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Nuremberg Castle. Nuremberg Castle () is a group of medieval fortified buildings on a sandstone ridge dominating the historical center of Nuremberg in Bavaria, Germany.The castle, together with the city walls, is considered to be one of Europe's most formidable medieval fortifications. It represented the power and importance of the Holy Roman Empire and the outstanding role of the Imperial City of Nuremberg.## Summary.In the Middle Ages, German kings (respectively Holy Roman Emperors after their coronation by the Pope) did not have a capital, but voyaged from one of their castles (Kaiserpfalz or Imperial castle) to the next. Thus, the castle at.

Nuremberg Castle. Nürnberg became an important imperial castle, and in the following centuries, all German kings and emperors stayed at the castle, most of whom on several occasions.Nuremberg Castle comprises three sections: the Imperial castle ("Kaiserburg"), the former Burgraves' castle ("Burggrafenburg"), and the buildings erected by the Imperial City at the eastern site ("Reichsstädtische Bauten").The first fortified buildings appear to have been erected around 1000. Thereafter, three major construction periods may be distinguished: the castle built under the Salian kings respectively Holy Roman Emperors (1027–1125); a new castle built under the Hohenstaufen emperors (1138–1254); reconstruction of the Palas as well as various.

Nuremberg Castle. modifications and additions in the late medieval centuries.The castle lost its importance after the Thirty Years' War (1618 to 1648). In the 19th century with its general interest in the medieval period, some modifications were added. During the Nazi period, in preparation of the Nuremberg party rally in 1936, it was "returned to its original state." A few years later, during World War II and its air raids in 1944/1945, a large part of the castle was laid in ruins. It took some thirty years to complete the rebuilding and restoration to its present state.## Buildings.## Imperial Castle.The usual access.

Nuremberg Castle. to the castle is via Burgstrasse ending in front of the sandstone ridge. A wide footpath leads into the outer courtyard through the "Heavenly Gate" ("Himmelstor") situated next to the "Hasenburg" tower (named after the Bohemian "Hasenburg" family).The "Sinwell Tower" built in the 2nd half of the 13th century was the major keep of the Castle. It is named after its cylindrical form: in Middle High German "sinwell" means "perfectly round". In the 1560s, its height was increased by a further floor and a pavilion roof with a pointed helm.The "Deep Well" ("Tiefer Brunnen") inside the small half-timbered house in.

Nuremberg Castle. the middle of the courtyard is certainly as old as the castle itself, as it was the castle's only source of water. Its shaft reaches the water level in a depth of 50 meters (164 feet) and the water usually is 3 m (10 ft) deep. Above the water level, a niche was cut out of the rock for cleaning purposes. The lower stone walls of the building date from 1563. The little annex built in the following year was used as bathroom and changing room. The "Deep Well" provided sufficient quantities of water for normal consumption, but during Imperial.

Nuremberg Castle. Diets and visits by the Emperor, water barrels had to be transported on wagons from the city.The "Castellan's House" ("Kastellansgebäude"), the "Secretarial Building" ("Sekretariatsgebäude") and the "Finance Building" ("Finanzstadel") as well as the post-medieval "Himmelsstallung" are further buildings in the outer court, to a large extent reconstructed after World War II.The "Inner Gate" ("Inneres Tor") leads to the "Inner Courtyard" ("Innerer Burghof"), surrounded by the "Palas", the "Imperial Chapel" and the "Kemenate". In the courtyard, remains of foundations of the Salian Period may be seen. In the middle, there is the "Kunigunde Lime Tree" planted in 1984, replacing older trees.

Nuremberg Castle. first mentioned in 1455 and named after Saint Cunigunde, consort of Emperor Henry II (Saint Henry).The "Palas", the main building of the Imperial Castle, has two floors which were used for official functions and as the Emperors residence. It was rebuilt and modified a number of times during the castle's history. It now houses the permanent exhibition »Emperor – Empire – City. The Imperial Castle in Nuremberg«.The "Imperial Chapel" ("Kaiserkapelle"), from an architectural point of view, is the most important building on the castle rock. It was built around 1200, at the same time as the original Palas. It is.

Nuremberg Castle. a romanesque double chapel consisting of two chapels one above the other and connected only through an opening in the ceiling, thus representing the hierarchical levels in the medieval society.The "Heathens' Tower" ("Heidenturm") stands next to the Imperial Chapel. It was built at the same time as the Chapel. When the Castle was restored for the visit of Emperor Charles V, "heathen idols and pictures" on the tower were removed, meaning romanesque sculptures, and thus the tower's name in colloquial parlance subsists until today.The "Kemenate" ("Ladies' Building") originally was built during the Hohenstaufen period, but later replaced by a large.

Nuremberg Castle. four storeyed building. The present building was burned down in 1945 and later reconstructed. At present, it houses the ticket office, the small museum shop and a multimedia show about the building history of the Imperial Castle.## Burgraves' Castle.The Burgraves' Castle was situated on the area between the "Sinwell Tower" and the "Luginsland", but after its destruction in 1420 and the purchase of its remains by the city, very little is left.The "Pentagonal Tower" standing above the northern rock face is among the oldest buildings on the castle rock. It was the keep of the Burgraves' Castle. Its lower part.

Nuremberg Castle. made of ashlars may have been built at the same time as the Imperial Chapel. During later gothic times, a storey of brickwork was added.The "Walburga Chapel" appears to have been built shortly thereafter. It was originally dedicated to Saint Othmar, but after the city purchased the ruins of Burgraves' Castle, it was rebuilt and dedicated to Saint Walpurga. Destroyed in World War II, it was reconstructed and opened to the public in 1970.## Buildings erected by the Imperial City.The "Luginsland" (literally "look into the land") was built in 1377 near the main gate of the Burgraves' castle, in order.

Nuremberg Castle. to enable the city to monitor the activities inside the Burgraves' Castle, at a time when the relations between the city and the Burgraves had already deteriorated.The "Vestner Gate" was the only exit from the castle to the north, at that time an open land.The "Imperial Stables" were built as a granary in 1494 to 1495 by Hans Beheim the Elder, Nuremberg's most important architect at that time. The ground floor was also used as stables. Severely damaged in World War II, it was renovated and is now a Youth Hostel.The "Bastions" were built in 1538 to 1545 in response.

Nuremberg Castle. to the progress in artillery which threatened the northern side of the castle. At about the same time, the fortifications of the city of Nuremberg as a whole were renewed and extended.## History.## Pre-Salian and Salian period.Archeological excavations within the castle unearthed remnants of walls dated around 1000, and in deeper strata even older ones that may be attributed to a building of Henry of Schweinfurt.The first written record is of 1050, when Henry III issued the so-called "Sigena document" in "Norenberc" releasing a bondswoman. His father Conrad II, on voyages from Regensburg (Ratisbon) to Bamberg in 1025 and 1030,.

Nuremberg Castle. 1105, had to endure that in his absence, after a siege lasting two months, the castle was taken by his son Henry V and that at the end of the same year he was forced by his son to abdicate.Upon the death of Henry V in 1125, the last member of the Salian dynasty, his elected successor Lothair of Supplinburg attempted to seize the crown lands from the Hohenstaufen Frederick II, Duke of Swabia and his brother Conrad who considered all these lands, including Nuremberg Castle, to be part of the Salian family property inherited by them. After several sieges,.

Nuremberg Castle. Lothair succeeded in October 1130 in capturing the castle.## Hohenstaufen period.Upon Lothair's death in 1137, the Hohenstaufen Conrad was elected King Conrad III in the subsequent year and soon afterwards started to build a new Imperial Castle which appears to have been completed during his reign. The new buildings comprised the Palas, the Imperial Chapel and the Heathens' Tower.At about the same time, Conrad established the Burgraviate in order to ensure the safety of the castle in the absence of the king. Thus, the first burgraves from the Austrian House of Raabs built the Burgraves' Castle next to the Imperial.

Nuremberg Castle. Castle and were granted a substantial landholding in the vicinity.Frederick I (Barbarossa) used the castle for a number of Diets and receptions, e.g. of a legation from the Eastern Roman Empire in 1156, but according to recent research, he did not contribute to the building of the Palace.Henry VI apparently was engaged in various building activities related to the Palas, the Imperial Chapel and adjacent buildings.After the last count of Raabs had died, his son-in-law Frederick of Zollern, in 1192, was granted the Burgraviate by Emperor Henry VI. The Zollerns, soon renamed Hohenzollern, held it until the Burgraves' Castle was.

Nuremberg Castle. destroyed and afterwards its ruins sold to the city of Nuremberg in 1427 (the Hohenzollerns, however, continued to administer their landholdings outside of Nuremberg).Frederick II, on the occasion of his first diet at the Imperial Castle in 1219, granted the "Great Letter of Freedom" ("") to the city, including town rights, Imperial immediacy ("Reichsfreiheit"), the privilege to mint coins, and an independent customs policy, making the city an Imperial Free City subject only to the Emperor. Frederick II also transferred various responsibilities for the care of the Imperial Castle to the city. This was the starting point not only of.

Nuremberg Castle. a remarkable development of the city, but also of a long dispute between the city and the Burgraves.Frederick II stayed at the castle at least 16 times, and his son King Henry (VII) of Germany as many as 21 times. In 1224, on the first diet of thirteen year old King Henry (VII), Walther von der Vogelweide was on the guest list, and in 1225, Henry (VII) was married at the castle to Margaret of Babenberg, daughter of Duke Leopold VI of Austria.Frederick II made his last visit to Germany in 1236 and returned to Italy in 1237 for the.

Nuremberg Castle. remaining thirteen years of his life, leaving the German affairs to his son Conrad IV.## The Castle in the Late Middle Ages.The Interregnum ceased in 1273 with the election in Frankfurt of King Rudolf I, the first King of the Romans of the House of Habsburg. Immediately thereafter, Rudolf I attested a number of privileges to the Burgraves in consideration of their assistance in his election. Rudolf I held several diets at the Imperial Castle, and under his reign as well as under the reign of his successors Adolf of Nassau and Albert I of Habsburg, new buildings were added.

Nuremberg Castle. such as the Sinwell Tower, and works were executed on the Palas and the upper parts of the Chapel Tower (Heathens' Tower). During the same period, the Burgraves extended their adjacent castle.## The Burgraves' Castle.Both the Burgraves and the city improved their positions in the surrounding lands. The city of Nuremberg prospered and became one of the most important towns in Germany. The Golden Bull of 1356 named Nuremberg as the place of the first Imperial Diet of a newly elected ruler. The Burgraves' rise to power reached its climax when King Sigismund transferred the Margraviate of Brandenburg to the.

