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Pottery. Pottery is the process and the products of forming vessels and other objects with clay and other ceramic materials, which are fired at high temperatures to give them a hard and durable form. Major types include earthenware, stoneware and porcelain. The place where such wares are made by a "potter" is also called a "pottery" (plural "potteries"). The definition of "pottery", used by the ASTM International, is "all fired ceramic wares that contain clay when formed, except technical, structural, and refractory products." In art history and archaeology, especially of ancient and prehistoric periods, "pottery" often means vessels only, and sculpted.

Pottery. figurines of the same material are called "terracottas". Pottery is one of the oldest human inventions, originating before the Neolithic period, with ceramic objects like the Gravettian culture Venus of Dolní Věstonice figurine discovered in the Czech Republic dating back to 29,000–25,000 BC, and pottery vessels that were discovered in Jiangxi, China, which date back to 18,000 BC. Early Neolithic and pre-Neolithic pottery artifacts have been found, in Jōmon Japan (10,500 BC), the Russian Far East (14,000 BC), Sub-Saharan Africa (9,400 BC), South America (9,000s–7,000s BC), and the Middle East (7,000s–6,000s BC).Pottery is made by forming a ceramic (often clay).

Pottery. body into objects of a desired shape and heating them to high temperatures (600–1600 °C) in a bonfire, pit or kiln and induces reactions that lead to permanent changes including increasing the strength and rigidity of the object. Much pottery is purely utilitarian, but some can also be regarded as ceramic art. A clay body can be decorated before or after firing.Clay-based pottery can be divided into three main groups: earthenware, stoneware and porcelain. These require increasingly more specific clay material, and increasingly higher firing temperatures. All three are made in glazed and unglazed varieties, for different purposes. All may.

Pottery. also be decorated by various techniques. In many examples the group a piece belongs to is immediately visually apparent, but this is not always the case. The fritware of the Islamic world does not use clay, so technically falls outside these groups. Historic pottery of all these types is often grouped as either "fine" wares, relatively expensive and well-made, and following the aesthetic taste of the culture concerned, or alternatively "coarse", "popular", "folk" or "village" wares, mostly undecorated, or simply so, and often less well-made.Cooking in clay pots became less popular once metal pots became available, but is still used.

Pottery. for dishes that depend on the qualities of pottery cooking, such as biryani, cassoulet, daube, tagine, jollof rice, kedjenou, cazuela, and baked beans.## Main types.## Earthenware.The earliest forms of pottery were made from clays that were fired at low temperatures, initially in pit-fires or in open bonfires. They were hand formed and undecorated. Earthenware can be fired as low as 600 °C, and is normally fired below 1200 °C. Because unglazed biscuit earthenware is porous, it has limited utility for the storage of liquids or as tableware. However, earthenware has had a continuous history from the Neolithic period to today.

Pottery. It can be made from a wide variety of clays, some of which fire to a buff, brown or black colour, with iron in the constituent minerals resulting in a reddish-brown. Reddish coloured varieties are called terracotta, especially when unglazed or used for sculpture. The development of ceramic glaze made impermeable pottery possible, improving the popularity and practicality of pottery vessels. The addition of decoration has evolved throughout its history.## Stoneware.Stoneware is pottery that has been fired in a kiln at a relatively high temperature, from about 1,100 °C to 1,200 °C, and is stronger and non-porous to liquids. The.

Pottery. as art.## Porcelain.Porcelain is made by heating materials, generally including kaolin, in a kiln to temperatures between 1200 and 1400 (°C). This is higher than used for the other types, and achieving these temperatures was a long struggle, as well as realizing what materials were needed. The toughness, strength and translucence of porcelain, relative to other types of pottery, arises mainly from vitrification and the formation of the mineral mullite within the body at these high temperatures.Although porcelain was first made in China, the Chinese traditionally do not recognise it as a distinct category, grouping it with stoneware as "high-fired.

Pottery. ware, opposed to "low-fired" earthenware. This confuses the issue of when it was first made. A degree of translucency and whiteness was achieved by the Tang dynasty (AD 618–906), and considerable quantities were being exported. The modern level of whiteness was not reached until much later, in the 14th century. Porcelain was also made in Korea and in Japan from the end of the 16th century, after suitable kaolin was located in those countries. It was not made effectively outside East Asia until the 18th century.## Archaeology.The study of pottery can help to provide an insight into past cultures. Fabric.

Pottery. analysis (see section below), used to analyse the "fabric of pottery", is important part of archaeology for understanding the archaeological culture of the excavated site by studying the fabric of artifacts, such as their usage, source material composition, decorative pattern, color of patterns, etc. This helps to understand characteristics, sophistication, habits, technology, tools, trade, etc. of the people who made and used the pottery. Carbon dating reveals the age. Sites with similar pottery characteristics have the same culture, those sites which have distinct cultural characteristics but with some overlap are indicative of cultural exchange such as trade or living in.

Pottery. vicinity or continuity of habitation, etc. Examples are black and red ware, redware, Sothi-Siswal culture and Painted Grey Ware culture. The six fabrics of Kalibangan is a good example of use of fabric analysis in identifying a differentiated culture which was earlier thought to be typical Indus Valley civilisation (IVC) culture.Pottery is durable, and fragments, at least, often survive long after artifacts made from less-durable materials have decayed past recognition. Combined with other evidence, the study of pottery artefacts is helpful in the development of theories on the organisation, economic condition and the cultural development of the societies that produced.

Pottery. or acquired pottery. The study of pottery may also allow inferences to be drawn about a culture's daily life, religion, social relationships, attitudes towards neighbours, attitudes to their own world and even the way the culture understood the universe.Chronologies based on pottery are often essential for dating non-literate cultures and are often of help in the dating of historic cultures as well. Trace-element analysis, mostly by neutron activation, allows the sources of clay to be accurately identified and the thermoluminescence test can be used to provide an estimate of the date of last firing. Examining fired pottery shards from prehistory,.

Pottery. of minerals in a rock. For Archaeologists, the "fabric analysis" of pottery entails the study of "clay matrix" and "inclusions" in the clay body as well as the "firing temperature and conditions". Analysis is done to examine the following 3 in detail: how pottery was made e.g. material, design such as shape and style, etc. its decorations, such as patterns, colors of patterns, slipped (glazing) or unslipped decoration evidence of type of use.The Six fabrics of Kalibangan is a good example of fabric analysis.## Clay bodies and mineral contents.Body (or clay body) is a term for the main pottery form.

Pottery. of these different clays is composed of different types and amounts of minerals that determine the characteristics of resulting pottery. There can be regional variations in the properties of raw materials used for the production of pottery, and these can lead to wares that are unique in character to a locality. It is common for clays and other materials to be mixed to produce clay bodies suited to specific purposes. A common component of clay bodies is the mineral kaolinite. Other minerals in the clay, such as feldspar, act as fluxes which lower the vitrification temperature of bodies. Following is.

Pottery. a list of different types of clay used for pottery. Kaolin, is sometimes referred to as china clay because it was first used in China. Used for porcelain. Ball clay: An extremely plastic, fine grained sedimentary clay, which may contain some organic matter. Small amounts can be added to porcelain bodies to increase plasticity. Fire clay: A clay having a slightly lower percentage of fluxes than kaolin, but usually quite plastic. It is highly heat resistant form of clay which can be combined with other clays to increase the firing temperature and may be used as an ingredient to make.

Pottery. stoneware type bodies. Stoneware clay: Suitable for creating stoneware. Has many of the characteristics between fire clay and ball clay, having finer grain, like ball clay but is more heat resistant like fire clays. Common red clay and shale clay have vegetable and ferric oxide impurities which make them useful for bricks, but are generally unsatisfactory for pottery except under special conditions of a particular deposit. Bentonite: An extremely plastic clay which can be added in small quantities to short clay to increase the plasticity.## Production of pottery.Production of pottery includes the following three stages: making clay body, i.e. paste.

Pottery. or putty. shaping and moulding firing or baking decorating, such as glazing (slipping), painting, etc.## Shaping methods.Pottery can be shaped by a range of methods that include:## Firing.Firing produces irreversible changes in the body. It is only after firing that the article or material is pottery. In lower-fired pottery, the changes include sintering, the fusing together of coarser particles in the body at their points of contact with each other. In the case of porcelain, where different materials and higher firing-temperatures are used, the physical, chemical and mineralogical properties of the constituents in the body are greatly altered. In all.

Pottery. cases, the reason for firing is to permanently harden the wares and the firing regime must be appropriate to the materials used to make them. As a rough guide, modern earthenwares are normally fired at temperatures in the range of about 1,000°C (1,830 °F) to 1,200 (C); stonewares at between about 1100 (C) to 1300 (C); and porcelains at between about 1200 (C) to 1400 (C). Historically, reaching high temperatures was a long-lasting challenge, and earthenware can be fired effectively as low as 600°C, achievable in primitive pit firing.## Firing methods.Firing pottery can be done using a variety of methods,.

Pottery. than a brick or stone kiln. Unfired pots are first brought to the place where a mound will be built, customarily by the women and girls of the village. The mound's foundation is made by placing sticks on the ground, then:## Firing stages.Before being shaped, clay must be prepared. Kneading helps to ensure an even moisture content throughout the body. Air trapped within the clay body needs to be removed. This is called de-airing and can be accomplished either by a machine called a vacuum pug or manually by wedging. Wedging can also help produce an even moisture content. Once.

