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Nepenthes. Nepenthes () is a genus of carnivorous plants, also known as tropical pitcher plants, or monkey cups, in the monotypic family Nepenthaceae. The genus includes about 170 species, and numerous natural and many cultivated hybrids. They are mostly liana-forming plants of the Old World tropics, ranging from South China, Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines; westward to Madagascar (two species) and the Seychelles (one); southward to Australia (four) and New Caledonia (one); and northward to India (one) and Sri Lanka (one). The greatest diversity occurs on Borneo, Sumatra, and the Philippines, with many endemic species. Many are plants of hot, humid,.

Nepenthes. lowland areas, but the majority are tropical montane plants, receiving warm days but cool to cold, humid nights year round. A few are considered tropical alpine, with cool days and nights near freezing. The name "monkey cups" refers to the fact that monkeys were once thought to drink rainwater from the pitchers. ## Description."Nepenthes" species usually consist of a shallow root system and a prostrate or climbing stem, often several metres long and up to 15 (m) or more, and usually 1 (cm) or less in diameter, although this may be thicker in a few species (e.g. "N. bicalcarata"). From.

Nepenthes. the stems arise alternate, sword-shaped leaves with entire leaf margins. An extension of the midrib (the tendril), which in some species aids in climbing, protrudes from the tip of the leaf; at the end of the tendril the pitcher forms. The pitcher starts as a small bud and gradually expands to form a globe- or tube-shaped trap. The shapes can evoke a champagne flute or a misused condom.The trap contains a fluid of the plant's own production, which may be watery or more viscous, and is used to drown the prey. This fluid contains viscoelastic biopolymers that may be crucial.

Nepenthes. to the retention of insects within the traps of many species. The viscoelastic fluid in pitchers is especially effective in the retention of winged insects. The trapping efficiency of this fluid remains high, even when significantly diluted by water, as inevitably happens in wet conditions.The lower part of the trap contains glands which absorb nutrients from captured prey. Along the upper inside part of the trap is a slick, waxy coating which makes the escape of its prey nearly impossible. Surrounding the entrance to the trap is a structure called the peristome (the "lip"), which is slippery and often quite.

Nepenthes. colorful, attracting prey, but offering an unsure footing. The prey-capture effectiveness of the peristome is further enhanced in moist environments, where condensation may cause a thin water film to form on the surface of the peristome. When wet, the slippery surface of the peristome causes insects to ‘aquaplane’, or slip and fall, into the pitcher. Above the peristome is a lid (the operculum); in many species, this keeps rain from diluting the fluid within the pitcher, the underside of which may contain nectar glands which attract prey."Nepenthes" species usually produce two types of pitchers, known as leaf dimorphism. Appearing near.

Nepenthes. the base of the plant are the large, lower traps, which typically sit on the ground. The upper or aerial pitchers are usually smaller, coloured differently, and possess different features from the lower pitchers. These upper pitchers usually form as the plant reaches maturity and the plant grows taller. To keep the plant steady, the upper pitchers often form a loop in the tendril, allowing it to wrap around nearby support. In some species (e.g. "N. rafflesiana"), different prey may be attracted by the two types of pitchers. This varied morphology also often makes identification of species difficult.Prey usually consists.

Nepenthes. of insects, but the largest species (e.g. "N. rajah" and "N. rafflesiana") may occasionally catch small vertebrates, such as rats and lizards. Records of cultivated plants trapping small birds have been made. Flowers occur in racemes or more rarely in panicles with male and female flowers on separate plants. Three species have symbiotic relationships with tree shrews, which eat the nectar produced by the plant and defecate into the pitchers, providing valuable nutrients."Nepenthes" are insect-pollinated, the primary agents being flies (including blow flies, midges, and mosquitoes), moths, wasps, and butterflies. Their smells can range from sweet to musty or fungus-like.

Nepenthes. Seed is typically produced in a four-sided capsule which may contain 50–500 wind-distributed seeds, consisting of a central embryo and two wings, one on either side (though "N. pervillei" differs).The genus is cytologically diploid, with all studied species having a chromosome number of "2n"=80. This high number is thought to reflect paleopolyploidy (likely 8x or 16x).## Taxonomy.About 170 species of "Nepenthes" are currently recognised as valid. This number is increasing, with several new species being described each year.## Etymology.The genus name "Nepenthes" was first published in 1737 in Carl Linnaeus's "Hortus Cliffortianus". It references a passage in Homer's "Odyssey", in.

Nepenthes. which the potion "Nepenthes pharmakon" is given to Helen by an Egyptian queen. "Nepenthe" literally means "without grief" ("ne" = not, "penthos" = grief) and, in Greek mythology, is a drug that quells all sorrows with forgetfulness. Linnaeus explained:If this is not Helen's "Nepenthes", it certainly will be for all botanists. What botanist would not be filled with admiration if, after a long journey, he should find this wonderful plant. In his astonishment past ills would be forgotten when beholding this admirable work of the Creator! [translated from Latin by Harry Veitch]The plant Linnaeus described was "N. distillatoria", called" bāndurā.

Nepenthes. (බාඳුරා), a species from Sri Lanka."Nepenthes" was formally published as a generic name in 1753 in Linnaeus's famous "Species Plantarum", which established botanical nomenclature as it exists today. "Nepenthes distillatoria" is the type species of the genus.The name "monkey cups" was discussed in the May 1964 issue of "National Geographic", in which Paul A. Zahl wrote:The carriers called them "monkey cups," a name I had heard elsewhere in reference to "Nepenthes", but the implication that monkeys drink the pitcher fluid seemed farfetched. I later proved it true. In Sarawak, I found an orangutan that had been raised as a pet.

Nepenthes. and later freed. As I approached it gingerly in the forest, I offered it a half-full pitcher. To my surprise, the ape accepted it, and with the finesse of a lady at tea, executed a delicate bottoms-up.The plants are often called "kantong semar" (Semar's pocket) in Indonesia and "sako ni Hudas" (Judas' money bag) in the Philippines.## Evolution and phylogeny.An absence of evidence of intermediate species, fossil or living (i.e. a missing link), does not allow forming a phylogenetical timeline for the development of the distinctive traits of modern "Nepenthes", which include its relatively rare strict dioecy and carnivorous pitchers.

Nepenthes. Although "Nepenthes" is distantly related to several modern genera, among these, even the carnivorous relatives [the sundews ("Drosera"), Venus flytrap ("Dionea muscipula"), waterwheel plant ("Aldrovanda"), and dewy pine ("Drosophyllum")], all lack those traits. Among known "Nepenthes", no protomodern characteristics or large variations are found, which suggests that all extant species radiated from a single close ancestor bearing all the modern traits. Phylogenetic comparisons of the chloroplast "matK "gene sequences between "Nepenthes" species and with related species support this conclusion, long genetic distance between "Nepenthes" and others, and abruptly diverging "pom-pom" grouping of the "Nepenthes" species .Fossilized pollen of "Nepenthes"-like plants.

Nepenthes. living on the northern Tethys Sea from 65 to 35 million years ago indicates that then-warmer Europe may have been where the proto-"Nepenthes" developed, and then escaped to Asia and India as Africa collided with Europe and the ensuing climate change wiped out the ancestral species in the original habitat. About 20 million years ago, Borneo, Sumatra, and Sulawesi and possibly even the Philippines were connected to mainland Asia, providing a bridge for the colonization of most sites of "Nepenthes" species radiation. The extensive landbridges in the area 20,000 years ago during the ice age would have provided access to.

Nepenthes. the remaining sites of "Nepenthes" populations in Oceania. The main complication with this hypothesis is the presence of "Nepenthes" on the distant islands of Seychelles and Madagascar. The seeds were thought to have been transferred by seabirds and shorebirds, which rest during their migrations in swampy habitats and may have inadvertently picked up the seeds. This hypothesis is possibly reinforced by the success of the lowland swamp-dwelling "N. distillatoria" in colonizing so many locations.## Distribution and habitat.The genus "Nepenthes" is mostly found within the Malay Archipelago, with the greatest biodiversity found on Borneo, Sumatra, and the Philippines, especially in the.

Nepenthes. Borneo montane rain forests. The full range of the genus includes Madagascar ("N. madagascariensis" and "N. masoalensis"), the Seychelles ("N. pervillei"), Sri Lanka ("N. distillatoria"), and India ("N. khasiana") in the west to Australia ("N. mirabilis", "N. rowanae", and "N. tenax") and New Caledonia ("N. vieillardii") in the southeast. Most species are restricted to very small ranges, including some only found on individual mountains. These limited distributions and the inaccessibility of the regions often means some species go decades without being rediscovered in the wild (e.g. "N. deaniana", which was rediscovered 100 years after its initial discovery). About 10 species.

Nepenthes. have population distributions larger than a single island or group of smaller islands. "Nepenthes mirabilis" has the distinction of being the most widely distributed species in the genus, ranging from Indochina and throughout the Malay Archipelago to Australia.Because of the nature of the habitats that "Nepenthes" species occupy, they are often graded as either lowland or highland species, depending on their altitude above sea level, with 1200 (m) the rough delineation between lowland and highland. Species growing at lower altitudes require continuously warm climates with little difference between day and night temperatures, whereas highland species thrive when they receive warm.

Nepenthes. days and much cooler nights. "Nepenthes lamii" grows at a higher altitude than any other in the genus, up to 3520 (m).Most "Nepenthes" species grow in environments that provide high humidity and precipitation and moderate to high light levels. A few species, including "N. ampullaria", prefer the dense, shaded forests, but most other species thrive on the margins of tree/shrub communities or clearings. Some species (e.g. "N. mirabilis") have been found growing in clear-cut forest areas, roadsides, and disturbed fields. Other species have adapted to growing in savanna-like grass communities. The soils in which "Nepenthes" species grow are usually acidic.

Nepenthes. and low in nutrients, being composed of peat, white sand, sandstone, or volcanic soils. Exceptions to these generalities include species that thrive in soils with high heavy metal content (e.g. "N. rajah"), on sandy beaches in the sea spray zone (e.g. "N. albomarginata"). Other species grow on inselbergs and as lithophytes, while others, such as "N. inermis", can grow as epiphytes with no soil contact.## Ecological relationships.The most obvious interaction between "Nepenthes" species and their environments, including other organisms, is that of predator and prey. "Nepenthes" species certainly attract and kill their prey, albeit passively, through active production of attractive.

Nepenthes. colours, sugary nectar, and even sweet scents. From this relationship, the plants primarily gain nitrogen and phosphorus to supplement their nutrient requirements for growth, given these soil nutrients are typically lacking. The most frequent prey is an abundant and diverse group of arthropods, with ants and other insects topping the menu. Other arthropods found frequently include spiders, scorpions, and centipedes, while snails and frogs are more unusual, but not unheard of. The most uncommon prey for "Nepenthes" species includes rats found in "N. rajah". The composition of prey captured depends on many factors, including location, but can incorporate hundreds of.

