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Misumena vatia. Misumena vatia is a species of crab spider with a holarctic distribution. In North America, it is called the goldenrod crab spider or flower (crab) spider, as it is commonly found hunting in goldenrod sprays and milkweed plants. They are called crab spiders because of their unique ability to walk sideways as well as forwards and backwards. Both males and females of this species progress through several molts before reaching their adult sizes, though females must molt more to reach their larger size. Females can grow up to 10 (mm) while males are quite small, reaching 5 (mm) at most.

Misumena vatia. "Misumena vatia" are usually yellow or white or a pattern of these two colors. They may also present with pale green or pink instead of yellow, again, in a pattern with white. They have the ability to change between these colors based on their surroundings through the molting process. They have a complex visual system, with eight eyes, that they rely on for prey capture and for their color-changing abilities. Sometimes, if "Misumena vatia" consumes colored prey, the spider itself will take on that color."Misumena vatia" feed on common insects, often consuming prey much larger than themselves. They use venom.

Misumena vatia. to immobilize their prey, though they are harmless to humans. They face threats due to parasites and larger insects. For "Misumena vatia," survival depends on the choice of hunting site. The spiders closely monitor multiple sites to see if others nearby are frequented by greater numbers of potential prey. The primary sex ratio is biased toward females. Females are stationary and choose a flower to settle on, while males cover great distances searching for mates. Females do not emit pheromones, rather, they leave "draglines" of silk behind them as they move, which males follow. Females live longer than males, on.

Misumena vatia. average. After mating, females guard their nests until the young have hatched, after which they die.## Taxonomy and phylogeny.The species "Misumena vatia" was first described by Swedish arachnologist and entomologist Carl Alexander Clerck in his book "Aranei Svecici". "Misumena vatia" belongs to the family Thomisidae, or spiders known as crab spiders. The family includes more than 2000 species, which are found all over the world. The genus "Misumena" includes many other species which are found worldwide. "Misumena vatia" falls into the Thomisus clade. Other clades in the family Thomisidae include the Borboropactus clade, the Epidius clade, and the Stephanopis clade.##.

Misumena vatia. Similar species.Close relatives include "Mecaphesa asperata," which is also found in North America, as well as Central America and the Caribbean. It is similar in size and shape but is light-gray to brown with pink stripes on the abdomen and cephalothorax. It is also coated with hairs that are short and stiff.Similar species of the "Misumenoides" and "Misumenops" genera tend to be found south of "Misumena vatia"’s home range, but some species, such as "Misumenoides formosipes," are found in North America as well. Philodromidae is a closely related family of wandering spiders. These spiders differ from those in the family.

Misumena vatia. Thomisidae in that their front legs are of a similar length as their back legs. Thus, their hunting style is quite different.## Description.This species has a wide, flat body that is short and crab-like. It can walk sideways in addition to being able to move forward and backward. Of its eight legs, the first two pairs are the longest. These sets of legs are usually held open, as the spider uses them to capture its prey. "Misumena vatia" is harmless to humans, as its fangs are not powerful enough to penetrate human skin and its venom is too weak to.

Misumena vatia. harm larger animals.## Color.These spiders may be yellow or white. This ultimately depends on the flower on which they are hunting (active camouflage). Younger females especially, which may hunt on a variety of flowers such as daisies and sunflowers, have a strong tendency to adapt to the color of the surrounding flower. However, the color-changing process is not instant and can require up to 25 days to complete. Older females need large amounts of relatively large prey to produce the best possible clutch of eggs. In North America, they are most commonly found in goldenrods, bright yellow flowers which attract.

Misumena vatia. large numbers of insects, particularly in autumn. It is often very hard even for a searching human to spot this spider on a yellow flower. These spiders are sometimes called 'banana spiders' because of their striking yellow color.Females have light complexions, either white or yellow with darker sides. They may have some markings on the abdomen that can be brown or red. These markings are genetically determined and not affected by a background color change. Males are darker than females, with red or brown outer shells. They have a characteristic white spot in the middle that continues through the area.

Misumena vatia. around the eyes. Males specifically have two sets of red and white bands both dorsally and laterally. Similar species of the crab spiders appear in a variety of colors such as those of the genus "Diaea", which can be lime green, or some species of "Xysticus" and "Coriarchne" which are brown.## Color change.These spiders change color based on visual cues. The color-change is most obvious on females of this species. The ability of males and juveniles to change color has not been documented. Two other known spiders with this color change ability include "Thomisus onustus" and "Thomisus spectabilis". Depending on.

Misumena vatia. the color of flower they see around them, they can secrete a liquid yellow pigment into the body's outer cell layer. The baseline color of the spider is white. In its white state, the yellow pigment is sequestered beneath the outer cell layer so that inner glands which are filled with white guanine are visible. They are able to match with greater accuracy to white flowers, such as "Chaerophyllum temulum" (the rough chervil) in particular, compared to yellow flowers based on the spectral reflectance functions. While the spider is residing on a white plant, it tends to excrete the yellow.

Misumena vatia. pigment instead of storing it in its glands. In order to change back to yellow, the spider must first produce enough of the yellow pigment. For this reason it takes these spiders much longer to turn from white to yellow than it does for them to go from yellow to white. The color change from white to yellow can take between 10 and 25 days while the opposite color change takes only about six days. The yellow pigments are kynurenine and 3-hydroxykynurenine. Color changes are induced by visual cues and spiders with impaired vision lose this ability.Notably, spiders of this.

Misumena vatia. species sometimes choose to hunt on flowers that, to the human eye, they do not appear to match in color. For instance, they can be found hunting on the pink petals of the pasture rose ("Rosa carolina)." The spider appears white, or changes to white, causing it to stand out to human observers. Arthropods, on the other hand, serve as both predators and prey to "Misumena vatia," and have photoreceptors that allow them to see ultraviolet, blue, and green light but oftentimes lack red receptors altogether. As a result, "Misumena vatia" is camouflaged, appearing dark on a dark background.## Sexual.

Misumena vatia. dimorphism."Misumena vatia" is highly sexually dimorphic. Females are larger than males and tend to fall between 6-9 (mm) in length. Males, on the other hand, are only 3-4 (mm) long. The female's legs are white or yellow, while the male's first and second legs are brown or red and the third and fourth are yellow. Additionally, in concurrence with the male’s smaller size, the male "Misumena vatia" molts two fewer times than the female.## Other physical characteristics."Misumena vatia" has two rows of eyes. Those in the anterior row are equally spaced and curved backward while those in the second row.

Misumena vatia. vary in appearance from animal to animal, and can be curved more or less than the first. The area around the eyes is narrower in the front than the back. The spider's hair is erect and can be either filiform or rod-shaped. The legs do not have spines, except under the tibia and metatarsal bones of the first two sets of legs. The appearance of the clypeus and the structure of the cephalothorax can be used to distinguish the genus "Misumena" within its subfamily.## Habitat and distribution."Misumena vatia" is found only in North America and Europe. Other species of crab.

Misumena vatia. spiders, however, can be found all over the world. The species prefers a temperate climate and generally inhabits forest biomes. "Misumena vatia" is terrestrial and can be found on several plants and flowers such as milkweed and goldenrod in North America, as well as trillium, white fleabane ("Erigeron strigosus)", ox-eye daisy ("Chrysanthemum leucanthemum"), red clover ("Trifolium pratense") and buttercups ("Ranunculus acris")."## Home range.Females of this species do not travel more than a few yards (meters) from their feeding location. They are attracted by the fragrance of flowers, though other visual and tactile clues also help them choose a territory. Their.

Misumena vatia. survival depends on their ability to choose a small area home to flowering plants which will attract prey. Males are highly motile and may disperse great distances as they search for mates. Additionally, spiderlings may travel great distances by ballooning, if they find the area around their nest to be lacking in resources. However, this is risky as there is no guarantee that the search for a new territory will be successful.## Patch choice."Misumena vatia" hunts large prey with a low rate of success. Hunting success rate is highly dependent upon the spider's choice of hunting site. Before they lay.

Misumena vatia. their eggs, females are heavy and slow, which necessitates that they choose a hunting site on which to stay. When hunting on their preferred plant of milkweed, they monitor nearby umbels to see if another site would be more profitable. Over the course of a few hours, "Misumena vatia" may recognize and move to another nearby hunting site. Most often, they move to flowers that produce more nectar and attract more prey, however occasionally some intentionally and consistently pick less profitable sites to hunt on. Thus, the population is dimorphic in terms of patch choice behavior. The reason a minority.

Misumena vatia. might choose poorer hunting sites on purpose remains unknown.## Diet.## Hunting patterns.Crab spiders are carnivorous, feeding on invertebrate insects such as flies, bees, butterflies, grasshoppers, dragonflies, and hoverflies. Bumblebees ("Bombus appositus") provide the spider with the most biomass, but small syrphid flies ("Toxomerus marginatus") are the prey captured most frequently. Other frequently captured prey include honeybees ("Apis mellifera") and moths. Immature "Misumena vatia" commonly feed on smaller-sized prey such as thrips, aphids in the family Aphididae, and dance flies in the family Empididae. They may also use nectar and pollen as food sources when prey is scarce."Misumena vatia" is primarily.

Misumena vatia. dependent on its vision to hunt, so it typically finds and captures food during the day. Adult males search the upper stratum of field vegetation, where females are commonly found hunting, for potential mates. The spider can hunt bugs and insects larger than itself because it has the ability to use paralyzing venom to immobilize its prey. "Misumena vatia" waits, camouflaging itself on a flowering plant or on the ground, for prey to pass by, and then grabs the prey with its forelegs and quickly injects its venom. Unlike many spiders which wrap their prey in silk, "Misumena vatia" forgoes.

Misumena vatia. wrapping prey and instead allows its venom alone to subdue insects before eating them. It then uses its fangs to inject the immobilized prey with digestive enzymes before sucking out the rendered bodily liquids. This is a form of external digestion. As a result, prey size is not a limiting factor for consumption.Although "Misumena vatia" most often hunts during the daytime, there is evidence that it is sometimes driven to hunt at night due to an increase in nocturnal prey activity. This behavior occurs most commonly in response to increased night-time activity by moths in early September."Misumena vatia" has the.

