while exproprioceptive ones correlate internal and external states.Non-cooperative sensors are able to detect targets autonomously so they are used for separation assurance and collision avoidance.Degrees of freedom (DOF) refers to both the amount and quality of sensors on board: 6 DOF implies 3-axis gyroscopes and accelerometers (a typical inertial measurement unit IMU), 9 DOF refers to an IMU plus a compass, 10 DOF adds a barometer and 11 DOF usually adds a GPS receiver.## Actuators.UAV actuators.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. include digital electronic speed controllers (which control the RPM of the motors) linked to motors/engines and propellers, servomotors (for planes and helicopters mostly), weapons, payload actuators, LEDs and speakers.## Software.UAV software called the flight stack or autopilot. The purpose of the flight stack is to obtain data from sensors, control motors to ensure UAV stability, and facilitate ground control and mission planning communication.UAVs are real-time systems that require rapid response to changing sensor data. As a result, UAVs rely on single-board computers for their computational needs. Examples of such single-board computers include Raspberry Pis, Beagleboards, etc. shielded with NavIO, PXFMini,.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. etc. or designed from scratch such as NuttX, preemptive-RT Linux, Xenomai, Orocos-Robot Operating System or DDS-ROS 2.0.Civil-use open-source stacks include: Agilicious (also open-source hardware) ArduCopter CrazyFlie KKMultiCopter MultiWii BaseFlight (forked from MultiWii) CleanFlight (forked from BaseFlight) BetaFlight (forked from CleanFlight) iNav (forked from CleanFlight) RaceFlight (forked from CleanFlight) OpenPilot dRonin (forked from OpenPilot) LibrePilot (forked from OpenPilot) TauLabs (forked from OpenPilot) Paparazzi PX4 autopilot DroneCode (Umbrella organization managing PX4 within the Linux Foundation)Due to the open-source nature of UAV software, they can be customized to fit specific applications. For example, researchers from the Technical University of Košice have replaced the.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. default control algorithm of the PX4 autopilot. This flexibility and collaborative effort has led to a large number of different open-source stacks, some of which are forked from others, such as CleanFlight, which is forked from BaseFlight and from which three other stacks are forked from.## Loop principles.UAVs employ open-loop, closed-loop or hybrid control architectures. Open loop This type provides a positive control signal (faster, slower, left, right, up, down) without incorporating feedback from sensor data. Closed loop This type incorporates sensor feedback to adjust behavior (reduce speed to reflect tailwind, move to altitude 300 feet). The PID controller is.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. common. Sometimes, feedforward is employed, transferring the need to close the loop further.## Communications.UAVs use a radio for control and exchange of video and other data. Early UAVs had only narrowband uplink. Downlinks came later. These bi-directional narrowband radio links carried command and control (C&C) and telemetry data about the status of aircraft systems to the remote operator.In most modern UAV applications, video transmission is required. So instead of having separate links for C&C, telemetry and video traffic, a broadband link is used to carry all types of data. These broadband links can leverage quality of service techniques and carry.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. TCP/IP traffic that can be routed over the Internet.The radio signal from the operator side can be issued from either: Ground control – a human operating a radio transmitter/receiver, a smartphone, a tablet, a computer, or the original meaning of a military ground control station (GCS). Remote network system, such as satellite duplex data links for some military powers. Downstream digital video over mobile networks has also entered consumer markets, while direct UAV control uplink over the cellular mesh and LTE have been demonstrated and are in trials. Another aircraft, serving as a relay or mobile control station military manned-unmanned.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. teaming (MUM-T).Modern networking standards have explicitly considered drones and therefore include optimizations. The 5G standard has mandated reduced user plane latency to 1ms while using ultra-reliable and low-latency communications.## Autonomy.The level of autonomy in UAVs varies widely. UAV manufacturers often build in specific autonomous operations, such as: Self-level: attitude stabilization on the pitch and roll axes. Altitude hold: The aircraft maintains its altitude using barometric pressure and/or GPS data. Hover/position hold: Keep level pitch and roll, stable yaw heading and altitude while maintaining position using GNSS or inertial sensors. Headless mode: Pitch control relative to the position of the pilot.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. Performance considerations.## Flight envelope.UAVs can be programmed to perform aggressive maneuvers or landing/perching on inclined surfaces, and then to climb toward better communication spots. Some UAVs can control flight with varying flight modelisation, such as VTOL designs.UAVs can also implement perching on a flat vertical surface.## Endurance.UAV endurance is not constrained by the physiological capabilities of a human pilot.Because of their small size, low weight, low vibration and high power to weight ratio, Wankel rotary engines are used in many large UAVs. Their engine rotors cannot seize; the engine is not susceptible to shock-cooling during descent and it does not.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. require an enriched fuel mixture for cooling at high power. These attributes reduce fuel usage, increasing range or payload.Proper drone cooling is essential for long-term drone endurance. Overheating and subsequent engine failure is the most common cause of drone failure.Hydrogen fuel cells, using hydrogen power, may be able to extend the endurance of small UAVs, up to several hours.Micro air vehicles endurance is so far best achieved with flapping-wing UAVs, followed by planes and multirotors standing last, due to lower Reynolds number.Solar-electric UAVs, a concept originally championed by the AstroFlight Sunrise in 1974, have achieved flight times of several weeks.Solar-powered.