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Pottery. Pottery is the process and the products of forming vessels and other objects with clay and other ceramic materials, which are fired at high temperatures to give them a hard and durable form. Major types include earthenware, stoneware and porcelain. The place where such wares are made by a "potter" is also called a "pottery" (plural "potteries"). The definition of "pottery", used by the ASTM International, is "all fired ceramic wares that contain clay when formed, except technical, structural, and refractory products." In art history and archaeology, especially of ancient and prehistoric periods, "pottery" often means vessels only, and sculpted.

Pottery. figurines of the same material are called "terracottas". Pottery is one of the oldest human inventions, originating before the Neolithic period, with ceramic objects like the Gravettian culture Venus of Dolní Věstonice figurine discovered in the Czech Republic dating back to 29,000–25,000 BC, and pottery vessels that were discovered in Jiangxi, China, which date back to 18,000 BC. Early Neolithic and pre-Neolithic pottery artifacts have been found, in Jōmon Japan (10,500 BC), the Russian Far East (14,000 BC), Sub-Saharan Africa (9,400 BC), South America (9,000s–7,000s BC), and the Middle East (7,000s–6,000s BC).Pottery is made by forming a ceramic (often clay).

Pottery. body into objects of a desired shape and heating them to high temperatures (600–1600 °C) in a bonfire, pit or kiln and induces reactions that lead to permanent changes including increasing the strength and rigidity of the object. Much pottery is purely utilitarian, but some can also be regarded as ceramic art. A clay body can be decorated before or after firing.Clay-based pottery can be divided into three main groups: earthenware, stoneware and porcelain. These require increasingly more specific clay material, and increasingly higher firing temperatures. All three are made in glazed and unglazed varieties, for different purposes. All may.

Pottery. also be decorated by various techniques. In many examples the group a piece belongs to is immediately visually apparent, but this is not always the case. The fritware of the Islamic world does not use clay, so technically falls outside these groups. Historic pottery of all these types is often grouped as either "fine" wares, relatively expensive and well-made, and following the aesthetic taste of the culture concerned, or alternatively "coarse", "popular", "folk" or "village" wares, mostly undecorated, or simply so, and often less well-made.Cooking in clay pots became less popular once metal pots became available, but is still used.

Pottery. for dishes that depend on the qualities of pottery cooking, such as biryani, cassoulet, daube, tagine, jollof rice, kedjenou, cazuela, and baked beans.## Main types.## Earthenware.The earliest forms of pottery were made from clays that were fired at low temperatures, initially in pit-fires or in open bonfires. They were hand formed and undecorated. Earthenware can be fired as low as 600 °C, and is normally fired below 1200 °C. Because unglazed biscuit earthenware is porous, it has limited utility for the storage of liquids or as tableware. However, earthenware has had a continuous history from the Neolithic period to today.

Pottery. It can be made from a wide variety of clays, some of which fire to a buff, brown or black colour, with iron in the constituent minerals resulting in a reddish-brown. Reddish coloured varieties are called terracotta, especially when unglazed or used for sculpture. The development of ceramic glaze made impermeable pottery possible, improving the popularity and practicality of pottery vessels. The addition of decoration has evolved throughout its history.## Stoneware.Stoneware is pottery that has been fired in a kiln at a relatively high temperature, from about 1,100 °C to 1,200 °C, and is stronger and non-porous to liquids. The.

Pottery. as art.## Porcelain.Porcelain is made by heating materials, generally including kaolin, in a kiln to temperatures between 1200 and 1400 (°C). This is higher than used for the other types, and achieving these temperatures was a long struggle, as well as realizing what materials were needed. The toughness, strength and translucence of porcelain, relative to other types of pottery, arises mainly from vitrification and the formation of the mineral mullite within the body at these high temperatures.Although porcelain was first made in China, the Chinese traditionally do not recognise it as a distinct category, grouping it with stoneware as "high-fired.

Pottery. ware, opposed to "low-fired" earthenware. This confuses the issue of when it was first made. A degree of translucency and whiteness was achieved by the Tang dynasty (AD 618–906), and considerable quantities were being exported. The modern level of whiteness was not reached until much later, in the 14th century. Porcelain was also made in Korea and in Japan from the end of the 16th century, after suitable kaolin was located in those countries. It was not made effectively outside East Asia until the 18th century.## Archaeology.The study of pottery can help to provide an insight into past cultures. Fabric.

Pottery. analysis (see section below), used to analyse the "fabric of pottery", is important part of archaeology for understanding the archaeological culture of the excavated site by studying the fabric of artifacts, such as their usage, source material composition, decorative pattern, color of patterns, etc. This helps to understand characteristics, sophistication, habits, technology, tools, trade, etc. of the people who made and used the pottery. Carbon dating reveals the age. Sites with similar pottery characteristics have the same culture, those sites which have distinct cultural characteristics but with some overlap are indicative of cultural exchange such as trade or living in.

Pottery. vicinity or continuity of habitation, etc. Examples are black and red ware, redware, Sothi-Siswal culture and Painted Grey Ware culture. The six fabrics of Kalibangan is a good example of use of fabric analysis in identifying a differentiated culture which was earlier thought to be typical Indus Valley civilisation (IVC) culture.Pottery is durable, and fragments, at least, often survive long after artifacts made from less-durable materials have decayed past recognition. Combined with other evidence, the study of pottery artefacts is helpful in the development of theories on the organisation, economic condition and the cultural development of the societies that produced.

Pottery. or acquired pottery. The study of pottery may also allow inferences to be drawn about a culture's daily life, religion, social relationships, attitudes towards neighbours, attitudes to their own world and even the way the culture understood the universe.Chronologies based on pottery are often essential for dating non-literate cultures and are often of help in the dating of historic cultures as well. Trace-element analysis, mostly by neutron activation, allows the sources of clay to be accurately identified and the thermoluminescence test can be used to provide an estimate of the date of last firing. Examining fired pottery shards from prehistory,.

Pottery. of minerals in a rock. For Archaeologists, the "fabric analysis" of pottery entails the study of "clay matrix" and "inclusions" in the clay body as well as the "firing temperature and conditions". Analysis is done to examine the following 3 in detail: how pottery was made e.g. material, design such as shape and style, etc. its decorations, such as patterns, colors of patterns, slipped (glazing) or unslipped decoration evidence of type of use.The Six fabrics of Kalibangan is a good example of fabric analysis.## Clay bodies and mineral contents.Body (or clay body) is a term for the main pottery form.

Pottery. of these different clays is composed of different types and amounts of minerals that determine the characteristics of resulting pottery. There can be regional variations in the properties of raw materials used for the production of pottery, and these can lead to wares that are unique in character to a locality. It is common for clays and other materials to be mixed to produce clay bodies suited to specific purposes. A common component of clay bodies is the mineral kaolinite. Other minerals in the clay, such as feldspar, act as fluxes which lower the vitrification temperature of bodies. Following is.

Pottery. a list of different types of clay used for pottery. Kaolin, is sometimes referred to as china clay because it was first used in China. Used for porcelain. Ball clay: An extremely plastic, fine grained sedimentary clay, which may contain some organic matter. Small amounts can be added to porcelain bodies to increase plasticity. Fire clay: A clay having a slightly lower percentage of fluxes than kaolin, but usually quite plastic. It is highly heat resistant form of clay which can be combined with other clays to increase the firing temperature and may be used as an ingredient to make.

Pottery. stoneware type bodies. Stoneware clay: Suitable for creating stoneware. Has many of the characteristics between fire clay and ball clay, having finer grain, like ball clay but is more heat resistant like fire clays. Common red clay and shale clay have vegetable and ferric oxide impurities which make them useful for bricks, but are generally unsatisfactory for pottery except under special conditions of a particular deposit. Bentonite: An extremely plastic clay which can be added in small quantities to short clay to increase the plasticity.## Production of pottery.Production of pottery includes the following three stages: making clay body, i.e. paste.

Pottery. or putty. shaping and moulding firing or baking decorating, such as glazing (slipping), painting, etc.## Shaping methods.Pottery can be shaped by a range of methods that include:## Firing.Firing produces irreversible changes in the body. It is only after firing that the article or material is pottery. In lower-fired pottery, the changes include sintering, the fusing together of coarser particles in the body at their points of contact with each other. In the case of porcelain, where different materials and higher firing-temperatures are used, the physical, chemical and mineralogical properties of the constituents in the body are greatly altered. In all.

Pottery. cases, the reason for firing is to permanently harden the wares and the firing regime must be appropriate to the materials used to make them. As a rough guide, modern earthenwares are normally fired at temperatures in the range of about 1,000°C (1,830 °F) to 1,200 (C); stonewares at between about 1100 (C) to 1300 (C); and porcelains at between about 1200 (C) to 1400 (C). Historically, reaching high temperatures was a long-lasting challenge, and earthenware can be fired effectively as low as 600°C, achievable in primitive pit firing.## Firing methods.Firing pottery can be done using a variety of methods,.

Pottery. than a brick or stone kiln. Unfired pots are first brought to the place where a mound will be built, customarily by the women and girls of the village. The mound's foundation is made by placing sticks on the ground, then:## Firing stages.Before being shaped, clay must be prepared. Kneading helps to ensure an even moisture content throughout the body. Air trapped within the clay body needs to be removed. This is called de-airing and can be accomplished either by a machine called a vacuum pug or manually by wedging. Wedging can also help produce an even moisture content. Once.

Pottery. changes that will change the material. "Glaze fired" is the final stage of some pottery making, or "glost fired". A glaze may be applied to the bisque form and the object can be decorated in several ways. After this the object is "glazed fired", which causes the glaze material to melt, then adhere to the object. Depending on the temperature schedule the glaze firing may also further mature the body as chemical and physical changes continue.## Decorating.Pottery may be decorated in many different ways. Some decoration can be done before or after the firing. Painting has been used since early.

Pottery. prehistoric times (China painting), and can be very elaborate. The painting is often applied to pottery that has been fired once, and may then be overlaid with a glaze afterwards. Many pigments change colour when fired, and the painter must allow for this. Glaze: Perhaps the most common form of decoration, that also serves as protection to the pottery, by being tougher and keeping liquid from penetrating the pottery. Glaze may be clear, especially over painting, or coloured and opaque. There is more detail in the section below. Carving: Pottery vessels may be decorated by shallow carving of the clay.