Misumena vatia. ability to retain its excretions for at least 50 days and will not excrete when confined to small spaces or near its hunting sites. Excretion may alert predators to the spider's whereabouts.## Diet-induced color change."Misumena vatia" can also change color as a result of prey consumption. Once consumed, colorful prey can show through the thin, transparent epidermis of the abdomen, affecting opisthosomal coloration. Ingestion of red-eyed fruit flies cause the abdomen to turn pink. Coloration changes caused by prey consumption revert to the normal white or yellow within 4–6 days after prey ingestion. Color change intensity is positively correlated with.

Misumena vatia. the amount of colorful prey consumed. Color change intensity also decreases with the spider's age. These spiders have been observed to have pink, orange, yellow, brown, green, or white opisthosomas depending on the prey consumed.## Reproduction and lifecycle.Sex ratios among "Misumena vatia" vary from a ratio of 1.5 females per male at hatching to a ratio of 2.5–5.1 females per male by the time they reach adulthood. Since males must spend considerable time searching for females, they face danger from the environment, reducing their numbers. Males cannot mate multiple times in quick succession but require a two-day interval between matings.

Misumena vatia. In nature, "Misumena vatia" produces a single brood. However, females are capable of producing another brood if artificially induced.## Nests.Female "Misumena vatia" prefer common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) over spreading dogbane (Apocynum androsaemifolium), pasture rose (Rosa carolina), and chokecherry (Prunus virginiana) for nest construction. Females who lay eggs on milkweed have higher nesting success, which correlates with early survival of clutches. The nest appearance can vary widely, depending on the type of plant on which it is constructed. In the case of the pasture rose and the sensitive fern ("Onoclea sinsibilis)", nests consist of several small leaves bound together. These nests.

Misumena vatia. are more vulnerable to predators though, because they are not as tightly bound as those created on milkweed, and have a greater area that is covered only by silk.## Mate-guarding.A minority of males—only about ten percent—guard pre-reproductive females as they molt into their adult stage. Almost all males who guard such females mate with them after they have molted. The low level of mate guarding is related to the female-leaning sex ratio expressed by "Misumena vatia." Males of this species tend to guard less frequently and exhibit less aggression than other closely related species, such as "Misumenoides formosipes," which do.

Misumena vatia. not have a female-biased sex ratio.## Lifecycle.In May and early June, males molt into adulthood, with the number of adult males peaking between June 5 to July 15. Females do not molt into adulthood until mid to late June, with numbers of adult females peaking around June 25. After males molt, their body mass does not increase, remaining at about 4 (mg). Males, however, do undergo body changes as they enter the adult stage. Their front legs lengthen while the abdomen shrinks. Females live an average of two years and spend most of this time guarding their eggs sacs and.

Misumena vatia. the territory (flowers) on which they hunt. Males have shorter lifespans by about a month. Only near the end of the female's second year of life will she allow males onto her territory to mate. Females lay their eggs most commonly in the middle of the summer; these hatch after 3.5 weeks. Females usually die very soon after their eggs have hatched, during their second winter. Young undergo one molt within the egg sac, and emerge after hatching as second instars. They can sustain themselves for a few days with the nutrients from their yolk sacs.## Mating.## Mate-searching behavior.The much.

Misumena vatia. smaller males scamper from flower to flower in search of females and are often seen missing one or more of their legs. This may be due either to near misses by predators such as birds or to fighting with other males. Males exhibit a random pattern of searching for mates until they discover a female dragline. Females leave these draglines behind them as they search for prey. Males follow the draglines in search of potential mates. Unlike many spider species, the females do not deposit any pheromones on these lines. Males follow the lines mechanically rather than chemically. The tendency.

Misumena vatia. for a male to follow a line is highly influenced by its life stage and the stage of the female of interest. Adult males preferentially follow adult female and juvenile female draglines, while penultimate males do not display a specific preference. Male "Misumena vatia" are also more likely to follow lines laid by their own species than those of a related species.## Male–male interactions.Two males interested in the same female may compete, since encounters with females are relatively rare. This may include light touching, chasing, foreleg lashing, grappling, and biting between males. If the female is being guarded by an.

Misumena vatia. existing male, the guarding male may either fend off the challenger or be replaced. The male which finds the female of interest first has an advantage in any ensuing contest. In this species, unlike many other species of spider, older and younger males are generally the same size. While older males initiate contests more frequently than younger males, the nature of their attacks is less likely to include extensive bodily contact. Younger males win significantly more contests than older males. After a contest between males, the winner immediately mates with the female while the loser retreats.## Female–male interactions.When a male.

Misumena vatia. finds a female, he climbs over her head, over her opisthosoma and onto her underside, where he inserts his pedipalps to inseminate her. The male may wrap the female loosely with silk during copulation. Females have a pair of gonopores which the male pedipalp may enter for copulation. When the male inserts his pedipalp into the female's gonopore he will make rhythmic, vibratory movements that can last from 1–2 seconds. Gonopore contacts of less than 30 seconds will result in unfertilized eggs and a failed copulation. Matings last an average of four minutes.Males can accurately identify the reproductive condition of.

Misumena vatia. potential mates. They prefer to mate with virgin females over those which have previously mated. Males mate for longer with virgin females and produce more pedipalp movements than during copulation with previously-mated females. Males are most likely to enter both gonopores of a virgin female, while they may only enter one gonopore of a previously-mated female. Females have a low probability of mating with a second male, but have a higher probability of mating with a second male than they do a third one.The female then lays her eggs preferentially on plants from the "Asclepias" genus (milkweeds). When preparing to.

Misumena vatia. lay eggs, she first identifies a suitable location for her brood. She descends the plant stalk down to the leaf that she chooses and then rolls up the end of a leaf. She secures the leaf by spreading silk, creating a cocoon-like structure, and lays her eggs inside the nest she has created. She tends to lay her eggs at night. The young grow to be about 5 (mm) by autumn and remain on the ground through winter. Their final molt, from penultimate instars to adults, occurs during May of the next year.Because "Misumena vatia" employs camouflaging, it can focus.

Misumena vatia. more energy on growth and reproduction rather than on finding food and escaping from predators. As in many Thomisidae species, there is a positive correlation between female weight and egg clutch size, or fecundity. Selection for larger female body size thus increases reproductive success.## Sperm quantity.This species exhibits a high first-male sperm precedence, so providing a virgin female with a large sperm quantity is advantageous. Because there is a very limited number of virgin females available at any given time, there is strong selective pressure that favors males that provide large sperm quantities. The need to produce a large sperm.

Misumena vatia. quantity for each copulation prevents males from remating quickly. Additionally, females are likely to deny subsequent males after their first mating as further reproduction will interfere too strongly with the female's foraging success. More matings are also unfavorable because they can increase the risk of infection with sexually transmitted parasites or diseases.In some cases, males can tell whether a female has mated previously from a distance. This may be due the female's heightened aggression that manifests after she has mated once. It is more common, however, that in order to assess the reproductive history of a given female, the male.

Misumena vatia. must first mount her, which is dangerous for the male as there is a chance the female may attack, capture, and kill him. Since females are difficult to locate and the cost of searching for them is so high, the risk is usually worthwhile to the male. In addition, since locating females is difficult, there is a low chance that another male has previously inseminated a given female, so it is therefore beneficial for males to provide large quantities of sperm. This adaptation is also beneficial in the case that a female loses her first brood. When a female has.

Misumena vatia. been inseminated with a large quantity of sperm, she may have enough to fertilize a second brood to replace the lost first brood.## Sexual cannibalism.Like many other arachnids and insects, "Misumena vatia" may express sexual cannibalism; however it is only considered moderately common. In cases of precopulatory sexual cannibalism, older males are more likely than younger males to be targets of attack, and are more likely to suffer death or injury as a result of such an attack, especially during the latter half of the mating season. This could be a result of a decreased ability among older males to.

Misumena vatia. evade attack from females. Older males do not tend to display riskier mating behavior than younger males. The size of the male does not influence its likelihood of being cannibalized during copulation. Females increase cannibalistic attacks as the mating season progresses. More males tend to be cannibalized after mid July, which could be a result of male aging but is more likely a result of increased female aggression during this time. Non-reproductive cannibalism is uncommon among "Misumena vatia". However, it has been observed in individuals in roughly one percent of broods. In these broods, cannibalism tends to occur among spiderlings.

Misumena vatia. Cannibalistic individuals can be up to three times larger than those who are non-cannibalistic.## Parental care.## Egg-guarding.Like many other species, "Misumena vatia" guards its nest to protect its vulnerable eggs from attack. Nest guarding increases the spider's overall reproductive success by protecting against predation from ichneumonid and dipteran egg predators. These spiders are usually observed guarding the nest by standing on its underside, the most vulnerable face of the nest. Most guarding spiders will remain by the nest until the young have begun to emerge from their eggs—about three weeks. A minority of spiders abandon their nests before spiderlings have.

Misumena vatia. hatched, while some may remain until all the young have hatched or longer. Most die within a few days of the hatching of their young.## Enemies.Parasitization by the ichneumonid wasp, "Trychosis cyperia", an egg predator, is common. The wasp deposits an egg in the nest and its larva feeds on the eggs. One attack can destroy the nest completely. "Misumena vatia" experience strong selection to minimize attack from wasps, which is why egg guarding by the female is important for reproductive success. Wasps tend to feed on small egg masses guarded by small spiders, as small spiders cannot defend their.

Misumena vatia. nests as effectively. Other known predators include ants, other spiders, birds, lizards, and shrews. When defending the nest from an approaching predator, females typically raise their front legs in a display otherwise observed when they are attacking prey.## Physiology.## Sensation.These spiders respond quickly to motion that is both within and outside of their visual range. To do so, they rely heavily on several types of mechanoreceptors. Tactile hairs sense touch, trichobothria sense air currents, and slit sensilla are sensitive to vibrations and mechanical stresses. While still important, vision plays a less important role in prey detection. Remarkably, "Misumena vatia" fail.

Misumena vatia. to notice prey when it is stationary.## Vision.These spiders have two rows of four eyes each for a total of eight eyes. The antero-lateral (75 μm diameter) and postero-lateral (65 μm diameter) eyes are the larger in size of the four sets of eyes. The antero-median (59 μm diameter) are considered the principal eyes and along with the postero-median (55 μm diameter) constitute the smaller of the sets. All of the eyes other than the principal eyes are considered the secondary eyes. The antero-median eyes appear the clearest, while the other sets of eyes appear darker. The postero-median eyes look.