Pottery. changes that will change the material. "Glaze fired" is the final stage of some pottery making, or "glost fired". A glaze may be applied to the bisque form and the object can be decorated in several ways. After this the object is "glazed fired", which causes the glaze material to melt, then adhere to the object. Depending on the temperature schedule the glaze firing may also further mature the body as chemical and physical changes continue.## Decorating.Pottery may be decorated in many different ways. Some decoration can be done before or after the firing. Painting has been used since early.

Pottery. prehistoric times (China painting), and can be very elaborate. The painting is often applied to pottery that has been fired once, and may then be overlaid with a glaze afterwards. Many pigments change colour when fired, and the painter must allow for this. Glaze: Perhaps the most common form of decoration, that also serves as protection to the pottery, by being tougher and keeping liquid from penetrating the pottery. Glaze may be clear, especially over painting, or coloured and opaque. There is more detail in the section below. Carving: Pottery vessels may be decorated by shallow carving of the clay.

Pottery. body, typically with a knife or similar instrument used on the wheel. This is common in Chinese porcelain of the classic periods. Burnishing: The surface of pottery wares may be "burnished" prior to firing by rubbing with a suitable instrument of wood, steel or stone to produce a polished finish that survives firing. It is possible to produce very highly polished wares when fine clays are used or when the polishing is carried out on wares that have been partially dried and contain little water, though wares in this condition are extremely fragile and the risk of breakage is high.

Pottery. hand or by machine of a band of colour to the edge of a plate or cup. Also known as "lining", this operation is often carried out on a potter's wheel. Agateware is named after its resemblance to the quartz mineral agate which has bands or layers of colour that are blended together, agatewares are made by blending clays of differing colours together but not mixing them to the extent that they lose their individual identities. The wares have a distinctive veined or mottled appearance. The term "agateware" is used to describe such wares in the United Kingdom; in Japan.

Pottery. the term ""neriage" is used and in China, where such things have been made since at least the Tang Dynasty, they are called "marbled" wares. Great care is required in the selection of clays to be used for making agatewares as the clays used must have matching thermal movement characteristics. : This is a clay slip, that is used to coat the surface of pottery, usually before firing. Its purpose is often decorative though it can also be used to mask undesirable features in the clay to which it is applied. Engobe slip may be applied by painting or by.

Pottery. dipping to provide a uniform, smooth, coating. Engobe has been used by potters from pre-historic times until the present day and is sometimes combined with sgraffito decoration, where a layer of engobe is scratched through to reveal the colour of the underlying clay. With care it is possible to apply a second coat of engobe of a different colour to the first and to incise decoration through the second coat to expose the colour of the underlying coat. Engobes used in this way often contain substantial amounts of silica, sometimes approaching the composition of a glaze. Gold: Decoration with gold.

Pottery. used for the decoration only of ware of the highest class. "Bright Gold" – consists of a solution of gold sulphoresinate together with other metal resonates and a flux. The name derives from the appearance of the decoration immediately after removal from the kiln as it requires no burnishing "Mussel Gold" – an old method of gold decoration. It was made by rubbing together gold leaf, sugar and salt, followed by washing to remove solubles## Glazing.Glaze is a glassy coating on pottery, the primary purposes of which are decoration and protection. One important use of glaze is to render porous.

Pottery. pottery vessels impermeable to water and other liquids. Glaze may be applied by dusting the unfired composition over the ware or by spraying, dipping, trailing or brushing on a thin slurry composed of the unfired glaze and water. The colour of a glaze after it has been fired may be significantly different from before firing. To prevent glazed wares sticking to kiln furniture during firing, either a small part of the object being fired (for example, the foot) is left unglazed or, alternatively, special refractory "spurs"" are used as supports. These are removed and discarded after the firing.Some specialised glazing.

Pottery. techniques include: Salt-glazing, where common salt is introduced to the kiln during the firing process. The high temperatures cause the salt to volatize, depositing it on the surface of the ware to react with the body to form a sodium aluminosilicate glaze. In the 17th and 18th centuries, salt-glazing was used in the manufacture of domestic pottery. Now, except for use by some studio potters, the process is obsolete. The last large-scale application before its demise in the face of environmental clean air restrictions was in the production of salt-glazed sewer-pipes. Ash glazing – ash from the combustion of plant.

Pottery. matter has been used as the flux component of glazes. The source of the ash was generally the combustion waste from the fuelling of kilns although the potential of ash derived from arable crop wastes has been investigated. Ash glazes are of historical interest in the Far East although there are reports of small-scale use in other locations such as the Catawba Valley Pottery in the United States. They are now limited to small numbers of studio potters who value the unpredictability arising from the variable nature of the raw material. Underglaze decoration (in the manner of many blue and.

Pottery. white wares). Underglaze may be applied by brush strokes, air brush, or by pouring the underglaze into the mould, covering the inside, creating a swirling effect, then the mould is filled with slip. In-glaze decoration On-glaze decoration Enamel## History.A great part of the history of pottery is prehistoric, part of past pre-literate cultures. Therefore, much of this history can only be found among the artifacts of archaeology. Because pottery is so durable, pottery and shards of pottery survive from millennia at archaeological sites, and are typically the most common and important type of artifact to survive. Many prehistoric cultures are.

Pottery. named after the pottery that is the easiest way to identify their sites, and archaeologists develop the ability to recognise different types from the chemistry of small shards.Before pottery becomes part of a culture, several conditions must generally be met. First, there must be usable clay available. Archaeological sites where the earliest pottery was found were near deposits of readily available clay that could be properly shaped and fired. China has large deposits of a variety of clays, which gave them an advantage in early development of fine pottery. Many countries have large deposits of a variety of clays. Second,.

Pottery. it must be possible to heat the pottery to temperatures that will achieve the transformation from raw clay to ceramic. Methods to reliably create fires hot enough to fire pottery did not develop until late in the development of cultures. Third, the potter must have time available to prepare, shape and fire the clay into pottery. Even after control of fire was achieved, humans did not seem to develop pottery until a sedentary life was achieved. It has been hypothesized that pottery was developed only after humans established agriculture, which led to permanent settlements. However, the oldest known pottery is.

Pottery. from the Czech Republic and dates to 28,000 BC, at the height of the ice age, long before the beginnings of agriculture. Fourth, there must be a sufficient need for pottery in order to justify the resources required for its production. Methods of forming: Hand-shaping was the earliest method used to form vessels. This included the combination of pinching and coiling. Firing: The earliest method for firing pottery wares was the use of bonfires pit fired pottery. Firing times might be short but the peak-temperatures achieved in the fire could be high, perhaps in the region of 900 (°C), and.

Pottery. were reached very quickly. Clay: Early potters used whatever clay was available to them in their geographic vicinity. However, the lowest quality common red clay was adequate for low-temperature fires used for the earliest pots. Clays tempered with sand, grit, crushed shell or crushed pottery were often used to make bonfire-fired ceramics because they provided an open-body texture that allowed water and volatile components of the clay to escape freely. The coarser particles in the clay also acted to restrain shrinkage during drying, and hence reduce the risk of cracking. Form: In the main, early bonfire-fired wares were made with.

Pottery. rounded bottoms to avoid sharp angles that might be susceptible to cracking. Glazing: the earliest pots were not glazed. The potter's wheel was invented in Mesopotamia sometime between 6,000 and 4,000 BC (Ubaid period) and revolutionised pottery production. Moulds were used to a limited extent as early as the 5th and 6th century BC by the Etruscans and more extensively by the Romans. Slipcasting, a popular method for shaping irregular shaped articles. It was first practised, to a limited extent, in China as early as the Tang dynasty. Transition to kilns: The earliest intentionally constructed were pit-kilns or trench-kilns—holes dug.

Pottery. in the ground and covered with fuel. Holes in the ground provided insulation and resulted in better control over firing. Kilns: Pit fire methods were adequate for creating simple earthenware, but other pottery types needed more sophisticated kilns (see below kilns).## History by region.## Beginnings of pottery.Pottery may well have been discovered independently in various places, probably by accidentally creating it at the bottom of fires on a clay soil. All the earliest vessel forms were pit fired and made by coiling, which is a simple technology to learn. The earliest-known ceramic objects are Gravettian figurines such as those discovered.

Pottery. at Dolní Věstonice in the modern-day Czech Republic. The Venus of Dolní Věstonice is a Venus figurine, a statuette of a nude female figure dated to 29,000–25,000 BC (Gravettian industry). Sherds have been found in China and Japan from a period between 12,000 and perhaps as long as 18,000 years ago. As of 2012, the earliest pottery found anywhere in the world, dating to 20,000 to 19,000 years before the present, was found at Xianrendong Cave in the Jiangxi province of China.Other early pottery vessels include those excavated from the Yuchanyan Cave in southern China, dated from 16,000 BC, and.

Pottery. those found in the Amur River basin in the Russian Far East, dated from 14,000 BC.The Odai Yamamoto I site, belonging to the Jōmon period, currently has the oldest pottery in Japan. Excavations in 1998 uncovered earthenware fragments which have been dated as early as 14,500 BC.The term "Jōmon" means "cord-marked" in Japanese. This refers to the markings made on the vessels and figures using sticks with cords during their production. Recent research has elucidated how Jōmon pottery was used by its creators.It appears that pottery was independently developed in Sub-Saharan Africa during the 10th millennium BC, with findings dating.

Pottery. to at least 9,400 BC from central Mali, and in South America during the 9,000s–7,000s BC. The Malian finds date to the same period as similar finds from East Asia – the triangle between Siberia, China and Japan – and are associated in both regions to the same climatic changes (at the end of the ice age new grassland develops, enabling hunter-gatherers to expand their habitat), met independently by both cultures with similar developments: the creation of pottery for the storage of wild cereals (pearl millet), and that of small arrowheads for hunting small game typical of grassland. Alternatively, the.