Pottery. body, typically with a knife or similar instrument used on the wheel. This is common in Chinese porcelain of the classic periods. Burnishing: The surface of pottery wares may be "burnished" prior to firing by rubbing with a suitable instrument of wood, steel or stone to produce a polished finish that survives firing. It is possible to produce very highly polished wares when fine clays are used or when the polishing is carried out on wares that have been partially dried and contain little water, though wares in this condition are extremely fragile and the risk of breakage is high.

Pottery. hand or by machine of a band of colour to the edge of a plate or cup. Also known as "lining", this operation is often carried out on a potter's wheel. Agateware is named after its resemblance to the quartz mineral agate which has bands or layers of colour that are blended together, agatewares are made by blending clays of differing colours together but not mixing them to the extent that they lose their individual identities. The wares have a distinctive veined or mottled appearance. The term "agateware" is used to describe such wares in the United Kingdom; in Japan.

Pottery. the term ""neriage" is used and in China, where such things have been made since at least the Tang Dynasty, they are called "marbled" wares. Great care is required in the selection of clays to be used for making agatewares as the clays used must have matching thermal movement characteristics. : This is a clay slip, that is used to coat the surface of pottery, usually before firing. Its purpose is often decorative though it can also be used to mask undesirable features in the clay to which it is applied. Engobe slip may be applied by painting or by.

Pottery. dipping to provide a uniform, smooth, coating. Engobe has been used by potters from pre-historic times until the present day and is sometimes combined with sgraffito decoration, where a layer of engobe is scratched through to reveal the colour of the underlying clay. With care it is possible to apply a second coat of engobe of a different colour to the first and to incise decoration through the second coat to expose the colour of the underlying coat. Engobes used in this way often contain substantial amounts of silica, sometimes approaching the composition of a glaze. Gold: Decoration with gold.

Pottery. used for the decoration only of ware of the highest class. "Bright Gold" – consists of a solution of gold sulphoresinate together with other metal resonates and a flux. The name derives from the appearance of the decoration immediately after removal from the kiln as it requires no burnishing "Mussel Gold" – an old method of gold decoration. It was made by rubbing together gold leaf, sugar and salt, followed by washing to remove solubles## Glazing.Glaze is a glassy coating on pottery, the primary purposes of which are decoration and protection. One important use of glaze is to render porous.

Pottery. pottery vessels impermeable to water and other liquids. Glaze may be applied by dusting the unfired composition over the ware or by spraying, dipping, trailing or brushing on a thin slurry composed of the unfired glaze and water. The colour of a glaze after it has been fired may be significantly different from before firing. To prevent glazed wares sticking to kiln furniture during firing, either a small part of the object being fired (for example, the foot) is left unglazed or, alternatively, special refractory "spurs"" are used as supports. These are removed and discarded after the firing.Some specialised glazing.

Pottery. techniques include: Salt-glazing, where common salt is introduced to the kiln during the firing process. The high temperatures cause the salt to volatize, depositing it on the surface of the ware to react with the body to form a sodium aluminosilicate glaze. In the 17th and 18th centuries, salt-glazing was used in the manufacture of domestic pottery. Now, except for use by some studio potters, the process is obsolete. The last large-scale application before its demise in the face of environmental clean air restrictions was in the production of salt-glazed sewer-pipes. Ash glazing – ash from the combustion of plant.

Pottery. matter has been used as the flux component of glazes. The source of the ash was generally the combustion waste from the fuelling of kilns although the potential of ash derived from arable crop wastes has been investigated. Ash glazes are of historical interest in the Far East although there are reports of small-scale use in other locations such as the Catawba Valley Pottery in the United States. They are now limited to small numbers of studio potters who value the unpredictability arising from the variable nature of the raw material. Underglaze decoration (in the manner of many blue and.

Pottery. white wares). Underglaze may be applied by brush strokes, air brush, or by pouring the underglaze into the mould, covering the inside, creating a swirling effect, then the mould is filled with slip. In-glaze decoration On-glaze decoration Enamel## History.A great part of the history of pottery is prehistoric, part of past pre-literate cultures. Therefore, much of this history can only be found among the artifacts of archaeology. Because pottery is so durable, pottery and shards of pottery survive from millennia at archaeological sites, and are typically the most common and important type of artifact to survive. Many prehistoric cultures are.

Pottery. named after the pottery that is the easiest way to identify their sites, and archaeologists develop the ability to recognise different types from the chemistry of small shards.Before pottery becomes part of a culture, several conditions must generally be met. First, there must be usable clay available. Archaeological sites where the earliest pottery was found were near deposits of readily available clay that could be properly shaped and fired. China has large deposits of a variety of clays, which gave them an advantage in early development of fine pottery. Many countries have large deposits of a variety of clays. Second,.

Pottery. it must be possible to heat the pottery to temperatures that will achieve the transformation from raw clay to ceramic. Methods to reliably create fires hot enough to fire pottery did not develop until late in the development of cultures. Third, the potter must have time available to prepare, shape and fire the clay into pottery. Even after control of fire was achieved, humans did not seem to develop pottery until a sedentary life was achieved. It has been hypothesized that pottery was developed only after humans established agriculture, which led to permanent settlements. However, the oldest known pottery is.

Pottery. from the Czech Republic and dates to 28,000 BC, at the height of the ice age, long before the beginnings of agriculture. Fourth, there must be a sufficient need for pottery in order to justify the resources required for its production. Methods of forming: Hand-shaping was the earliest method used to form vessels. This included the combination of pinching and coiling. Firing: The earliest method for firing pottery wares was the use of bonfires pit fired pottery. Firing times might be short but the peak-temperatures achieved in the fire could be high, perhaps in the region of 900 (°C), and.

Pottery. were reached very quickly. Clay: Early potters used whatever clay was available to them in their geographic vicinity. However, the lowest quality common red clay was adequate for low-temperature fires used for the earliest pots. Clays tempered with sand, grit, crushed shell or crushed pottery were often used to make bonfire-fired ceramics because they provided an open-body texture that allowed water and volatile components of the clay to escape freely. The coarser particles in the clay also acted to restrain shrinkage during drying, and hence reduce the risk of cracking. Form: In the main, early bonfire-fired wares were made with.

Pottery. rounded bottoms to avoid sharp angles that might be susceptible to cracking. Glazing: the earliest pots were not glazed. The potter's wheel was invented in Mesopotamia sometime between 6,000 and 4,000 BC (Ubaid period) and revolutionised pottery production. Moulds were used to a limited extent as early as the 5th and 6th century BC by the Etruscans and more extensively by the Romans. Slipcasting, a popular method for shaping irregular shaped articles. It was first practised, to a limited extent, in China as early as the Tang dynasty. Transition to kilns: The earliest intentionally constructed were pit-kilns or trench-kilns—holes dug.

Pottery. in the ground and covered with fuel. Holes in the ground provided insulation and resulted in better control over firing. Kilns: Pit fire methods were adequate for creating simple earthenware, but other pottery types needed more sophisticated kilns (see below kilns).## History by region.## Beginnings of pottery.Pottery may well have been discovered independently in various places, probably by accidentally creating it at the bottom of fires on a clay soil. All the earliest vessel forms were pit fired and made by coiling, which is a simple technology to learn. The earliest-known ceramic objects are Gravettian figurines such as those discovered.

Pottery. at Dolní Věstonice in the modern-day Czech Republic. The Venus of Dolní Věstonice is a Venus figurine, a statuette of a nude female figure dated to 29,000–25,000 BC (Gravettian industry). Sherds have been found in China and Japan from a period between 12,000 and perhaps as long as 18,000 years ago. As of 2012, the earliest pottery found anywhere in the world, dating to 20,000 to 19,000 years before the present, was found at Xianrendong Cave in the Jiangxi province of China.Other early pottery vessels include those excavated from the Yuchanyan Cave in southern China, dated from 16,000 BC, and.

Pottery. those found in the Amur River basin in the Russian Far East, dated from 14,000 BC.The Odai Yamamoto I site, belonging to the Jōmon period, currently has the oldest pottery in Japan. Excavations in 1998 uncovered earthenware fragments which have been dated as early as 14,500 BC.The term "Jōmon" means "cord-marked" in Japanese. This refers to the markings made on the vessels and figures using sticks with cords during their production. Recent research has elucidated how Jōmon pottery was used by its creators.It appears that pottery was independently developed in Sub-Saharan Africa during the 10th millennium BC, with findings dating.

Pottery. to at least 9,400 BC from central Mali, and in South America during the 9,000s–7,000s BC. The Malian finds date to the same period as similar finds from East Asia – the triangle between Siberia, China and Japan – and are associated in both regions to the same climatic changes (at the end of the ice age new grassland develops, enabling hunter-gatherers to expand their habitat), met independently by both cultures with similar developments: the creation of pottery for the storage of wild cereals (pearl millet), and that of small arrowheads for hunting small game typical of grassland. Alternatively, the.

Pottery. creation of pottery in the case of the Incipient Jōmon civilisation could be due to the intensive exploitation of freshwater and marine organisms by late glacial foragers, who started developing ceramic containers for their catch.## East Asia.In Japan, the Jōmon period has a long history of development of Jōmon pottery which was characterized by impressions of rope on the surface of the pottery created by pressing rope into the clay before firing. Glazed Stoneware was being created as early as the 15th century BC in China. A form of Chinese porcelain became a significant Chinese export from the Tang Dynasty.

Pottery. (AD 618–906) onwards. Korean potters adopted porcelain as early as the 14th century AD. Japanese porcelain was made in the early 16th century after Shonzui Goradoyu-go brought back the secret of its manufacture from the Chinese kilns at Jingdezhen.In contrast to Europe, the Chinese elite used pottery extensively at table, for religious purposes, and for decoration, and the standards of fine pottery were very high. From the Song dynasty (960–1279) for several centuries elite taste favoured plain-coloured and exquisitely formed pieces; during this period true porcelain was perfected in Ding ware, although it was the only one of the Five.