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. atmospheric satellites ("atmosats") designed for operating at altitudes exceeding 20 km (12 miles, or 60,000 feet) for as long as five years could potentially perform duties more economically and with more versatility than low Earth orbit satellites. Likely applications include weather monitoring, disaster recovery, Earth imaging and communications.Electric UAVs powered by microwave power transmission or laser power beaming are other potential endurance solutions.Another application for a high endurance UAV would be to "stare" at a battlefield for a long interval (ARGUS-IS, Gorgon Stare, Integrated Sensor Is Structure) to record events that could then be played backwards to track battlefield activities.##.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. Reliability.Reliability improvements target all aspects of UAV systems, using resilience engineering and fault tolerance techniques.Individual reliability covers robustness of flight controllers, to ensure safety without excessive redundancy to minimize cost and weight. Besides, dynamic assessment of flight envelope allows damage-resilient UAVs, using non-linear analysis with ad hoc designed loops or neural networks. UAV software liability is bending toward the design and certifications of crewed avionics software.Swarm resilience involves maintaining operational capabilities and reconfiguring tasks given unit failures.## Applications.In recent years, autonomous drones have begun to transform various application areas as they can fly beyond visual line of sight (BVLOS) while.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. maximizing production, reducing costs and risks, ensuring site safety, security and regulatory compliance, and protecting the human workforce in times of a pandemic. They can also be used for consumer-related missions like package delivery, as demonstrated by Amazon Prime Air, and critical deliveries of health supplies.There are numerous civilian, commercial, military, and aerospace applications for UAVs. These include:General: Recreation, Disaster relief, archeology, conservation of biodiversity and habitat, law enforcement, crime, and terrorism. Commercial: Aerial surveillance, filmmaking, journalism, scientific research, surveying, cargo transport, mining, manufacturing, Forestry, solar farming, thermal energy, ports and agriculture.## Warfare.With extensive cost reductions and advancements in the.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. UAVs technology, the defense forces around the globe are increasingly using these for various applications such as surveillance, logistics, communication, attack and combat.As of 2020, seventeen countries have armed UAVs, and more than 100 countries use UAVs in a military capacity. The global military UAV market is dominated by companies based in the United States, Turkey, China, Israel and Iran. By sale numbers, the US held over 60% military-market share in 2017. Top military UAV manufactures are including General Atomics, Lockheed Martin, Northrop Grumman, Boeing, Baykar, TAI, IAIO, CASC and CAIG. China has established and expanded its presence in military.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. UAV market since 2010. Turkey also established and expanded its presence in military UAV market.Of the 18 countries that are known to have received military drones between 2010 to 2019, the top 12 all purchased their drones from China. According to a report of 2015, Israeli companies mainly focus on small surveillance UAV systems and by quantity of drones, Israel exported 60.7% (2014) of UAV on the market while the United States export 23.9% (2014). Between 2010 and 2014, there were 439 drones exchanged compared to 322 in the five years previous to that, among these only small fraction of.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. overall trade – just 11 (2.5%) of the 439 are armed drones. The US alone operated over 9,000 military UAVs in 2014; among them more than 7000 are RQ-11 Raven miniature UAVs. General Atomics is the dominant manufacturer with the Global Hawk and Predator/Mariner systems product-line.For intelligence and reconnaissance missions, the inherent stealth of micro UAV flapping-wing ornithopters, imitating birds or insects, offers potential for covert surveillance and makes them difficult targets to bring down.UAVs are used for reconnaissance, attack, demining, and target practice.## Civil.The civilian (commercial and general) drone market is dominated by Chinese companies. Chinese drone manufacturer DJI.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. alone had 74% of the civil market share in 2018, with no other company accounting for more than 5%, and with $11 billion forecast global sales in 2020. Following increased scrutiny of its activities, the US Interior Department grounded its fleet of DJI drones in 2020, while the Justice Department prohibited the use of federal funds for the purchase of DJI and other foreign made UAVs. DJI is followed by Chinese company Yuneec, US company 3D Robotics and French company Parrot with a significant gap in market share. As of May 2021, 873,576 UAVs have been registered with the US.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. FAA, of which 42% are categorized as commercial drones and 58% as recreational drones. 2018 NPD point to consumers increasingly purchasing drones with more advanced features with 33 percent growth in both the $500+ and $1000+ market segments.The civil UAV market is relatively new compared to the military one. Companies are emerging in both developed and developing nations at the same time. Many early stage startups have received support and funding from investors as is the case in the United States and by government agencies as is the case in India. Some universities offer research and training programs or degrees.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. Private entities also provide online and in-person training programs for both recreational and commercial UAV use.Consumer drones are also widely used by military organizations worldwide because of the cost-effective nature of consumer product. In 2018, Israeli military started to use DJI Mavic and Matrice series of UAV for light reconnaissance mission since the civil drones are easier to use and have higher reliability. DJI drones is also the most widely used commercial unmanned aerial system that the US Army has employed. DJI surveillance drones have also been used by Chinese police in Xinjiang since 2017.The global UAV market will reach.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. US$21.47 billion, with the Indian market touching the US$885.7 million mark, by 2021.Lighted drones are beginning to be used in nighttime displays for artistic and advertising purposes.