Nuremberg Castle. Hohenzollern in 1411.Thus, it was inevitable that the relations between the city and the Burgraves on the castle hill deteriorated significantly. In 1367, the city obstructed the Burgraves' access to the city by a wall in front of their castle, and in 1377, the city erected the "Luginsland" tower (literally "look into the land") near the main gate of the Burgraves' castle, in order to control the activities inside the castle. In 1388/89, there was an armed conflict which was settled. Finally, the Burgraves' Castle was attacked in 1420 by Duke Louis VII of Bavaria and burned down, probably with.

Nuremberg Castle. the consent of the city. In 1422, Sigismund transferred the care of the Imperial Castle to the city, and in 1427, Frederick I, Elector of Brandenburg sold the remains of the Burgraves' Castle to the city.## The Imperial Castle as part of the City.With the political and commercial rise of the city, the Imperial Castle became less attractive. Emperors started to execute their governmental acts in the town hall completed in 1340 and preferred to stay in the luxurious houses of the leading families rather than in the less comfortable castle. The castle continued to be used on important formal.

Nuremberg Castle. occasions. Frederick III appreciated the safety of the Castle and stayed there several months. The last king holding his first Imperial Diet in Nuremberg was his son Maximilian I. In 1491, he stayed at the castle for almost six months. His grandson and successor Charles V, because of epidemics raging at Nuremberg, relocated his first Imperial Diet to Worms. He visited Nuremberg only in 1541 on his way to the Imperial Diet in Regensburg.## Modern Era.At this time, in 1538 to 1545, bastions were built on the northern side of the castle to better protect it against an improved artillery,.

Nuremberg Castle. and the Castle was integrated in the renewed and improved fortifications of the city. The new fortifications were designed by the Maltese military engineer Antonio Falzon.The subsequent Habsburg emperors concentrated on their territories mainly in Austria, Bohemia and Hungary. Thus, Nuremberg was rarely visited any more by acting rulers.During the Thirty Years' War, in 1632, the armies of Gustavus Adolphus and Wallenstein appeared in front of the walled city, but were diminished less by their hostilities than by typhus and scurvy.Neither the city nor the Castle fully recovered from the effects of the Thirty Years' War.Since 1594, the Imperial Diet.

Nuremberg Castle. had met only in Regensburg. The Peace of Westphalia of 1648 not only ended the atrocities of the war, but led to the Perpetual Diet of Regensburg which from 1663 to 1806 seated in Regensburg. As a consequence, the Nuremberg Castle lost practically all of its importance and was left undisturbed by outside forces.In 1806, during Napoleon's restructuring of central Europe, French troops occupied Nuremberg and, according to the "Treaty of the Confederation of the Rhine" ("Rheinbundakte"), handed it over to Bavaria, then raised to a kingdom.In line with the Romantic Period's revived interest for medieval art and architecture, King.

Nuremberg Castle. Ludwig I of Bavaria, in 1833, ordered Carl Alexander Heideloff to execute restoration work, but the king was not pleased with his neo-Gothic style and stopped the work. His son Maximilian II later commissioned August von Voit to continue the refurbishment between 1852 and 1858 in a more moderate style.In the 1930s, the general opinion of 19th century art and architecture had deteriorated. During the Third Reich, Rudolf Esterer, director of the Bavarian Administration of State-Owned Palaces, Gardens and Lakes, removed most of the previous installations and returned the Castle to what was thought to be "its original state".In World.

Nuremberg Castle. War II, the castle was damaged in 1944-45, with only the Imperial Chapel and the Sinwell Tower remaining entirely intact. After the war, the castle was restored under the direction of Rudolf Esterer and Julius Lincke to its historical form, including the Luginsland tower which had been completely destroyed.The Castle is owned by the state of Bavaria and administered by its Bavarian Administration of State-Owned Palaces, Gardens and Lakes ("Bayerische Verwaltung der staatlichen Schlösser, Gärten und Seen"). The Nuremberg Castle (ingame name Burgrave Palace) is the Military Castle Age Landmark of the Holy Roman Empire Civilization in Age of Empires.

Nuremberg Castle. IV The castle is also the setting of the 1992 id Software shooter and Wolfenstein 3D prequel, Spear of Destiny.## References.NotesBibliography Mummenhoff, Ernst, 1926: "Die Burg zu Nürnberg. Geschichtlicher Führer für Einheimische und Fremde" (4th edition, reprinted 1997, with an afterword by the editor G. Ulrich Grossmann) Nuremberg "Imperial Castle of Nuremberg," Bavarian Administration of State-Owned Palaces, Gardens and Lakes https://www.inuremberg.com/imperial-castle-of-nuremberg-kaiserburg/ "Photos of Imperial Castle of Nuremberg,"] Birgit Friedel: "Nürnberger Burg." Article of 4 October 2010 in: Historisches Lexikon Bayerns.


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this plant?

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Calyptocarpus vialis. Calyptocarpus vialis is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. Common names for "C. vialis" include straggler daisy, horseherb, lawnflower, and creeping Cinderella-weed. It is native to south Texas, Mexico, Belize, Venezuela, and the Caribbean. It has also been introduced east of Texas, Argentina, Hawaii, India, Java, Australia, and Taiwan. It is one of only three species in the genus "Calyptocarpus".The opposite leaves are typically 1–3 (cm) long and triangular to lanceolate in shape. It bears heads of yellow flowers, with around 10–20 disc florets and 3–8 ray florets, the laminae of the latter around 2–5 (mm) long.

Calyptocarpus vialis. It flowers year round. It is a weedy species, found in lawns and along other disturbed areas such as roadsides and paths.


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Reflecting telescope. A reflecting telescope (also called a reflector) is a telescope that uses a single or a combination of curved mirrors that reflect light and form an image. The reflecting telescope was invented in the 17th century by Isaac Newton as an alternative to the refracting telescope which, at that time, was a design that suffered from severe chromatic aberration. Although reflecting telescopes produce other types of optical aberrations, it is a design that allows for very large diameter objectives. Almost all of the major telescopes used in astronomy research are reflectors. Reflecting telescopes come in many design variations and may.

Reflecting telescope. employ extra optical elements to improve image quality or place the image in a mechanically advantageous position. Since reflecting telescopes use mirrors, the design is sometimes referred to as a catoptric telescope.From the time of Newton to the 1800s, the mirror itself was made of metal usually speculum metal. This type included Newton's first designs and even the largest telescopes of the 19th century, the Leviathan of Parsonstown with a 1.8 meter wide metal mirror. In the 19th century a new method using a block of glass coated with very thin layer of silver began to become more popular by.

Reflecting telescope. his telescope and five years before Hooke built the first such Gregorian telescope, Isaac Newton in 1668 built his own reflecting telescope, which is generally acknowledged as the first reflecting telescope. It used a spherically ground metal primary mirror and a small diagonal mirror in an optical configuration that has come to be known as the Newtonian telescope.Despite the theoretical advantages of the reflector design, the difficulty of construction and the poor performance of the speculum metal mirrors being used at the time meant it took over 100 years for them to become popular. Many of the advances in reflecting.

Reflecting telescope. useful for terrestrial observations. Some small spotting scopes are still built this way. There are several large modern telescopes that use a Gregorian configuration such as the Vatican Advanced Technology Telescope, the Magellan telescopes, the Large Binocular Telescope, and the Giant Magellan Telescope.## Newtonian.The Newtonian telescope was the first successful reflecting telescope, completed by Isaac Newton in 1668. It usually has a paraboloid primary mirror but at focal ratios of about f/10 or longer a spherical primary mirror can be sufficient for high visual resolution. A flat secondary mirror reflects the light to a focal plane at the side of.

Reflecting telescope. seldom faster than f/15.## Off-axis designs.There are several designs that try to avoid obstructing the incoming light by eliminating the secondary or moving any secondary element off the primary mirror's optical axis, commonly called off-axis optical systems.## Herschelian.The Herschelian reflector is named after William Herschel, who used this design to build very large telescopes including the 40-foot telescope in 1789. In the Herschelian reflector the primary mirror is tilted so the observer's head does not block the incoming light. Although this introduces geometrical aberrations, Herschel employed this design to avoid the use of a Newtonian secondary mirror since the speculum.


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Octagon. In geometry, an octagon (from the Greek ὀκτάγωνον "oktágōnon", "eight angles") is an eight-sided polygon or 8-gon.A "regular octagon" has Schläfli symbol {8} and can also be constructed as a quasiregular truncated square, t{4}, which alternates two types of edges. A truncated octagon, t{8} is a hexadecagon, {16}. A 3D analog of the octagon can be the rhombicuboctahedron with the triangular faces on it like the replaced edges, if one considers the octagon to be a truncated square.## Properties of the general octagon.The sum of all the internal angles of any octagon is 1080°. As with all polygons, the external.

Octagon. angles total 360°.If squares are constructed all internally or all externally on the sides of an octagon, then the midpoints of the segments connecting the centers of opposite squares form a quadrilateral that is both equidiagonal and orthodiagonal (that is, whose diagonals are equal in length and at right angles to each other).The midpoint octagon of a reference octagon has its eight vertices at the midpoints of the sides of the reference octagon. If squares are constructed all internally or all externally on the sides of the midpoint octagon, then the midpoints of the segments connecting the centers of opposite.

Octagon. squares themselves form the vertices of a square.## Regular octagon.A regular octagon is a closed figure with sides of the same length and internal angles of the same size. It has eight lines of reflective symmetry and rotational symmetry of order 8. A regular octagon is represented by the Schläfli symbol {8}.The internal angle at each vertex of a regular octagon is 135° (formula_1 radians). The central angle is 45° (formula_2 radians).## Area.The area of a regular octagon of side length "a" is given byformula_3In terms of the circumradius "R", the area isformula_4In terms of the apothem "r" (see also.

Octagon. inscribed figure), the area isformula_5These last two coefficients bracket the value of pi, the area of the unit circle.The area can also be expressed asformula_6where "S" is the span of the octagon, or the second-shortest diagonal; and "a" is the length of one of the sides, or bases. This is easily proven if one takes an octagon, draws a square around the outside (making sure that four of the eight sides overlap with the four sides of the square) and then takes the corner triangles (these are 45–45–90 triangles) and places them with right angles pointed inward, forming a square.

