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Cordyline australis. Cordyline australis, commonly known as the cabbage tree, tī kōuka or cabbage-palm, is a widely branched monocot tree endemic to New Zealand.It grows up to 20 (m) tall with a stout trunk and sword-like leaves, which are clustered at the tips of the branches and can be up to 1 (m) long. With its tall, straight trunk and dense, rounded heads, it is a characteristic feature of the New Zealand landscape. Its fruit is a favourite food source for the kererū and other native birds. It is common over a wide latitudinal range from the far north of the North.

Cordyline australis. Island at 34° 25′S to the south of the South Island at 46° 30′S. Absent from much of Fiordland, it was probably introduced by Māori to the Chatham Islands at 44° 00′S and to Stewart Island / Rakiura at 46° 50′S. It grows in a broad range of habitats, including forest margins, river banks and open places, and is abundant near swamps. The largest known tree with a single trunk is growing at Pakawau, Golden Bay / Mohua. It is estimated to be 400 or 500 years old, and stands 17 (m) tall with a circumference of 9 (m) at.

Cordyline australis. the base.Known to Māori as , the tree was used as a source of food, particularly in the South Island, where it was cultivated in areas where other crops would not grow. It provided durable fibre for textiles, anchor ropes, fishing lines, baskets, waterproof rain capes and cloaks, and sandals. Hardy and fast growing, it is widely planted in New Zealand gardens, parks and streets, and numerous cultivars are available. The tree can also be found in large numbers in island restoration projects such as Tiritiri Matangi Island, where it was among the first seedling trees to be planted.It is.

Cordyline australis. also grown as an ornamental tree in higher latitude Northern Hemisphere countries with maritime climates, including parts of the upper West Coast of the United States, Canada and the British Isles, where its common names include Torbay palm and Torquay palm. It does not do well in hot tropical climates like the Caribbean, Queensland, Southeast Asia or Florida.## Description."Cordyline australis" grows up to 20 (m) tall with a stout trunk 1.5 to 2 (m) in diameter. Before it flowers, it has a slender unbranched stem. The first flowers typically appear at 6 to 10 years old, in spring. The right.

Cordyline australis. conditions can reduce the first flowering age to 3 years (Havelock North, 2015 mast year). After the first flowering, it divides to form a much-branched crown with tufts of leaves at the tips of the branches. Each branch may fork after producing a flowering stem. The pale to dark grey bark is corky, persistent and fissured, and feels spongy to the touch.The long narrow leaves are sword-shaped, erect, dark to light green, 40 to 100 (cm) long and 3 to 7 (cm) wide at the base, with numerous parallel veins. The leaves grow in crowded clusters at the ends of.

Cordyline australis. the branches, and may droop slightly at the tips and bend down from the bases when old. They are thick and have an indistinct midrib. The fine nerves are more or less equal and parallel. The upper and lower leaf surfaces are similar.In spring and early summer, sweetly perfumed flowers are produced in large, dense panicles (flower spikes) 60 to 100 (cm) long, bearing well-spaced to somewhat crowded, almost sessile to sessile flowers and axes. The flowers are crowded along the ultimate branches of the panicles. The bracts which protect the developing flowers often have a distinct pink tinge before.

Cordyline australis. the flowers open. In south Canterbury and North Otago the bracts are green.The individual flowers are 5 to 6 (mm) in diameter, the tepals are free almost to the base, and reflexed. The stamens are about the same length as the tepals. The stigmas are short and trifid. The fruit is a white berry 5 to 7 (mm) in diameter which is greedily eaten by birds. The nectar attracts great numbers of insects to the flowers.Large, peg-like rhizomes, covered with soft, purplish bark, up to 3 (m) long in old plants, grow vertically down beneath the ground. They serve to.

Cordyline australis. anchor the plant and to store fructose in the form of fructan. When young, the rhizomes are mostly fleshy and are made up of thin-walled storage cells. They grow from a layer called the secondary thickening meristem.## Regional diversity.New Zealand's native "Cordyline" species are relics of an influx of tropical plants that arrived from the north 15 million years ago in the warm Miocene era. Because it has evolved in response to the local climate, geology and other factors, "C. australis" varies in appearance from place to place. This variation can alter the overall appearance of the tree, canopy shape.

Cordyline australis. and branch size, the relative shape and size of the leaves, and their colour and stiffness. There may also be invisible adaptations for resistance to disease or insect attack. Some of these regional provenances are different enough to have been named by North Island Māori: in the north, in the central uplands, in the east and in the west.In Northland, "C. australis" shows a great deal of genetic diversity—suggesting it is where old genetic lines have endured. Some trees in the far north have floppy, narrow leaves, which botanist Philip Simpson attributes to hybridisation with "C. pumilio", the dwarf cabbage.

Cordyline australis. tree. In eastern Northland, "C. australis" generally has narrow, straight dark green leaves, but some trees have much broader leaves than normal and may have hybridised with the Three Kings cabbage tree, "C. obtecta", which grows at North Cape and on nearby islands. These "obtecta"-like characteristics appear in populations of "C. australis" along parts of the eastern coastline from the Karikari Peninsula to the Coromandel Peninsula. In western Northland and Auckland, a form often called grows. When young, are generally very spindly, and are common in young kauri forests. When growing in the open, can become massive trees with numerous,.

Cordyline australis. long thin branches and relatively short, broad leaves.In the central Volcanic Plateau, cabbage trees are tall, with stout, relatively unbranched stems and large stiff straight leaves. Fine specimens are found along the upper Whanganui River. On old trees, the leaves tend to be relatively broad. The leaves radiate strongly, suggesting that tī manu is adapted to the cold winters of the upland central plateau. It may have originated in the open country created by lava, volcanic ash, and pumice. Trees of the tī manu type are also found in northern Taranaki, the King Country and the Bay of Plenty lowlands.Tarariki.

Cordyline australis. are found in the east of the North Island from East Cape to the Wairarapa. Māori valued the narrow spiky leaves as a source of particularly tough, durable fibre. Tarariki's strong leaf fibres may be an adaptation to the region's hot, dry summers. In parts of the Wairarapa, the trees are particularly spiky, with stiff leaves and partially rolled leaf-blades. The trees near East Cape, by contrast, have leaves that hang laxly on the tree. In Hawke's Bay, some trees have greener, broader leaves, and this may be because of wharanui characteristics brought in across the main divide through the.

Cordyline australis. Manawatū Gorge.Wharanui grow to the west of the North Island's main divide. They have long, broad flaccid leaves, which may be an adaptation to persistent westerly winds. The wharanui type occurs in Wellington, Horowhenua and Whanganui, and extends with some modifications to the southern Taranaki coast. In Taranaki, cabbage trees generally have a compact canopy with broad straight leaves. In the South Island, wharanui is the most common form, but it is variable. The typical form grows, with little variation, from Cape Campbell to the northern Catlins, and from the eastern coast to the foothills of the Southern Alps /.

Cordyline australis. Kā Tiritiri o te Moana. In Marlborough's Wairau Valley, cabbage trees tend to retain their old, dead leaves, lending them an untidy appearance. The climate there is an extreme one, with hot, dry summers and cold winters.In north-west Nelson, there are three ecotypes defined by soil and exposure. Trees growing on limestone bluffs have stiff, blue-green leaves. On the river flats, the trees are tall with narrow, lax, dark green leaves, and an uneven canopy. They resemble the cabbage trees of the North Island's East Cape. Along the coast to the far west, the trees are robust with broad, bluish.

Cordyline australis. leaves. The latter two forms extend down the West Coast, with the lax-leaved forms growing in moist, fertile, sheltered river valleys while the bluish-leaved forms prefer rocky slopes exposed to the full force of the salt-laden coastal winds. In Otago, cabbage trees gradually become less common towards the south until they come to an end in the northern Catlins. They reappear on the south coast at Waikawa, Southland, but they are not the wharanui type. Rather they are vigorous trees with broad, green leaves and broad canopies. They extend along the coast towards Fiordland, and inland to the margins of.

Cordyline australis. some of the glacier-fed lakes. Very vigorous when they are young, these trees seem well adapted to the very cold winters of the south.A study of seedlings grown from seed collected in 28 areas showed a north-south change in leaf shape and dimensions. Seedling leaves get longer and narrower southwards. Seedlings often have leaves with red-brown pigmentation which disappears in older plants, and this coloration becomes increasingly common towards the south. The changes in shape—leaves getting narrower and more robust from north to south and from lowland to montane—suggest adaptations to colder weather.## Taxonomy and names."Cordyline australis" was collected in.

Cordyline australis. 1769 by Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Daniel Solander, naturalists on the "Endeavour" during Lieutenant James Cook's first voyage to the Pacific. The type locality is Queen Charlotte Sound / Tōtaranui. It was named "Dracaena australis" by Georg Forster who published it as entry 151 in his "Florulae Insularum Australium Prodromus" of 1786. It is sometimes still sold as a "Dracaena", particularly for the house plant market in Northern Hemisphere countries. In 1833, Stephan Endlicher reassigned the species to the genus,"Cordyline".The genus name "Cordyline" derives from an Ancient Greek word for a club ("kordyle"), a reference to the enlarged underground.

Cordyline australis. stems or rhizomes, while the species name "australis" is Latin for "southern". The common name "cabbage tree" is attributed by some sources to early settlers having used the young leaves as a substitute for cabbage. However the name probably predates the settlement of New Zealand — Georg Forster, writing in his "Voyage round the World" of 1777 about the events of Friday, April 23, 1773, refers on page 114 to the discovery of a related species in Fiordland as "not the true cabbage palm" and says "the central shoot, when quite tender, tastes something like an almond's kernel, with a.

Cordyline australis. little of the flavour of cabbage." Forster may have been referring to the cabbage palmetto ("Sabal palmetto") of Florida, which resembles the Cordyline somewhat, and was named for the cabbage-like appearance of its terminal bud."Cordyline australis" is the tallest of New Zealand's five native "Cordyline" species. Of these, the commonest are "C. banksii", which has a slender, sweeping trunk, and "C. indivisa", a handsome plant with a trunk up to 8 (m) tall bearing a massive head of broad leaves up to 2 (m) long. In the far north of New Zealand, "C. australis" can be distinguished by its larger.