## Aerial photography.Drones are ideally suited to capturing aerial shots in photography and cinematography, and are widely used for this purpose. Small drones avoid the need for precise coordination between pilot and cameraman, with the same person taking on both roles. However, big drones with professional cine cameras, there is usually a drone pilot and a camera operator who controls camera angle and lens. For example, the AERIGON cinema drone which is used in.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. film production in big blockbuster movies is operated by 2 people. Drones provide access to dangerous, remote or otherwise inaccessible sites.## Agriculture and forestry.As global demand for food production grows exponentially, resources are depleted, farmland is reduced, and agricultural labor is increasingly in short supply, there is an urgent need for more convenient and smarter agricultural solutions than traditional methods, and the agricultural drone and robotics industry is expected to make progress. Agricultural drones have been used in areas such as Africa to help build sustainable agriculture.The use of UAVs is also being investigated to help detect and fight wildfires,.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. whether through observation or launching pyrotechnic devices to start backfires.## Law enforcement.Police can use drones for applications such as search and rescue and traffic monitoring.## Safety and security.## Threats.## Nuisance.UAVs can threaten airspace security in numerous ways, including unintentional collisions or other interference with other aircraft, deliberate attacks or by distracting pilots or flight controllers. The first incident of a drone-airplane collision occurred in mid-October 2017 in Quebec City, Canada. The first recorded instance of a drone collision with a hot air balloon occurred on 10 August 2018 in Driggs, Idaho, United States; although there was no significant damage to.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. the balloon nor any injuries to its 3 occupants, the balloon pilot reported the incident to the National Transportation Safety Board, stating that "I hope this incident helps create a conversation of respect for nature, the airspace, and rules and regulations". Unauthorized UAV flights into or near major airports have prompted extended shutdowns of commercial flights.Drones caused significant disruption at Gatwick Airport during December 2018, needing the deployment of the British Army.In the United States, flying close to a wildfire is punishable by a maximum $25,000 fine. Nonetheless, in 2014 and 2015, firefighting air support in California was hindered on.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. several occasions, including at the Lake Fire and the North Fire. In response, California legislators introduced a bill that would allow firefighters to disable UAVs which invaded restricted airspace. The FAA later required registration of most UAVs.## Security vulnerabilities.By 2017, drones were being used to drop contraband into prisons.The interest in UAVs cyber security has been raised greatly after the Predator UAV video stream hijacking incident in 2009, where Islamic militants used cheap, off-the-shelf equipment to stream video feeds from a UAV. Another risk is the possibility of hijacking or jamming a UAV in flight. Several security researchers have made.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. public some vulnerabilities in commercial UAVs, in some cases even providing full source code or tools to reproduce their attacks. At a workshop on UAVs and privacy in October 2016, researchers from the Federal Trade Commission showed they were able to hack into three different consumer quadcopters and noted that UAV manufacturers can make their UAVs more secure by the basic security measures of encrypting the Wi-Fi signal and adding password protection.## Aggression.UAVs could be loaded with dangerous payloads, and crashed into vulnerable targets. Payloads could include explosives, chemical, radiological or biological hazards. UAVs with generally non-lethal payloads could possibly.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. be hacked and put to malicious purposes. Anti-UAV systems are being developed by states to counter this threat. This is, however, proving difficult. As Dr J. Rogers stated in an interview to A&T "There is a big debate out there at the moment about what the best way is to counter these small UAVs, whether they are used by hobbyists causing a bit of a nuisance or in a more sinister manner by a terrorist actor".## Countermeasures.## Counter unmanned air system.The malicious use of UAVs has led to the development of counter unmanned air system (C-UAS) technologies. Automatic tracking and.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. detection of UAVs from commercial cameras have become accurate thanks to the development of deep learning based machine learning algorithms. It is also possible to automatically identify UAVs across different cameras with different view points and hardware specification with re-identification methods. Commercial solutions such as the Aaronia AARTOS have been installed on major international airports. Anti-aircraft missile systems such as the Iron Dome are also being enhanced with C-UAS technologies. Utilising a smart UAV swarm to counter one or more hostile UAVs is also proposed.## Regulation.Regulatory bodies around the world are developing unmanned aircraft system traffic management solutions to better.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. integrate UAVs into airspace.The use of unmanned aerial vehicles is becoming increasingly regulated by the civil aviation authorities of individual countries. Regulatory regimes can differ significantly according to drone size and use. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) began exploring the use of drone technology as far back as 2005, which resulted in a 2011 report. France was among the first countries to set a national framework based on this report and larger aviation bodies such as the FAA and the EASA quickly followed suit. In 2021, the FAA published a rule requiring all commercially-used UAVs and all UAVs regardless.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. of intent weighing 250g or more to participate in Remote ID, which makes drone locations, controller locations, and other information public from takeoff to shutdown; this rule has since been challenged in the pending federal lawsuit "RaceDayQuads v. FAA".## Export controls.The export of UAVs or technology capable of carrying a 500 kg payload at least 300 km is restricted in many countries by the Missile Technology Control Regime. List of unmanned aerial vehicles Delivery drone Drone in a Box International Aerial Robotics Competition List of films featuring drones Micromechanical Flying Insect ParcAberporth Quadcopter Radio-controlled aircraft Satellite Sentinel Project Tactical Control.