Octagon. The edges of this square are each the length of the base.Given the length of a side "a", the span "S" isformula_7The span, then, is equal to the "silver ratio" times the side, a.The area is then as above:formula_8Expressed in terms of the span, the area isformula_9Another simple formula for the area is formula_10More often the span "S" is known, and the length of the sides, "a", is to be determined, as when cutting a square piece of material into a regular octagon. From the above,formula_11The two end lengths "e" on each side (the leg lengths of the triangles (green.

Octagon. in the image) truncated from the square), as well as being formula_12 may be calculated asformula_13## Circumradius and inradius.The circumradius of the regular octagon in terms of the side length "a" isformula_14and the inradius isformula_15## Diagonals.The regular octagon, in terms of the side length "a", has three different types of diagonals:Short diagonal;Medium diagonal (also called span or height), which is twice the length of the inradius;Long diagonal, which is twice the length of the circumradius.The formula for each of them follows from the basic principles of geometry. Here are the formulas for their length:Short diagonal: formula_16 ;Medium diagonal: formula_17 ;.

Octagon. ("silver ratio" times a) Long diagonal: formula_18 .## Construction and elementary properties.A regular octagon at a given circumcircle may be constructed as follows:Draw a circle and a diameter AOE, where O is the center and A, E are points on the circumcircle.Draw another diameter GOC, perpendicular to AOE.(Note in passing that A,C,E,G are vertices of a square).Draw the bisectors of the right angles GOA and EOG, making two more diameters HOD and FOB.A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H are the vertices of the octagon.A regular octagon can be constructed using a straightedge and a compass, as 8 = 23, a power of two:The regular octagon.

Octagon. can be constructed with meccano bars. Twelve bars of size 4, three bars of size 5 and two bars of size 6 are required.Each side of a regular octagon subtends half a right angle at the centre of the circle which connects its vertices. Its area can thus be computed as the sum of 8 isosceles triangles, leading to the result:formula_19for an octagon of side "a".## Standard coordinates.The coordinates for the vertices of a regular octagon centered at the origin and with side length 2 are:(±1, ±(1+)) (±(1+), ±1).## Dissection.Coxeter states that every zonogon (a 2"m"-gon whose opposite sides are.

Octagon. parallel and of equal length) can be dissected into "m"("m"-1)/2 parallelograms.In particular this is true for regular polygons with evenly many sides, in which case the parallelograms are all rhombi. For the "regular octagon", "m"=4, and it can be divided into 6 rhombs, with one example shown below. This decomposition can be seen as 6 of 24 faces in a Petrie polygon projection plane of the tesseract. The list defines the number of solutions as 8, by the 8 orientations of this one dissection. These squares and rhombs are used in the Ammann–Beenker tilings.## Skew octagon.A skew octagon is a.

Octagon. skew polygon with 8 vertices and edges but not existing on the same plane. The interior of such an octagon is not generally defined. A "skew zig-zag octagon" has vertices alternating between two parallel planes.A regular skew octagon is vertex-transitive with equal edge lengths. In 3-dimensions it will be a zig-zag skew octagon and can be seen in the vertices and side edges of a square antiprism with the same D4d, [2+,8] symmetry, order 16.## Petrie polygons.The regular skew octagon is the Petrie polygon for these higher-dimensional regular and uniform polytopes, shown in these skew orthogonal projections of in A7,.

Octagon. B4, and D5 Coxeter planes.## Symmetry of octagon.The "regular octagon" has Dih8 symmetry, order 16. There are 3 dihedral subgroups: Dih4, Dih2, and Dih1, and 4 cyclic subgroups: Z8, Z4, Z2, and Z1, the last implying no symmetry.On the regular octagon, there are 11 distinct symmetries. John Conway labels full symmetry as r16. The dihedral symmetries are divided depending on whether they pass through vertices (d for diagonal) or edges (p for perpendiculars) Cyclic symmetries in the middle column are labeled as g for their central gyration orders. Full symmetry of the regular form is r16 and no symmetry is.

Octagon. labeled a1.The most common high symmetry octagons are p8, an isogonal octagon constructed by four mirrors can alternate long and short edges, and d8, an isotoxal octagon constructed with equal edge lengths, but vertices alternating two different internal angles. These two forms are duals of each other and have half the symmetry order of the regular octagon.Each subgroup symmetry allows one or more degrees of freedom for irregular forms. Only the g8 subgroup has no degrees of freedom but can seen as directed edges.## Uses of octagons.The octagonal shape is used as a design element in architecture. The Dome of.


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Tortoiseshell. Tortoiseshell or tortoise shell is a material produced from the shells of the larger species of tortoise and turtle, mainly the hawksbill sea turtle, which is a critically endangered species according to the IUCN Red List largely because of its exploitation for this trade. The large size, fine color, and unusual form of the hawksbill's scutes make it especially suitable. The distinctive patterning is referred to in names such as the tortoiseshell cat, several breeds of guinea pig, and the common names of several species of the butterfly genera "Nymphalis" and "Aglais", and some other uses.## Uses.Tortoiseshell was widely used.


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Wallace Monument. The National Wallace Monument (generally known as the Wallace Monument) is a 67 metre tower on the shoulder of the Abbey Craig, a hilltop overlooking Stirling in Scotland. It commemorates Sir William Wallace, a 13th- and 14th-century Scottish hero.The tower is open to the public for an admission fee. Visitors approach by foot from the base of the crag on which it stands. On entry there are 246 steps to the final observation platform, with three exhibition rooms within the body of the tower. The tower is not accessible to disabled visitors.## Background.The tower was constructed following a fundraising campaign,.

Wallace Monument. first heroines to be celebrated in the hall.## Statue of Wallace.The original Victorian statue of Wallace stands on the corner of the monument and is by the Edinburgh sculptor David Watson Stevenson.## "Braveheart" statue.In 1996 Tom Church carved a statue of Wallace called "Freedom", which was inspired by the film "Braveheart". It has the face of Mel Gibson, the actor who played William Wallace in the film. Church leased the statue to Stirling Council, who in 1997 installed it in the car park of the visitor centre at the foot of the craig. The statue was deeply unpopular, being described.

Wallace Monument. decapitated governor of York. In April 2016, it was reported in local press that the statue might be moved to Ardrossan's old Barony Church. In September 2021, it was moved to Glebe Park stadium in Brechin.Statue of William Wallace, AberdeenWallace's Monument, AyrshireStatue of William Wallace, BemersydeWallace's Monument at ElderslieNational Monument of ScotlandIn Stirling's page on the monument.


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La Recoleta Cemetery. () and a church, Our Lady of Pilar ("), built in 1732.The order was disbanded in 1822, and the garden of the convent was converted into the first public cemetery in Buenos Aires. Inaugurated on 17 November of the same year under the name of " (Northern Cemetery), those responsible for its creation were the then-Governor Martin Rodríguez, who would be eventually buried in the cemetery, and government minister Bernardino Rivadavia.The 1822 layout was done by French civil engineer Próspero Catelin, who also designed the current facade of the Buenos Aires Metropolitan Cathedral. The cemetery was last remodeled in 1881,.


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Mill Colonnade. The Mill Colonnade () is a large colonnade containing several hot springs in the spa town of Karlovy Vary, Czech Republic. The structure is one of the traditional symbols of the town. ## Design and reception.The Neo-Renaissance structure has a nave, two aisles and measures 132 (m) long by 13 (m) wide. There are 124 Corinthian columns. Twelve statues representing the twelve months of the year sit above the portico. There is a raised orchestra space for the spa orchestra which plays regular, free concerts. Architect Josef Zítek, who also designed the National Theatre and Rudolfinum in Prague, designed the.


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this plant?

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Amanita muscaria. Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly amanita, is a basidiomycete of the genus "Amanita". It is also a muscimol mushroom. Native throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere, "Amanita muscaria" has been unintentionally introduced to many countries in the Southern Hemisphere, generally as a symbiont with pine and birch plantations, and is now a true cosmopolitan species. It associates with various deciduous and coniferous trees.Arguably the most iconic toadstool species, the fly agaric is a large white-gilled, white-spotted, usually red mushroom, and is one of the most recognizable and widely encountered in popular.

Amanita muscaria. culture, including in video games—e.g., the extensive use of a recognizable "Amanita muscaria" in the Mario franchise and its Super Mushroom power up—and television—e.g., the houses in The Smurfs franchise.Despite its easily distinguishable features, "Amanita muscaria" is a fungus with several known variations, or subspecies. These subspecies are slightly different, some having yellow or white caps, but they are all usually called fly agarics, and they are most of the time recognizable by their notable white spots. Recent DNA fungi research, however, has shown that some of these variations are not the same species at all, such as the peach-colored.

Amanita muscaria. fly agaric ("Amanita persicina") for example, but the common name 'fly agaric' clings on.Although poisonous, death due to poisoning from "A. muscaria" ingestion is quite rare. Parboiling twice with water draining weakens its toxicity and breaks down the mushroom's psychoactive substances; it is eaten in parts of Europe, Asia, and North America. All "Amanita muscaria" varieties, but in particular "A. muscaria" var. "muscaria", are noted for their hallucinogenic properties, with the main psychoactive constituents being the neurotoxins ibotenic acid and muscimol. A local variety of the mushroom was used as an intoxicant and entheogen by the indigenous peoples of Siberia.

Amanita muscaria. and by the Sámi, and has a religious significance in these cultures. There has been much speculation on possible traditional use of this mushroom as an intoxicant in other places such as the Middle East, Eurasia, North America, and Scandinavia.## Taxonomy and naming.The name of the mushroom in many European languages is thought to derive from its use as an insecticide when sprinkled in milk. This practice has been recorded from Germanic- and Slavic-speaking parts of Europe, as well as the Vosges region and pockets elsewhere in France, and Romania. Albertus Magnus was the first to record it in his.

Amanita muscaria. work "De vegetabilibus" some time before 1256, commenting "vocatur fungus muscarum, eo quod in lacte pulverizatus interficit muscas", "it is called the fly mushroom because it is powdered in milk to kill flies."The 16th-century Flemish botanist Carolus Clusius traced the practice of sprinkling it into milk to Frankfurt in Germany, while Carl Linnaeus, the "father of taxonomy", reported it from Småland in southern Sweden, where he had lived as a child. He described it in volume two of his "Species Plantarum" in 1753, giving it the name "Agaricus muscarius", the specific epithet deriving from Latin "musca" meaning "fly". It gained.