Cordyline australis. heavily branched tree form, narrower leaves and smaller seeds from "C. obtecta", the Three Kings cabbage tree, its closest relative. "C. australis" is rather variable, and forms from the northern offshore islands may be hybrids with "C. obtecta". Hybrids with "C. pumilio" and "C. banksii" also occur often where the plants are in close vicinity, because they flower at about the same time and share the chromosome number 2n=38, with "C. australis".The tree was well known to Māori before its scientific discovery. The generic Māori language term for plants in the genus "Cordyline" is "tī", and names recorded as specific.

Cordyline australis. to "C. australis" include "tī kōuka", "tī kāuka", "tī rākau", "tī awe", "tī pua", and "tī whanake". Each tribe had names for the tree depending on its local uses and characteristics. Simpson reports that the names highlight the characteristics of the tree that were important to Māori. These include what the plant looked like—whether it was a large tree ("tī rākau", "tī pua"), the whiteness of its flowers ("tī puatea"), whether its leaves were broad ("tī wharanui"), twisted along the edges ("tī tahanui"), or spiky ("tī tarariki"). Other names refer to its uses—whether its fruit attracted birds ("tī manu"), or.

Cordyline australis. the leaves were particularly suitable for making ropes ("tī whanake") and nets ("tī kupenga"). The most widely used name, "tī kōuka", refers to the use of the leaf hearts as food.## Ecology.## Habitat.A quote from Philip Simpson sums up the wide range of habitats the cabbage tree occupied in early New Zealand, and how much its abundance and distinctive form shaped the impression travellers received of the country:"In primeval New Zealand cabbage trees occupied a range of habitats, anywhere open, moist, fertile and warm enough for them to establish and mature: with forest; around the rocky coast; in lowland swamps,.

Cordyline australis. around the lakes and along the lower rivers; and perched on isolated rocks. Approaching the land from the sea would have reminded a Polynesian traveller of home, and for a European traveller, conjured up images of the tropical Pacific"."Cordyline australis" occurs from North Cape to the very south of the South Island, where it becomes less and less common, until it reaches its southernmost natural limits at Sandy Point (46° 30' S), west of Invercargill near Oreti Beach. It is absent from much of Fiordland, probably because there is no suitable habitat, and is unknown on the subantarctic islands to.

Cordyline australis. the south of New Zealand, probably because it is too cold. It occurs on some offshore islands—Poor Knights, Stewart and the Chathams—but was probably introduced by Māori. In the Stewart Island region, it is rare, growing only on certain islands, headlands and former settlement sites where it may have been introduced by muttonbird collectors, while on the Chatham Islands it is also largely "a notable absentee".Generally a lowland species, it grows from sea level to about 1000 (m), reaching its upper limits on the volcanoes of the central North Island, where eruptions have created open spaces for it to exploit,.

Cordyline australis. and in the foothills of the Southern Alps in the South Island, where deforestation may have played a part in giving it room to grow. In the central North Island, it has evolved a much sturdier form (with the Māori name "tī manu", meaning "with branches bearing broad, straight upright leaves"). This form resembles that found in the far south of the South Island, suggesting that they are both adapted to cold conditions."Cordyline australis" is a light-demanding pioneer species, and seedlings die when overtopped by other trees. To grow well, young plants require open space so they are not shaded.

Cordyline australis. out by other vegetation. Another requirement is water during the seedling stage. Although adult trees can store water and are drought resistant, seedlings need a good supply of water to survive. This stops the species from growing in sand dunes unless there are wet depressions present, and from hillsides unless there is a seepage area. The fertility of the soil is another factor—settlers in Canterbury used the presence of the species to situate their homesteads and gardens. The fallen leaves of the tree also help to raise the fertility of the soil when they break down. Another factor is temperature,.

Cordyline australis. especially the degree of frost. Young trees are killed by frost, and even old trees can be cut back. This is why "C. australis" is absent from upland areas and from very frosty inland areas.Early European explorers of New Zealand described "jungles of cabbage trees" along the banks of streams and rivers, in huge swamps and lowland valleys. Few examples of this former abundance survive today—such areas were the first to be cleared by farmers looking for flat land and fertile soil. In modern New Zealand, cabbage trees usually grow as isolated individuals rather than as parts of a healthy.

Cordyline australis. ecosystem.## Reproduction.The cabbage tree's year begins in autumn among the tight spike of unopened leaves projecting from the centre of each tuft of leaves. Some of the growing tips have changed from making leaves to producing inflorescences for the coming spring, and around these, two or three buds begin to produce leaves. The inflorescence and the leaf buds pass the winter protected by the enveloping spike of unopened leaves. Months later in spring or early summer, it bears its flowers on the outside of the tree, exposed to insects and birds.Flowering takes place over a period of four to six.

Cordyline australis. weeks, giving maximum exposure to pollinating insects. The flowers produce a sweet perfume which attracts large numbers of insects. The nectar produced by the flowers contains aromatic compounds, mainly esters and terpenes, which are particularly attractive to moths. Bees use the nectar to produce a light honey to feed their young and increase the size of the hive in the early summer. It takes about two months for the fruit to ripen, and by the end of summer a cabbage tree can have thousands of small fruits available for birds to eat and disperse. The strong framework of the inflorescence.

Cordyline australis. can easily bear the weight of heavy birds like the New Zealand pigeon, which was formerly the major disperser of the seeds.Each fruit contains three to six shiny, black seeds which are coated in a charcoal-like substance called phytomelan. The latter may serve to protect the seeds from the digestive process in the gut of a bird. The seeds are also rich in linoleic acid as a food source for the developing embryo plant, a compound which is also important in the egg-laying cycle of birds. Because it takes about two years for a particular stem to produce an inflorescence,.

Cordyline australis. cabbage trees tend to flower heavily in alternative years, with a bumper flowering every three to five years. Each inflorescence bears 5,000 to 10,000 flowers, so a large inflorescence may carry about 40,000 seeds, or one million seeds for the whole tree in a good flowering year—hundreds of millions for a healthy grove of trees.## Response to fire."Cordyline australis" is one of the few New Zealand forest trees that can recover from fire. It can renew its trunk from buds on the protected rhizomes under the ground. This gives the tree an advantage because it can regenerate itself quickly and.

Cordyline australis. the fire has eliminated competing plants. Cabbage tree leaves contain oils which make them burn readily. The same oils may also slow down the decay of fallen leaves, so that they build up a dense mat that prevents the seeds of other plants from germinating. When the leaves do break down, they form a fertile soil around the tree. Cabbage tree seed also has a store of oil, which means it remains viable for several years. When a bushfire has cleared the land of vegetation, cabbage tree seeds germinate in great numbers to make the most of the light and.

Cordyline australis. space opened up by the flames.Older trees sometimes grow epicormic shoots directly from their trunks after storm or fire damage. Aerial rhizomes can also be produced from the trunk if it sustains damage or has become hollow, and grow down into the soil to regenerate the plant. Such regeneration can lead to trees of great age with multiple trunks.## Biodiversity.Many plants and animals are associated with "C. australis" in healthy ecosystems. The most common epiphytes are ferns, astelias and orchids. Old trees often carry large clumps of the climbing fern "Asplenium", and in moist places, filmy ferns and kidney ferns.

Cordyline australis. cling to the branches. "Astelia" species and "Collospermum" often establish in the main fork of the tree, and one tree can host several species of native orchid. Other common epiphytes include "Griselinia lucida", as well as a range of mosses, liverworts, lichens and fungi. Two fungus species which infect living tissue—"Phanaerochaeta cordylines" and "Sphaeropsis cordylines"—occur almost exclusively on "C. australis".Animals and birds associated with "C. australis" include lizards which forage among the flowers, including the gold-striped gecko which is well camouflaged for life among the leaves of the tree. New Zealand bellbirds like to nest under the dead leaves or.

Cordyline australis. among the flower stalks, and paradise shelducks commonly build their nests in the base of an old cabbage tree standing in the middle of a field. Red-crowned parakeets are often seen foraging in cabbage trees. In South Canterbury, long-tailed bats shelter during the day in the hollow branches, which would once have provided nesting holes for many birds.The berries of "C. australis" are enjoyed by bellbirds, tūī, and kererū. Māori sometimes planted groves of cabbage trees () to attract kererū which could be snared when they came to eat the berries. Reminiscing in 1903 about life in New Zealand sixty.

Cordyline australis. or more years earlier, George Clarke describes how such a tapu grove of cabbage trees would attract huge numbers of pigeons: "About four miles from our house, there was a great preserve of wood pigeons, that was made as tapu as the native chiefs could devise. At a certain season, the pigeons came in vast flocks to feed on the white berries of the Ti tree (bracœna) [sic] and got so heavy with fat that they could hardly fly from one tree to another. No gun was allowed in the place. The Maoris, with a long slender rod and a.

Cordyline australis. slip noose at the end, squatted under the leaves and noiselessly slipped the noose over the necks of the stupid pigeons as they were feeding." As the native birds have vanished from much of New Zealand with the clearing of forests, it is now flocks of starlings which descend upon the fruit.The nectar of the flowers is sought after by insects, bellbirds, tūī, and stitchbirds. The leaves and the rough bark provide excellent homes for insects such as caterpillars and moths, small beetles, fly larvae, wētā, snails and slugs. Many of these are then eaten by birds such as saddlebacks.

Cordyline australis. and robins. The rough bark also provides opportunities for epiphytes to cling and grow, and lizards hide amongst the dead leaves, coming out to drink the nectar and to eat the insects. Good flowering seasons occur every few years only. While it is said that they foretell dry summers, it has been observed that they tend to follow dry seasons.Insects, including beetles, moths, wasps and flies, use the bark, leaves and flowers of the tree in various ways. Some feed or hide camouflaged in the skirt of dead leaves, a favourite dry place for wētā to hide in winter. Many.