Unmanned aerial vehicle. System UAV ground control station Unmanned underwater vehicleAxe, David. "Drone War Vietnam." Pen & Sword, Military. Great Britain. (2021). ISBN 978 1 52677 026 4 Hill, J., & Rogers, A. (2014). "". "Vancouver Island University Arts & Humanities Colloquium Series". Rogers, A., & Hill, J. (2014). "Unmanned: Drone warfare and global security". Between the Lines. How Intelligent Drones Are Shaping the Future of Warfare, "Rolling Stone Magazine.


Question: What is the closest upper taxonomy of this bird?

Instruction: You have to find a Wikipedia segment that answers the question about the displayed image.

European robin. The European robin (Erithacus rubecula), known simply as the robin or robin redbreast in Great Britain & Ireland, is a small insectivorous passerine bird that belongs to the chat subfamily of the Old World flycatcher family. About 12.5 – 14.0 (cm) in length, the male and female are similar in colouration, with an orange breast and face lined with grey, brown upper-parts and a whitish belly. It is found across Europe, east to Western Siberia and south to North Africa; it is sedentary in most of its range except the far north.The term "robin" is also applied to some birds.

European robin. in other families with red or orange breasts. These include the American robin ("Turdus migratorius"), a thrush, and the Australasian robins of the family Petroicidae, the relationships of which are unclear.## Taxonomy, etymology and systematics.The European robin was described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the 10th edition of his "Systema Naturae" under the binomial name "Motacilla rubecula". Its specific epithet "rubecula" is a diminutive derived from the Latin , meaning 'red'. The genus "Erithacus" was introduced by French naturalist Georges Cuvier in 1800, giving the bird its current binomial name "E. rubecula". The genus name "Erithacus" is from Ancient.

European robin. Greek and refers to an unknown bird, now usually identified as robin.The distinctive orange breast of both sexes contributed to the European robin's original name of "redbreast", "orange" as a colour name being unknown in English until the 16th century, by which time the fruit had been introduced. In the 15th century, when it became popular to give human names to familiar species, the bird came to be known as "robin redbreast", which was eventually shortened to "robin". As a given name, Robin is originally a diminutive of Robert. Other older English names for the bird include "ruddock" and "robinet".

European robin. In American literature of the late 19th century, this robin was frequently called the "English robin". The Dutch , French , German , Italian , Spanish and Portuguese all refer to the distinctively coloured front.The genus "Erithacus" previously included the Japanese robin and the Ryukyu robin. These east Asian species were shown in molecular phylogenetic studies to be more similar to a group of other Asian species than to the European robin. In a reorganisation of the genera, the Japanese and the Ryukyu robins were moved to the resurrected genus "Larvivora" leaving the European robin as the sole member of.

European robin. "Erithacus". The phylogenetic analysis placed "Erithacus" in the subfamily Erithacinae, which otherwise contained only African species, but its exact position with respect to the other genera was not resolved.The genus "Erithacus" was formerly classified as a member of the thrush family (Turdidae) but is now considered to belong to the Old World flycatcher family (Muscicapidae), specifically to the chats (subfamily Saxicolinae) which also include the common nightingale.## Subspecies.In their large continental Eurasian range, robins vary somewhat, but do not form discrete populations that might be considered subspecies. Robin subspecies are mainly distinguished by forming resident populations on islands and in.

European robin. mountainous areas. The robin found in the British Isles and much of western Europe, "Erithacus rubecula melophilus", occurs as a vagrant in adjacent regions. "E. r. witherbyi" from northwest Africa, Corsica, and Sardinia closely resembles "melophilus" but has shorter wings. The northeasternmost birds, large and fairly washed-out in colour, are "E. r. tataricus". In the southeast of its range, "E. r. valens" of the Crimean Peninsula, "E. r. caucasicus" of the Caucasus and northern Transcaucasia, and "E. r. hyrcanus" southeastwards into Iran are generally accepted as significantly distinct.On Madeira and the Azores, the local population has been described as "E.

European robin. r. microrhynchos", and although not distinct in morphology, its isolation seems to suggest the subspecies is valid (but see below).## Canary Islands robin.The most distinct birds are those of Gran Canaria ("E. r. marionae") and Tenerife ("E. r. superbus"), which may be considered two distinct species or at least two different subspecies. They are readily distinguished by a white eye-ring, an intensely coloured breast, a grey line that separates the orange-red from the brown colouration, and the belly is entirely white.Cytochrome "b" sequence data and vocalisations indicate that the Gran Canaria/Tenerife robins are indeed very distinct and probably derived from.

