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Cordyline australis. Cordyline australis, commonly known as the cabbage tree, tī kōuka or cabbage-palm, is a widely branched monocot tree endemic to New Zealand.It grows up to 20 (m) tall with a stout trunk and sword-like leaves, which are clustered at the tips of the branches and can be up to 1 (m) long. With its tall, straight trunk and dense, rounded heads, it is a characteristic feature of the New Zealand landscape. Its fruit is a favourite food source for the kererū and other native birds. It is common over a wide latitudinal range from the far north of the North.

Cordyline australis. Island at 34° 25′S to the south of the South Island at 46° 30′S. Absent from much of Fiordland, it was probably introduced by Māori to the Chatham Islands at 44° 00′S and to Stewart Island / Rakiura at 46° 50′S. It grows in a broad range of habitats, including forest margins, river banks and open places, and is abundant near swamps. The largest known tree with a single trunk is growing at Pakawau, Golden Bay / Mohua. It is estimated to be 400 or 500 years old, and stands 17 (m) tall with a circumference of 9 (m) at.

Cordyline australis. the base.Known to Māori as , the tree was used as a source of food, particularly in the South Island, where it was cultivated in areas where other crops would not grow. It provided durable fibre for textiles, anchor ropes, fishing lines, baskets, waterproof rain capes and cloaks, and sandals. Hardy and fast growing, it is widely planted in New Zealand gardens, parks and streets, and numerous cultivars are available. The tree can also be found in large numbers in island restoration projects such as Tiritiri Matangi Island, where it was among the first seedling trees to be planted.It is.

Cordyline australis. also grown as an ornamental tree in higher latitude Northern Hemisphere countries with maritime climates, including parts of the upper West Coast of the United States, Canada and the British Isles, where its common names include Torbay palm and Torquay palm. It does not do well in hot tropical climates like the Caribbean, Queensland, Southeast Asia or Florida.## Description."Cordyline australis" grows up to 20 (m) tall with a stout trunk 1.5 to 2 (m) in diameter. Before it flowers, it has a slender unbranched stem. The first flowers typically appear at 6 to 10 years old, in spring. The right.

Cordyline australis. conditions can reduce the first flowering age to 3 years (Havelock North, 2015 mast year). After the first flowering, it divides to form a much-branched crown with tufts of leaves at the tips of the branches. Each branch may fork after producing a flowering stem. The pale to dark grey bark is corky, persistent and fissured, and feels spongy to the touch.The long narrow leaves are sword-shaped, erect, dark to light green, 40 to 100 (cm) long and 3 to 7 (cm) wide at the base, with numerous parallel veins. The leaves grow in crowded clusters at the ends of.

Cordyline australis. the branches, and may droop slightly at the tips and bend down from the bases when old. They are thick and have an indistinct midrib. The fine nerves are more or less equal and parallel. The upper and lower leaf surfaces are similar.In spring and early summer, sweetly perfumed flowers are produced in large, dense panicles (flower spikes) 60 to 100 (cm) long, bearing well-spaced to somewhat crowded, almost sessile to sessile flowers and axes. The flowers are crowded along the ultimate branches of the panicles. The bracts which protect the developing flowers often have a distinct pink tinge before.

Cordyline australis. the flowers open. In south Canterbury and North Otago the bracts are green.The individual flowers are 5 to 6 (mm) in diameter, the tepals are free almost to the base, and reflexed. The stamens are about the same length as the tepals. The stigmas are short and trifid. The fruit is a white berry 5 to 7 (mm) in diameter which is greedily eaten by birds. The nectar attracts great numbers of insects to the flowers.Large, peg-like rhizomes, covered with soft, purplish bark, up to 3 (m) long in old plants, grow vertically down beneath the ground. They serve to.

Cordyline australis. anchor the plant and to store fructose in the form of fructan. When young, the rhizomes are mostly fleshy and are made up of thin-walled storage cells. They grow from a layer called the secondary thickening meristem.## Regional diversity.New Zealand's native "Cordyline" species are relics of an influx of tropical plants that arrived from the north 15 million years ago in the warm Miocene era. Because it has evolved in response to the local climate, geology and other factors, "C. australis" varies in appearance from place to place. This variation can alter the overall appearance of the tree, canopy shape.

Cordyline australis. and branch size, the relative shape and size of the leaves, and their colour and stiffness. There may also be invisible adaptations for resistance to disease or insect attack. Some of these regional provenances are different enough to have been named by North Island Māori: in the north, in the central uplands, in the east and in the west.In Northland, "C. australis" shows a great deal of genetic diversity—suggesting it is where old genetic lines have endured. Some trees in the far north have floppy, narrow leaves, which botanist Philip Simpson attributes to hybridisation with "C. pumilio", the dwarf cabbage.

Cordyline australis. tree. In eastern Northland, "C. australis" generally has narrow, straight dark green leaves, but some trees have much broader leaves than normal and may have hybridised with the Three Kings cabbage tree, "C. obtecta", which grows at North Cape and on nearby islands. These "obtecta"-like characteristics appear in populations of "C. australis" along parts of the eastern coastline from the Karikari Peninsula to the Coromandel Peninsula. In western Northland and Auckland, a form often called grows. When young, are generally very spindly, and are common in young kauri forests. When growing in the open, can become massive trees with numerous,.

Cordyline australis. long thin branches and relatively short, broad leaves.In the central Volcanic Plateau, cabbage trees are tall, with stout, relatively unbranched stems and large stiff straight leaves. Fine specimens are found along the upper Whanganui River. On old trees, the leaves tend to be relatively broad. The leaves radiate strongly, suggesting that tī manu is adapted to the cold winters of the upland central plateau. It may have originated in the open country created by lava, volcanic ash, and pumice. Trees of the tī manu type are also found in northern Taranaki, the King Country and the Bay of Plenty lowlands.Tarariki.

Cordyline australis. are found in the east of the North Island from East Cape to the Wairarapa. Māori valued the narrow spiky leaves as a source of particularly tough, durable fibre. Tarariki's strong leaf fibres may be an adaptation to the region's hot, dry summers. In parts of the Wairarapa, the trees are particularly spiky, with stiff leaves and partially rolled leaf-blades. The trees near East Cape, by contrast, have leaves that hang laxly on the tree. In Hawke's Bay, some trees have greener, broader leaves, and this may be because of wharanui characteristics brought in across the main divide through the.

Cordyline australis. Manawatū Gorge.Wharanui grow to the west of the North Island's main divide. They have long, broad flaccid leaves, which may be an adaptation to persistent westerly winds. The wharanui type occurs in Wellington, Horowhenua and Whanganui, and extends with some modifications to the southern Taranaki coast. In Taranaki, cabbage trees generally have a compact canopy with broad straight leaves. In the South Island, wharanui is the most common form, but it is variable. The typical form grows, with little variation, from Cape Campbell to the northern Catlins, and from the eastern coast to the foothills of the Southern Alps /.

Cordyline australis. Kā Tiritiri o te Moana. In Marlborough's Wairau Valley, cabbage trees tend to retain their old, dead leaves, lending them an untidy appearance. The climate there is an extreme one, with hot, dry summers and cold winters.In north-west Nelson, there are three ecotypes defined by soil and exposure. Trees growing on limestone bluffs have stiff, blue-green leaves. On the river flats, the trees are tall with narrow, lax, dark green leaves, and an uneven canopy. They resemble the cabbage trees of the North Island's East Cape. Along the coast to the far west, the trees are robust with broad, bluish.

Cordyline australis. leaves. The latter two forms extend down the West Coast, with the lax-leaved forms growing in moist, fertile, sheltered river valleys while the bluish-leaved forms prefer rocky slopes exposed to the full force of the salt-laden coastal winds. In Otago, cabbage trees gradually become less common towards the south until they come to an end in the northern Catlins. They reappear on the south coast at Waikawa, Southland, but they are not the wharanui type. Rather they are vigorous trees with broad, green leaves and broad canopies. They extend along the coast towards Fiordland, and inland to the margins of.

Cordyline australis. some of the glacier-fed lakes. Very vigorous when they are young, these trees seem well adapted to the very cold winters of the south.A study of seedlings grown from seed collected in 28 areas showed a north-south change in leaf shape and dimensions. Seedling leaves get longer and narrower southwards. Seedlings often have leaves with red-brown pigmentation which disappears in older plants, and this coloration becomes increasingly common towards the south. The changes in shape—leaves getting narrower and more robust from north to south and from lowland to montane—suggest adaptations to colder weather.## Taxonomy and names."Cordyline australis" was collected in.