Cordyline australis. of the insect companions of the tree have followed it into the domesticated surroundings of parks and home gardens. If the leaves are left to decay, the soil underneath cabbage trees becomes a black humus that supports a rich array of amphipods, earthworms and millipedes.There are nine species of insect only found on "C. australis", of which the best known is "Epiphryne verriculata", the cabbage tree moth, which is perfectly adapted to hide on a dead leaf. Its caterpillars eat large holes and wedges in the leaves. The moth lays its eggs at the base of the central spike of.

Cordyline australis. unopened leaves. The caterpillars eat holes in the surface of the leaves and leave characteristic notches in the leaf margins. They can infest young trees but seldom damage older trees, which lack the skirt of dead leaves where the parent moths like to hide.## Threats, pests and diseases.## Sudden decline.Cases of sick and dying trees of "C. australis" were first reported in the northern part of the North Island in 1987. The syndrome, eventually called Sudden Decline, soon reached epidemic proportions in Northland and Auckland. Affected trees usually suffer total defoliation within 2 to 12 months. The foliage turns yellow,.

Cordyline australis. and the oldest leaves wither and fall off. Growth of leaves ceases, and eventually all the leaves fall, leaving dead branches, often with the dried-out flowering panicles still attached. At the same time, the bark on the trunk becomes loose and detaches easily. The greatest number of dead trees (18 to 26 percent) was recorded around Auckland.For some years, the cause of the disease was unknown, and hypotheses included tree ageing, fungi, viruses, and environmental factors such as an increase in ultra-violet light. Another hypothesis was that a genetic problem may have been induced in Northland and Auckland by the.

Cordyline australis. thousands of cabbage trees brought into the area from elsewhere and planted in gardens and parks. The Lands and Survey Department had a native plant nursery at Taupo in the central North Island, which was used to grow plants for use in parks, reserves and carparks. In many Northland parks, cabbage trees from the central North Island were growing and flowering within metres of natural forms. Any offspring produced might have been poorly adapted to local conditions. After nearly five years of work, scientists found the cause was a bacterium "Phytoplasma australiense", which may be spread from tree to tree.

Cordyline australis. by a tiny sap-sucking insect, the introduced passion vine hopper.Populations of "C. australis" were decimated in some parts of New Zealand because of Sudden Decline. In some areas, particularly in the north, no big trees are left. Although Sudden Decline often affects cabbage trees in farmland and open areas, trees in natural forest patches continue to do well. Trees in the southern North Island and northern South Island are generally unaffected with few dead branches and no symptoms of Sudden Decline. By 2010, there was evidence to suggest the severity of the disease was lessening.## Rural decline.The plight of "Cordyline.

Cordyline australis. australis" in the Sudden Decline epidemic drew attention to another widespread threat to the tree in rural areas throughout New Zealand. Rural Decline was the name proposed by botanists to refer to a decline in health of older trees in pasture and grazed shrubland, leading over many years to the loss of upper branches and eventual death.Often farmers would leave a solitary cabbage tree—or even groves of trees—standing after the swamps were drained. Most of these trees will slowly die out because livestock eat the seedlings and damage the trunks and roots of adult trees. When a cabbage tree is.

Cordyline australis. the only shade in a field, stock will shelter underneath it, damaging the bark by rubbing against it, and compacting the soil around the tree. Cows, sheep, goats, and deer eat the nutritious tissue under the bark of cabbage trees. Once the trunk has been damaged by animals, it seldom heals and the wounds get bigger over time. Eventually the tissue in the centre of the stem rots away and a cavity forms along its entire length. The trunk becomes misshapen or completely ring-barked for a metre above the ground. Often the growth layer dies and the injuries may lead.

Cordyline australis. to bacterial or fungal infections that spread into the branches until the canopy too begins to die. Other factors thought to contribute to Rural Decline include wood-rotting fungi like "Phanerochaete cordylines", micro-organisms which cause saprobic decay and leaf-feeding caterpillars.Other mammals can be destructive. Possums tend not to eat the leaves of the tree, but are very fond of eating the sugar-rich flowering stalks as they emerge. They also like using the tree as a sleeping place. Rabbits can be more destructive, especially during periods of drought, when they have been seen to eat through the base until a tree falls,.

Cordyline australis. and then eating the fallen tree completely. Horses can also fell a tree by eating through the trunk.## Māori cultural uses.In traditional times, Māori had a rich knowledge of the cabbage tree, including spiritual, ecological and many practical aspects of its use. While much of that specialised knowledge was lost after the European settlement of New Zealand, the use of the tree as food and medicine has persisted, and the use of its fibres for weaving is becoming more common.## Food.The stems and fleshy rhizomes of "C. australis" are high in natural sugars and were steam-cooked in earth ovens ("umu.

Cordyline australis. tī", a large type of "hāngi") to produce "kāuru", a carbohydrate-rich food used to sweeten other foods. The growing tips or leaf hearts were stripped of leaves and eaten raw or cooked as a vegetable, when they were called "kōuka"—the origin of the Māori name of the tree. The southern limit of kūmara (sweet potato) cultivation was at Banks Peninsula at 43°S, and south of there a culture developed around "C. australis". Natural and planted groves of the cabbage tree were harvested.Large parties trimmed the cut stems, and left them to dry for days or weeks. As well as stems,.

Cordyline australis. the rhizomes—extensions of the trunk below the surface of the ground shaped like enormous carrots—were also dug up to be cooked. In the early 1840s, Edward Shortland said Māori preferred rhizomes from trees growing in deep rich soil. They dug them in spring or early summer just before the flowering of the plant, when they were at their sweetest. November was the favourite month for preparing kāuru in the South Island.After drying, the harvested stems or rhizomes were steamed for 24 hours or more in the umu tī pit. Steaming converted the carbohydrate fructan in the stems to very sweet.

Cordyline australis. fructose. The cooked stems or rhizomes were then flattened by beating and carried back to villages for storage. Kāuru could be stored dry until the time came to add it to fern root and other foods to improve their palatability. The sugar in the stems or rhizomes would be partially crystallised, and could be found mixed in a sugary pulp with other matter between the fibres of the root, which were easily separated by tearing them apart. Kāuru could also be dipped in water and chewed, and was said to smell and taste like molasses.Evidence of large cooking pits (umu.

Cordyline australis. tī) can still be found in the hills of South Canterbury and North Otago, where large groves of cabbage trees still stand. Europeans used the plant to make alcohol, and the often fearsome brews were relished by whalers and sealers.The kōata, the growing tip of the plant, was eaten raw as medicine. When cooked, it was called the kōuka. If the spike of unopened leaves and a few outer leaves is gripped firmly at the base and bent, it will snap off. The leaves can be removed, and what remains is like a small artichoke heart that can be steamed,.

Cordyline australis. roasted or boiled to make kōuka, a bitter vegetable available at any time of the year. Kōuka is delicious as a relish with fatty foods like eel, muttonbirds, or pigeons, or in modern times, pork, mutton and beef. Different trees were selected for their degree of bitterness, which should be strong for medicinal use, but less so when used as a vegetable.## Fibre.A tough fibre was extracted from the leaves of "C. australis", and was valued for its strength and durability especially in seawater. The leaves are suitable for weaving in its raw state, without any need to further process.

Cordyline australis. the fibres. The leaves were used for making anchor ropes and fishing lines, cooking mats, baskets, sandals and leggings for protection when travelling in the South Island high country, home of the prickly speargrasses ("Aciphylla") and tūmatakuru or matagouri ("Discaria toumatou"). Because of the water-resistant properties of the plant, the leaves were traditionally used for cooking baskets. Morere swings provided a source of amusement for Māori children. The ropes had to be strong, so they were often made from the leaves or fibre of "C. australis", which were much tougher than the fibres of New Zealand flax. The leaves were.

Cordyline australis. also used for rain capes, although the mountain cabbage tree "C. indivisa", was preferred. The fibre made from cabbage tree leaves is stronger than that made from New Zealand flax.## Medicine.The Māori used various parts of "Cordyline australis" to treat injuries and illnesses, either boiled up into a drink or pounded into a paste. The kōata, the growing tip of the plant, was eaten raw as a blood tonic or cleanser. Juice from the leaves was used for cuts, cracks and sores. An infusion of the leaves was taken internally for diarrhoea and used externally for bathing cuts. The leaves.

Cordyline australis. were rubbed until soft and applied either directly or as an ointment to cuts, skin cracks and cracked or sore hands. The young shoot was eaten by nursing mothers and given to children for colic. The liquid from boiled shoots was taken for other stomach pains. The seeds of "Cordyline australis" are high in linoleic acid, one of the essential fatty acids.## Cultivation today."Cordyline australis" is one of the most widely cultivated New Zealand native trees. In Northwest Europe and other cool oceanic climates, it is very popular as an ornamental tree because it looks like a palm tree. Hardy.

Cordyline australis. forms from the coldest areas of the southern or inland South Island tolerate Northern Hemisphere conditions best, while North Island forms are much more tender. It can also be grown successfully in Mediterranean climates. It is easily grown from fresh seed — seedlings often spontaneously appear in gardens from bird-dispersed seed — and can be grown very easily from shoot, stem and even trunk cuttings. It does well in pots and tubs.It grows well as far north as the eastern coast of Scotland, including the village of Portgower. It is more common in Southern England and in Ireland where it.

Cordyline australis. is grown all over the island. Although not a palm, it is locally named Cornish palm, Manx palm or Torbay palm. The last name is due to its extensive use in Torbay, it being the official symbol of that area, used in tourist posters promoting South Devon as the English Riviera. It also grows in southern Europe, California and Japan. Even though its natural distribution ranges from 34° S to 46°S, and despite its ultimately subtropical origins, it also grows at about five degrees from the Arctic Circle in Masfjorden, Norway, latitude 61ºN, in a microclimate protected from arctic winds.

Cordyline australis. and moderated by the Gulf Stream.## Cultivars.In the North Island, Māori cultivated selected forms of "C. australis" for food. One of these, called tī para or tī tāwhiti, was grown because it suckers readily and forms multiple fleshy rhizomes. A dwarf non-flowering selection of "C. australis", it has a rubbery, pulpy stem, and thick green leaves. Although it was recorded by the early naturalists, botanists only rediscovered it in the 1990s, being grown by gardeners as the cultivar "Cordyline" 'Thomas Kirk'. Recent and unpublished DNA work suggests it derives from "C. australis" of the central North Island."Cordyline" 'Ti Tawhiti' was.