Nepenthes. individual insects and many different species. While many "Nepenthes" species are generalists in what they capture, at least one, "N. albomarginata", has specialised and almost exclusively traps termites and produces nearly no nectar. "Nepenthes albomarginata" gains its name from the ring of white trichomes directly beneath the peristome. These trichomes—or "hairs"—are palatable to termites and will attract them to the pitcher. In the course of collecting the edible trichomes, hundreds or thousands of termites will fall into the pitcher.## Symbioses."N. bicalcarata" provides space in the hollow tendrils of its upper pitchers for the carpenter ant "Camponotus schmitzi" to build nests.

Nepenthes. The ants take larger prey from the pitchers, which may benefit "N. bicalcarata" by reducing the amount of putrefaction of collected organic matter that could harm the natural community of infaunal species that aid the plant's digestion."N. lowii" has also formed a dependent relationship, but with vertebrates instead of insects. The pitchers of "N. lowii" provide a sugary exudate reward on the reflexed pitcher lid (operculum) and a perch for tree shrew species, which have been found eating the exudate and defecating into the pitcher. A 2009 study, which coined the term "tree shrew lavatories", determined between 57 and 100%.

Nepenthes. of the plant's foliar nitrogen uptake comes from the faeces of tree shrews. Another study showed the shape and size of the pitcher orifice of "N. lowii" exactly match the dimensions of a typical tree shrew ("Tupaia montana"). A similar adaptation was found in "N. macrophylla", "N. rajah", "N. ampullaria", and is also likely to be present in "N. ephippiata".Similarly, "N. hemsleyana", which is native to Borneo, has a symbiotic partnership with Hardwicke's woolly bat. During the day, a bat may roost above the digestive fluid inside the pitcher. While a bat is inside, it may defaecate, and the plant.

Nepenthes. can get nitrogen from the droppings.## Infauna.Organisms that spend at least part of their lives within the pitchers of "Nepenthes" species are often called "Nepenthes" infauna. The most common infaunal species, often representing the top trophic level of the infaunal ecosystem, are many species of mosquito larvae. Other infaunal species include fly and midge larvae, spiders, mites, ants, and even a species of crab ("Geosesarma malayanum"). Many of these species specialise to one pitcher plant species and are found nowhere else. These specialists are called nepenthebionts. Others, often associated with but not dependent on "Nepenthes" species, are called nepenthophiles. Nepenthexenes,.

Nepenthes. on the other hand, are rarely found in the pitchers, but will often appear when putrefaction approaches a certain threshold, attracting fly larvae that would normally not be found in the pitcher infaunal community. The complex ecological relationship between pitcher plants and infauna is not yet fully understood, but the relationship may be mutualistic: the infauna is given shelter, food, or protection, and the plant that harbours the infauna receives expedited breakdown of captured prey, increasing the rate of digestion and keeping harmful bacterial populations repressed.## Antimicrobial properties."Nepenthes" digestive fluids are sterile before pitchers open and contain secondary metabolites and.

Nepenthes. proteins that act as bactericides and fungicides after the pitcher opens. While the digestive fluid is being produced, the pitcher is not yet open, so there is no chance of microbial contamination. During pitcher development, at least 29 digestive proteins including proteases, chitinases, pathogenesis-related proteins and thaumatin-like proteins are produced in the pitcher fluid. In addition to breaking down prey, these can act as antimicrobial agents. When the pitchers open, the fluid is exposed to bacteria, fungal spores, insects and rain. Often pitchers have a lid that covers the trap, excepting a few (e.g. "N. lowii", "N. attenboroughii" and "N.

Nepenthes. jamban"), preventing rain water from entering. The lid inhibits rainwater from diluting the digestive fluid. Once the bacteria and fungi enter the fluid, secondary metabolites are produced in addition to antimicrobial proteins. Naphthoquinones, a class of secondary metabolite, are commonly produced, and these either kill or inhibit the growth and reproduction of bacteria and fungi. This adaptation could have evolved since "Nepenthes" plants that could produce secondary metabolites and antimicrobial proteins to kill bacteria and fungi were most likely more fit. Plants that produced antimicrobial compounds could prevent loss of valuable nutrients gained from insects within the pitcher. Since "Nepenthes.

Nepenthes. cannot digest certain bacteria and fungi, the bactericides and fungicides allow plants to maximize nutrient uptake.## Botanical history.The earliest known record of "Nepenthes" dates back to the 17th century. In 1658, French colonial governor Étienne de Flacourt published a description of a pitcher plant in his seminal work "Histoire de la Grande Isle de Madagascar". It reads:It is a plant growing about 3 feet high which carries at the end of its leaves, which are 7 inches long, a hollow flower or fruit resembling a small vase, with its own lid, a wonderful sight. There are red ones and yellow.

Nepenthes. ones, the yellow being the biggest. The inhabitants of this country are reluctant to pick the flowers, saying that if somebody does pick them in passing, it will not fail to rain that day. As to that, I and all the other Frenchmen did pick them, but it did not rain. After rain these flowers are full of water, each one containing a good half-glass. [translated from French in "Pitcher-Plants of Borneo"]Flacourt called the plant "Amramatico", after a local name. More than a century later, this species was formally described as "N. madagascariensis".The second species to be described was "N.

Nepenthes. distillatoria", the Sri Lankan endemic. In 1677, Danish physician Thomas Bartholin made brief mention of it under the name "Miranda herba", Latin for "marvellous herb". Three years later, Dutch merchant Jacob Breyne referred to this species as "Bandura zingalensium", after a local name for the plant. "Bandura" subsequently became the most commonly used name for the tropical pitcher plants, until Linnaeus coined "Nepenthes" in 1737."Nepenthes distillatoria" was again described in 1683, this time by Swedish physician and naturalist Herman Niklas Grim. Grim called it "Planta mirabilis destillatoria" or the "miraculous distilling plant", and was the first to clearly illustrate a.

Nepenthes. tropical pitcher plant. Three years later, in 1686, English naturalist John Ray quoted Grim as saying:The root draws up moisture from the earth which with the help of the sun's rays rises up into the plant itself and then flows down through the stems and nerves of the leaves into the natural utensil to be stored there until used for human needs. [translated from Latin in "Pitcher-Plants of Borneo"]One of the earliest illustrations of "Nepenthes" appears in Leonard Plukenet's "Almagestum Botanicum" of 1696. The plant, called "Utricaria vegetabilis zeylanensium", is undoubtedly "N. distillatoria".Around the same time, German botanist Georg Eberhard.

Nepenthes. Rumphius discovered two new "Nepenthes" species in the Malay Archipelago. Rumphius illustrated the first one, now considered synonymous with "N. mirabilis", and gave it the name "Cantharifera", meaning "tankard-bearer". The second, referred to as "Cantharifera alba", is thought to have been "N. maxima". Rumphius described the plants in his most famous work, the six-volume "Herbarium Amboinense", a catalogue of the flora of Ambon Island. However, it would not be published until many years after his death.After going blind in 1670, when the manuscript was only partially complete, Rumphius continued work on "Herbarium Amboinensis" with the help of clerks and artists.

Nepenthes. In 1687, with the project nearing completion, at least half of the illustrations were lost in a fire. Persevering, Rumphius and his helpers first completed the book in 1690. However, two years later, the ship carrying the manuscript to the Netherlands was attacked and sunk by the French, forcing them to start over from a copy that had fortunately been retained by Governor-General Johannes Camphuijs. The "Herbarium Amboinensis" finally arrived in the Netherlands in 1696. Even then, the first volume did not appear until 1741, 39 years after Rumphius's death. By this time, Linnaeus's name "Nepenthes" had become established."Nepenthes distillatoria.

Nepenthes. was again illustrated in Johannes Burmann's "Thesaurus Zeylanicus" of 1737. The drawing depicts the end of a flowering stem with pitchers. Burmann refers to the plant as "Bandura zeylanica".The next mention of tropical pitcher plants was made in 1790, when Portuguese priest João de Loureiro described "Phyllamphora mirabilis", or the "marvellous urn-shaped leaf", from Vietnam. Despite living in the country for around 35 years, it seems unlikely that Loureiro observed living plants of this species, as he stated the lid is a moving part, actively opening and closing. In his most celebrated work, "Flora Cochinchinensis", he writes:[...] (the) leaf-tip ends.

Nepenthes. in a long hanging tendril, twisted spirally in the middle, from which hangs a sort of vase, oblong, pot-bellied, with a smooth lip with a projecting margin and a lid affixed to one side, which of its own nature freely opens and closes in order to receive the dew and store it. A marvellous work of the Lord! [translated from French in "Pitcher-Plants of Borneo"]"Phyllamphora mirabilis" was eventually transferred to the genus "Nepenthes" by Rafarin in 1869. As such, "P. mirabilis" is the basionym of this most cosmopolitan of tropical pitcher plant species.Loureiro's description of a moving lid was repeated.

Nepenthes. by Jean Louis Marie Poiret in 1797. Poiret described two of the four "Nepenthes" species known at the time: "N. madagascariensis" and "N. distillatoria". He gave the former its current name and called the latter "Nepente de l'Inde", or simply ""Nepenthes" of India", although this species is absent from the mainland. In Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's "Encyclopédie Méthodique Botanique", he included the following account:This urn is hollow, as I have just said, usually full of soft, clear water, and then closed. It opens during the day and more than half the liquid disappears, but this loss is repaired during the night, and.

Nepenthes. the next day the urn is full again and closed by its lid. This is its sustenance, and enough for more than one day because it is always about half-full at the approach of night. [translated from French in "Pitcher-Plants of Borneo"]With the discovery of new species and Sir Joseph Banks' original introduction of specimens to Europe in 1789, interest in "Nepenthes" grew throughout the 19th century, culminating in what has been called the "Golden Age of "Nepenthes"" in the 1880s. However, the popularity of the plants dwindled in the early 20th century, before all but disappearing by World War.

Nepenthes. II. This is evidenced by the fact that no new species were described between 1940 and 1966. The revival of global interest in the cultivation and study of "Nepenthes" is credited to Japanese botanist Shigeo Kurata, whose work in the 1960s and 1970s did much to bring attention to these plants.## Cultivation."Nepenthes" may be cultivated in greenhouses. Easier species include "N. alata", "N. ventricosa", "N. khasiana", and "N. sanguinea". These four species are highlanders ("N. alata" has both lowland and highland forms), some easy lowlander species are "N. rafflesiana", "N. bicalcarata", "N. mirabilis", and "N. hirsuta".Highland forms are those species.

