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Cordyline australis. Cordyline australis, commonly known as the cabbage tree, tī kōuka or cabbage-palm, is a widely branched monocot tree endemic to New Zealand.It grows up to 20 (m) tall with a stout trunk and sword-like leaves, which are clustered at the tips of the branches and can be up to 1 (m) long. With its tall, straight trunk and dense, rounded heads, it is a characteristic feature of the New Zealand landscape. Its fruit is a favourite food source for the kererū and other native birds. It is common over a wide latitudinal range from the far north of the North.

Cordyline australis. Island at 34° 25′S to the south of the South Island at 46° 30′S. Absent from much of Fiordland, it was probably introduced by Māori to the Chatham Islands at 44° 00′S and to Stewart Island / Rakiura at 46° 50′S. It grows in a broad range of habitats, including forest margins, river banks and open places, and is abundant near swamps. The largest known tree with a single trunk is growing at Pakawau, Golden Bay / Mohua. It is estimated to be 400 or 500 years old, and stands 17 (m) tall with a circumference of 9 (m) at.

Cordyline australis. the base.Known to Māori as , the tree was used as a source of food, particularly in the South Island, where it was cultivated in areas where other crops would not grow. It provided durable fibre for textiles, anchor ropes, fishing lines, baskets, waterproof rain capes and cloaks, and sandals. Hardy and fast growing, it is widely planted in New Zealand gardens, parks and streets, and numerous cultivars are available. The tree can also be found in large numbers in island restoration projects such as Tiritiri Matangi Island, where it was among the first seedling trees to be planted.It is.

Cordyline australis. also grown as an ornamental tree in higher latitude Northern Hemisphere countries with maritime climates, including parts of the upper West Coast of the United States, Canada and the British Isles, where its common names include Torbay palm and Torquay palm. It does not do well in hot tropical climates like the Caribbean, Queensland, Southeast Asia or Florida.## Description."Cordyline australis" grows up to 20 (m) tall with a stout trunk 1.5 to 2 (m) in diameter. Before it flowers, it has a slender unbranched stem. The first flowers typically appear at 6 to 10 years old, in spring. The right.

Cordyline australis. conditions can reduce the first flowering age to 3 years (Havelock North, 2015 mast year). After the first flowering, it divides to form a much-branched crown with tufts of leaves at the tips of the branches. Each branch may fork after producing a flowering stem. The pale to dark grey bark is corky, persistent and fissured, and feels spongy to the touch.The long narrow leaves are sword-shaped, erect, dark to light green, 40 to 100 (cm) long and 3 to 7 (cm) wide at the base, with numerous parallel veins. The leaves grow in crowded clusters at the ends of.

Cordyline australis. the branches, and may droop slightly at the tips and bend down from the bases when old. They are thick and have an indistinct midrib. The fine nerves are more or less equal and parallel. The upper and lower leaf surfaces are similar.In spring and early summer, sweetly perfumed flowers are produced in large, dense panicles (flower spikes) 60 to 100 (cm) long, bearing well-spaced to somewhat crowded, almost sessile to sessile flowers and axes. The flowers are crowded along the ultimate branches of the panicles. The bracts which protect the developing flowers often have a distinct pink tinge before.

Cordyline australis. the flowers open. In south Canterbury and North Otago the bracts are green.The individual flowers are 5 to 6 (mm) in diameter, the tepals are free almost to the base, and reflexed. The stamens are about the same length as the tepals. The stigmas are short and trifid. The fruit is a white berry 5 to 7 (mm) in diameter which is greedily eaten by birds. The nectar attracts great numbers of insects to the flowers.Large, peg-like rhizomes, covered with soft, purplish bark, up to 3 (m) long in old plants, grow vertically down beneath the ground. They serve to.

Cordyline australis. anchor the plant and to store fructose in the form of fructan. When young, the rhizomes are mostly fleshy and are made up of thin-walled storage cells. They grow from a layer called the secondary thickening meristem.## Regional diversity.New Zealand's native "Cordyline" species are relics of an influx of tropical plants that arrived from the north 15 million years ago in the warm Miocene era. Because it has evolved in response to the local climate, geology and other factors, "C. australis" varies in appearance from place to place. This variation can alter the overall appearance of the tree, canopy shape.

Cordyline australis. and branch size, the relative shape and size of the leaves, and their colour and stiffness. There may also be invisible adaptations for resistance to disease or insect attack. Some of these regional provenances are different enough to have been named by North Island Māori: in the north, in the central uplands, in the east and in the west.In Northland, "C. australis" shows a great deal of genetic diversity—suggesting it is where old genetic lines have endured. Some trees in the far north have floppy, narrow leaves, which botanist Philip Simpson attributes to hybridisation with "C. pumilio", the dwarf cabbage.

Cordyline australis. tree. In eastern Northland, "C. australis" generally has narrow, straight dark green leaves, but some trees have much broader leaves than normal and may have hybridised with the Three Kings cabbage tree, "C. obtecta", which grows at North Cape and on nearby islands. These "obtecta"-like characteristics appear in populations of "C. australis" along parts of the eastern coastline from the Karikari Peninsula to the Coromandel Peninsula. In western Northland and Auckland, a form often called grows. When young, are generally very spindly, and are common in young kauri forests. When growing in the open, can become massive trees with numerous,.

Cordyline australis. long thin branches and relatively short, broad leaves.In the central Volcanic Plateau, cabbage trees are tall, with stout, relatively unbranched stems and large stiff straight leaves. Fine specimens are found along the upper Whanganui River. On old trees, the leaves tend to be relatively broad. The leaves radiate strongly, suggesting that tī manu is adapted to the cold winters of the upland central plateau. It may have originated in the open country created by lava, volcanic ash, and pumice. Trees of the tī manu type are also found in northern Taranaki, the King Country and the Bay of Plenty lowlands.Tarariki.

Cordyline australis. are found in the east of the North Island from East Cape to the Wairarapa. Māori valued the narrow spiky leaves as a source of particularly tough, durable fibre. Tarariki's strong leaf fibres may be an adaptation to the region's hot, dry summers. In parts of the Wairarapa, the trees are particularly spiky, with stiff leaves and partially rolled leaf-blades. The trees near East Cape, by contrast, have leaves that hang laxly on the tree. In Hawke's Bay, some trees have greener, broader leaves, and this may be because of wharanui characteristics brought in across the main divide through the.

Cordyline australis. Manawatū Gorge.Wharanui grow to the west of the North Island's main divide. They have long, broad flaccid leaves, which may be an adaptation to persistent westerly winds. The wharanui type occurs in Wellington, Horowhenua and Whanganui, and extends with some modifications to the southern Taranaki coast. In Taranaki, cabbage trees generally have a compact canopy with broad straight leaves. In the South Island, wharanui is the most common form, but it is variable. The typical form grows, with little variation, from Cape Campbell to the northern Catlins, and from the eastern coast to the foothills of the Southern Alps /.

Cordyline australis. Kā Tiritiri o te Moana. In Marlborough's Wairau Valley, cabbage trees tend to retain their old, dead leaves, lending them an untidy appearance. The climate there is an extreme one, with hot, dry summers and cold winters.In north-west Nelson, there are three ecotypes defined by soil and exposure. Trees growing on limestone bluffs have stiff, blue-green leaves. On the river flats, the trees are tall with narrow, lax, dark green leaves, and an uneven canopy. They resemble the cabbage trees of the North Island's East Cape. Along the coast to the far west, the trees are robust with broad, bluish.

Cordyline australis. leaves. The latter two forms extend down the West Coast, with the lax-leaved forms growing in moist, fertile, sheltered river valleys while the bluish-leaved forms prefer rocky slopes exposed to the full force of the salt-laden coastal winds. In Otago, cabbage trees gradually become less common towards the south until they come to an end in the northern Catlins. They reappear on the south coast at Waikawa, Southland, but they are not the wharanui type. Rather they are vigorous trees with broad, green leaves and broad canopies. They extend along the coast towards Fiordland, and inland to the margins of.

Cordyline australis. some of the glacier-fed lakes. Very vigorous when they are young, these trees seem well adapted to the very cold winters of the south.A study of seedlings grown from seed collected in 28 areas showed a north-south change in leaf shape and dimensions. Seedling leaves get longer and narrower southwards. Seedlings often have leaves with red-brown pigmentation which disappears in older plants, and this coloration becomes increasingly common towards the south. The changes in shape—leaves getting narrower and more robust from north to south and from lowland to montane—suggest adaptations to colder weather.## Taxonomy and names."Cordyline australis" was collected in.

Cordyline australis. 1769 by Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Daniel Solander, naturalists on the "Endeavour" during Lieutenant James Cook's first voyage to the Pacific. The type locality is Queen Charlotte Sound / Tōtaranui. It was named "Dracaena australis" by Georg Forster who published it as entry 151 in his "Florulae Insularum Australium Prodromus" of 1786. It is sometimes still sold as a "Dracaena", particularly for the house plant market in Northern Hemisphere countries. In 1833, Stephan Endlicher reassigned the species to the genus,"Cordyline".The genus name "Cordyline" derives from an Ancient Greek word for a club ("kordyle"), a reference to the enlarged underground.

Cordyline australis. stems or rhizomes, while the species name "australis" is Latin for "southern". The common name "cabbage tree" is attributed by some sources to early settlers having used the young leaves as a substitute for cabbage. However the name probably predates the settlement of New Zealand — Georg Forster, writing in his "Voyage round the World" of 1777 about the events of Friday, April 23, 1773, refers on page 114 to the discovery of a related species in Fiordland as "not the true cabbage palm" and says "the central shoot, when quite tender, tastes something like an almond's kernel, with a.

Cordyline australis. little of the flavour of cabbage." Forster may have been referring to the cabbage palmetto ("Sabal palmetto") of Florida, which resembles the Cordyline somewhat, and was named for the cabbage-like appearance of its terminal bud."Cordyline australis" is the tallest of New Zealand's five native "Cordyline" species. Of these, the commonest are "C. banksii", which has a slender, sweeping trunk, and "C. indivisa", a handsome plant with a trunk up to 8 (m) tall bearing a massive head of broad leaves up to 2 (m) long. In the far north of New Zealand, "C. australis" can be distinguished by its larger.

Cordyline australis. heavily branched tree form, narrower leaves and smaller seeds from "C. obtecta", the Three Kings cabbage tree, its closest relative. "C. australis" is rather variable, and forms from the northern offshore islands may be hybrids with "C. obtecta". Hybrids with "C. pumilio" and "C. banksii" also occur often where the plants are in close vicinity, because they flower at about the same time and share the chromosome number 2n=38, with "C. australis".The tree was well known to Māori before its scientific discovery. The generic Māori language term for plants in the genus "Cordyline" is "tī", and names recorded as specific.