Pottery. had also conquered. At the same time Jingdezhen porcelain, produced in Imperial factories, took the undisputed leading role in production, which it has retained to the present day. The new elaborately painted style was now favoured at court, and gradually more colours were added.The secret of making such porcelain was sought in the Islamic world and later in Europe when examples were imported from the East. Many attempts were made to imitate it in Italy and France. However it was not produced outside of the Orient until 1709 in Germany.## South Asia.Cord-Impressed style pottery belongs to 'Mesolithic' ceramic tradition that.

Pottery. developed among Vindhya hunter-gatherers in Central India during the Mesolithic period. This ceramic style is also found in later Proto-Neolithic phase in nearby regions. This early type of pottery, also found at the site of Lahuradewa, is currently the oldest known pottery tradition in South Asia, dating back to 7,000–6,000 BC. Wheel-made pottery began to be made during the Mehrgarh Period II (5,500–4,800 BC) and Merhgarh Period III (4,800–3,500 BC), known as the ceramic Neolithic and chalcolithic. Pottery, including items known as the ed-Dur vessels, originated in regions of the Saraswati River / Indus River and have been found in.

Pottery. a number of sites in the Indus Civilization.Despite an extensive prehistoric record of pottery, including painted wares, little "fine" or luxury pottery was made in the subcontinent in historic times. Hinduism discourages eating off pottery, which probably largely accounts for this. Most traditional Indian pottery vessels are large pots or jars for storage, or small cups or lamps, often treated as disposable. In contrast there are long traditions of sculpted figures, often rather large, in terracotta.## Southeast Asia.Pottery in Southeast Asia is as diverse as its ethnic groups. Each ethnic group has their own set of standards when it comes.

Pottery. to pottery arts. Potteries are made due to various reasons, such as trade, food and beverage storage, kitchen usage, religious ceremonies, and burial purposes.## West Asia.Around 8000 BC during the Pre-pottery Neolithic period, and before the invention of pottery, several early settlements became experts in crafting beautiful and highly sophisticated containers from stone, using materials such as alabaster or granite, and employing sand to shape and polish. Artisans used the veins in the material to maximum visual effect. Such objects have been found in abundance on the upper Euphrates river, in what is today eastern Syria, especially at the site.

Pottery. of Bouqras.The earliest history of pottery production in the Fertile Crescent starts the Pottery Neolithic and can be divided into four periods, namely: the Hassuna period (7000–6500 BC), the Halaf period (6500–5500 BC), the Ubaid period (5500–4000 BC), and the Uruk period (4000–3100 BC). By about 5000 BC pottery-making was becoming widespread across the region, and spreading out from it to neighbouring areas.Pottery making began in the 7th millennium BC. The earliest forms, which were found at the Hassuna site, were hand formed from slabs, undecorated, unglazed low-fired pots made from reddish-brown clays. Within the next millennium, wares were decorated.

Pottery. with elaborate painted designs and natural forms, incising and burnished.The invention of the potter's wheel in Mesopotamia sometime between 6000 and 4000 BC (Ubaid period) revolutionized pottery production. Newer kiln designs could fire wares to 1050 (C) to 1200 (C) which enabled new possibilities and new preparation of clays. Production was now carried out by small groups of potters for small cities, rather than individuals making wares for a family. The shapes and range of uses for ceramics and pottery expanded beyond simple vessels to store and carry to specialized cooking utensils, pot stands and rat traps. As the region.

Pottery. developed, new organizations and political forms, pottery became more elaborate and varied. Some wares were made using moulds, allowing for increased production for the needs of the growing populations. Glazing was commonly used and pottery was more decorated.In the Chalcolithic period in Mesopotamia, Halafian pottery achieved a level of technical competence and sophistication, not seen until the later developments of Greek pottery with Corinthian and Attic ware.## Europe.Europe's oldest pottery, dating from circa 6700 BC, was found on the banks of the Samara River in the middle Volga region of Russia. These sites are known as the Yelshanka culture.The early.

Pottery. inhabitants of Europe developed pottery in the Linear Pottery culture slightly later than the Near East, circa 5500–4500 BC. In the ancient Western Mediterranean elaborately painted earthenware reached very high levels of artistic achievement in the Greek world; there are large numbers of survivals from tombs. Minoan pottery was characterized by complex painted decoration with natural themes. The classical Greek culture began to emerge around 1000 BC featuring a variety of well crafted pottery which now included the human form as a decorating motif. The pottery wheel was now in regular use. Although glazing was known to these potters, it.

Pottery. was not widely used. Instead, a more porous clay slip was used for decoration. A wide range of shapes for different uses developed early and remained essentially unchanged during Greek history.Fine Etruscan pottery was heavily influenced by Greek pottery and often imported Greek potters and painters. Ancient Roman pottery made much less use of painting, but used moulded decoration, allowing industrialized production on a huge scale. Much of the so-called red Samian ware of the Early Roman Empire was in fact produced in modern Germany and France, where entrepreneurs established large potteries. Excavations at Augusta Raurica, near Basel, Switzerland, have.

Pottery. revealed a pottery production site in use from the 1st to the 4th century AD. Pottery was hardly seen on the tables of elites from Hellenistic times until the Renaissance, and most medieval wares were coarse and utilitarian, as the elites ate off metal vessels. Painted Hispano-Moresque ware from Spain, developing the styles of Islamic Spain, became a luxury for late medieval elites, and was adapted in Italy into "maiolica" in the Italian Renaissance. Both of these were faience or tin-glazed earthenware, and fine faience continued to be made until around 1800 in various countries, especially France, with Nevers faience.

Pottery. and several other centres. In the 17th century, imports of Chinese export porcelain and its Japanese equivalent raised the market expectations of fine pottery, and European manufacturers eventually learned to make porcelain, often in the form of "artificial" or soft-paste porcelain, and from the 18th century European porcelain and other wares from a great number of producers became extremely popular, reducing Asian imports.## United Kingdom.The English city of Stoke-on-Trent is widely known as "The Potteries" because of the large number of pottery factories or, colloquially, "Pot Banks". It was one of the first industrial cities of the modern era where,.

Pottery. as early as 1785, two hundred pottery manufacturers employed 20,000 workers. Josiah Wedgwood (1730–1795) was the dominant leader.In North Staffordshire hundreds of companies produced all kinds of pottery, from tablewares and decorative pieces to industrial items. The main pottery types of earthenware, stoneware and porcelain were all made in large quantities, and the Staffordshire industry was a major innovator in developing new varieties of ceramic bodies such as bone china and jasperware, as well as pioneering transfer printing and other glazing and decorating techniques. In general Staffordshire was strongest in the middle and low price ranges, though the finest and.

Pottery. most expensive types of wares were also made.By the late 18th century North Staffordshire was the largest producer of ceramics in Britain, despite significant centres elsewhere. Large export markets took Staffordshire pottery around the world, especially in the 19th century. Production had begun to decline in the late 19th century, as other countries developed their industries, and declined steeply after World War II. Some production continues in the area, but at a fraction of the levels at the peak of the industry.## Islamic pottery.Early Islamic pottery followed the forms of the regions which the Muslims conquered. Eventually, however, there was.

Pottery. cross-fertilization between the regions. This was most notable in the Chinese influences on Islamic pottery. Trade between China and Islam took place via the system of trading posts over the lengthy Silk Road. Islamic nations imported stoneware and later porcelain from China. China imported the minerals for Cobalt blue from the Islamic ruled Persia to decorate their blue and white porcelain, which they then exported to the Islamic world.Likewise, Islamic art contributed to a lasting pottery form identified as Hispano-Moresque in Andalucia (Islamic Spain). Unique Islamic forms were also developed, including fritware, lusterware and specialized glazes like tin-glazing, which led.

Pottery. to the development of the popular maiolica.One major emphasis in ceramic development in the Muslim world was the use of tile and decorative tilework.## Americas.Most evidence points to an independent development of pottery in the Native American cultures, with the earliest known dates from Brazil, from 9,500 to 5,000 years ago and 7,000 to 6,000 years ago. Further north in Mesoamerica, dates begin with the Archaic Era (3500–2000 BC), and into the Formative period (2000 BC – AD 200). These cultures did not develop the stoneware, porcelain or glazes found in the Old World. Maya ceramics include finely painted vessels,.

Pottery. usually beakers, with elaborate scenes with several figures and texts. Several cultures, beginning with the Olmec, made terracotta sculpture, and sculptural pieces of humans or animals that are also vessels are produced in many places, with Moche portrait vessels among the finest.## Africa.Evidence indicates an independent invention of pottery in Sub-Saharan Africa. In 2007, Swiss archaeologists discovered pieces of some of the oldest pottery in Africa at Ounjougou in Central Mali, dating back to at least 9,400 BC. Excavations in the Bosumpra Cave on the Kwahu Plateau in southeastern Ghana, have revealed well-manufactured pottery decorated with channelling and impressed peigne.

Pottery. fileté rigide dating from the early tenth-millennium cal. BC. In later periods, a relationship of the introduction of pot-making in some parts of Sub-Saharan Africa with the spread of Bantu languages has been long recognized, although the details remain controversial and awaiting further research, and no consensus has been reached.Ancient Egyptian pottery begins after 5,000 BC, having spread from the Levant. There were many distinct phases of development in pottery, with very sophisticated wares being produced by the Naqada III period, c. 3,200 to 3,000 BC. During the early Mediterranean civilizations of the fertile crescent, Egypt developed a non-clay-based ceramic.

Pottery. which has come to be called Egyptian faience. A similar type of body is still made in Jaipur in India. During the Umayyad Caliphate of Islam, Egypt was a link between early centre of Islam in the Near East and Iberia which led to the impressive style of pottery.It is valuable to look into pottery as an archaeological record of potential interaction between peoples. When pottery is placed within the context of linguistic and migratory patterns, it becomes an even more prevalent category of social artifact. As proposed by Olivier P. Gosselain, it is possible to understand ranges of cross-cultural.