Amanita muscaria. its current name in 1783, when placed in the genus "Amanita" by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, a name sanctioned in 1821 by the "father of mycology", Swedish naturalist Elias Magnus Fries. The starting date for all the mycota had been set by general agreement as January 1, 1821, the date of Fries's work, and so the full name was then "Amanita muscaria" (L.:Fr.) Hook. The 1987 edition of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature changed the rules on the starting date and primary work for names of fungi, and names can now be considered valid as far back as May 1, 1753,.

Amanita muscaria. the date of publication of Linnaeus's work. Hence, Linnaeus and Lamarck are now taken as the namers of "Amanita muscaria" (L.) Lam..The English mycologist John Ramsbottom reported that "Amanita muscaria" was used for getting rid of bugs in England and Sweden, and "bug agaric" was an old alternative name for the species. French mycologist Pierre Bulliard reported having tried without success to replicate its fly-killing properties in his work "" (1784), and proposed a new binomial name "Agaricus pseudo-aurantiacus" because of this. One compound isolated from the fungus is 1,3-diolein (1,3-di(cis-9-octadecenoyl)glycerol), which attracts insects.It has been hypothesised that the flies.

Amanita muscaria. intentionally seek out the fly agaric for its intoxicating properties.An alternative derivation proposes that the term "fly-" refers not to insects as such but rather the delirium resulting from consumption of the fungus. This is based on the medieval belief that flies could enter a person's head and cause mental illness. Several regional names appear to be linked with this connotation, meaning the "mad" or "fool's" version of the highly regarded edible mushroom "Amanita caesarea". Hence there is ' "mad oriol" in Catalan, "mujolo folo" from Toulouse, ' from the Aveyron department in Southern France, "" from Trentino in Italy.

Amanita muscaria. A local dialect name in Fribourg in Switzerland is "tsapi de diablhou", which translates as "Devil's hat".## Classification."Amanita muscaria" is the type species of the genus. By extension, it is also the type species of "Amanita" subgenus "Amanita", as well as section "Amanita" within this subgenus. "Amanita" subgenus "Amanita" includes all "Amanita" with inamyloid spores. "Amanita" section "Amanita" includes the species with patchy universal veil remnants, including a volva that is reduced to a series of concentric rings, and the veil remnants on the cap to a series of patches or warts. Most species in this group also have a.

Amanita muscaria. bulbous base. "Amanita" section "Amanita" consists of "A. muscaria" and its close relatives, including "A. pantherina" (the panther cap), "A. gemmata", "A. farinosa", and "A. xanthocephala". Modern fungal taxonomists have classified "Amanita muscaria" and its allies this way based on gross morphology and spore inamyloidy. Two recent molecular phylogenetic studies have confirmed this classification as natural.## Controversy."Amanita muscaria" varies considerably in its morphology, and many authorities recognize several subspecies or varieties within the species. In "The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy", German mycologist Rolf Singer listed three subspecies, though without description: "A. muscaria" ssp. "muscaria", "A. muscaria" ssp. "americana", and "A.

Amanita muscaria. muscaria" ssp. "flavivolvata".However, a 2006 molecular phylogenetic study of different regional populations of "A. muscaria" by mycologist József Geml and colleagues found three distinct clades within this species representing, roughly, Eurasian, Eurasian "subalpine", and North American populations. Specimens belonging to all three clades have been found in Alaska; this has led to the hypothesis that this was the centre of diversification for this species. The study also looked at four named varieties of the species: var. "alba", var. "flavivolvata", var. "formosa" (including var. "guessowii"), and var. "regalis" from both areas. All four varieties were found within both the Eurasian and.

Amanita muscaria. North American clades, evidence that these morphological forms are polymorphisms rather than distinct subspecies or varieties. Further molecular study by Geml and colleagues published in 2008 show that these three genetic groups, plus a fourth associated with oak–hickory–pine forest in the southeastern United States and two more on Santa Cruz Island in California, are delineated from each other enough genetically to be considered separate species. Thus "A. muscaria" as it stands currently is, evidently, a species complex. The complex also includes at least three other closely related taxa that are currently regarded as species: "A. breckonii" is a buff-capped mushroom.

Amanita muscaria. associated with conifers from the Pacific Northwest, and the brown-capped "A. gioiosa" and "A. heterochroma" from the Mediterranean Basin and from Sardinia respectively. Both of these last two are found with "Eucalyptus" and "Cistus" trees, and it is unclear whether they are native or introduced from Australia."Amanitaceae.org" lists four varieties , but says that they will be segregated into their own taxa "in the near future". They are:## Description.A large, conspicuous mushroom, "Amanita muscaria" is generally common and numerous where it grows, and is often found in groups with basidiocarps in all stages of development.Fly agaric fruiting bodies emerge from.

Amanita muscaria. the soil looking like white eggs. After emerging from the ground, the cap is covered with numerous small white to yellow pyramid-shaped warts. These are remnants of the universal veil, a membrane that encloses the entire mushroom when it is still very young. Dissecting the mushroom at this stage reveals a characteristic yellowish layer of skin under the veil, which helps identification. As the fungus grows, the red colour appears through the broken veil and the warts become less prominent; they do not change in size, but are reduced relative to the expanding skin area. The cap changes from globose.

Amanita muscaria. to hemispherical, and finally to plate-like and flat in mature specimens. Fully grown, the bright red cap is usually around 8 – 20 (cm) in diameter, although larger specimens have been found. The red colour may fade after rain and in older mushrooms.The free gills are white, as is the spore print. The oval spores measure 9–13 by 6.5–9 μm; they do not turn blue with the application of iodine. The stipe is white, 5 – 20 (cm) high by 1 – 2 (cm) wide, and has the slightly brittle, fibrous texture typical of many large mushrooms. At the base.

Amanita muscaria. is a bulb that bears universal veil remnants in the form of two to four distinct rings or ruffs. Between the basal universal veil remnants and gills are remnants of the partial veil (which covers the gills during development) in the form of a white ring. It can be quite wide and flaccid with age. There is generally no associated smell other than a mild earthiness.Although very distinctive in appearance, the fly agaric has been mistaken for other yellow to red mushroom species in the Americas, such as "Armillaria" cf. "mellea" and the edible "Amanita basii"—a Mexican species similar to.

Amanita muscaria. "A. caesarea" of Europe. Poison control centres in the U.S. and Canada have become aware that (Spanish for 'yellow') is a common name for the "A. caesarea"-like species in Mexico. "Amanita caesarea" is distinguished by its entirely orange to red cap, which lacks the numerous white warty spots of the fly agaric. Furthermore, the stem, gills and ring of "A. caesarea" are bright yellow, not white. The volva is a distinct white bag, not broken into scales. In Australia, the introduced fly agaric may be confused with the native vermilion grisette ("Amanita xanthocephala"), which grows in association with eucalypts. The.

Amanita muscaria. latter species generally lacks the white warts of "A. muscaria" and bears no ring.## Distribution and habitat."Amanita muscaria" is a cosmopolitan mushroom, native to conifer and deciduous woodlands throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere, including higher elevations of warmer latitudes in regions such as Hindu Kush, the Mediterranean and also Central America. A recent molecular study proposes that it had an ancestral origin in the Siberian–Beringian region in the Tertiary period, before radiating outwards across Asia, Europe and North America. The season for fruiting varies in different climates: fruiting occurs in summer and autumn across most.

Amanita muscaria. of North America, but later in autumn and early winter on the Pacific coast. This species is often found in similar locations to "Boletus edulis", and may appear in fairy rings. Conveyed with pine seedlings, it has been widely transported into the southern hemisphere, including Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and South America, where it can be found in the southern Brazilian states of Paraná and Rio Grande do Sul.Ectomycorrhizal, "Amanita muscaria" forms symbiotic relationships with many trees, including pine, oak, spruce, fir, birch, and cedar. Commonly seen under introduced trees, "A. muscaria" is the fungal equivalent of a weed.

Amanita muscaria. in New Zealand, Tasmania and Victoria, forming new associations with southern beech ("Nothofagus"). The species is also invading a rainforest in Australia, where it may be displacing the native species. It appears to be spreading northwards, with recent reports placing it near Port Macquarie on the New South Wales north coast. It was recorded under silver birch ("Betula pendula") in Manjimup, Western Australia in 2010. Although it has apparently not spread to eucalypts in Australia, it has been recorded associating with them in Portugal. Commonly found throughout the great Southern region of western Australia, it is regularly found growing on.

Amanita muscaria. Pinus radiata.## Toxicity."Amanita muscaria" poisoning has occurred in young children and in people who ingested the mushrooms for a hallucinogenic experience. Occasionally it has been ingested in error, because immature button forms resemble puffballs. The white spots sometimes wash away during heavy rain and the mushrooms then may appear to be the edible "A. caesarea"."Amanita muscaria" contains several biologically active agents, at least one of which, muscimol, is known to be psychoactive. Ibotenic acid, a neurotoxin, serves as a prodrug to muscimol, with a small amount likely converting to muscimol after ingestion. An active dose in adults is approximately 6.

Amanita muscaria. mg muscimol or 30 to 60 mg ibotenic acid; this is typically about the amount found in one cap of "Amanita muscaria". The amount and ratio of chemical compounds per mushroom varies widely from region to region and season to season, which can further confuse the issue. Spring and summer mushrooms have been reported to contain up to 10 times more ibotenic acid and muscimol than autumn fruitings.Deaths from this fungus "A. muscaria" have been reported in historical journal articles and newspaper reports, but with modern medical treatment, fatal poisoning from ingesting this mushroom is extremely rare. Many books list.

Amanita muscaria. "Amanita muscaria" as deadly, but according to David Arora, this is an error that implies the mushroom is far more toxic than it is. Furthermore, The North American Mycological Association has stated that there were "no reliably documented cases of death from toxins in these mushrooms in the past 100 years".The active constituents of this species are water-soluble, and boiling and then discarding the cooking water at least partly detoxifies "A. muscaria". Drying may increase potency, as the process facilitates the conversion of ibotenic acid to the more potent muscimol. According to some sources, once detoxified, the mushroom becomes edible.

Amanita muscaria. Dr Patrick Harding describes the Sami custom of processing the fly agaric through reindeer.## Pharmacology.Muscarine, discovered in 1869, was long thought to be the active hallucinogenic agent in "A. muscaria". Muscarine binds with muscarinic acetylcholine receptors leading to the excitation of neurons bearing these receptors. The levels of muscarine in "Amanita muscaria" are minute when compared with other poisonous fungi such as "Inosperma erubescens", the small white "Clitocybe" species "C. dealbata" and "C. rivulosa". The level of muscarine in "A. muscaria" is too low to play a role in the symptoms of poisoning.The major toxins involved in "A. muscaria" poisoning.