Cordyline australis. to "C. australis" include "tī kōuka", "tī kāuka", "tī rākau", "tī awe", "tī pua", and "tī whanake". Each tribe had names for the tree depending on its local uses and characteristics. Simpson reports that the names highlight the characteristics of the tree that were important to Māori. These include what the plant looked like—whether it was a large tree ("tī rākau", "tī pua"), the whiteness of its flowers ("tī puatea"), whether its leaves were broad ("tī wharanui"), twisted along the edges ("tī tahanui"), or spiky ("tī tarariki"). Other names refer to its uses—whether its fruit attracted birds ("tī manu"), or.

Cordyline australis. the leaves were particularly suitable for making ropes ("tī whanake") and nets ("tī kupenga"). The most widely used name, "tī kōuka", refers to the use of the leaf hearts as food.## Ecology.## Habitat.A quote from Philip Simpson sums up the wide range of habitats the cabbage tree occupied in early New Zealand, and how much its abundance and distinctive form shaped the impression travellers received of the country:"In primeval New Zealand cabbage trees occupied a range of habitats, anywhere open, moist, fertile and warm enough for them to establish and mature: with forest; around the rocky coast; in lowland swamps,.

Cordyline australis. around the lakes and along the lower rivers; and perched on isolated rocks. Approaching the land from the sea would have reminded a Polynesian traveller of home, and for a European traveller, conjured up images of the tropical Pacific"."Cordyline australis" occurs from North Cape to the very south of the South Island, where it becomes less and less common, until it reaches its southernmost natural limits at Sandy Point (46° 30' S), west of Invercargill near Oreti Beach. It is absent from much of Fiordland, probably because there is no suitable habitat, and is unknown on the subantarctic islands to.

Cordyline australis. the south of New Zealand, probably because it is too cold. It occurs on some offshore islands—Poor Knights, Stewart and the Chathams—but was probably introduced by Māori. In the Stewart Island region, it is rare, growing only on certain islands, headlands and former settlement sites where it may have been introduced by muttonbird collectors, while on the Chatham Islands it is also largely "a notable absentee".Generally a lowland species, it grows from sea level to about 1000 (m), reaching its upper limits on the volcanoes of the central North Island, where eruptions have created open spaces for it to exploit,.

Cordyline australis. and in the foothills of the Southern Alps in the South Island, where deforestation may have played a part in giving it room to grow. In the central North Island, it has evolved a much sturdier form (with the Māori name "tī manu", meaning "with branches bearing broad, straight upright leaves"). This form resembles that found in the far south of the South Island, suggesting that they are both adapted to cold conditions."Cordyline australis" is a light-demanding pioneer species, and seedlings die when overtopped by other trees. To grow well, young plants require open space so they are not shaded.

Cordyline australis. out by other vegetation. Another requirement is water during the seedling stage. Although adult trees can store water and are drought resistant, seedlings need a good supply of water to survive. This stops the species from growing in sand dunes unless there are wet depressions present, and from hillsides unless there is a seepage area. The fertility of the soil is another factor—settlers in Canterbury used the presence of the species to situate their homesteads and gardens. The fallen leaves of the tree also help to raise the fertility of the soil when they break down. Another factor is temperature,.

Cordyline australis. especially the degree of frost. Young trees are killed by frost, and even old trees can be cut back. This is why "C. australis" is absent from upland areas and from very frosty inland areas.Early European explorers of New Zealand described "jungles of cabbage trees" along the banks of streams and rivers, in huge swamps and lowland valleys. Few examples of this former abundance survive today—such areas were the first to be cleared by farmers looking for flat land and fertile soil. In modern New Zealand, cabbage trees usually grow as isolated individuals rather than as parts of a healthy.

Cordyline australis. ecosystem.## Reproduction.The cabbage tree's year begins in autumn among the tight spike of unopened leaves projecting from the centre of each tuft of leaves. Some of the growing tips have changed from making leaves to producing inflorescences for the coming spring, and around these, two or three buds begin to produce leaves. The inflorescence and the leaf buds pass the winter protected by the enveloping spike of unopened leaves. Months later in spring or early summer, it bears its flowers on the outside of the tree, exposed to insects and birds.Flowering takes place over a period of four to six.

Cordyline australis. weeks, giving maximum exposure to pollinating insects. The flowers produce a sweet perfume which attracts large numbers of insects. The nectar produced by the flowers contains aromatic compounds, mainly esters and terpenes, which are particularly attractive to moths. Bees use the nectar to produce a light honey to feed their young and increase the size of the hive in the early summer. It takes about two months for the fruit to ripen, and by the end of summer a cabbage tree can have thousands of small fruits available for birds to eat and disperse. The strong framework of the inflorescence.

Cordyline australis. can easily bear the weight of heavy birds like the New Zealand pigeon, which was formerly the major disperser of the seeds.Each fruit contains three to six shiny, black seeds which are coated in a charcoal-like substance called phytomelan. The latter may serve to protect the seeds from the digestive process in the gut of a bird. The seeds are also rich in linoleic acid as a food source for the developing embryo plant, a compound which is also important in the egg-laying cycle of birds. Because it takes about two years for a particular stem to produce an inflorescence,.

Cordyline australis. cabbage trees tend to flower heavily in alternative years, with a bumper flowering every three to five years. Each inflorescence bears 5,000 to 10,000 flowers, so a large inflorescence may carry about 40,000 seeds, or one million seeds for the whole tree in a good flowering year—hundreds of millions for a healthy grove of trees.## Response to fire."Cordyline australis" is one of the few New Zealand forest trees that can recover from fire. It can renew its trunk from buds on the protected rhizomes under the ground. This gives the tree an advantage because it can regenerate itself quickly and.

Cordyline australis. the fire has eliminated competing plants. Cabbage tree leaves contain oils which make them burn readily. The same oils may also slow down the decay of fallen leaves, so that they build up a dense mat that prevents the seeds of other plants from germinating. When the leaves do break down, they form a fertile soil around the tree. Cabbage tree seed also has a store of oil, which means it remains viable for several years. When a bushfire has cleared the land of vegetation, cabbage tree seeds germinate in great numbers to make the most of the light and.

Cordyline australis. space opened up by the flames.Older trees sometimes grow epicormic shoots directly from their trunks after storm or fire damage. Aerial rhizomes can also be produced from the trunk if it sustains damage or has become hollow, and grow down into the soil to regenerate the plant. Such regeneration can lead to trees of great age with multiple trunks.## Biodiversity.Many plants and animals are associated with "C. australis" in healthy ecosystems. The most common epiphytes are ferns, astelias and orchids. Old trees often carry large clumps of the climbing fern "Asplenium", and in moist places, filmy ferns and kidney ferns.

Cordyline australis. cling to the branches. "Astelia" species and "Collospermum" often establish in the main fork of the tree, and one tree can host several species of native orchid. Other common epiphytes include "Griselinia lucida", as well as a range of mosses, liverworts, lichens and fungi. Two fungus species which infect living tissue—"Phanaerochaeta cordylines" and "Sphaeropsis cordylines"—occur almost exclusively on "C. australis".Animals and birds associated with "C. australis" include lizards which forage among the flowers, including the gold-striped gecko which is well camouflaged for life among the leaves of the tree. New Zealand bellbirds like to nest under the dead leaves or.

Cordyline australis. among the flower stalks, and paradise shelducks commonly build their nests in the base of an old cabbage tree standing in the middle of a field. Red-crowned parakeets are often seen foraging in cabbage trees. In South Canterbury, long-tailed bats shelter during the day in the hollow branches, which would once have provided nesting holes for many birds.The berries of "C. australis" are enjoyed by bellbirds, tūī, and kererū. Māori sometimes planted groves of cabbage trees () to attract kererū which could be snared when they came to eat the berries. Reminiscing in 1903 about life in New Zealand sixty.

Cordyline australis. or more years earlier, George Clarke describes how such a tapu grove of cabbage trees would attract huge numbers of pigeons: "About four miles from our house, there was a great preserve of wood pigeons, that was made as tapu as the native chiefs could devise. At a certain season, the pigeons came in vast flocks to feed on the white berries of the Ti tree (bracœna) [sic] and got so heavy with fat that they could hardly fly from one tree to another. No gun was allowed in the place. The Maoris, with a long slender rod and a.

Cordyline australis. slip noose at the end, squatted under the leaves and noiselessly slipped the noose over the necks of the stupid pigeons as they were feeding." As the native birds have vanished from much of New Zealand with the clearing of forests, it is now flocks of starlings which descend upon the fruit.The nectar of the flowers is sought after by insects, bellbirds, tūī, and stitchbirds. The leaves and the rough bark provide excellent homes for insects such as caterpillars and moths, small beetles, fly larvae, wētā, snails and slugs. Many of these are then eaten by birds such as saddlebacks.

Cordyline australis. and robins. The rough bark also provides opportunities for epiphytes to cling and grow, and lizards hide amongst the dead leaves, coming out to drink the nectar and to eat the insects. Good flowering seasons occur every few years only. While it is said that they foretell dry summers, it has been observed that they tend to follow dry seasons.Insects, including beetles, moths, wasps and flies, use the bark, leaves and flowers of the tree in various ways. Some feed or hide camouflaged in the skirt of dead leaves, a favourite dry place for wētā to hide in winter. Many.

Cordyline australis. of the insect companions of the tree have followed it into the domesticated surroundings of parks and home gardens. If the leaves are left to decay, the soil underneath cabbage trees becomes a black humus that supports a rich array of amphipods, earthworms and millipedes.There are nine species of insect only found on "C. australis", of which the best known is "Epiphryne verriculata", the cabbage tree moth, which is perfectly adapted to hide on a dead leaf. Its caterpillars eat large holes and wedges in the leaves. The moth lays its eggs at the base of the central spike of.

Cordyline australis. unopened leaves. The caterpillars eat holes in the surface of the leaves and leave characteristic notches in the leaf margins. They can infest young trees but seldom damage older trees, which lack the skirt of dead leaves where the parent moths like to hide.## Threats, pests and diseases.## Sudden decline.Cases of sick and dying trees of "C. australis" were first reported in the northern part of the North Island in 1987. The syndrome, eventually called Sudden Decline, soon reached epidemic proportions in Northland and Auckland. Affected trees usually suffer total defoliation within 2 to 12 months. The foliage turns yellow,.

Cordyline australis. and the oldest leaves wither and fall off. Growth of leaves ceases, and eventually all the leaves fall, leaving dead branches, often with the dried-out flowering panicles still attached. At the same time, the bark on the trunk becomes loose and detaches easily. The greatest number of dead trees (18 to 26 percent) was recorded around Auckland.For some years, the cause of the disease was unknown, and hypotheses included tree ageing, fungi, viruses, and environmental factors such as an increase in ultra-violet light. Another hypothesis was that a genetic problem may have been induced in Northland and Auckland by the.