Pottery. creation of pottery in the case of the Incipient Jōmon civilisation could be due to the intensive exploitation of freshwater and marine organisms by late glacial foragers, who started developing ceramic containers for their catch.## East Asia.In Japan, the Jōmon period has a long history of development of Jōmon pottery which was characterized by impressions of rope on the surface of the pottery created by pressing rope into the clay before firing. Glazed Stoneware was being created as early as the 15th century BC in China. A form of Chinese porcelain became a significant Chinese export from the Tang Dynasty.

Pottery. (AD 618–906) onwards. Korean potters adopted porcelain as early as the 14th century AD. Japanese porcelain was made in the early 16th century after Shonzui Goradoyu-go brought back the secret of its manufacture from the Chinese kilns at Jingdezhen.In contrast to Europe, the Chinese elite used pottery extensively at table, for religious purposes, and for decoration, and the standards of fine pottery were very high. From the Song dynasty (960–1279) for several centuries elite taste favoured plain-coloured and exquisitely formed pieces; during this period true porcelain was perfected in Ding ware, although it was the only one of the Five.

Pottery. had also conquered. At the same time Jingdezhen porcelain, produced in Imperial factories, took the undisputed leading role in production, which it has retained to the present day. The new elaborately painted style was now favoured at court, and gradually more colours were added.The secret of making such porcelain was sought in the Islamic world and later in Europe when examples were imported from the East. Many attempts were made to imitate it in Italy and France. However it was not produced outside of the Orient until 1709 in Germany.## South Asia.Cord-Impressed style pottery belongs to 'Mesolithic' ceramic tradition that.

Pottery. developed among Vindhya hunter-gatherers in Central India during the Mesolithic period. This ceramic style is also found in later Proto-Neolithic phase in nearby regions. This early type of pottery, also found at the site of Lahuradewa, is currently the oldest known pottery tradition in South Asia, dating back to 7,000–6,000 BC. Wheel-made pottery began to be made during the Mehrgarh Period II (5,500–4,800 BC) and Merhgarh Period III (4,800–3,500 BC), known as the ceramic Neolithic and chalcolithic. Pottery, including items known as the ed-Dur vessels, originated in regions of the Saraswati River / Indus River and have been found in.

Pottery. a number of sites in the Indus Civilization.Despite an extensive prehistoric record of pottery, including painted wares, little "fine" or luxury pottery was made in the subcontinent in historic times. Hinduism discourages eating off pottery, which probably largely accounts for this. Most traditional Indian pottery vessels are large pots or jars for storage, or small cups or lamps, often treated as disposable. In contrast there are long traditions of sculpted figures, often rather large, in terracotta.## Southeast Asia.Pottery in Southeast Asia is as diverse as its ethnic groups. Each ethnic group has their own set of standards when it comes.

Pottery. to pottery arts. Potteries are made due to various reasons, such as trade, food and beverage storage, kitchen usage, religious ceremonies, and burial purposes.## West Asia.Around 8000 BC during the Pre-pottery Neolithic period, and before the invention of pottery, several early settlements became experts in crafting beautiful and highly sophisticated containers from stone, using materials such as alabaster or granite, and employing sand to shape and polish. Artisans used the veins in the material to maximum visual effect. Such objects have been found in abundance on the upper Euphrates river, in what is today eastern Syria, especially at the site.

Pottery. of Bouqras.The earliest history of pottery production in the Fertile Crescent starts the Pottery Neolithic and can be divided into four periods, namely: the Hassuna period (7000–6500 BC), the Halaf period (6500–5500 BC), the Ubaid period (5500–4000 BC), and the Uruk period (4000–3100 BC). By about 5000 BC pottery-making was becoming widespread across the region, and spreading out from it to neighbouring areas.Pottery making began in the 7th millennium BC. The earliest forms, which were found at the Hassuna site, were hand formed from slabs, undecorated, unglazed low-fired pots made from reddish-brown clays. Within the next millennium, wares were decorated.

Pottery. with elaborate painted designs and natural forms, incising and burnished.The invention of the potter's wheel in Mesopotamia sometime between 6000 and 4000 BC (Ubaid period) revolutionized pottery production. Newer kiln designs could fire wares to 1050 (C) to 1200 (C) which enabled new possibilities and new preparation of clays. Production was now carried out by small groups of potters for small cities, rather than individuals making wares for a family. The shapes and range of uses for ceramics and pottery expanded beyond simple vessels to store and carry to specialized cooking utensils, pot stands and rat traps. As the region.

Pottery. developed, new organizations and political forms, pottery became more elaborate and varied. Some wares were made using moulds, allowing for increased production for the needs of the growing populations. Glazing was commonly used and pottery was more decorated.In the Chalcolithic period in Mesopotamia, Halafian pottery achieved a level of technical competence and sophistication, not seen until the later developments of Greek pottery with Corinthian and Attic ware.## Europe.Europe's oldest pottery, dating from circa 6700 BC, was found on the banks of the Samara River in the middle Volga region of Russia. These sites are known as the Yelshanka culture.The early.

Pottery. inhabitants of Europe developed pottery in the Linear Pottery culture slightly later than the Near East, circa 5500–4500 BC. In the ancient Western Mediterranean elaborately painted earthenware reached very high levels of artistic achievement in the Greek world; there are large numbers of survivals from tombs. Minoan pottery was characterized by complex painted decoration with natural themes. The classical Greek culture began to emerge around 1000 BC featuring a variety of well crafted pottery which now included the human form as a decorating motif. The pottery wheel was now in regular use. Although glazing was known to these potters, it.

Pottery. was not widely used. Instead, a more porous clay slip was used for decoration. A wide range of shapes for different uses developed early and remained essentially unchanged during Greek history.Fine Etruscan pottery was heavily influenced by Greek pottery and often imported Greek potters and painters. Ancient Roman pottery made much less use of painting, but used moulded decoration, allowing industrialized production on a huge scale. Much of the so-called red Samian ware of the Early Roman Empire was in fact produced in modern Germany and France, where entrepreneurs established large potteries. Excavations at Augusta Raurica, near Basel, Switzerland, have.

Pottery. revealed a pottery production site in use from the 1st to the 4th century AD. Pottery was hardly seen on the tables of elites from Hellenistic times until the Renaissance, and most medieval wares were coarse and utilitarian, as the elites ate off metal vessels. Painted Hispano-Moresque ware from Spain, developing the styles of Islamic Spain, became a luxury for late medieval elites, and was adapted in Italy into "maiolica" in the Italian Renaissance. Both of these were faience or tin-glazed earthenware, and fine faience continued to be made until around 1800 in various countries, especially France, with Nevers faience.

Pottery. and several other centres. In the 17th century, imports of Chinese export porcelain and its Japanese equivalent raised the market expectations of fine pottery, and European manufacturers eventually learned to make porcelain, often in the form of "artificial" or soft-paste porcelain, and from the 18th century European porcelain and other wares from a great number of producers became extremely popular, reducing Asian imports.## United Kingdom.The English city of Stoke-on-Trent is widely known as "The Potteries" because of the large number of pottery factories or, colloquially, "Pot Banks". It was one of the first industrial cities of the modern era where,.

Pottery. as early as 1785, two hundred pottery manufacturers employed 20,000 workers. Josiah Wedgwood (1730–1795) was the dominant leader.In North Staffordshire hundreds of companies produced all kinds of pottery, from tablewares and decorative pieces to industrial items. The main pottery types of earthenware, stoneware and porcelain were all made in large quantities, and the Staffordshire industry was a major innovator in developing new varieties of ceramic bodies such as bone china and jasperware, as well as pioneering transfer printing and other glazing and decorating techniques. In general Staffordshire was strongest in the middle and low price ranges, though the finest and.

Pottery. most expensive types of wares were also made.By the late 18th century North Staffordshire was the largest producer of ceramics in Britain, despite significant centres elsewhere. Large export markets took Staffordshire pottery around the world, especially in the 19th century. Production had begun to decline in the late 19th century, as other countries developed their industries, and declined steeply after World War II. Some production continues in the area, but at a fraction of the levels at the peak of the industry.## Islamic pottery.Early Islamic pottery followed the forms of the regions which the Muslims conquered. Eventually, however, there was.

Pottery. cross-fertilization between the regions. This was most notable in the Chinese influences on Islamic pottery. Trade between China and Islam took place via the system of trading posts over the lengthy Silk Road. Islamic nations imported stoneware and later porcelain from China. China imported the minerals for Cobalt blue from the Islamic ruled Persia to decorate their blue and white porcelain, which they then exported to the Islamic world.Likewise, Islamic art contributed to a lasting pottery form identified as Hispano-Moresque in Andalucia (Islamic Spain). Unique Islamic forms were also developed, including fritware, lusterware and specialized glazes like tin-glazing, which led.

Pottery. to the development of the popular maiolica.One major emphasis in ceramic development in the Muslim world was the use of tile and decorative tilework.## Americas.Most evidence points to an independent development of pottery in the Native American cultures, with the earliest known dates from Brazil, from 9,500 to 5,000 years ago and 7,000 to 6,000 years ago. Further north in Mesoamerica, dates begin with the Archaic Era (3500–2000 BC), and into the Formative period (2000 BC – AD 200). These cultures did not develop the stoneware, porcelain or glazes found in the Old World. Maya ceramics include finely painted vessels,.