Amanita muscaria. are muscimol (3-hydroxy-5-aminomethyl-1-isoxazole, an unsaturated cyclic hydroxamic acid) and the related amino acid ibotenic acid. Muscimol is the product of the decarboxylation (usually by drying) of ibotenic acid. Muscimol and ibotenic acid were discovered in the mid-20th century. Researchers in England, Japan, and Switzerland showed that the effects produced were due mainly to ibotenic acid and muscimol, not muscarine. These toxins are not distributed uniformly in the mushroom. Most are detected in the cap of the fruit, a moderate amount in the base, with the smallest amount in the stalk. Quite rapidly, between 20 and 90 minutes after ingestion, a.

Amanita muscaria. substantial fraction of ibotenic acid is excreted unmetabolised in the urine of the consumer. Almost no muscimol is excreted when pure ibotenic acid is eaten, but muscimol is detectable in the urine after eating "A. muscaria", which contains both ibotenic acid and muscimol.Ibotenic acid and muscimol are structurally related to each other and to two major neurotransmitters of the central nervous system: glutamic acid and GABA respectively. Ibotenic acid and muscimol act like these neurotransmitters, muscimol being a potent GABAA agonist, while ibotenic acid is an agonist of NMDA glutamate receptors and certain metabotropic glutamate receptors which are involved in.

Amanita muscaria. the control of neuronal activity. It is these interactions which are thought to cause the psychoactive effects found in intoxication.Muscazone is another compound that has more recently been isolated from European specimens of the fly agaric. It is a product of the breakdown of ibotenic acid by ultra-violet radiation. Muscazone is of minor pharmacological activity compared with the other agents. "Amanita muscaria" and related species are known as effective bioaccumulators of vanadium; some species concentrate vanadium to levels of up to 400 times those typically found in plants. Vanadium is present in fruit-bodies as an organometallic compound called amavadine. The.

Amanita muscaria. biological importance of the accumulation process is unknown.## Symptoms.Fly agarics are best known for the unpredictability of their effects. Depending on habitat and the amount ingested per body weight, effects can range from mild nausea and twitching to drowsiness, cholinergic crisis-like effects (low blood pressure, sweating and salivation), auditory and visual distortions, mood changes, euphoria, relaxation, ataxia, and loss of equilibrium (like with tetanus.)In cases of serious poisoning the mushroom causes delirium, somewhat similar in effect to anticholinergic poisoning (such as that caused by "Datura stramonium"), characterised by bouts of marked agitation with confusion, hallucinations, and irritability followed by periods.

Amanita muscaria. of central nervous system depression. Seizures and coma may also occur in severe poisonings. Symptoms typically appear after around 30 to 90 minutes and peak within three hours, but certain effects can last for several days. In the majority of cases recovery is complete within 12 to 24 hours. The effect is highly variable between individuals, with similar doses potentially causing quite different reactions. Some people suffering intoxication have exhibited headaches up to ten hours afterwards. Retrograde amnesia and somnolence can result following recovery, although never easy.## Treatment.Medical attention should be sought in cases of suspected poisoning. If the delay.

Amanita muscaria. between ingestion and treatment is less than four hours, activated charcoal is given. Gastric lavage can be considered if the patient presents within one hour of ingestion. Inducing vomiting with syrup of ipecac is no longer recommended in any poisoning situation.There is no antidote, and supportive care is the mainstay of further treatment for intoxication. Though sometimes referred to as a deliriant and while muscarine was first isolated from "A. muscaria" and as such is its namesake, muscimol does not have action, either as an agonist or antagonist, at the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor site, and therefore atropine or physostigmine as.

Amanita muscaria. an antidote is not recommended. If a patient is delirious or agitated, this can usually be treated by reassurance and, if necessary, physical restraints. A benzodiazepine such as diazepam or lorazepam can be used to control combativeness, agitation, muscular overactivity, and seizures. Only small doses should be used, as they may worsen the respiratory depressant effects of muscimol. Recurrent vomiting is rare, but if present may lead to fluid and electrolyte imbalances; intravenous rehydration or electrolyte replacement may be required. Serious cases may develop loss of consciousness or coma, and may need intubation and artificial ventilation. Hemodialysis can remove the.

Amanita muscaria. toxins, although this intervention is generally considered unnecessary. With modern medical treatment the prognosis is typically good following supportive treatment.## Psychoactive use.The wide range of psychoactive effects have been variously described as depressant, sedative-hypnotic, psychedelic, dissociative, or deliriant; paradoxical effects such as stimulation may occur however. Perceptual phenomena such as synesthesia, macropsia, and micropsia may occur; the latter two effects may occur either simultaneously or alternatingly, as part of Alice in Wonderland syndrome, collectively known as dysmetropsia, along with related distortions pelopsia and teleopsia. Some users report lucid dreaming under the influence of its hypnotic effects. Unlike "Psilocybe cubensis", "A.

Amanita muscaria. muscaria" cannot be commercially cultivated, due to its mycorrhizal relationship with the roots of pine trees. However, following the outlawing of psilocybin mushrooms in the United Kingdom in 2006, the sale of the still legal "A. muscaria" began increasing.Professor Marija Gimbutienė, a renowned Lithuanian historian, reported to R. Gordon Wasson on the use of this mushroom in Lithuania. In remote areas of Lithuania, "Amanita muscaria" has been consumed at wedding feasts, in which mushrooms were mixed with vodka. The professor also reported that the Lithuanians used to export "A. muscaria" to the Sami in the Far North for use in.

Amanita muscaria. shamanic rituals. The Lithuanian festivities are the only report that Wasson received of ingestion of fly agaric for religious use in Eastern Europe.## Siberia."Amanita muscaria" was widely used as an entheogen by many of the indigenous peoples of Siberia. Its use was known among almost all of the Uralic-speaking peoples of western Siberia and the Paleosiberian-speaking peoples of the Russian Far East. There are only isolated reports of "A. muscaria" use among the Tungusic and Turkic peoples of central Siberia and it is believed that on the whole entheogenic use of "A. muscaria" was not practised by these peoples. In.

Amanita muscaria. western Siberia, the use of "A. muscaria" was restricted to shamans, who used it as an alternative method of achieving a trance state. (Normally, Siberian shamans achieve trance by prolonged drumming and dancing.) In eastern Siberia, "A. muscaria" was used by both shamans and laypeople alike, and was used recreationally as well as religiously. In eastern Siberia, the shaman would take the mushrooms, and others would drink his urine. This urine, still containing psychoactive elements, may be more potent than the "A. muscaria" mushrooms with fewer negative effects such as sweating and twitching, suggesting that the initial user may act.

Amanita muscaria. as a screening filter for other components in the mushroom.The Koryak of eastern Siberia have a story about the fly agaric ("wapaq") which enabled Big Raven to carry a whale to its home. In the story, the deity "Vahiyinin" ("Existence") spat onto earth, and his spittle became the "wapaq", and his saliva becomes the warts. After experiencing the power of the "wapaq", Raven was so exhilarated that he told it to grow forever on earth so his children, the people, could learn from it. Among the Koryaks, one report said that the poor would consume the urine of the wealthy,.

Amanita muscaria. who could afford to buy the mushrooms. It was reported that the local reindeer would often follow an individual intoxicated by the muscimol mushroom, and if said individual were to urinate in snow the reindeer would become similarly intoxicated and the Koryak people's would use the drunken state of the reindeer to more easily rope and hunt them.## Other reports of use.The Finnish historian T. I. Itkonen mentions that "A. muscaria" was once used among the Sami people: sorcerers in Inari would consume fly agarics with seven spots. In 1979, Said Gholam Mochtar and Hartmut Geerken published an article in.

Amanita muscaria. which they claimed to have discovered a tradition of medicinal and recreational use of this mushroom among a Parachi-speaking group in Afghanistan. There are also unconfirmed reports of religious use of "A. muscaria" among two Subarctic Native American tribes. Ojibwa ethnobotanist Keewaydinoquay Peschel reported its use among her people, where it was known as (an abbreviation of the name "oshtimisk wajashkwedo" (= "red-top mushroom")). This information was enthusiastically received by Wasson, although evidence from other sources was lacking. There is also one account of a Euro-American who claims to have been initiated into traditional Tlicho use of "Amanita muscaria". The.

Amanita muscaria. flying reindeer of Santa Claus, who is called Joulupukki in Finland, could symbolize the use of "A. muscaria" by Sámi shamans.## Vikings.The notion that Vikings used "A. muscaria" to produce their berserker rages was first suggested by the Swedish professor Samuel Ödmann in 1784. Ödmann based his theories on reports about the use of fly agaric among Siberian shamans. The notion has become widespread since the 19th century, but no contemporary sources mention this use or anything similar in their description of berserkers. Muscimol is generally a mild relaxant, but it can create a range of different reactions within a.

Amanita muscaria. group of people. It is possible that it could make a person angry, or cause them to be "very jolly or sad, jump about, dance, sing or give way to great fright". Comparative analysis of symptoms have, however, since shown "Hyoscyamus niger" to be a better fit to the state that characterises the berserker rage.## Fly trap."Amanita muscaria" is traditionally used for catching flies possibly due to its content of ibotenic acid and muscimol.Recently, an analysis of nine different methods for preparing "A. muscaria" for catching flies in Slovenia have shown that the release of ibotenic acid and muscimol did.

Amanita muscaria. not depend on the solvent (milk or water) and that thermal and mechanical processing led to faster extraction of ibotenic acid and muscimol.## In religion.## Soma.In 1968, R. Gordon Wasson proposed that "A. muscaria" was the "soma" talked about in the Rigveda of India, a claim which received widespread publicity and popular support at the time. He noted that descriptions of "Soma" omitted any description of roots, stems or seeds, which suggested a mushroom, and used the adjective "hári" "dazzling" or "flaming" which the author interprets as meaning red. One line described men urinating "Soma"; this recalled the practice of.

Amanita muscaria. recycling urine in Siberia. Soma is mentioned as coming "from the mountains", which Wasson interpreted as the mushroom having been brought in with the Aryan migrants from the north. Indian scholars Santosh Kumar Dash and Sachinanda Padhy pointed out that both eating of mushrooms and drinking of urine were proscribed, using as a source the "Manusmṛti".In 1971, Vedic scholar John Brough from Cambridge University rejected Wasson's theory and noted that the language was too vague to determine a description of Soma. In his 1976 survey, "Hallucinogens and Culture", anthropologist Peter T. Furst evaluated the evidence for and against the identification.