Cordyline australis. thousands of cabbage trees brought into the area from elsewhere and planted in gardens and parks. The Lands and Survey Department had a native plant nursery at Taupo in the central North Island, which was used to grow plants for use in parks, reserves and carparks. In many Northland parks, cabbage trees from the central North Island were growing and flowering within metres of natural forms. Any offspring produced might have been poorly adapted to local conditions. After nearly five years of work, scientists found the cause was a bacterium "Phytoplasma australiense", which may be spread from tree to tree.

Cordyline australis. by a tiny sap-sucking insect, the introduced passion vine hopper.Populations of "C. australis" were decimated in some parts of New Zealand because of Sudden Decline. In some areas, particularly in the north, no big trees are left. Although Sudden Decline often affects cabbage trees in farmland and open areas, trees in natural forest patches continue to do well. Trees in the southern North Island and northern South Island are generally unaffected with few dead branches and no symptoms of Sudden Decline. By 2010, there was evidence to suggest the severity of the disease was lessening.## Rural decline.The plight of "Cordyline.

Cordyline australis. australis" in the Sudden Decline epidemic drew attention to another widespread threat to the tree in rural areas throughout New Zealand. Rural Decline was the name proposed by botanists to refer to a decline in health of older trees in pasture and grazed shrubland, leading over many years to the loss of upper branches and eventual death.Often farmers would leave a solitary cabbage tree—or even groves of trees—standing after the swamps were drained. Most of these trees will slowly die out because livestock eat the seedlings and damage the trunks and roots of adult trees. When a cabbage tree is.

Cordyline australis. the only shade in a field, stock will shelter underneath it, damaging the bark by rubbing against it, and compacting the soil around the tree. Cows, sheep, goats, and deer eat the nutritious tissue under the bark of cabbage trees. Once the trunk has been damaged by animals, it seldom heals and the wounds get bigger over time. Eventually the tissue in the centre of the stem rots away and a cavity forms along its entire length. The trunk becomes misshapen or completely ring-barked for a metre above the ground. Often the growth layer dies and the injuries may lead.

Cordyline australis. to bacterial or fungal infections that spread into the branches until the canopy too begins to die. Other factors thought to contribute to Rural Decline include wood-rotting fungi like "Phanerochaete cordylines", micro-organisms which cause saprobic decay and leaf-feeding caterpillars.Other mammals can be destructive. Possums tend not to eat the leaves of the tree, but are very fond of eating the sugar-rich flowering stalks as they emerge. They also like using the tree as a sleeping place. Rabbits can be more destructive, especially during periods of drought, when they have been seen to eat through the base until a tree falls,.

Cordyline australis. and then eating the fallen tree completely. Horses can also fell a tree by eating through the trunk.## Māori cultural uses.In traditional times, Māori had a rich knowledge of the cabbage tree, including spiritual, ecological and many practical aspects of its use. While much of that specialised knowledge was lost after the European settlement of New Zealand, the use of the tree as food and medicine has persisted, and the use of its fibres for weaving is becoming more common.## Food.The stems and fleshy rhizomes of "C. australis" are high in natural sugars and were steam-cooked in earth ovens ("umu.

Cordyline australis. tī", a large type of "hāngi") to produce "kāuru", a carbohydrate-rich food used to sweeten other foods. The growing tips or leaf hearts were stripped of leaves and eaten raw or cooked as a vegetable, when they were called "kōuka"—the origin of the Māori name of the tree. The southern limit of kūmara (sweet potato) cultivation was at Banks Peninsula at 43°S, and south of there a culture developed around "C. australis". Natural and planted groves of the cabbage tree were harvested.Large parties trimmed the cut stems, and left them to dry for days or weeks. As well as stems,.

Cordyline australis. the rhizomes—extensions of the trunk below the surface of the ground shaped like enormous carrots—were also dug up to be cooked. In the early 1840s, Edward Shortland said Māori preferred rhizomes from trees growing in deep rich soil. They dug them in spring or early summer just before the flowering of the plant, when they were at their sweetest. November was the favourite month for preparing kāuru in the South Island.After drying, the harvested stems or rhizomes were steamed for 24 hours or more in the umu tī pit. Steaming converted the carbohydrate fructan in the stems to very sweet.

Cordyline australis. fructose. The cooked stems or rhizomes were then flattened by beating and carried back to villages for storage. Kāuru could be stored dry until the time came to add it to fern root and other foods to improve their palatability. The sugar in the stems or rhizomes would be partially crystallised, and could be found mixed in a sugary pulp with other matter between the fibres of the root, which were easily separated by tearing them apart. Kāuru could also be dipped in water and chewed, and was said to smell and taste like molasses.Evidence of large cooking pits (umu.

Cordyline australis. tī) can still be found in the hills of South Canterbury and North Otago, where large groves of cabbage trees still stand. Europeans used the plant to make alcohol, and the often fearsome brews were relished by whalers and sealers.The kōata, the growing tip of the plant, was eaten raw as medicine. When cooked, it was called the kōuka. If the spike of unopened leaves and a few outer leaves is gripped firmly at the base and bent, it will snap off. The leaves can be removed, and what remains is like a small artichoke heart that can be steamed,.

Cordyline australis. roasted or boiled to make kōuka, a bitter vegetable available at any time of the year. Kōuka is delicious as a relish with fatty foods like eel, muttonbirds, or pigeons, or in modern times, pork, mutton and beef. Different trees were selected for their degree of bitterness, which should be strong for medicinal use, but less so when used as a vegetable.## Fibre.A tough fibre was extracted from the leaves of "C. australis", and was valued for its strength and durability especially in seawater. The leaves are suitable for weaving in its raw state, without any need to further process.

Cordyline australis. the fibres. The leaves were used for making anchor ropes and fishing lines, cooking mats, baskets, sandals and leggings for protection when travelling in the South Island high country, home of the prickly speargrasses ("Aciphylla") and tūmatakuru or matagouri ("Discaria toumatou"). Because of the water-resistant properties of the plant, the leaves were traditionally used for cooking baskets. Morere swings provided a source of amusement for Māori children. The ropes had to be strong, so they were often made from the leaves or fibre of "C. australis", which were much tougher than the fibres of New Zealand flax. The leaves were.

Cordyline australis. also used for rain capes, although the mountain cabbage tree "C. indivisa", was preferred. The fibre made from cabbage tree leaves is stronger than that made from New Zealand flax.## Medicine.The Māori used various parts of "Cordyline australis" to treat injuries and illnesses, either boiled up into a drink or pounded into a paste. The kōata, the growing tip of the plant, was eaten raw as a blood tonic or cleanser. Juice from the leaves was used for cuts, cracks and sores. An infusion of the leaves was taken internally for diarrhoea and used externally for bathing cuts. The leaves.

Cordyline australis. were rubbed until soft and applied either directly or as an ointment to cuts, skin cracks and cracked or sore hands. The young shoot was eaten by nursing mothers and given to children for colic. The liquid from boiled shoots was taken for other stomach pains. The seeds of "Cordyline australis" are high in linoleic acid, one of the essential fatty acids.## Cultivation today."Cordyline australis" is one of the most widely cultivated New Zealand native trees. In Northwest Europe and other cool oceanic climates, it is very popular as an ornamental tree because it looks like a palm tree. Hardy.

Cordyline australis. forms from the coldest areas of the southern or inland South Island tolerate Northern Hemisphere conditions best, while North Island forms are much more tender. It can also be grown successfully in Mediterranean climates. It is easily grown from fresh seed — seedlings often spontaneously appear in gardens from bird-dispersed seed — and can be grown very easily from shoot, stem and even trunk cuttings. It does well in pots and tubs.It grows well as far north as the eastern coast of Scotland, including the village of Portgower. It is more common in Southern England and in Ireland where it.

Cordyline australis. is grown all over the island. Although not a palm, it is locally named Cornish palm, Manx palm or Torbay palm. The last name is due to its extensive use in Torbay, it being the official symbol of that area, used in tourist posters promoting South Devon as the English Riviera. It also grows in southern Europe, California and Japan. Even though its natural distribution ranges from 34° S to 46°S, and despite its ultimately subtropical origins, it also grows at about five degrees from the Arctic Circle in Masfjorden, Norway, latitude 61ºN, in a microclimate protected from arctic winds.

Cordyline australis. and moderated by the Gulf Stream.## Cultivars.In the North Island, Māori cultivated selected forms of "C. australis" for food. One of these, called tī para or tī tāwhiti, was grown because it suckers readily and forms multiple fleshy rhizomes. A dwarf non-flowering selection of "C. australis", it has a rubbery, pulpy stem, and thick green leaves. Although it was recorded by the early naturalists, botanists only rediscovered it in the 1990s, being grown by gardeners as the cultivar "Cordyline" 'Thomas Kirk'. Recent and unpublished DNA work suggests it derives from "C. australis" of the central North Island."Cordyline" 'Ti Tawhiti' was.

Cordyline australis. "the subject of an intense discussion amongst the leading botanists of New Zealand at a meeting of the Royal Society ... in Wellington 100 years ago. It was saved from extinction because its dwarf form found favour with gardeners and it came to be known as Cordyline 'Kirkii' recording the interest Thomas Kirk had in the plant. Its origin as a Maori selection was forgotten until rediscovered in 1991. The name 'Tawhiti' is equivalent to 'Hawaiki' and indicates the traditional belief that the plant was introduced to Aotearoa by the ancestral canoes of Maori. However, it is more probable that.

Cordyline australis. the name arose from it being moved around its native land as a domesticated plant."Numerous cultivars of "C. australis" are sold within New Zealand and around the world. Like other "Cordyline" species, "C. australis" can produce sports which have very attractive colouration, including pink stripes and leaves in various shades of green, yellow or red. An early cultivar was published in France and England in 1870: "Cordyline australis" 'Lentiginosa' was described as having tinted leaves with brownish red spots. Other early cultivars included 'Veitchii' (1871) with crimson midribs, 'Atrosanguinea' (1882) with bronze leaves infused with red, 'Atropurpurea' (1886) and 'Purpurea'.

Cordyline australis. (1890) with purple leaves, and a range of variegated forms: 'Doucetiana' (1878), 'Argento-striata' (1888) and 'Dalleriana' (1890). In New Zealand and overseas, hybrids with other "Cordyline" species feature prominently in the range of cultivars available. New Plymouth plant breeders Duncan and Davies included hybrids of "C. australis" and "C. banksii" in their 1925 catalogue, and have produced many new cultivars since. In New Zealand, some of the coloured forms and hybrids seem to be more susceptible to attacks from the cabbage tree moth.Immature forms have become a popular annual house or ornamental plant under the name 'Spikes', or "Dracaena" 'Spikes'.