Pottery. usually beakers, with elaborate scenes with several figures and texts. Several cultures, beginning with the Olmec, made terracotta sculpture, and sculptural pieces of humans or animals that are also vessels are produced in many places, with Moche portrait vessels among the finest.## Africa.Evidence indicates an independent invention of pottery in Sub-Saharan Africa. In 2007, Swiss archaeologists discovered pieces of some of the oldest pottery in Africa at Ounjougou in Central Mali, dating back to at least 9,400 BC. Excavations in the Bosumpra Cave on the Kwahu Plateau in southeastern Ghana, have revealed well-manufactured pottery decorated with channelling and impressed peigne.

Pottery. fileté rigide dating from the early tenth-millennium cal. BC. In later periods, a relationship of the introduction of pot-making in some parts of Sub-Saharan Africa with the spread of Bantu languages has been long recognized, although the details remain controversial and awaiting further research, and no consensus has been reached.Ancient Egyptian pottery begins after 5,000 BC, having spread from the Levant. There were many distinct phases of development in pottery, with very sophisticated wares being produced by the Naqada III period, c. 3,200 to 3,000 BC. During the early Mediterranean civilizations of the fertile crescent, Egypt developed a non-clay-based ceramic.

Pottery. which has come to be called Egyptian faience. A similar type of body is still made in Jaipur in India. During the Umayyad Caliphate of Islam, Egypt was a link between early centre of Islam in the Near East and Iberia which led to the impressive style of pottery.It is valuable to look into pottery as an archaeological record of potential interaction between peoples. When pottery is placed within the context of linguistic and migratory patterns, it becomes an even more prevalent category of social artifact. As proposed by Olivier P. Gosselain, it is possible to understand ranges of cross-cultural.

Pottery. interaction by looking closely at the "chaîne opératoire" of ceramic production.The methods used to produce pottery in early Sub-Saharan Africa are divisible into three categories: techniques visible to the eye (decoration, firing and post-firing techniques), techniques related to the materials (selection or processing of clay, etc.), and techniques of molding or fashioning the clay. These three categories can be used to consider the implications of the reoccurrence of a particular sort of pottery in different areas. Generally, the techniques that are easily visible (the first category of those mentioned above) are thus readily imitated, and may indicate a more distant.

Pottery. connection between groups, such as trade in the same market or even relatively close proximity in settlements. Techniques that require more studied replication (i.e., the selection of clay and the fashioning of clay) may indicate a closer connection between peoples, as these methods are usually only transmissible between potters and those otherwise directly involved in production. Such a relationship requires the ability of the involved parties to communicate effectively, implying pre-existing norms of contact or a shared language between the two. Thus, the patterns of technical diffusion in pot-making that are visible via archaeological findings also reveal patterns in societal.

Pottery. interaction.## Oceania.Polynesia, Melanesia and MicronesiaPottery has been found in archaeological sites across the islands of Oceania. It is attributed to an ancient archaeological culture called the Lapita. Another form of pottery called Plainware is found throughout sites of Oceania. The relationship between Lapita pottery and Plainware is not altogether clear.The Indigenous Australians never developed pottery. After Europeans came to Australia and settled, they found deposits of clay which were analysed by English potters as excellent for making pottery. Less than 20 years later, Europeans came to Australia and began creating pottery. Since then, ceramic manufacturing, mass-produced pottery and studio pottery.

Pottery. have flourished in Australia.## Production issues (health and environment).Although many of the environmental effects of pottery production have existed for millennia, some of these have been amplified with modern technology and scales of production. The principal factors for consideration fall into two categories: (a) effects on workers, and (b) effects on the general environment.The chief risks on worker health include heavy metal poisoning, poor indoor air quality, dangerous sound levels and possible over-illumination.Historically, "plumbism" (lead poisoning) was a significant health concern to those glazing pottery. This was recognised at least as early as the nineteenth century, and the first legislation.

Pottery. in the United Kingdom to limit pottery workers' exposure was introduced in 1899.Proper ventilation to guarantee adequate indoor air quality can reduce or eliminate workers' exposure to fine particulate matter, carbon monoxide, certain heavy metals, and crystalline silica (which can lead to silicosis). A more recent study at Laney College, Oakland, California suggests that all these factors can be controlled in a well-designed workshop environment.The primary environmental concerns include off-site water pollution, air pollution, disposal of hazardous materials, and fuel consumption. Glossary of pottery terms American art pottery Celadon Ceramics of indigenous peoples of the Americas Chinese ceramics including porcelain.

Pottery. Delftware Dipped ware Faience History of ceramic art Ironstone ware Jasperware Korean ceramics Kakiemon pottery Latvian pottery Latgalian pottery Maiolica of Renaissance Italy Majolica Palissy ware Persian pottery Sancai Sea pottery Slipware SylvaC Victorian majolica Cooper, Emmanuel, "10,000 Years of Pottery", 4th ed., 2010, University of Pennsylvania Press, Savage, George, "Pottery Through the Ages", Penguin, 1959, ASTM Standard C 242-01 "Standard Terminology of Ceramic Whitewares and Related Products" Ashmore, Wendy & Sharer, Robert J., (2000). "Discovering Our Past: A Brief Introduction to Archaeology Third Edition". Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company. Barnett, William & Hoopes, John (Eds.) (1995). "The Emergence.


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this bird?

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Eurasian oystercatcher. The Eurasian oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus) also known as the common pied oystercatcher, or palaearctic oystercatcher, or (in Europe) just oystercatcher, is a wader in the oystercatcher bird family Haematopodidae. It is the most widespread of the oystercatchers, with three races breeding in western Europe, central Eurosiberia, Kamchatka, China, and the western coast of Korea. No other oystercatcher occurs within this area. The extinct Canary Islands oystercatcher ("Haematopus meadewaldoi"), formerly considered a distinct species, may have actually been an isolated subspecies or distinct population of the Eurasian oystercatcher.This oystercatcher is the national bird of the Faroe Islands.## Taxonomy.The Eurasian oystercatcher was.

Eurasian oystercatcher. listed by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his "Systema Naturae" under the binomial name "Haemotopus ostralegus". The genus name "Haematopus" combines the Ancient Greek "haima" αἳμα meaning "blood" and "pous" πούς meaning "foot". The specific epithet "ostralegus" combines the Latin "ostrea" meaning "oyster" and "legere" meaning "to gather".The name "oystercatcher" was coined by Mark Catesby in 1731 as a common name for the North American species "H. palliatus," described as eating oysters. Yarrell in 1843 established this as the preferred term, replacing the older name "Sea Pie."Four subspecies are recognised: "H. o. ostralegus.


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this insect?

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Neotibicen superbus. Neotibicen superbus, the superb dog-day cicada, is a species of cicada in the family Cicadidae. It is the greenest cicada in the neotibicen genus. It has reduced black patterning and looks different than most other cicadas in its genus. Its song is a soft buzz that reaches a crescendo.


Question: Which city or region does this island locate in?

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Confederation Bridge. was at the 13 (km) wide Abegweit Passage. Infrequent winter service provided by underpowered steamships incapable of breaking sea ice ensured the survival of a passenger and mail service across Abegweit Passage using iceboats until a permanent ferry service was established in the 1910s.The unsatisfactory winter steamship service and reliance upon primitive iceboats provoked complaints from the Island government until the federal government decided to implement a railcar ferry service across Abegweit Passage between new ports at Port Borden and Cape Tormentine.In 1912, the federal government promised to open a car ferry between the "Capes" (Cape Traverse, PEI to Cape.

Confederation Bridge. Tormentine, NB). The privately owned New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island Railway from Sackville, New Brunswick to Cape Tormentine was purchased by the federal government and an order was made with a shipyard in England for an icebreaking railcar ferry, to be called the "Prince Edward Island". Ports were developed at Carleton Point, several kilometres west of Cape Traverse, and the existing harbour at Cape Tormentine; the new port at Carleton Point would be named Borden in honour of Prime Minister Sir Robert Borden.The new ferry entered service in 1915 and operated on the former steamship routes until port facilities.

Confederation Bridge. purpose-built staging yards located on the shoreline at Amherst Head, fronting on Borden Harbour just east of the town and ferry docks, and an inland facility located at Bayfield, New Brunswick, about 3 (km) west of Cape Tormentine. The Amherst Head staging facility was where all large components were built, including the pier bases, ice shields, main spans, and drop-in spans. The Bayfield facility was used to construct components for the near-shore bridges which were linked using a launching truss extending over shallow waters almost 2 (km) from the New Brunswick shore, and .5 (km) from the Prince Edward Island.

Confederation Bridge. act as wind barriers, placing bridge deck and navigational lighting, constructing the Borden-Carleton toll plaza, and finishing the New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island approach roads. In separate construction, the federal and provincial governments built a new commercial and tourist development on the abandoned CN rail yards in Borden-Carleton, with phase I of this facility opening in spring 1997 as "Gateway Village". New Brunswick has never received similar federal support to improve the economy of Cape Tormentine, which has become a shadow of its former role in PEI transportation history, although in recent years a new eco-tourist and visitor centre.


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this animal?

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White-lipped snail. The white-lipped snail or garden banded snail, scientific name "Cepaea hortensis", is a medium-sized species of air-breathing land snail, a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusc in the family Helicidae. It is a close relative of the Grove Snail.## Shell description.The white-lipped snail is very slightly smaller than the grove snail, the shell being usually about 2.5 (cm) in maximum dimension. Like the grove snail (brown-lipped snail), it has considerable variability in shell colour and banding, although the shell of the white-lipped snail is perhaps most commonly yellow, with or without brown banding. The principal distinguishing feature of this species is a.