Nepenthes. that grow in habitats generally higher in elevation, and thus exposed to cooler evening temperatures. Lowland forms are those species growing nearer to sea level. Both forms respond best to rainwater (but some tap water works as long as it is flushed monthly with rainwater or water low in dissolved solid and chemicals), bright light (though some species can grow in full sun), a well-drained medium, good air circulation and relatively high humidity, although easier species such as "N. alata" can adapt to lower humidity environments. Highland species must have night-time cooling to thrive in the long term. Chemical fertilisers.

Nepenthes. are best used at low strength. Occasional feeding with frozen (thawed before use) crickets may be beneficial. Terrarium culture of smaller plants, such as "N. bellii", "N." × "trichocarpa" and "N. ampullaria", is possible, but most plants will get too large over time.Plants can be propagated by seed, cuttings, and tissue culture. Seeds are usually sown on damp chopped "Sphagnum" moss, or on sterile plant tissue culture media once they have been properly disinfected. The seeds generally become nonviable soon after harvesting, so seed are not usually the preferred method of propagation. A 1:1 mixture of orchid medium with moss.

Nepenthes. or perlite has been used for germination and culture. Seed may take two months to germinate, and two years or more to yield mature plants. Cuttings may be rooted in damp "Sphagnum" moss in a plastic bag or tank with high humidity and moderate light. They can begin to root in one to two months and start to form pitchers in about six months. Tissue culture is now used commercially and helps reduce collection of wild plants, as well as making many rare species available to hobbyists at reasonable prices. "Nepenthes" species are considered threatened or endangered plants and all.

Nepenthes. of them are listed in CITES Appendix II, with the exception of "N. rajah" and "N. khasiana" which are listed in CITES Appendix I. The CITES listing means all international trade (including in parts and derivatives) is controlled by the CITES permitting system, with wild sourced specimens of Appendix I species prohibited from commercial international trade.## Hybrids and cultivars.There are many hybrid "Nepenthes" and numerous named cultivars. Some of the more well-known, artificially produced hybrids and cultivars include:"N." × "coccinea" (("N. rafflesiana" × "N. ampullaria") × "N. mirabilis")"N." × "ventrata" ("N. ventricosa" × "N. alata")"N." × 'Bloody Mary' ("N. ventricosa.

Nepenthes. × "N. ampullaria")"N." 'D'amato' ("N. lowii" × "N. ventricosa")"N." × "mixta" ("N. northiana" × "N. maxima")"N." 'Syurga' ("N. ventricosa" × "N. northiana")"N." 'Menarik' ("N. rafflesiana" × "N. veitchii")"N." 'Emmarene' ("N. khasiana" × "N. ventricosa")"N." 'Judith Finn' ("N. spathulata" × "N. veitchii") "Nepenthes" classification "Nepenthes" infauna List of "Nepenthes" endophyte species Danser's Monograph on "Nepenthes" (covers species from Malaysia, Indonesia and New Guinea, but not elsewhere) Nepenthaceae in: Watson, L., and M. J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The Families of Flowering Plants. Descriptions, Illustrations, Identification, Information Retrieval. Beaver, R.A. 1983. The communities living in "Nepenthes" pitcher plants: fauna and food webs. In:.

Nepenthes. J.H. Frank & L.P. Lounibos (eds.) "Phytotelmata: Plants as Hosts for Aquatic Insect Communities". Plexus Publishing, New Jersey. pp. 129–159. Boulay, J. 1997. Les "Nepenthes". "Dionée" 38. "Nepenthes" - the Monkey Cups from the Botanical Society of America "Nepenthes": The Interactive Guide at CarnivorousPlants.co.uk "Nepenthes" photographs at the Carnivorous Plant Photo Finder A video about "Nepenthes rajah" from "The Private Life of Plants" The Carnivorous Plant FAQ: "Nepenthes" by Barry Rice Evolution -- "Nepenthes" Phylogeny from the International Carnivorous Plant Society Inner World of "Nepenthes" from the John Innes Centre.


Question: What is this object named after?

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Canopic jar. early Egyptologists with the Greek legend of Canopus – the boat captain of Menelaus on the voyage to Troy – "who was buried at Canopus in the Delta where he was worshipped in the form of a jar". In alternative versions, the name derives from the location Canopus (now Abukir) in the western Nile Delta near Alexandria, where human-headed jars were worshipped as personifications of the god Osiris.Canopic jars of the Old Kingdom were rarely inscribed and had a plain lid. In the Middle Kingdom inscriptions became more usual, and the lids were often in the form of human heads.


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Electric motor. issues. As no electricity distribution system was available at the time, no practical commercial market emerged for these motors.After many other more or less successful attempts with relatively weak rotating and reciprocating apparatus Prussian/Russian Moritz von Jacobi created the first real rotating electric motor in May 1834. It developed remarkable mechanical output power. His motor set a world record, which Jacobi improved four years later in September 1838. His second motor was powerful enough to drive a boat with 14 people across a wide river. It was also in 1839/40 that other developers managed to build motors with similar and.


Question: What is the closest upper taxonomy of this animal?

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Alpaca. the llama, ignoring similarities in size, fleece and dentition between the alpaca and the vicuña. Classification was complicated by the fact that all four species of South American camelid can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. The advent of DNA technology made a more accurate classification possible.In 2001, the alpaca genus classification changed from "Lama pacos" to "Vicugna pacos", following the presentation of a paper on work by Miranda Kadwell "etal." on alpaca DNA to the Royal Society showing the alpaca is descended from the vicuña, not the guanaco.## Origin and domestication.Alpacas were domesticated thousands of years ago. The Moche people.

Alpaca. 2–5 million years ago, during the Pliocene, that the genus Hemiauchenia of the tribe Lamini split into "Palaeolama" and "Lama"; the latter would then split again into "Lama" and "Vicugna" upon migrating down to South America.Remains of vicuña and guanaco have been found throughout Peru for around 12,000 years. Their domesticated counterparts, the llama and alpacas, have been found mummified in the Moquegua valley, in the south of Peru, dating back 900 to 1000 years. Mummies found in this region show two breeds of alpacas. More precise analysis of bone and teeth of these mummies has demonstrated that alpacas were.

Alpaca. domesticated from the "Vicugna vicugna". Other research, considering the behavioral and morphological characteristics of alpacas and their wild counterparts, seems to indicate that alpacas could find their origins in "Lama guanicoe" as well as "Vicugna vicugna", or even a hybrid of both.Genetic analysis shows a different picture of the origins of the alpaca. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA shows that most alpacas have guanaco mtDNA, and many also have vicuña mtDNA. But microsatellite data shows that alpaca DNA is much more similar to vicuña DNA than to guanaco DNA. This suggests that alpacas are descendants of the "Vicugna vicugna", not of.

Alpaca. the "Lama guanicoe". The discrepancy with mtDNA seems to be a result of the fact that mtDNA is only transmitted by the mother, and recent husbandry practices have caused hybridization between llamas (which primarily carry guanaco DNA) and alpacas. To the extent that many of today's domestic alpacas are the result of male alpacas bred to female llamas, this would explain the mtDNA consistent with guanacos. This situation has led to attempts to reclassify the alpaca as "Vicugna pacos".## Breeds.The alpaca comes in two breeds, Suri and Huacaya, based on their fibers rather than scientific or European classifications.Huacaya alpacas are.


Question: What is the closest parent taxonomy of this bird?

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Ratite. A ratite () is any of a diverse group of mostly flightless, large, long-necked, and long-legged birds of the infraclass Palaeognathae. Kiwi, the exception, are much smaller and shorter-legged and are the only nocturnal extant ratites.The systematics of and relationships within the paleognath clade have been in flux. Previously, all the flightless members had been assigned to the order Struthioniformes, which is more recently regarded as containing only the ostrich. The modern bird superorder Palaeognathae consists of ratites and the flighted Neotropic tinamous (compare to Neognathae). Unlike other flightless birds, the ratites have no keel on their sternum — hence.


Question: What is the closest upper taxonomy of this bird?

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Broad-tailed hummingbird. The broad-tailed hummingbird ("Selasphorus platycercus") is a medium-sized hummingbird species found in highland regions from western United States and Western Canada to Mexico and Guatemala.## Description.Medium in size, the broad-tailed hummingbird is 4 (in) in length and possesses an overall wingspan of 5.25 (in). Weighing around 3.6 (g), the female tends to be slightly larger than the male. Adults of both sexes show an iridescent green back, white eye ring and a rounded black tail projecting beyond their wing tips, from which their name was inspired. This species shows sexual dimorphism, which means that male and female have different characteristics.

Broad-tailed hummingbird. The male possesses a characteristic bright rose-red gorget. An identification characteristic is the white eye ring. The female can be distinguished from the male by her paler coloration, cinnamon flanks, and spotted cheeks absent in the male.## Taxonomy.The broad-tailed hummingbird, "Selasphorus platycercus," is a member of the order Apodiformes, in the family Trochilidae"." Hummingbird taxonomy has not been extensively studied, but its phylogenic division can be divided as a family into nine clades in which the broad-tailed hummingbird is a member of the "Bee group" and included in the "Selasphorus" genus. This genus is composed of 6 members taxonomically distinguished.

Broad-tailed hummingbird. based on color characteristics. This genus is characterized by hummingbirds with a plumage containing rufous coloration and a neck gorget of orange to purple in males.Members of this genus include:"Selasphorus sasin" : Allen's hummingbird"Selasphorus rufus" : Rufous hummingbird"Selasphorus scintilla" : Scintillant hummingbird"Selasphorus ardens" : Glow-throated hummingbird"Selasphorus flammula" :Volcano hummingbirdOn a geographic scale, the genus "Selasphorus" can be subdivided into 2 groups of species, one living in North America, and a second in the region of Costa Rica and Panama.## Habitat and distribution.## Habitat.This hummingbird is seen in the understory or under tree canopies of pine and oak woodland. It forages.


Question: How many day is the egg incubation period of this bird?

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Least grebe. The least grebe ("Tachybaptus dominicus"), an aquatic bird, is the smallest member of the grebe family. It occurs in the New World from the southwestern United States and Mexico to Argentina, and also on Trinidad and Tobago, the Bahamas and the Greater Antilles.## Description.The least grebe ranges in length from 21 – 27 (cm) (depending on the subspecies) and in weight from 112 – 180 (g). Weights are variable based on region and subspecies, being smaller in Panama, where males weighed a mean of 129 (g) against the females 116 (g) and larger in the West Indies, where the sexes.

Least grebe. seconds.## Breeding.Least grebes breed throughout the year. Those in the tropics tend to breed during the rainy season, while active nests have been found in every month of the year in Texas. Each pair builds a compact floating nest of vegetation—typically a variety of aquatic weeds—which is anchored to rooted plants in still open water as deep as 1.5 (m). The female lays three to six white eggs, though the damp nest material soon stains them with brown. Both adults incubate the eggs, which hatch after 21 days. The striped young are sometimes carried on the adult's back.## Voice.The breeding.


Question: Who is the director of this building?