Cordyline australis. To add to the confusion, these may be misidentified as "Cordyline indivisa" (syn. "Dracaena indivisa")."C. australis" is hardy to USDA zones 8–11.## AGM cultivars.In cultivation in the United Kingdom, the following have received the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:"C. australis" 'Albertii' 'Sundance' 'Torbay Dazzler', 'Torbay Red' (confirmed 2017) Barry L. Frankhauser, an archaeologist and anthropologist, whose Ph.D. thesis (published 1986) was a study of historical uses of the cabbage treeScheele, S. (2007). The 2006 Banks Memorial Lecture: Cultural uses of New Zealand native plants. "New Zealand Garden Journal" 1:10–16. Retrieved 2010-04-04.Arkins, A. (2003). "The Cabbage Tree". Auckland. Reed.

Cordyline australis. Publishing.Harris, W. (2001). Horticultural and conservation significance of the genetic variation of cabbage trees (Cordyline spp.). In: Oates, M. R. ed. "New Zealand plants and their story: proceedings of a conference held in Wellington 1–3 October 1999". Lincoln, Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture. pp. 87–91.Harris, W. (2002). The cabbage tree. "Journal of the Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture", 5, 3–9.Harris, W. (2003). Genotypic variation of height growth and trunk diameter of Cordyline australis (Lomandraceae) grown at three locations in New Zealand. "New Zealand Journal of Botany", 41, 637–652.Harris, W. (2004). Genotypic variation of dead leaf retention by Cordyline.

Cordyline australis. australis (Lomandraceae) populations and influence on trunk surface. "New Zealand Journal of Botany", 42, 833–844.


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Pomelo. The pomelo ( ), "Citrus maxima", is the largest citrus fruit from the family Rutaceae and the principal ancestor of the grapefruit. It is a natural, non-hybrid, citrus fruit, native to Southeast Asia. Similar in taste to a sweet grapefruit, the pomelo is commonly consumed and used for festive occasions throughout Southeast Asia. As with the grapefruit, phytochemicals in the pomelo have the potential for drug interactions.## Etymology and common names.According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the etymology of the word "pomelo" is uncertain. It may be derived from Dutch "pompelmoes". Its botanical name, "Citrus maxima", means "the biggest citrus".

Pomelo. tree they grow on and therefore pomelo is typically grown from seed in Asia. Seeds can be stored for 80 days at a temperature of 41 (F) and with moderate relative humidity. "Citrus maxima" is usually grafted onto other citrus rootstocks outside Asia to produce trees that are identical to the parent; high-quality varieties are propagated by air-layering or by budding onto favored rootstocks.The physical and chemical characteristics of pomelo vary widely across South Asia. Dangyuja Banpeiyu## Varieties.## Hybrids.The pomelo is one of the original citrus species from which cultivated citrus fruits have been hybridized, others being citron, mandarin, and.

Pomelo. artificial breeding programs: The common sweet orange (Citrus × sinensis) is a pomelo × mandarin hybrid The bitter orange (Citrus × aurantium) is another pomelo × mandarin hybrid The tangelo is a hybrid between pomelo or grapefruit and any tangerine; it generally has a thicker skin than a tangerine and is less sweet 'K–Early' ('Sunrise Tangelo') 'Minneola tangelo': Bowen grapefruit × Dancy tangerine 'Orlando' (formerly 'Take'): Bowen grapefruit × Dancy tangerine (pollen parent) 'Seminole': Bowen grapefruit × Dancy tangerine 'Thornton': tangerine × grapefruit, unspecified 'Ugli fruit' (Jamaican tangelo): mandarin × grapefruit, probable (wild seedling) Grapefruit is a pomelo backcross: pomelo.

Pomelo. × sweet orange (see above) Forbidden fruit another Caribbean pomelo/sweet orange cross 'Nova': Clementine × Orlando tangelo cross The Oroblanco and Melogold grapefruits are hybrids between "Citrus maxima" and the grapefruit Mandelos: pomelo × mandarin Mato buntan: a variety in Taiwan Hyuganatsu is a pomelo hybrid Kawachi Bankan: ujukitsu x unidentified## Nutrition.Raw pomelo flesh is 89% water, 10% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contains negligible fat (table). A 100-gram reference amount provides 159 (kJ) of food energy, and is rich in vitamin C (73% of the Daily Value), with no other micronutrients in significant content (table).## Potential for drug interaction.Pomelo may.


Question: What is the closest upper taxonomy of this animal?

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Alpaca. the llama, ignoring similarities in size, fleece and dentition between the alpaca and the vicuña. Classification was complicated by the fact that all four species of South American camelid can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. The advent of DNA technology made a more accurate classification possible.In 2001, the alpaca genus classification changed from "Lama pacos" to "Vicugna pacos", following the presentation of a paper on work by Miranda Kadwell "etal." on alpaca DNA to the Royal Society showing the alpaca is descended from the vicuña, not the guanaco.## Origin and domestication.Alpacas were domesticated thousands of years ago. The Moche people.

Alpaca. 2–5 million years ago, during the Pliocene, that the genus Hemiauchenia of the tribe Lamini split into "Palaeolama" and "Lama"; the latter would then split again into "Lama" and "Vicugna" upon migrating down to South America.Remains of vicuña and guanaco have been found throughout Peru for around 12,000 years. Their domesticated counterparts, the llama and alpacas, have been found mummified in the Moquegua valley, in the south of Peru, dating back 900 to 1000 years. Mummies found in this region show two breeds of alpacas. More precise analysis of bone and teeth of these mummies has demonstrated that alpacas were.

Alpaca. domesticated from the "Vicugna vicugna". Other research, considering the behavioral and morphological characteristics of alpacas and their wild counterparts, seems to indicate that alpacas could find their origins in "Lama guanicoe" as well as "Vicugna vicugna", or even a hybrid of both.Genetic analysis shows a different picture of the origins of the alpaca. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA shows that most alpacas have guanaco mtDNA, and many also have vicuña mtDNA. But microsatellite data shows that alpaca DNA is much more similar to vicuña DNA than to guanaco DNA. This suggests that alpacas are descendants of the "Vicugna vicugna", not of.

Alpaca. the "Lama guanicoe". The discrepancy with mtDNA seems to be a result of the fact that mtDNA is only transmitted by the mother, and recent husbandry practices have caused hybridization between llamas (which primarily carry guanaco DNA) and alpacas. To the extent that many of today's domestic alpacas are the result of male alpacas bred to female llamas, this would explain the mtDNA consistent with guanacos. This situation has led to attempts to reclassify the alpaca as "Vicugna pacos".## Breeds.The alpaca comes in two breeds, Suri and Huacaya, based on their fibers rather than scientific or European classifications.Huacaya alpacas are.


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Texas river cooter. The Texas river cooter ("Pseudemys texana") is a species of freshwater turtle endemic to the U.S. state of Texas. It is found in the river basins of the Brazos, San Bernard, Colorado, Guadalupe, San Antonio, Nueces, and their tributaries. It is one of three species of cooters ("Pseudemys") occurring in Texas, including the Rio Grande cooter ("Pseudemys gorzugi") and the river cooter ("Pseudemys concinna").## Description.The Texas river cooter is a relatively large turtle, capable of growing to a shell length of 12+ inches (30.5 cm). They are green in color, with yellow and black markings that fade with age. Males.

Texas river cooter. can be distinguished from females by their longer tails, longer claws, and overall smaller size.## Taxonomy.The Texas cooter was once reclassified to a subspecies of the eastern cooter, "Pseudemys concinna", but was given full species status in 1991.## Similar species.The red-eared slider ("Trachemys scripta elegans") shares its range and habits, but can easily be distinguished from the Texas cooter by red patches on either side of its head. Various species of map turtle can also look much like juvenile Texas cooters.Chelonia.org: "Pseudemys" care.


Question: What country does this aircraft belong to?

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Dornier Flugzeugwerke. Dornier Flugzeugwerke was a German aircraft manufacturer founded in Friedrichshafen in 1914 by Claude Dornier. Over the course of its long lifespan, the company produced many designs for both the civil and military markets.## History.Originally Dornier Metallbau, Dornier Flugzeugwerke took over Flugzeugbau Friedrichshafen production facilities (Weingarten, Warnemünde, and the former Zeppelin shed at Manzell) when it failed in 1923.Dornier was well known between the two world wars as a manufacturer of large, all-metal flying boats and of land based airliners. The record-breaking 1924 Wal () was used on many long distance flights and the Do X set records for its.

Dornier Flugzeugwerke. immense size and weight. Dornier's successful landplane airliners, including the Komet ("Comet") and Merkur ("Mercury"), were used by Lufthansa and other European carriers during the 1920s and early 30s. Dornier built its aircraft outside Germany during much of this period due to the restrictions placed on German aircraft manufacturers by the Treaty of Versailles: locations included Altenrhein, Switzerland, 12 km from Zeppelin's Lindau (Bodensee) location. Foreign factories licence-building Dornier products included CMASA and Piaggio in Italy, CASA in Spain, Kawasaki in Japan, and Aviolanda in the Netherlands. Once the Nazi government came to power and abandoned the treaty's restrictions, Dornier.

Dornier Flugzeugwerke. resumed production in Germany.The success of the Wal family encouraged the development of derivatives, and of more advanced successors, such as the Do 18, and Do 24 which saw service in several armed forces, including German, into World War II.Dornier's most important World War II military aircraft design was the Do 17, nicknamed "The Flying Pencil". It first flew in 1934 as a mailplane for Lufthansa but due to its narrow fuselage (hence its nickname) it was not commercially viable and was passed over. Dornier then developed it further as a military aircraft, with a prototype bomber flying in 1935,.

Dornier Flugzeugwerke. and in 1937 it was used in by the German Condor Legion during the Spanish Civil War. Production continued in Germany and it was developed to fill multiple roles for the Luftwaffe. As a medium bomber it saw service during the early part of World War II, particularly during the Battle of Britain. It was later developed into a nightfighter to counter the RAF bomber offensive. Dornier developed the similar looking Do 217 from the Do 17 but it was a larger and completely new design. Dornier also developed the fastest piston-engined fighter of the war, the twin-engined Do 335,.

Dornier Flugzeugwerke. which was too late to see service.After WWII, aircraft production was again forbidden in Germany, and Dornier relocated to Spain and then to Switzerland where the firm provided aeronautical consultancy services until returning to Germany in 1954. Post-war, Dornier re-established itself with successful STOL Do 27 and Do 28 utility planes. In 1974 it joined a joint venture with French aircraft manufacturers Dassault-Breguet to develop the Alpha Jet.In 1983, Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) acquired a production licence for the Dornier 228 and manufactured the aircraft for the Asian market. By 2013 a total of 117 Dornier 228 aircraft had been.