White-lipped snail. snail tolerates wetter and colder areas than the brown-lipped snail can.## Life cycle.This species of snail creates and uses love darts during mating.The size of the egg is 2 mm."Cepaea hortensis" at Animalbase taxonomy, short description, distribution, biology, status (threats), images"Cepaea hortensis" images at Encyclopedia of LifeImages of shell variations in "C. hortensis"Snail white - Images of shell variations in "C. hortensis" Thai language translate.


Question: How many day is the egg incubation period of this bird?

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Southern ground hornbill. seven years, but very few breed at this age. Nests are almost always deep hollows in very old trees, though there exist reports ground hornbills have on occasions nested on rock faces. One to three eggs are laid at the beginning of the wet season, but siblicide ensures that only one nestling is ever fledged. The eggs measure 73 (mm) by 56 (mm) and are pure white in colour but very rough in texture.After a 40 to 45-day incubation period and an 85-day fledging period, the young remain dependent on their parents and helpers for between one and two years.


Question: What is the closest upper taxonomy of this animal?

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Emperor penguin. The emperor penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri) is the tallest and heaviest of all living penguin species and is endemic to Antarctica. The male and female are similar in plumage and size, reaching 100 (cm) in length and weighing from 22 to 45 (kg). Feathers of the head and back are black and sharply delineated from the white belly, pale-yellow breast and bright-yellow ear patches.Like all penguins it is flightless, with a streamlined body, and wings stiffened and flattened into flippers for a marine habitat. Its diet consists primarily of fish, but also includes crustaceans, such as krill, and cephalopods, such as.

Emperor penguin. five other penguin species. Forster may have been the first person to see the penguins in 1773–74, when he recorded a sighting of what he believed was the similar king penguin ("A. patagonicus") but given the location, may very well have been "A. forsteri".Together with the king penguin, the emperor penguin is one of two extant species in the genus "Aptenodytes". Fossil evidence of a third species—Ridgen's penguin ("A. ridgeni")—has been found in fossil records from the late Pliocene, about three million years ago, in New Zealand. Studies of penguin behaviour and genetics have proposed that the genus "Aptenodytes" is.


Question: Which protected area is this building usually located in?

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Old Courthouse (St. Louis). The Old St. Louis County Courthouse was built as a combination federal and state courthouse in St. Louis, Missouri. Missouri's tallest habitable building from 1864 to 1894, it is now part of Gateway Arch National Park and operated by the National Park Service for historical exhibits and events.## History.Land for the courthouse was donated in 1816 by Judge John Baptiste Charles Lucas and St. Louis founder Auguste Chouteau. Lucas and Chouteau required the land be "used forever as the site on which the courthouse of the County of St. Louis should be erected." The Federal style courthouse was completed in.

Old Courthouse (St. Louis). around the courthouse in the center of St. Louis for the new Gateway Arch National Park, which was then known as Jefferson National Expansion Memorial. President Franklin Roosevelt declared in an Executive Order the area would be a national monument and landscape design, sidewalks and other infrastructure was added. The courthouse formally became part of the new monument area in 1940. Replaced in 1941, the roof was renovated in 1955, 1985 and 2010. The National Park Service maintains four history galleries on St. Louis and NPS offices within. The courthouse once had up to 12 courtrooms, but now there are.


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this plant?

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Mentha pulegium. Mentha pulegium, commonly (European) pennyroyal, or pennyrile, also called mosquito plant and pudding grass, is a species of flowering plant in the mint family, Lamiaceae, native to Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. Crushed pennyroyal leaves emit a very strong fragrance similar to spearmint. Pennyroyal is a traditional folk remedy, emmenagogue, abortifacient, and culinary herb, but is toxic to the liver and has caused some deaths. European pennyroyal is related to an American species, Hedeoma pulegioides. Though they differ in genera, they share similar chemical properties.## Description.An annual to perennial plant with creeping or erect branched stems to about.

Mentha pulegium. 40 cm in height. The stems are square in cross-section and can vary from hairless on some plants to densely hairy on others, with a green to sometimes red or purplish colour. The leaves, which grow in opposite pairs, are narrowly oval, 2–3 cm long x 1 cm wide, downy, sparsely toothed towards the tip, and taper into a short stalk. All parts of the plant are strongly scented when crushed but it does not have noticeable glands on its surface. The small (6 mm) flowers are densely packed in whorls at the nodes, widely separated, above pairs of leaf-like.

Mentha pulegium. bracts. The calyx is a ribbed tube about 3 mm long, with 5 triangular teeth, the lower 2 being narrower and slightly longer than the upper 3; it is hairy both on the inside and the outside. The corolla has 4 mauve lobes or "petals" and is hairy only on the outside. The flowers are bisexual and have 4 long stamens, 2 (or all 4) of which project well beyond the corolla lobes. There is one long style which is forked to produce 2 stigmas, which also project from the flower. The fruits consist of a cluster of four brown,.

Mentha pulegium. 1-seeded nutlets, each about 0.7 mm long.The flowering period starts in June and continues into mid-summer, although in northern countries it flowers rather later, sometimes as late as September, when it can fail to set seed.Its chromosome number is 2n = 20.## Distribution.The native range of pennyroyal is thought to be around the eastern Mediterranean, where it grows in damp meadows, around pools and in stream margins. It is, however, very widely established around the world, including North and South America, throughout Africa, Asia, Australia and New Zealand. In many places it is considered a troublesome weed of agriculture. Towards.

Mentha pulegium. the northern edge of its range, as in Britain, it is considered to be rare and declining, except where introduced.## Habitat and Ecology.The habitat of pennyroyal is seasonally damp pasture, where standing water over the winter leaves bare ground in the summer, and where livestock preferentially graze other plants. An analogue of this habitat is found on roadsides, where trampling or disturbance of the ground produces similarly bare soil, particularly where there is waterlogging in winter. It is also found along watercourses, in wet woodland and in abandoned fields.In California, where it is considered an invasive species, it occupies a.

Mentha pulegium. similar niche, in seeps, streamsides, vernal pools and swales, marshes, and ditches. There is some speculation that it may displace native species in these areas.Few animals eat pennyroyal. In Britain, the only insect known to feed on it is the bug Heterogaster artemisiae Schilling, which is a seed bug that normally feeds on wild thyme.It is considered an axiophyte in many British counties, because low-intensity pasture is a rare habitat, although it has been spreading in recent decades. Its Ellenberg values in Britain are L = 8, F = 7, R = 5, N = 7, and S = 0.##.

Mentha pulegium. History.## Ancient to modern use.Documented use of pennyroyal dates back to ancient Greek, Roman, and Medieval cultures. Its name – although of uncertain etymology – is associated with Latin "pulex" (flea), alluding to the manner it was used to drive away fleas when smeared on the body. Pennyroyal was commonly incorporated as a cooking herb by the Greeks and Romans. A large number of the recipes in the Roman cookbook of Apicius called for the use of pennyroyal, often along with such herbs as lovage, oregano and coriander. Although it was commonly used for cooking also in the Middle Ages,.

Mentha pulegium. it gradually fell out of use as a culinary herb and is seldom used as such today.Records from Greek and Roman physicians and scholars contain information pertaining to pennyroyal's medicinal properties, as well as recipes used to prepared it. Pliny the Elder, in his encyclopedia "Naturalis Historia" ("Natural History"), described the plant as an emmenagogue, and that it also expelled a dead fetus. Galen only listed pennyroyal as an emmenagogue, as did Oribasius. Roman and Greek writers Quintus Serenus Sammonicus and Aspasia the Physician however both agreed that pennyroyal, when served in tepid water, was an effective abortive method. A.

Mentha pulegium. medical text on gynecology attributed to Cleopatra (though it was actually written by a female Greek physician Metrodora) recommends the use of pennyroyal with wine to induce abortions.In regard to its contraceptive properties, it was referred to in a joking manner in Aristophanes' play "Peace" (421 BCE). The god Hermes provides the male character Trygaios a female companion; when Trygaios asks if there would be a problem if she became pregnant, Hermes responds, "Not if you add a dose of pennyroyal." In a similar manner, in Aristophanes' comedy "Lysistrata", after a pregnant female character on stage is told to withhold.

Mentha pulegium. her body sexually from her husband, a slender female character, in comparison to the pregnant woman, is described as "a very lovely land Well croppy, and trimmed and spruced with pennyroyal."Early settlers in colonial Virginia used dried pennyroyal to eradicate pests. Pennyroyal was such a popular herb that the Royal Society published an article on its use against rattlesnakes in the first volume of its Philosophical Transactions in 1665. 17th century apothecary and physician Nicholas Culpeper mentioned pennyroyal in his medical text "The English Physitian", published in 1652. In addition to its abortive properties, Culpeper recommends its use for gastrointestinal.

Mentha pulegium. ailments, such as constipation and hemorrhoids, as well as itching and blemishes to the skin, and even toothaches.Pennyroyal is an essential ingredient in the North african dish, which is still eaten to the this day, called .Pennyroyal continued to be used up through the 20th and 21st centuries. Its oil is still commercially available today, though little is known about the appropriate dosages for humans. Scientists therefore likely consider it unsafe for use, as it is potentially toxic.## Uses.Pennyroyal is frequently used as an insecticide and pest repellent. As a pest repellent, it is used to keep fleas away from.