European robin. colonisation by mainland birds some 2 million years ago.Christian Dietzen, Hans-Hinrich Witt and Michael Wink published in 2003 in "Avian Science" a study called "The phylogeographic differentiation of the European robin "Erithacus rubecula" on the Canary Islands revealed by mitochondrial DNA sequence data and morphometrics: evidence for a new robin taxon on Gran Canaria?". In it they concluded that Gran Canaria's robin diverged genetically from their European relatives as far back as 2.3 million years, while the Tenerife ones took another half a million years to make this leap, 1.8 million years ago. The most likely reason would be a.

European robin. different colonization of the Canaries by this bird, which arrived at the oldest island first (Gran Canaria) and subsequently passed to the neighboring island (Tenerife).A thorough comparison between "marionae" and "superbus" is pending to confirm that the first one is effectively a different subspecies. Initial results suggest that birds from Gran Canaria have wings about 10% shorter than those on Tenerife. The west Canary Islands' populations are younger (Middle Pleistocene) and only beginning to diverge genetically. Robins from the western Canary Islands: El Hierro, La Palma and La Gomera ("E. r. microrhynchus") are similar to the European type subspecies ("E.

European robin. r. rubecula").Finally, the robins which can be found in Fuerteventura are the European ones, which is not surprising as the species does not breed either in this island or in the nearby Lanzarote; they are wintering birds or just passing through during their long migration between Africa and Europe.## Other robins.The larger American robin ("T. migratorius") is named for its similarity to the European robin, but the two birds are not closely related. The similarity lies largely in the orange chest patch in both species. This American species was incorrectly shown "feathering its nest" in London in the film "Mary.

European robin. Poppins", but it only occurs in the U.K. as a very rare vagrant.Some South and Central American "Turdus" thrushes are also called robins, such as the rufous-collared thrush. The Australian "robin redbreast", more correctly the scarlet robin ("Petroica multicolor"), is more closely related to crows and jays than it is to the European robin. It belongs to the family Petroicidae, whose members are commonly called "Australasian robins". The red-billed leiothrix ("Leiothrix lutea") is sometimes named the "Pekin robin" by aviculturalists. Another group of Old World flycatchers, this time from Africa and Asia, is the genus "Copsychus"; its members are known.

European robin. as magpie-robins, one of which, the Oriental magpie robin ("C. saularis"), is the national bird of Bangladesh.## Description.The adult European robin is 12.5 – 14.0 (cm) long and weighs 16 – 22 (g), with a wingspan of 20 – 22 (cm). The male and female bear similar plumage: an orange breast and face (more strongly coloured in the otherwise similar British subspecies "E. r. melophilus"), lined by a bluish grey on the sides of the neck and chest. The upperparts are brownish, or olive-tinged in British birds, and the belly whitish, while the legs and feet are brown. The bill.

European robin. and eyes are black. Juveniles are a spotted brown and white in colouration, with patches of orange gradually appearing.## Distribution and habitat.The robin occurs in Eurasia east to Western Siberia, south to Algeria and on the Atlantic islands as far west as the Central Group of the Azores and Madeira. It is a vagrant in Iceland. In the southeast, it reaches Iran the Caucasus range. Irish and British robins are largely resident but a small minority, usually female, migrate to southern Europe during winter, a few as far as Spain. Scandinavian and Russian robins migrate to Britain and western Europe.

European robin. to escape the harsher winters. These migrants can be recognised by the greyer tone of the upper parts of their bodies and duller orange breast. The European robin prefers spruce woods in northern Europe, contrasting with its preference for parks and gardens in Great Britain.In southern Iberia, habitat segregation of resident and migrant robins occurs, with resident robins remaining in the same woodlands where they bred.Attempts to introduce the European robin into Australia and New Zealand in the latter part of the 19th century were unsuccessful. Birds were released around Melbourne, Auckland, Christchurch, Wellington and Dunedin by various local acclimatisation.

European robin. societies, with none becoming established. There was a similar outcome in North America, as birds failed to become established after being released in Long Island, New York in 1852, Oregon in 1889–1892, and the Saanich Peninsula in British Columbia in 1908–1910.## Behaviour and ecology.The robin is diurnal, although it has been reported to be active hunting insects on moonlit nights or near artificial light at night. Well known to British and Irish gardeners, it is relatively unafraid of people and drawn to human activities involving the digging of soil, in order to look out for earthworms and other food freshly.

European robin. turned up. The robin is considered to be a gardener's friend, and from the traditional association of the red breast with the blood of Christ, the robin would never be harmed. In continental Europe, on the other hand, robins were hunted and killed as were most other small birds, and are therefore more wary. Robins also approach large wild animals, such as wild boar, which disturb the ground, to look for any food that might be brought to the surface.In autumn and winter, robins will supplement their usual diet of terrestrial invertebrates, such as spiders, worms and insects, with berries.

European robin. and fruit. They will also eat seed mixtures and suet placed on bird-tables.Male robins are noted for their highly aggressive territorial behaviour. They will fiercely attack other males and competitors that stray into their territories and have been observed attacking other small birds without apparent provocation. There are instances of robins attacking their own reflection. Territorial disputes sometimes lead to fatalities, accounting for up to 10% of adult robin deaths in some areas.Because of high mortality in the first year of life, a robin has an average life expectancy of 1.1 years; however, once past its first year, life expectancy.