Amanita muscaria. of the fly agaric mushroom as the Vedic Soma, concluding cautiously in its favour. Kevin Feeney and Trent Austin compared the references in the Vedas with the filtering mechanisms in the preparation of Amanita muscaria and published findings supporting the proposal that fly-agaric mushrooms could be a likely candidate for the sacrament. Other proposed candidates include "Psilocybe cubensis", "Peganum harmala," and "Ephedra."## Speculated role in Christianity.While far from widely accepted, philologist, archaeologist, and Dead Sea Scrolls scholar John Marco Allegro postulated that early Christian theology was derived from a fertility cult revolving around the entheogenic consumption of "A. muscaria" in.

Amanita muscaria. his 1970 book "The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross." This theory has found little support by scholars outside the field of ethnomycology. The book was widely criticized by academics and theologians, including Sir Godfrey Driver, Emeritus Professor of Semitic Philology at Oxford University and Henry Chadwick, the Dean of Christ Church, Oxford. Christian author John C. King wrote a detailed rebuttal of Allegro's theory in the 1970 book "A Christian View of the Mushroom Myth"; he notes that neither fly agarics nor their host trees are found in the Middle East, even though cedars and pines are found there, and.

Amanita muscaria. highlights the tenuous nature of the links between biblical and Sumerian names coined by Allegro. He concludes that if the theory were true, the use of the mushroom must have been "the best kept secret in the world" as it was so well concealed for two thousand years.## Culinary use.The toxins in "A. muscaria" are water-soluble: parboiling "A. muscaria" fruit bodies can detoxify them and render them edible, although consumption of the mushroom as a food has never been widespread. The consumption of detoxified "A. muscaria" has been practiced in some parts of Europe (notably by Russian settlers in Siberia).

Amanita muscaria. since at least the 19th century, and likely earlier. The German physician and naturalist Georg Heinrich von Langsdorff wrote the earliest published account on how to detoxify this mushroom in 1823. In the late 19th century, the French physician Félix Archimède Pouchet was a populariser and advocate of "A. muscaria" consumption, comparing it to manioc, an important food source in tropical South America that must be detoxified before consumption.Use of this mushroom as a food source also seems to have existed in North America. A classic description of this use of "A. muscaria" by an African-American mushroom seller in Washington,.

Amanita muscaria. D.C., in the late 19th century is described by American botanist Frederick Vernon Coville. In this case, the mushroom, after parboiling, and soaking in vinegar, is made into a mushroom sauce for steak. It is also consumed as a food in parts of Japan. The most well-known current use as an edible mushroom is in Nagano Prefecture, Japan. There, it is primarily salted and pickled.A 2008 paper by food historian William Rubel and mycologist David Arora gives a history of consumption of "A. muscaria" as a food and describes detoxification methods. They advocate that "Amanita muscaria" be described in field.

Amanita muscaria. guides as an edible mushroom, though accompanied by a description on how to detoxify it. The authors state that the widespread descriptions in field guides of this mushroom as poisonous is a reflection of cultural bias, as several other popular edible species, notably morels, are toxic unless properly cooked.## Cultural depictions.The red-and-white spotted toadstool is a common image in many aspects of popular culture. Garden ornaments and children's picture books depicting gnomes and fairies, such as the Smurfs, often show fly agarics used as seats, or homes. Fly agarics have been featured in paintings since the Renaissance, albeit in a.

Amanita muscaria. subtle manner. For instance, in Hieronymus Bosch's painting, The Garden of Earthly Delights, the mushroom can be seen on the left-hand panel of the work. In the Victorian era they became more visible, becoming the main topic of some fairy paintings. Two of the most famous uses of the mushroom are in the "Mario" franchise (specifically two of the Super Mushroom power-up items and the platforms in several stages which are based on a fly agaric), and the dancing mushroom sequence in the 1940 Disney film "Fantasia".An account of the journeys of Philip von Strahlenberg to Siberia and his descriptions.

Amanita muscaria. of the use of the "mukhomor" there was published in English in 1736. The drinking of urine of those who had consumed the mushroom was commented on by Anglo-Irish writer Oliver Goldsmith in his widely read 1762 novel, "Citizen of the World". The mushroom had been identified as the fly agaric by this time. Other authors recorded the distortions of the size of perceived objects while intoxicated by the fungus, including naturalist Mordecai Cubitt Cooke in his books "The Seven Sisters of Sleep" and "A Plain and Easy Account of British Fungi". This observation is thought to have formed the.

Amanita muscaria. basis of the effects of eating the mushroom in the 1865 popular story "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland". A hallucinogenic "scarlet toadstool" from Lappland is featured as a plot element in Charles Kingsley's 1866 novel "Hereward the Wake" based on the medieval figure of the same name. Thomas Pynchon's 1973 novel "Gravity's Rainbow" describes the fungus as a "relative of the poisonous Destroying angel" and presents a detailed description of a character preparing a cookie bake mixture from harvested "Amanita muscaria". Fly agaric shamanism is also explored in the 2003 novel "Thursbitch" by Alan Garner. List of "Amanita" species Legal status.

Amanita muscaria. of psychoactive "Amanita" mushrooms Webpages on "Amanita species" by Tulloss and Yang Zhuliang Amanita on erowid.org Aminita muscaria, Amanita pantherina and others (Group PIM G026) by IPCS INCHEM.


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this animal?

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Pygmy marmoset. parental care is shared between the group.The pygmy marmoset has been viewed as somewhat different from typical marmosets, most of which are classified in the genera "Callithrix" and "Mico", and thus is accorded its own genus, "Cebuella", within the family Callitrichidae. The biggest threats are habitat loss and the pet trade.## Evolution and taxonomy.There has been debate among primatologists concerning the proper genus in which to place the pygmy marmoset. An examination of the interstitial retinol binding protein nuclear gene (IRBP) in three marmoset species showed that "Callithrix" as constructed in the 1990s also needed to include "C. pygmaea" to.


Question: Who occupies this building?

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Fire station. A fire station (also called a fire house, fire hall, firemen's hall, or engine house) is a structure or other area for storing firefighting apparatuses such as fire engines and related vehicles, personal protective equipment, fire hoses and other specialized equipment. Fire stations frequently contain working and living space for the firefighters and support staff.In large US cities, fire stations are often named for the primary fire companies and apparatus housed there, such as "Ladder 49". Other fire stations are named based on the district, neighborhood, town or village where they are located, or given a number.## Facilities.A fire station.

Fire station. dry to prevent rot. Historically, towers were lookouts for spotting fires.Activities at a fire station include regular inspection and cleaning of the apparatus and equipment, and training drills in which the firefighters practice their skills. Some fire companies also host public activities at the fire station during events such as a "fire prevention week", and the facility may also be used for fund-raising by the "firemen's association", "fire buffs", or "fire auxiliary".## Occupied stations.If the station is occupied full-time by career firefighters, it will contain living quarters and work areas, where they wait until a callout comes through. Career firefighters.

Fire station. are usually able to sleep during a night shift, so these stations will also have dormitories. There will be an alarm system to alert them of an emergency call, and to give some indication of where and what the emergency is. In some small fire departments, the only alarm may be a telephone for receiving calls.Many fire stations were built with the living quarters above the garage. This arrangement is common for fire stations built in a crowded city. The fireman's pole was invented to allow firefighters to quickly descend to the garage. In modern times, agencies such as the.

Fire station. National Fire Protection Association have argued that these pose a safety hazard. Modern fire stations are often built with the living quarters on the same level as the garage.## Unoccupied stations.Some fire stations are not regularly occupied, with the firefighting carried out by volunteer or retained firefighters. In this case, the firefighters are summoned to the fire station by siren, radio or pagers, where they will then deploy the fire engine. These fire stations may still have office space for the firefighters, a library of reference and other materials, and a "trophy wall" or case where the firefighters display memorabilia.FirefightingList.


Question: In which year was this item invented or discovered?

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Telephone. A telephone is a telecommunications device that permits two or more users to conduct a conversation when they are too far apart to be heard directly. A telephone converts sound, typically and most efficiently the human voice, into electronic signals that are transmitted via cables and other communication channels to another telephone which reproduces the sound to the receiving user. The term is derived from ("tēle", "far") and φωνή ("phōnē", "voice"), together meaning "distant voice". A common short form of the term is phone, which came into use almost immediately after the first patent was issued.In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell.

Telephone. inventions such as radio, television, the light bulb, and the computer, several inventors pioneered experimental work on "voice transmission over a wire" and improved on each other's ideas. New controversies over the issue still arise from time to time. Charles Bourseul, Antonio Meucci, Johann Philipp Reis, Alexander Graham Bell, and Elisha Gray, amongst others, have all been credited with the invention of the telephone.Alexander Graham Bell was the first to be awarded a patent for the electric telephone by the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) in March 1876. Before Bell's patent, the telephone transmitted sound in a way.

Telephone. that was similar to the telegraph. This method used vibrations and circuits to send electrical pulses, but was missing key features. Bell found that this method produced a sound through intermittent currents, but in order for the telephone to work a fluctuating current reproduced sounds the best. The fluctuating currents became the basis for the working telephone, creating Bell's patent. That first patent by Bell was the "master patent" of the telephone, from which other patents for electric telephone devices and features flowed. The Bell patents were forensically victorious and commercially decisive.In 1876, shortly after Bell's patent application, Hungarian engineer.

Telephone. that English technicians to whom Mr. Manzetti illustrated his method for transmitting spoken words on the telegraph wire intend to apply said invention in England on several private telegraph lines". However, telephones would not be demonstrated there until 1876, with a set of telephones from Bell. 28 December 1871: Antonio Meucci files patent caveat No. 3335 in the U.S. Patent Office titled "Sound Telegraph", describing communication of voice between two people by wire. A 'patent caveat' was not an invention patent award, but only an unverified notice filed by an individual that he or she intends to file a regular.

Telephone. patent application in the future. 1874: Meucci, after having renewed the caveat for two years does not renew it again, and the caveat lapses. 6 April 1875: Bell's U.S. Patent 161,739 "Transmitters and Receivers for Electric Telegraphs" is granted. This uses multiple vibrating steel reeds in make-break circuits. 11 February 1876: Elisha Gray invents a liquid transmitter for use with the telephone but does not build one. 14 February 1876: Gray files a patent caveat for transmitting the human voice through a telegraphic circuit. 14 February 1876: Alexander Graham Bell applies for the patent "Improvements in Telegraphy", for electromagnetic telephones.