Cordyline australis. 1769 by Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Daniel Solander, naturalists on the "Endeavour" during Lieutenant James Cook's first voyage to the Pacific. The type locality is Queen Charlotte Sound / Tōtaranui. It was named "Dracaena australis" by Georg Forster who published it as entry 151 in his "Florulae Insularum Australium Prodromus" of 1786. It is sometimes still sold as a "Dracaena", particularly for the house plant market in Northern Hemisphere countries. In 1833, Stephan Endlicher reassigned the species to the genus,"Cordyline".The genus name "Cordyline" derives from an Ancient Greek word for a club ("kordyle"), a reference to the enlarged underground.

Cordyline australis. stems or rhizomes, while the species name "australis" is Latin for "southern". The common name "cabbage tree" is attributed by some sources to early settlers having used the young leaves as a substitute for cabbage. However the name probably predates the settlement of New Zealand — Georg Forster, writing in his "Voyage round the World" of 1777 about the events of Friday, April 23, 1773, refers on page 114 to the discovery of a related species in Fiordland as "not the true cabbage palm" and says "the central shoot, when quite tender, tastes something like an almond's kernel, with a.

Cordyline australis. little of the flavour of cabbage." Forster may have been referring to the cabbage palmetto ("Sabal palmetto") of Florida, which resembles the Cordyline somewhat, and was named for the cabbage-like appearance of its terminal bud."Cordyline australis" is the tallest of New Zealand's five native "Cordyline" species. Of these, the commonest are "C. banksii", which has a slender, sweeping trunk, and "C. indivisa", a handsome plant with a trunk up to 8 (m) tall bearing a massive head of broad leaves up to 2 (m) long. In the far north of New Zealand, "C. australis" can be distinguished by its larger.

Cordyline australis. heavily branched tree form, narrower leaves and smaller seeds from "C. obtecta", the Three Kings cabbage tree, its closest relative. "C. australis" is rather variable, and forms from the northern offshore islands may be hybrids with "C. obtecta". Hybrids with "C. pumilio" and "C. banksii" also occur often where the plants are in close vicinity, because they flower at about the same time and share the chromosome number 2n=38, with "C. australis".The tree was well known to Māori before its scientific discovery. The generic Māori language term for plants in the genus "Cordyline" is "tī", and names recorded as specific.

Cordyline australis. to "C. australis" include "tī kōuka", "tī kāuka", "tī rākau", "tī awe", "tī pua", and "tī whanake". Each tribe had names for the tree depending on its local uses and characteristics. Simpson reports that the names highlight the characteristics of the tree that were important to Māori. These include what the plant looked like—whether it was a large tree ("tī rākau", "tī pua"), the whiteness of its flowers ("tī puatea"), whether its leaves were broad ("tī wharanui"), twisted along the edges ("tī tahanui"), or spiky ("tī tarariki"). Other names refer to its uses—whether its fruit attracted birds ("tī manu"), or.

Cordyline australis. the leaves were particularly suitable for making ropes ("tī whanake") and nets ("tī kupenga"). The most widely used name, "tī kōuka", refers to the use of the leaf hearts as food.## Ecology.## Habitat.A quote from Philip Simpson sums up the wide range of habitats the cabbage tree occupied in early New Zealand, and how much its abundance and distinctive form shaped the impression travellers received of the country:"In primeval New Zealand cabbage trees occupied a range of habitats, anywhere open, moist, fertile and warm enough for them to establish and mature: with forest; around the rocky coast; in lowland swamps,.

Cordyline australis. around the lakes and along the lower rivers; and perched on isolated rocks. Approaching the land from the sea would have reminded a Polynesian traveller of home, and for a European traveller, conjured up images of the tropical Pacific"."Cordyline australis" occurs from North Cape to the very south of the South Island, where it becomes less and less common, until it reaches its southernmost natural limits at Sandy Point (46° 30' S), west of Invercargill near Oreti Beach. It is absent from much of Fiordland, probably because there is no suitable habitat, and is unknown on the subantarctic islands to.

Cordyline australis. the south of New Zealand, probably because it is too cold. It occurs on some offshore islands—Poor Knights, Stewart and the Chathams—but was probably introduced by Māori. In the Stewart Island region, it is rare, growing only on certain islands, headlands and former settlement sites where it may have been introduced by muttonbird collectors, while on the Chatham Islands it is also largely "a notable absentee".Generally a lowland species, it grows from sea level to about 1000 (m), reaching its upper limits on the volcanoes of the central North Island, where eruptions have created open spaces for it to exploit,.

Cordyline australis. and in the foothills of the Southern Alps in the South Island, where deforestation may have played a part in giving it room to grow. In the central North Island, it has evolved a much sturdier form (with the Māori name "tī manu", meaning "with branches bearing broad, straight upright leaves"). This form resembles that found in the far south of the South Island, suggesting that they are both adapted to cold conditions."Cordyline australis" is a light-demanding pioneer species, and seedlings die when overtopped by other trees. To grow well, young plants require open space so they are not shaded.

Cordyline australis. out by other vegetation. Another requirement is water during the seedling stage. Although adult trees can store water and are drought resistant, seedlings need a good supply of water to survive. This stops the species from growing in sand dunes unless there are wet depressions present, and from hillsides unless there is a seepage area. The fertility of the soil is another factor—settlers in Canterbury used the presence of the species to situate their homesteads and gardens. The fallen leaves of the tree also help to raise the fertility of the soil when they break down. Another factor is temperature,.

Cordyline australis. especially the degree of frost. Young trees are killed by frost, and even old trees can be cut back. This is why "C. australis" is absent from upland areas and from very frosty inland areas.Early European explorers of New Zealand described "jungles of cabbage trees" along the banks of streams and rivers, in huge swamps and lowland valleys. Few examples of this former abundance survive today—such areas were the first to be cleared by farmers looking for flat land and fertile soil. In modern New Zealand, cabbage trees usually grow as isolated individuals rather than as parts of a healthy.

Cordyline australis. ecosystem.## Reproduction.The cabbage tree's year begins in autumn among the tight spike of unopened leaves projecting from the centre of each tuft of leaves. Some of the growing tips have changed from making leaves to producing inflorescences for the coming spring, and around these, two or three buds begin to produce leaves. The inflorescence and the leaf buds pass the winter protected by the enveloping spike of unopened leaves. Months later in spring or early summer, it bears its flowers on the outside of the tree, exposed to insects and birds.Flowering takes place over a period of four to six.

Cordyline australis. weeks, giving maximum exposure to pollinating insects. The flowers produce a sweet perfume which attracts large numbers of insects. The nectar produced by the flowers contains aromatic compounds, mainly esters and terpenes, which are particularly attractive to moths. Bees use the nectar to produce a light honey to feed their young and increase the size of the hive in the early summer. It takes about two months for the fruit to ripen, and by the end of summer a cabbage tree can have thousands of small fruits available for birds to eat and disperse. The strong framework of the inflorescence.

Cordyline australis. can easily bear the weight of heavy birds like the New Zealand pigeon, which was formerly the major disperser of the seeds.Each fruit contains three to six shiny, black seeds which are coated in a charcoal-like substance called phytomelan. The latter may serve to protect the seeds from the digestive process in the gut of a bird. The seeds are also rich in linoleic acid as a food source for the developing embryo plant, a compound which is also important in the egg-laying cycle of birds. Because it takes about two years for a particular stem to produce an inflorescence,.

Cordyline australis. cabbage trees tend to flower heavily in alternative years, with a bumper flowering every three to five years. Each inflorescence bears 5,000 to 10,000 flowers, so a large inflorescence may carry about 40,000 seeds, or one million seeds for the whole tree in a good flowering year—hundreds of millions for a healthy grove of trees.## Response to fire."Cordyline australis" is one of the few New Zealand forest trees that can recover from fire. It can renew its trunk from buds on the protected rhizomes under the ground. This gives the tree an advantage because it can regenerate itself quickly and.

Cordyline australis. the fire has eliminated competing plants. Cabbage tree leaves contain oils which make them burn readily. The same oils may also slow down the decay of fallen leaves, so that they build up a dense mat that prevents the seeds of other plants from germinating. When the leaves do break down, they form a fertile soil around the tree. Cabbage tree seed also has a store of oil, which means it remains viable for several years. When a bushfire has cleared the land of vegetation, cabbage tree seeds germinate in great numbers to make the most of the light and.

Cordyline australis. space opened up by the flames.Older trees sometimes grow epicormic shoots directly from their trunks after storm or fire damage. Aerial rhizomes can also be produced from the trunk if it sustains damage or has become hollow, and grow down into the soil to regenerate the plant. Such regeneration can lead to trees of great age with multiple trunks.## Biodiversity.Many plants and animals are associated with "C. australis" in healthy ecosystems. The most common epiphytes are ferns, astelias and orchids. Old trees often carry large clumps of the climbing fern "Asplenium", and in moist places, filmy ferns and kidney ferns.