Mentha pulegium. household animals as well as on humans to ward off gnats and mosquitos. Some flea collars for pets have pennyroyal oil or the herb can be crushed in the lining. Humans have also put crushed pennyroyal stems in their pockets or on their clothing to ward off unwanted insects. However, when using the pennyroyal plant as a pest repellent, the use of the concentrated pennyroyal oil should be avoided. Pennyroyal oil can be extremely toxic to both humans and animals, even in small quantities. With the use of pennyroyal around animals and humans comes the risk of it being absorbed.

Mentha pulegium. through the skin and causing negative health effects. The less concentrated leaves of the plant should be used instead as an insect repellent.Pennyroyal has historically also been used as a mint flavoring in herbal teas and foods. Pennyroyal tea has been used for cold relief, fevers, coughs, indigestion, liver and kidney problems and headaches. The fresh or dried leaves of pennyroyal have also been used when treating influenza, abdominal cramps, to induce sweating, as well as in the treatment of diseases such as smallpox and tuberculosis. To make the tea, the leaves of the plant are boiled in hot water.

Mentha pulegium. The lower concentrations of toxic chemicals in these teas are less harmful than pennyroyal oil. It is recommended that people only drink pennyroyal tea periodically, as it is taxing on the body and should not be drunk on a regular basis. Consumption of pennyroyal tea can be fatal to infants and children.In Italy the fresh leaves of this plant, which in Rome and the surrounding area is called "menta romana", are used in the capital's cuisine to flavour lamb and tripe. In culinary use it should not be confused with lesser calamint ("Clinopodium nepeta"), which in Rome is used to.

Mentha pulegium. prepare artichokes.The pennyroyal plant has also been used as an emmenagogue or perhaps most famously as an abortifacient. Chemicals in the pennyroyal plant cause the uterine lining to contract, causing a woman's uterine lining to shed. Women who struggle with regulating their menstrual cycle or suffer from a cystic ovary syndrome may choose to drink pennyroyal tea. Pennyroyal tea is subtle enough to induce menstrual flow with minimal risk of negative health effects. More concentrated versions of the plant, such as the oil, are much more toxic and will likely force a miscarriage if ingested by a pregnant woman. Since.

Mentha pulegium. the U.S. Congress passed the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act in October 1994 all manufactured forms of pennyroyal in the United States have carried a warning label against its use by pregnant women, but pennyroyal is not regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.Rennie's 1833 supplement to the pharmacopeias admitted its use as an "expectorant, diuretic, and emmenagogue" in doses of 10 grains to 1 scruple (0.6–1.3g) of the powdered dried herb, but dismissed the use of the Pennyroyal Water (Aqua Pulegii) as "popularly but erroneously supposed" to be an abortifacient [no mention is made of toxicity].At least.

Mentha pulegium. one study has shown pennyroyal oil to have potent acaricidal activity against house dust mites.## Toxicity.Pennyroyal is toxic to humans and has differing effects dependent on the volume and concentration ingested. The most concentrated and toxic form of the pennyroyal plant is pennyroyal oil. The oil contains 80% to 92% of cyclohexanone pulegone. Pulegone, the molecule in highest concentration in the pennyroyal plant, causes a variety of ailments in those who ingest it and is what causes the plant to have its peppermint flavor.Symptoms that may persist after ingesting a small dose (<10 mL) of pennyroyal oil are nausea, vomiting,.

Mentha pulegium. abdominal pain and dizziness. Larger volumes may result in multiorgan failure that could lead to death. There are no current toxicokinetics studies performed on humans for the effects of pulegone, but there are some studies performed on other mammals. When pulegone is ingested, it is broken down by the liver and reacts to form multiple toxic metabolites that can wreak havoc in the body. Some identified metabolites are menthofuran, piperitenone, piperitone, and menthone.## Chemistry.## Structure and reactivity.The active chemical in pennyroyal is pulegone. Pulegone is a ketone and on the cellular level, ketones can act as enzyme inhibitors. The carbonyl.

Mentha pulegium. center of the pulegone structure acts as a strong electrophile, causing active sites on enzymes to bind with pulegone instead of the target protein.The exocyclic double bond found in pulegone is vital to the activation and binding mechanism of the molecule and causes it to be an effective hepatotoxin. When ingested, pulegone targets the liver and kidney, among other organs. Studies have been conducted on rats show that one of the main effects is the inhibition of contractile activity in the myometrium and death by kidney failure. Also found in the study, long term exposure to pennyroyal increased incidences of.

Mentha pulegium. urinary bladder tumors.## Mechanism of action.The exact mechanism of action by which pennyroyal induces menses and abortions in humans is still unknown. Studies using animal models speculate the source of liver toxicity is due to one of the many constituents the plant contains: pulegone, a monoterpene. Pulegone is metabolized by cytochrome P450 (CYP 1A2 and 2E1) and converted to several toxins. Both "in vitro" and "in vivo" studies have found the pulegone metabolite menthofuran to be an inhibitor of CYP2A6, accounting for a significant degree of pennyroyal's hepatotoxicity.The exact pathway pulegone undergoes to be converted to menthofuran is unknown, but.

Mentha pulegium. one study strongly suggested it included allylic oxidation of a methyl group (from CYP450), intramolecular cyclization to form a hemiketal, and subsequent dehydration to form the furan. Additionally, pulegone and menthofuran may deplete glutathione levels, leaving hepatocytes vulnerable to free radical damage.## Treatment.There is no known antidote for pennyroyal toxicity. Case studies involving pennyroyal poisonings have reported the use of gastric lavages and administration of emetics or vomiting inducing agents, or absorbents like activated charcoal. As glutathione depletion has been shown to regulate liver toxification, administration of N-acetylcysteine in similar doses as given for acetaminophen toxicity have been given to.

Mentha pulegium. patients.A study testing pulegone toxicity found inhibitors of cytochrome P450, such as cobaltous chloride or piperonyl butoxide, blocked toxicity. Such testing has not been expanded to humans, however, as the pennyroyal mechanism of toxicity is still not entirely understood. "Hedeoma pulegioides" (American pennyroyal, a distantly related species)ARKive - images and movies of the Pennyroyal "(Mentha pulegium).


Question: What is this animal named after?

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Steller sea lion. The Steller sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus), also known as the Steller's sea lion and northern sea lion, is a near-threatened species of sea lion in the northern Pacific. It is the sole member of the genus "Eumetopias" and the largest of the eared seals (Otariidae). Among pinnipeds, it is inferior in size only to the walrus and the two species of elephant seals. The species is named for the naturalist Georg Wilhelm Steller, who first described them in 1741. The Steller sea lion has attracted considerable attention in recent decades, owing to significant and largely unexplained declines in their numbers.

Steller sea lion. over an extensive portion of their northern range in Alaska.## Description.Adult animals are lighter in color than most sea lions, ranging from pale yellow to tawny and occasionally reddish. Steller sea lion pups are born almost black, weighing around 23 (kg), and remain dark in coloration for several months. Females and males both grow rapidly until the fifth year, after which female growth slows considerably. Adult females measure 2.3 - 2.9 (m) in length, on average being 2.5 (m), and weigh 240 - 350 (kg), with an average of 263 (kg). Males continue to grow until their secondary sexual traits.

Steller sea lion. appear in their fifth to eighth year. Males are slightly longer than the females, growing to about 2.82 – 3.25 (m) long and averaging 3 (m) in length. Males have much wider chests, necks, and general forebody structure. Males can weigh between 450 – 1120 (kg), weighing on average 544 (kg). Males are further distinguished from females by broader and higher foreheads, flatter snouts, and a thick mane of coarse hair around their large necks. It is fitting then that their Latin name translates roughly as "maned one with the broad forehead".## Range.The range of the Steller sea lion extends.

Steller sea lion. from the Kuril Islands in the Sea of Okhotsk in Russia to the Gulf of Alaska in the north, down to Año Nuevo Island off the coast of central California to the south. They formerly bred as far south as the Channel Islands, but have not been observed there since the 1980s. Based on genetic anаlyses and local migration patterns, the global Steller sea lion population has traditionally been divided into an eastern and western stock at 144°W longitude, roughly through the middle of the Gulf of Alaska. Recent evidence suggests the sea lions in Russia in the Sea of.

Steller sea lion. Okhotsk and the Kuril Islands comprise a third Asian stock, while the sea lions on the eastern seaboard of Kamchatka and the Commander Islands belong to the western stock.In the summer, Steller sea lions tend to shift their range somewhat southward. Therefore, though there are no reproductive rookeries in Japan, several consistent haul-out sites are found around Hokkaidō in the winter and spring. Vagrants have been spotted in the Yellow Sea and Bohai Gulf and along the coast of Korea and China. The oldest fossil known of the species was found near Kanazawa, Japan and dates to the late Early.

Steller sea lion. Pleistocene (0.8 Ma).## Ecology.## Habitat.Steller sea lions tend to live in the coastal waters of the subarctic because of the cooler temperate climate of the area. Like all otariids, Steller sea lions are amphibious and spend some time in water and some on land. Typically, Stellar sea lions spend their time in the water feeding but haul-out onto land to reproduce, raise their pups, molt, and rest. Steller sea lions usually congregate on isolated islands because they are the ideal terrestrial habitat. These isolated islands are preferred by Stellar sea lions because they can avoid predation from terrestrial predators, easily.

Steller sea lion. thermoregulate (by means of cooling winds), and access offshore prey more easily. Some haul-out sites, known as rookeries, are commonly used for reproduction while other haul-out sites are used for other purposes like molting. However, both biotic and abiotic factors can influence the amount of time that Steller sea lions spend on land. Haul-out sites and haul-out abundance of the Steller sea lion can be determined by prey availability, predator abundance, tide levels, weather, etc.## Foraging.Steller sea lions are skilled and opportunistic marine predators, feeding on a wide range of fish and cephalopod species. Important diet components include walleye pollock,.