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Strapless. Strapless is a 1989 film written and directed by David Hare.## Plot summary.An expatriate American doctor in London allows herself to lighten up when her freewheeling younger sister and a mysterious man enter her life. Her inhibitions released, the beautiful doctor learns that freedom has its own price.Blair Brown – Dr. Lillian HempelBruno Ganz – Raymond ForbesBridget Fonda – Amy HempelAlan Howard – Mr. CooperMichael Gough – Douglas BrodieHugh Laurie – ColinDana Gillespie – Julie KovagoSpencer Leigh – HusAlexandra Pigg - Helen## Release.After the film's May 1990 U.S. theatrical release, it was released on videocassette in the United States by.


Question: What is the name of the vessel involved in this event?

Instruction: I want to find a paragraph from Wikipedia that answers my question about this image.

Kon-Tiki expedition. The "Kon-Tiki" expedition was a 1947 journey by raft across the Pacific Ocean from South America to the Polynesian islands, led by Norwegian explorer and writer Thor Heyerdahl. The raft was named "Kon-Tiki" after the Inca god Viracocha, for whom "Kon-Tiki" was said to be an old name. "" is also the name of Heyerdahl's book, the Academy Award–winning 1950 documentary film chronicling his adventures, and the 2012 dramatized feature film nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.Heyerdahl believed that people from South America could have reached Polynesia during pre-Columbian times. His aim in mounting the "Kon-Tiki.

Kon-Tiki expedition. expedition was to show, by using only the materials and technologies available to those people at the time, that there were no technical reasons to prevent them from having done so. Although the expedition carried some modern equipment, such as a radio, watches, charts, sextant, and metal knives, Heyerdahl argued they were incidental to the purpose of proving that the raft itself could make the journey. This idea has recently received support from statistical analysis of genetic evidence of contact between South America and Polynesia.Heyerdahl's full hypothesis of a South American origin of the Polynesian peoples is generally rejected by.

Kon-Tiki expedition. scientists today. Most archaeological, linguistic, cultural, and genetic evidence tends to support a western origin for Polynesians, from Island Southeast Asia, using sophisticated multihull sailing technologies and navigation techniques during the Austronesian expansion. However, there is evidence of some gene flow from South America to Easter Island. In 2020 some researchers published research confirming a wider impact on genetic and cultural elements in Polynesia due to South American contacts. The "Kon-Tiki" expedition was funded by private loans, along with donations of equipment from the United States Army. Heyerdahl and a small team went to Peru, where, with the help of.

Kon-Tiki expedition. dockyard facilities provided by the Peruvian authorities, they constructed the raft out of balsa logs and other native materials in an indigenous style as recorded in illustrations by Spanish conquistadores. The trip began on April 28, 1947. Heyerdahl and five companions sailed the raft for 101 days over 6,900 km (4,300 miles) across the Pacific Ocean before smashing into a reef at Raroia in the Tuamotus on August 7, 1947. The crew made successful landfall and all returned safely.Thor Heyerdahl's book about his experience became a bestseller. It was published in Norwegian in 1948 as "The Kon-Tiki Expedition: By Raft.

Kon-Tiki expedition. Across the South Seas", later reprinted as "Kon-Tiki: Across the Pacific in a Raft". It appeared with great success in English in 1950, also in many other languages. A documentary motion picture about the expedition, also called "Kon-Tiki", was produced from a write-up and expansion of the crew's filmstrip notes and won an Academy Award in 1951. It was directed by Heyerdahl and edited by Olle Nordemar. The voyage was also chronicled in the documentary TV-series "The Kon-Tiki Man: The Life and Adventures of Thor Heyerdahl", directed by Bengt Jonson.The original "Kon-Tiki" raft is now on display in the Kon-Tiki.

Kon-Tiki expedition. Museum at Bygdøy in Oslo.## Crew."Kon-Tiki" had a six-man crew, all of whom were Norwegian except for Bengt Danielsson, a Swede. Thor Heyerdahl (1914–2002) was the expedition leader. He was also the author of the book of the expedition and the narrator of the story. Heyerdahl had studied the ancient people of South America and Polynesia and believed that there was a link between the two. Erik Hesselberg (1914–1972) was the navigator and artist. He painted the large Kon-Tiki figure on the raft's sail. His children's book "Kon-Tiki and I" appeared in Norwegian in 1949 and has since been published.

Kon-Tiki expedition. in more than 15 languages. Bengt Danielsson (1921–1997) took on the role of steward, in charge of supplies and daily rations. Danielsson was a Swedish sociologist interested in human migration theory. He also served as translator, as he was the only member of the crew who spoke Spanish. He was also a voracious reader; his box aboard the raft contained many books. Knut Haugland (1917–2009) was a radio expert, decorated by the British in World War II for actions in the Norwegian heavy water sabotage that stalled what were believed to be Germany's plans to develop an atomic bomb. Haugland.

Kon-Tiki expedition. was the last surviving crew member; he died on Christmas Day, 2009 at the age of 92. Torstein Raaby (1918–1964) was also in charge of radio transmissions. He gained radio experience while hiding behind German lines during WWII, spying on the German battleship "Tirpitz". His secret radio transmissions eventually helped guide in Allied bombers to sink the ship. Herman Watzinger (1910–1986) was an engineer whose area of expertise was in technical measurements. He was the first to join Heyerdahl for the trip. He collected and recorded all sorts of data on the voyage. Much of what he recorded, such as.

Kon-Tiki expedition. weather data, was sent back to various people, since this area of the ocean was largely unstudied.The expedition also carried a pet parrot named Lorita.## Construction.The main body of the float was composed of nine balsa tree trunks up to 45 (ft) long, 2 (ft) in diameter, lashed together with 1+1/4 (in) hemp ropes. Cross-pieces of balsa logs 18 (ft) long and 1 (ft) in diameter were lashed across the logs at 3 (ft) intervals to give lateral support. Pine splashboards clad the bow, and lengths of pine 1 (in) thick and 2 (ft) wide were wedged between the balsa.

Kon-Tiki expedition. logs and used as centreboards.The main mast was made of lengths of mangrove wood lashed together to form an A-frame 29 (ft) high. Behind the main-mast was a cabin of plaited bamboo 14 (ft) long and 8 (ft) wide, about 4 - 5 (ft) high and roofed with banana leaf thatch. At the stern was a 19 (ft) long steering oar of mangrove wood, with a blade of fir. The main sail was 15 by 18 (ft) on a yard of bamboo stems lashed together. Photographs also show a top-sail above the main sail, and also a mizzen-sail, mounted at.

Kon-Tiki expedition. the stern.The raft was partially decked in split bamboo. The main spars were a laminate of wood and reeds and Heyerdahl tested more than twenty different composites before settling on one that proved an effective compromise between bulk and torsional rigidity. No metal was used in the construction.## Supplies."Kon-Tiki" carried 275 (USgal) of drinking water in 56 water cans, as well as a number of sealed bamboo rods. The purpose stated by Heyerdahl for carrying modern and ancient containers was to test the effectiveness of ancient water storage. For food "Kon-Tiki" carried 200 coconuts, sweet potatoes, bottle gourds and other.

Kon-Tiki expedition. assorted fruit and roots. The U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps provided field rations, tinned food and survival equipment. In return, the "Kon-Tiki" explorers reported on the quality and utility of the provisions. They also caught plentiful numbers of fish, particularly flying fish, "dolphin fish", yellowfin tuna, bonito and shark.Heyerdahl and crew were equipped with water-tight sports wristwatches manufactured by Swiss watchmaking firm Eterna. After the journey, Eterna decided to brand their sports watches as "Kon-Tiki".## Communications.The expedition carried an amateur radio station with the call sign of LI2B operated by former World War II Norwegian resistance radio operators Knut Haugland and.

Kon-Tiki expedition. Torstein Raaby. Haugland and Raaby maintained regular communication with a number of American, Canadian, and South American stations that relayed "Kon Tiki's" status to the Norwegian Embassy in Washington, D.C. On August 5, Haugland made contact with a station in Oslo, Norway, 10000 (mi) away."Kon Tiki's" transmitters were powered by batteries and a hand-cranked generator and operated on the 40, 20, 10, and 6-meter bands. Each unit was water resistant, used 2E30 vacuum tubes, and provided approximately 6 watts of RF output; the equivalent of a small flashlight. Two British 3-16 MHz Mark II transmitters were also carried on board,.

Kon-Tiki expedition. as was a VHF transmitter for communicating with aircraft and a hand-cranked survival radio of the Gibson Girl type for 500 and 8280 kHz.The radio receiver used throughout the voyage, a National Radio Company NC-173, once required a thorough drying out after being soaked when landing in Raratonga. The crew once used a hand-cranked emergency transmitter to send out an "all well, all well" message "just in time to head off a massive rescue attempt".The call sign LI2B was used by Heyerdahl again in 1969–70, when he built a papyrus reed raft and sailed from Morocco to Barbados in an.

Kon-Tiki expedition. attempt to show a possible link between the civilization of ancient Egypt and the New World.## The voyage."Kon-Tiki" left Callao, Peru, on the afternoon of April 28, 1947. To avoid coastal traffic it was initially towed 50 (mi) out by the Peruvian Navy fleet tug "Guardian Rios", then sailed roughly west carried along on the Humboldt Current.On 2 July Heyerdahl writes about an encounter with a rogue wave; in his book he describes a "Three Sister" phenomenon: "During a night-shift with quiet seas appears an 'abnormal huge wave' followed by two more waves. The raft is being swept up and.

Kon-Tiki expedition. down and is covered in water." After the three waves he describes the sea as quiet as before.The crew's first sight of land was the atoll of Puka-Puka on July 30. On August 4, the 97th day after departure, "Kon-Tiki" reached the Angatau atoll. The crew made brief contact with the inhabitants of Angatau Island, but were unable to land safely. Calculations made by Heyerdahl before the trip had indicated that 97 days was the minimum amount of time required to reach the Tuamotus, so the encounter with Angatau showed that they had made good time.On August 7, the voyage.

Kon-Tiki expedition. ended when the raft struck a reef and was then beached on an uninhabited islet off Raroia atoll in the Tuamotus. The team had travelled a distance of around 6980 (km) in 101 days, at an average speed of 1.5 (kn).After spending a number of days alone on the islet, the crew was greeted by men from a village on a nearby island who arrived in canoes, having seen washed-up flotsam from the raft. The crew were taken back to the native village, where they were feted with traditional dances and other festivities. Finally the crew were taken off Raroia.

Kon-Tiki expedition. to Tahiti by the French schooner "Tamara", with the salvaged "Kon-Tiki" in tow.## Anthropology.The basis of the "Kon-Tiki" expedition was pseudoscientific, racially controversial, and has not gained acceptance among scientists (even prior to the voyage). Heyerdahl believed that the original inhabitants of Easter Island (and the rest of Polynesia) were the "Tiki people", a race of "white bearded men" who supposedly originally sailed from Peru. He described these "Tiki people" as being a sun-worshipping fair-skinned people with blue eyes, fair or red hair, tall statures, and beards. He further said that these people were originally from the Middle East, and.