Cordyline australis. "the subject of an intense discussion amongst the leading botanists of New Zealand at a meeting of the Royal Society ... in Wellington 100 years ago. It was saved from extinction because its dwarf form found favour with gardeners and it came to be known as Cordyline 'Kirkii' recording the interest Thomas Kirk had in the plant. Its origin as a Maori selection was forgotten until rediscovered in 1991. The name 'Tawhiti' is equivalent to 'Hawaiki' and indicates the traditional belief that the plant was introduced to Aotearoa by the ancestral canoes of Maori. However, it is more probable that.

Cordyline australis. the name arose from it being moved around its native land as a domesticated plant."Numerous cultivars of "C. australis" are sold within New Zealand and around the world. Like other "Cordyline" species, "C. australis" can produce sports which have very attractive colouration, including pink stripes and leaves in various shades of green, yellow or red. An early cultivar was published in France and England in 1870: "Cordyline australis" 'Lentiginosa' was described as having tinted leaves with brownish red spots. Other early cultivars included 'Veitchii' (1871) with crimson midribs, 'Atrosanguinea' (1882) with bronze leaves infused with red, 'Atropurpurea' (1886) and 'Purpurea'.

Cordyline australis. (1890) with purple leaves, and a range of variegated forms: 'Doucetiana' (1878), 'Argento-striata' (1888) and 'Dalleriana' (1890). In New Zealand and overseas, hybrids with other "Cordyline" species feature prominently in the range of cultivars available. New Plymouth plant breeders Duncan and Davies included hybrids of "C. australis" and "C. banksii" in their 1925 catalogue, and have produced many new cultivars since. In New Zealand, some of the coloured forms and hybrids seem to be more susceptible to attacks from the cabbage tree moth.Immature forms have become a popular annual house or ornamental plant under the name 'Spikes', or "Dracaena" 'Spikes'.

Cordyline australis. To add to the confusion, these may be misidentified as "Cordyline indivisa" (syn. "Dracaena indivisa")."C. australis" is hardy to USDA zones 8–11.## AGM cultivars.In cultivation in the United Kingdom, the following have received the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:"C. australis" 'Albertii' 'Sundance' 'Torbay Dazzler', 'Torbay Red' (confirmed 2017) Barry L. Frankhauser, an archaeologist and anthropologist, whose Ph.D. thesis (published 1986) was a study of historical uses of the cabbage treeScheele, S. (2007). The 2006 Banks Memorial Lecture: Cultural uses of New Zealand native plants. "New Zealand Garden Journal" 1:10–16. Retrieved 2010-04-04.Arkins, A. (2003). "The Cabbage Tree". Auckland. Reed.

Cordyline australis. Publishing.Harris, W. (2001). Horticultural and conservation significance of the genetic variation of cabbage trees (Cordyline spp.). In: Oates, M. R. ed. "New Zealand plants and their story: proceedings of a conference held in Wellington 1–3 October 1999". Lincoln, Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture. pp. 87–91.Harris, W. (2002). The cabbage tree. "Journal of the Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture", 5, 3–9.Harris, W. (2003). Genotypic variation of height growth and trunk diameter of Cordyline australis (Lomandraceae) grown at three locations in New Zealand. "New Zealand Journal of Botany", 41, 637–652.Harris, W. (2004). Genotypic variation of dead leaf retention by Cordyline.

Cordyline australis. australis (Lomandraceae) populations and influence on trunk surface. "New Zealand Journal of Botany", 42, 833–844.


Question: What is the hymenium type of this plant?

Instruction: Retrieve a Wikipedia paragraph that provides an answer to the given query about the image.

Cerioporus squamosus. can be yellow to brown and has "squamules" or scales on its upper side. On the underside one can see the pores that are characteristic of the genus "Cerioporus"; they are made up of tubes packed together closely. The tubes are between 1 and 12 (mm) long. The stalk is thick and short, up to 5 (cm) long. The fruit body will produce a white spore print if laid onto a sheet of paper. The spores are 11-15 x 4-5 µm and are long and smooth ellipsoids. They can be found alone, in clusters of two or three, or forming.


Question: What is the basionym of this plant?

Instruction: Determine the Wikipedia snippet that matches the question of this image.

Pontederia crassipes. Pontederia crassipes (formerly "Eichhornia crassipes"), commonly known as common water hyacinth is an aquatic plant native to South America, naturalized throughout the world, and often invasive outside its native range. It is the sole species of the subgenus "Oshunae" within the genus "Pontederia". Anecdotally, it is known as the "terror of Bengal" due to its invasive growth tendencies.## Description.Water hyacinth is a free-floating perennial aquatic plant (or hydrophyte) native to tropical and sub-tropical South America. With broad, thick, glossy, ovate leaves, water hyacinth may rise above the surface of the water as much as 1 (m) in height. The leaves.

Pontederia crassipes. are 10–20 (cm) across on a stem which is floating by means of buoyant bulb-like nodules at its base above the water surface. They have long, spongy and bulbous stalks. The feathery, freely hanging roots are purple-black. An erect stalk supports a single spike of 8–15 conspicuously attractive flowers, mostly lavender to pink in colour with six petals. When not in bloom, water hyacinth may be mistaken for frog's-bit ("Limnobium spongia") or Amazon frogbit ("Limnobium laevigatum").One of the fastest-growing plants known, water hyacinth reproduces primarily by way of runners or stolons, which eventually form daughter plants. Each plant additionally can.

Pontederia crassipes. produce thousands of seeds each year, and these seeds can remain viable for more than 28 years. The common water hyacinth ("Pontederia crassipes") are vigorous growers and mats can double in size in one to two weeks. And in terms of plant count rather than size, they are said to multiply by more than a hundredfold in number, in a matter of 23 days.In their native range, these flowers are pollinated by long-tongued bees and they can reproduce both sexually and clonally. The invasiveness of the hyacinth is related to its ability to clone itself and large patches are likely.

Pontederia crassipes. to all be part of the same genetic form.Water hyacinth has three flower morphs and is termed "tristylous". The flower morphs are named for the length of their pistil: long, medium and short. Tristylous populations are however limited to the native lowland South America range of water hyacinth; in the introduced range, the M-morph prevails, with the L-morph occurring occasionally and the S-morph is absent altogether. This geographical distribution of the floral morphs indicates that founder events have played a prominent role in the species' worldwide spread.## Habitat and ecology.Its habitat ranges from tropical desert to subtropical or warm temperate.

Pontederia crassipes. desert to rainforest zones. The temperature tolerance of the water hyacinth is the following; its minimum growth temperature is 12 (C); its optimum growth temperature is 25 - 30 (C); its maximum growth temperature is 33 - 35 (C), and its pH tolerance is estimated at 5.0–7.5. Leaves are killed by frost and plants do not tolerate water temperatures > 34 (C). Water hyacinths do not grow where the average salinity is greater than 15% that of sea water (around 5 g salt per kg). In brackish water, its leaves show epinasty and chlorosis, and eventually die. Rafts of harvested.

Pontederia crassipes. water hyacinth have been floated to the sea where it is killed."Azotobacter chroococcum", a species of nitrogen-fixing bacteria, is probably concentrated around the bases of the petioles, but the bacteria do not fix nitrogen unless the plant is suffering extreme nitrogen deficiency.Fresh plants contain prickly crystals. This plant is reported to contain hydrogen cyanide, alkaloids, and triterpenoids, and may induce itching. Plants sprayed with 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid may accumulate lethal doses of nitrates, and other harmful elements in polluted environments.## Invasive species.Water hyacinth grows and reproduces quickly, so it can cover large portions of ponds and lakes. Particularly vulnerable are bodies.

Pontederia crassipes. of water that have already been affected by human activities, such as artificial reservoirs or eutrophied lakes that receive large amounts of nutrients. It outcompetes native aquatic plants, both floating and submerged. In 2011, Wu Fuqin et al. tracked the results of Yunnan Dianchi Lake and also showed that water hyacinth could affect the photosynthesis of phytoplankton, submerged plants and algae by water environment quality and inhibit its growth. The decay process depletes dissolved oxygen in the water, often killing fish.Water hyacinth can absorb a large amount of harmful heavy metals and other substances. After death, it will rot and.

Pontederia crassipes. sink to the bottom of the water, causing secondary pollution to the water body, destroying the natural water quality, and may even affect the quality of residents' drinking water in severe cases. Water where water hyacinth grows heavily is often a breeding place for disease vectors (e.g. mosquitoes and snails) and harmful pathogens, posing a potential threat to the health of local residents. On the other hand, water hyacinth can also provide a food source for goldfish, keep water clean and help to provide oxygen.The invasion of water hyacinth also has socioeconomic consequences. Since water hyacinth is comprised up of.

Pontederia crassipes. 95% water, the evapotranspiration rate is high. As such, small lakes that have been covered with the species can dry out and leave communities without adequate water or food supply. In some areas, dense mats of water hyacinth prevents the use of a waterway, leading to the loss of transportation (both human and cargo) as well as a loss of fishing possibilities. Large sums of money are allocated to the removal of water hyacinth from the water bodies as well as figuring out how to destroy the remains harvested. Harvesting water hyacinth mechanically requires a lot of effort. A million.

Pontederia crassipes. tons of fresh biomass would require 75 trucks with a capacity of 40m^3, per day, for 365 days to get rid of a million tons of water hyacinth. The water hyacinth would then be transferred to a dumping site and allowed to decompose which releases CO2, CH4 and nitrogen oxides which would all negatively impact the air quality and contribute to global warming.Water hyacinth has been widely introduced in North America, Europe, Asia, Australia, Africa, and New Zealand. In many areas, it has become an important and pernicious invasive species. In New Zealand, it is listed on the National Pest.