Telephone. using what is now called amplitude modulation (oscillating current and voltage) but which he referred to as "undulating current". 19 February 1876: Gray is notified by the U.S. Patent Office of an interference between his caveat and Bell's patent application. Gray decides to abandon his caveat. 7 March 1876: Bell's U.S. patent 174,465 "Improvement in Telegraphy" is granted, covering "the method of, and apparatus for, transmitting vocal or other sounds telegraphically…by causing electrical undulations, similar in form to the vibrations of the air accompanying the said vocal or other sound." 10 March 1876: The first successful telephone transmission of clear.

Telephone. speech using a liquid transmitter when Bell spoke into his device, "Mr. Watson, come here, I want to see you." and Watson heard each word distinctly. 30 January 1877: Bell's U.S. patent 186,787 is granted for an electromagnetic telephone using permanent magnets, iron diaphragms, and a call bell. 27 April 1877: Edison files for a patent on a carbon (graphite) transmitter. The patent 474,230 was granted 3 May 1892, after a 15-year delay because of litigation. Edison was granted patent 222,390 for a carbon granules transmitter in 1879.## Early commercial instruments.Early telephones were technically diverse. Some used a water microphone,.

Telephone. (MMS) Party line (telephony) Phone hacking Satellite phone SIM card Spamming Telephone keypad Telephone jack and plug Telephone tapping Tip and ring Videophone Brooks, John (1976). "Telephone: The first hundred years". HarperCollins. Casson, Herbert Newton. (1910) "The history of the telephone" online. Coe, Lewis (1995). "The Telephone and Its Several Inventors: A History." Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co. Evenson, A. Edward (2000). "The Telephone Patent Conspiracy of 1876: The Elisha Gray – Alexander Bell Controversy." Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co. Fischer, Claude S. (1994) "America calling: A social history of the telephone to 1940" (Univ of California Press, 1994) Huurdeman,.

Telephone. Anton A. (2003). "The Worldwide History of Telecommunications" Hoboken: NJ: Wiley-IEEE Press. John, Richard R. (2010). "Network Nation: Inventing American Telecommunications." Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. MacDougall, Robert. "The People's Network: The Political Economy of the Telephone in the Gilded Age." Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Mueller, Milton. (1993) "Universal service in telephone history: A reconstruction." "Telecommunications Policy" 17.5 (1993): 352–69. Todd, Kenneth P. (1998), "A Capsule History of the Bell System". American Telephone & Telegraph Company (AT&T). Early U.S. Telephone Industry Data Virtual museum of early telephones The Telephone, 1877 —"Telegraphy" (Bell's first telephone patent)—Alexander Graham Bell US 186,787—"Electric.


Question: What is the length in metre is the building in the image?

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Preobrazhensky Metro Bridge. Preobrazhenskiy Metro Bridge is the shortest (330 metres) of four rail bridges in Moscow, Russia. It is located in the Eastern Administrative Okrug of the city. It spans over Yauza River and is a part of the Sokolnicheskaya Line of Moscow Metro. It connects the stations Preobrazhenskaya Ploshchad and Sokolniki.Metro Bridge was opened on 31 December 1965 together with the Preobrazhenskaya Ploshchad metro station. Preobrazhenskiy Metro Bridge at metromost.com.


Question: Which diocese does this building belong to?

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Rolduc. border was drawn through the ancient land of Rode, separating the abbey from the castle. The eastern part (including the castle) became Prussian Herzogenrath and the western part (including the abbey) became part of the Dutch municipality of Kerkrade.In the 19th century Rolduc became a famous boarding school run by Jesuits, and a seminary of the Diocese of Roermond. Many influential Dutch Roman Catholics (e.g. the writer Lodewijk van Deyssel and the social reformer Alphons Ariëns) were educated at Rolduc.The former abbey is now a secondary school ("Charlemagne College", formerly "College Rolduc"), a Roman Catholic seminary, and the "Rolduc Congress.


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30 St Mary Axe. accepted.## Planning process.John Prescott, the Deputy Prime Minister, granted planning permission on 23 August 2000 to construct a building on the site, which would be much larger than the old Exchange. The site needed development, was not on any of the "sight lines" (planning guidance requires that new buildings do not obstruct or detract from the view of St Paul's Cathedral dome when viewed from a number of locations around London), and had housed the Baltic Exchange.The plan for the site was to reconstruct the Baltic Exchange. GMW Architects proposed a new rectangular building surrounding a restored exchange: it would.


Question: What is the closest upper taxonomy of this animal?

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Yak. The domestic yak (Bos grunniens), also known as the Tartary ox, grunting ox or hairy cattle, is a species of long-haired domesticated cattle found throughout the Himalayan region of the Indian subcontinent, the Tibetan Plateau, Northern Myanmar, Yunnan, Sichuan Gilgit-Baltistan Pakistan and as far north as Mongolia and Siberia. It is descended from the wild yak ("Bos mutus").## Etymology.The English word "yak" originates from the . In Tibetan and Balti it refers only to the male of the species, the female being called , or in Tibetan and in Balti. In English, as in most other languages that have borrowed.

Yak. the word, "yak" is usually used for both sexes, with "bull" or "cow" referring to each sex separately.## Taxonomy.Belonging to the genus "Bos", Yaks are related to cattle ("Bos primigenius"). Mitochondrial DNA analyses to determine the evolutionary history of yaks have been inconclusive.The yak may have diverged from cattle at any point between one and five million years ago, and there is some suggestion that it may be more closely related to bison than to the other members of its designated genus. Apparent close fossil relatives of the yak, such as "Bos baikalensis", have been found in eastern Russia, suggesting.

Yak. a possible route by which yak-like ancestors of the modern American bison could have entered the Americas.The species was originally designated as "Bos grunniens" ("grunting ox") by Linnaeus in 1766, but this name is now generally considered to refer only to the domesticated form of the animal, with "Bos mutus" ("mute ox") being the preferred name for the wild species. Although some authors still consider the wild yak to be a subspecies, "Bos grunniens mutus", the ICZN made an official ruling in 2003 permitting the use of the name "Bos mutus" for wild yaks, and this is now the more.

Yak. common usage.Except where the wild yak is considered as a subspecies of "Bos grunniens", there are no recognised subspecies of yak.## Physical characteristics.Yaks are heavily built animals with bulky frames, sturdy legs, rounded, cloven hooves, and extremely dense, long fur that hangs down lower than the belly. While wild yaks are generally dark, blackish to brown in colouration, domestic yaks can be quite variable in colour, often having patches of rusty brown and cream. They have small ears and wide foreheads, with smooth horns that are generally dark in colour. In males (bulls), the horns sweep out from the sides.

Yak. cold. Females have four teats.Yaks are not known to produce the characteristic lowing (mooing) sound of cattle, but both wild and domestic yaks grunt and squeak, which inspired the scientific name of the domestic yak variant, "Bos grunniens" (grunting bull). Nikolay Przhevalsky named the wild variant "Bos mutus" (silent bull) believing that it did not make a sound at all, but it does.## Physiology.Yak physiology is well adapted to high altitudes, having larger lungs and heart than cattle found at lower altitudes, as well as greater capacity for transporting oxygen through their blood, due to the persistence of foetal haemoglobin.

Yak. མཛོ། as well as fertile females known as མཛོ་མོ། or , which may be crossed again with cattle. The "Dwarf Lulu" breed, "the only "Bos primigenius taurus" type of cattle in Nepal" has been tested for DNA markers and found to be a mixture of both taurine and zebu types of cattle ("B. p. taurus" and "B. p. indicus") with yak. According to the International Veterinary Information Service, the low productivity of second generation cattle-yak crosses makes them suitable only as meat animals.Crosses between yaks and domestic cattle ("Bos primigenius taurus") have been recorded in Chinese literature for at least.


Question: In which year was this building published?

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Strapless. Strapless is a 1989 film written and directed by David Hare.## Plot summary.An expatriate American doctor in London allows herself to lighten up when her freewheeling younger sister and a mysterious man enter her life. Her inhibitions released, the beautiful doctor learns that freedom has its own price.Blair Brown – Dr. Lillian HempelBruno Ganz – Raymond ForbesBridget Fonda – Amy HempelAlan Howard – Mr. CooperMichael Gough – Douglas BrodieHugh Laurie – ColinDana Gillespie – Julie KovagoSpencer Leigh – HusAlexandra Pigg - Helen## Release.After the film's May 1990 U.S. theatrical release, it was released on videocassette in the United States by.


Question: In which year did this bridge officially open?

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Zubizuri. The Zubizuri (Basque for "white bridge"), also called the Campo Volantin Bridge or Puente del Campo Volantin, is a tied arch footbridge across the Nervion River in Bilbao, Spain. Designed by architect Santiago Calatrava, the bridge links the "Campo Volantin" right bank and "Uribitarte" left bank of the river.## Description.Opened in 1997, the bridge's unusual design consists of a curved walkway which is supported by steel suspension cables from an overhead arch. The structure of the bridge is painted white and the bridge deck consists of translucent glass bricks. Access ramps and stairways are located on both banks. The Zubizuri.


Question: What is the litter size of this animal?

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Vipera berus. a few days. Adults grow to a total length (including tail) of 60 to 90 (cm) and a mass of 50 to 180 (g). Three subspecies are recognized, including the nominate subspecies, "Vipera berus berus" described here. The snake is not considered to be threatened, though it is protected in some countries.## Taxonomy.The species has three recognised subspecies:The subspecies "V. b. bosniensis" and "V. b. sachalinensis" have been regarded as full species in some recent publications.The name 'adder' is derived from "nædre", an Old English word that had the generic meaning of serpent in the older forms of many Germanic.

Vipera berus. "common cross adder".In Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the snake is known as "hugorm", "hoggorm" and "huggorm", roughly translated as 'striking snake'. In Finland, it is known as "kyykäärme" or simply "kyy", in Estonia it is known as "rästik", while in Lithuania it is known as "angis". In Poland the snake is called "żmija zygzakowata," which translates as 'zigzag viper', due to the pattern on its back.## Description.Relatively thick-bodied, adults usually grow to 60 (cm) in total length (including tail), with an average of 55 (cm). Maximum size varies by region. The largest, at over 90 (cm), are found in Scandinavia;.

Vipera berus. a tiny scale between the frontal and the parietals), and two long and narrow supraoculars. The latter are large and distinct, each separated from the frontal by one to four small scales. The nostril is situated in a shallow depression within a large nasal scale.The eye is relatively large—equal in size or slightly larger than the nasal scale—but often smaller in females. Below the supraoculars are six to 13 (usually eight to 10) small circumorbital scales. The temporal scales are smooth (rarely weakly keeled). There are 10–12 sublabials and six to 10 (usually eight or 9) supralabials. Of the latter,.