Kon-Tiki expedition. had crossed the Atlantic earlier to found the great Mesoamerican civilizations. By 500 CE, a branch of these people were supposedly forced out into Tiahuanaco where they became the ruling class of the Inca Empire and set out to voyage into the Pacific Ocean under the leadership of "Con Ticci Viracocha".He argued that the monumental statues known as moai resembled sculptures more typical of pre-Columbian Peru than any Polynesian designs. He believed that the Easter Island myth of a power struggle between two peoples called the Hanau epe and Hanau momoko was a memory of conflicts between the original inhabitants.

Kon-Tiki expedition. of the island and a later wave of Native Americans from the Northwest coast, eventually leading to the annihilation of the Hanau epe and the destruction of the island's culture and once-prosperous economy. Heyerdahl described these later migrants as "Maori-Polynesians" who were supposedly Asians who crossed over the Bering land bridge into Northwest America before sailing westward towards Polynesia (the westward direction is because he refused to accept that Polynesians were capable of sailing against winds and currents). He associated them with the Tlingit and Haida peoples and characterized them as "inferior" to the Tiki people.Heyerdahl's hypothesis was part of.

Kon-Tiki expedition. early Eurocentric hyperdiffusionism and the westerner disbelief that (non-white) "stone-age" peoples with "no math" could colonize islands separated by vast distances of ocean water, even against prevailing winds and currents. He rejected the highly skilled voyaging and navigating traditions of the Austronesian peoples and instead argued that Polynesia was settled from boats following the wind and currents for navigation from South America. As such, the "Kon-Tiki" was deliberately a primitive raft and unsteerable, in contrast to the sophisticated outrigger canoes and catamarans of the Austronesian people.Heyerdahl's hypothesis of Polynesian origins is overwhelmingly rejected by scientists today. Archaeological, linguistic, cultural, and.

Kon-Tiki expedition. genetic evidence all support a western origin (from Island Southeast Asia) for Polynesians via the Austronesian expansion. "Drift voyaging" from South America was also deemed "extremely unlikely" in 1973 by computer modeling, although is in contrast with recent genetic analysis. The 1976 voyage of the "Hōkūleʻa", a performance-accurate replica of a Polynesian double-hulled "wa'a kaulua" voyaging canoe, from Hawaiʻi to Tahiti was partly a demonstration to prove that Heyerdahl was wrong. The "Hōkūleʻa" sailed against prevailing winds and exclusively used wayfinding and celestial Polynesian navigation techniques (unlike the modern equipment and charts of the "Kon-Tiki"). "Hōkūleʻa" also remains fully operational,.

Kon-Tiki expedition. and has since completed ten other voyages, including a three-year circumnavigation of the planet from 2014 to 2017, with other sister ships.Historians today consider that the Polynesians from the west were the original inhabitants and that the story of the Hanau epe is either pure myth, or a memory of internal tribal or class conflicts. In 2011, Erik Thorsby of the University of Oslo presented DNA evidence to the Royal Society which, whilst agreeing with the west origin, also identified a distinctive but smaller genetic contribution from South America. This result was questioned in 2012 because of the possibility of.

Kon-Tiki expedition. contamination by South Americans after European contact with the islands. In 2014, further work by a team including Anna-Sapfo Malaspinas (from the Natural History Museum of Denmark) analysed the genomes of 27 native Rapa Nui people and found that their DNA was on average 76 percent Polynesian, 8 percent Native American and 16 percent European. Analysis showed that "although the European lineage could be explained by contact with white Europeans after the island was 'discovered' in 1722 by Dutch sailors, the South American component was much older, dating to between about 1280 and 1495, soon after the island was first.

Kon-Tiki expedition. colonised by Polynesians in around 1200." Genetic analysis of Polynesians and Native South Americans, published in "Nature" in July 2020, has revealed that several eastern Polynesian populations have signs of an ancient genetic signature that originated from Native South American people. An initial admixture event between Native South Americans and Polynesians, discovered by statistical analysis, took place around 1150–1230 CE.## Later recreations of "Kon-Tiki".## "Seven Little Sisters".In 1954, William Willis sailed alone on a raft "Seven Little Sisters" from Peru to American Samoa, successfully completing the journey. He sailed 6,700 (mi), which was 2,200 (mi) farther than "Kon-Tiki". In a.

Kon-Tiki expedition. second great voyage ten years later, he rafted 7457 (mi) from South America to Australia with a metal raft "Age Unlimited".## "Kantuta".In 1955, the Czech explorer and adventurer Eduard Ingris attempted to recreate the "Kon-Tiki" expedition on a balsa raft called "Kantuta". His first expedition, "Kantuta I", took place in 1955–1956 and led to failure. In 1959, Ingris built a new balsa raft, "Kantuta II", and tried to repeat the previous expedition. The second expedition was a success. Ingris was able to cross the Pacific Ocean on the balsa raft from Peru to Polynesia.## "Tahiti-Nui".A French seafarer, Éric de Bisschop,.

Kon-Tiki expedition. committed himself in a project he had had for some years: he built a Polynesian raft in order to cross the eastern Pacific Ocean from Tahiti to Chile (contrary to Thor Heyerdahl's crossing); the "Tahiti-Nui" left Papeete with a crew of five on November 8, 1956. When near the Juan Fernández Islands (Chile) in May 1957, the raft was in a very poor state and they asked for a towing, but it was damaged during the operation and had to be abandoned, but they were able to preserve all the equipment that had been aboard.## "Tahiti-Nui II".A second "Tahiti-Nui" was.

Kon-Tiki expedition. built in Constitución, Chile, leaving on April 13, 1958, towards Callao, then towards the Marquesas. It missed its target and after four months, the raft began to sink. The crew built a new smaller raft, the "Tahiti Nui III", in the ocean out of the more buoyant parts of the "Tahiti Nui II". They were swept towards Cook Islands where on August 30, the raft went aground and was wrecked at Rakahanga atoll. Éric de Bisschop died in this accident.## "Tangaroa" (1965).A Peruvian expedition led by Carlos Caravedo crossed the Pacific Ocean in 1965 in 115 days in a raft.

Kon-Tiki expedition. named "Tangaroa", of which 18 days were used by the crew to cross Tuamotus, the Tuamotu Archipielago, making "Tangaroa" the only raft that has managed to cross that dangerous archipelago of French Polynesia by its own means. On November 18, 1965, the "Tangaroa" ended its journey on the Fakarava island. Fakarava is where the "Tangaroa" is currently preserved.## Las Balsas.The 1973 Las Balsas expedition was the first (and so far only) multiple-raft crossing of the Pacific Ocean in recent history. It is the longest-known raft voyage in history. The expedition was led by Spaniard Vital Alsar, who, in 1970, led.

Kon-Tiki expedition. the La Balsa expedition, only on that occasion with one raft and three companions. The crossing was successful and, at the time, the longest raft voyage in history, until eclipsed in 1973 by Las Balsas. The purpose of the 1973 expedition was three-fold: (1) to prove that the success of 1970 was no accident, (2) to test different currents in the sea, which Alsar maintained ancient mariners knew as modern humans know road maps, and (3) to show that the original expeditions, directed perhaps toward trade or colonisation, may have consisted of small fleets of balsa rafts.## "Tangaroa" (2006).In 2006,.

Kon-Tiki expedition. the Tangaroa Expedition recreated the "Kon-Tiki" voyage using a newly built raft, the "Tangaroa", named after the Māori sea-god Tangaroa. Tangaroa's six-man crew was led by Norwegian Torgeir Higraff and included Olav Heyerdahl, grandson of Thor Heyerdahl, Bjarne Krekvik (captain), Øyvin Lauten (executive officer), Swedish Anders Berg (photographer) and Peruvian Roberto Sala. "Tangaroa" was launched on the same day that "Kon-Tiki" had been—April 28—and it reached its destination on July 7, which was 30 days faster than Heyerdahl's Kon-Tiki which had taken 101 days for the voyage. Tangaroa's speed was credited to the proper use of guaras (centerboards).## "An-Tiki".On January.

Kon-Tiki expedition. 30, 2011, "An-Tiki", a raft modeled after "Kon-Tiki", began a 3000 (mi), 70-day journey across the Atlantic Ocean from the Canary Islands to the island of Eleuthera in the Bahamas. The expedition was piloted by four men, aged from 56 to 84 years, led by Anthony Smith. The trip was designed to commemorate the journey in an open boat of survivors from the British steamship "Anglo-Saxon", sunk by the German cruiser "Widder" in 1940. The raft ended its voyage in the Caribbean island of St Maarten, completing its trip to Eleuthera in the following year with Smith and a new.

Kon-Tiki expedition. crew.## "Kon-Tiki2".On 7 November 2015, two teams with two balsa rafts "Rahiti Tane" and "Tupac Yupanqui" left Lima, Peru for Easter Island. Expedition "Kon-Tiki2" got its name because it had 2 crews from many nations: Norway, Russia, UK, Mexico, New Zealand, Sweden, and Peru. It sought to double down on Heyerdahl's voyage by sailing two rafts from South America to Polynesia and then back. Expedition leader was Torgeir Higraff from Tangaroa Expedition (2006). Øyvin Lauten and Kari Skår Dahl were captains on the first leg, while Signe Meling and Ola Borgfjord were captains on the second leg. The raft reached.

Kon-Tiki expedition. Easter Island, but did not complete the return.The two rafts were made of 11 balsa logs and 10 crossbeams held together by 2000 meters (1¼ miles) of natural fiber ropes. Tens of thousands of waves, up to six meters (20') tall, hit the rafts in an El Niño year. This stress for 16 weeks weakened the ropes, but the crew could not replace all of them. On March 3, 2016, all crew members were taken on board the Hokuetsu Ushaka freight ship after 115 days of sailing and 4½ months at sea.## Documentation.## Memoir book.A book documenting the voyage and.

Kon-Tiki expedition. raft was released in 1948 by Thor Heyerdahl, called "".## Documentary film.A film documentary about the voyage and raft was released in 1950, called "Kon-Tiki". It won the 1951 Oscar for Best Documentary Feature.## In popular culture."Kon-Tiki" is a 2012 Norwegian historical dramatized feature film about the 1947 "Kon-Tiki" expedition. It starred Pål Sverre Valheim Hagen as Thor Heyerdahl and was directed by Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg. It was the highest-grossing film of 2012 in Norway and the country's most expensive production to date.Episode 5 of the tenth season of HBO's "Curb Your Enthusiasm" features Clive Owen as himself.