Steller sea lion. Atka mackerel, halibut, herring, capelin, flatfish Pacific cod, rockfish, sculpins, salmon, sand lance, and cephalopods such as various squid and octopus. They seem to prefer schooling fish and forage primarily between intertidal zones and continental shelves. They usually aggregate in groups of up to twelve in areas of prey abundance. They are known to aggregate near fishing vessels, preying on bycatch discards. Most of the data on their foraging comes from data collected off the coast of Alaska; little is known of their foraging behavior elsewhere.The composition of the diet of Steller sea lions varies seasonally and geographically; as opportunistic.

Steller sea lion. predators, they concentrate on the locally most abundant prey species. In addition to their primary marine environment, they sometimes enter estuaries and feed on brackish-water fish such as sturgeon. Very occasionally, they have been known to prey on northern fur seals, harbor seals, and sea otter pups. Records suggest that the range of their prey species has broadened over time.## Predation.Steller sea lions are top-tier carnivores, but are susceptible to predation, primarily by killer whales. Shark species are also possible predators: sleepers and great whites may prey on juvenile sea lions.## Behavior and life history.## Reproduction.Reproductively mature male sea lions.

Steller sea lion. gather together mid-spring on traditional, well-defined reproductive rookeries, usually on beaches on isolated islands. The larger, older males establish and defend distinct territories on the rookery. A week or so later, adult females arrive, accompanied occasionally by sexually immature offspring, and form fluid aggregations throughout the rookery. Like all other otariids, Steller sea lions are polygynous. However, unlike some other species, they do not coerce individual females into harems, but control spatial territories among which females freely move. Steller sea lions have used aquatic, semiaquatic, and terrestrial territories. Males with semiaquatic territories have the most success in defending them. The.

Steller sea lion. boundaries are defined by natural features, such as rocks, faults, or ridges in rocks, and territories can remain stable for 60 days. Though Steller sea lion males are generally tolerant of pups, one male filmed on Medny Island in Russia was documented killing and eating several pups in a first-ever recorded incident of cannibalism. Though researchers are uncertain as to the motives or reasons behind said attacks, it is suggested that the bull involved may have an abnormal personality akin to being psychotic.Pregnant females give birth soon after arriving on a rookery, and copulation generally occurs one to two weeks.

Steller sea lion. after giving birth, but the fertilized egg does not become implanted in the uterus until the fall. A fertilized egg may remain in embryonic diapause for up to three months before implanting and beginning to divide. Twins are rare. After a week or so of nursing without leaving the rookery, females begin to take progressively longer and more frequent foraging trips leaving their pups behind until at some point in late summer, when both the mother and pup leave the rookery together. This maternal attendance pattern is common in otariids. As pups get older the amount of time spent by.

Steller sea lion. females foraging out at sea increases. This continues until pups obtain the ideal body weight and energy reserves to eat on their own. A study conducted by the University of California, Santa Cruz found that on average male pups consume more milk than females. This may be due to the sexual dimorphism common to otariids. Reproductive males fast throughout the reproductive season, often without entering the water once from mid-May until August, when the structure of the reproductive rookeries begins to fall apart and most animals leave for the open seas and disperse throughout their range.The age at weaning is.

Steller sea lion. highly variable; pups may remain with their mothers for as long as four years. Incidents of mothers feeding daughters that are simultaneously feeding their own newborn pups have been documented, which is an extremely rare occurrence among mammals. A study done at Año Nuevo in 1983 found that female attendance and time spent with their pup was shaped by increasing nutritional demands of the pup and the pups suckling efficiency. Females averaged 21 hours ashore and 36 hours at sea. As the pups aged, females began to spend more time at sea again. As the pups matured, specifically at the.

Steller sea lion. sixth week past birth, the mother's sea time declined by 30 percent. There was no relationship between the pups' activity or physical excursion and their suckling time, age, or sex. Their suckling time, and age, and sex are unrelated to their use of energy. Labeled water studies showed that the pups' milk intake had a direct relationship to their size. Pups that consumed more milk were heavier than those that didn't. These findings show that the amount of time females spend onshore with their pups is based on their pup's suckling efficiency and nutritional demands.In the past, the low pup.

Steller sea lion. production has been tied to an increase in nutritional stress found in females. This was believed to have contributed to the decline in Steller sea lions common to Alaska.## Locomotion.The largest of the eared seals, Steller sea lions are quick swimmers, about as fast as the smaller California sea lions. Glide velocity of individual Steller sea lions has been measured as 2.9–3.4 meters or 1.2–1.5 body lengths per second, which is close to the optimal swim velocity of 1.4 body lengths per second based on the minimum cost of transport for California sea lions.A 2007 study of Steller sea lions.

Steller sea lion. found that a majority of thrust was produced during the drive phase of the fore flipper stroke cycle. Although previous findings on eared seals suggested that thrust was generated by the initial outward movement of the foreflippers or the terminal drag-based paddling phase, the 2007 study found that little or no thrust was generated during those phases. Swimming performance in sea lions is modulated by changes in the duration and intensity of movements without changing their sequence. Using criteria based on velocity and the minimum radius of turns, Steller's maneuverability is similar to other eared seals, superior to cetaceans, and.

Steller sea lion. inferior to many fish.## Diving.To be able to dive for a long period of time, Steller sea lions exhibit apnea, bradycardia, and peripheral vasoconstriction. This allows them to maximize their oxygen stores and efficiently forage during their dives. In addition to those adaptations, their thick blubber layer and outer fur layer keep their body insulated during dives.Trained Steller sea lions from Vancouver Aquarium were placed in the open ocean at the University of British Columbia's Open Water Research Station to study their diving metabolism and behavior. Steller sea lions' dives are more energetically costly if they perform dive bouts. The.

Steller sea lion. aerobic diving limit of Steller sea lions was observed to be affected by their nutritional state and feeding.## Communication.Like most otariids, Steller sea lions are vocal in air. Mature male sea lions have a range of vocalizations as part of their territorial behaviors, including belches, growls, snorts, and hisses that serve as warnings to others. Both males and females also produce underwater noises similar to their above water sounds, described as clicks, barks, and belches. The primary function of their vocalizations is for social behavior. Sonogram readings reported that Steller Sea Lions make discrete, low frequency pulses underwater that resemble.

Steller sea lion. the male "belching" territorial noise made in air. These underwater vocalizations have an average of 20–30 pulses per second.Vocalizations are critical to mother-pup pairs, as the mothers must find their pups in a crowded breeding area when they return from foraging. The mother and pup both use distinctive calls, like names, to help differentiate themselves among the crowd of other sea lions. Their aerial vocalizations have been described as similar to the bleats of sheep, and bellows.Because Steller sea lions are sexually dimorphic in size, their hearing differs in sensitivity, possibly due to differences in size of the hearing structures.

Steller sea lion. Females have a higher sensitivity than males, perhaps to hear the higher frequency calls of their pups. The Steller sea lion's hearing range also suggests that they are capable of hearing the underwater calls of one of their main predators, the killer whale.## Interactions with humans.Steller sea lion were hunted for meat and other commodities by prehistoric communities everywhere their range intersected with human communities. Aside from food and clothing, their skin was used to cover baidarkas and kayaks. A subsistence harvest on the order of 300 animals or less continues to this day in some native communities in Alaska.Historically,.

Steller sea lion. the sea lion has had only very slight commercial value. For example, in the 19th century their whiskers sold for a penny apiece for use as tobacco-pipe cleaners.Steller sea lions are sometimes killed intentionally by fishermen, as they are seen as competitors and a threat to fish stocks. Killing sea lions is strictly prohibited in the US and Russia, but in Japan a fixed number are still removed annually, ostensibly to protect their fisheries. In Canada, commercial hunting is prohibited, but limited hunting permits are occasionally granted if local culling is required—for example, nuisance animals destroying fish farms.In recent years,.

Steller sea lion. Steller sea lions have been known to enter the Columbia River estuary and feed on white sturgeon, several salmon species, and rainbow trout, some of which are also listed under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. They are found in the Columbia River nearly year round, with the exception of early summer, going as far upstream as Bonneville Dam. Though not as abundant as the California sea lion, they are still a concern for those agencies charged with managing the fish populations. Since the Steller sea lions are themselves protected under the Marine Mammal Protection Act, managers are compelled to use.

Steller sea lion. nonlethal deterrence methods, such as rubber bullets and noisemakers. Deterrence by the public is strictly forbidden.## Recent decline and subsequent recovery.While the populations of the eastern and Asian stocks appear stable, the population of the western stock, particularly along the Aleutian Islands, was estimated to have fallen by 70–80% since the 1970s. As a consequence, in 1997 the western stock of Steller sea lions was listed as endangered and the eastern stock was listed as threatened under the United States Endangered Species Act. They have since been the object of intense study and the focus of much political and scientific.

Steller sea lion. debate in Alaska.One suspected cause of their precipitous decline was the overfishing of Alaska pollock, herring, and other fish stocks in the Gulf of Alaska. This stems largely from the "junk-food hypothesis" representing a shift in their diet from fatty herring and capelin to leaner fare such as pollock and flounder, thereby limiting their ability to consume and store fat. Other hypotheses include increased predation by orcas and sharks, indirect effects of prey species composition shifts due to changes in climate, effects of disease or contaminants, shooting by fishermen, and others. The decline is certainly due to a complex of.