Cordyline australis. cling to the branches. "Astelia" species and "Collospermum" often establish in the main fork of the tree, and one tree can host several species of native orchid. Other common epiphytes include "Griselinia lucida", as well as a range of mosses, liverworts, lichens and fungi. Two fungus species which infect living tissue—"Phanaerochaeta cordylines" and "Sphaeropsis cordylines"—occur almost exclusively on "C. australis".Animals and birds associated with "C. australis" include lizards which forage among the flowers, including the gold-striped gecko which is well camouflaged for life among the leaves of the tree. New Zealand bellbirds like to nest under the dead leaves or.

Cordyline australis. among the flower stalks, and paradise shelducks commonly build their nests in the base of an old cabbage tree standing in the middle of a field. Red-crowned parakeets are often seen foraging in cabbage trees. In South Canterbury, long-tailed bats shelter during the day in the hollow branches, which would once have provided nesting holes for many birds.The berries of "C. australis" are enjoyed by bellbirds, tūī, and kererū. Māori sometimes planted groves of cabbage trees () to attract kererū which could be snared when they came to eat the berries. Reminiscing in 1903 about life in New Zealand sixty.

Cordyline australis. or more years earlier, George Clarke describes how such a tapu grove of cabbage trees would attract huge numbers of pigeons: "About four miles from our house, there was a great preserve of wood pigeons, that was made as tapu as the native chiefs could devise. At a certain season, the pigeons came in vast flocks to feed on the white berries of the Ti tree (bracœna) [sic] and got so heavy with fat that they could hardly fly from one tree to another. No gun was allowed in the place. The Maoris, with a long slender rod and a.

Cordyline australis. slip noose at the end, squatted under the leaves and noiselessly slipped the noose over the necks of the stupid pigeons as they were feeding." As the native birds have vanished from much of New Zealand with the clearing of forests, it is now flocks of starlings which descend upon the fruit.The nectar of the flowers is sought after by insects, bellbirds, tūī, and stitchbirds. The leaves and the rough bark provide excellent homes for insects such as caterpillars and moths, small beetles, fly larvae, wētā, snails and slugs. Many of these are then eaten by birds such as saddlebacks.

Cordyline australis. and robins. The rough bark also provides opportunities for epiphytes to cling and grow, and lizards hide amongst the dead leaves, coming out to drink the nectar and to eat the insects. Good flowering seasons occur every few years only. While it is said that they foretell dry summers, it has been observed that they tend to follow dry seasons.Insects, including beetles, moths, wasps and flies, use the bark, leaves and flowers of the tree in various ways. Some feed or hide camouflaged in the skirt of dead leaves, a favourite dry place for wētā to hide in winter. Many.

Cordyline australis. of the insect companions of the tree have followed it into the domesticated surroundings of parks and home gardens. If the leaves are left to decay, the soil underneath cabbage trees becomes a black humus that supports a rich array of amphipods, earthworms and millipedes.There are nine species of insect only found on "C. australis", of which the best known is "Epiphryne verriculata", the cabbage tree moth, which is perfectly adapted to hide on a dead leaf. Its caterpillars eat large holes and wedges in the leaves. The moth lays its eggs at the base of the central spike of.

Cordyline australis. unopened leaves. The caterpillars eat holes in the surface of the leaves and leave characteristic notches in the leaf margins. They can infest young trees but seldom damage older trees, which lack the skirt of dead leaves where the parent moths like to hide.## Threats, pests and diseases.## Sudden decline.Cases of sick and dying trees of "C. australis" were first reported in the northern part of the North Island in 1987. The syndrome, eventually called Sudden Decline, soon reached epidemic proportions in Northland and Auckland. Affected trees usually suffer total defoliation within 2 to 12 months. The foliage turns yellow,.

Cordyline australis. and the oldest leaves wither and fall off. Growth of leaves ceases, and eventually all the leaves fall, leaving dead branches, often with the dried-out flowering panicles still attached. At the same time, the bark on the trunk becomes loose and detaches easily. The greatest number of dead trees (18 to 26 percent) was recorded around Auckland.For some years, the cause of the disease was unknown, and hypotheses included tree ageing, fungi, viruses, and environmental factors such as an increase in ultra-violet light. Another hypothesis was that a genetic problem may have been induced in Northland and Auckland by the.

Cordyline australis. thousands of cabbage trees brought into the area from elsewhere and planted in gardens and parks. The Lands and Survey Department had a native plant nursery at Taupo in the central North Island, which was used to grow plants for use in parks, reserves and carparks. In many Northland parks, cabbage trees from the central North Island were growing and flowering within metres of natural forms. Any offspring produced might have been poorly adapted to local conditions. After nearly five years of work, scientists found the cause was a bacterium "Phytoplasma australiense", which may be spread from tree to tree.

Cordyline australis. by a tiny sap-sucking insect, the introduced passion vine hopper.Populations of "C. australis" were decimated in some parts of New Zealand because of Sudden Decline. In some areas, particularly in the north, no big trees are left. Although Sudden Decline often affects cabbage trees in farmland and open areas, trees in natural forest patches continue to do well. Trees in the southern North Island and northern South Island are generally unaffected with few dead branches and no symptoms of Sudden Decline. By 2010, there was evidence to suggest the severity of the disease was lessening.## Rural decline.The plight of "Cordyline.

Cordyline australis. australis" in the Sudden Decline epidemic drew attention to another widespread threat to the tree in rural areas throughout New Zealand. Rural Decline was the name proposed by botanists to refer to a decline in health of older trees in pasture and grazed shrubland, leading over many years to the loss of upper branches and eventual death.Often farmers would leave a solitary cabbage tree—or even groves of trees—standing after the swamps were drained. Most of these trees will slowly die out because livestock eat the seedlings and damage the trunks and roots of adult trees. When a cabbage tree is.

Cordyline australis. the only shade in a field, stock will shelter underneath it, damaging the bark by rubbing against it, and compacting the soil around the tree. Cows, sheep, goats, and deer eat the nutritious tissue under the bark of cabbage trees. Once the trunk has been damaged by animals, it seldom heals and the wounds get bigger over time. Eventually the tissue in the centre of the stem rots away and a cavity forms along its entire length. The trunk becomes misshapen or completely ring-barked for a metre above the ground. Often the growth layer dies and the injuries may lead.

Cordyline australis. to bacterial or fungal infections that spread into the branches until the canopy too begins to die. Other factors thought to contribute to Rural Decline include wood-rotting fungi like "Phanerochaete cordylines", micro-organisms which cause saprobic decay and leaf-feeding caterpillars.Other mammals can be destructive. Possums tend not to eat the leaves of the tree, but are very fond of eating the sugar-rich flowering stalks as they emerge. They also like using the tree as a sleeping place. Rabbits can be more destructive, especially during periods of drought, when they have been seen to eat through the base until a tree falls,.

Cordyline australis. and then eating the fallen tree completely. Horses can also fell a tree by eating through the trunk.## Māori cultural uses.In traditional times, Māori had a rich knowledge of the cabbage tree, including spiritual, ecological and many practical aspects of its use. While much of that specialised knowledge was lost after the European settlement of New Zealand, the use of the tree as food and medicine has persisted, and the use of its fibres for weaving is becoming more common.## Food.The stems and fleshy rhizomes of "C. australis" are high in natural sugars and were steam-cooked in earth ovens ("umu.

Cordyline australis. tī", a large type of "hāngi") to produce "kāuru", a carbohydrate-rich food used to sweeten other foods. The growing tips or leaf hearts were stripped of leaves and eaten raw or cooked as a vegetable, when they were called "kōuka"—the origin of the Māori name of the tree. The southern limit of kūmara (sweet potato) cultivation was at Banks Peninsula at 43°S, and south of there a culture developed around "C. australis". Natural and planted groves of the cabbage tree were harvested.Large parties trimmed the cut stems, and left them to dry for days or weeks. As well as stems,.

Cordyline australis. the rhizomes—extensions of the trunk below the surface of the ground shaped like enormous carrots—were also dug up to be cooked. In the early 1840s, Edward Shortland said Māori preferred rhizomes from trees growing in deep rich soil. They dug them in spring or early summer just before the flowering of the plant, when they were at their sweetest. November was the favourite month for preparing kāuru in the South Island.After drying, the harvested stems or rhizomes were steamed for 24 hours or more in the umu tī pit. Steaming converted the carbohydrate fructan in the stems to very sweet.

Cordyline australis. fructose. The cooked stems or rhizomes were then flattened by beating and carried back to villages for storage. Kāuru could be stored dry until the time came to add it to fern root and other foods to improve their palatability. The sugar in the stems or rhizomes would be partially crystallised, and could be found mixed in a sugary pulp with other matter between the fibres of the root, which were easily separated by tearing them apart. Kāuru could also be dipped in water and chewed, and was said to smell and taste like molasses.Evidence of large cooking pits (umu.