Misumena vatia. directly upward, and their field of view overlaps somewhat with that of the postero-lateral eyes. The antero-lateral and postero-lateral eyes also share a slight overlap in their visual fields. The antero-lateral eyes give these spiders a region of binocular vision. The organization of the antero-lateral, postero-median, and postero-lateral eyes allows these spiders to see nearly their entire upper visual environment.The four pairs of eyes are similar in structure, all containing a retina, a dioptric apparatus, and a cellular vitreous body. The outermost layer of the eye is the lens. The columnar cells of the vitreous body stand between the lens.

Misumena vatia. and the retina, and their nuclei rest next to the retina. Three layers of pigment cells surround the vitreous body. The epidermis is the outer layer, and it contains electron-dense granules and electron-lucent inclusions of micro-crystals. The middle layer contains dark, pigment granules, and the innermost layer contains larger, dark, pigment granules inside glial cells. These layers prevent light that may enter through a nearby transparent cuticle from reaching the retina, keeping each eye isolated. The retina contains photoreceptor cells and other supporting cells.The principle eyes have a complex and unique organization. They have three different photoreceptive segments. The periphery.

Misumena vatia. contains a half-circle of one type of rhabdomere, while the center is pigmented and contains two types of rhabdomeres. These spiders also have a "giant rhabdom" in the lowest layer of the center of the retina. Only the light entering along its optic axis stimulates this giant rhabdom, so the visual information comes in the shape of a dot. "Misumena vatia" can control the trajectory of the giant rhabdom by moving their eye muscles, which means these single points of visual information are integrated to generate the spider's visual field.Vision plays an important role in the spider's substrate color matching.

Misumena vatia. "Misumena vatia" have the necessary physiological machinery to see color, and are most sensitive to wavelengths of light between 340-520 nm. "Misumena vatia's" principle eyes have tiered retinas, with four layers containing different types of photoreceptors. These spiders have been proven to have green and UV photoreceptors, and likely have many other types which allow them to see a full range of colors. The secondary eyes are dichromal, meaning that they have two types of photoreceptors. Since "Misumena vatia" use their visual systems to inform color changes, they must be able to see color in their environment and on their.

Misumena vatia. own bodies. The visual field of the antero-lateral and antero-medial eyes allow the spider to see its legs, while the postero-lateral eyes see the opisthoma. Since the visual fields are so wide, these spiders see their own bodies and the color of their surroundings, which supports the idea that color matching is facilitated by the visual system.## Autotomy.Autotomy, the loss of one leg, can happen in a variety of critical situations, including fleeing from predators, fighting, and getting rid of parasites. The disadvantage is obvious, but most spiders can grow back lost limbs if the loss occurs during a juvenile.

Misumena vatia. stage and before the final molting.The loss of an anterior leg is common among males. Over their lifetimes, approximately 30 percent of males will lose one of their anterior legs. One direct disadvantage of losing a leg is a decrease in mobility. Spiders with all eight legs have considerably higher body weights, showing that losing legs negatively impacts foraging and significantly decreases the speed with which they can move along lines. Since females are widely dispersed, the impairment of mobility adversely affects the male’s reproductive success.


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Hammershus. Hammershus is a medieval era fortification at Hammeren on the northern tip of the Danish island of Bornholm.The fortress was partially demolished around 1750 and is now a ruin. It was partially restored around 1900.## History.Hammershus was Scandinavia's largest medieval fortification and is one of the largest medieval fortifications in Northern Europe. It is situated in the Baltic Sea 74 (m) above sea level. The fortification was erected in the 13th century and consists of the base castle residence and features a grand tower called the "mantel" tower. Hammershus Fortress features a 750 (m) perimeter wall around the castle grounds.During.


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Kākā. disease. There have also been instances of kākā nesting in the roofs of houses.Kaka 'back from the brink' after Fiordland 1080 operation takes out predators Department of Conservation website 28 April 20111080 drop boosts Waitutu kaka Southland Times website 27 April 2011Pureora Forest kaka demonstrate benefits of using 1080 poison Waikato Regional Council websitekaka and 1080 poison 1080: The Facts website (a public education initiative by Forest and Bird and Federated Farmers)Effects of a 1080 operation on kaka and kereru survival and nesting success, Whirinaki Forest Park, Powlesland et al. (PDF, 400kb) New Zealand Journal of Ecology (2003) 27(2): 125–137Effect.


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Accentor. The accentors are a genus of birds in the family Prunellidae, which is endemic to the Old World. This small group of closely related passerines are all in the genus "Prunella". All but the dunnock and the Japanese accentor are inhabitants of the mountainous regions of Europe and Asia; these two also occur in lowland areas, as does the Siberian accentor in the far north of Siberia. These birds are not strongly migratory, but they will leave the coldest parts of their range in winter and make altitudinal movements.## Taxonomy and etymology.The genus "Prunella" was introduced by the French ornithologist.


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Parka. A parka or anorak is a type of coat with a hood, often lined with fur or faux fur. This kind of garment is a staple of Inuit clothing, traditionally made from caribou or seal skin, for hunting and kayaking in the frigid Arctic. Some Inuit anoraks require regular coating with fish oil to retain their water resistance.The words "anorak" and "parka" have been used interchangeably, but they are somewhat different garments. Strictly speaking, an anorak is a waterproof, hooded, pull-over jacket without a front opening, and sometimes drawstrings at the waist and cuffs, and a parka is a hip-length.

Parka. is sometimes used as a mildly derogatory term.The word "parka" is derived from the Nenets language. In the Aleutian Islands the word simply means "animal skin". It first entered the English written record in a 1625 work by Samuel Purchas.The Inuit who speak Inuktitut use parkas and have various terms related to them as follows:## N-3B ("scrub snorkel" or "snorkel") parka.The original snorkel parka (USAF N-3B parka, which is 3/4 length and has a full, attached hood; the similar N-2B parka is waist-length and has an attached split hood) was developed in the United States during the early 1950s for.

Parka. pocket. It was invented by Noel Bibby of Peter Storm Ltd. in the early 1960s. It may have a full-zippered front opening, or pull over the head like an original anorak and close with snaps or a short zipper, has an integral hood, and elasticated or drawstring cuffs. In some versions, when rolled up, the hood doubles as a bag into which the rest of the coat is pushed. It became very popular in the United Kingdom during the 1970s.Anorak (slang)Capote (garment)Goggle jacketHoodieMackintoshYup'ik clothing"The Anorak", a play about the Montreal Massacre written and performed by Adam KellyA traditional Inuit parka.


Question: Who are the structure engineers of this building?

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Medici Fountain. including the sculptor Francesco Bordoni, who helped design the statue of King Henry IV of France built on the Pont Neuf, and fountain technician Thomas Francini, who had worked on fountains in the new gardens of the Medici villas in Florence and Rome, found eager royal patrons in France. Soon features of the Italian Renaissance garden, such as elaborate fountains and the grotto, a simulated cave decorated with sculpture, appeared in the first Gardens of the French Renaissance at Fontainebleau and other royal residences.## Construction.Marie de' Medici, as widow of Henry IV and mother and regent of King Louis XIII.

Medici Fountain. of France, began construction of her own palace, which she called the Palais des Medicis, between 1623 and 1630, on the left bank of Paris. The new palace was modeled after the Palazzo Pitti in her native Florence, and the gardens around the palace were modeled after those of the Boboli Gardens in Florence. The Palace was the work of architect Salomon de Brosse, but the fountain and grotto was most probably the work of Tommaso Francini, the Intendant General of Waters and Fountains of the King. Francini, who emigrated to France at the invitation of Henry IV in 1598.


Question: Where is this plant native to?

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Pittosporum tenuifolium. Pittosporum tenuifolium is a small evergreen tree endemic to New Zealand – up to 10 (m) – commonly known as ' and black matipo, and by other Māori names ' and . Its small, very dark, reddish-purple flowers generally go unnoticed, and are scented only at night. The Latin means "slender-leaved"## Description.The scientific name of kōhūhū is a good starting point to find out more about the physical characteristics of the species. "Pittosporum" translates to tarry – – seed – , a reference to the sticky fluid that encases the seeds and means thin – – leaf – .Kōhūhū is.

Pittosporum tenuifolium. or three segments when ripened. Inside are black seeds, encased in a very sticky substance. The stickiness of the seeds is likely to help with seed dispersal.## Names.Common names include:MatipoBlack matipoRautawhiri RautāwhiriKairaroKihihiKowhiwhi, KōwhiwhiKohukohuKoihuMāpaurikiPōhiriPōwhiriTāwhiriTawiriTawhiwhiSilverleafTurpentine-treeBlack birch## Distribution.## Natural global range.Kōhūhū is endemic to New Zealand.## New Zealand range.Kōhūhū is well spread all over New Zealand, being absent only to the west of the Southern Alps and Stewart Island.## Habitat preferences.Kōhūhū is found growing wild in coastal and lower mountain forest areas up to an altitude of 900 m.Kōhūhū grows particularly quickly at forest edges located at the bottom of high terraces, and.

Pittosporum tenuifolium. and prefers soils with good drainage in humid climates. Planting it in damp conditions can cause winter leaf drop, which likely explains why kōhūhū is not found growing on the West Coast of New Zealand. In its role in ecological succession, kōhūhū is often found at an earlier stage than its relative lemonwood (another endemic "Pittosporum"), and usually inhabits less fertile soils.## Predators, Parasites, and Diseases.## Insects.There are over 50 insect species listed in the Plant-SyNZ database that either feed on or parasitise kōhūhū – wasps, sucking bugs, flies, moths, butterflies, thrips, mites and beetles. There are also more than.

Pittosporum tenuifolium. feed only on "Pittosporum" species, by attaching themselves to a suitable part of the plant and feeding on its sap. The psyllid leaves a trail of characteristic “beads” behind.Cottony cushion scale – "Icerya purchase" –, an Australian bug, soft wax scale – "Ceroplastes destructor" –, an import from overseas and the Australian green shield bug – "Glaucias amyoti" –, native to New Zealand despite its name also parasitise the "Pittosporum" species, but have a more varied range of hosts. All attach themselves to a suitable part of the plant and feed on its sap.New Zealand flower thrips – "Thrips obscuratus.