Dornier Flugzeugwerke. produced by HAL with plans to build 20 more during 2013-14.In 1985, Dornier became a member of the Daimler-Benz group, integrating its aeronautic assets with the parent company. As part of this transaction, Lindauer Dornier GmbH was spun off, creating a separate, family-owned firm, concentrating on textile machinery design and manufacturing. The rest of the company was split into several subsidiaries for defence, satellites, medtech and aircraft.In 1996, the majority of Dornier Aircraft was acquired by Fairchild Aircraft, forming Fairchild Dornier. This company became insolvent in early 2002. Production of its 328 Jet was acquired by US company Avcraft. Asian.

Dornier Flugzeugwerke. groups continued to show interest in its 728 version in August 2004, but production was not restarted. Dornier 228 production was taken over by Swiss manufacturer RUAG, who then sold it off to General Atomics in 2020. Other subsidiaries became part of the EADS.The medtech division was sold to an investment company and now bears the name Dornier MedTech. Dornier Medtech manufactures medical equipment, such as the "Dornier S lithotriptor", HM3, Compact Delta to treat kidney stones. Dornier MedTech also manufactures laser devices for a wide range of applications.## Dornier Seaplane Company.The Dornier family have a spin-off company and project,.

Dornier Flugzeugwerke. the Dornier Seastar. It is a turboprop-powered amphibious aircraft built largely of composite materials. This was developed by , and later by his son Cornado by Dornier Seawings.## Dornier Technologie.Claude's grandson, , founded Dornier Technologie in 1996 to manufacture the Dornier S-Ray 007. Dornier Gs Precursor to Wal destroyed by Military Inter-Allied Commission of Control (1919) Dornier Do A Libelle (I 1921, III redesignated Do 12) Dornier Spatz Landplane version of Do A (1922) Dornier Do B Merkur Development of Do C (1926) Dornier Do C Komet (I 1921, II 1922, III 1926) Dornier Do C 2, 3, 4 Fighter.

Dornier Flugzeugwerke. unrelated to earlier Do C, redesignated Do 10 (C 2 ?, C 3 1931, C 4 1932) Dornier Do D (1929) Dornier Do E (1924) Dornier Do F (1932, redesignated Do 11, 13, 23) Dornier Do G "Grief" (Cancelled 1920 project) Dornier Do H "Falke" (1922 development of Dornier-Zeppelin D.I) Dornier Do I (1923 twin engine long range reconnaissance aircraft) Dornier Do J Wal (1922) Dornier Do K (K 1 1929, K 2 1929, K 3 1931) Dornier Do L Delphin (I 1920, II 1921, III 1927) Dornier Do N Design for Japanese as Kawasaki Ka 87 (1926) Dornier Do.

Dornier Flugzeugwerke. O Wal Custom built version of Do J (1924) Dornier Do P (1930) Dornier Do R.2 and R.4 Superwal (1924) Dornier Do S (1930) Dornier Do T (Komet/Merkur converted to Air Ambulance) Dornier Do U (Cancelled civil variant of Do Y) Dornier Do X (1929) Dornier Do Y (1930, redesignated Do 15)## Dornier aircraft projects.## Letter designations (before 1933).Additional unbuilt projects include 3 different Schneider Trophy racers from 1924, 1928 and 1931 and a large multi-engine seaplane similar to the Do X with engines buried in the wings. Dornier Do 10 Dornier Do 11 Dornier Do 12 Dornier Do 13.

Dornier Flugzeugwerke. Do 27 Dornier Do 27 Dornier Do 28 - developed from Do 27 Dornier Do 29 Dornier Do 31 Dornier Do 32 Dornier 128 Dornier Do 132 Dornier 228 - developed from Do 28 Dornier Do 231 Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet Dornier 328 Fairchild Dornier 328JET Fairchild Dornier 428JET Fairchild Dornier 728 family Dornier Aerodyne Dornier Seawings Seastar Dornier S-Ray 007 Dornier LA-2000 (Study for a stealth strike aircraft with full delta wing similar to A-12 Avenger) Dornier Delta Dornier Delta II, developed for Hymer## Dornier Faint Object Camera.Dornier GmbH built the Faint Object Camera for the Hubble Space Telescope, which.

Dornier Flugzeugwerke. was used from 1990 to 2002. The ESA funded the unit, which actually consists of two complete and independent camera systems designed to provide extremely high resolution, exceeding 0.05 arcseconds. It is designed to view very faint UV light from 115 to 650 nanometers in wavelength. It was the last original instrument on the Hubble when it was replaced by the Advanced Camera for Surveys in 2002. Dornier Viper AMC-5 (satellite) Project 621 (rocket)Dornier Museum FriedrichshafenList of RLM aircraft designationsZündapp Janus DFW's Web Page Dornier Museum Friedrichshafen.


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Wallace Monument. The National Wallace Monument (generally known as the Wallace Monument) is a 67 metre tower on the shoulder of the Abbey Craig, a hilltop overlooking Stirling in Scotland. It commemorates Sir William Wallace, a 13th- and 14th-century Scottish hero.The tower is open to the public for an admission fee. Visitors approach by foot from the base of the crag on which it stands. On entry there are 246 steps to the final observation platform, with three exhibition rooms within the body of the tower. The tower is not accessible to disabled visitors.## Background.The tower was constructed following a fundraising campaign,.

Wallace Monument. first heroines to be celebrated in the hall.## Statue of Wallace.The original Victorian statue of Wallace stands on the corner of the monument and is by the Edinburgh sculptor David Watson Stevenson.## "Braveheart" statue.In 1996 Tom Church carved a statue of Wallace called "Freedom", which was inspired by the film "Braveheart". It has the face of Mel Gibson, the actor who played William Wallace in the film. Church leased the statue to Stirling Council, who in 1997 installed it in the car park of the visitor centre at the foot of the craig. The statue was deeply unpopular, being described.

Wallace Monument. decapitated governor of York. In April 2016, it was reported in local press that the statue might be moved to Ardrossan's old Barony Church. In September 2021, it was moved to Glebe Park stadium in Brechin.Statue of William Wallace, AberdeenWallace's Monument, AyrshireStatue of William Wallace, BemersydeWallace's Monument at ElderslieNational Monument of ScotlandIn Stirling's page on the monument.


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Bedside. Bedside is a 1934 American pre-Code drama film starring Warren William, Jean Muir and Allen Jenkins. A man passes himself off as a doctor. Warren William as Bob Brown Jean Muir as Caroline Grant Allen Jenkins as Sam Sparks David Landau as Smith Katharine Sergava (Kathryn Sergava) as Mimi Maritza Henry O'Neill as Dr. William Chester Donald Meek as Dr. George Wiley Renee Whitney as Mme. Varsova Walter Walker as Dr. Michaels Marjorie Lytell as Patient with Sprained Ankle Frederick Burton as Hospital Superintendent Philip Faversham as Intern Attending Caroline (as Phillip Faversham) Louise Beavers as Pansy Earle Foxe as.


Question: What is the closest upper taxonomy of this plant?

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Cecropia. is controversial; in the past, it has been placed in the Cecropiaceae, Moraceae (the mulberry family), or Urticaceae (the nettle family). The modern Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system places the "cecropiacean" group in the Urticaceae.The genus is native to the American tropics, where it is one of the most recognizable components of the rainforest. The genus is named after Cecrops I, the mythical first king of Athens. Common local names include yarumo or yagrumo, or more specifically "yagrumo hembra" ("female "yagrumo"") to distinguish them from the similar-looking but unrelated "Schefflera" (which are called "yagrumo macho", "male "yagrumo""). In English, these trees.

Cecropia. Magnoliopsida – dicotyledonsSubclass: HamamelididaeOrder: UrticalesFamily: Cecropiaceae – "Cecropia" familyGenus: "Cecropia" Loefl. - pumpwood## Classification 2.This version of the classification system is considered the newer version and more widely accepted.Kingdom: Plantae – plantsSubkingdom: Tracheobionta – vascular plantsSuperdivision: Spermatophyta – seed plantsDivision: AngiospermaeClass: EudicotyledoneaeUnranked clade: RosidaeOrder: RosalesFamily: UrticaceaeGenus: "Cecropia" Loefl. –pumpwood## Taxonomic history."Cecropia" was first recognized and accounted for by Marcgrave (1648) and Piso (1658), the latter including an illustration with characteristic features. Loefling (1758) coined the generic name "Cecropia". In 1759, Linnaeus described "Cecropia peltata" which he applied to many species. Willdenow (1806) created "C. palmate", which was also applied to.

Cecropia. in the Urticales and Moraceae (Concephaleideae) because of its woody bark. Later based on the floral characters, most notably the basal ovule and gynoecium, which appears to be formed from a single carpel, Thorne (1976) moved it to the Malvanae- Urticales, family Urticaceae. Berg (1978), however, placed it in its own family Cercropiaceae. When phylogenetic data became available, "Cecropia" was then moved back into the Urticaceae.## Description.The genus is easily identified by its large, circular, palmately lobed leaves, about 30–40 cm in diameter and deeply divided into 7–11 lobes. The trees consist of very few branches, usually with candelabrum-like branching.

Cecropia. Borntraeger, Berlin Frisch, J.D. & Frisch, C.D. - "Aves Brasileiras", 3rd. edition, S.Paulo, 2005, Lok, A. F., Chong, K.Y, Nghiem, T. P, and H. T. Tan. “The Distribution and Ecology of Cecropia Species (Urticaceae) in Singapore” Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore. Nature in Singapore 2010 pages 199-200. Print. Longino, John T. "The Cecropia-Azteca association in Costa Rica." Olympia, WA: The Evergreen State College, 2005. Print. Longino, John T. "Cecropia of Costa Rica." Academic Program Pages at Evergreen. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Nov. 2011. <http://academic.evergreen.edu/projects/ants/antplants/CECROPIA/Cecropia.html>. Judd, et al. Plant systematics. 2. ed. Sunderland: Sinauer Associates, 2002. Print. (2007):.


Question: What is the vertex figure of this object?

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Tetrahedron. of a tetrahedron the base is a triangle (any of the four faces can be considered the base), so a tetrahedron is also known as a "triangular pyramid".Like all convex polyhedra, a tetrahedron can be folded from a single sheet of paper. It has two such nets.For any tetrahedron there exists a sphere (called the circumsphere) on which all four vertices lie, and another sphere (the insphere) tangent to the tetrahedron's faces.## Regular tetrahedron.A regular tetrahedron is a tetrahedron in which all four faces are equilateral triangles. It is one of the five regular Platonic solids, which have been known.

Tetrahedron. edge of the base. This follows from the fact that the medians of a triangle intersect at its centroid, and this point divides each of them in two segments, one of which is twice as long as the other (see ).For a regular tetrahedron with side length "a", radius "R" of its circumscribing sphere, and distances "di" from an arbitrary point in 3-space to its four vertices, we haveformula_7## Isometries of the regular tetrahedron.The vertices of a cube can be grouped into two groups of four, each forming a regular tetrahedron (see above, and also , showing one of the.