European robin. increases. One robin has been recorded as reaching 19 years of age. A spell of very low temperatures in winter can, however, result in higher mortality rates. The species is parasitised by the moorhen flea ("Dasypsyllus gallinulae") and the acanthocephalan "Apororhynchus silesiacus".## Breeding.Robins may choose a wide variety of sites for building a nest. In fact, anything which can offer some shelter, like a depression or hole, may be considered. As well as the usual crevices, or sheltered banks, other objects include pieces of machinery, barbecues, bicycle handlebars, bristles on upturned brooms, discarded kettles, watering cans, flower pots and hats.

European robin. Robins will also nest in manmade nest boxes, favouring a design with an open front placed in a sheltered position up to 2 (m) from the ground. Nests are generally composed of moss, leaves and grass, with fine grass, hair and feathers for lining.Two or three clutches of five or six eggs are laid throughout the breeding season, which commences in March in Britain and Ireland. The eggs are a cream, buff or white speckled or blotched with reddish-brown colour, often more heavily so at the larger end. When juvenile birds fly from the nests, their colouration is entirely mottled.

European robin. brown. After two to three months out of the nest, the juvenile bird grows some orange feathers under its chin, and over a similar period this patch gradually extends to complete the adult appearance of an entirely red-orange breast.## Vocalisation.The robin produces a fluting, warbling during the breeding season. Both the male and female sing during the winter, when they hold separate territories, the song then sounding more plaintive than the summer version. The female robin moves a short distance from the summer nesting territory to a nearby area that is more suitable for winter feeding. The male robin keeps.

European robin. the same territory throughout the year. During the breeding season, male robins usually initiate their morning song an hour before civil sunrise, and usually terminate their daily singing around thirty minutes after sunset. Nocturnal singing can also occur, especially in urban areas that are artificially lit during the night. Under artificial light, nocturnal singing can be used by urban robins to actively shunt daytime anthropogenic noise.## Magnetoreception.The avian magnetic compass of the robin has been extensively researched and uses vision-based magnetoreception, in which the robin's ability to sense the magnetic field of the earth for navigation is affected by the.

European robin. light entering the bird's eye. The physical mechanism of the robin's magnetic sense involves quantum entanglement of electron spins in cryptochrome in the bird's eyes.## Conservation status.The European robin has an extensive range and a population numbering in the hundreds of millions. The species does not approach the vulnerable thresholds under the population trend criterion (>30 percent decline over ten years or three generations); the population appears to be increasing. The International Union for Conservation of Nature evaluates it as least concern.## Cultural depictions.The robin features prominently in British folklore and that of northwestern France, but much less so in.

European robin. other parts of Europe. It was held to be a storm-cloud bird and sacred to Thor, the god of thunder, in Norse mythology. Robins feature in the traditional children's tale "Babes in the Wood"; the birds cover the dead bodies of the children.The robin has become strongly associated with Christmas, taking a starring role on many Christmas cards since the mid-19th century. The robin has appeared on many Christmas postage stamps. An old British folk tale seeks to explain the robin's distinctive breast. Legend has it that when Jesus was dying on the cross, the robin, then simply brown in.

European robin. colour, flew to his side and sang into his ear in order to comfort him in his pain. The blood from his wounds stained the robin's breast, and thereafter all robins carry the mark of Christ's blood upon them.An alternative legend has it that its breast was scorched fetching water for souls in Purgatory. The association with Christmas more probably arises from the fact that postmen in Victorian Britain wore red jackets and were nicknamed "Robins"; the robin featured on the Christmas card is an emblem of the postman delivering the card.In the 1960s, in a vote publicised by "The.

European robin. Times", the robin was adopted as the unofficial national bird of the United Kingdom. In 2015, the robin was again voted Britain's national bird in a poll organised by birdwatcher David Lindo, taking 34% of the final vote.Several English and Welsh sports organisations are nicknamed "the Robins". The nickname is typically used for teams whose home colours predominantly use red. These include the professional football clubs Bristol City, Crewe Alexandra, Swindon Town, Cheltenham Town (with Bristol City, as of 2019, Swindon Town, and Cheltenham Town also incorporating a robin image in their current badge designs), and, traditionally, Wrexham FC, as.

European robin. well as the English rugby league team the Hull Kingston Rovers (whose home colours are white with a red band). A small bird is an unusual choice, although it is thought to symbolise agility in darting around the field.European Robin videos, photos & sounds on Internet Bird Collection. Sonatura : Song of the European Robin Ageing and sexing (PDF; 2.9 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze.


Question: What is the architectural style of this building?

Instruction: You have to find a Wikipedia segment that answers the question about the displayed image.

Kammerzell House. The Kammerzell House (Alsatian: "Kammerzellhüs", French: "Maison Kammerzell", German: "Kammerzellhaus") is one of the most famous buildings of Strasbourg and one of the most ornate and well preserved medieval civil housing buildings in late Gothic architecture in the areas formerly belonging to the Holy Roman Empire.Built in 1427 but twice transformed in 1467 and 1589, the building as it is now historically belongs to the German Renaissance but is stylistically still attached to the Rhineland black and white timber-framed style of civil (as opposed to administrative, clerical or noble) architecture.It is situated on the "Place de la Cathédrale", north-west of.