Pittosporum tenuifolium. – feeds on leaves, flowers and young fruit of kōhūhū, by piercing plant cells and sucking their contents.## Fungi."Pythium irregulare" has been recorded as a pathogen of kōhūhū, causing foliar blight, rot, and eventually death.A recently discovered pathogen of kōhūhū that caused swelling of twigs – the fungus "Elsinoe takoropuku" – turned out to be a newly discovered species of fungi. The fungus was, so far, only found in association with kōhūhū.## Uses.## Garden plant.Kōhūhū is a popular garden plant in New Zealand and overseas, often used a hedge or as visual backdrop. It is sometimes grown under the cultivar.


Question: Where do you usually find this plant?

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Caltha palustris. Caltha palustris, known as marsh-marigold and kingcup, is a small to medium size perennial herbaceous plant of the buttercup family, native to marshes, fens, ditches and wet woodland in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. It flowers between April and August, dependent on altitude and latitude, but occasional flowers may occur at other times.## Description."Caltha palustris" is a 10 – 80 (cm) high, hairless, fleshy, perennial, herbaceous plant that dies down in autumn and overwinters with buds near the surface of the marshy soil. The plants have many, 2 – 3 (mm) thick strongly branching roots. Its flowering stems are.

Caltha palustris. hollow, erect or more or less decumbent. The alternate true leaves are in a rosette, each of which consist of a leaf stem that is about four times as long as the kidney-shaped leaf blade, itself between 3 – 25 (cm) long and 3 – 20 (cm) wide, with a heart-shaped foot, a blunt tip, and a scalloped to toothed, sometime almost entire margin particularly towards the tip. In their youth the leaves are protected by a membranous sheath, that may be up to 3 (cm) long in fully grown plants.## Inflorescence.The common marsh-marigold mostly has several flowering stems of.

Caltha palustris. correct name.## Etymology.The generic name "Caltha" is derived from the Ancient Greek (), meaning "goblet", and is said to refer to the shape of the flower. The species epithet "palustris" is Latin for "of the marsh" and indicates its common habitat.In the UK, "Caltha palustris" is known by a variety of vernacular names, varying by geographical region. These include in addition to the most common two, marsh marigold and kingcup, also brave bassinets, crazy Beth, horse blob, Molly-blob, May blob, mare blob, boots, water boots, meadow-bright, bullflower, meadow buttercup, water buttercup, soldier's buttons, meadow cowslip, water cowslip, publican's cloak, crowfoot,.

Caltha palustris. Garden Merit), "Multiplex", "Plena", "Semiplena".## Distribution and habitat.The species is native to marshes, fens, ditches and wet woodland in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. It can be found in much of the northeastern United States.## Ecology.The marsh-marigold grows in places with oxygen-rich water near the surface of the soil. It likes richer soils, but dislikes application of fertilizer and avoids high concentrations of phosphate and ammonium, and is also shy of brackish water. It is often associated with seepage that is rich in iron, because iron ions react with phosphate, thus making it unavailable for plants. The resulting insoluble.

Caltha palustris. mineral appears as "rusty" flocs on the water soil and the surface of the stems of marsh plants. Around the edge of lakes and rivers it grows between reeds, and it can be found in black alder coppices and other regularly flooded and always moist forests. When it is present it often visually dominates when it is in bloom. It also used to be common on wet meadows, but due to agricultural rationalization it is now limited to ditches.It is a component of purple moor grass and rush pastures – a type of Biodiversity Action Plan habitat in the UK.

Caltha palustris. It occurs on poorly drained neutral and acidic soils of the lowlands and upland fringe.In western Europe, the marsh-marigold moth "Micropterix calthella" bites open the anthers of the marsh-marigold and other plants to eat the pollen. The caterpillars that are present in summer and autumn also feed on marsh-marigold, although these are sometimes found on mosses too. Another visitor of "Caltha palustris" in western Europe is the leaf beetle "Prasocuris phellandrii", which is black with four orange stripes and around ½ cm and eats the sepals. Its larvae inhabit the hollow stems of members of the parsley family. In the.

Caltha palustris. have some spongy tissue that makes them float on water, until they wash up in a location that may be suitable for this species to grow.## Diseases.The marsh-marigold is affected by the rust species "Puccinia calthea" and "P. calthicola".## Toxicity."Caltha" contains several active substances of which the most important from a toxicological point of view is protoanemonin. Larger quantities of the plant may cause convulsions, burning of the throat, vomiting, bloody diarrhea, dizziness and fainting. Contact of the skin or mucous membranes with the juices can cause blistering or inflammation, and gastric illness if ingested. Younger parts seem to contain.

Caltha palustris. and used as a spice.The common marsh marigold is planted as an ornamental throughout temperate regions in the world, and sometimes recommended for low maintenance wildlife gardens. The double-flowered cultivar 'Flore Pleno' has won the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.## Culture."Caltha palustris" is a plant commonly mentioned in literature, including Shakespeare:"Winking Marybuds begin""To open their golden eyes" ("Cymbeline", ii. 3).It also appears in Charlotte Brontë's "Shirley":"They both halted on the green brow of the Common: they looked down on the deep valley robed in May raiment; on varied meads, some pearled with daisies, and some golden with king-cups:.


Question: In which year did this animal go extinct?

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Aurochs. Europe to the Holstein interglacial. As indicated by fossil remains in Northern Europe, it reached Denmark and southern Sweden during the Holocene. The aurochs declined during the late Holocene due to habitat loss and hunting, and became extinct when the last individual died in 1627 in Jaktorów forest in Poland.The aurochs is depicted in Paleolithic cave paintings, Neolithic petroglyphs, Ancient Egyptian reliefs and Bronze Age figurines. It symbolised power, sexual potency and prowess in religions of the ancient Near East. Its horns were used in votive offerings, as trophies and drinking horns.Two aurochs domestication events occurred during the Neolithic Revolution.

Aurochs. in 1627 from natural causes.## Behaviour and ecology.Aurochs formed small herds mainly in winter, but lived singly or in smaller groups during the summer. If aurochs had social behaviour similar to their descendants, social status was gained through displays and fights, in which both cows and bulls engaged. With its hypsodont jaw, the aurochs was probably a grazer, with a food selection very similar to domesticated cattle feeding on grass, twigs and acorns.Mating season was in September, and calves were born in spring. The bulls had severe fights, and evidence from the Jaktorów forest shows these could lead to death.


Question: Which city or region does this mountain locate in?

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Salève. The Salève (), or Mont Salève, is a mountain of the French Prealps located in the department of Haute-Savoie in Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes. It is also called the "Balcony of Geneva" (French: "Balcon de Genève").## Geography.Geographically, the Salève is a mountain of the French Prealps located in the Haute-Savoie department, but geologically a part of the Jura chain, as the Vuache is. Below the Salève is the Geneva urban area where more than 700,000 people live.The Salève consists of the Pitons, Grand Salève and Petit Salève; it culminates at 1,379 metres at the Grand Piton. It is accessible via the Téléphérique du.


Question: What is the vertex figure of this object?

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Hexagon. of the circumscribed circle or circumcircle, which equals formula_1 times the apothem (radius of the inscribed circle). All internal angles are 120 degrees. A regular hexagon has six rotational symmetries ("rotational symmetry of order six") and six reflection symmetries ("six lines of symmetry"), making up the dihedral group D6. The longest diagonals of a regular hexagon, connecting diametrically opposite vertices, are twice the length of one side. From this it can be seen that a triangle with a vertex at the center of the regular hexagon and sharing one side with the hexagon is equilateral, and that the regular hexagon.

Hexagon. adding alternating squares and equilateral triangles around it. This pattern repeats within the rhombitrihexagonal tiling.## Self-crossing hexagons.There are six self-crossing hexagons with the vertex arrangement of the regular hexagon:## Hexagonal structures.From bees' honeycombs to the Giant's Causeway, hexagonal patterns are prevalent in nature due to their efficiency. In a hexagonal grid each line is as short as it can possibly be if a large area is to be filled with the fewest hexagons. This means that honeycombs require less wax to construct and gain much strength under compression.Irregular hexagons with parallel opposite edges are called parallelogons and can also tile.

Hexagon. the plane by translation. In three dimensions, hexagonal prisms with parallel opposite faces are called parallelohedrons and these can tessellate 3-space by translation.## Tesselations by hexagons.In addition to the regular hexagon, which determines a unique tessellation of the plane, any irregular hexagon which satisfies the Conway criterion will tile the plane.## Hexagon inscribed in a conic section.Pascal's theorem (also known as the "Hexagrammum Mysticum Theorem") states that if an arbitrary hexagon is inscribed in any conic section, and pairs of opposite sides are extended until they meet, the three intersection points will lie on a straight line, the "Pascal line.

Hexagon. of that configuration.## Cyclic hexagon.The Lemoine hexagon is a cyclic hexagon (one inscribed in a circle) with vertices given by the six intersections of the edges of a triangle and the three lines that are parallel to the edges that pass through its symmedian point.If the successive sides of a cyclic hexagon are "a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", then the three main diagonals intersect in a single point if and only if .If, for each side of a cyclic hexagon, the adjacent sides are extended to their intersection, forming a triangle exterior to the given side, then the segments.

Hexagon. connecting the circumcenters of opposite triangles are concurrent.If a hexagon has vertices on the circumcircle of an acute triangle at the six points (including three triangle vertices) where the extended altitudes of the triangle meet the circumcircle, then the area of the hexagon is twice the area of the triangle.## Hexagon tangential to a conic section.Let ABCDEF be a hexagon formed by six tangent lines of a conic section. Then Brianchon's theorem states that the three main diagonals AD, BE, and CF intersect at a single point.In a hexagon that is tangential to a circle and that has consecutive sides.

Hexagon. "a", "b", "c", "d", "e", and "f",formula_16## Equilateral triangles on the sides of an arbitrary hexagon.If an equilateral triangle is constructed externally on each side of any hexagon, then the midpoints of the segments connecting the centroids of opposite triangles form another equilateral triangle.## Skew hexagon.A skew hexagon is a skew polygon with six vertices and edges but not existing on the same plane. The interior of such an hexagon is not generally defined. A "skew zig-zag hexagon" has vertices alternating between two parallel planes.A regular skew hexagon is vertex-transitive with equal edge lengths. In three dimensions it will be.


Question: What country does this bridge belong to?