Cordyline australis. tī) can still be found in the hills of South Canterbury and North Otago, where large groves of cabbage trees still stand. Europeans used the plant to make alcohol, and the often fearsome brews were relished by whalers and sealers.The kōata, the growing tip of the plant, was eaten raw as medicine. When cooked, it was called the kōuka. If the spike of unopened leaves and a few outer leaves is gripped firmly at the base and bent, it will snap off. The leaves can be removed, and what remains is like a small artichoke heart that can be steamed,.

Cordyline australis. roasted or boiled to make kōuka, a bitter vegetable available at any time of the year. Kōuka is delicious as a relish with fatty foods like eel, muttonbirds, or pigeons, or in modern times, pork, mutton and beef. Different trees were selected for their degree of bitterness, which should be strong for medicinal use, but less so when used as a vegetable.## Fibre.A tough fibre was extracted from the leaves of "C. australis", and was valued for its strength and durability especially in seawater. The leaves are suitable for weaving in its raw state, without any need to further process.

Cordyline australis. the fibres. The leaves were used for making anchor ropes and fishing lines, cooking mats, baskets, sandals and leggings for protection when travelling in the South Island high country, home of the prickly speargrasses ("Aciphylla") and tūmatakuru or matagouri ("Discaria toumatou"). Because of the water-resistant properties of the plant, the leaves were traditionally used for cooking baskets. Morere swings provided a source of amusement for Māori children. The ropes had to be strong, so they were often made from the leaves or fibre of "C. australis", which were much tougher than the fibres of New Zealand flax. The leaves were.

Cordyline australis. also used for rain capes, although the mountain cabbage tree "C. indivisa", was preferred. The fibre made from cabbage tree leaves is stronger than that made from New Zealand flax.## Medicine.The Māori used various parts of "Cordyline australis" to treat injuries and illnesses, either boiled up into a drink or pounded into a paste. The kōata, the growing tip of the plant, was eaten raw as a blood tonic or cleanser. Juice from the leaves was used for cuts, cracks and sores. An infusion of the leaves was taken internally for diarrhoea and used externally for bathing cuts. The leaves.

Cordyline australis. were rubbed until soft and applied either directly or as an ointment to cuts, skin cracks and cracked or sore hands. The young shoot was eaten by nursing mothers and given to children for colic. The liquid from boiled shoots was taken for other stomach pains. The seeds of "Cordyline australis" are high in linoleic acid, one of the essential fatty acids.## Cultivation today."Cordyline australis" is one of the most widely cultivated New Zealand native trees. In Northwest Europe and other cool oceanic climates, it is very popular as an ornamental tree because it looks like a palm tree. Hardy.

Cordyline australis. forms from the coldest areas of the southern or inland South Island tolerate Northern Hemisphere conditions best, while North Island forms are much more tender. It can also be grown successfully in Mediterranean climates. It is easily grown from fresh seed — seedlings often spontaneously appear in gardens from bird-dispersed seed — and can be grown very easily from shoot, stem and even trunk cuttings. It does well in pots and tubs.It grows well as far north as the eastern coast of Scotland, including the village of Portgower. It is more common in Southern England and in Ireland where it.

Cordyline australis. is grown all over the island. Although not a palm, it is locally named Cornish palm, Manx palm or Torbay palm. The last name is due to its extensive use in Torbay, it being the official symbol of that area, used in tourist posters promoting South Devon as the English Riviera. It also grows in southern Europe, California and Japan. Even though its natural distribution ranges from 34° S to 46°S, and despite its ultimately subtropical origins, it also grows at about five degrees from the Arctic Circle in Masfjorden, Norway, latitude 61ºN, in a microclimate protected from arctic winds.

Cordyline australis. and moderated by the Gulf Stream.## Cultivars.In the North Island, Māori cultivated selected forms of "C. australis" for food. One of these, called tī para or tī tāwhiti, was grown because it suckers readily and forms multiple fleshy rhizomes. A dwarf non-flowering selection of "C. australis", it has a rubbery, pulpy stem, and thick green leaves. Although it was recorded by the early naturalists, botanists only rediscovered it in the 1990s, being grown by gardeners as the cultivar "Cordyline" 'Thomas Kirk'. Recent and unpublished DNA work suggests it derives from "C. australis" of the central North Island."Cordyline" 'Ti Tawhiti' was.

Cordyline australis. "the subject of an intense discussion amongst the leading botanists of New Zealand at a meeting of the Royal Society ... in Wellington 100 years ago. It was saved from extinction because its dwarf form found favour with gardeners and it came to be known as Cordyline 'Kirkii' recording the interest Thomas Kirk had in the plant. Its origin as a Maori selection was forgotten until rediscovered in 1991. The name 'Tawhiti' is equivalent to 'Hawaiki' and indicates the traditional belief that the plant was introduced to Aotearoa by the ancestral canoes of Maori. However, it is more probable that.

Cordyline australis. the name arose from it being moved around its native land as a domesticated plant."Numerous cultivars of "C. australis" are sold within New Zealand and around the world. Like other "Cordyline" species, "C. australis" can produce sports which have very attractive colouration, including pink stripes and leaves in various shades of green, yellow or red. An early cultivar was published in France and England in 1870: "Cordyline australis" 'Lentiginosa' was described as having tinted leaves with brownish red spots. Other early cultivars included 'Veitchii' (1871) with crimson midribs, 'Atrosanguinea' (1882) with bronze leaves infused with red, 'Atropurpurea' (1886) and 'Purpurea'.

Cordyline australis. (1890) with purple leaves, and a range of variegated forms: 'Doucetiana' (1878), 'Argento-striata' (1888) and 'Dalleriana' (1890). In New Zealand and overseas, hybrids with other "Cordyline" species feature prominently in the range of cultivars available. New Plymouth plant breeders Duncan and Davies included hybrids of "C. australis" and "C. banksii" in their 1925 catalogue, and have produced many new cultivars since. In New Zealand, some of the coloured forms and hybrids seem to be more susceptible to attacks from the cabbage tree moth.Immature forms have become a popular annual house or ornamental plant under the name 'Spikes', or "Dracaena" 'Spikes'.

Cordyline australis. To add to the confusion, these may be misidentified as "Cordyline indivisa" (syn. "Dracaena indivisa")."C. australis" is hardy to USDA zones 8–11.## AGM cultivars.In cultivation in the United Kingdom, the following have received the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:"C. australis" 'Albertii' 'Sundance' 'Torbay Dazzler', 'Torbay Red' (confirmed 2017) Barry L. Frankhauser, an archaeologist and anthropologist, whose Ph.D. thesis (published 1986) was a study of historical uses of the cabbage treeScheele, S. (2007). The 2006 Banks Memorial Lecture: Cultural uses of New Zealand native plants. "New Zealand Garden Journal" 1:10–16. Retrieved 2010-04-04.Arkins, A. (2003). "The Cabbage Tree". Auckland. Reed.

Cordyline australis. Publishing.Harris, W. (2001). Horticultural and conservation significance of the genetic variation of cabbage trees (Cordyline spp.). In: Oates, M. R. ed. "New Zealand plants and their story: proceedings of a conference held in Wellington 1–3 October 1999". Lincoln, Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture. pp. 87–91.Harris, W. (2002). The cabbage tree. "Journal of the Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture", 5, 3–9.Harris, W. (2003). Genotypic variation of height growth and trunk diameter of Cordyline australis (Lomandraceae) grown at three locations in New Zealand. "New Zealand Journal of Botany", 41, 637–652.Harris, W. (2004). Genotypic variation of dead leaf retention by Cordyline.

Cordyline australis. australis (Lomandraceae) populations and influence on trunk surface. "New Zealand Journal of Botany", 42, 833–844.


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this bird?

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Cattle egret. The cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis) is a cosmopolitan species of heron (family Ardeidae) found in the tropics, subtropics, and warm-temperate zones. It is the only member of the monotypic genus Bubulcus, although some authorities regard its two subspecies as full species, the western cattle egret and the eastern cattle egret. Despite the similarities in plumage to the egrets of the genus "Egretta", it is more closely related to the herons of "Ardea". Originally native to parts of Asia, Africa, and Europe, it has undergone a rapid expansion in its distribution and successfully colonised much of the rest of the world.

Cattle egret. was moved to its current genus by Charles Lucien Bonaparte in 1855. Its generic name "Bubulcus" is Latin for herdsman, referring, like the English name, to this species' association with cattle. "Ibis" is a Latin and Greek word which originally referred to another white wading bird, the sacred ibis, but was applied to this species in error.The cattle egret has two geographical races, which are sometimes classified as full species, the western cattle egret, "B. ibis", and eastern cattle egret, "B. coromandus". The two forms were split by McAllan and Bruce, but were regarded as conspecific by almost all other.


Question: What is the basionym of this plant?