Kon-Tiki expedition. in a one-man play entitled "Kon Tiki".Episode 2 of the second season of Apple TV+'s "For All Mankind" mentions a Space Shuttle named Kon-Tiki. Experimental archaeology Polynesian navigation Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories Pre-Columbian rafts Chincha culture Hyperdiffusionism Tupac Inca Yupanqui Atlantis Expedition Heyerdahl, Thor; Lyon, F.H. (translator) (1950). "Kon-Tiki: Across the Pacific by Raft". Rand McNally & Company, Chicago, Ill. Hesselberg, Erik (1950). "Kon-Tiki and I : illustrations with text, begun on the Pacific on board the raft "Kon-Tiki" and completed at "Solbakken" in Borre." Allen & Unwin Andersson, Axel (2010) "A Hero for the Atomic Age: Thor Heyerdahl and.

Kon-Tiki expedition. the Kon-Tiki Expedition" (Peter Lang) "Kon-Tiki" Museum National NC-173 receiver Quick Facts: Comparing the Two Rafts: Kon-Tiki and Tangaroa "Azerbaijan International", Vol 14:4 (Winter 2006) Testing Heyerdahl's Theories about Kon-Tiki 60 Years Later: Tangaroa Pacific Voyage (Summer 2006) "Azerbaijan International", Vol 14:4 (Winter 2006) Kon-Tiki in Reverse: The Tahiti-Nui Expedition TV2Sumo WebTV programme "Ekspedisjonen Tangaroa" (Tangaroa Expedition) – Norsk Acali 1973 – expedition by raft across Atlantic Librarything, 2007 Hsu-Fu 1993 – bamboo raft across Pacific (west to east) personal.psu.edu "Kon-Tiki" 1947 Documentary.


Question: What is the closest upper taxonomy of this animal?

Instruction: Determine the Wikipedia snippet that matches the question of this image.

Odonata. Odonata is an order of flying insects that includes the dragonflies and damselflies. Members of the group first appeared during the Triassic, though members of their total group, Odonatoptera, first appeared in Late Carboniferous.The two common groups are easily distinguished with dragonflies, placed in the suborder Epiprocta, usually being larger, with eyes together and wings up or out at rest, while damselflies, suborder Zygoptera, are usually smaller with eyes placed apart and wings along body at rest.All Odonata have aquatic larvae called nymphs, and all of them, larvae and adults, are carnivorous. The adults can land, but rarely walk. Their.

Odonata. and taxonomy.This order is closely related to mayflies and several extinct orders in a group called the Paleoptera, but this grouping might be paraphyletic. What they do share with mayflies is the nature of how the wings are articulated and held in rest (see insect flight for a detailed discussion).In some treatments, the Odonata are understood in an expanded sense, essentially synonymous with the superorder Odonatoptera but not including the prehistoric Protodonata. In this approach, instead of Odonatoptera, the term Odonatoidea is used. The systematics of the "Palaeoptera" are by no means resolved; what can be said however is that.

Odonata. regardless of whether they are called "Odonatoidea" or "Odonatoptera", the Odonata and their extinct relatives do form a clade.The Anisoptera was long treated as a suborder, with a third suborder, the Anisozygoptera (ancient dragonflies). However, the combined suborder Epiprocta (in which Anisoptera is an infraorder) was proposed when it was found that the "Anisozygoptera" was paraphyletic, composed of mostly extinct offshoots of dragonfly evolution. The four living species placed in that group are (in this treatment) in the infraorder Epiophlebioptera, whereas the fossil taxa that were formerly there are now dispersed about the Odonatoptera (or Odonata "sensu lato"). World Odonata.

Odonata. List considers Anisoptera as a suborder along with Zygoptera and Anisozygoptera as well-understood and widely preferred terms.Tarsophlebiidae is a prehistoric family of Odonatoptera that can be considered either a basal lineage of Odonata or their immediate sister taxon.The phylogenetic tree of the orders and suborders of odonates according to Bechly (2002):## External morphology.## Size.The largest living odonate is the giant Central American helicopter damselfly "Megaloprepus coerulatus" (Zygoptera: Pseudostigmatidae) with a wing span of 191 (mm). The heaviest living odonates are "Tetracanthagyna plagiata" (Anisoptera: Aeshnidae) with a wing span of 165 (mm), and "Petalura ingentissima" (Anisoptera: Petaluridae) with a body length.


Question: Who is the discoverer or inventor of this object?

Instruction: I want to find a paragraph from Wikipedia that answers my question about this image.

Aqua-Lung. Aqua-Lung was the first open-circuit, self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (or "scuba") to achieve worldwide popularity and commercial success. This class of equipment is now commonly referred to as a twin-hose diving regulator, or demand valve. The Aqua-Lung was invented in France during the winter of 1942–1943 by two Frenchmen: the engineer Émile Gagnan and the Naval Lieutenant (French: "lieutenant de vaisseau") Jacques Cousteau. It allowed Cousteau and Gagnan to film and explore underwater more easily.The invention revolutionised autonomous underwater diving by providing a compact, reliable system capable of a greater depth range and endurance than its precursors, and was a.

Aqua-Lung. Bernard Piel"). One of their apparatuses went to Émile Gagnan, an engineer employed by the Air Liquide company. Gagnan miniaturized and adapted it to gas generators in response to a fuel shortage, which was a consequence of German requisitioning. Gagnan's boss, Henri Melchior, knew that his son-in-law Jacques-Yves Cousteau was looking for an automatic demand regulator to increase the useful endurance of the underwater breathing apparatus invented by Commander Yves le Prieur, so he introduced Cousteau to Gagnan in December 1942. On Cousteau's initiative, the Gagnan regulator was modified for use in diving. Cousteau and Gagnan were issued a patent.

Aqua-Lung. French company.Air Liquide held the patent on the original "Aqualung" (also written as "Aqua-Lung" or "Aqua Lung") until the patent expired sometime around 1960 to 1963. The term "Aqualung", as far as is known, first appeared in print on page 3 of Jacques-Yves Cousteau's first book, "The Silent World", in 1953. Public use of the word "aqualung", and public interest in Aqualungs and scuba diving, were started around 1953 in English-speaking counties by a National Geographical Society Magazine article about Cousteau's underwater archaeological expedition to Grand Congloué. In France, aqualung diving was popularized by Cousteau's movie "Épaves", while his book.


Question: What is the facet of this object?

Instruction: You have to find a Wikipedia segment that answers the question about the displayed image.

Hexagon. In geometry, a hexagon (from Greek , , meaning "six", and , , meaning "corner, angle") is a six-sided polygon or 6-gon. The total of the internal angles of any simple (non-self-intersecting) hexagon is 720°.## Regular hexagon.A "regular hexagon" has Schläfli symbol {6} and can also be constructed as a truncated equilateral triangle, t{3}, which alternates two types of edges.A regular hexagon is defined as a hexagon that is both equilateral and equiangular. It is bicentric, meaning that it is both cyclic (has a circumscribed circle) and tangential (has an inscribed circle).The common length of the sides equals the radius.

Hexagon. of the circumscribed circle or circumcircle, which equals formula_1 times the apothem (radius of the inscribed circle). All internal angles are 120 degrees. A regular hexagon has six rotational symmetries ("rotational symmetry of order six") and six reflection symmetries ("six lines of symmetry"), making up the dihedral group D6. The longest diagonals of a regular hexagon, connecting diametrically opposite vertices, are twice the length of one side. From this it can be seen that a triangle with a vertex at the center of the regular hexagon and sharing one side with the hexagon is equilateral, and that the regular hexagon.

Hexagon. can be partitioned into six equilateral triangles.Like squares and equilateral triangles, regular hexagons fit together without any gaps to "tile the plane" (three hexagons meeting at every vertex), and so are useful for constructing tessellations. The cells of a beehive honeycomb are hexagonal for this reason and because the shape makes efficient use of space and building materials. The Voronoi diagram of a regular triangular lattice is the honeycomb tessellation of hexagons. It is not usually considered a triambus, although it is equilateral.## Parameters.The maximal diameter (which corresponds to the long diagonal of the hexagon), "D", is twice the maximal.

Hexagon. radius or circumradius, "R", which equals the side length, "t". The minimal diameter or the diameter of the inscribed circle (separation of parallel sides, flat-to-flat distance, short diagonal or height when resting on a flat base), "d", is twice the minimal radius or inradius, "r". The maxima and minima are related by the same factor:formula_2 and, similarly, formula_3The area of a regular hexagonformula_4For any regular polygon, the area can also be expressed in terms of the apothem "a" and the perimeter "p". For the regular hexagon these are given by "a" = "r", and "p"formula_5, soformula_6The regular hexagon fills the.

Hexagon. fraction formula_7 of its circumscribed circle.If a regular hexagon has successive vertices A, B, C, D, E, F and if P is any point on the circumcircle between B and C, then .It follows from the ratio of circumradius to inradius that the height-to-width ratio of a regular hexagon is 1:1.1547005; that is, a hexagon with a long diagonal of 1.0000000 will have a distance of 0.8660254 between parallel sides.## Point in plane.For an arbitrary point in the plane of a regular hexagon with circumradius formula_8, whose distances to the centroid of the regular hexagon and its six vertices are.

Hexagon. formula_9 and formula_10 respectively, we haveformula_11formula_12formula_13If formula_10 are the distances from the vertices of a regular hexagon to any point on its circumcircle, then formula_15## Symmetry.The "regular hexagon" has D6 symmetry. There are 16 subgroups. There are 8 up to isomorphism: itself (D6), 2 dihedral: (D3, D2), 4 cyclic: (Z6, Z3, Z2, Z1) and the trivial (e)These symmetries express nine distinct symmetries of a regular hexagon. John Conway labels these by a letter and group order. r12 is full symmetry, and a1 is no symmetry. p6, an isogonal hexagon constructed by three mirrors can alternate long and short edges, and.

Hexagon. d6, an isotoxal hexagon constructed with equal edge lengths, but vertices alternating two different internal angles. These two forms are duals of each other and have half the symmetry order of the regular hexagon. The i4 forms are regular hexagons flattened or stretched along one symmetry direction. It can be seen as an elongated rhombus, while d2 and p2 can be seen as horizontally and vertically elongated kites. g2 hexagons, with opposite sides parallel are also called hexagonal parallelogons.Each subgroup symmetry allows one or more degrees of freedom for irregular forms. Only the g6 subgroup has no degrees of freedom.

Hexagon. but can seen as directed edges.Hexagons of symmetry g2, i4, and r12, as parallelogons can tessellate the Euclidean plane by translation. Other hexagon shapes can tile the plane with different orientations.## A2 and G2 groups.The 6 roots of the simple Lie group , represented by a Dynkin diagram , are in a regular hexagonal pattern. The two simple roots have a 120° angle between them.The 12 roots of the Exceptional Lie group G2, represented by a Dynkin diagram are also in a hexagonal pattern. The two simple roots of two lengths have a 150° angle between them.## Dissection.Coxeter states that.