Pottery. interaction by looking closely at the "chaîne opératoire" of ceramic production.The methods used to produce pottery in early Sub-Saharan Africa are divisible into three categories: techniques visible to the eye (decoration, firing and post-firing techniques), techniques related to the materials (selection or processing of clay, etc.), and techniques of molding or fashioning the clay. These three categories can be used to consider the implications of the reoccurrence of a particular sort of pottery in different areas. Generally, the techniques that are easily visible (the first category of those mentioned above) are thus readily imitated, and may indicate a more distant.

Pottery. connection between groups, such as trade in the same market or even relatively close proximity in settlements. Techniques that require more studied replication (i.e., the selection of clay and the fashioning of clay) may indicate a closer connection between peoples, as these methods are usually only transmissible between potters and those otherwise directly involved in production. Such a relationship requires the ability of the involved parties to communicate effectively, implying pre-existing norms of contact or a shared language between the two. Thus, the patterns of technical diffusion in pot-making that are visible via archaeological findings also reveal patterns in societal.

Pottery. interaction.## Oceania.Polynesia, Melanesia and MicronesiaPottery has been found in archaeological sites across the islands of Oceania. It is attributed to an ancient archaeological culture called the Lapita. Another form of pottery called Plainware is found throughout sites of Oceania. The relationship between Lapita pottery and Plainware is not altogether clear.The Indigenous Australians never developed pottery. After Europeans came to Australia and settled, they found deposits of clay which were analysed by English potters as excellent for making pottery. Less than 20 years later, Europeans came to Australia and began creating pottery. Since then, ceramic manufacturing, mass-produced pottery and studio pottery.

Pottery. have flourished in Australia.## Production issues (health and environment).Although many of the environmental effects of pottery production have existed for millennia, some of these have been amplified with modern technology and scales of production. The principal factors for consideration fall into two categories: (a) effects on workers, and (b) effects on the general environment.The chief risks on worker health include heavy metal poisoning, poor indoor air quality, dangerous sound levels and possible over-illumination.Historically, "plumbism" (lead poisoning) was a significant health concern to those glazing pottery. This was recognised at least as early as the nineteenth century, and the first legislation.

Pottery. in the United Kingdom to limit pottery workers' exposure was introduced in 1899.Proper ventilation to guarantee adequate indoor air quality can reduce or eliminate workers' exposure to fine particulate matter, carbon monoxide, certain heavy metals, and crystalline silica (which can lead to silicosis). A more recent study at Laney College, Oakland, California suggests that all these factors can be controlled in a well-designed workshop environment.The primary environmental concerns include off-site water pollution, air pollution, disposal of hazardous materials, and fuel consumption. Glossary of pottery terms American art pottery Celadon Ceramics of indigenous peoples of the Americas Chinese ceramics including porcelain.

Pottery. Delftware Dipped ware Faience History of ceramic art Ironstone ware Jasperware Korean ceramics Kakiemon pottery Latvian pottery Latgalian pottery Maiolica of Renaissance Italy Majolica Palissy ware Persian pottery Sancai Sea pottery Slipware SylvaC Victorian majolica Cooper, Emmanuel, "10,000 Years of Pottery", 4th ed., 2010, University of Pennsylvania Press, Savage, George, "Pottery Through the Ages", Penguin, 1959, ASTM Standard C 242-01 "Standard Terminology of Ceramic Whitewares and Related Products" Ashmore, Wendy & Sharer, Robert J., (2000). "Discovering Our Past: A Brief Introduction to Archaeology Third Edition". Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company. Barnett, William & Hoopes, John (Eds.) (1995). "The Emergence.


Question: Which location has this plant invaded?

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Pontederia crassipes. of water that have already been affected by human activities, such as artificial reservoirs or eutrophied lakes that receive large amounts of nutrients. It outcompetes native aquatic plants, both floating and submerged. In 2011, Wu Fuqin et al. tracked the results of Yunnan Dianchi Lake and also showed that water hyacinth could affect the photosynthesis of phytoplankton, submerged plants and algae by water environment quality and inhibit its growth. The decay process depletes dissolved oxygen in the water, often killing fish.Water hyacinth can absorb a large amount of harmful heavy metals and other substances. After death, it will rot and.

Pontederia crassipes. tons of fresh biomass would require 75 trucks with a capacity of 40m^3, per day, for 365 days to get rid of a million tons of water hyacinth. The water hyacinth would then be transferred to a dumping site and allowed to decompose which releases CO2, CH4 and nitrogen oxides which would all negatively impact the air quality and contribute to global warming.Water hyacinth has been widely introduced in North America, Europe, Asia, Australia, Africa, and New Zealand. In many areas, it has become an important and pernicious invasive species. In New Zealand, it is listed on the National Pest.

Pontederia crassipes. and the "Japanese staff imported from Venezuela considerable numbers of water hyacinth, which were given away as souvenirs". The claim has been repeated by later writers, with various shifts in the details. Thus NAS fellow Noel D. Vietmeyer (1975) wrote that "Japanese entrepreneurs" introduced the plant into the U.S., and the plants had been "collected from the Orinoco River in Venezuela", and the claim was echoed along the same gist by a pair of NASA researchers (), who asserted that the souvenir plants were carelessly dumped in various waterways. Canadian biologist Spencer C. H. Barrett (2004) meanwhile favored the theory.

Pontederia crassipes. they were first cultivated in garden ponds, after which they multiplied and escaped to the environs. The account gains a different detail as told by children's story-teller Carole Marsh (1992), who says "Japan gave away water hyacinth seeds" during the exposition, and another Southern raconteur, Gaspar J. "Buddy" Stall (1998) assured his readership that the Japanese gave each family a package of those seeds.One paper has also inquired into the role which catalog sales of seeds and plants may have played in the dissemination of invasive plants. It has been found that "P. crassipes" was offered in the 1884 issue.

Pontederia crassipes. Corps of Engineers) tested various means of eradicating the plants, including the jet-streaming of steam and hot water, application of various strong acids, and application of petroleum followed by incineration. Spraying with saturated salt solution (but not dilute solutions) effectively killed the plants; unfortunately this was considered prohibitively expensive, and the engineers selected Harvesta brand herbicide, whose active ingredient was arsenic acid, as the optimal cost-effective tool for eradication. This herbicide was used until 1905, when it was substituted with a different, white arsenic based compound. An engineer charged with the spraying did not think the poison to be a.

Pontederia crassipes. sheep, lambs, were native to the U.S.; all had been imported by European settlers centuries before, so why should Americans hesitate to introduce hippopotamus and other large animals into the American diet? Duquesne, who was born and raised in South Africa, further noted that European settlers on that continent commonly included hippopotamus, ostrich, antelope, and other African wildlife in their diets and suffered no ill effects. The American Hippo bill nearly passed, but fell one vote short.Water hyacinths have also been introduced into waters inhabited by manatees in Florida, for the purpose of bioremediation (cf. §Phytoremediation below) of the waters.

Pontederia crassipes. development of China's inland industry, the eutrophication of inland waters has intensified. With the help of its efficient asexual reproduction and environmental adaptation mechanisms, water hyacinth has begun to spread widely in the river basin. The hyacinths blocked the river and hindered the internal water traffic. For example, many waterways in Zhejiang and other provinces were blocked by the rapidly growing water hyacinth. In addition, a large number of water hyacinths floating in the water will block sunlight from entering the water, and its decay consumes a lot of dissolved oxygen in the water, pollutes the water quality, and can.

Pontederia crassipes. kill other aquatic plants. The outbreak of water hyacinth has seriously affected the biodiversity of the local ecosystem and threatened the production, life and health of community residents.In Iraq, water hyacinth which was imported in the 1990s as a decorative plant, caused major problems for water supply systems and fishermen at the Euphrates.## Europe.In 2016, the European Union banned any sales of the water hyacinth in the EU. The species features on the list of Invasive Alien Species of Union Concern. This means that not only the sales but also importation, cultivation, or intentional release into the environment are forbidden.

Pontederia crassipes. in the whole of the European Union.## Oceania.In Papua New Guinea, water hyacinth blocked sunlight to other aquatic organisms, created habitat for malaria-carrying mosquitoes, clogged waterways to the point that boats could not get through and reduced the quality of water for purposes such as cooking, washing and drinking. People have lost income or even died due to being unable to travel to get food or medical care, or due to diseases from contaminated water or mosquitoes.## Control.Control depends on the specific conditions of each affected location such as the extent of water hyacinth infestation, regional climate, and proximity to.

Pontederia crassipes. root zones are superb micro-sites for bacterial communities.Water hyacinth is a common fodder plant in the third world especially Africa though excessive use can be toxic. It is high in protein (nitrogen) and trace minerals and the goat feces are a good source of fertilizer as well.Water hyacinth is reported for its efficiency to remove about 60–80% nitrogen and about 69% of potassium from water. The roots of water hyacinth were found to remove particulate matter and nitrogen in a natural shallow eutrophicated wetland.The plant is extremely tolerant of, and has a high capacity for, the uptake of heavy metals,.

Pontederia crassipes. portion of cultivable land goes under water for months during monsoon in this low-lying region, farmers have grown this method for many decades now. The method of this agriculture is known by many names including "dhap chash" and "vasoman chash".In Kenya, East Africa, it has been used experimentally as organic fertilizer, although there is controversy stemming from the high alkaline pH value of the fertilizer.## Other uses.In various places in the world, the plant is used for making furniture, handbags, baskets, rope, and household goods/interior products (lampshades, picture frames) by businesses launched by NGOs and entrepreneurs.## Woven products.American-Nigerian Achenyo Idachaba.


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Abelia. Taxonomy.The generic name commemorates Clarke Abel, a keen naturalist who accompanied Lord Amherst's unsuccessful embassy to China in 1816 as a surgeon, under the sponsorship of Sir Joseph Banks. All of Abel's seeds and plants were lost in a shipwreck on the homeward voyage, however; living plants of "Abelia chinensis" (now "Linnaea chinensis") were first imported to England in 1844 by Robert Fortune.Some species placed in "Abelia" were transferred to "Linnaea" at various times from 1872 onwards, but these transfers were not accepted by most botanists. Molecular phylogenetic studies showed that a number of genera traditionally placed in the tribe.