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Morchella esculenta. at its lower margin, forming a continuous hollow. The pits are rounded and irregularly arranged. The hollow stem is typically 2 – 9 (cm) long by 2 – 5 (cm) thick, and white to yellow. The fungus fruits under hardwoods and conifers during a short period in the spring, depending on the weather, and is also associated with old orchards, woods and disturbed grounds.## Taxonomy and naming.The fungus was originally named "Phallus esculentus" by Carl Linnaeus in his "Species Plantarum" (1753), and given its current name by Swedish mycologist Elias Magnus Fries in 1801."Morchella esculenta" is commonly known by various.


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Tuning fork. A tuning fork is an acoustic resonator in the form of a two-pronged fork with the prongs (tines) formed from a U-shaped bar of elastic metal (usually steel). It resonates at a specific constant pitch when set vibrating by striking it against a surface or with an object, and emits a pure musical tone once the high overtones fade out. A tuning fork's pitch depends on the length and mass of the two prongs. They are traditional sources of standard pitch for tuning musical instruments.The tuning fork was invented in 1711 by British musician John Shore, Sergeant trumpeter and lutenist.

Tuning fork. John Shore gave to George Frideric Handel produces C=512.Tuning forks, usually C512, are used by medical practitioners to assess a patient's hearing. This is most commonly done with two exams called the Weber test and Rinne test, respectively. Lower-pitched ones, usually at C128, are also used to check vibration sense as part of the examination of the peripheral nervous system.Orthopedic surgeons have explored using a tuning fork (lowest frequency C=128) to assess injuries where bone fracture is suspected. They hold the end of the vibrating fork on the skin above the suspected fracture, progressively closer to the suspected fracture. If.


Question: Where is the habitat of this plant?

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Acer macrophyllum. and more exceptionally 1200 (m). It can form pure stands on moist soils in proximity to streams, but are generally found within riparian hardwood forests or dispersed, (under or within), relatively open canopies of conifers, mixed evergreens, or oaks ("Quercus" spp.) In cool and moist temperate mixed woods they are one of the dominant species. It is very rare north of Vancouver Island though cultivated in Prince Rupert, near Ketchikan, and in Juneau.## Ecology.The tree can live in a wide range of habitats, but thrives in fairly well-hydrated hardwood forests, occurring with red alder, black cottonwood, and willows. It is.


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Gordale Scar. "let thy feet repair to Gordale chasm, terrific as the lair where the young lions couch".James Ward created a large and imaginative painting of it that can be seen in Tate Britain. J. M. W. Turner also painted a picture of it in 1816, also to be seen in Tate Britain.Colin Tudge references this feature and James Ward's painting in his book "The Time Before History".The waterfall was used as an exterior filming location in the 1982 film "The Dark Crystal". Goredale Scar appears in the Netflix series "The Witcher" (S2 E3: "What is Lost").


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Confederation Bridge. ship traffic. The bridge rests on 62 piers, of which the 44 main piers are 250 (m) apart. The bridge is 11 (m) wide.The speed limit on the bridge is 80 (km/h) but can vary with wind and weather conditions. When travelling at the speed limit, it takes about 12 minutes to cross the bridge.## Tolls.Tolls apply only when leaving Prince Edward Island (when travelling westbound). The toll rates are $50.25 for a two-axle automobile and $8.50 for each additional axle. Motorcycles are charged $20.00. While pedestrians and cyclists are not permitted to cross the bridge, a shuttle service is.


Question: What is the oldest age of this animal?

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Jungle cat. explored in 1768–1775 on behalf of Catherine II of Russia. He described this specimen in 1776 under the name "Chaus".In 1778, Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber used "chaus" as the species name and is therefore considered the binomial authority.Paul Matschie in 1912 and Joel Asaph Allen in 1920 challenged the validity of Güldenstädt's nomenclature, arguing that the name "Felis auriculis apice nigro barbatis" was not a binomen and therefore improper, and that "chaus" was used as a common name rather than as part of the scientific name.In the 1820s, Eduard Rüppell collected a female jungle cat near Lake Manzala in.

Jungle cat. ones from Cutch to Bengal under "F. c. kutas", and the tawnier ones from Burma under "F. c. fulvidina". He newly described six larger skins from Sind as "F. c. prateri", and skins with shorter coats from Sri Lanka and southern India as "F. c. kelaarti".## Classification.In 2005, the authors of Mammal Species of the World recognized 10 subspecies as valid taxa. Since 2017, the Cat Specialist Group considers only three subspecies as valid. Geographical variation of the jungle cat is not yet well understood and needs to be examined.The following table is based on the classification of the species.

Jungle cat. provided in "Mammal Species of the World". It also shows the synonyms used in the revision of the Cat Classification Task Force:## Phylogeny.In 2006, the phylogenetic relationship of the jungle cat was described as follows:The jungle cat is a member of the genus "Felis" within the family Felidae.Results of an mtDNA analysis of 55 jungle cats from various biogeographic zones in India indicate a high genetic variation and a relatively low differentiation between populations. It appears that the central Indian "F. c. kutas" population separates the Thar "F. c. prateri" populations from the rest and also the south Indian "F.

Jungle cat. in the region of the zygomatic arch; hence the head of this cat appears relatively rounder.The coat, sandy, reddish brown or grey, is uniformly coloured and lacks spots; melanistic and albino individuals have been reported from the Indian subcontinent. White cats observed in the coastline tracts of the southern Western Ghats lacked the red eyes typical of true albinos. A 2014 suggested that their colouration could be attributed to inbreeding. Kittens are striped and spotted, and adults may retain some of the markings. Dark-tipped hairs cover the body, giving the cat a speckled appearance. The belly is generally lighter than.

Jungle cat. the Nablus, Ramallah, Jericho and Jerusalem Governorates in the West Bank during surveys carried out between 2012 and 2016.In Iran, it inhabits a variety of habitat types from plains and agriculture lands to mountains ranging from altitudes of 45 to 4178 (m) in at least 23 of 31 provinces of Iran.In Pakistan, it was photographed in Haripur, Dera Ismail Khan, Sialkot Districts and Langh Lake Wildlife Sanctuary.In India, it is the most common small wild cat.In Nepal, it was recorded in alpine habitat at elevations of 3000-3300 (m) in Annapurna Conservation Area between 2014 and 2016.In Malaysia, it was recorded.

Jungle cat. in a highly fragmented forest in the Selangor state in 2010.A few jungle cat mummies were found among the cats in ancient Egypt.## Ecology and behaviour.The jungle cat is typically diurnal and hunts throughout the day. Its activity tends to decrease during the hot noon hours. It rests in burrows, grass thickets and scrubs. It often sunbathes on winter days. Jungle cats have been estimated to walk 3 – 6 (km) at night, although this likely varies depending on the availability of prey. The behaviour of the jungle cat has not been extensively studied. Solitary in nature, it does not.

Jungle cat. at 10 to 13 days of age and are fully weaned by around three months. Males usually do not participate in the raising of kittens; however, in captivity, males appear to be very protective of their offspring. Kittens begin to catch their own prey at around six months and leave the mother after eight or nine months. The lifespan of the jungle cat in captivity is 15 to 20 years; this is possibly higher than that in the wild.Generation length of the jungle cat is 5.2 years.## Threats.Major threats to the jungle cat include habitat loss such as the destruction.


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Sant Pere, Camprodon. Sant Pere de Camprodon is a Benedictine monastery in Camprodon, Ripollès, Catalonia, Spain. It was declared a Bien de Interés Cultural landmark in 1931.## History.In 1932 the remains of the old monastery, which were in ruins, were demolished. Only the old monastery church has been preserved.## Architecture and fittings.It was built in the mid-12th century with the only ornamentation being that of the porch, decorated with columns and capitals. Its plan is a Latin cross, with four square apses. The largest of these has the same width as the nave while remaining open to the sides of the transept. The.

Sant Pere, Camprodon. roof of the nave is a pointed arch supported on arches. On the cross plan, the transept rises to the dome which over which exists a bell tower, two stories high. The dome is covered on the outside by an octagonal lantern. The interior contains the remains of the tombs of some of the abbots. In the diocesan museum of Girona are also preserved some of the ancient capitals from the cloister.BibliographyPladevall, Antoni; "Els monestirs catalans", Ediciones Destino, Barcelona, 1970 Tomàs Bonell, Jordi; "Descobrir Catalunya", Premsa catalana, Barcelona, 1994. Monestir de Sant Pere de Camprodon - Monestirs de Catalunya.


Question: What is the closest upper taxonomy of this insect?

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American carrion beetle. The American carrion beetle ("Necrophila americana", formerly "Silpha americana") is a North American beetle of the family Silphidae. It lays its eggs in, and its larvae consume, raw flesh (particularly that of dead animals) and fungi. The larvae and adults also consume fly larvae and the larvae of other carrion beetles that compete for the same food sources as its larvae.## Range.The beetle lives in North America east of the Rocky Mountains, with its southern boundary from eastern Texas to Florida and the northern boundary from Minnesota to southeastern Canada including New Brunswick and Maine.## Appearance.Adults are 12 to 22.