Question: Who/what operates this building?

Instruction: Determine the Wikipedia snippet that matches the question of this image.

BMW Welt. The BMW Welt is a combined exhibition, delivery, adventure museum, and event venue located in Munich's district Am Riesenfeld, next to the Olympic Park, in the immediate vicinity of the BMW Headquarters and factory. It was built from August 2003 to summer 2007. A solar system with 800 kW of power is installed on the roof of the main building. The opening took place on 17 October 2007. The BMW Welt is the most visited tourist attraction in Bavaria.## Operations.BMW Welt operations are coordinated with the other local BMW facilities, the BMW Museum and BMW Headquarters. It has a showroom.

BMW Welt. with the current model lineup of BMW cars and motorcycles, and the other two BMW Group brands, Mini and Rolls-Royce. Customers picking up special ordered cars are given a dramatic "staged experience" in which they await their new car in an enormous glass-walled hall, and their cars are lifted up from lower levels on round elevator platforms. BMW Welt also has shops selling BMW-branded promotional merchandise and accessories, and a restaurant.## Design and construction.In 2001, an international architectural design competition was sponsored by BMW. Twenty-seven offices participated in the competition four of which were awarded prizes. The jury awarded two.

BMW Welt. offices Sauerbruch Hutton and COOP HIMMELB(L)AU first prize and made the recommendation for the competitors to rework their design submissions in a third design phase in order for BMW to determine which office would be awarded the contract.The contract was awarded to the Vienna-based architects COOP HIMMELB(L)AU and the facility was constructed from August 2003 through summer 2007 at a cost of US$200 million. Originally conceived to be open and ready for World Cup 2006, it eventually opened on 17 October 2007, and deliveries commenced on 23 October 2007. The first customer to take European delivery of a new BMW.

BMW Welt. at the Welt was Jonathan Spira.There were 2,200,000 visitors during the first 12 months of operation. The number of visitors increased to 2,930,000 in 2013, of which 60% came from Germany.Designed with an 800 kW solar plant on its roof, "the building does not have the boredom of an exhibition hall, it is not only a temple but also a market place and communication center, and a meeting point for knowledge transfer", said architect Wolf D. Prix at the opening ceremony.COOP HIMMELB(L)AU's BMW Welt project records are archived at the Canadian Centre for Architecture in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. World Architecture.

BMW Welt. Survey BMW-Welt on www.muenchenarchitektur.com BMW European Delivery wiki, on the Bimmerfest.com site.


Question: Which maintenance method is used for this place?

Instruction: Retrieve a Wikipedia paragraph that provides an answer to the given query about the image.

Road. a road for the environment in order to extend its longevity and reduce maintenance. The Shell pavement design method is used in many countries for the design of new asphalt roadsides.Adverse camber: Where a road slopes towards the outside of a bend, increasing the likelihood that vehicles travelling at speed will skid or topple. Usually only a temporary situation during road maintenance.Alignment: The route of the road, defined as a series of horizontal tangents and curves.All-weather road: Unpaved road that is constructed of a material that does not create mud during rainfall.Banked turnBelisha Beacon: An orange globe, lit at night,.

Road. drivers pay an average of $746/year on vehicle repairs while the average US motorist pays about $335/year. In contrast, the average motorist pays about $171/year in road maintenance taxes (based on 600 gallons/year and $0.285/gallon tax).## Slab stabilization.Distress and serviceability loss on concrete roads can be caused by loss of support due to voids beneath the concrete pavement slabs. The voids usually occur near cracks or joints due to surface water infiltration. The most common causes of voids are pumping, consolidation, subgrade failure and bridge approach failure. Slab stabilization is a non-destructive method of solving this problem and is usually.


Question: Which body of water is this place located in or next to?

Instruction: Retrieve a Wikipedia paragraph that provides an answer to the given query about the image.

Front de Seine. Front de Seine is a development in the district of Beaugrenelle in Paris, France, located along the river Seine in the 15th arrondissement at the south of the Eiffel Tower. It is, with the 13th arrondissement, one of the few districts in the city of Paris containing highrise buildings, as most have been constructed outside the city (notably in La Défense).The Front de Seine district is the result of an urban planning project from the 1970s. It includes about 20 towers reaching nearly 100 m of height built all around an elevated esplanade. That esplanade is paved with frescos that.

Front de Seine. can be seen only from the elevated floors of the towers. As opposed to Italie 13, the design of the towers is much more varied. The Hôtel Novotel Paris-Tour Eiffel (formerly known as Hôtel Nikkō), for instance, has red-encircled windows, while the Tour Totem consists of a stack of several glazed blocks.A newly redesigned shopping centre, the Centre commercial Beaugrenelle opened in 2013.Furthermore, while 13th arrondissement towers are predominantly residential and La Défense towers are predominantly commercial, the towers of the Front de Seine are of mixed commercial and residential use. Tour Avant-Seine (1975): 98 m, 32 storeys. Tour Mars.