Tetrahedron. with four congruent triangles as faces; the triangles necessarily have all angles acute. The regular tetrahedron is a special case of a disphenoid. Other names for the same shape include bisphenoid, isosceles tetrahedron and equifacial tetrahedron.## Orthoschemes.A 3-orthoscheme is a tetrahedron where all four faces are right triangles. An orthoscheme is an irregular simplex that is the convex hull of a tree in which all edges are mutually perpendicular. In a 3-dimensional orthoscheme, the tree consists of three perpendicular edges connecting all four vertices in a linear path that makes two right-angled turns. The 3-orthoscheme is a tetrahedron having two.

Tetrahedron. its characteristic tetrahedron by its planes of symmetry.If the tetrahedron has edge length 2, its characteristic tetrahedron's six edges have lengths , , (the exterior right triangle face, the "characteristic triangle" of the tetrahedron), plus , , (edges that are the "characteristic radii" of the tetrahedron). The 3-edge path along orthogonal edges of the orthoscheme is , , , first from a tetrahedron vertex to an tetrahedron edge center, then turning 90° to an tetrahedron face center, then turning 90° to the tetrahedron center. The orthoscheme has four dissimilar right triangle faces. The exterior face is a 30-60-90 triangle which.

Tetrahedron. is one-sixth of a tetrahedron face. The three faces interior to the tetrahedron are: a right triangle with edges , , , a right triangle with edges , , , and a right triangle with edges , , .## Space-filling tetrahedra.A space-filling tetrahedron packs with directly congruent or enantiomorphous (mirror image) copies of itself to tile space. The cube can be dissected into six 3-orthoschemes, three left-handed and three right-handed (one of each at each cube face), and cubes can fill space, so the characteristic 3-orthoscheme of the cube is a space-filling tetrahedron in this sense. A disphenoid can be.

Tetrahedron. area of a triangle.Let be three edges that meet at a point, and the opposite edges. Let be the volume of the tetrahedron; thenformula_19whereformula_20The above formula uses six lengths of edges, and the following formula uses three lengths of edges and three angles.formula_21## Heron-type formula for the volume of a tetrahedron.If , , , , , are lengths of edges of the tetrahedron (first three form a triangle; with opposite , opposite , opposite ), thenformula_22where formula_23 formula_24## Volume divider.Any plane containing a bimedian (connector of opposite edges' midpoints) of a tetrahedron bisects the volume of the tetrahedron.## Non-Euclidean volume.For.

Tetrahedron. as calculated here. Then another volume formula is given byformula_25## Properties analogous to those of a triangle.The tetrahedron has many properties analogous to those of a triangle, including an insphere, circumsphere, medial tetrahedron, and exspheres. It has respective centers such as incenter, circumcenter, excenters, Spieker center and points such as a centroid. However, there is generally no orthocenter in the sense of intersecting altitudes.Gaspard Monge found a center that exists in every tetrahedron, now known as the Monge point: the point where the six midplanes of a tetrahedron intersect. A midplane is defined as a plane that is orthogonal to.

Tetrahedron. segment joining the midpoints of two opposite edges is called a "bimedian" of the tetrahedron. Hence there are four medians and three bimedians in a tetrahedron. These seven line segments are all concurrent at a point called the "centroid" of the tetrahedron. In addition the four medians are divided in a 3:1 ratio by the centroid (see Commandino's theorem). The centroid of a tetrahedron is the midpoint between its Monge point and circumcenter. These points define the "Euler line" of the tetrahedron that is analogous to the Euler line of a triangle.The nine-point circle of the general triangle has an.

Tetrahedron. face.The radius of the twelve-point sphere is one third of the circumradius of the reference tetrahedron.There is a relation among the angles made by the faces of a general tetrahedron given byformula_26where "α" is the angle between the faces "i" and "j".The geometric median of the vertex position coordinates of a tetrahedron and its isogonic center are associated, under circumstances analogous to those observed for a triangle. Lorenz Lindelöf found that, corresponding to any given tetrahedron is a point now known as an isogonic center, "O", at which the solid angles subtended by the faces are equal, having a common.

Tetrahedron. and counterclockwise orientations of the surface.Putting any of the four vertices in the role of "O" yields four such identities, but at most three of them are independent: If the "clockwise" sides of three of them are multiplied and the product is inferred to be equal to the product of the "counterclockwise" sides of the same three identities, and then common factors are cancelled from both sides, the result is the fourth identity.Three angles are the angles of some triangle if and only if their sum is 180° (π radians). What condition on 12 angles is necessary and sufficient for.

Tetrahedron. them to be the 12 angles of some tetrahedron? Clearly the sum of the angles of any side of the tetrahedron must be 180°. Since there are four such triangles, there are four such constraints on sums of angles, and the number of degrees of freedom is thereby reduced from 12 to 8. The four relations given by this sine law further reduce the number of degrees of freedom, from 8 down to not 4 but 5, since the fourth constraint is not independent of the first three. Thus the space of all shapes of tetrahedra is 5-dimensional.## Law of.

Tetrahedron. of the tetrahedron.With this definition, the circumcenter of a tetrahedron with vertices ,, can be formulated as matrix-vector product:formula_35In contrast to the centroid, the circumcenter may not always lay on the inside of a tetrahedron.Analogously to an obtuse triangle, the circumcenter is outside of the object for an obtuse tetrahedron.## Centroid.The tetrahedron's center of mass computes as the arithmetic mean of its four vertices, see Centroid.## Faces.The sum of the areas of any three faces is greater than the area of the fourth face.## Integer tetrahedra.There exist tetrahedra having integer-valued edge lengths, face areas and volume. These are called Heronian.

Tetrahedron. tetrahedra. One example has one edge of 896, the opposite edge of 990 and the other four edges of 1073; two faces are isosceles triangles with areas of and the other two are isosceles with areas of , while the volume is .A tetrahedron can have integer volume and consecutive integers as edges, an example being the one with edges 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 and volume 48.## Related polyhedra and compounds.A regular tetrahedron can be seen as a triangular pyramid.A regular tetrahedron can be seen as a degenerate polyhedron, a uniform "digonal antiprism", where base polygons are.


Question: What is the closest upper taxonomy of this plant?

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Maianthemum dilatatum. Maianthemum dilatatum (snakeberry, two-leaved Solomon's seal or false lily of the valley) is a common rhizomatous perennial flowering plant that is native to western North America from northern California to the Aleutian islands, and Asia across the Kamchatka Peninsula, Japan, and Korea. It grows in coastal temperate rainforests, and is often the dominant groundcover plant in Sitka Spruce forests.## Description.The plant produces an erect, unbranched flower stem, occasionally to 40 centimeters in height, but typically much shorter. A non-flowering shoot bears one smooth, waxy, shiny leaf up to 10 centimeters long and 5 to 8 cm broad, hence its scientific.

Maianthemum dilatatum. name ("dilatatum" means 'broad'). The leaf is oval in shape with a heart-shaped base.The inflorescence is an erect raceme with star-shaped white flowers. They each have four tepals and four stamens. After fertilization the fruit produced is a berry 6 millimeters in diameter. The berry is speckled red when immature and solid red when ripe. Each has 1 to 4 seeds.## Uses.The plant has many ethnobotanical uses. The roots and leaves were used medicinally, and the berries were occasionally used for food. Native Americans used the plant to treat wounds and eyestrain.Being tolerant of deep shade, drought, and extensive watering,.

Maianthemum dilatatum. the plant is becoming more popular as a shade groundcover in gardening. Care should be taken when using it in gardens as it can quickly escape confines with its creeping rhizomes and may crowd out other plants.Sept, D. J., 2005. "Wild Berries of the Northwest". Calypso Publishing: Sechelt, B.C. Jepson Manual Treatment USDA Plants Profile Flora of North America: "Maianthemum dilatatum" 2001 Washington State Dept. of Transportation: "Maianthemum dilatatum"Photo gallery.


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Rolodex. A Rolodex is a rotating card file device used to store business contact information. Its name, a portmanteau of the words "rolling" and "index", has become somewhat genericized (usually as "rolodex") for any personal organizer performing this function, or as a metonym for the total of an individual's accumulated business contacts. In this usage, it has generally come to describe an effect or characteristic of the small-world network of a business's investors, board of directors, or the value of a CEO's contacts, or in organizational structure. The Rolodex is iconic enough as a piece of ubiquitous business furniture that it.


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Salève. The Salève (), or Mont Salève, is a mountain of the French Prealps located in the department of Haute-Savoie in Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes. It is also called the "Balcony of Geneva" (French: "Balcon de Genève").## Geography.Geographically, the Salève is a mountain of the French Prealps located in the Haute-Savoie department, but geologically a part of the Jura chain, as the Vuache is. Below the Salève is the Geneva urban area where more than 700,000 people live.The Salève consists of the Pitons, Grand Salève and Petit Salève; it culminates at 1,379 metres at the Grand Piton. It is accessible via the Téléphérique du.


Question: What is the spore print color of this plant?

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Pluteus cervinus. fibres when seen through a lens, indicating that the microscopic cuticle structure is filamentous. The gills are initially white, but soon show a distinctive pinkish sheen, caused by the ripening spores. The stipe is 5–12 cm long and 0.5–2 cm in diameter, usually thicker at the base. It is white and covered with brown vertical fibrils. The flesh is soft and white. The mushroom has a mild to earthy radish smell and a mild taste at first, which may become slightly bitter.The spore size is approximately 8×5μ, and the individual spores are elliptical and smooth. The spore print is salmon-pink.


Question: What is the closest upper taxonomy of this insect?

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Parrhasius m-album. Parrhasius m-album, the white M hairstreak, is a species of butterfly of the family Lycaenidae. It is found in the United States from Connecticut west to southeast Iowa and Missouri south to east Texas the Gulf Coast and peninsular Florida. On rare occasions some stray to Michigan and Wisconsin.The wingspan is 32–41 mm.The larvae feed on "Quercus virginiana" and other "Quercus" species.


Question: What is this plant named after?

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Banksia. Banksia is a genus of around 170 species in the plant family Proteaceae. These Australian wildflowers and popular garden plants are easily recognised by their characteristic flower spikes, and fruiting "cones" and heads. "Banksias" range in size from prostrate woody shrubs to trees up to 30 metres (100 ft) tall. They are found in a wide variety of landscapes: sclerophyll forest, (occasionally) rainforest, shrubland, and some more arid landscapes, though not in Australia's deserts.Heavy producers of nectar, "banksias" are a vital part of the food chain in the Australian bush. They are an important food source for all sorts of.