Hexagon. every zonogon (a 2"m"-gon whose opposite sides are parallel and of equal length) can be dissected into parallelograms. In particular this is true for regular polygons with evenly many sides, in which case the parallelograms are all rhombi. This decomposition of a regular hexagon is based on a Petrie polygon projection of a cube, with 3 of 6 square faces. Other parallelogons and projective directions of the cube are dissected within rectangular cuboids.## Related polygons and tilings.A regular hexagon has Schläfli symbol {6}. A regular hexagon is a part of the regular hexagonal tiling, {6,3}, with three hexagonal faces around.

Hexagon. each vertex.A regular hexagon can also be created as a truncated equilateral triangle, with Schläfli symbol t{3}. Seen with two types (colors) of edges, this form only has D3 symmetry.A truncated hexagon, t{6}, is a dodecagon, {12}, alternating two types (colors) of edges. An alternated hexagon, h{6}, is an equilateral triangle, {3}. A regular hexagon can be stellated with equilateral triangles on its edges, creating a hexagram. A regular hexagon can be dissected into six equilateral triangles by adding a center point. This pattern repeats within the regular triangular tiling.A regular hexagon can be extended into a regular dodecagon by.

Hexagon. adding alternating squares and equilateral triangles around it. This pattern repeats within the rhombitrihexagonal tiling.## Self-crossing hexagons.There are six self-crossing hexagons with the vertex arrangement of the regular hexagon:## Hexagonal structures.From bees' honeycombs to the Giant's Causeway, hexagonal patterns are prevalent in nature due to their efficiency. In a hexagonal grid each line is as short as it can possibly be if a large area is to be filled with the fewest hexagons. This means that honeycombs require less wax to construct and gain much strength under compression.Irregular hexagons with parallel opposite edges are called parallelogons and can also tile.

Hexagon. the plane by translation. In three dimensions, hexagonal prisms with parallel opposite faces are called parallelohedrons and these can tessellate 3-space by translation.## Tesselations by hexagons.In addition to the regular hexagon, which determines a unique tessellation of the plane, any irregular hexagon which satisfies the Conway criterion will tile the plane.## Hexagon inscribed in a conic section.Pascal's theorem (also known as the "Hexagrammum Mysticum Theorem") states that if an arbitrary hexagon is inscribed in any conic section, and pairs of opposite sides are extended until they meet, the three intersection points will lie on a straight line, the "Pascal line.

Hexagon. of that configuration.## Cyclic hexagon.The Lemoine hexagon is a cyclic hexagon (one inscribed in a circle) with vertices given by the six intersections of the edges of a triangle and the three lines that are parallel to the edges that pass through its symmedian point.If the successive sides of a cyclic hexagon are "a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", then the three main diagonals intersect in a single point if and only if .If, for each side of a cyclic hexagon, the adjacent sides are extended to their intersection, forming a triangle exterior to the given side, then the segments.

Hexagon. connecting the circumcenters of opposite triangles are concurrent.If a hexagon has vertices on the circumcircle of an acute triangle at the six points (including three triangle vertices) where the extended altitudes of the triangle meet the circumcircle, then the area of the hexagon is twice the area of the triangle.## Hexagon tangential to a conic section.Let ABCDEF be a hexagon formed by six tangent lines of a conic section. Then Brianchon's theorem states that the three main diagonals AD, BE, and CF intersect at a single point.In a hexagon that is tangential to a circle and that has consecutive sides.

Hexagon. "a", "b", "c", "d", "e", and "f",formula_16## Equilateral triangles on the sides of an arbitrary hexagon.If an equilateral triangle is constructed externally on each side of any hexagon, then the midpoints of the segments connecting the centroids of opposite triangles form another equilateral triangle.## Skew hexagon.A skew hexagon is a skew polygon with six vertices and edges but not existing on the same plane. The interior of such an hexagon is not generally defined. A "skew zig-zag hexagon" has vertices alternating between two parallel planes.A regular skew hexagon is vertex-transitive with equal edge lengths. In three dimensions it will be.

Hexagon. a zig-zag skew hexagon and can be seen in the vertices and side edges of a triangular antiprism with the same D3d, [2+,6] symmetry, order 12.The cube and octahedron (same as triangular antiprism) have regular skew hexagons as petrie polygons.## Petrie polygons.The regular skew hexagon is the Petrie polygon for these higher dimensional regular, uniform and dual polyhedra and polytopes, shown in these skew orthogonal projections:## Convex equilateral hexagon.A "principal diagonal" of a hexagon is a diagonal which divides the hexagon into quadrilaterals. In any convex equilateral hexagon (one with all sides equal) with common side "a", there exists a.

Hexagon. principal diagonal "d"1 such thatformula_17and a principal diagonal "d"2 such thatformula_18## Polyhedra with hexagons.There is no Platonic solid made of only regular hexagons, because the hexagons tessellate, not allowing the result to "fold up". The Archimedean solids with some hexagonal faces are the truncated tetrahedron, truncated octahedron, truncated icosahedron (of soccer ball and fullerene fame), truncated cuboctahedron and the truncated icosidodecahedron. These hexagons can be considered truncated triangles, with Coxeter diagrams of the form and .There are other symmetry polyhedra with stretched or flattened hexagons, like these Goldberg polyhedron G(2,0):There are also 9 Johnson solids with regular hexagons: 24-cell: a.

Hexagon. four-dimensional figure which, like the hexagon, has orthoplex facets, is self-dual and tessellates Euclidean space Hexagonal crystal system Hexagonal number Hexagonal tiling: a regular tiling of hexagons in a plane Hexagram: six-sided star within a regular hexagon Unicursal hexagram: single path, six-sided star, within a hexagon Honeycomb conjecture Havannah: abstract board game played on a six-sided hexagonal gridDefinition and properties of a hexagon with interactive animation and construction with compass and straightedge.An Introduction to Hexagonal Geometry on Hexnet a website devoted to hexagon mathematics.Hexagons are the Bestagons an animated youtube video about hexagons.


Question: Which geographic area is this animal found?

Instruction: Retrieve a Wikipedia paragraph that provides an answer to the given query about the image.

Jaguar. to employ an unusual killing method: it bites directly through the skull of mammalian prey between the ears to deliver a fatal blow to the brain.The modern jaguar's ancestors probably entered the Americas from Eurasia during the Early Pleistocene via the land bridge that once spanned the Bering Strait. Today, the jaguar's range extends from core Southwestern United States across Mexico and much of Central America, the Amazon rainforest and south to Paraguay and northern Argentina. It inhabits a variety of forested and open terrains, but its preferred habitat is tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest, wetlands and wooded regions.

Jaguar. areas inhabited by at least 50 breeding jaguars. The JCUs are located in 36 geographic regions ranging from Mexico to Argentina.The jaguar has featured prominently in the mythology of indigenous peoples of the Americas, including those of the Aztec and Maya civilizations.## Etymology.The word "jaguar" is possibly derived from the Tupi-Guarani word meaning 'wild beast that overcomes its prey at a bound'. In North America, the word is pronounced disyllabic , while in British English, it is pronounced with three syllables . Indigenous peoples in Guyana call it ."Onca" is derived from the Portuguese name for a spotted cat in.

Jaguar. Brazil that is larger than a lynx. The word "panther" is derived from classical Latin , itself from the ancient Greek ().## Taxonomy and evolution.## Taxonomy.In 1758, Carl Linnaeus described the jaguar in his work "Systema Naturae" and gave it the scientific name "Felis onca".In the 19th and 20th centuries, several jaguar type specimens formed the basis for descriptions of subspecies. In 1939, Reginald Innes Pocock recognized eight subspecies based on the geographic origins and skull morphology of these specimens.Pocock did not have access to sufficient zoological specimens to critically evaluate their subspecific status but expressed doubt about the status.

Jaguar. may have descended from "Panthera gombaszoegensis", which is thought to have entered the American continent via Beringia, the land bridge that once spanned the Bering Strait. Fossils of modern jaguars have been found in North America dating to over 850,000 years ago. Results of mitochondrial DNA analysis of 37 jaguars indicate that current populations evolved between 510,000 and 280,000 years ago in northern South America and subsequently recolonized North and Central America after the extinction of jaguars there during the Late Pleistocene.Two extinct subspecies of jaguar are recognized in the fossil record: the North American "P. o. augusta" and South.

Jaguar. American "P. o. mesembrina".## Description.The jaguar is a compact and well-muscled animal. It is the largest cat native to the Americas and the third largest in the world, exceeded in size only by the tiger and the lion. It stands 68 to 75 (cm) tall at the shoulders.Its size and weight vary considerably: weights are normally in the range of 56 - 96 (kg). Exceptionally big males have been recorded to weigh as much as 158 (kg).The smallest females weigh about 36 (kg). It is sexually dimorphic, with females typically being 10–20% smaller than males. The length from the nose.

Jaguar. to the base of the tail varies from 1.12 to 1.85 (m). The tail is 45 to 75 (cm) long and the shortest of any big cat.Its muscular legs are shorter than the legs of other "Panthera" species with similar body weight.Further variations in size have been observed across regions and habitats, with size tending to increase from north to south. Jaguars in the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve on the Pacific coast of central Mexico weighed around 50 (kg), which is about the size of a female cougar ("Puma concolor").Jaguars in Venezuela and Brazil are much larger, with average weights of.

Jaguar. America to southern Argentina. By the turn of the 21st century, its global range had decreased to about 8750000 (km2), with most declines in the southern United States, northern Mexico, northern Brazil, and southern Argentina.Its present range extends from Mexico through Central America to South America comprising Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, particularly on the Osa Peninsula, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina. It is considered to be locally extinct in El Salvador and Uruguay.Jaguars have been occasionally sighted in Arizona, New Mexico and Texas.Between 2012 and 2015, a male vagrant.

Jaguar. jaguar was recorded in 23 locations in the Santa Rita Mountains.The jaguar prefers dense forest and typically inhabits dry deciduous forests, tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests, rainforests and cloud forests in Central and South America; open, seasonally flooded wetlands, dry grassland and historically also oak forests in the United States. It has been recorded at elevations up to 3800 (m) but avoids montane forests. It favors riverine habitat and swamps with dense vegetation cover. In the Mayan forests of Mexico and Guatemala, 11 GPS-collared jaguars preferred undisturbed dense habitat away from roads; females avoided even areas with low levels.

Jaguar. larger prey, usually over 22 (kg). The cougar's prey usually weighs between 2 and 22 (kg), which is thought to be the reason for its smaller size.This situation may be advantageous to the cougar. Its broader prey niche, including its ability to take smaller prey, may give it an advantage over the jaguar in human-altered landscapes.## Hunting and diet.The jaguar is an obligate carnivore and depends solely on flesh for its nutrient requirements. An analysis of 53 studies documenting the diet of the jaguar revealed that its prey ranges in weight from 1 to 130 (kg); it prefers prey weighing.