Pontederia crassipes. Plant Accord, which prevents it from being propagated, distributed, or sold. In large water areas such as Louisiana, the Kerala Backwaters in India, Tonlé Sap in Cambodia, and Lake Victoria, it has become a serious pest. The common water hyacinth has become an invasive plant species on Lake Victoria in Africa after it was introduced into the area in the 1980s.## United States.## Introduction into the U.S..Various accounts are given as to how the water hyacinth was introduced to the United States.The claim that the water hyacinth was introduced to the U.S. in 1884 at the World's Fair in New.

Pontederia crassipes. Orleans, also known as the World Cotton Centennial, has been characterized as the "first authentic account", as well as "local legend".At some time, versions of the "legend" asserted that the plants had been given away as a gift by a Japanese delegation at the fair. This claim is absent in a pertinent article published in a military engineer's trade journal dating to 1940, but appears in a piece penned in 1941 by the director of the wildlife and fisheries division at the Louisiana Department of Conservation, where the author writes, "the Japanese government maintained a Japanese building" at the fair,.

Pontederia crassipes. and the "Japanese staff imported from Venezuela considerable numbers of water hyacinth, which were given away as souvenirs". The claim has been repeated by later writers, with various shifts in the details. Thus NAS fellow Noel D. Vietmeyer (1975) wrote that "Japanese entrepreneurs" introduced the plant into the U.S., and the plants had been "collected from the Orinoco River in Venezuela", and the claim was echoed along the same gist by a pair of NASA researchers (), who asserted that the souvenir plants were carelessly dumped in various waterways. Canadian biologist Spencer C. H. Barrett (2004) meanwhile favored the theory.

Pontederia crassipes. they were first cultivated in garden ponds, after which they multiplied and escaped to the environs. The account gains a different detail as told by children's story-teller Carole Marsh (1992), who says "Japan gave away water hyacinth seeds" during the exposition, and another Southern raconteur, Gaspar J. "Buddy" Stall (1998) assured his readership that the Japanese gave each family a package of those seeds.One paper has also inquired into the role which catalog sales of seeds and plants may have played in the dissemination of invasive plants. It has been found that "P. crassipes" was offered in the 1884 issue.

Pontederia crassipes. of Bordentown, New Jersey-based Edmund D. Sturtevant's "Catalogue of rare water lilies and other choice aquatic plants", and of Germany has offered the plant since 1864 (since the firm was founded). By 1895, it was offered by seed-purveyors in the states of NJ, NY, California, and Florida.The "Harper's Weekly" magazine (1895) printed an anecdotal account stating that a certain man from New Orleans collected and brought home water hyacinths he collected from Colombia, c. 1892, and the plant proliferated in a matter of 2 years.## Infestation and control in the Southeast.As the hyacinths multiply into mats, they eliminate the presence.

Pontederia crassipes. of fish, and choke waterways for boating and shipping. This effect was well taking hold in the state of Louisiana by the turn of the 20th century.The plant invaded Florida in 1890, and an estimated 50 kg/m2 of the plant mass choked Florida's waterways. The clogging of the St. Johns River was posing a serious threat, and in 1897 the government dispatched a task force of the United States Army Corps of Engineers to solve the water hyacinth problem plaguing the Gulf states such as Florida and Louisiana.Thus in the early 20th century, the U.S. War Department (i.e., the Army.

Pontederia crassipes. Corps of Engineers) tested various means of eradicating the plants, including the jet-streaming of steam and hot water, application of various strong acids, and application of petroleum followed by incineration. Spraying with saturated salt solution (but not dilute solutions) effectively killed the plants; unfortunately this was considered prohibitively expensive, and the engineers selected Harvesta brand herbicide, whose active ingredient was arsenic acid, as the optimal cost-effective tool for eradication. This herbicide was used until 1905, when it was substituted with a different, white arsenic based compound. An engineer charged with the spraying did not think the poison to be a.

Pontederia crassipes. matter of concern, stating that the crew of the spraying boat would routinely catch fish from their working areas and consume them. However, spraying had little hope of completely eradicating the water hyacinth, due to the vastness of escaped colonies and the inaccessibility of some of the infested areas, and the engineer suggested that some biological means of control may be needed. In 1910, a bold solution was put forth by the New Foods Society. Their plan was to import and release hippopotamus from Africa into the rivers and bayous of Louisiana. The hippopotamus would then eat the water hyacinth.

Pontederia crassipes. and also produce meat to solve another serious problem at the time, the American meat crisis.Known as the American Hippo bill, H.R. 23621 was introduced by Louisiana Congressman Robert Broussard and debated by the Agricultural Committee of the U.S. House of Representatives. The chief collaborators in the New Foods Society and proponents of Broussard's bill were Major Frederick Russell Burnham, the celebrated American Scout, and Captain Fritz Duquesne, a South African Scout who later became a notorious spy for Germany. Presenting before the Agricultural Committee, Burnham made the point that none of the animals that Americans ate, chickens, pigs, cows,.

Pontederia crassipes. sheep, lambs, were native to the U.S.; all had been imported by European settlers centuries before, so why should Americans hesitate to introduce hippopotamus and other large animals into the American diet? Duquesne, who was born and raised in South Africa, further noted that European settlers on that continent commonly included hippopotamus, ostrich, antelope, and other African wildlife in their diets and suffered no ill effects. The American Hippo bill nearly passed, but fell one vote short.Water hyacinths have also been introduced into waters inhabited by manatees in Florida, for the purpose of bioremediation (cf. §Phytoremediation below) of the waters.

Pontederia crassipes. that have become contaminated and fallen victim to algal blooming. The manatees include the water hyacinth in their diet, but it may not be the food of first choice for them.## Legality of sale and shipment in the United States.In 1956 "E. crassipes" was banned for sale or shipment in the United States, subject to a fine and/or imprisonment. This law was repealed by HR133 [116th Congress (2019-2020)] on 12/27/2020.## Africa.The water hyacinth may have been introduced into Egypt in the late 18th to early 19th century during Muhammad Ali of Egypt's era, but was not recognized as an invasive.

Pontederia crassipes. threat until 1879. The invasion into Egypt is dated between 1879 and 1892 by Brij Gopal. Gopal; Junk; Davis (2000) ", Biodiversity in Wetlands" 2p. 109.</ref>The plant (Afrikaans: "waterhiasint") arguably invaded South Africa in 1910, although earlier dates have been claimed.The plant was introduced by Belgian colonists to Rwanda to beautify their holdings. It then advanced by natural means to Lake Victoria where it was first sighted in 1988. There, without any natural enemies, it has become an ecological plague, suffocating the lake, diminishing the fish reservoir, and hurting the local economies. It impedes access to Kisumu and other harbors.The.

Pontederia crassipes. water hyacinth has also appeared in Ethiopia, where it was first reported in 1965 at the Koka Reservoir and in the Awash River, where the Ethiopian Electric Light and Power Authority has managed to bring it under moderate control at considerable cost of human labor. Other infestations in Ethiopia include many bodies of water in the Gambela Region, the Blue Nile from Lake Tana into Sudan, and Lake Ellen near Alem Tena. By 2018, it has become a serious problem on Lake Tana in Ethiopia.The water hyacinth is also present on the Shire River in the Liwonde National Park in.

Pontederia crassipes. Malawi.## Asia.Water hyacinth was introduced to North America in 1884 and later to Asia, Africa, and Australia. Since there are no natural enemies in the new location, it can multiply quickly and cause disaster.The water hyacinth was introduced to Bengal, India because of its beautiful flowers and shapes of leaves, but turned out to be an invasive weed draining oxygen from the water bodies and resulted in devastation of fish stock. The water hyacinth was referred to as the "(Beautiful) Blue Devil" in Bengal, and "Bengal Terror" elsewhere in India; it was called "German weed" (Bengali: "Germani pana") in Bangladesh.

Pontederia crassipes. out of belief the German Kaiser submarine mission was involved in introducing them at the outbreak of World War I; and called "Japanese trouble" in Sri Lanka, due to the rumor that the British had planted them in order to entice Japanese aircraft to land on the insecure pads.In Bangladesh, projects have begun to utilize water hyacinth for the construction of floating vegetable gardens.Water hyacinth has also invaded the Tonlé Sap lake in Cambodia. An Osmose project in Cambodia is trying to fight it by having local people make baskets from it.The plant entered Japan in 1884 for horticultural appreciation,.

Pontederia crassipes. according to conventional wisdom, but a researcher devoted to the study of the plant has discovered that ukiyo-e artist Utagawa Kunisada (aka Utagawa Toyokuni III, d. 1865) produced a wood-block print featuring the water hyacinth, goldfish, and beautiful women, dated to 1855. The plant is floated on the water surface of filled (glassware) fishbowls, or glazed earthenware waterlily pots (hibachi pots serving as substitute).In the 1930s, water hyacinth was introduced into China as a feed, ornamental plant and sewage control plant, and it was widely planted in the south as an animal feed. Beginning in the 1980s, with the rapid.

Pontederia crassipes. development of China's inland industry, the eutrophication of inland waters has intensified. With the help of its efficient asexual reproduction and environmental adaptation mechanisms, water hyacinth has begun to spread widely in the river basin. The hyacinths blocked the river and hindered the internal water traffic. For example, many waterways in Zhejiang and other provinces were blocked by the rapidly growing water hyacinth. In addition, a large number of water hyacinths floating in the water will block sunlight from entering the water, and its decay consumes a lot of dissolved oxygen in the water, pollutes the water quality, and can.

Pontederia crassipes. kill other aquatic plants. The outbreak of water hyacinth has seriously affected the biodiversity of the local ecosystem and threatened the production, life and health of community residents.In Iraq, water hyacinth which was imported in the 1990s as a decorative plant, caused major problems for water supply systems and fishermen at the Euphrates.## Europe.In 2016, the European Union banned any sales of the water hyacinth in the EU. The species features on the list of Invasive Alien Species of Union Concern. This means that not only the sales but also importation, cultivation, or intentional release into the environment are forbidden.