Banksia. nectarivorous animals, including birds, bats, rats, possums, stingless bees and a host of invertebrates. Further, they are of economic importance to Australia's nursery and cut flower industries. However, these plants are threatened by a number of processes including land clearing, frequent burning and disease, and a number of species are rare and endangered.## Description.Banksias grow as trees or woody shrubs. Trees of the largest species, "B. integrifolia" (coast banksia) and "B. seminuda" (river banksia), often grow over 15 metres tall, some even grow to standing 30 metres tall. "Banksia" species that grow as shrubs are usually erect, but there are.

Banksia. several species that are prostrate, with branches that grow on or below the soil.The leaves of "Banksia" vary greatly between species. Sizes vary from the narrow, 1– centimetre long needle-like leaves of "B. ericifolia" (heath-leaved banksia), to the very large leaves of "B. grandis" (bull banksia), which may be up to 45 centimetres long. The leaves of most species have serrated edges, but a few, such as "B. integrifolia", do not. Leaves are usually arranged along the branches in irregular spirals, but in some species they are crowded together in whorls. Many species have differing juvenile and adult leaves (e.g.,.

Banksia. "Banksia integrifolia" has large serrated juvenile leaves).The flowers are arranged in flower spikes or capitate flower heads. The character most commonly associated with "Banksia" is the flower spike, an elongated inflorescence consisting of a woody axis covered in tightly packed pairs of flowers attached at right angles. A single flower spike generally contains hundreds or even thousands of flowers; the most recorded is around 6000 on inflorescences of "B. grandis". Not all "Banksia" have an elongate flower spike, however: the members of the small "Isostylis" complex have long been recognised as "banksias" in which the flower spike has been reduced.

Banksia. to a head; and recently the large genus "Dryandra" has been found to have arisen from within the ranks of "Banksia", and sunk into it as "B." ser. "Dryandra". They similarly have capitate flower heads rather than spikes."Banksia" flowers are usually a shade of yellow, but orange, red, pink and even violet flowers also occur. The colour of the flowers is determined by the colour of the perianth parts and often the style. The style is much longer than the perianth, and is initially trapped by the upper perianth parts. These are gradually released over a period of days, either.

Banksia. from top to bottom or from bottom to top. When the styles and perianth parts are different colours, the visual effect is of a colour change sweeping along the spike. This can be most spectacular in "B. prionotes" (acorn banksia) and related species, as the white inflorescence in bud becomes a brilliant orange. In most cases, the individual flowers are tall, thin saccate (sack-shaped) in shape.Occasionally, multiple flower spikes can form. This is most often seen in "Banksia marginata" and "B. ericifolia" "(pictured right)".As the flower spikes or heads age, the flower parts dry up and may turn shades of.

Banksia. orange, tan or dark brown colour, before fading to grey over a period of years. In some species, old flower parts are lost, revealing the axis; in others, the old flower parts may persist for many years, giving the fruiting structure a hairy appearance. Old flower spikes are commonly referred to as "cones", although they are not technically cones according to the botanical definition of the term: cones only occur in conifers and cycads.Despite the large number of flowers per inflorescence, only a few of them ever develop fruit, and in some species a flower spike will set no fruit.

Banksia. at all. The fruit of "Banksia" is a woody follicle embedded in the axis of the inflorescence. In many species, the resulting structure is a massive woody structure commonly called a cone. Each follicle consists of two horizontal valves that tightly enclose the seeds. The follicle opens to release the seed by splitting along the suture. In some species, each valve splits too. In some species the follicles open as soon as the seed is mature, but in most species most follicles open only after stimulated to do so by bushfire. Each follicle usually contains one or two small seeds,.

Banksia. each with a wedge-shaped papery wing that causes it to spin as it falls to the ground.## Taxonomy.Specimens of "Banksia" were first collected by Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Daniel Solander, naturalists on the "Endeavour" during Lieutenant (later Captain) James Cook's first voyage to the Pacific Ocean. Cook landed on Australian soil for the first time on 29 April 1770, at a place that he later named Botany Bay in recognition of "the great quantity of plants Mr Banks and Dr Solander found in this place". Over the next seven weeks, Banks and Solander collected thousands of plant specimens, including.

Banksia. the first specimens of a new genus that would later be named "Banksia" in Banks' honour. Four species were present in this first collection: "B. serrata" (Saw Banksia), "B. integrifolia" (Coast Banksia), "B. ericifolia" (Heath-leaved Banksia) and "B. robur" (Swamp Banksia). In June the ship was careened at Endeavour River, where specimens of "B. dentata" (Tropical Banksia) were collected.The genus "Banksia" was finally described and named by Carolus Linnaeus the Younger in his April 1782 publication "Supplementum Plantarum"; hence the full name for the genus is ""Banksia" L.f.". Linnaeus placed the genus in class Tetrandra, order Monogynia of his father's.

Banksia. classification, and named it in honour of Banks. The name "Banksia" had in fact already been published in 1775 as "Banksia" J.R.Forst & G.Forst, referring to some New Zealand species that the Forsters had collected during Cook's second voyage. However Linnaeus incorrectly attributed the Forsters' specimens to the genus "Passerina", and therefore considered the name "Banksia" available for use. By the time Joseph Gaertner corrected Banks' error in 1788, "Banksia" L.f. was widely known and accepted, so Gaertner renamed "Banksia" J.R.Forst, & G.Forst to "Pimelea", a name previously chosen for the genus by Banks and Solander.The first specimens of a.

Banksia. "Dryandra" were collected by Archibald Menzies, surgeon and naturalist to the Vancouver Expedition. At the request of Joseph Banks, Menzies collected natural history specimens wherever possible during the voyage. During September and October 1791, while the expedition were anchored at King George Sound, he collected numerous plant specimens, including the first specimens of "Dryandra ("now" Banksia) sessilis" (Parrotbush) and "D. ("now" Banksia) pellaeifolia". Upon Menzies' return to England, he turned his specimens over to Banks; as with most other specimens in Banks' library, they remained undescribed for many years. Robert Brown gave a lecture, naming the new genus "Dryandra" in.

Banksia. 1809, however Joseph Knight published the name "Josephia" before Brown published his paper with the description of "Dryandra". Brown ignored Knight's name, as did subsequent botanists.In 1891, Otto Kuntze, strictly applying the principle of priority, argued that "Pimelea" should revert to the name "Banksia" J.R.Forst & G.Forst. He proposed the new genus "Sirmuellera" to replaced "Banksia" L.f. and transferred its species to the new genus. This arrangement was largely ignored by Kuntze's contemporaries."Banksia" L.f. was formally conserved and "Sirmuellera" rejected in 1940."Banksia" belongs to the family Proteaceae, subfamily Grevilleoideae, and tribe Banksieae. There are around 170 species. The closest relatives.

Banksia. of "Banksia" are two genera of rainforest trees in North Queensland ("Musgravea" and "Austromuellera").## Subgeneric arrangement.Alex George arranged the genus into two subgenera—subgenus "Isostylis" (containing "B. ilicifolia", "B. oligantha" and "B. cuneata") and subgenus "Banksia" (containing all other species except those he considered dryandras)—in his 1981 monograph and 1999 treatment for the Flora of Australia series. He held that flower morphology was the key to relationships in the genus. Austin Mast and Kevin Thiele published the official merging of "Dryandra" within "Banksia" in 2007, recalibrating the genus into subgenus "Banksia" and subgenus "Spathulatae".## Distribution and habitat.All but one of the.

Banksia. living "Banksia" species are endemic to Australia. The exception is "B. dentata" (tropical banksia), which occurs throughout northern Australia, and on islands to the north including New Guinea and the Aru Islands. An extinct species, "B. novae-zelandiae", was found in New Zealand. The other species occur in two distinct geographical regions: southwest Western Australia and eastern Australia. Southwest Western Australia is the main centre of biodiversity; over 90% of all "Banksia" species occur only there, from Exmouth in the north, south and east to beyond Esperance on the south coast. Eastern Australia has far fewer species, but these include some.

Banksia. of best known and most widely distributed species, including "B. integrifolia" (coast banksia) and "B. spinulosa" (hairpin banksia). Here they occur from the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia right around the east coast up to Cape York in Queensland.The vast majority of "Banksia" are found in sandy or gravelly soils, though some populations of "B. marginata" (silver banksia) and "B. spinulosa" do occur on soil that is heavier and more clay-like. "B. seminuda" is exceptional for its preference for rich loams along watercourses.Most occur in heathlands or low woodlands; of the eastern species, "B. integrifolia" and "B. marginata" occur in.

Banksia. forests; many south-western species such as "B. grandis", "B. sphaerocarpa", "B. sessilis", "B. nobilis" and "B. dallanneyi" grow as understorey plants in jarrah ("Eucalyptus marginata"), wandoo ("E. wandoo") and karri ("E. diversicolor") forests, with "B. seminuda" being one of the forest trees in suitable habitat.Most species do not grow well near the coast, notable exceptions being the southern Western Australian species "B. speciosa", "B. praemorsa" and "B. repens". Only a few species, such as "B. rosserae" and "B. elderiana" (swordfish banksia), occur in arid areas. Most of the eastern Australian species survive in uplands, but only a few of the.

Banksia. Western Australian species native to the Stirling Ranges – "B. solandri", "B. oreophila", "B. brownii" and "B. montana" – survive at high altitudes.Studies of the south-western species have found the distribution of "Banksia" species to be primarily constrained by rainfall. With the exception of "B. rosserae", no species tolerates annual rainfall of less than 200 millimetres, despite many species surviving in areas that receive less than 400 millimetres. "Banksia" species are present throughout the region of suitable rainfall, with greatest speciation in cooler, wetter areas. Hotter, drier regions around the edges of its range tend to have fewer species with.

Banksia. larger distributions. The greatest species richness occurs in association with uplands, especially the Stirling Range.## Evolution and fossil record.There are many fossils of "Banksia". The oldest of these are fossil pollen between 65 and 59 million years old. There are fossil leaves between 59 and 56 million years old found in southern New South Wales. The oldest fossil cones are between 47.8 and 41.2 million years old, found in Western Australia. Although "Banksia" is now only native to Australia and New Guinea, there are fossils from New Zealand, between 21 and 25 million years old.Evolutionary scientists Marcell Cardillo and Renae.

Banksia. Pratt have proposed a southwest Australian origin for banksias despite their closest relatives being north Queensland rainforest species.## Ecology.Banksias are heavy producers of nectar, making them an important source of food for nectivorous animals, including honeyeaters and small mammals such as rodents, antechinus, honey possums, pygmy possums, gliders and bats. Many of these animals play a role in pollination of "Banksia". Various studies have shown mammals and birds to be important pollinators. In 1978 Carpenter observed that some banksias had a stronger odour at night, possibly to attract nocturnal mammal pollinators. Other associated fauna include the larvae of moths (such.