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Wallace Monument. architect John Thomas Rochead at a cost of £18,000, the monument is a 67 (m) sandstone tower, built in the Victorian Gothic style.The tower stands on the Abbey Craig, a volcanic crag above Cambuskenneth Abbey, from which Wallace was said to have watched the gathering of the army of King Edward I of England just before the Battle of Stirling Bridge in 1297. The monument is open to the general public. Visitors climb the 246-step spiral staircase to the viewing gallery inside the monument's crown, which provides expansive views of the Ochil Hills and the Forth Valley.A number of artifacts.


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Franz Joseph Bridge. Franz Joseph Bridge (), later renamed Štefanik Bridge (), was a suspension bridge over the Vltava in Prague, opened in 1868.The bridge was designed by the English engineer Rowland Mason Ordish. The design, which used the Ordish–Lefeuvre system, was originally created for the Albert Bridge over the River Thames in London. However, after construction of the Albert Bridge was delayed, Ordish decided to build a bridge in Prague first. The foundation stone was laid on 19 October 1865, and engineer František Schön was charged with supervising the construction work. Emperor Franz Joseph, after whom the bridge was named, attended the.


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Buddleja davidii. Buddleja davidii (spelling variant "Buddleia davidii"), also called summer lilac, butterfly-bush, or orange eye, is a species of flowering plant in the family Scrophulariaceae, native to Sichuan and Hubei provinces in central China, and also Japan. It is widely used as an ornamental plant, and many named varieties are in cultivation. The genus was named "Buddleja" after Reverend Adam Buddle, an English botanist. The species name "davidii" honors the French missionary and explorer in China, Father Armand David, who was the first European to report the shrub. It was found near Ichang by Dr Augustine Henry about 1887 and sent.

Buddleja davidii. to St Petersburg. Another botanist-missionary in China, Jean-André Soulié, sent seed to the French nursery Vilmorin, and "B. davidii" entered commerce in the 1890s."B. davidii" was accorded the RHS Award of Merit (AM) in 1898, and the Award of Garden Merit (AGM) in 1941.## Description."Buddleja davidii" is a vigorous shrub with an arching habit, growing to 5 (m) in height. The pale brown bark becomes deeply fissured with age. The branches are quadrangular in section, the younger shoots covered in a dense indumentum. The opposite lanceolate leaves are 7 - 13 (cm) long, tomentose beneath when young. The honey-scented lilac.

Buddleja davidii. to purple inflorescences are terminal panicles, < 20 (cm) long. Flowers are perfect (having both male and female parts), hence are hermaphrodite rather than monoecious (separate male and female flowers on the same plant) as is often incorrectly stated. Ploidy 2"n" = 76 (tetraploid).## "Buddleja davidii", after Leeuwenberg.In his 1979 revision of the taxonomy of the African and Asiatic species of "Buddleja", the Dutch botanist Anthonius Leeuwenberg sank the six varieties of the species as synonyms of the type, considering them to be within the natural variation of a species, and unworthy of varietal recognition. It was Leeuwenberg's taxonomy which.

Buddleja davidii. was adopted in the "Flora of China" published in 1996. However, as the distinctions of the former varieties are still widely recognized in horticulture, they are treated separately here: ## Cultivation."Buddleja davidii" cultivars are much appreciated worldwide as ornamentals and for the value of their flowers as a nectar source for many species of butterfly. However, the plant does not provide food for butterfly larvae, and buddlejas might out-compete the host plants that caterpillars require.The species and its cultivars are not able to survive the harsh winters of northern or montane climates, being killed by temperatures below about -15 to.

Buddleja davidii. -20 (C).Younger wood is more floriferous, so even if frosts do not kill the previous year's growth, the shrub is usually hard-pruned in spring once frosts have finished, to encourage new growth. The removal of spent flower panicles may be undertaken to reduce the nuisance of self-seeding and encourage further flower production; this extends the flowering season which is otherwise limited to about six weeks, although the flowers of the second and third flushes are invariably smaller.Hardiness: USDA zones 5–9.There are approximately 180 "davidii" cultivars, as well as numerous hybrids with "B. globosa" and "B. fallowiana" grown in gardens. Many.

Buddleja davidii. cultivars are of a dwarf habit, growing to no more than 1.5 (m). A plant-evaluation manager at the Chicago Botanic Garden in Glencoe, Illinois (USDA Hardiness zone 5b) rated nearly 50 "Buddlejia" varieties and cultivars during a six-year trial period, summarizing in 2015 the charactistics of each and the study's findings. University studies have suggested that nectaring butterflies have greater preferences for some "Buddleja" cultivators than for others, with Lo & Behold 'Blue Chip' and 'Pink Delight' heading a list of eleven. Other notable cultivars and hybrids include 'Golden Glow' and 'Silver Frost'. ## Invasive species."Buddleja davidii" has been designated.

Buddleja davidii. as an invasive species or a "noxious weed" in a number of countries in temperate regions, including the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland and New Zealand. It is naturalized in Australia and in many cities of central and southern Europe, where it can spread on open lands and in gardens. "B. davidii" was first documented as an invasive species in the United Kingdom during 1922. It is now often seen there along railway lines and on the sites of derelict factories and other buildings. The plant frequently grew on urban bomb sites during the aftermath of World War II,.

Buddleja davidii. earning it the nickname of "the bomb site plant"."B. davidii" is widely marketed throughout the United States, where it has reportedly become invasive in some, but not all, areas within which it has been planted. Although its flowers feed many native butterflies and other pollinators, plantings of the species are now controversial. To prevent seeding and to promote further flowering, its blossoms need to be removed ("deadheaded") as soon as they are spent. A number of "Buddleja" cultivars have become available that have a variety of sizes and blossom colors and that are either sterile or produce less than 2%.

Buddleja davidii. viable seed. The northwestern U.S. state of Oregon, which designated "B. davidii" as a "noxious weed" and initially prohibited entry, transport, purchase, sale or propagation of all of its varieties, amended its quarantine in 2009 to permit those cultivars when approved or when proven to be interspecific hybrids. The adjacent state of Washington has taken actions that are similar to those of Oregon to bring parity to nursery sales between the two states. "Monarch Watch" recommends planting only male-sterile "Flutterby" cultivars.## Non-invasive Buddleja cultivars.Vendors have marketed the following "non-invasive" "Buddleja" cultivars:Flutterby Petite® Blue HeavenLo & Behold® ‘Blue Chip’Lo & Behold®.

Buddleja davidii. 'Blue Chip Jr.'Lo & Behold® ‘Ice Chip’ (formerly ‘White Icing’)Lo & Behold® ‘Lilac Chip’Lo & Behold® 'Pink Micro Chip'Lo & Behold® ‘Purple Haze’ ('Purple Chip')‘Miss Molly’ ('Red Chip')‘Miss Ruby’ — for "Buddleja davidii" cultivars.Van Laere K (2008) Interspecific hybridisation in woody ornamentals. PhD. Thesis, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent UniversityFranchet, M.A. (1887). "Plantae Davidianae ex sinarum imperio", part 2 "Plantes du Thibet Oriental (Province de Moupine)". (Nouvelles Archives du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle Paris), ser. 2, 10: 33-198.Li, P. T. & Leeuwenberg, A. J. M. (1996). Loganiaceae, in Wu, Z. & Raven, P. (eds) "Flora of China", Vol. 15. Science Press,.

Buddleja davidii. Beijing, and Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis, USA. online at www.efloras.orgFloridata: "Buddleja davidii"BBC Gardening: "Buddleja davidii"Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER): "Buddleja davidii"USDA PLANTS Profile: "Buddleja davidii"RHS Buddleja Trials Report.


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Thermostat. a mercury thermostat to regulate the temperature of a chicken incubator. This is one of the first recorded feedback-controlled devices.Modern thermostat control was developed in the 1830s by Andrew Ure (1778–1857), a Scottish chemist, who invented the bi-metallic thermostat. The textile mills of the time needed a constant and steady temperature to operate optimally, so to achieve this Ure designed the bimetallic thermostat, which would bend as one of the metals expanded in response to the increased temperature and cut off the energy supply.Warren S. Johnson (1847–1911) of Wisconsin patented a bi-metal room thermostat in 1883, and two years later.

Thermostat. a heating or cooling system via a series of air-filled control tubes. This "control air" system responds to the pressure changes (due to temperature) in the control tube to activate heating or cooling when required. The control air typically is maintained on "mains" at 15-18 psi (although usually operable up to 20 psi). Pneumatic thermostats typically provide output/ branch/ post-restrictor (for single-pipe operation) pressures of 3-15 psi which is piped to the end device (valve/ damper actuator/ pneumatic-electric switch, etc.).The pneumatic thermostat was invented by Warren Johnson in 1895 soon after he invented the electric thermostat. In 2009, Harry Sim.


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Wild boar. the tiger and Komodo dragon respectively. The wild boar has a long history of association with humans, having been the ancestor of most domestic pig breeds and a big-game animal for millennia. Boars have also re-hybridized in recent decades with feral pigs; these boar–pig hybrids have become a serious pest wild animal in the Americas and Australia.## Terminology.As true wild boars became extinct in Great Britain before the development of Modern English, the same terms are often used for both true wild boar and pigs, especially large or semi-wild ones. The English "boar" stems from the Old English , which.


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Rolodex. A Rolodex is a rotating card file device used to store business contact information. Its name, a portmanteau of the words "rolling" and "index", has become somewhat genericized (usually as "rolodex") for any personal organizer performing this function, or as a metonym for the total of an individual's accumulated business contacts. In this usage, it has generally come to describe an effect or characteristic of the small-world network of a business's investors, board of directors, or the value of a CEO's contacts, or in organizational structure. The Rolodex is iconic enough as a piece of ubiquitous business furniture that it.


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Battersea Power Station. steam turbine turbo generators, was produced by Metropolitan-Vickers in Trafford Park, Manchester. The building of the steel frame began in October 1930. Once completed, the construction of the brick cladding began, in March 1931. Until the construction of the B Station, the eastern wall of the boiler house was clad in corrugated metal sheeting as a temporary enclosure. The A Station first generated electricity in 1933, but was not completed until 1935. The total cost of its construction was £2,141,550. Between construction beginning in 1929 and 1933, there were six fatal and 201 non-fatal accidents on the site.After the end.