Pontederia crassipes. in the whole of the European Union.## Oceania.In Papua New Guinea, water hyacinth blocked sunlight to other aquatic organisms, created habitat for malaria-carrying mosquitoes, clogged waterways to the point that boats could not get through and reduced the quality of water for purposes such as cooking, washing and drinking. People have lost income or even died due to being unable to travel to get food or medical care, or due to diseases from contaminated water or mosquitoes.## Control.Control depends on the specific conditions of each affected location such as the extent of water hyacinth infestation, regional climate, and proximity to.

Pontederia crassipes. human and wildlife.## Chemical control.Chemical control is the least used out of the three controls of water hyacinth, because of its long-term effects on the environment and human health. The use of herbicides requires strict approval from governmental protection agencies of skilled technician to handle and spray the affected areas. The use of chemical herbicides is only used in case of severe infiltration of water hyacinth. However, the most successful use of herbicides is when it is used for smaller areas of infestation of water hyacinth. This is because in larger areas, more mats of water hyacinths are likely to.

Pontederia crassipes. survive the herbicides and can fragment to further propagate a large area of water hyacinth mats. In addition, it is more cost-effective and less laborious than mechanical control. Yet, it can lead to environmental effects as it can penetrate into the ground water system and can affect not only the hydrological cycle within an ecosystem but also negatively affect the local water system and human health. It is also notable that the use of herbicides is not strictly selective of water hyacinths; keystone species and vital organisms such as microalgae can perish from the toxins and can disrupt fragile food.

Pontederia crassipes. webs.The chemical regulation of water hyacinths can be done using common herbicides such as 2,4-D, glyphosate, and diquat. The herbicides are sprayed on the water hyacinth leaves and leads to direct changes to the physiology of the plant. The use of the herbicide known as 2,4-D leads to the death of water hyacinth through inhibition of cell growth of new tissue and cellular apoptosis. It can take almost a two-week period before mats of water hyacinth are destroyed with 2, 4-D. Between 75000 and 150000 (acre) of water hyacinth and alligator weed are treated annually in Louisiana.The herbicide known as.

Pontederia crassipes. diquat is a liquid bromide salt that can rapidly penetrate the leaves of the water hyacinth and lead to immediate inactivity of plant cells and cellular processes. For the herbicide glyphosate, it has a lower toxicity than the other herbicides; therefore, it takes longer for the water hyacinth mats to be destroyed (about three weeks). The symptoms include steady wilting of the plants and a yellow discoloration of the plant leaves that eventually leads to plant decay.## Physical control.Physical control is performed by land-based machines such as bucket cranes, draglines, or boom or by water based machinery such as aquatic.

Pontederia crassipes. weed harvesters, dredges, or vegetation shredder. Mechanical removal is seen as the best short-term solution to the proliferation of the plant. A project on Lake Victoria in Africa used various pieces of equipment to chop, collect, and dispose of 1500 (ha) of water hyacinth in a 12-month period. It is, however, costly and requires the use of both land and water vehicles, but it took many years for the lake to become in poor condition and reclamation will be a continual process.It can have an annual cost from $6 million to $20 million and is only considered a short-term solution.

Pontederia crassipes. to a long-term problem. Another disadvantage with mechanical harvesting is that it can lead to further fragmentation of water hyacinths when the plants are broken up by spinning cutters of the plant-harvesting machinery. The fragments of water hyacinth that are left behind in the water can easily reproduce asexually and cause another infestation.However, transportation and disposal of the harvested water hyacinth is a challenge because the vegetation is heavy in weight. The harvested water hyacinth can pose a health risk to humans because of the plant's propensity for absorbing contaminants, and it is considered toxic to humans. Furthermore, the practice.

Pontederia crassipes. of mechanical harvesting is not effective in large-scale infestations of the water hyacinth, because this aquatic invasive species grows much more rapidly than it can be eliminated. Only 1 to 2 (acre) of water hyacinth can be mechanically harvested daily because of the vast amounts of water hyacinths in the environment. Therefore, the process is very time-intensive.## Biological control.As chemical and mechanical removal is often too expensive, polluting, and ineffective, researchers have turned to biological control agents to deal with water hyacinth. The effort began in the 1970s when USDA researchers released into the United States three species of weevil.

Pontederia crassipes. known to feed on water hyacinth, "Neochetina bruchi", "N. eichhorniae", and the water hyacinth borer "Sameodes albiguttalis". The weevil species were introduced into the Gulf Coast states, such as Louisiana, Texas, and Florida, where thousands of acres were infested by water hyacinth. It was found that a decade later in the 1980s that there was a decrease in water hyacinth mats by as much as 33%. However, because the life cycle of the weevils is ninety days, it puts a limitation on the use of biological predation to efficiently suppress water hyacinth growth. These organisms regulate water hyacinth by limiting.

Pontederia crassipes. water hyacinth size, its vegetative propagation, and seed production. They also carry microorganisms that can be pathological to the water hyacinth. These weevils eat stem tissue, which results in a loss of buoyancy for the plant, which will eventually sink. Although meeting with limited success, the weevils have since been released in many other countries. However, the most effective control method remains the control of excessive nutrients and prevention of the spread of this species.In May 2010, the USDA's Agricultural Research Service released "Megamelus scutellaris" as an additional biological control insect for the invasive water hyacinth species. "Megamelus scutellaris" is.

Pontederia crassipes. a small planthopper insect native to Argentina. Researchers have been studying the effects of the biological control agent in extensive host-range studies since 2006 and concluded that the insect is highly host-specific and will not pose a threat to any other plant population other than the targeted water hyacinth. Researchers also hope that this biological control will be more resilient than existing biological controls and the herbicides that are already in place to combat the invasive water hyacinth.Another insect being considered as a biological control agent is the semi-aquatic grasshopper "Cornops aquaticum". This insect is specific to the water hyacinth.

Pontederia crassipes. and its family, and besides feeding on the plant, it introduces a secondary pathogenic infestation. This grasshopper has been introduced into South Africa in controlled trials.The introduction of manatees into waterways was reportedly successful in controlling the plant's growth in Guyana.The Rhodes University Centre for Biological Control is rearing "Megamelus scutellaris" and the water hyacinth weevils "Neochetina eichhorniae" and "Neochetina bruchi" en masse for biological control at dams in South Africa; of importance is the Hartbeespoort Dam.The moth "Niphograpta albiguttalis" (Warren) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) has been introduced to North America, Africa and Australia. Larvae of this moth bore in the stems.

Pontederia crassipes. and flower buds of water hyacinth.## Uses.Since water hyacinth is so prolific, harvesting it for various uses also serves as a means of environmental control.## Bioenergy.Because of its extremely high rate of development, "Pontederia crassipes" is an excellent source of biomass. 1 (ha) of standing crop thus produces more than 70000 (m3/ha) of biogas (70% , 30% ). According to Curtis and Duke, 1 (kg) of dry matter can yield 370 (l) of biogas, giving a heating value of 22000 (kJ/m3) compared to pure methane (895 Btu/ft3)Wolverton and McDonald report approximately 0.2 (m3/kg) methane, indicating biomass requirements of 350 (t/ha).

Pontederia crassipes. to attain the 70000 (m3/ha ) yield projected by the National Academy of Sciences (Washington). Ueki and Kobayashi mention more than 200 (t/ha) per year. Reddy and Tucker found an experimental maximum of more than 1/2 (t/ha) per day.Bengali farmers collect and pile up these plants to dry at the onset of the cold season; they then use the dry water hyacinths as fuel. The ashes are used as fertilizer. In India, 1 (t) of dried water hyacinth yields about 50 liters ethanol and 200 kg residual fiber (7,700 Btu). Bacterial fermentation of 1 (t) yields 26,500 ft3 gas (600.

Pontederia crassipes. Btu) with 51.6% methane (), 25.4% hydrogen (), 22.1% carbon dioxide (), and 1.2% oxygen (). Gasification of 1 (t) dry matter by air and steam at high temperatures (800 (C)) gives about 40,000 ft3 (1,100 m3) natural gas (143 Btu/ft3) containing 16.6% , 4.8% , 21.7% (carbon monoxide), 4.1% , and 52.8% (nitrogen). The high moisture content of water hyacinth, adding so much to handling costs, tends to limit commercial ventures. A continuous, hydraulic production system could be designed, which would provide a better utilization of capital investments than in conventional agriculture, which is essentially a batch operation.The labor.

Pontederia crassipes. involved in harvesting water hyacinth can be greatly reduced by locating collection sites and processors on impoundments that take advantage of prevailing winds. Wastewater treatment systems could also favorably be added to this operation. The harvested biomass would then be converted to ethanol, biogas, hydrogen, gaseous nitrogen, and/or fertilizer. The byproduct water can be used to irrigate nearby cropland.## Phytoremediation, waste water treatment.Water hyacinth removes arsenic from arsenic-contaminated drinking water. It may be a useful tool in removing arsenic from tube well water in Bangladesh.Water hyacinth is also observed to enhance nitrification in wastewater treatment cells of living technology. Their.

Pontederia crassipes. root zones are superb micro-sites for bacterial communities.Water hyacinth is a common fodder plant in the third world especially Africa though excessive use can be toxic. It is high in protein (nitrogen) and trace minerals and the goat feces are a good source of fertilizer as well.Water hyacinth is reported for its efficiency to remove about 60–80% nitrogen and about 69% of potassium from water. The roots of water hyacinth were found to remove particulate matter and nitrogen in a natural shallow eutrophicated wetland.The plant is extremely tolerant of, and has a high capacity for, the uptake of heavy metals,.

Pontederia crassipes. including cadmium, chromium, cobalt, nickel, lead, and mercury, which could make it suitable for the biocleaning of industrial wastewater.The roots of "Pontederia crassipes" naturally absorb some organic compounds believed to be carcinogenic, in concentrations 10,000 times that in the surrounding water. Water hyacinths can be cultivated for waste water treatment (especially dairy waste water).In addition to heavy metals, "Pontederia crassipes" can also remove other toxins, such as cyanide, which is environmentally beneficial in areas that have endured gold-mining operations.Water hyacinth can take in and degrade ethion, a phosphorus pesticide.## Agriculture.In places where water hyacinth is invasive, overabundant, and in need.