Steller sea lion. interrelated factors which have yet to be defined by the research effort.Another possible reason for decline in this species has been tied to the Nutritional Stress Hypothesis. The lack of prey corresponds to the decrease in population. In females specifically, obtaining an insufficient amount of nutrients has resulted in the failure to complete their pregnancies to full term.In October 2013, the eastern Steller sea lion was taken off the U.S. Endangered Species List after a major population comeback over the past several years.Eared seal Marine Mammal Center – Steller Sea Lion US National Marine Fisheries Service Steller Sea Lion web.

Steller sea lion. page ARKive – images and movies of the Steller sea lion "(Eumetopias jubatus)" Alaska Department of Fish and Game page on Steller sea lions Overview of Steller sea lion research at NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Marine Mammal Lab "Nature" documentary about the decline of Steller's sea lions News media report on Steller sea lions and sturgeon interactions SeaLionPredation.com – news and information on seal and sea lion predation of salmon and steelhead in the Pacific Northwest NOAA fact sheet on pinnipeds in the Columbia River Georg Steller's original description in "De Bestiis Marinis, or, The Beasts of the.

Steller sea lion. Sea" (1751) Watch more Steller sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus) video clips from the BBC archive on Wildlife Finder Fifteen years of research into the Alaska populations of Steller Sea Lions at the Alaska SeaLife Center WATCH: Sea lions ward off attacking orcas.


Question: What is the conservation status of this bird? (The status is assigned by the international union for conservation of nature. Choose one among Endangered,Least Concern,Critically Endangered,extinct species,extinct in the wild,Vulnerable,Near Threatened,Data Deficient).

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Kea. Forest. Traps are also considered a risk to kea. In September 2011, hidden cameras caught kea breaking into baited stoat traps in the Matukituki Valley. More than 75% of the traps had been sprung.## Conservation.In the 1970s, the kea received partial protection after a census counted only 5,000 birds. The government agreed to investigate any reports of problem birds and have them removed from the land. In 1986 it was given absolute protection under the Wildlife Act 1953. Kea are also listed under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).

Kea. meaning international export/import (including parts and derivatives) is regulated.Despite being classified as Nationally Endangered in the New Zealand Threat Classification System and endangered in the IUCN Red List and protected by law, kea are still deliberately shot. For example, in the late 1990s, a Fox Glacier resident killed 33 kea in the glacier car park and in 2008, two kea were shot in Arthur's Pass and stapled to a sign. Kea deaths due to traffic have prompted the NZ Transport Agency to install signs to help raise awareness, and to encourage people to slow down if necessary. In Fiordland National.


Question: In which year was this material invented or discovered?

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Plywood. of 45 degrees (0, 45, 90, 135, and 180 degrees), giving strength in multiple axes.The word "ply" derives from the French verb , "to fold", from the Latin verb , from the ancient Greek verb .## History.The ancient Egyptians and Greeks cut wood thinly and glued it together in layers with the grain in perpendicular directions as fine wood was in short supply. This is believed to have been done purely for cosmetic and economical purposes but it turned out to be a great alternative to pure wood as it reduced flex, making it a versatile building material.In 1797 Samuel.


Question: What country does this lake belong to?

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Zürichhorn. Zürichhorn is a river delta on Zürichsee's eastern shore in the lower basin of the lake. The area is part of the parks and quays in the Seefeld quarter of the city of Zürich in Switzerland. The gardens are one of the most popular recreational areas within the city of Zürich.## Geography.Zürichhorn was formed mainly by the "Hornbach" stream, also known as "Wildbach" and "Werenbach", which flows, as of today embedded into a concrete canal, between "Tiefenbrunnen" lido and the landing gate of the Zürichsee-Schifffahrtsgesellschaft (ZSG) into Lake Zürich. Ending the last glacial period when the Linth glacier retreated, the.

Zürichhorn. on Lake Zürich provided by Zürichsee-Schifffahrtsgesellschaft (ZSG).## Water airport Zürichhorn.In summer 1910 "Wagenfabrik C. & R. Geissberger" provided first test flights with so-called "Hydroplanes" (flying boats) at Zürichhorn. Initiated by Oskar Bider and Fritz Rihner, in July 1919 the «Schweizerische Gesellschaft für Lufttourismus» was established in Zürich. Tourist flights with flying boats were planned from sites at Zürichhorn, in Geneva, Interlaken/Thun, Locarno, Lugano, Lucerne, Lausanne-Ouchy, Romanshorn and St. Moritz. Switzerland, with its numerous lakes, appeared predestined for the use of seaplanes, so that no expensive airports had to be built. Oskar Bider was killed in an accident before the ambitious.

Zürichhorn. project was realized, but from Zürichhorn respectively (as of 2010) the area of the "Strandbad Tiefenbrunnen" (lido) the Swiss airline Ad Astra Aero operated with seaplanes, among them seven Macchi-Nieuport and five Savoia flying boats and the first large flying boat, Dornier Wal.## Quaianlagen.Hafen Riesbach, meaning Riesbach harbour area is situated between Seefeldquai and Blatterwiese. The harbour itself is as the Enge harbour used as a private-owned marina. In 2004 the old kiosk at the popular open lido at "Riesbachstrasse" was replaced by a polygonal pavilion was designed by the architects Andreas Furrimann and Gabrielle Hächler, and now houses a.

Zürichhorn. the park. The sculpture by Henry Moore is named "Sheep Peace", and was donated in 1976. The Pavillon Le Corbusier, an art museum dedicated to the work of the Swiss architect Le Corbusier, is situated between Seefeldquai and Blatterwiese. Between Blatterwiese and "Bellerivestrasse", in 1993 the Chinese Garden Zürich was inaugurated.Sights include the spacious parks and quais with various sculptures including Jean Tinguely's "Heureka", "Chinagarten Zürich" at Blatterwiese, and in the northeast the last by Le Corbusier designed building, the formerly named "Heidi-Weber-Museum" respectively Pavillon Le Corbusier. On the southeastern side of the delta is the "Strandbad Tiefenbrunnen" located. The.

Zürichhorn. "Restaurant Fischstube" was built as part of the Swiss national exhibition 1939, it acclaims to be the only house within the city of Zürich with a thatched roof.Among the many major events at Zürichhorn are the "Schweizerische Landesausstellung" 1939 (Swiss national exposition, commonly "Landi39"), "Schweizerische Gartenbauausstellung G59" in 1959, and in 1991 the national research exhibition "Heureka". Since 1989, "Kino am See" (cinema on lake), the largest open-air cinema in Switzerland, will take place between mid-July and mid-August at Zürichhorn on Lake Zürich shore. The lakeside parks are annually frequented by 2.5 million visitors.## History.In 1238 the "Otinbach" stream is.

Zürichhorn. of today Zürich's district number 8). The stream was discharged to the south of Lake Zürich, and from then, it was called "Hornbach" nearby its mouth. Opening the Lake Zürich quais, in 1887 the park area was expanded from "Seefeld-Quai" to Zürichhorn, in order to promote "companionship, recreation and amusement". A spacious park landscape was built by the landscape architects Otto Froebel and Evariste Mertens.## Cultural heritage of national importance.Zürichhorn is listed in the Swiss inventory of cultural property of national and regional significance as a "Class A" object of national importance.


Question: In which year did this bridge officially open?

Instruction: Retrieve a Wikipedia paragraph that provides an answer to the given query about the image.

Zubizuri. The Zubizuri (Basque for "white bridge"), also called the Campo Volantin Bridge or Puente del Campo Volantin, is a tied arch footbridge across the Nervion River in Bilbao, Spain. Designed by architect Santiago Calatrava, the bridge links the "Campo Volantin" right bank and "Uribitarte" left bank of the river.## Description.Opened in 1997, the bridge's unusual design consists of a curved walkway which is supported by steel suspension cables from an overhead arch. The structure of the bridge is painted white and the bridge deck consists of translucent glass bricks. Access ramps and stairways are located on both banks. The Zubizuri.


Question: What is the architectural style of this building?

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Monument to the Great Fire of London. The Monument to the Great Fire of London, more commonly known simply as the Monument, is a fluted Doric column in London, England, situated near the northern end of London Bridge. Commemorating the Great Fire of London, it stands at the junction of Monument Street and Fish Street Hill, 202 (ft) in height and 202 feet west of the spot in Pudding Lane (although this is thought to be wrong as historic blueprints show it started next door) where the Great Fire started on 2 September 1666. Constructed between 1671 and 1677, it was built on the site of St.

Monument to the Great Fire of London. Margaret, New Fish Street, the first church to be destroyed by the Great Fire. It is Grade I-listed and is a scheduled monument. Another monument, the Golden Boy of Pye Corner, marks the point near Smithfield where the fire was stopped.The Monument comprises a Doric column built of Portland stone topped with a gilded urn of fire. It was designed by Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke. Its height marks its distance from the site of the shop of Thomas Farriner (or Farynor), the king's baker, where the blaze began.The viewing platform near the top of the Monument is reached by.

Monument to the Great Fire of London. been left to Wren—or to Wren's choice—to decide upon) was set in place. "Commemorating—with a brazen disregard for the truth—the fact that 'London rises again...three short years complete that which was considered the work of ages.Hooke's surviving drawings show that several versions of the monument were submitted for consideration: a plain obelisk, a column garnished with tongues of fire, and the fluted Doric column that was eventually chosen. The real contention came with the problem of what type of ornament to have at the top. Initially, Wren favoured a statue of a phoenix with outstretched wings rising from the ashes,.