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Electric motor. issues. As no electricity distribution system was available at the time, no practical commercial market emerged for these motors.After many other more or less successful attempts with relatively weak rotating and reciprocating apparatus Prussian/Russian Moritz von Jacobi created the first real rotating electric motor in May 1834. It developed remarkable mechanical output power. His motor set a world record, which Jacobi improved four years later in September 1838. His second motor was powerful enough to drive a boat with 14 people across a wide river. It was also in 1839/40 that other developers managed to build motors with similar and.


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Kea. The kea (; ; "Nestor notabilis") is a species of large parrot in the family Nestoridae found in the forested and alpine regions of the South Island of New Zealand. About 48 (cm) long, it is mostly olive-green with a brilliant orange under its wings and has a large, narrow, curved, grey-brown upper beak. Its omnivorous diet includes carrion, but consists mainly of roots, leaves, berries, nectar, and insects. Now uncommon, the kea was once killed for bounty due to concerns by the sheep-farming community that it attacked livestock, especially sheep. In 1986, it received absolute protection under the Wildlife.

Kea. and how it used to visit the coast in winter but had not been seen in recent times. Mantell investigated and obtained the birds in Murihiku. Its specific epithet, the Latin term "notabilis", means "noteworthy". The common name kea is from Māori, probably an onomatopoeic representation of their in-flight call – 'keee aaa'. The word "kea" is both singular and plural.The genus "Nestor" contains four species: the New Zealand kaka ("Nestor meridionalis"), the kea ("N. notabilis"), the extinct Norfolk kaka ("N. productus"), and the extinct Chatham kaka ("N. chathamensis"). All four are thought to stem from a "proto-kākā", dwelling in.


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Brühl's Terrace. Brühl's Terrace () is a historic architectural ensemble in Dresden, Germany. Nicknamed "The Balcony of Europe", the terrace stretches high above the shore of the river Elbe. Located north of the recently rebuilt Neumarkt Square and the Frauenkirche, is one of the favourite inner-city places of both locals and tourists for walking, people watching, and having a coffee.## History and character.The present-day terrace was part of the city's fortifications, rebuilt upon the 1546/47 Schmalkaldic War at the behest of Elector Maurice of Saxony and his successors Augustus and Christian. The name Brühl's Terrace is a reference to Count Heinrich von.

Brühl's Terrace. Brühl, Minister of Elector Frederick Augustus II, who from 1737 had a city palace with a gallery, a library and adjacent gardens built on the location. In 1747 the whole terrace was given to him by the Saxon elector as a gift for the innovative introduction of a betterment tax. After the Saxon defeat at the Battle of Leipzig and the occupation by Russian troops, military governor Prince Nikolai Grigorjevich Repnin-Volkonski ordered the opening to the public in 1814. He charged the architect Gottlob Friedrich Thormeyer with the building of a flight of stairs at the western end to reach.

Brühl's Terrace. the terrace from Castle Square and Augustus Bridge. The Brühl Palace was demolished in the course of the building of the Saxon "Ständehaus" in 1900.The ensemble was totally destroyed in February 1945 when the city centre was heavily hit by the Allied Bombing of Dresden during the end phase of World War II. Today, it has been rebuilt; the precise amount restored is difficult to say as a percentage, but in general one can say the emsemble looks very much the same today as it did in the past.Today, Brühl's Terrace is again one of the main city landmarks besides.

Brühl's Terrace. the Frauenkirche (Church of our Lady), Dresden Castle, the Hofkirche and buildings on Theatre Square such as the Zwinger and the Semperoper, which are all located in the vicinity. At the "Bärenzwinger" students' club near the monument for Johann Friedrich Böttger, one can see a fingerprint in a guard rail of the terrace garden. This dactylogram is said to be proof of the strength of Augustus the Strong, who is said to have left the mark - but is only one of many myths surrounding August, such as the legend that he fathered 365 children.## Architectural parts of the terrace.Most.

Brühl's Terrace. people enter the terrace from the Schlossplatz (Castle Square) on the west end of the terrace. Besides Saxony's Supreme Court a staircase with four sculptures ("The Four Times of Day") leads from the Schlossplatz (Castle Square) up to Brühl's Terrace. One of the next buildings to the right is the Academy of Fine Arts. There is an ensemble of important buildings, such as the Albertinum. Sächsisches Ständehaus by Paul Wallot Sekundogenitur Academy of Fine Arts Jungfernbastei (Belvederehügel) Moritzmonument Bärenzwinger basement vault Hofgärtnerhaus Albertinum Delphinbrunnen Staircase by Gottlob Friedrich Thormeyer Ludwig Richter Ernst Rietschel by Johannes Schilling Gottfried Semper by Johannes.

Brühl's Terrace. Schilling Johann Friedrich Böttger The "Four Times of the Day" group ("Vier Tageszeiten") by Johannes Schilling## The balconies of Europe and of Dresden.Brühl's Terrace is known as the "Balcony of Europe", a name which was first thought up and used at the beginning of the 19th century and which since then has been used in all kinds of literature.The name "Balcony of Dresden", on the other hand, is more regionally used for a tower six kilometers further to the East on a slope by the Elbe in Loschwitz, an area known for expensive living. Dresden wiki.


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Yak. The domestic yak (Bos grunniens), also known as the Tartary ox, grunting ox or hairy cattle, is a species of long-haired domesticated cattle found throughout the Himalayan region of the Indian subcontinent, the Tibetan Plateau, Northern Myanmar, Yunnan, Sichuan Gilgit-Baltistan Pakistan and as far north as Mongolia and Siberia. It is descended from the wild yak ("Bos mutus").## Etymology.The English word "yak" originates from the . In Tibetan and Balti it refers only to the male of the species, the female being called , or in Tibetan and in Balti. In English, as in most other languages that have borrowed.

Yak. the word, "yak" is usually used for both sexes, with "bull" or "cow" referring to each sex separately.## Taxonomy.Belonging to the genus "Bos", Yaks are related to cattle ("Bos primigenius"). Mitochondrial DNA analyses to determine the evolutionary history of yaks have been inconclusive.The yak may have diverged from cattle at any point between one and five million years ago, and there is some suggestion that it may be more closely related to bison than to the other members of its designated genus. Apparent close fossil relatives of the yak, such as "Bos baikalensis", have been found in eastern Russia, suggesting.

Yak. a possible route by which yak-like ancestors of the modern American bison could have entered the Americas.The species was originally designated as "Bos grunniens" ("grunting ox") by Linnaeus in 1766, but this name is now generally considered to refer only to the domesticated form of the animal, with "Bos mutus" ("mute ox") being the preferred name for the wild species. Although some authors still consider the wild yak to be a subspecies, "Bos grunniens mutus", the ICZN made an official ruling in 2003 permitting the use of the name "Bos mutus" for wild yaks, and this is now the more.

Yak. common usage.Except where the wild yak is considered as a subspecies of "Bos grunniens", there are no recognised subspecies of yak.## Physical characteristics.Yaks are heavily built animals with bulky frames, sturdy legs, rounded, cloven hooves, and extremely dense, long fur that hangs down lower than the belly. While wild yaks are generally dark, blackish to brown in colouration, domestic yaks can be quite variable in colour, often having patches of rusty brown and cream. They have small ears and wide foreheads, with smooth horns that are generally dark in colour. In males (bulls), the horns sweep out from the sides.

Yak. cold. Females have four teats.Yaks are not known to produce the characteristic lowing (mooing) sound of cattle, but both wild and domestic yaks grunt and squeak, which inspired the scientific name of the domestic yak variant, "Bos grunniens" (grunting bull). Nikolay Przhevalsky named the wild variant "Bos mutus" (silent bull) believing that it did not make a sound at all, but it does.## Physiology.Yak physiology is well adapted to high altitudes, having larger lungs and heart than cattle found at lower altitudes, as well as greater capacity for transporting oxygen through their blood, due to the persistence of foetal haemoglobin.

Yak. མཛོ། as well as fertile females known as མཛོ་མོ། or , which may be crossed again with cattle. The "Dwarf Lulu" breed, "the only "Bos primigenius taurus" type of cattle in Nepal" has been tested for DNA markers and found to be a mixture of both taurine and zebu types of cattle ("B. p. taurus" and "B. p. indicus") with yak. According to the International Veterinary Information Service, the low productivity of second generation cattle-yak crosses makes them suitable only as meat animals.Crosses between yaks and domestic cattle ("Bos primigenius taurus") have been recorded in Chinese literature for at least.


Question: What is the location of this building?

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Hammershus. Hammershus is a medieval era fortification at Hammeren on the northern tip of the Danish island of Bornholm.The fortress was partially demolished around 1750 and is now a ruin. It was partially restored around 1900.## History.Hammershus was Scandinavia's largest medieval fortification and is one of the largest medieval fortifications in Northern Europe. It is situated in the Baltic Sea 74 (m) above sea level. The fortification was erected in the 13th century and consists of the base castle residence and features a grand tower called the "mantel" tower. Hammershus Fortress features a 750 (m) perimeter wall around the castle grounds.During.


Question: What is the closest upper taxonomy of this plant?

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Pulsatilla alpina. Pulsatilla alpina, the alpine pasqueflower or alpine anemone, is a species of flowering plant in the family Ranunculaceae, native to the mountain ranges of central and southern Europe, from central Spain to Croatia. It is an herbaceous perennial growing to 15 - 30 (cm) tall by 20 (cm) wide, and can be found at altitudes of 1200 - 2700 (m).## Characteristics."Pulsatilla alpina" has deeply divided, hairy leaves. It has more upright flowers than other species of "Pulsatilla", which generally have drooping flowers. They are white or, in the case of subsp. "apiifolia", yellow. The flowers are produced very early, often.