Front de Seine. (1974): 98 m, 32 storeys. Tour Paris Côté Seine (1977): 98 m, 32 storeys. Tour Seine (1970): 98 m, 32 storeys Tour Espace 2000 (1976): 98 m, 31 storeys. Tour Évasion 2000 (1971): 98 m, 31 storeys. Hôtel Novotel Paris-Tour Eiffel (1976): 98 m, 31 storeys. Tour Totem (1979): 98 m, 31 storeys. Tour Beaugrenelle (1979): 98 m, 30 storeys. Tour Panorama (1974): 98 m, 30 storeys. Tour Perspective 1 (1973): 98 m, 30 storeys. Tour Perspective 2 (1975): 98 m, 30 storeys. Tour Reflets (1976): 98 m, 30 storeys. Tour Rive Gauche (1975): 98 m, 30 storeys. Tour Keller.

Front de Seine. (1970): 98 m, 29 storeys. Tour Cristal (1990): 98 m, 27 storeys. 79 quai André Citroën: 24 storeys. Tour Mirabeau (1972): 18 storeys. Immeuble le Village (1973): 17 storeys. Bureaux Hachette Livre (1969): 12 storeys. Tour Mercure (1973): 12 storeys.Other structures Cheminée du Front de Seine (1971): 130 meters Italie 13 La Défense List of tallest structures in Paris Front de Seine website.


Question: Which city or region does this town locate in?

Instruction: Retrieve a Wikipedia paragraph that provides an answer to the given query about the image.

Tsumago-juku. Was the forty-second of the sixty-nine post towns on the Nakasendō. It is located in Nagiso, Kiso District, Nagano Prefecture, Japan. It has been restored to its appearance as an Edo-era post town and is now a popular tourist destination.## History.During the Edo period, Tsumago was the forty-second of the sixty-nine post towns, which connected Edo (present-day Tokyo) with Kyoto. Prior to becoming part of the Nakasendō, it was the tenth of eleven stations along the Kisoji, a minor trade route running through the Kiso Valley. As such, it was a relatively prosperous and cosmopolitan town, with an economy based.

Tsumago-juku. to visitors today. The "honjin", which was the main inn of the post town, was originally destroyed, but it was rebuilt in 1995. The original building of the "waki-honjin", which was the secondary inn, however, still remains and was named an Important Cultural Property in 2001.The Nagiso Museum of History (歴史資料館) contains information on the areas history, the preservation of row houses and data about row houses throughout the country.Kabuto Kannon Shrine (かぶと観音) is a small shrine dedicated to Minamoto no Yoshinaka, the "General of the Rising Sun," who built a citadel at Tsumago. The shrine was built around 1180.Tsumago.

Tsumago-juku. Tsumago-juku - Magome-juku## Access.Tsumago sits at the south end of the Kiso District at the juncture of Routes 19 and 256. It can also be reached via a nearby railway station at the town of Nagiso on the Chūō Main Line.Groups of Traditional Buildings Map of Tsumago (Japanese) Aerial view (Google Maps).


Question: Who occupies this building?

Instruction: Determine the Wikipedia snippet that matches the question of this image.

Fire station. A fire station (also called a fire house, fire hall, firemen's hall, or engine house) is a structure or other area for storing firefighting apparatuses such as fire engines and related vehicles, personal protective equipment, fire hoses and other specialized equipment. Fire stations frequently contain working and living space for the firefighters and support staff.In large US cities, fire stations are often named for the primary fire companies and apparatus housed there, such as "Ladder 49". Other fire stations are named based on the district, neighborhood, town or village where they are located, or given a number.## Facilities.A fire station.

Fire station. dry to prevent rot. Historically, towers were lookouts for spotting fires.Activities at a fire station include regular inspection and cleaning of the apparatus and equipment, and training drills in which the firefighters practice their skills. Some fire companies also host public activities at the fire station during events such as a "fire prevention week", and the facility may also be used for fund-raising by the "firemen's association", "fire buffs", or "fire auxiliary".## Occupied stations.If the station is occupied full-time by career firefighters, it will contain living quarters and work areas, where they wait until a callout comes through. Career firefighters.

Fire station. are usually able to sleep during a night shift, so these stations will also have dormitories. There will be an alarm system to alert them of an emergency call, and to give some indication of where and what the emergency is. In some small fire departments, the only alarm may be a telephone for receiving calls.Many fire stations were built with the living quarters above the garage. This arrangement is common for fire stations built in a crowded city. The fireman's pole was invented to allow firefighters to quickly descend to the garage. In modern times, agencies such as the.

Fire station. National Fire Protection Association have argued that these pose a safety hazard. Modern fire stations are often built with the living quarters on the same level as the garage.## Unoccupied stations.Some fire stations are not regularly occupied, with the firefighting carried out by volunteer or retained firefighters. In this case, the firefighters are summoned to the fire station by siren, radio or pagers, where they will then deploy the fire engine. These fire stations may still have office space for the firefighters, a library of reference and other materials, and a "trophy wall" or case where the firefighters display memorabilia.FirefightingList.