Jaguar. 45-85 (kg), with capybara ("Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris") and giant anteater ("Myrmecophaga tridactyla") being significantly preferred. When available, it also preys on marsh deer ("Blastocerus dichotomus"), southern tamandua ("Tamandua tetradactyla"), collared peccary ("Dicotyles tajacu") and black agouti ("Dasyprocta fuliginosa"). In floodplains, jaguars opportunistically take reptiles such as turtles and caimans. Consumption of reptiles appears to be more frequent in jaguars than in other big cats. One remote population in the Brazilian Pantanal is recorded to primarily feed on aquatic reptiles and fish.The jaguar also preys on livestock in cattle ranching areas where wild prey is scarce.The daily food requirement of a captive.

Jaguar. jaguar weighing 34 (kg) was estimated at 1.4 (kg) of meat.The jaguar's bite force allows it to pierce the carapaces of the yellow-spotted Amazon river turtle ("Podocnemis unifilis") and the yellow-footed tortoise ("Chelonoidis denticulatus"). It employs an unusual killing method: it bites mammalian prey directly through the skull between the ears to deliver a fatal bite to the brain. It kills capybara by piercing its canine teeth through the temporal bones of its skull, breaking its zygomatic arch and mandible and penetrating its brain, often through the ears.It has been hypothesized to be an adaptation to "cracking open" turtle shells;.

Jaguar. Cerrado.Studies employing GPS telemetry in 2003 and 2004 found densities of only six to seven jaguars per 100 km2 in the Pantanal region, compared with 10 to 11 using traditional methods; this suggests the widely used sampling methods may inflate the actual numbers of individuals in a sampling area. Fights between males occur but are rare, and avoidance behavior has been observed in the wild. In one wetland population with broken down territorial boundaries and a high population density, adults of the same sex have been observed fishing, traveling and playing together.The jaguar roars or grunts for long-distance communication; intensive.

Jaguar. increased restlessness with rolling and prolonged vocalizations.She is an induced ovulator but can also ovulate spontaneously.Gestation lasts 91 to 111 days.The male is sexually mature at the age of three to four years.His mean ejaculate volume is 8.6±1.3 ml.Generation length of the jaguar is 9.8 years.In the Pantanal, breeding pairs were observed to stay together for up to five days. Females had one to two cubs.The young are born with closed eyes but open them after two weeks. Cubs are weaned at the age of three months but remain in the birth den for six months before leaving to accompany.

Jaguar. the indigenous peoples of South America stated that people did not need to fear the jaguar as long as capybaras were abundant.The first official record of a jaguar killing a human in Brazil dates to June 2008.Two children were attacked by jaguars in Guyana.The jaguar is the least likely of all big cats to kill and eat humans, and the majority of attacks come when it has been cornered or wounded.## Threats.The jaguar is threatened by loss and fragmentation of habitat, illegal killing in retaliation for livestock depredation and for illegal trade in jaguar body parts. It is listed as.

Jaguar. sale of meat.Between 2008 and 2012, at least 15 jaguars were killed by livestock farmers in central Belize.The international trade of jaguar skins boomed between the end of the Second World War and the early 1970s.Significant declines occurred in the 1960s, as more than 15,000 jaguars were yearly killed for their skins in the Brazilian Amazon alone; the trade in jaguar skins decreased since 1973 when the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species was enacted.Interview surveys with 533 people in the northwestern Bolivian Amazon revealed that local people killed jaguars out of fear, in retaliation, and for trade.Between August.

Jaguar. is run by Chinese residents in Bolivia.## Conservation.The jaguar is listed on CITES Appendix I, which means that all international commercial trade in jaguars or their body parts is prohibited. Hunting jaguars is prohibited in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, the United States, and Venezuela. Hunting jaguars is restricted in Guatemala and Peru. In Ecuador, hunting jaguars is prohibited, and it is classified as threatened with extinction.In Guyana, it is protected as an endangered species, and hunting it is illegal.In 1986, the Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary was established in Belize as the world's first protected.

Jaguar. area for jaguar conservation.## Jaguar Conservation Units.In 1999, field scientists from 18 jaguar range countries determined the most important areas for long-term jaguar conservation based on the status of jaguar population units, stability of prey base and quality of habitat. These areas, called "Jaguar Conservation Units" (JCUs), are large enough for at least 50 breeding individuals and range in size from 566 to 67598 (km2); 51 JCUs were designated in 36 geographic regions including: the Sierra Madre Occidental and Sierra de Tamaulipas in Mexico the Selva Maya tropical forests extending over Mexico, Belize and Guatemala the Chocó–Darién moist forests from.

Jaguar. Honduras and Panama to Colombia Venezuelan Llanos northern Cerrado and Amazon basin in Brazil Tropical Andes in Bolivia, Peru and Argentina Misiones Province in ArgentinaOptimal routes of travel between core jaguar population units were identified across its range in 2010 to implement wildlife corridors that connect JCUs. These corridors represent areas with the shortest distance between jaguar breeding populations, require the least possible energy input of dispersing individuals and pose a low mortality risk. They cover an area of 2600000 (km2) and range in length from 3 to 1102 (km) in Mexico and Central America and from 489.14 to 1607.

Jaguar. approach, the jaguar has been called an umbrella species.Central American JCUs overlap with the habitat of 187 of 304 regional endemic amphibian and reptile species, of which 19 amphibians occur only in the jaguar range.## Approaches.In setting up protected reserves, efforts generally also have to be focused on the surrounding areas, as jaguars are unlikely to confine themselves to the bounds of a reservation, especially if the population is increasing in size. Human attitudes in the areas surrounding reserves and laws and regulations to prevent poaching are essential to make conservation areas effective.To estimate population sizes within specific areas and.


Question: What is the weight of a male of this animal in kilogram?

Instruction: I want to find a paragraph from Wikipedia that answers my question about this image.

Sea otter. The sea otter (Enhydra lutris) is a marine mammal native to the coasts of the northern and eastern North Pacific Ocean. Adult sea otters typically weigh between 14 and 45 (kg), making them the heaviest members of the weasel family, but among the smallest marine mammals. Unlike most marine mammals, the sea otter's primary form of insulation is an exceptionally thick coat of fur, the densest in the animal kingdom. Although it can walk on land, the sea otter is capable of living exclusively in the ocean.The sea otter inhabits nearshore environments, where it dives to the sea floor to.

Sea otter. Description.The sea otter is one of the smallest marine mammal species, but it is the heaviest mustelid. Male sea otters usually weigh 22 to 45 (kg) and are 1.2 to 1.5 (m) in length, though specimens up to 54 (kg) have been recorded. Females are smaller, weighing 14 to 33 (kg) and measuring 1.0 to 1.4 (m) in length. For its size, the male otter's baculum is very large, massive and bent upwards, measuring 150 (mm) in length and 15 (mm) at the base.Unlike most other marine mammals, the sea otter has no blubber and relies on its exceptionally thick.

Sea otter. the urchin's shell.The sea otter's use of rocks when hunting and feeding makes it one of the few mammal species to use tools. To open hard shells, it may pound its prey with both paws against a rock on its chest. To pry an abalone off its rock, it hammers the abalone shell using a large stone, with observed rates of 45 blows in 15 seconds. Releasing an abalone, which can cling to rock with a force equal to 4,000 times its own body weight, requires multiple dives.## Social structure.Although each adult and independent juvenile forages alone, sea otters tend.

Sea otter. 1745, they began to move on to the Aleutian Islands. The Russians initially traded with the Aleuts inhabitants of these islands for otter pelts, but later enslaved the Aleuts, taking women and children hostage and torturing and killing Aleut men to force them to hunt. Many Aleuts were either murdered by the Russians or died from diseases the hunters had introduced. The Aleut population was reduced, by the Russians' own estimate, from 20,000 to 2,000. By the 1760s, the Russians had reached Alaska. In 1799, Tsar Paul I consolidated the rival fur-hunting companies into the Russian-American Company, granting it an.


Question: What is this plant named after?

Instruction: I want to find a paragraph from Wikipedia that answers my question about this image.

Shortia. Shortia is a small genus of subshrubs or perennial herbs in the family Diapensiaceae. There are five species, four in Asia and one in the Appalachian Mountains of eastern North America. They are found in mountainous areas, generally from 1000 – 2000 (m) elevation. All have restricted ranges and are generally considered rare. Three of the species, "S. galacifolia", "S. soldanelloides", and "S. uniflora" are often cultivated. The genus was by Asa Gray named after botanist Charles Wilkins Short. In Gray's diary entry for April 8, 1839, he named the genus after Charles Wilkins Short because the plant was native.

Shortia. to America in a region close to where Short lived, which was Kentucky. Short and Gray never met but they corresponded with one another frequently. Short never saw a live nor dried specimen of his namesake genus.


Question: What is the basionym of this plant?

Instruction: I want to find a paragraph from Wikipedia that answers my question about this image.

Calystegia sepium. Calystegia sepium (hedge bindweed, Rutland beauty, bugle vine, heavenly trumpets, bellbind, granny-pop-out-of-bed and many others) is a species of flowering plant in the family Convolvulaceae. It has a subcosmopolitan distribution throughout temperate regions of the North and South hemispheres.## Description.It is an herbaceous perennial that twines around other plants, in a counter-clockwise direction, to a height of up to 2 - 4 (m), rarely 5 (m). The pale matte green leaves are arranged spirally, simple, pointed at the tip and are arrowhead shaped, 5–10 (cm) long and 3–7 (cm) broad.The flowers are white, or pale pink with five darker stripes,.

Calystegia sepium. in hedges, fields, borders, roadsides and open woods.Hedge bindweed is toxic, containing calystegine alkaloids.## Identification.There are several species of "Calystegia" which and occur in similar habitats and can be difficult to distinguish, especially when not in flower. It is common practice in Britain to treat "C. sepium", "C. silvatica" and "C. pulchra" as an aggregate, usually recorded as ""C. sepium" agg.", whenever identification is uncertain. The use of this term sometimes creates confusion about which taxon is being discussed.The best way to separate hedge bindweed ("sepium") from the other taxa is by the bracteoles, which subtend the flower and wholly.


Question: Which mountain range is this mountain belong to?

Instruction: You have to find a Wikipedia segment that answers the question about the displayed image.

Ben Nevis. Ben Nevis ( ; ) is the highest mountain in Scotland, the United Kingdom and the British Isles. The summit is 4,411.15 (ft) above sea level and is the highest land in any direction for 459 (mi). Ben Nevis stands at the western end of the Grampian Mountains in the Highland region of Lochaber, close to the town of Fort William.The mountain is a popular destination, attracting an estimated 130,000 ascents a year, around three-quarters of which use the Mountain Track from Glen Nevis.The 700 (m) cliffs of the north face are among the highest in Scotland, providing classic scrambles.