Pulsatilla alpina. opening while still under snow cover. They have prominent yellow stamens. As with all pasqueflowers, the flowers have a silky, hairy texture, and are followed by prominent seedheads which persist on the plant for many weeks.## Subspecies.A number of subspecies are recognised, based largely on the form and hairiness of the leaves. "P. alpina" subsp. "schneebergensis" is endemic to the easternmost Alps of Austria, and is named after the Schneeberg mountain. It is replaced further west by the widespread taxon "P. alpina" subsp. "alpina". "P. alpina" subsp. "austroalpina" is found in the Southern Alps from Switzerland eastwards, most commonly over.

Pulsatilla alpina. dolomite. "P. alpina" subsp. "apiifolia" and "P. alpina" subsp. "alba" grow over siliceous rock, but are easily distinguished by the flower colour. Further subspecies have been named for local variants in the Cantabrian Mountains (subsp. "cantabrica") and Corsica (subsp. "cyrnea").## Cultivation."Pulsatilla alpina" is suitable for cultivation in an alpine garden, or in any sharply drained soil in full sun. It is extremely hardy but dislikes winter wet. The subspecies "P. alpina" subsp. "apiifolia" has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit."Pulsatilla koreana""Pulsatilla patens" Anemone pulsatilla, Wildflowers index, Department of Horticultural Science of NC State University Edible and Medicinal.

Pulsatilla alpina. plants of the West, Gregory L. Tilford,.


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this bird?

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American golden plover. The American golden plover (Pluvialis dominica), is a medium-sized plover. The genus name is Latin and means relating to rain, from "pluvia", "rain". It was believed that golden plovers flocked when rain was imminent. The species name "dominica" refers to Santo Domingo, now Hispaniola, in the West Indies.American golden plover and picked up the spores while lining their nests. Then when the birds arrive in new places they molt, leaving behind the feathers and their precious cargo to start growing again at the other end of the world.## Description.Measurements: Length: 24-28 (cm) Weight: 122-194 (g) Wingspan: 65-67 (cm)The breeding adult.

American golden plover. American golden plover has a black face, neck, breast, and belly, with a white crown and nape that extends to the side of the breast. The back is mottled black and white with pale, gold spots. The breeding female is similar, but with less black. When in , both sexes have grey-brown upperparts, pale grey-brown underparts, and a whitish eyebrow. The head is small, along with the bill.It is similar to two other golden plovers, European and Pacific. The American golden plover is smaller, slimmer and relatively longer-legged than European golden plover ("Pluvialis apricaria") which also has white axillary (armpit).

American golden plover. feathers. It is more similar to Pacific golden plover ("Pluvialis fulva") with which it was once considered conspecific under the name "lesser golden plover". The Pacific golden plover is slimmer than the American species, has a shorter primary projection, and longer legs, and is usually yellower on the back.## Distribution.The breeding habitat of American golden plover is Arctic tundra from northern Canada and Alaska. They nest on the ground in a dry open area. They are migratory and winter in southern South America. They follow an elliptical migration path; northbound birds pass through Central America about January–April and stage in.


Question: Which city or region does this place locate in?

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Deutsches Eck. Deutsches Eck (, "German Corner") is the name of a promontory in Koblenz, Germany, where the Mosel river joins the Rhine. Named after a local commandry of the Teutonic Order ("Teutonischer Orden"), it became known for a monumental equestrian statue of William I, first German Emperor, erected in 1897 in appreciation of his role in the unification of Germany. One of many Emperor William monuments raised in the Prussian Rhine Province, it was destroyed in World War II and only the plinth was preserved as a memorial. Following German reunification, a replica of the statue was erected on the pedestal.

Deutsches Eck. after controversial discussions in 1993. It is today a Koblenz monument and a popular tourist attraction.## History.The Teutonic Knights were called to Koblenz by the archbishop of Trier, Theoderich von Wied, in 1216 and vested with the estates around the Basilica of St. Castor located directly at the confluence of Mosel and Rhine. Serving mainly in nursing care, the knights soon after established a commandry ("Deutschordenskommende") here, which became the administrative seat of the Koblenz bailiwick directly subordinate to the Grand Master. The premises centred on the "Deutschherrenhaus" building were erected from 1279 onwards and became known as the "Deutsches.

Deutsches Eck. Eck".In about 1600, the Koblenz commander moved his seat further down the Rhine to Cologne. In 1794 the Left Bank of the Rhine was conquered by French revolutionary troops and the ecclesiastical estates secularised from 1802 onwards. The Order's premises were refurbished as part of the Prussian Koblenz Fortress. Later in the 19th century, the area was linked by a pier with a downstream sandbank creating the present-day promontory.## Imperial iconography.After the death of Emperor William I in 1888, his grandson William II wished to spark a nationalist cult around the "founder of the German Reich". In the following years.

Deutsches Eck. the privately funded Kyffhäuser Monument was erected and an Emperor William Monument was inaugurated in Porta Westfalica, both designed by the Leipzig architect Bruno Schmitz. Several other cities had also applied as installation sites and in 1891 William II decided upon the confluence of the Rhine and Mosel rivers at Koblenz. After further landfills at the site and a large-scale collection campaign, the official "Emperor William Monument of the Rhine Province" was erected and solemnly inaugurated in the presence of the emperor on 31 August 1897. Bruno Schmitz again had drawn up the plans for a giant, over 37 (m).

Deutsches Eck. high monument installed at the tip of the "Deutsches Eck", bearing an inscription quoting a verse by the Koblenz poet Max von Schenkendorf: "Nimmer wird das Reich zerstöret, wenn ihr einig seid und treu" ("Never will the Empire be destroyed, so long as you are united and loyal"). Another inscription could be found at the statue dedicating it to "Wilhelm der Große" ("William the Great"). The equestrian statue itself, 14 (m) in height, presented William I in a general's uniform, reminiscent of the Prussian victories in the "German Wars of Unification". His horse is roped by a winged female genius.

Deutsches Eck. Mosel collapsed under the weight of the crowds.## Demolition.While the inner city of Koblenz was hit hard by Allied strategic bombing during World War II, the "Deutsches Eck" remained largely unscathed. On 16 March 1945, however, the statue was badly damaged by an American artillery shell. The Third US Army 87th Artillery unit led by Sergeant Loyd Watson fired upon it after the forward observer saw a German soldier depart from it. They assumed it was a base of operations and it was hit after three attempts. Soon afterwards it was completely taken down. The French military government planned to.

Deutsches Eck. of the site, any decision to reinstall a statue of Wilhelm I rested with the government of the Rhineland-Palatinate. However, the state government transferred its rights to the city of Koblenz. When , a former newspaper publisher from Koblenz, and his wife Anneliese, announced that they would bear all costs for a reconstruction of the statue, the decision was made to proceed with it.The Düsseldorf sculptor, Raymond Kittl, was commissioned to produce a replica of the original sculpture and the remodelled statue was created from durable bronze cast unlike the original which had been made from copper plates. In May.

Deutsches Eck. 1992, the parts of the statue were brought to Koblenz on board the MS Futura. The assembly work was completed at the port and on 2 September 1993 a mobile lattice boom crane lifted the statue onto the base. The installation took place on Sedan Day, which although no longer officially recognized, was the day on which the German victory in the Battle of Sedan was commemorated. On 25 September 1993, the new statue was inaugurated.Today, a big national flag and the flags of the 16 "Länder" are flying at the German Corner as a reminder of German unity. In.


Question: Who is the creator of this building?

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Medici Fountain. the wall of the Orangerie, against which the fountain was placed, was crumbling.In 1811, at the instructions of Napoleon Bonaparte, the grotto was restored by the neoclassical architect Jean Chalgrin, the architect of the Arc de Triomphe, who replaced the simple water fountain in the niche of the grotto with two streams of water, and added a white marble statue representing Venus in her bath.In 1864, during the Second French Empire, Baron Haussmann planned to build the rue de Medicis through the space occupied by the fountain. The lateral arcades of the fountain and the crumbling old orangerie behind it.

Medici Fountain. had already been torn down in 1855. From 1858 to 1864, The new architect, Alphonse de Gisors, moved the fountain thirty meters to make room for the street, and radically changed its setting and appearance. Since the fountain no longer stood against a wall, the Fontaine de Léda, displaced from another neighborhood, was placed directly behind it. (See the Fountain of Leda, below.) He replaced the two original statues of nymphs at the top of the statue with two new statues, representing the Rivers Rhone and Seine. He restored the coat of arms of the Medici family over the fountain,.

Medici Fountain. which had been defaced during the Revolution. He inserted two statues into the niches, one representing a faun and the other a huntress, above which are two masks, one representing comedy and the other tragedy. He removed the simple basin and water spout which had been in the niche and replaced them with a long tree-shaded basin. Finally, he removed the statue of Venus and replaced her with a group of statues by Auguste Ottin, representing the giant Polyphemus, in bronze, discovering the lovers Acis and Galatea, in white marble. The fountain was completely cleaned during the summer of 2021,.


Question: Which city or region does this park locate in?

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Parc de Saint-Cloud. The Parc de Saint-Cloud, officially the "Domaine National de Saint-Cloud", is a "domaine national" (national estate), located mostly within Saint-Cloud, in the Hauts-de-Seine department, near Paris, France.The park, which covers 460 (ha), was a nature reserve until 1923. It is considered one of the most beautiful gardens in Europe, and in 2005 the park was awarded "Notable Garden" status. On 9 November 1994 the park was classified as a Historic Monument. In 1999 a winter storm heavily damaged the park's forests. The park is operated as a "domaine national" under the French Ministry of Culture.## History.The park is located on.

Parc de Saint-Cloud. the site of the Château de Saint-Cloud, a residence of royal and imperial families from the 16th century. After Napoleon III declared war on the Prussians, the site was occupied by a Prussian force which used the high outcropping to shell Paris. Counter-fire from the French caused the building to burn on 13 October 1870. The structure was completely razed in August 1892.Only a few outbuildings remain from the original structure. The park contains a Le Nôtre-designed garden in the French style, an English garden, and Marie Antoinette's rose garden.The park showcases a panoramic view of Paris called "La Lanterne.