Pontederia crassipes. of clearing away, these traits make it free for the harvesting, which makes it very useful as a source of organic matter for composting in organic farming. It is used internationally for fertilizer and as animal feed and silage for cattle, sheep, geese, pigs, and other livestock.In Bengal, India the "kachuri-pana" has been used primarily for fertilizer, compost or mulch, and secondarily as fodder for livestock and fish. In Bangladesh, farmers in the southwestern region cultivate vegetables on "floating gardens" usually with a bamboo-built frame base, with dried mass of water hyacinth covered in soil as bedding. As a large.

Pontederia crassipes. portion of cultivable land goes under water for months during monsoon in this low-lying region, farmers have grown this method for many decades now. The method of this agriculture is known by many names including "dhap chash" and "vasoman chash".In Kenya, East Africa, it has been used experimentally as organic fertilizer, although there is controversy stemming from the high alkaline pH value of the fertilizer.## Other uses.In various places in the world, the plant is used for making furniture, handbags, baskets, rope, and household goods/interior products (lampshades, picture frames) by businesses launched by NGOs and entrepreneurs.## Woven products.American-Nigerian Achenyo Idachaba.

Pontederia crassipes. has won an award for showing how this plant can be exploited for profit as woven procuts in Nigeria.## Paper.Though a study found water hyacinths of very limited use for paper production, they are nonetheless being used for paper production on a small scale. Goswami pointed out in his article that water hyacinth has the potential to make tough and strong paper. He found that adding water hyacinth pulp to the raw material of bamboo pulp for anti-grease paper can increase the physical strength of paper.## Edibility.The plant is used as a carotene-rich table vegetable in Taiwan. Javanese sometimes cook.

Pontederia crassipes. and eat the green parts and inflorescence. Vietnamese also cook the plant and sometimes add its young leaves and flower to their salads.## Medicinal use.In Kedah (Malaysia), the flowers are used for medicating the skin of horses. The species is a "tonic".## Potential as bioherbicidal agent.Water hyacinth leaf extract has been shown to exhibit phytotoxicity against another invasive weed "Mimosa pigra". The extract inhibited the germination of "Mimosa pigra" seeds in addition to suppressing the root growth of the seedlings. Biochemical data suggested that the inhibitory effects may be mediated by enhanced hydrogen peroxide production, inhibition of soluble peroxidase activity,.

Pontederia crassipes. and stimulation of cell wall-bound peroxidase activity in the root tissues of "Mimosa pigra". (Complete List of References) "Eichhornia crassipes"Species Profile – Water Hyacinth ("Eichhornia crassipes"), National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for Water Hyacinth.Eichhornia crassipes Israel Wildflowers and native plantsPractical uses of Water HyacinthIUCN Leaflet on "E. crassipes" in the context of Lake Tanganyika"Water hyacinth", AquaPlant Profile.


Question: Which location has this insect invaded?

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Western conifer seed bug. herbivores, it might be that in evolving its ability to overcome these defenses, "L. occidentalis" actually became somewhat dependent on such compounds.Its host plants in the native range include conifers such as Douglas-fir ("Pseudotsuga menziesii"), ponderosa pine ("Pinus ponderosa"), lodgepole pine ("Pinus contorta"), and white spruce ("Picea glauca"). Outside the native range, it is found on species such as eastern white pine ("P. strobus") and red pine ("P. resinosa") in eastern North America and Europe, and mountain pine ("P. mugo"), black pine ("P. nigra"), Scots pine ("P. sylvestris") and pistachio ("Pistacia vera") in Europe.The eggs are laid in small groups.

Western conifer seed bug. of this species arrived on the south coast of England, indicating natural immigration from continental Europe. In late 2009, a large group of western conifer seed bugs invaded Koç University in Istanbul, Turkey. The same thing happened in October 2012 in most of the cities of the French Alps, like Moûtiers. In 2017 it appears for the first time in the Southern Hemisphere, with several records from Chile.It was also first recorded from Tokyo, Japan in 2008, and some additional records from Tokyo and Kanagawa Prefecture have been added until 2009.In 2010 the first detection was made in Ukraine, in.

Western conifer seed bug. Dniprorudne, and the next year in Russia, in Rostov-on-Don.In 2020 it was first reported in Finland.On October 21, 2020 the first sighting in Andorra was posted to iNaturalist, and in September this species was found in Kozhukhovka in Kyiv region, Ukraine.In June 2021 Agence France Presse carried a report into devastation caused by the bug in the Qsaybeh pine forest east of Beirut, Lebanon, resulting in the collapse of pine nut production."This article draws heavily on the in the Italian-language Wikipedia." Stages of metamorphosis Status of "L. occidentalis" in Britain Western Conifer Seed Bug.


Question: What is the closest upper taxonomy of this bird?

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Buff-bellied hummingbird. The buff-bellied hummingbird (Amazilia yucatanensis) is a species of hummingbird in the "emeralds", tribe Trochilini of subfamily Trochilinae. It is found in Belize, Guatemala, Mexico, and the United States.## Taxonomy and systematics.The buff-bellied hummingbird has three subspecies, the nominate "A. y. yucatanensis", "A. y. chalconota", and "A. y. cerviniventris".## Description.The buff-bellied hummingbird is 10 to 11 (cm) long and weighs 2.9 to 4.7 (g). Adult males have a rosy reddish bill that is dusky at the end; females' have more dark on the maxilla. Adult males of the nominate subspecies have metallic bronze green upperparts that are duller and darker.


Question: Where is this bird native to?

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Nene (bird). The nene (Branta sandvicensis), also known as the nēnē or the Hawaiian goose, is a species of bird endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. The nene is exclusively found in the wild on the islands of Oahu, Maui, Kauai, Molokai, and Hawaii. In 1957, it was designated as the official state bird of state of Hawaii.The Hawaiian name "nēnē" comes from its soft call. The specific name "sandvicensis" refers to the Sandwich Islands, a former name for the Hawaiian Islands.## Taxonomy.The holotype specimen of "Anser sandvicensis" Vigors (List Anim. Garden Zool. Soc., ed.3, June 1833, p.4.) is held in the vertebrate.

Nene (bird). zoology collection at World Museum, National Museums Liverpool, with accession number NML-VZ T12706. The specimen was collected from the Sandwich Islands (Hawaiian Islands) and came to the Liverpool national collection via the Museum of the Zoological Society of London collection, Thomas Campbell Eyton’s collection, and Henry Baker Tristram’s collection.It is thought that the nene evolved from the Canada goose ("Branta canadensis"), which most likely arrived on the Hawaiian islands about 500,000 years ago, shortly after the island of Hawaii was formed. This ancestor is the progenitor of the nene as well as the prehistoric giant Hawaii goose ("Branta rhuax") and.

Nene (bird). nēnē-nui ("Branta hylobadistes"). The nēnē-nui was larger than the nene, varied from flightless to flighted depending on the individual, and inhabited the island of Maui. Similar fossil geese found on Oahu and Kauai may be of the same species. The giant Hawaii goose was restricted to the island of Hawaii and measured 1.2 (m) in length with a mass of 8.6 (kg), making it more than four times larger than the nene. It is believed that the herbivorous giant Hawaii goose occupied the same ecological niche as the goose-like ducks known as moa-nalo, which were not present on the Big.

Nene (bird). Island. Based on mitochondrial DNA found in fossils, all Hawaiian geese, living and extinct, are closely related to the giant Canada goose ("B. c. maxima") and dusky Canada goose ("B. c. occidentalis").## Description.The nene is a medium-sized goose at 41 (cm) tall. Although they spend most of their time on the ground, they are capable of flight, with some individuals flying daily between nesting and feeding areas. Females have a mass of 1.525 - 2.56 (kg), while males average 1.695 - 3.05 (kg), 11% larger than females. Adult males have a black head and hindneck, buff cheeks and heavily furrowed.

Nene (bird). Some populations migrated between lowland breeding grounds and montane foraging areas.The nene could at one time be found on the islands of Hawaii, Maui, Kahoolawe, Lānai, Molokai, Oʻahu and Kauai. Today, its range is restricted to Hawaii, Maui, Molokai, and Kauai. A pair arrived at the James Campbell National Wildlife Refuge on Oʻahu in January 2014; two of their offspring survived and are seen regularly on the nearby golf courses at Turtle Bay Resort.## Ecology and behavior.## Breeding.The breeding season of the nene, from August to April, is longer than that of any other goose; most eggs are laid between.

Nene (bird). November and January. Unlike most other waterfowl, the nene mates on land. Nests are built by females on a site of her choosing, in which one to five eggs are laid (average is three on Maui and Hawaii, four on Kauai). Females incubate the eggs for 29 to 32 days, while the male acts as a sentry. Goslings are precocial, able to feed on their own; they remain with their parents until the following breeding season.## Diet.The nene is a herbivore that will either graze or browse, depending on the availability of vegetation. Food items include the leaves, seeds, fruit,.

Nene (bird). and flowers of grasses and shrubs.## Conservation.The nene population stands at 2,500 birds, making it the world's rarest goose. It is believed that it was once common, with approximately 25,000 Hawaiian geese living in Hawaii when Captain James Cook arrived in 1778. Hunting and introduced predators, such as small Indian mongooses, pigs, and feral cats, reduced the population to 30 birds by 1952. The species breeds well in captivity, and has been successfully re-introduced. In 2004, it was estimated that there were 800 birds in the wild, as well as 1,000 in wildfowl collections and zoos. There is concern about.

Nene (bird). inbreeding due to the small initial population of birds. The nature reserve WWT Slimbridge, in England, was instrumental in the successful breeding of Hawaiian geese in captivity. Under the direction of conservationist Peter Scott, it was bred back from the brink of extinction during the 1950s for later re-introduction into the wild in Hawaii. There are still Hawaiian geese at Slimbridge today. They can now be found in captivity in multiple WWT centres. Successful introductions include Haleakala and Piiholo ranches on Maui.


Question: What is the street address of this building?