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Marble Bridge. The Siberian Marble Gallery is a decorative pedestrian roofed Palladian bridge (gallery walkway) in Empress Catherine Park in the former royal residence Tsarskoye Selo (now town of Pushkin) near Saint Petersburg, Russia. It connects the Swan Islands — an artificial archipelago of seven islets in the landscape park of Tsarskoe Selo — spanning a rivulet flowing between several ponds. The bridge was modelled after the Palladian Bridge (1736) in the park of Wilton House, in England, and served as a showcase for Ural marble. All the details of the bridge — including the granite Ionic colonnade — were produced in.

Marble Bridge. Yekaterinburg, transported to Tsarskoe Selo and then assembled in the workshop of Vincenzo Tortori in 1774. It is probably called Siberian due to its construction with marble from the Urals.


Question: Where is this animal native to?

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Pseudacris sierra. The Sierran chorus frog or Sierran treefrog ("Pseudacris sierra") has a range from the West Coast of the United States from Central California inland through Idaho. They live from sea level to more than 10,000 feet in many types of habitats, reproducing in aquatic settings. They occur in shades of greens or browns and can change colors over periods of hours and weeks.## Taxonomy.The naming of this frog has a very confusing history. These frogs have long been known as Pacific chorus frogs "Pseudacris regilla". Then, in 2006, Recuero et al. split that taxonomic concept into three species. Recuero et.


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this bird?

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Long-billed curlew. The long-billed curlew (Numenius americanus) is a large North American shorebird of the family Scolopacidae. This species was also called "sicklebird" and the "candlestick bird". The species breeds in central and western North America, migrating southward and coastward for the winter.## Description.The long-billed curlew is the largest sandpiper of regular occurrence in North America. It is 50 - 65 (cm) long, 62 - 90 (cm) across the wing and weighs 490 - 950 (g). Its disproportionally long bill curves downward and measures 11.3 - 21.9 (cm), and rivals the bill of the larger-bodied Far Eastern curlew as the longest bill.

Long-billed curlew. to analyze its migration routes, with it taking flight in April 2016. Long-billed curlew Status Assessment and Conservation Plan – U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Long-billed curlew Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology Long-billed curlew - "Numenius americanus" – USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter.


Question: How long in metre is the longest span of this island?

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Confederation Bridge. ship traffic. The bridge rests on 62 piers, of which the 44 main piers are 250 (m) apart. The bridge is 11 (m) wide.The speed limit on the bridge is 80 (km/h) but can vary with wind and weather conditions. When travelling at the speed limit, it takes about 12 minutes to cross the bridge.## Tolls.Tolls apply only when leaving Prince Edward Island (when travelling westbound). The toll rates are $50.25 for a two-axle automobile and $8.50 for each additional axle. Motorcycles are charged $20.00. While pedestrians and cyclists are not permitted to cross the bridge, a shuttle service is.


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this insect?

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Automeris io. Automeris io, the Io moth () or peacock moth, is a colorful North American moth in the family Saturniidae. The io moth is also a member of the subfamily Hemileucinae. The name Io comes from Greek mythology in which Io was a mortal lover of Zeus. The Io moth ranges from the southeast corner of Manitoba and in the southern extremes of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia in Canada, and in the US it is found from Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Colorado, New Mexico, Texas, Utah, east of those states and down to the southern end.

Automeris io. of Florida. The species was first described by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1775.## Adult description.Imagines (sexually mature, reproductive stage) have a wingspan of 2.5–3.5 inches (63–88 mm). This species is sexually dimorphic, males having bright yellow forewings, body, and legs, while females have reddish-brown to purple forewings, body, and legs. The males also have much bigger plumose (feathery) antennae than the females. Both males and females have one big black to bluish eyespot with some white in the center, on each hindwing. Some hybridizations have resulted in variations in these hindwing eyespots. Adults live 1–2 weeks.## Parasitoids.Many species of flies.

Automeris io. (Tachinidae) and wasps (Ichneumonidae and Braconidae) are known parasitoids. The flies: the introduced Compsilura concinnata", Lespesia sabroskyi, Chetogena" "claripennis", Carcelia "formosa", Sisyropa "eudryae, Lespesia frenchii, and Nilea dimmocki". The Ichneumonidae wasps: Hyposoter "fugitivus and Enicospilus americanus". Then the Braconidae wasps: Cotesia "electrae and Cotesia hemileucae".## Predators.Io moths have many predators. These include birds, small mammals, and spiders.## Defenses.Stinging spines of caterpillar Io moths have a very painful venom that is released with the slightest touch; a condition known as erucism. There are two hypotheses regarding where this venom originates: (1) the glandular cells on the base of the branched seta.

Automeris io. or (2) from the secretory epithelial cells. Contacting the seta is not life-threatening for humans, but still causes irritation to the dermal tissue, thought to result in a stinging sensation.Both male and female adult io moths utilize their hindwing eyespots in predatory defense when the moth is sitting in the head-down position or is touched, via shaking and exposing these eyespots.## Life cycle.Females lay small, white ova in the leaves of host plants, including: Morus alba-mulberry "Prunus pensylvanica"—pin cherry "Salix"—willow "Abies balsamea"—balsam fir "Acer rubrum"—red maple "Amorpha fruticosa"—bastard indigo "Baptisia tinctoria"—wild indigo "Carpinus caroliniana"—American hornbeam "Celtis laevigata"—sugarberry or southern hackberry.

Automeris io. "Cephalanthus occidentalis"—button-bush "Cercis canadensis"—eastern redbud "Chamaecrista fasciculata"—showy partridge pea "Comptonia peregrina"—sweetfern "Cornus florida"—flowering dogwood "Corylus avellana"—common hazel Erythrina herbacea, coral bean "Fagus"—beech "Fraxinus"—ash "Liquidambar styraciflua"—American sweetgum Lythrum salicaria, introduced Purple Loosestrife "Quercus"—oak "Paeonia—peony"The eggs have large micropyle rosettes that turn black as the fertile eggs develop. They are usually laid in clusters of more than twenty and hatch within 8–11 days. From the eggs, orange larvae emerge, usually eating their egg shell soon after hatching. They go through five instars, each one being a little different.The caterpillars are herbivorous and gregarious in all their instars, many times traveling in single.

Automeris io. file processions all over the food plant. As the larvae develop, they will lose their orange color and will turn bright green and urticating, having many spines. The green caterpillars have two lateral stripes, the upper one being bright red and the lower one being white. These caterpillars can reach sizes of 7 cm in length. When the caterpillars are ready, they spin a flimsy, valveless cocoon made from a dark, coarse silk. Some larvae will crawl to the base of the tree and make their cocoons among leaf litter on the ground, while others will use living leaves to.

Automeris io. wrap their cocoons with. The leaves will turn brown and fall to the ground during fall, taking the cocoons with them. There they pupate, the pupa being dark brown/black. The pupae also have sexual dimorphism with the females being considerably larger than the males.Adult io moths normally emerge from their cocoons in late morning or early afternoon. The emergence of the adults moths is typically from June to July. Eclosion (emergence from the cocoon) only takes a few minutes. After eclosing, the moths climb and hang on plants so that their furled wings can be inflated with fluid (hemolymph) pumped.

Automeris io. from the body. This inflation process takes about twenty minutes.Adult moths are strictly nocturnal, generally flying during the peak hours of the night. The females generally wait until nightfall and then extend a scent gland from the posterior region of the abdomen, in order to attract males via wind-borne pheromones. The males use their larger antennae to detect the pheromones. After mating, the females die following egg laying. These moths have vestigial mouthparts and do not eat in the adult stage.## Conservation Status.The io moth is currently not listed on the IUCN Red List or the US Federal List. In.

Automeris io. the eastern range of the US, the populations indicate a declining and more localized trend. "Aglais io", a butterfly speciesSite with a description and picturesIo moth on the UF / IFAS Featured Creatures Web site.


Question: Who is the discoverer or inventor of this object?

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Fresnel lens. A Fresnel lens ( ; ; or ) is a type of composite compact lens developed by the French physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel (1788–1827) for use in lighthouses. It has been called "the invention that saved a million ships."The design allows the construction of lenses of large aperture and short focal length without the mass and volume of material that would be required by a lens of conventional design. A Fresnel lens can be made much thinner than a comparable conventional lens, in some cases taking the form of a flat sheet. The simpler dioptric (purely refractive) form of the lens.

Fresnel lens. was first proposed by Count Buffon and independently reinvented by Fresnel. The "catadioptric" form of the lens, entirely invented by Fresnel, has outer elements that use total internal reflection as well as refraction; it can capture more oblique light from a light source and add it to the beam of a lighthouse, making the light visible from greater distances.## Description.The Fresnel lens reduces the amount of material required compared to a conventional lens by dividing the lens into a set of concentric annular sections. An ideal Fresnel lens would have an infinite number of sections. In each section, the overall.

Fresnel lens. thickness is decreased compared to an equivalent simple lens. This effectively divides the continuous surface of a standard lens into a set of surfaces of the same curvature, with stepwise discontinuities between them.In some lenses, the curved surfaces are replaced with flat surfaces, with a different angle in each section. Such a lens can be regarded as an array of prisms arranged in a circular fashion with steeper prisms on the edges and a flat or slightly convex center. In the first (and largest) Fresnel lenses, each section was actually a separate prism. 'Single-piece' Fresnel lenses were later produced, being.

Fresnel lens. used for automobile headlamps, brake, parking, and turn signal lenses, and so on. In modern times, computer-controlled milling equipment (CNC) or 3-D printers might be used to manufacture more complex lenses.Fresnel lens design allows a substantial reduction in thickness (and thus mass and volume of material) at the expense of reducing the imaging quality of the lens, which is why precise imaging applications such as photography usually still use larger conventional lenses.Fresnel lenses are usually made of glass or plastic; their size varies from large (old historical lighthouses, meter size) to medium (book-reading aids, OHP viewgraph projectors) to small (TLR/SLR.

Fresnel lens. camera screens, micro-optics). In many cases they are very thin and flat, almost flexible, with thicknesses in the 1 to 5 (mm) range.Most modern Fresnel lenses consist only of refractive elements. Lighthouse lenses, however, tend to include both refracting and reflecting elements, the latter being "outside" the metal rings seen in the photographs. While the inner elements are sections of refractive lenses, the outer elements are reflecting prisms, each of which performs two refractions and one total internal reflection, avoiding the light loss that occurs in reflection from a silvered mirror.## Lighthouse lens sizes.Fresnel designed six sizes of lighthouse lenses,.