Question: What is the conservation status of this bird? (The status is assigned by the international union for conservation of nature. Choose one among Endangered,Least Concern,Critically Endangered,extinct species,extinct in the wild,Vulnerable,Near Threatened,Data Deficient).

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Ringed kingfisher. examined, with the species being found in their lungs, trachea and coelomic cavity. The parasite migrates to the lungs as the host experiences stressful or immunosuppressive periods. The parasite also causes significant damage to tissues due to its migration to the lungs.## Predation.Predators of ringed kingfishers include the white-tailed hawk, sharp-shinned hawk, bald eagle, golden eagle and peregrine falcon.## Conservation status.The IUCN considers the ringed kingfisher to be of “Least Concern”. Increasing population trends indicate that the species are not vulnerable as they are widespread and have a large habitat distribution and breeding ranges.


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Arch of Hadrian (Jerash). The Arch of Hadrian is an ancient Roman structure in Jerash, Jordan. It is an 11-metre high triple-arched gateway erected to honor the visit of Roman Emperor Hadrian to the city (then called Gerasa) in the winter of 129–130. The arch originally stood to almost 22 m and probably had wooden doors. It features some unconventional, possibly Nabataean, architectural features, such as acanthus bases. The columns are decorated with capitals at the bottom rather than the top. The monument served both as a commemorative arch and as an approach to Gerasa. The Arch's relative remoteness from the city walls points.

Arch of Hadrian (Jerash). to a plan for southward expansion of Gerasa during its heyday. The expansion, however, has not been implemented.## Description.In 2005, the arch was under restoration. Reconstruction was completed in 2007 and the arch is now roughly 21 meters high (about 36 feet), 37.45 meters long, and 9.25 meters wide. Each face of the arch has four engaged columns standing on pedestals and bases. Each pedestal is 2.20 meters high, 2.25 meters wide and 1.20 meters deep. The base of each column is topped by a row of acanthus leaves.There are three vaulted passageways on the lower level and each of.

Arch of Hadrian (Jerash). these is flanked by two columns with Corinthian capitals. The two flanked archways are topped with niches. Each niche is on top of a small entablature, which stands on two pilasters crowned with capitals.The arch was crowned with an attic, which might have held a dedicatory inscription. The lower part of the attic was decorated with a frieze of acanthus leaves and the central part was crowned with a triangular cornice.## Inscription.There was a marble "tabula ansata" panel that was 1.03 meters in height and 7.14 meters in width, with letters 12–13 cm tall.List of Roman triumphal archesArch of Hadrian.


Question: In which year did this building officially open?

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Brooklands. Brooklands was a 2.767 (mi) motor racing circuit and aerodrome built near Weybridge in Surrey, England, United Kingdom. It opened in 1907 and was the world's first purpose-built 'banked' motor racing circuit as well as one of Britain's first airfields, which also became Britain's largest aircraft manufacturing centre by 1918, producing military aircraft such as the Wellington and civil airliners like the Viscount and VC-10.The circuit hosted its last race in August 1939 and today part of it forms the Brooklands Museum, a major aviation and motoring museum, as well as a venue for vintage car, motorcycle and other transport-related.

Brooklands. events.## History.## Brooklands motor circuit.The Brooklands motor circuit was the brainchild of Hugh Fortescue Locke-King, and was the first purpose-built banked motor race circuit in the world. Following the Motor Car Act 1903, Britain was subject to a blanket 20 (mph) speed limit on public roads: at a time when nearly 50% of the world's new cars were produced in France, there was concern that Britain's infant auto-industry would be hampered by the inability to undertake sustained high-speed testing. King commissioned Colonel Capel Lofft Holden of the Royal Artillery to design the projected circuit and work began in 1906.Requirements of.

Brooklands. settlement over time.Along the centre of the track ran a dotted black line, known as the "Fifty Foot Line". By driving over the line, a driver could theoretically take the banked corners without having to use the steering wheel.The track was opened on 17 June 1907 with a luncheon attended by most of Britain's motor manufacturers. At the conclusion of the luncheon, Mr Locke King (on whose estate the track was built) named Lord Montagu of Beaulieu, Messrs. Hugh Owen, Julian Walter Orde (secretary of the Automobile Club of Great Britain and Ireland) and Colonel Holden as being the main.

Brooklands. of the track giving a lap 1.168 (mi) long, running from the Fork to the rear of Members' Hill and back. It was created in 1930 using movable barriers.## Motoring records.## 24-hour event.On 28–29 June 1907, eleven days after the circuit opened, it played host to the world's first 24-hour motor event, with Selwyn Edge leading three specially converted Napier cars around the circuit. A statement of intent had been made in 1906, and Selwyn Edge entered into a physical training program to prepare for the event. His car, "804" was extensively modified, having a special fuel tank, bodywork removed,.

Brooklands. military aircraft. Enemy bombs damaged the track and a new access road to the Hawker factory was cut through from Oyster Lane. Temporary dispersal hangars covered other sections.## Brooklands Aerodrome.## 1909–1914.Brooklands was also one of Britain's first airfields. In 1908 Alliott Verdon-Roe was based at Brooklands and carried out the first taxiing and towed flight trials of a British full-size powered aircraft by a British pilot. On Friday, 29 October 1909 the first official powered flight at Brooklands was made by Frenchman Louis Paulhan and his Farman biplane: this special event attracted 20,000 people and was the first public flying.

Brooklands. circuit were sold to DaimlerChrysler UK Retail and Mercedes-Benz World opened to the public on 29 October 2006. This development incorporates a vehicle test tracks (including part of the original Campbell Circuit) and an off-road circuit. Also included is a conference centre and extensive Mercedes-Benz showrooms.Following significant earlier work by The Brooklands Society (not part of Brooklands Museum), certain buildings (including the 1907 BARC Clubhouse, the 1911 Flight Ticket Office and the 1932 Brooklands Aero Clubhouse), structures and remaining sections of the Track first became the subject of preservation orders from 1975 and this legal protection was reviewed by English.

Brooklands. Roadshow" was filmed at Brooklands Museum in July 2009 and subsequently produced as two programmes for its next series and first broadcast on 10 and 17 January 2010.Apart from Brooklands Museum's displays and exhibits, today there are a number of memorials to Brooklands. The first of these is the 'Brooklands Memorial' built by Vickers-Armstrongs to mark the 50th anniversary of the opening of the Motor Course and was unveiled by Lord Brabazon of Tara in July 1957. This impressive concrete faced monument featured a fine bronze letters, plaque and related inscription summarising the site's history from 1907–57 and was originally.

Brooklands. Heinemann Ltd, 1956 Lynch, Brendan. "Yesterday We Were in America - Alcock and Brown - First to fly the Atlantic non-stop". Yeovil, England: Haynes Publishing, 2009 McSwein, Donald R. "Brooklands Aircraft" (unpublished 1993 research paper - copy held in Brooklands Museum's library) Venables, David. "Brooklands - The Official Centenary History". Yeovil, England: Haynes Publishing, 2007 ) Brooklands Museum Brooklands Trust Members The Brooklands Society Mercedes-Benz World The Heights, Brooklands Brooklands: The crucible of auto racing - Speedhunters article 7/27/1907;The Opening Races And Speed Trials on the New Cement Track of the Brooklands Racing Club At Weybridge, England Historic Purpose Built.


Question: What kind of effect does this item have?

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Alarm device. An alarm device is a mechanism that gives an audible, visual or other kind of alarm signal to alert someone to a problem or condition that requires urgent attention.## Etymology.The word "alarm" comes from the Old French "a l'arme" meaning "to the arms", or "to the weapons", telling armed men to pick up their weapons and get ready for action because an enemy may have suddenly appeared.The word "alarum" is an archaic form of "alarm". It was sometimes used as a call to arms in the stage directions of Elizabethan dramas. The term comes from the Italian "all'armi" and appears.

Alarm device. either case. A person in such a state can be characterized as "alarmed".## False alarms.With any kind of alarm, you must balance between the danger of false alarms (called "false positives") — the signal going off in the absence of a problem — or an alarm failing to signal an actual problem (called a "false negative"). False alarms can waste resources expensively and can even be dangerous. For example, false alarms of a fire can waste firefighter manpower, making them unavailable for a real fire, and risk injury to firefighters and others as the fire engines race to the alleged.

Alarm device. fire's location. In addition, false alarms may acclimatise people to ignore alarm signals, and thus possibly to ignore an actual emergency: Aesop's fable of "The Boy Who Cried Wolf" exemplifies this problem.A false alarm is one of the most significant issues with conventional alarm systems. They can be triggered for several reasons, such as the movement of pets, typing in the wrong security codes, or loud sounds from windows or doors. In the case of fire alarms, aerosol sprays, smoking, or burning food can all lead to a false alarm.Many avoid the risk of false alarms by ensuring their alarms.