Vipera berus. the numbers 3 and 4 are the largest, while 4 and 5 (rarely 3 and 4) are separated from the eye by a single row of small scales (sometimes two rows in alpine specimens).Midbody there are 21 dorsal scales rows (rarely 19, 20, 22, or 23). These are strongly keeled scales, except for those bordering the ventral scales. These scales seem loosely attached to the skin and lower rows become increasingly wide; those closest to the ventral scales are twice as wide as the ones along the midline. The ventral scales number 132–150 in males and 132–158 in females. The.

Vipera berus. Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, Bulgaria, and northern Greece) and eastern Europe to north of the Arctic Circle, and Russia to the Pacific Ocean, Sakhalin Island, North Korea, northern Mongolia and northern China. It is found farther north than any other snake species. The type locality was originally listed as 'Europa'. Mertens and Müller (1940) proposed restricting the type locality to 'Upsala, Schweden' (Uppsala, Sweden) and it was eventually restricted to Berthåga, Uppsala by designation of a neotype by Krecsák & Wahlgren (2008).In several European countries, it is notable as being the only native venomous snake. It is one of.

Vipera berus. and thus may be found on the banks of streams, lakes, and ponds.In much of southern Europe, such as southern France and northern Italy, it is found in either low lying wetlands or at high altitudes. In the Swiss Alps, it may ascend to about 3000 (m). In Hungary and Russia, it avoids open steppeland; a habitat in which "V. ursinii" is more likely to occur. In Russia, however, it does occur in the forest steppe zone.## Conservation status.In Great Britain, it is illegal to kill, injure, harm or sell adders under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. The same.

Vipera berus. situation applies to Norway under the (The Wildlife Act 1981) and Denmark (1981). The common viper is categorised as 'endangered' in Switzerland, and is also protected in some other countries in its range. It is also found in many protected areas.This species is listed as protected (Appendix III) under the Berne Convention. Despite the convention, it is not protected in Finland because of a reservation.The International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species describes the conservation status as of 'least concern' in view of its wide distribution, presumed large population, broad range of habitats, and likely slow.

Vipera berus. species is cold-adapted and hibernates in the winter. In Great Britain, males and females hibernate for about 150 and 180 days, respectively. In northern Sweden hibernation lasts 8–9 months. On mild winter days, they may emerge to bask where the snow has melted and will often travel across snow. About 15% of adults and 30–40% of juveniles die during hibernation.## Feeding.Diet consists mainly of small mammals, such as mice, rats, voles, and shrews, as well as lizards. Sometimes, slow worms are taken, and even weasels and moles. Adders also feed on amphibians, such as frogs, newts, and salamanders. Birds are.

Vipera berus. behaviour before culminating in the dramatic 'adder dance'. In this act, the males confront each other, raise up the front part of the body vertically, make swaying movements and attempt to push each other to the ground. This is repeated until one of the two becomes exhausted and crawls off to find another mate. Appleby (1971) notes that he has never seen an intruder win one of these contests, as if the frustrated defender is so aroused by courtship that he refuses to lose his chance to mate. There is no record of any biting taking place during these bouts.Females.

Vipera berus. toxicity as being relatively low compared to other viper species. They cite Minton (1974) who reported the values for mice to be 0.55 mg/kg IV, 0.80 mg/kg IP and 6.45 mg/kg SC. As a comparison, in one test the minimum lethal dose of venom for a guinea pig was 40–67 mg, but only 1.7 mg was necessary when "Daboia russelii" venom was used. Brown (1973) gives a higher subcutaneous LD50 range of 1.0–4.0 mg/kg. All agree that the venom yield is low: Minton (1974) mentions 10–18 mg for specimens 48 – 62 (cm) in length, while Brown (1973) lists only.

Vipera berus. 6 mg.Relatively speaking, bites from this species are not highly dangerous. In Britain there were only 14 known fatalities between 1876 and 2005—the last a 5-year-old child in 1975—and one nearly fatal bite of a 39-year-old woman in Essex in 1998. An 82-year-old woman died following a bite in Germany in 2004, although it is not clear whether her death was due to the effect of the venom. A 44-year-old British man was left seriously ill after he was bitten by an adder in the Dalby Forest, Yorkshire. Even so, professional medical help should always be sought as soon as.

Vipera berus. a pigeon or chicken on the bite, or jumping over water. Adders were thought to be attracted to hazel trees and repelled by ash trees.Druids believed that large frenzied gatherings of adders occurred in spring, at the centre of which could be found a polished rock called an adder stone or "Glain Neidr" in the Welsh language. These stones were said to have held supernatural powers. Ananjeva NB, Borkin LJ, Darevsky IS, . 1998. ["Amphibians and Reptiles. Encyclopedia of Nature of Russia"]. Moscow: ABF. (in Russian).Arnold EN, Burton JA. 1978. "A Field Guide to the Reptiles and Amphibians of Britain.

Vipera berus. and Europe". London: Collins. 272 pp. . ("Vipera berus", pp. 217–218 + Plate 39 + Map 122).Boulenger GA. 1896. "Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum (Natural History). Volume III., Containing the...Viperidæ." London: Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History). (Taylor and Francis, printers). xiv + 727 pp. + Plates I.- XXV. ("Vipera berus", pp. 476–481)., Goin OB, Zug GR. 1978. "Introduction to Herpetology: Third Edition". San Francisco: W.H. Freeman. xi + 378 pp. . ("Vipera berus", pp. 122, 188, 334).Jan G, . 1874. "Iconographie générale des Ophidiens: Quarante-cinquième Livraison." Paris: Baillière. Index + Plates I.- VI. ("Vipera berus",.

Vipera berus. Plate II, Figure 1; var. "prester", Plate II, Figures 2-4; var. "concolor", Plate II, Figure 5; var. "lymnaea", Plate II, Figure 6). Joger U, Lenk P, , Böhme W, Ziegler T, Heidrich P, Wink M. 1997. The phylogenetic position of "Vipera barani" and of "Vipera nikolskii" within the "Vipera berus" complex. "Herpetologica Bonnensis" 185-194.Linnaeus C. 1758. "Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, diferentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio Decima, Reformata." Stockholm: L. Salvius. 824 pp. ("Coluber berus", p. 217). Minton SA Jr. 1974. "Venom Diseases". Springfield, Illinois: CC Thomas Publ. 256 pp. .Morris.

Vipera berus. PA. 1948. "Boy's Book of Snakes: How to Recognize and Understand Them". A volume of the Humanizing Science Series, edited by Jacques Cattell. New York: Ronald Press. viii + 185 pp. (The common viper, "Vipera berus", pp. 154–155, 182). Wüster W, Allum CSE, Bjargardottir IB, Bailey KL, Dawson KJ, Guenioui J, Lewis J, McGurk J, Moore AG, Niskanen M, Pollard CP. 2004. Do aposematism and Batesian mimicry require bright colours? A test, using European viper markings. "Proceedings of the Royal Society of London" B 271: 2495–2499. PDF at Wolfgang Wüster, School of Biological Sciences, University of Wales, Bangor. Accessed 15.


Question: What kind of effect does this item have?

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Power inverter. size and volume. In 2014, Google together with IEEE started an open competition named Little Box Challenge, with a prize money of $1,000,000, to build a (much) smaller power inverter.## History.## Early inverters.From the late nineteenth century through the middle of the twentieth century, DC-to-AC power conversion was accomplished using rotary converters or motor-generator sets (M-G sets). In the early twentieth century, vacuum tubes and gas-filled tubes began to be used as switches in inverter circuits. The most widely used type of tube was the thyratron.The origins of electromechanical inverters explain the source of the term "inverter". Early AC-to-DC converters.


Question: Which significant event was held in this building?

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Lenbachhaus. The Lenbachhaus () is a building housing an art museum in Munich's "Kunstareal".## The building.The Lenbachhaus was built as a Florentine-style villa for the painter Franz von Lenbach between 1887 and 1891 by Gabriel von Seidl and was expanded 1927–1929 by Hans Grässel and again 1969–1972 by Heinrich Volbehr and Rudolf Thönnessen. Some of the rooms have kept their original design.The city of Munich acquired the building in 1924 and opened a museum there in 1929. The latest wing was closed to the public in 2009 to allow the expansion and restoration of the Lenbachhaus by Norman Foster; the 1972.


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Alarm device. An alarm device is a mechanism that gives an audible, visual or other kind of alarm signal to alert someone to a problem or condition that requires urgent attention.## Etymology.The word "alarm" comes from the Old French "a l'arme" meaning "to the arms", or "to the weapons", telling armed men to pick up their weapons and get ready for action because an enemy may have suddenly appeared.The word "alarum" is an archaic form of "alarm". It was sometimes used as a call to arms in the stage directions of Elizabethan dramas. The term comes from the Italian "all'armi" and appears.

Alarm device. either case. A person in such a state can be characterized as "alarmed".## False alarms.With any kind of alarm, you must balance between the danger of false alarms (called "false positives") — the signal going off in the absence of a problem — or an alarm failing to signal an actual problem (called a "false negative"). False alarms can waste resources expensively and can even be dangerous. For example, false alarms of a fire can waste firefighter manpower, making them unavailable for a real fire, and risk injury to firefighters and others as the fire engines race to the alleged.

Alarm device. fire's location. In addition, false alarms may acclimatise people to ignore alarm signals, and thus possibly to ignore an actual emergency: Aesop's fable of "The Boy Who Cried Wolf" exemplifies this problem.A false alarm is one of the most significant issues with conventional alarm systems. They can be triggered for several reasons, such as the movement of pets, typing in the wrong security codes, or loud sounds from windows or doors. In the case of fire alarms, aerosol sprays, smoking, or burning food can all lead to a false alarm.Many avoid the risk of false alarms by ensuring their alarms.

Alarm device. fire alarm which is used to give occupants of a building early warning of a potential fire and give them time to evacuate. warning devices on a vehicle that sound when it is moving in an unexpected direction, such as reversing, a siren, often accompanied by flashing coloured lights, on emergency vehicles responding to an emergencyAlarm devices, by category, include: burglar alarms, designed to warn of burglaries. This is often a silent alarm; law enforcement or guards are warned without alerting the burglar, which increases the chances of stopping the theft while in progress. alarm clocks can beep, buzz or.