Fresnel lens. divided into four "orders" based on their size and focal length. In modern use, these are classified as first through sixth order. An intermediate size between third and fourth order was added later, as well as sizes above first order and below sixth.A first-order lens has a focal length of 920 (mm) and stands about 2.59 (m) high, and 1.8 (m) wide. The smallest (sixth) order has a focal length of 150 (mm) and a height of 433 (mm).The largest Fresnel lenses are called hyperradiant (or hyper-radial). One such lens was on hand when it was decided to build and.

Fresnel lens. outfit the Makapuu Point Light in Hawaii. Rather than order a new lens, the huge optic construction, 12 (ft) tall and with over a thousand prisms, was used there.## Types.There are two main types of Fresnel lens: "imaging" and "non-imaging". Imaging Fresnel lenses use segments with curved cross-sections and produce sharp images, while non-imaging lenses have segments with flat cross-sections, and do not produce sharp images. As the number of segments increases, the two types of lens become more similar to each other. In the abstract case of an infinite number of segments, the difference between curved and flat segments.

Fresnel lens. disappears.Spherical: A spherical Fresnel lens is equivalent to a simple spherical lens, using ring-shaped segments that are each a portion of a sphere, that all focus light on a single point. This type of lens produces a sharp image, although not quite as clear as the equivalent simple spherical lens due to diffraction at the edges of the ridges.Cylindrical: A cylindrical Fresnel lens is equivalent to a simple cylindrical lens, using straight segments with circular cross-section, focusing light on a single line. This type produces a sharp image, although not quite as clear as the equivalent simple cylindrical lens due.

Fresnel lens. to diffraction at the edges of the ridges.Spot: A non-imaging spot Fresnel lens uses ring-shaped segments with cross sections that are straight lines rather than circular arcs. Such a lens can focus light on a small spot, but does not produce a sharp image. These lenses have application in solar power, such as focusing sunlight on a solar panel. Fresnel lenses may be used as components of Köhler illumination optics resulting in very effective nonimaging optics Fresnel-Köhler (FK) solar concentrators.Linear: A non-imaging linear Fresnel lens uses straight segments whose cross sections are straight lines rather than arcs. These lenses focus.

Fresnel lens. light into a narrow band. They do not produce a sharp image, but can be used in solar power, such as for focusing sunlight on a pipe, to heat the water within.## Uses.## Imaging.Fresnel lenses are used as simple hand-held magnifiers. They are also used to correct several visual disorders, including ocular-motility disorders such as strabismus. Fresnel lenses have been used to increase the visual size of CRT displays in pocket televisions, notably the Sinclair TV80. They are also used in traffic lights.Fresnel lenses are used in left-hand-drive European lorries entering the UK and Republic of Ireland (and vice versa,.

Fresnel lens. right-hand-drive Irish and British trucks entering mainland Europe) to overcome the blind spots caused by the driver operating the lorry while sitting on the wrong side of the cab relative to the side of the road the car is on. They attach to the passenger-side window.Another automobile application of a Fresnel lens is a rear view enhancer, as the wide view angle of a lens attached to the rear window permits examining the scene behind a vehicle, particularly a tall or bluff-tailed one, more effectively than a rear-view mirror alone.Multi-focal Fresnel lenses are also used as a part of retina.

Fresnel lens. identification cameras, where they provide multiple in- and out-of-focus images of a fixation target inside the camera. For virtually all users, at least one of the images will be in focus, thus allowing correct eye alignment.Fresnel lenses have also been used in the field of popular entertainment. The British rock artist Peter Gabriel made use of them in his early solo live performances to magnify the size of his head, in contrast to the rest of his body, for dramatic and comic effect. In the Terry Gilliam film "Brazil", plastic Fresnel screens appear ostensibly as magnifiers for the small CRT.

Fresnel lens. monitors used throughout the offices of the Ministry of Information. However, they occasionally appear between the actors and the camera, distorting the scale and composition of the scene to humorous effect. The Pixar movie Wall-E features a Fresnel lens in the scenes where the protagonist watches the musical Hello, Dolly! magnified on an iPod.## Photography.Canon and Nikon have used Fresnel lenses to reduce the size of telephoto lenses. Photographic lenses that include Fresnel elements can be much shorter than corresponding conventional lens design. Nikon calls the technology "Phase Fresnel".The Polaroid SX-70 camera used a Fresnel reflector as part of its.

Fresnel lens. viewing system.View and large format cameras can utilize a Fresnel lens in conjunction with the ground glass, to increase the perceived brightness of the image projected by a lens onto the ground glass, thus aiding in adjusting focus and composition.## Illumination.High-quality glass Fresnel lenses were used in lighthouses, where they were considered state of the art in the late 19th and through the middle of the 20th centuries; most lighthouses have now retired glass Fresnel lenses from service and replaced them with much less expensive and more durable aerobeacons, which themselves often contain plastic Fresnel lenses. Lighthouse Fresnel lens systems.

Fresnel lens. typically include extra annular prismatic elements, arrayed in faceted domes above and below the central planar Fresnel, in order to catch all light emitted from the light source. The light path through these elements can include an internal reflection, rather than the simple refraction in the planar Fresnel element. These lenses conferred many practical benefits upon the designers, builders, and users of lighthouses and their illumination. Among other things, smaller lenses could fit into more compact spaces. Greater light transmission over longer distances, and varied patterns, made it possible to triangulate a position.Perhaps the most widespread use of Fresnel lenses,.

Fresnel lens. for a time, occurred in automobile headlamps, where they can shape the roughly parallel beam from the parabolic reflector to meet requirements for dipped and main-beam patterns, often both in the same headlamp unit (such as the European H4 design). For reasons of economy, weight, and impact resistance, newer cars have dispensed with glass Fresnel lenses, using multifaceted reflectors with plain polycarbonate lenses. However, Fresnel lenses continue in wide use in automobile tail, marker, and reversing lights.Glass Fresnel lenses also are used in lighting instruments for theatre and motion pictures (see Fresnel lantern); such instruments are often called simply "Fresnels".

Fresnel lens. The entire instrument consists of a metal housing, a reflector, a lamp assembly, and a Fresnel lens. Many Fresnel instruments allow the lamp to be moved relative to the lens' focal point, to increase or decrease the size of the light beam. As a result, they are very flexible, and can often produce a beam as narrow as 7° or as wide as 70°. The Fresnel lens produces a very soft-edged beam, so is often used as a wash light. A holder in front of the lens can hold a colored plastic film ("gel") to tint the light or wire.

Fresnel lens. screens or frosted plastic to diffuse it. The Fresnel lens is useful in the making of motion pictures not only because of its ability to focus the beam brighter than a typical lens, but also because the light is a relatively consistent intensity across the entire width of the beam of light.Aircraft carriers and naval air stations typically use Fresnel lenses in their optical landing systems. The "meatball" light aids the pilot in maintaining proper glide slope for the landing. In the center are amber and red lights composed of Fresnel lenses. Although the lights are always on, the angle.

Fresnel lens. of the lens from the pilot's point of view determines the color and position of the visible light. If the lights appear above the green horizontal bar, the pilot is too high. If it is below, the pilot is too low, and if the lights are red, the pilot is very low.Fresnel lenses are also commonly used in searchlights, spotlights, and flashlights.## Projection.The use of Fresnel lenses for image projection reduces image quality, so they tend to occur only where quality is not critical or where the bulk of a solid lens would be prohibitive. Cheap Fresnel lenses can be.

Fresnel lens. stamped or molded of transparent plastic and are used in overhead projectors and projection televisions.Fresnel lenses of different focal lengths (one collimator, and one collector) are used in commercial and DIY projection. The collimator lens has the lower focal length and is placed closer to the light source, and the collector lens, which focuses the light into the triplet lens, is placed after the projection image (an active matrix LCD panel in LCD projectors). Fresnel lenses are also used as collimators in overhead projectors.## Solar power.Since plastic Fresnel lenses can be made larger than glass lenses, as well as being.

Fresnel lens. much cheaper and lighter, they are used to concentrate sunlight for heating in solar cookers, in solar forges, and in solar collectors used to heat water for domestic use. They can also be used to generate steam or to power a Stirling engine.Fresnel lenses can concentrate sunlight onto solar cells with a ratio of almost 500:1. This allows the active solar-cell surface to be reduced, lowering cost and allowing the use of more efficient cells that would otherwise be too expensive. In the early 21st century, Fresnel reflectors began to be used in concentrating solar power (CSP) plants to concentrate.

Fresnel lens. solar energy. One application was to preheat water at the coal-fired Liddell Power Station, in Hunter Valley Australia.Fresnel lenses can be used to sinter sand, allowing 3D printing in glass.## History.## Forerunners.Augustin-Jean Fresnel was not the first person to focus a lighthouse beam using a lens. That distinction apparently belongs to the London glass-cutter Thomas Rogers, who proposed the idea to Trinity House in 1788. The first Rogers lenses, 53cm in diameter and 14cm thick at the center, were installed at the Old Lower Lighthouse at Portland Bill in 1789. Behind each lamp was a back-coated spherical glass mirror, which.

Fresnel lens. reflected rear radiation back through the lamp and into the lens. Further samples were installed at Howth Baily, North Foreland, and at least four other locations by 1804. But much of the light was wasted by absorption in the glass.Nor was Fresnel the first to suggest replacing a convex lens with a series of concentric annular prisms, to reduce weight and absorption. In 1748, Count Buffon proposed grinding such prisms as steps in a single piece of glass. In 1790 (although secondary sources give the date as 1773 or 1788), the Marquis de Condorcet suggested that it would be easier.

Fresnel lens. to make the annular sections separately and assemble them on a frame; but even that was impractical at the time. These designs were intended not for lighthouses, but for burning glasses. David Brewster, however, proposed a system similar to Condorcet's in 1811, and by 1820 was advocating its use in British lighthouses.## Fresnel's contributions.The French (Commission of Lighthouses) was established by Napoleon in 1811, and placed under the authority of Fresnel's employer, the Corps of Bridges and Roads. As the members of the commission were otherwise occupied, it achieved little in its early years. But on 21 June 1819—three months.