Parc de Saint-Cloud. or the "Lantern of Demosthenes".Musée du château de Saint-Cloud: A five-room museum dedicated to the destroyed chateauÉcole Normale Supérieure (E.N.S.): Located in the Pavillon ValoisBureau International des Poids et Mesures (B.I.P.M.): The International Bureau of Weights and Measures is located in the Pavillon de Breteuil; the building contains copies of the metre and kilogram standards.## Access.The park is accessible via Pont de Sèvres and Boulogne - Pont de Saint-Cloud metro stations. The T2 tramway runs along the eastern limit of the park.Domaine national de Saint-Cloud, official websiteHistory of Saint-Cloud.


Question: In which year was this place invented or discovered?

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Pulsar. on August 6, 1967 from a newly commissioned radio telescope that she helped build. Initially dismissed as radio interference by her supervisor, Antony Hewish, developer of the telescope, the fact that the signals always appeared at the same declination and right ascension soon ruled out a terrestrial source. On November 28, 1967, Bell and Hewish using a fast recorder resolved the signals as a series of pulses, evenly spaced every 1.33 seconds. No astronomical object of this nature had ever been observed before. On December 21, Bell discovered a second pulsar, quashing speculation that these might be signals beamed at.

Pulsar. name for intelligent beings of extraterrestrial origin).It was not until a second pulsating source was discovered in a different part of the sky that the "LGM hypothesis" was entirely abandoned. Their pulsar was later dubbed CP 1919, and is now known by a number of designators including PSR B1919+21 and PSR J1921+2153. Although CP 1919 emits in radio wavelengths, pulsars have subsequently been found to emit in visible light, X-ray, and gamma ray wavelengths.The word "pulsar" first appeared in print in 1968: The existence of neutron stars was first proposed by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky in 1934, when they.

Pulsar. argued that a small, dense star consisting primarily of neutrons would result from a supernova. Based on the idea of magnetic flux conservation from magnetic main sequence stars, Lodewijk Woltjer proposed in 1964 that such neutron stars might contain magnetic fields as large as 1014 to 1016 gausses (=1010 to 1012 teslas). In 1967, shortly before the discovery of pulsars, Franco Pacini suggested that a rotating neutron star with a magnetic field would emit radiation, and even noted that such energy could be pumped into a supernova remnant around a neutron star, such as the Crab Nebula. After the discovery.

Pulsar. of the first pulsar, Thomas Gold independently suggested a rotating neutron star model similar to that of Pacini, and explicitly argued that this model could explain the pulsed radiation observed by Bell Burnell and Hewish. In 1968, Richard V. E. Lovelace with collaborators discovered period formula_1 ms of the Crab Nebula pulsar using Arecibo Observatory.The discovery of the Crab pulsar provided confirmation of the rotating neutron star model of pulsars. The Crab pulsar 33-millisecond pulse period was too short to be consistent with other proposed models for pulsar emission. Moreover, the Crab pulsar is so named because it is located.

Pulsar. as a system of Galactic clocks. Disturbances in the clocks will be measurable at Earth. A disturbance from a passing gravitational wave will have a particular signature across the ensemble of pulsars, and will be thus detected.## Significant pulsars.The pulsars listed here were either the first discovered of its type, or represent an extreme of some type among the known pulsar population, such as having the shortest measured period. The first radio pulsar "CP 1919" (now known as PSR B1919+21), with a pulse period of 1.337 seconds and a pulse width of 0.04-second, was discovered in 1967. The first binary.


Question: What is the source of energy of this facility?

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Photovoltaic system. A photovoltaic system, also PV system or solar power system, is an electric power system designed to supply usable solar power by means of photovoltaics. It consists of an arrangement of several components, including solar panels to absorb and convert sunlight into electricity, a solar inverter to convert the output from direct to alternating current, as well as mounting, cabling, and other electrical accessories to set up a working system. It may also use a solar tracking system to improve the system's overall performance and include an integrated battery. PV systems convert light directly into electricity, and are not to.

Photovoltaic system. be confused with other solar technologies, such as concentrated solar power or solar thermal, used for heating and cooling. A solar array only encompasses the ensemble of solar panels, the visible part of the PV system, and does not include all the other hardware, often summarized as balance of system (BOS). PV systems range from small, rooftop-mounted or building-integrated systems with capacities from a few to several tens of kilowatts, to large utility-scale power stations of hundreds of megawatts. Nowadays, most PV systems are grid-connected, while off-grid or stand-alone systems account for a small portion of the market.Operating silently and.

Photovoltaic system. systems, building-integrated vs. rack-mounted systems, residential vs. utility systems, distributed vs. centralized systems, rooftop vs. ground-mounted systems, tracking vs. fixed-tilt systems, and new constructed vs. retrofitted systems. Other distinctions may include, systems with microinverters vs. central inverter, systems using crystalline silicon vs. thin-film technology, and systems with modules.About 99 percent of all European and 90 percent of all U.S. solar power systems are connected to the electrical grid, while off-grid systems are somewhat more common in Australia and South Korea. PV systems rarely use battery storage. This may change, as government incentives for distributed energy storage are implemented and investments.

Photovoltaic system. in storage solutions gradually become economically viable for small systems. A typical residential solar array is rack-mounted on the roof, rather than integrated into the roof or facade of the building, which is significantly more expensive. Utility-scale solar power stations are ground-mounted, with fixed tilted solar panels rather than using expensive tracking devices. Crystalline silicon is the predominant material used in 90 percent of worldwide produced solar modules, while its rival thin-film has lost market-share. About 70 percent of all solar cells and modules are produced in China and Taiwan, only 5 percent by European and US-manufacturers. The installed capacity.

Photovoltaic system. for both small rooftop systems and large solar power stations is growing rapidly and in equal parts, although there is a notable trend towards utility-scale systems, as the focus on new installations is shifting away from Europe to sunnier regions, such as the Sunbelt in the U.S., which are less opposed to ground-mounted solar farms and cost-effectiveness is more emphasized by investors.Driven by advances in technology and increases in manufacturing scale and sophistication, the cost of photovoltaics is declining continuously. There are several million PV systems distributed all over the world, mostly in Europe, with 1.4 million systems in Germany.

Photovoltaic system. The International Energy Agency expects solar power to become the world's largest source of electricity by 2050, with solar photovoltaics and concentrated solar thermal contributing 16% and 11% to the global demand, respectively.## Solar grid-connection.A grid connected system is connected to a larger independent grid (typically the public electricity grid) and feeds energy directly into the grid. This energy may be shared by a residential or commercial building before or after the revenue measurement point, depending on whether the credited energy production is calculated independently of the customer's energy consumption (feed-in tariff) or only on the difference of energy (net.

Photovoltaic system. metering). These systems vary in size from residential (2–10 kWp) to solar power stations (up to 10s of MWp). This is a form of decentralized electricity generation. Feeding electricity into the grid requires the transformation of DC into AC by a special, synchronising grid-tie inverter. In kilowatt-sized installations the DC side system voltage is as high as permitted (typically 1000 V except US residential 600 V) to limit ohmic losses. Most modules (60 or 72 crystalline silicon cells) generate 160 W to 300 W at 36 volts. It is sometimes necessary or desirable to connect the modules partially in parallel.

Photovoltaic system. direct and angled light, somewhat reducing the benefit of tracking.Trackers and sensors to optimise the performance are often seen as optional, but they can increase viable output by up to 45%. Arrays that approach or exceed one megawatt often use solar trackers. Considering clouds, and the fact that most of the world is not on the equator, and that the sun sets in the evening, the correct measure of solar power is insolation – the average number of kilowatt-hours per square meter per day. For the weather and latitudes of the United States and Europe, typical insolation ranges from 2.26.

Photovoltaic system. be used. Many meters accumulate bidirectionally, some systems use two meters, but a unidirectional meter (with detent) will not accumulate energy from any resultant feed into the grid. In some countries, for installations over 30 kWp a frequency and a voltage monitor with disconnection of all phases is required. This is done where more solar power is being generated than can be accommodated by the utility, and the excess can not either be exported or stored. Grid operators historically have needed to provide transmission lines and generation capacity. Now they need to also provide storage. This is normally hydro-storage, but.

Photovoltaic system. large systems, although this is more commonly done with wind power than solar power, and results in a substantial loss of revenue. Three-phase inverters have the unique option of supplying reactive power which can be advantageous in matching load requirements.Photovoltaic systems need to be monitored to detect breakdown and optimize operation. There are several photovoltaic monitoring strategies depending on the output of the installation and its nature. Monitoring can be performed on site or remotely. It can measure production only, retrieve all the data from the inverter or retrieve all of the data from the communicating equipment (probes, meters, etc.).

Photovoltaic system. concentrating sunlight up to 400 times or more, with efficiencies of 24–28 percent, exceeding those of regular systems. Various designs of systems are commercially available but not very common. However, ongoing research and development is taking place.CPV is often confused with CSP (concentrated solar power) that does not use photovoltaics. Both technologies favor locations that receive much sunlight and directly compete with each other.## Hybrid.A hybrid system combines PV with other forms of generation, usually a diesel generator. Biogas is also used. The other form of generation may be a type able to modulate power output as a function of.

Photovoltaic system. photovoltaic thermal hybrid" (CPVT) system is similar to a PVT system. It uses concentrated photovoltaics (CPV) instead of conventional PV technology, and combines it with a solar thermal collector. CPV/CSP system is a proposed novel solar hybrid system, combining concentrator photovoltaics with the non-PV technology of concentrated solar power (CSP), or also known as concentrated solar thermal. PV diesel system combines a photovoltaic system with a diesel generator. Combinations with other renewables are possible and include wind turbines.## Floating solar arrays.Floating solar arrays are PV systems that float on--or are built over--the surface of drinking water reservoirs, quarry lakes, irrigation.

Photovoltaic system. saved 0.75 (acre) that would have been required for a land-based system. Another benefit of a floatovoltaic system is that the panels are kept at a cooler temperature than they would be on land, leading to a higher efficiency of solar energy conversion. The floating PV array also reduces the amount of water lost through evaporation and inhibits the growth of algae.Utility-scale floating PV farms are starting to be built. The multinational electronics and ceramics manufacturer Kyocera will develop the world's largest, a 13.4 MW farm on the reservoir above Yamakura Dam in Chiba Prefecture using 50,000 solar panels. Salt-water.