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Fontaines de la Concorde. The Fontaines de la Concorde are two monumental fountains located in the Place de la Concorde in the center of Paris. They were designed by Jacques Ignace Hittorff, and completed in 1840 during the reign of King Louis-Philippe. The south fountain commemorates the maritime commerce and industry of France, and the north fountain commemorates navigation and commerce on the rivers of France.## History.Before the French Revolution, during the period 1753–1772, when the square was called Place Louis XV, the architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel designed a plan for a monumental statue of Louis XV with two fountains, but because of a lack.

Fontaines de la Concorde. of sufficient water, it was never carried out. Gabriel did complete the building of the Ministry of the Navy overlooking the square - its presence later influenced the choice of themes for the Fontaines de la Concorde.During the French Revolution, the square was renamed Place de la Revolution, the guillotine was placed there, and King Louis XVI and thousands of others were beheaded near the site of the present fountains. In 1795, after the Reign of Terror ended, the square was renamed the Place de la Concorde. After the restoration of the Monarchy in 1816 the square was renamed in.


Question: What country does this bridge belong to?

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Zubizuri. The Zubizuri (Basque for "white bridge"), also called the Campo Volantin Bridge or Puente del Campo Volantin, is a tied arch footbridge across the Nervion River in Bilbao, Spain. Designed by architect Santiago Calatrava, the bridge links the "Campo Volantin" right bank and "Uribitarte" left bank of the river.## Description.Opened in 1997, the bridge's unusual design consists of a curved walkway which is supported by steel suspension cables from an overhead arch. The structure of the bridge is painted white and the bridge deck consists of translucent glass bricks. Access ramps and stairways are located on both banks. The Zubizuri.


Question: Which road, railway or canal does this island carry?

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Confederation Bridge. The Confederation Bridge () is a box girder bridge carrying the Trans-Canada Highway across the Abegweit Passage of the Northumberland Strait, linking the province of Prince Edward Island with the province of New Brunswick on the mainland. Opened May 31, 1997, the 12.9 (km) bridge is Canada's longest bridge and the world's longest bridge over ice-covered water.Construction took place from October 1993 to May 1997 and cost C$1.3 billion. Before its official naming, Prince Edward Islanders often referred to the bridge as the "Fixed Link". It officially opened to traffic on May 31, 1997. In April 2022, the PEI legislature.

Confederation Bridge. voted unanimously in favour of renaming the bridge to "Epekwitk Crossing", whereas Epekwitk ( ) is the traditional Mi'kmaq name for Prince Edward Island. The name change would need to be approved by the Canadian federal government in order to take effect.## Structure.The bridge is a two-lane toll bridge that carries the Trans-Canada Highway between Borden-Carleton, Prince Edward Island (at Route 1) and Cape Jourimain, New Brunswick (at Route 16).It is a multi-span balanced cantilever bridge with a post-tensioned concrete box girder structure. Most of the curved bridge is 40 (m) above water with a 60 (m) navigation span for.


Question: What country does this place belong to?

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Garni Gorge. The Garni Gorge is situated 23 km east of Yerevan, Armenia, just below the village of the same name. On a promontory above the gorge the first-century AD Temple of Garni may be seen. Along the sides of the gorge are cliff walls of well-preserved basalt columns, carved out by the Goght River. This portion of the Garni Gorge is typically referred to as the "Symphony of the Stones." It is most easily reached via a road that leads left down the gorge just before reaching the temple of Garni. Another road leads to the gorge through the village, down.

Garni Gorge. a cobblestone road, and into the valley. Once in the valley, turning right will lead to Garni Gorge, an 11th-century medieval bridge, and the "Symphony of the Stones". Taking a left will lead along the river past a fish hatchery, up to the Khosrov Forest State Reserve, and a little further Havuts Tar Monastery.Armenian Wiki Encyclopedia on Garni Gorge.


Question: What is the location of this building?

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Hammershus. Hammershus is a medieval era fortification at Hammeren on the northern tip of the Danish island of Bornholm.The fortress was partially demolished around 1750 and is now a ruin. It was partially restored around 1900.## History.Hammershus was Scandinavia's largest medieval fortification and is one of the largest medieval fortifications in Northern Europe. It is situated in the Baltic Sea 74 (m) above sea level. The fortification was erected in the 13th century and consists of the base castle residence and features a grand tower called the "mantel" tower. Hammershus Fortress features a 750 (m) perimeter wall around the castle grounds.During.


Question: Which city or region does this building locate in?

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Corn Palace. The Corn Palace, commonly advertised as The World's Only Corn Palace and the Mitchell Corn Palace, is a multi-purpose arena/facility located in Mitchell, South Dakota, United States. The Moorish Revival building is decorated with crop art; the murals and designs covering the building are made from corn and other grains, and a new design is constructed each year. The Corn Palace is a popular tourist destination, visited by up to 500,000 people each year.The Corn Palace serves the community as a venue for concerts, sports events, exhibits and other community events. Each year, the Corn Palace is celebrated with a.

Corn Palace. Palace in Sioux City, Iowa, that was active from 1887–1891; a Corn Palace in Gregory, South Dakota; a Grain Palace in Plankinton, South Dakota; and a Bluegrass Palace in Creston, Iowa. From 1887 to 1930, at least thirty-four corn palaces were built across the Midwest United States; only the Mitchell Corn Palace has remained intact.The original Mitchell Corn Palace (known as "The Corn Belt Exposition") was built in 1892 to showcase the rich soil of South Dakota and encourage people to settle in the area. It was a wooden castle structure on Mitchell's Main Street, constructed on land donated by.

Corn Palace. Louis Beckwith, a member of the First Corn Palace Committee. In 1904–1905, the city of Mitchell mounted a challenge to the city of Pierre in an unsuccessful attempt to replace it as the state capital of South Dakota. As part of this effort, the Corn Palace was rebuilt in 1905. In 1921, the Corn Palace was rebuilt once again, with a design by the architectural firm Rapp and Rapp of Chicago. Russian-style onion domes and Moorish minarets were added in 1937, giving the Palace the distinctive appearance that it has today.In 2004, national media attention was drawn to the Corn.

Corn Palace. Artists' drawings are transferred to black tar paper labeled with codes corresponding to colors, providing a "corn-by-numbers" pattern showing where each colored cob should be nailed. Corn cobs are split in two lengthwise and nailed to the exterior of the building, using approximately 1.5 million nails and 325,000 ears of corn. Mitchell Chamber of Commerce. "A Year by Year History Of ... The World's Only Corn Palace". 5th ed. Mitchell, SD: Educator Supply Company, 1957. Corn Palace Convention & Visitors Bureau Corn Palace Festival Corn Palace Stampede Rodeo Corn Palace Fan Site Corn Palace Fan Site.


Question: What pattern, design or motif is applied to the surface of this material?

Instruction: Determine the Wikipedia snippet that matches the question of this image.

Gingham. Gingham, also called Vichy check, is a medium-weight balanced plain-woven fabric typically with striped, check or plaid duotone patterns, in bright colour and in white made from dyed cotton or cotton-blend yarns. It is made of carded, medium or fine yarns.## History.The name may originate . Alternatively, it is speculated that the fabric now known as "gingham" may have been made at Guingamp, a town in Brittany, France, and that the fabric may be named after the town. Some sources say that the name came into English via Dutch. When originally imported into Europe in the 17th century, gingham was.

Gingham. a striped fabric, though now it is distinguished by its checkered pattern. From the mid-18th century, when it was being produced in the mills of Manchester, England, it started to be woven into checked or plaid patterns (often blue and white). Checked gingham became more common over time, though striped gingham was still available in the late Victorian period. The equivalent in the French language is the noun "vichy", from the town of Vichy in France. The same word is used in Spain where this pattern is called "cuadro vichy" or "estampado vichy".In the United States, the mass popularity of.


Question: Which city or region does this lake locate in?

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Pfäffikersee. Pfäffikersee (or "Lake Pfäffikon") is a lake in the canton of Zürich, Switzerland, near the town of Pfäffikon. It is 2.5 km long and 1.3 km wide at the middle. The lake was created in the last ice age when a moraine blocked off the ability for the lake to empty north towards Winterthur. There is also a hiking trail around the lake that people often bike and walk on, and the area is considered protected lands, among them the "Robenhauser Ried" and the prehistoric settlement Wetzikon–Robenhausen, discovered and researched by Jakob Messikommer (1828–1917), which became a serial site of.

Pfäffikersee. the UNESCO World Heritage Site "Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps". In Roman era, along "Pfäffikersee" there was a Roman road from the "vicus Centum Prata" (Kempraten) on Obersee–Lake Zürich via "Vitudurum" (Oberwinterthur) to "Tasgetium" (Eschenz) to the Rhine. To secure this important transport route, the Irgenhausen Castrum was built.List of lakes of SwitzerlandWaterlevels of Pfäffikersee at Pfäffikon.


Question: Who is the architect of this facility?

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Battersea Power Station. Battersea Power Station is a decommissioned Grade II* listed coal-fired power station, located on the south bank of the River Thames, in Nine Elms, Battersea, in the London Borough of Wandsworth. It was built by the London Power Company (LPC) to the design of Leonard Pearce, Engineer in Chief to the LPC, and CS Allott & Son Engineers. The architects were J. Theo Halliday and Giles Gilbert Scott. The station is one of the world's largest brick buildings and notable for its original, Art Deco interior fittings and decor.The building comprises two power stations, built in two stages, in a.

Battersea Power Station. The site was chosen for its proximity to the River Thames for cooling water and coal delivery, and because it was in the heart of London, the station's immediate supply area.The proposal sparked protests from those who felt that the building would be too large and would be an eyesore, as well as worries about the pollution damaging local buildings, parks and even paintings in the nearby Tate Gallery. The company addressed the former concern by hiring Sir Giles Gilbert Scott to design the building's exterior. He was a distinguished architect and industrial designer, famous for his designs for the.

Battersea Power Station. Giles Gilbert Scott was involved in the project much later on, consulted to appease public reaction, and referred to in the press as "architect of the exterior". The station was designed in the "brick-cathedral" style of power station design, which was popular at the time. Battersea is one of a very small number of examples of this style of power station design still in existence in the UK, others being Uskmouth and Bankside. The station's design proved popular straightaway, and was described as a "temple of power", which ranked equal with St Paul's Cathedral as a London landmark. In a.