Fresnel lens. after winning the physics of the Academy of Sciences for his celebrated memoir on diffraction—Fresnel was "temporarily" seconded to the commission on the recommendation of François Arago (a member since 1813), to review possible improvements in lighthouse illumination.By the end of August 1819, unaware of the Buffon-Condorcet-Brewster proposal, Fresnel made his first presentation to the commission, recommending what he called ('lenses by steps') to replace the reflectors then in use, which reflected only about half of the incident light. Much to Fresnel's embarrassment, one of the assembled commissioners, Jacques Charles, recalled Buffon's suggestion. However, whereas Buffon's version was biconvex and.

Fresnel lens. in one piece, Fresnel's was plano-convex and made of multiple prisms for easier construction. With an official budget of 500 francs, Fresnel approached three manufacturers. The third, François Soleil, found a way to remove defects by reheating and remolding the glass. Arago assisted Fresnel with the design of a modified Argand lamp with concentric wicks (a concept that Fresnel attributed to Count Rumford), and accidentally discovered that fish glue was heat-resistant, making it suitable for use in the lens. The prototype, finished in March 1820, had a square lens panel 55cm on a side, containing 97 polygonal (not annular) prisms—and.

Fresnel lens. so impressed the Commission that Fresnel was asked for a full eight-panel version. This model, completed a year later in spite of insufficient funding, had panels 76cm square. In a public spectacle on the evening of 13 April 1821, it was demonstrated by comparison with the most recent reflectors, which it suddenly rendered obsolete.Soon after this demonstration, Fresnel published the idea that light, including apparently unpolarized light, consists exclusively of transverse waves, and went on to consider the implications for double refraction and partial reflection.Fresnel acknowledged the British lenses and Buffon's invention in a memoir read on 29 July 1822.

Fresnel lens. and printed in the same year. The date of that memoir may be the source of the claim that Fresnel's lighthouse advocacy began two years later than Brewster's; but the text makes it clear that Fresnel's involvement began no later than 1819.Fresnel's next lens was a rotating apparatus with eight "bull's-eye" panels, made in annular arcs by Saint-Gobain, giving eight rotating beams—to be seen by mariners as a periodic flash. Above and behind each main panel was a smaller, sloping bull's-eye panel of trapezoidal outline with trapezoidal elements. This refracted the light to a sloping plane mirror, which then reflected.

Fresnel lens. it horizontally, 7 degrees ahead of the main beam, increasing the duration of the flash. Below the main panels were 128 small mirrors arranged in four rings, stacked like the slats of a louver or Venetian blind. Each ring, shaped like a frustum of a cone, reflected the light to the horizon, giving a fainter steady light between the flashes. The official test, conducted on the unfinished on 20 August 1822, was witnessed by the Commission—and by Louis XVIII and his entourage—from 20 (mi) away. The apparatus was stored at Bordeaux for the winter, and then reassembled at Cordouan Lighthouse.

Fresnel lens. under Fresnel's supervision—in part by Fresnel's own hands. On 25 July 1823, the world's first lighthouse Fresnel lens was lit. As expected, the light was visible to the horizon, more than 20 (mi) out.The day before the test of the Cordouan lens in Paris, a committee of the Academy of Sciences reported on Fresnel's memoir and supplements on double refraction—which, although less well known to modern readers than his earlier work on diffraction, struck a more decisive blow for the wave theory of light. Between the test and the reassembly at Cordouan, Fresnel submitted his papers on photoelasticity (16 September.

Fresnel lens. 1822), elliptical and circular polarization and optical rotation (9 December), and partial reflection and total internal reflection (7 January 1823), essentially completing his reconstruction of physical optics on the transverse wave hypothesis. Shortly after the Cordouan lens was lit, Fresnel started coughing up blood.In May 1824, Fresnel was promoted to Secretary of the , becoming the first member of that body to draw a salary, albeit in the concurrent role of Engineer-in-Chief. Late that year, being increasingly ill, he curtailed his fundamental research and resigned his seasonal job as an examiner at the , in order to save his remaining.

Fresnel lens. time and energy for his lighthouse work.In the same year he designed the first "fixed" lens—for spreading light evenly around the horizon while minimizing waste above or below. Ideally the curved refracting surfaces would be segments of toroids about a common vertical axis, so that the dioptric panel would look like a cylindrical drum. If this was supplemented by reflecting (catoptric) rings above and below the refracting (dioptric) parts, the entire apparatus would look like a beehive. The second Fresnel lens to enter service was indeed a fixed lens, of third order, installed at Dunkirk by 1 February 1825. However,.

Fresnel lens. due to the difficulty of fabricating large toroidal prisms, this apparatus had a 16-sided polygonal plan.In 1825 Fresnel extended his fixed-lens design by adding a rotating array outside the fixed array. Each panel of the rotating array was to refract part of the fixed light from a horizontal fan into a narrow beam.Also in 1825, Fresnel unveiled the ('lighthouse map'), calling for a system of 51 lighthouses plus smaller harbor lights, in a hierarchy of lens sizes called "orders" (the first being the largest), with different characteristics to facilitate recognition: a constant light (from a fixed lens), one flash per.

Fresnel lens. minute (from a rotating lens with eight panels), and two per minute (16 panels).In late 1825, to reduce the loss of light in the reflecting elements, Fresnel proposed to replace each mirror with a catadioptric prism, through which the light would travel by refraction through the first surface, then total internal reflection off the second surface, then refraction through the third surface. The result was the lighthouse lens as we now know it. In 1826 he assembled a small model for use on the , but he did not live to see a full-sized version: he died on 14 July.

Fresnel lens. 1827, at the age of 39.## After Fresnel.The first stage of the development of lighthouse lenses after the death of Augustin Fresnel consisted in the implementation of his designs. This was driven in part by his younger brother Léonor—who, like Augustin, was trained as a civil engineer but, unlike Augustin, had a strong aptitude for management. Léonor entered the service of the Lighthouse Commission in 1825, and went on to succeed Augustin as Secretary.The first fixed lens to be constructed with toroidal prisms was a first-order apparatus designed by the Scottish engineer Alan Stevenson under the guidance of Léonor Fresnel,.

Fresnel lens. and fabricated by Isaac Cookson & Co. using French glass; it entered service at the Isle of May, Scotland, on 22 September 1836. The first large catadioptric lenses were made in 1842 for the lighthouses at Gravelines and Île Vierge, France; these were fixed third-order lenses whose catadioptric rings (made in segments) were one metre in diameter. Stevenson's first-order Skerryvore lens, lit in 1844, was only partly catadioptric; it was similar to the Cordouan lens except that the lower slats were replaced by French-made catadioptric prisms, while mirrors were retained at the top. The first "fully" catadioptric first-order lens, installed.

Fresnel lens. at Pointe d'Ailly in 1852, also gave eight rotating beams plus a fixed light at the bottom; but its top section had eight catadioptric panels focusing the light about 4 degrees ahead of the main beams, in order to lengthen the flashes. The first fully catadioptric lens with "purely revolving" beams—also of first order—was installed at Saint-Clément-des-Baleines in 1854, and marked the completion of Augustin Fresnel's original "Carte des Phares".Thomas Stevenson (younger brother of Alan) went a step beyond Fresnel with his "holophotal" lens, which focused the light radiated by the lamp in nearly all directions, forward or backward, into.

Fresnel lens. a single beam. The first version, described in 1849, consisted of a standard Fresnel bull's-eye lens, a paraboloidal reflector, and a rear hemispherical reflector (functionally equivalent to the Rogers mirror of 60 years earlier, except that it subtended a whole hemisphere). Light radiated into the forward hemisphere but missing the bull's-eye lens was deflected by the paraboloid into a parallel beam surrounding the bull's-eye lens, while light radiated into the backward hemisphere was reflected back through the lamp by the spherical reflector (as in Rogers' arrangement), to be collected by the forward components. The first unit was installed at North.

Fresnel lens. Harbour, Peterhead, in August 1849. Stevenson called this version a "catadioptric holophote", although each of its elements was either purely reflective or purely refractive. In the second version of the holophote concept, the bull's-eye lens and paraboloidal reflector were replaced by a catadioptric Fresnel lens—as conceived by Fresnel, but expanded to cover the whole forward hemisphere. The third version, which Stevenson confusingly called a "dioptric holophote", was more innovative: it retained the catadioptric Fresnel lens for the front hemisphere, but replaced the rear hemispherical reflector with a hemispherical array of annular prisms, each of which used "two" total internal reflections.

Fresnel lens. to turn light diverging from the center of the hemisphere back toward the center. The result was an all-glass holophote, with no losses from metallic reflections.James Timmins Chance modified Thomas Stevenson's all-glass holophotal design by arranging the double-reflecting prisms about a vertical axis. The prototype was shown at the 1862 International Exhibition in London. Later, to ease manufacturing, Chance divided the prisms into segments, and arranged them in a cylindrical form while retaining the property of reflecting light from a single point back to that point. Reflectors of this form, paradoxically called "dioptric mirrors", proved particularly useful for returning light.

Fresnel lens. from the landward side of the lamp to the seaward side.As lighthouses proliferated, they became harder to distinguish from each other, leading to the use of colored filters, which wasted light. In 1884, John Hopkinson eliminated the need for filters by inventing the "group-flashing" lens, in which the dioptric and/or the catadioptric panels were split so as to give multiple flashes—allowing lighthouses to be identified not only by frequency of flashes, but also by multiplicity of flashes. Double-flashing lenses were installed at Tampico (Mexico) and Little Basses (Sri Lanka) in 1875, and a triple-flashing lens at Casquets Lighthouse (Channel Islands).

Fresnel lens. in 1876. The example shown (right) is the double-flashing lens of the Point Arena Light, which was in service from 1908 to 1977.The development of hyper-radial lenses was driven in part by the need for larger light sources, such as gas lights with multiple jets, which required a longer focal length for a given beam-width, hence a larger lens to collect a given fraction of the generated light. The first hyper-radial lens was built for the Stevensons in 1885 by F. Barbier & Cie of France, and tested at South Foreland Lighthouse with various light sources. Chance Brothers (Hopkinson's employers).

Fresnel lens. then began constructing hyper-radials, installing their first at Bishop Rock Lighthouse in 1887. In the same year, Barbier installed a hyper-radial at Tory Island. But only about 30 hyper-radials went into service before the development of more compact bright lamps rendered such large optics unnecessary (see "Hyperradiant Fresnel lens").Production of one-piece stepped dioptric lenses—roughly as envisaged by Buffon—became feasible in 1852, when John L. Gilliland of the Brooklyn Flint-Glass Company patented a method of making lenses from pressed and molded glass. The company made small bull's-eye lenses for use on railroads, steamboats, and docks; such lenses were common in the.