Alarm device. fire alarm which is used to give occupants of a building early warning of a potential fire and give them time to evacuate. warning devices on a vehicle that sound when it is moving in an unexpected direction, such as reversing, a siren, often accompanied by flashing coloured lights, on emergency vehicles responding to an emergencyAlarm devices, by category, include: burglar alarms, designed to warn of burglaries. This is often a silent alarm; law enforcement or guards are warned without alerting the burglar, which increases the chances of stopping the theft while in progress. alarm clocks can beep, buzz or.


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Burrator. Burrator is a grouped parish council in the English county of Devon. It is entirely within the boundaries of the Dartmoor National Park and was formed as a result of the Local Government Act 1972 from the older councils of Meavy, Sheepstor and Walkhampton.The parish has an area of 59.45 km2 (23 sq miles), and is one of the most sparsely populated. The population count in 2001 found that 1,540 people lived in the parish. The parish coincides with the similarly named electoral ward, and at the 2011 census the population had decreased to 1,445. The ward contains the villages.


Question: Where is this plant originally discovered?

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Cascabela thevetia. Cascabela thevetia (syn: "Thevetia peruviana") is a poisonous plant native throughout Mexico and in Central America, and cultivated widely as an ornamental. It is a relative of "Nerium oleander", giving it a common name yellow oleander, and is also called lucky nut in the West Indies.## Etymology.'Cascabel', 'cascavel' or 'cascabela' is Spanish for a small bell, a snake's rattle or a rattlesnake itself. The allusion may also be to the plant's toxicity comparable to the venom of a rattlesnake. The latin specific name "thevetia" commemorates André de Thevet (1516-1590), a French Franciscan priest and explorer, who explored Brazil and Guiana.

Cascabela thevetia. or Kaner (कनेर) in Hindi language in India. It is effectively drought resistant and tolerant to high temperatures, hence found in various states of India like Andhra, Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Telangana, West Bengal, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh , Odisha and Assam where semi arid climate is prevalent.## Religious importance.Its bright yellow flowers are used for religious purposes in India. The tree is native to Mexico and thus direct references to Hindu culture are new.## Toxicity.All parts of the "C. thevetia" plant are toxic to most vertebrates as they contain cardiac glycosides. Many cases of intentional and accidental.

Cascabela thevetia. feed on them without any ill effects. These include the sunbirds, Asian koel, red-whiskered bulbul, white-browed bulbul, red-vented bulbul, brahminy myna, common myna and common grey hornbill.In South India and in Sri Lanka swallowing the seeds of "Thevetia peruviana" (Kaneru කණේරු (Sinhala), Manjal arali (Tamil)) is one of the preferred methods for suicides in villages where they are grown in abundance.Extracts from "C. thevetia" are reported to possess antispermatogenic activity in rats.Cultivation## Uses."Cascabela thevetia" is cultivated as an ornamental plant, and planted as large flowering shrub or small ornamental tree standards in gardens and parks in temperate climates. In frost.

Cascabela thevetia. prone areas it is container plant, in the winter season brought inside a greenhouse or as a house plant. It tolerates most soils and is drought tolerant.Biological pest controlThe plant's toxins have tested in experiments for uses in biological pest control. "T. peruviana" seed oil was used to make a 'paint' with antifungal, antibacterial and anti-termite properties.USDA Plants - "Thevetia peruviana"Inchem.org: Thevetia peruvianaKemper Center for Home Gardening.org - "Thevetia peruviana" horticultural info and photos.


Question: Who is the director of this building?

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Strapless. Strapless is a 1989 film written and directed by David Hare.## Plot summary.An expatriate American doctor in London allows herself to lighten up when her freewheeling younger sister and a mysterious man enter her life. Her inhibitions released, the beautiful doctor learns that freedom has its own price.Blair Brown – Dr. Lillian HempelBruno Ganz – Raymond ForbesBridget Fonda – Amy HempelAlan Howard – Mr. CooperMichael Gough – Douglas BrodieHugh Laurie – ColinDana Gillespie – Julie KovagoSpencer Leigh – HusAlexandra Pigg - Helen## Release.After the film's May 1990 U.S. theatrical release, it was released on videocassette in the United States by.


Question: What is the source of energy of this equipment?

Instruction: I want to find a paragraph from Wikipedia that answers my question about this image.

Chainsaw. A chainsaw (or chain saw) is a portable gasoline-, electric-, or battery-powered saw that cuts with a set of teeth attached to a rotating chain driven along a guide bar. It is used in activities such as tree felling, limbing, bucking, pruning, cutting firebreaks in wildland fire suppression, and harvesting of firewood. Chainsaws with specially designed bar-and-chain combinations have been developed as tools for use in chainsaw art and chainsaw mills. Specialized chainsaws are used for cutting concrete during construction developments. Chainsaws are sometimes used for cutting ice; for example, ice sculpture and winter swimming in Finland.## History.## In surgery.The.

Chainsaw. to Samuel J. Bens of San Francisco on January 17, 1905, his intent being to fell giant redwoods. The first portable chainsaw was developed and patented in 1918 by Canadian millwright James Shand. After he allowed his rights to lapse in 1930, his invention was further developed by what became the German company Festo in 1933. The company, now operating as Festool, produces portable power tools. Other important contributors to the modern chainsaw are Joseph Buford Cox and Andreas Stihl; the latter patented and developed an electric chainsaw for use on bucking sites in 1926 and a gasoline-powered chainsaw in.

Chainsaw. 1929, and founded a company to mass-produce them. In 1927, Emil Lerp, the founder of Dolmar, developed the world's first gasoline-powered chainsaw and mass-produced them.World War II interrupted the supply of German chain saws to North America, so new manufacturers sprang up, including Industrial Engineering Ltd (IEL) in 1939, the forerunner of Pioneer Saws Ltd and part of Outboard Marine Corporation, the oldest manufacturer of chainsaws in North America.In 1944, Claude Poulan was supervising German prisoners cutting pulpwood in East Texas. Poulan utilized an old truck fender and fashioned it into a curved piece utilized to guide the chain. The.

Chainsaw. man-powered saws in forestry. They are made in many sizes, from small electric saws intended for home and garden use, to large "lumberjack" saws. Members of military engineer units are trained to use chainsaws, as are firefighters to fight forest fires and to ventilate structure fires.Three main types of chainsaw sharpeners are used: handheld file, electric chainsaw, and bar-mounted.The first electric chainsaw was invented by Stihl in 1926. Corded chainsaws became available for sale to the public from the 1960s onwards, but these were never as successful commercially as the older gas-powered type due to limited range, dependency upon the.

Chainsaw. presence of an electrical socket, plus the health and safety risk of the blade's proximity to the cable.For most of the early 21st century petrol driven chainsaws remained the most common type, but they faced competition from cordless lithium battery powered chainsaws from the late 2010s onwards. Although most cordless chainsaws are small and suitable only for hedge trimming and tree surgery, Husqvarna and Stihl began manufacturing full size chainsaws for cutting logs during the early 2020s. Battery powered chainsaws should eventually see increased market share in California due to state restrictions planned to take effect in 2024 on gas.

Chainsaw. powered gardening equipment.## Construction.A chainsaw consists of several parts:## Engine.Chainsaw engines are traditionally either a two-stroke gasoline (petrol) internal combustion engine (usually with a cylinder volume of 30 to 120 cm3) or an electric motor driven by a battery or electric power cord. In a petrol chainsaw, fuel is generally supplied to the engine by a carburetor at the intake.To allow use in any orientation, modern gas chainsaws use a diaphragm carburetor, which draws fuel from the tank using the alternating pressure differential within the crankcase. Early engines used carburetors with gravity fed float chambers, which caused the engine to.

Chainsaw. the garment.## Maintenance.Two-stroke chainsaws require about 2–5% of oil in the fuel to lubricate the engine, while the motor in electrical chain-saws is normally lubricated for life. Most modern gasoline-operated saws today require a fuel mix of 2% (1:50). Gasoline that contains ethanol can result in problems for the equipment because ethanol dissolves plastic, rubber, and other material. This leads to problems, especially on older equipment. A workaround for this problem is to run fresh fuel only and run the saw dry at the end of the work.Separate chain oil or bar oil is used for the lubrication of the.

Chainsaw. or steel spring was introduced. Heated handles are additional help. Newer, lighter, and easier to wield cordless electric chainsaws use brushless motors, which further decrease noise and vibration compared to traditional petroleum-powered models.The risks associated with chainsaw use mean that protective clothing such as chainsaw boots, chaps, and hearing protectors are normally worn while operating them, and many jurisdictions require that operators be certified or licensed to work with chainsaws. Injury can also result if the chain breaks during operation due to poor maintenance or attempting to cut inappropriate materials.Gasoline-powered chainsaws expose operators to harmful carbon monoxide gas, especially indoors.