Banksia. as the Dryandra Moth) and weevils, which burrow into the "cones" to eat the seeds and pupate in the follicles; and birds such as cockatoos, who break off the "cones" to eat both the seeds and the insect larvae.A number of "Banksia" species are considered rare or endangered. These include "B. brownii" (feather-leaved banksia), "B. cuneata" (matchstick banksia), "B. goodii" (Good's banksia), "B. oligantha" (Wagin banksia), "B. tricuspis" (pine banksia), and "B. verticillata" (granite banksia).## Response to fire."Banksia" plants are naturally adapted to the presence of regular bushfires in the Australian landscape. About half of "Banksia" species are killed by.

Banksia. bushfire, but these regenerate quickly from seed, as fire also stimulates the opening of seed-bearing follicles and the germination of seed in the ground. The remaining species usually survive bushfire, either by resprouting from a woody base known as a lignotuber or, more rarely, epicormic buds protected by thick bark. In Western Australia, banksias of the first group are known as 'seeders' and the second group as 'sprouters'.Infrequent bushfires at expected intervals pose no threat, and are in fact beneficial for regeneration of "banksia" populations. However, too frequent bushfires can seriously reduce or even eliminate populations from certain areas, by.

Banksia. killing seedlings and young plants before they reach fruiting age. Many fires near urban areas are caused by arson, and thus the frequency is often much higher than fires would have been prior to human habitation. Furthermore, residents who live in areas near bushland may pressure local councils to burn areas near homes more frequently, to reduce fuel-load in the bush and thus reduce ferocity of future fires. Unfortunately there are often discrepancies in agreed frequency between these groups and conservation groups.## Dieback.Another threat to "Banksia" is the water mould "Phytophthora cinnamomi", commonly known as "dieback". Dieback attacks the roots.

Banksia. of plants, destroying the structure of the root tissues, "rotting" the root, and preventing the plant from absorbing water and nutrients. "Banksia"'s proteoid roots, which help it to survive in low-nutrient soils, make it highly susceptible to this disease. All Western Australian species are vulnerable, although most eastern species are fairly resistant.Vulnerable plants typically die within a few years of infection. In southwest Western Australia, where dieback infestation is widespread, infested areas of "Banksia" forest typically have less than 30% of the cover of uninfested areas. Plant deaths in such large proportions can have a profound influence on the makeup.

Banksia. of plant communities. For example, in southwestern Australia "Banksia" often occurs as an understorey to forests of jarrah ("Eucalyptus marginata"), another species highly vulnerable to dieback. Infestation kills both the jarrah overstorey and the original "Banksia" understorey, and over time these may be replaced by a more open woodland consisting of an overstorey of the resistant marri ("Corymbia calophylla"), and an understorey of the somewhat resistant "Banksia sessilis" (parrot bush).A number of species of "Banksia" are threatened by dieback. Nearly every known wild population of "B. brownii" shows some signs of dieback infection, which could possibly wipe it out within.

Banksia. years. Other vulnerable species include "B. cuneata", and "B. verticillata".Dieback is notoriously difficult to treat, although there has been some success with phosphite and phosphorous acid, which are currently used to inoculate wild "B. brownii" populations. However this is not without potential problems as it alters the soil composition by adding phosphorus. Some evidence suggests that phosphorous acid may inhibit proteoid root formation.Because dieback thrives in moist soil conditions, it can be a severe problem for banksias that are watered, such as in the cut flower industry and urban gardens.## Uses.## Gardening.Most of species are shrubs, only few of them.

Banksia. can be found as trees and they are very popular because of their size, the tallest species are: "B. integrifolia" having its subspecies "B. integrifolia" subsp. "monticola" notable for reaching the biggest size for the genus and it is the most frost tolerant in this genus, "B. seminuda", "B. littoralis", "B. serrata"; species that can grow as small trees or big shrubs: "B. grandis", "B. prionotes", "B. marginata", "B. coccinea", "B. speciosa" and "B. menziesii". Due to their size these species are popularly planted in parks, gardens and streets, the remaining species in this genus are only shrubs.Banksias are popular.

Banksia. garden plants in Australia because of their large, showy flower heads, and because the large amounts of nectar they produce attracts birds and small mammals. Popular garden species include "B. spinulosa", "B. ericifolia", "B. aemula" (Wallum Banksia ), "B. serrata" (Saw Banksia), "Banksia media" (Southern Plains Banksia) and the cultivar "Banksia" 'Giant Candles'. "Banksia" species are primarily propagated by seed in the home garden as cuttings can be difficult to strike. However commercial nurserymen extensively utilize the latter method (indeed, cultivars by nature must be vegetatively propagated by cuttings or grafting).Over time, dwarf cultivars and prostrate species are becoming more.

Banksia. popular as urban gardens grow ever smaller. These include miniature forms under 50 cm high of "B. spinulosa" and "B. media", as well as prostrate species such as "B. petiolaris" and "B. blechnifolia" .Banksias possibly require more maintenance than other Australian natives, though are fairly hardy if the right conditions are provided (sunny aspect and well drained sandy soil).They may need extra water during dry spells until established, which can take up to two years. If fertilised, only slow-release, low-phosphorus fertilizer should be used, as the proteoid roots may be damaged by high nutrient levels in the soil. All respond.

Banksia. well to some form of pruning.Within the Australian horticultural community there is an active subculture of "Banksia" enthusiasts who seek out interesting flower variants, breed and propagate cultivars, exchange materials and undertake research into cultivation problems and challenges. The main forum for exchange of information within this group is ASGAP's "Banksia Study Group".## Cut flower industry.With the exception of the nursery industry, "Banksia" have limited commercial use. Some species, principally "B. coccinea" (scarlet banksia), "B. baxteri", "B. hookeriana" (Hooker's banksia), "B. sceptrum" (sceptre banksia), and "B. prionotes" (acorn banksia), and less commonly "B. speciosa" (showy banksia), "B. menziesii" (Menzies' banksia),.

Banksia. "B. burdettii" and "B. ashbyi" are grown on farms in Western and Southern Australia, as well as Israel and Hawaii, and the flower heads harvested for the cut flower trade. Eastern species, such as "B. ericifolia", "B. robur" and "B. plagiocarpa", are sometimes cultivated for this purpose. The nectar is also sought by beekeepers, not for the quality of the dark-coloured honey, which is often poor, but because the trees provide an abundant and reliable source of nectar at times when other sources provide little.## Woodworking."Banksia" wood is reddish in color with an attractive grain but it is rarely used.

Banksia. as it warps badly on drying. It is occasionally used for ornamental purposes in wood turning and cabinet paneling. It has also been used to make keels for small boats. Historically, the wood of certain species such as "B. serrata" was used for yokes and boat parts. The large "cones" or seed pods of "B. grandis" are used for woodturning projects. They are also sliced up and sold as drink coasters; these are generally marketed as souvenirs for international tourists. Woodturners throughout the world value "Banksia" pods for making ornamental objects.## Indigenous uses.The Indigenous people of south-western Australia would suck.

Banksia. on the flower spikes to obtain the nectar, they also soaked the flower spikes in water to make a sweet drink. The Noongar people of southwest Western Australia also used infusions of the flower spikes to relieve coughs and sore throats. The Girai wurrung peoples of the western district of Victoria used the spent flower cones to strain water by placing the cones in their mouths and using them like a straw. "Banksia" trees are a reliable source of insect larvae which are extracted as food.## Cultural references.## Field guides and other technical resources.A number of field guides and other.

Banksia. semi-technical books on the genus have been published. These include:Field Guide to BanksiasWritten by Ivan Holliday and Geoffrey Watton and first published in 1975, this book contained descriptions and colour photographs of species known at the time. It was largely outdated by the publication of Alex George's classic 1981 monograph, but a revised and updated second edition was released in 1990."The Banksias"This three volume monograph contains watercolour paintings of every "Banksia" species by renowned botanical illustrator Celia Rosser, with accompanying text by Alex George. Its publication represents the first time that such a large genus has been entirely painted. Published.

Banksia. by Academic Press in association with Monash University, the three volumes were published in 1981, 1988 and 2000 respectively.The "Banksia" BookBegun by Australian photographer Fred Humphreys and Charles Gardner, both of whom died before its completion, "The Banksia Book" was eventually completed by Alex George and first published in 1984. It included every species known at the time, with a second edition appearing in 1987 and third in 1996.The "Banksia" AtlasIn 1983 the Australian Biological Resources Study (ABRS) decided to pilot an Australia-wide distribution study of a significant plant genus. "Banksia" was chosen because it was a high-profile, widely distributed.

Banksia. genus that was easily identified, but for which distribution and habitat was poorly known. The study mobilised over 400 volunteers, collecting over 25,000 field observations over a two-year period. Outcomes included the discovery of two new species, as well as new varieties and some rare colour variants, and discoveries of previously unknown populations of rare and threatened species. The collated data was used to create "The Banksia Atlas", which was first published in 1988.Banksias, Waratahs and Grevilleas and all other plants in the Australian Proteaceae familyWritten by J. W. Wrigley and M. Fagg, this was published by Collins Publishers in.

Banksia. 1989. A comprehensive text on all the Proteaceae genera with good historical notes and an overview of the 1975 Johnson & Briggs classification. It is out of print and hard to find.## May Gibb's "Banksia men".Perhaps the best known cultural reference to "Banksia" is the "big bad Banksia men" of May Gibbs' children's book "Snugglepot and Cuddlepie". Gibb's "Banksia men" are modelled on the appearance of aged "Banksia" "cones", with follicles for eyes and other facial features. There is some contention over which species actually provided the inspiration for the "Banksia men": the drawings most resemble the old cones of.

Banksia. "B. aemula" or "B. serrata", but "B. attenuata" (slender banksia) has also been cited, as this was the species that Gibbs saw as a child in Western Australia.## Other cultural references.In 1989, the Banksia Environmental Foundation was created to support and recognise people and organizations that make a positive contribution to the environment. The Foundation launched the annual Banksia Environmental Awards in the same year."B. archaeocarpa"†"B. attenuata""B. integrifolia""B. seminuda""B. ericifolia""B. grandis""B. marginata""B. prionotes""B. dentata""B. novae-zelandiae"†"B. spinulosa""B. sphaerocarpa""B. sessilis""B. nobilis""B. dallanneyi""B. praemorsa""B. repens""B. rosserae""B. elderiana""B. solandri""B. oreophila""B. brownii""B. montana""B. goodii" (Good's Banksia)"B. tricuspis" (Pine Banksia)"B. verticillata" (Granite Banksia)"Isostylis""B. cuneata" (Matchstick Banksia)"B.

Banksia. ilicifolia" (Holly-leaved Banksia)"B. oligantha" (Wagin Banksia) "Banksiamyces" The Banksia Page of ASGAP Banksia Study Group of ASGAP Banksia Farm, Private collection of all Banksia Species, Mount Barker, Western Australia.