Fresnel lens. United States by the 1870s. In 1858 the company produced "a very small number of pressed flint-glass sixth-order lenses" for use in lighthouses—the first Fresnel lighthouse lenses made in America. By the 1950s, the substitution of plastic for glass made it economic to use Fresnel lenses as condensers in overhead projectors. Fresnel imager Fresnel zone plate Lenticular lens Linear Fresnel reflector Prism lighting − Fresnel anidolic optics M. Born and E. Wolf, "Principles of Optics", 7th Ed., Cambridge, 1999. G.-A. Boutry, 1948, "Augustin Fresnel: His time, life and work, 1788–1827", "Science Progress", vol. 36, no. 144 (October 1948), pp. 587–604;.

Fresnel lens. jstor.org/stable/43413515. J.Z. Buchwald, 1989, "The Rise of the Wave Theory of Light: Optical Theory and Experiment in the Early Nineteenth Century", University of Chicago Press, . J. Elton, 2009, "A Light to Lighten our Darkness: Lighthouse Optics and the Later Development of Fresnel's Revolutionary Refracting Lens 1780–1900", "International Journal for the History of Engineering & Technology", vol. 79, no. 2 (July 2009), pp. 183–244; . A. Fresnel, 1822, "Mémoire sur un nouveau système d'éclairage des phares", read 29 July 1822; reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 3, pp. 97–126; translated by T. Tag as "Memoir upon a new system of lighthouse.

Fresnel lens. illumination", U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 26 August 2017; archived 19 August 2016. (Cited page numbers refer to the translation.) A. Fresnel (ed. H. de Sénarmont, E. Verdet, and L. Fresnel), 1866–70, "Oeuvres complètes d'Augustin Fresnel" (3 vols.), Paris: Imprimerie Impériale; vol. 1 (1866), vol. 2 (1868), vol. 3 (1870). T.H. Levitt, 2013, "A Short Bright Flash: Augustin Fresnel and the Birth of the Modern Lighthouse", New York: W.W. Norton, . T. Young (ed. G. Peacock), 1855, "Miscellaneous Works of the late Thomas Young", London: J. Murray, vol. 1. "The Fresnel Lens", "The Keeper's Log", Winter 1985, pp. 12–14. U.S. Coast.

Fresnel lens. Guard, "Aids to Navigation", Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1945. U.S. Coast Guard, "Lighthouses, Lenses, Illuminants, Engineering, & Augustin Fresnel: A Historical Bibliography on Works Published Through 2007". United States Lighthouse Society, especially "Fresnel Lenses". W.A. Britten, "The Fresnel lens" (with photographs). J. Francis, "Fresnel Lens - Maxwell Simulation", 13 April 2009. J. Hare, "How the Fresnel lens works" (5-minute video), Vega Science Trust, 2008.


Question: What country does this village belong to?

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Cranny. Cranny () is a small village in County Clare, Ireland.## Location.Cranny lies on the banks of the Cloon River, which flows into the estuary of the River Shannon at Clonderlaw Bay.## Facilities.There is a local Gaelic Athletic Association club, Coolmeen GAA, founded in 1887 three years after the association came together. Coolmeen GAA succeeded in the Clare Senior Football Championship in 1919 and 1921, in the Clare Intermediate Football Championship in 1959, 1966 and 1967 and in the Clare Junior A Football Championship in 1958, 1964, 1983 and 1999. The parish also has a national school. The Cranny N.S. is.

Cranny. a co-educational catholic primary school Peadar Clancy List of towns and villages in Ireland.


Question: What is the closest upper taxonomy of this animal?

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Leopard. The leopard (Panthera pardus) is one of the five extant species in the genus "Panthera", a member of the cat family, Felidae. It occurs in a wide range in sub-Saharan Africa, in some parts of Western and Central Asia, Southern Russia, and on the Indian subcontinent to Southeast and East Asia. It is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List because leopard populations are threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation, and are declining in large parts of the global range. The leopard is considered locally extinct in Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, Jordan, Morocco, Togo, the United Arab Emirates,.

Leopard. Uzbekistan, Lebanon, Mauritania, Kuwait, Syria, Libya, Tunisia and most likely in North Korea, Gambia, Laos, Lesotho, Tajikistan, Vietnam and Israel.Contemporary records suggest that the leopard occurs in only 25% of its historical global range.Compared to other wild cats, the leopard has relatively short legs and a long body with a large skull. Its fur is marked with rosettes. It is similar in appearance to the jaguar ("Panthera onca"), but has a smaller, lighter physique, and its rosettes are generally smaller, more densely packed and without central spots. Both leopards and jaguars that are melanistic are known as black panthers. The.

Leopard. originally referred to a cheetah ("Acinonyx jubatus").'Panther' is another common name, derived from and ("pánthēr"); The generic name "Panthera" originates in , which refers to a hunting net for catching wild beasts that were used by the Romans in combats. "Pardus" is the masculine singular form.## Characteristics.The leopard's fur is generally soft and thick, notably softer on the belly than on the back. Its skin colour varies between individuals from pale yellowish to dark golden with dark spots grouped in rosettes. Its belly is whitish and its ringed tail is shorter than its body. Its pupils are round. Leopards living.

Leopard. patchy shadows, where it serves as camouflage.Its white-tipped tail is about 60 - 100 (cm) long, white underneath and with spots that form incomplete bands toward the tail's end.The guard hairs protecting the basal hairs are short, 3-4 (mm) in face and head, and increase in length toward the flanks and the belly to about 25 - 30 (mm). Juveniles have woolly fur, and appear to be dark-coloured due to the densely arranged spots. Its fur tends to grow longer in colder climates.The leopard's rosettes differ from those of the jaguar ("Panthera onca"), which are darker and with smaller spots.

Leopard. were as large as Barbary lions ("Panthera leo leo"). In 1913, an Algerian newspaper reported a leopard killed that allegedly measured about 275 (cm) in total length.The maximum weight of a wild leopard in Southern Africa was about 96 (kg). It measured 262 (cm). An Indian leopard killed in Himachal Pradesh in 2016 measured 261 (cm) with an estimated weight of 78.5 (kg); it was perhaps the largest known wild leopard in India.The largest skull of a leopard was recorded in India in 1920 and measured 28 (cm) in basal length, 20 (cm) in breadth, and weighed 2 (lb). The.

Leopard. were recorded between 1990 and 2015 in South Africa's Madikwe Game Reserve and in Mpumalanga. The cause of this morph known as a "strawberry leopard" or "pink panther" is not well understood.## Taxonomy."Felis pardus" was the scientific name proposed by Carl Linnaeus in 1758.The generic name "Panthera" was first used by Lorenz Oken in 1816, who included all the known spotted cats into this group.Oken's classification was not widely accepted, and "Felis" or "Leopardus" was used as the generic name until the early 20th century.The leopard was designated as the type species of "Panthera" by Joel Asaph Allen in 1902.In.

Leopard. 1917, Reginald Innes Pocock also subordinated the tiger ("P. tigris"), lion ("P. leo"), and jaguar ("P. onca") to "Panthera".## Subspecies.Following Linnaeus' first description, 27 leopard subspecies were proposed by naturalists between 1794 and 1956. Since 1996, only eight subspecies have been considered valid on the basis of mitochondrial analysis. Later analysis revealed a ninth valid subspecies, the Arabian leopard.In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the Cat Specialist Group recognized the following eight subspecies as valid taxa:Results of an analysis of molecular variance and pairwise fixation index of 182 African leopard museum specimens showed that some African leopards exhibit.

Leopard. higher genetic differences than Asian leopard subspecies.## Evolution.Results of phylogenetic studies based on nDNA and mtDNA analysis showed that the last common ancestor of the "Panthera" and "Neofelis" genera is thought to have lived about . "Neofelis" diverged about from the "Panthera" lineage. The tiger diverged about , followed by the snow leopard about and the leopard about . The leopard is a sister taxon to a clade within "Panthera", consisting of the lion and the jaguar.Results of a phylogenetic analysis of chemical secretions amongst cats indicated that the leopard is closely related to the lion.The geographic origin of the.

Leopard. "Panthera" is most likely northern Central Asia. The leopard-lion clade was distributed in the Asian and African Palearctic since at least the early Pliocene. The leopard-lion clade diverged 3.1–1.95 million years ago. Additionally, a 2016 study revealed that the mitochondrial genomes of the leopard, lion and snow leopard are more similar to each other than their nuclear genomes, indicating that their ancestors hybridized with the snow leopard at some point in their evolution.Fossils of leopard ancestors were excavated in East Africa and South Asia, dating back to the Pleistocene between 2 and . The modern leopard is suggested to have.

Leopard. disappeared. There is considerable potential for human-leopard conflict due to leopards preying on livestock.Leopard populations on the Arabian Peninsula are small and fragmented. In southeastern Egypt, a leopard killed in 2017 was the first record in this area in 65 years.In western and central Asia, it avoids deserts, areas with long snow cover and proximity to urban centres.In the Indian subcontinent, the leopard is still relatively abundant, with greater numbers than those of other "Panthera" species. As of 2020, the leopard population within forested habitats in India's tiger range landscapes was estimated at 12,172 to 13,535 individuals. Surveyed landscapes included.

Leopard. of the Kalahari.Average daily consumption rates of 3.5 (kg) were estimated for males and of 2.8 (kg) for females. In the southern Kalahari Desert, leopards meet their water requirements by the bodily fluids of prey and succulent plants; they drink water every two to three days and feed infrequently on moisture-rich plants such as gemsbok cucumbers ("Acanthosicyos naudinianus"), watermelon ("Citrullus lanatus") and Kalahari sour grass ("Schmidtia kalahariensis").## Enemies and competitors.In parts of its global range, the leopard is sympatric with other large predators such as the tiger ("Panthera tigris"), lion ("P. leo"), cheetah, spotted hyena ("Crocuta crocuta"), striped hyena ("Hyaena.

Leopard. to Henry III by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. In modern times, leopards have been trained and tamed in circuses. Leopard pattern List of largest cats Panther (legendary creature) IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group: "Panthera pardus" in Africa and "Panthera pardus" in Asia.