Chainsaw. to cut bulk wood into planks or boards. Such usage is called a chainsaw mill or Alaskan sawmill.## Cutting stone, concrete, and brick.Special chainsaws can cut concrete, brick, and natural stone. These use similar chains to ordinary chainsaws, but with cutting edges embedded with diamond grit. They may use gasoline or hydraulic power, and the chain is lubricated with water, because of high friction and to remove stone dust. The machine is used in construction, for example, in cutting deep, square holes in walls or floors, in stone sculpture for removing large chunks of stone during pre-carving, by fire departments.


Question: Which historic county does this building belong to?

Instruction: Determine the Wikipedia snippet that matches the question of this image.

Marble Church, Bodelwyddan. of stained glass on the north and south sides, featuring Saint Margaret and Saint Kentigern. It is a popular tourist destination. The church was designated with Grade II* listed status in November 1962.Until the latter part of the 20th century the church, and in particular its high steeple, was very distinctive because it was so white. With the passage of time, pollution has resulted in the colour becoming more grey, and therefore more like other stone buildings.Local government reorganisation resulted in the church being in Flintshire until 1974, in Clwyd from 1974 until 1996, and since then in Denbighshire.## Churchyard.Immediately.


Question: Who designed this place?

Instruction: Determine the Wikipedia snippet that matches the question of this image.

Mill Colonnade. The Mill Colonnade () is a large colonnade containing several hot springs in the spa town of Karlovy Vary, Czech Republic. The structure is one of the traditional symbols of the town. ## Design and reception.The Neo-Renaissance structure has a nave, two aisles and measures 132 (m) long by 13 (m) wide. There are 124 Corinthian columns. Twelve statues representing the twelve months of the year sit above the portico. There is a raised orchestra space for the spa orchestra which plays regular, free concerts. Architect Josef Zítek, who also designed the National Theatre and Rudolfinum in Prague, designed the.


Question: What is the basionym of this plant?

Instruction: Determine the Wikipedia snippet that matches the question of this image.

Peritoma arborea. Peritoma arborea (formerly "Isomeris arborea", syn. "Cleome isomeris"), is a perennial shrub or bush in the spiderflower family (Cleomaceae) known by the common names bladderpod, bladderpod spiderflower and burro-fat. It has yellow flowers in bloom all months of the year. It emits a foul odor to discourage herbivory from insects.## Range and habitat."Peritoma arborea" is commonly found along roadsides, desert dry washes, and flat areas up to 4200 (feet), in the western Mojave Desert and Colorado Desert to Baja California Peninsula. It is native to California and Baja California Peninsula where it grows in a variety of habitats usually described.


Question: What is the location of this building?

Instruction: Determine the Wikipedia snippet that matches the question of this image.

Hammershus. Hammershus is a medieval era fortification at Hammeren on the northern tip of the Danish island of Bornholm.The fortress was partially demolished around 1750 and is now a ruin. It was partially restored around 1900.## History.Hammershus was Scandinavia's largest medieval fortification and is one of the largest medieval fortifications in Northern Europe. It is situated in the Baltic Sea 74 (m) above sea level. The fortification was erected in the 13th century and consists of the base castle residence and features a grand tower called the "mantel" tower. Hammershus Fortress features a 750 (m) perimeter wall around the castle grounds.During.


Question: Who designed this bridge?

Instruction: Retrieve a Wikipedia paragraph that provides an answer to the given query about the image.

Franz Joseph Bridge. Franz Joseph Bridge (), later renamed Štefanik Bridge (), was a suspension bridge over the Vltava in Prague, opened in 1868.The bridge was designed by the English engineer Rowland Mason Ordish. The design, which used the Ordish–Lefeuvre system, was originally created for the Albert Bridge over the River Thames in London. However, after construction of the Albert Bridge was delayed, Ordish decided to build a bridge in Prague first. The foundation stone was laid on 19 October 1865, and engineer František Schön was charged with supervising the construction work. Emperor Franz Joseph, after whom the bridge was named, attended the.


Question: Who found this aircraft?

Instruction: I want to find a paragraph from Wikipedia that answers my question about this image.

Beechcraft. Kansas, in 1932 by Walter Beech as president, his wife Olive Ann Beech as secretary, Ted A. Wells as vice president of engineering, K. K. Shaul as treasurer, and investor C. G. Yankey as vice president. The company began operations in an idle Cessna factory. With designer Ted Wells, they developed the first aircraft under the Beechcraft name, the classic Beechcraft Model 17 Staggerwing, which first flew in November 1932. Over 750 Staggerwings were built, with 352 manufactured for the United States Army Air Forces and 67 for the United States Navy during World War II.Beechcraft was not Beech's first.

Beechcraft. after the sudden death of her husband from a heart attack on November 29 of that year. She continued as CEO until Beech was purchased by Raytheon Company on February 8, 1980. Ted Wells had been replaced as chief engineer by Herbert Rawdon, who remained at the post until his retirement in the early 1960s.Throughout much of the mid-to-late 20th century, Beechcraft was considered one of the "Big Three" in the field of general aviation manufacturing, along with Cessna and Piper Aircraft.In 1994, Raytheon merged Beechcraft with the Hawker product line it had acquired in 1993 from British Aerospace, forming.


Question: What is the basionym of this plant?

Instruction: You have to find a Wikipedia segment that answers the question about the displayed image.

Pelargonium peltatum. bases of these mericarps each contain one hairless, brown, ellipse-shaped seed of about 5 mm long and 2 mm in diameter."P. peltatum" has nine homologous sets of chromosomes (2x=18).## Taxonomy.The ivy-leaved pelargonium was first described by Carl Linnaeus, based on a specimen that was growing in the garden of George Clifford III, in his 1753 groundbreaking book "Species Plantarum", and he named it "Geranium peltatum". When Charles Louis L'Héritier de Brutelle erected a new genus, "Pelargonium", in William Aiton’s book "Hortus Kewensis", published in 1789, he reassigned the species and made the new combination "P. peltatum". Later, in 1792, L'Héritier.


Question: What water body does the river in the image drain to?

Instruction: I want to find a paragraph from Wikipedia that answers my question about this image.

Pohick Creek. Pohick Creek is a 14.0 (mi) tributary stream of the Potomac River in Fairfax County in the U.S. state of Virginia. It takes its name from the Pohick Native American tribe once prevalent in the area.Pohick Creek forms in the vicinity of Burke and flows southeast past the western edge of Fort Belvoir to empty into the tidal Pohick Bay, which itself empties, along with Accotink Bay, into Gunston Cove, an embayment of the tidal Potomac River. Pohick Creek is a popular stream for whitewater kayaking, rafting, and paddling, providing Class II and III rapids along a 5.5 (mi) stretch.

Pohick Creek. and Sideburn Branch in Burke, Virginia. Pohick Creek Creek then flows southeast, forming the border between Burke and West Springfield. After crossing the Fairfax County Parkway, it enters Newington and descends into a gorge where the Gerry Connolly Cross County Trail follows the creek, crossing it eight times. It then passes into Lorton and crosses Interstate 95, the CSX RF&P Subdivision, and U.S. Route 1. It then meets the Potomac River in Pohick Bay about 0.5 miles north of Springfield Farms.## Watershed.Pohick Creek drains 32.21 (sqmi) of area, receives about 43.5 in/year of precipitation, has a topographic wetness index of.


Question: Which body of water is this building located in or next to?

Instruction: Determine the Wikipedia snippet that matches the question of this image.

Shell Centre. The Shell Centre, in London, is the global headquarters of oil major Shell plc. It is located on Belvedere Road in the London Borough of Lambeth. It is a prominent feature on the South Bank of the River Thames near County Hall, and now forms the backdrop to the London Eye.The original Shell Centre comprised the tower building and three now demolished adjoining nine storey wings (collectively formerly known as the "Upstream Building"). The original development also included a separate building known as the "Downstream Building", which was separated from the Upstream Building by the railway viaduct between Charing Cross.

Shell Centre. and Waterloo East.The Downstream Building was disposed of by Shell in the 1990s, and is now a block of residential apartments known as the "White House", and has been heightened by a storey.## Site history and layout.The Shell Centre occupies part of the site cleared for the 1951 Festival of Britain. The areas closer to the River Thames now include Jubilee Gardens and the South Bank Centre. Jubilee Gardens remained undeveloped prior to its laying out as an open space, largely because of a restrictive covenant in favour of Shell that restricts any building on the part of the site.

Shell Centre. directly between the Shell Tower and the River Thames.The naming of the Shell Centre buildings perpetuated the split of the Festival site into distinct Upstream and Downstream areas – separated by the railway viaduct approach to Hungerford Bridge.During construction, parts of abandoned works for the Waterloo and Whitehall Railway were discovered. This was a prototype for a proposed pneumatic railway that would have run under the River Thames linking Waterloo and Charing Cross. Digging was started in 1865, but was stopped in 1868, due to financial problems.Visible in the Thames at low tide just in line with the tower as.