You are provided with the abstract of a scientific paper and the abstracts of the papers it references. Your task is to write a Related Work section for the main paper. This section should concisely summarize and integrate the key points from the cited abstracts, reflecting how they relate to the main paper's contributions and context. In your summary, use numerical citation markers like [1], [2], etc., to refer to the corresponding papers.

Main Abstract:
Simulation-to-real transfer is an important strategy for making reinforcement learning practical with real robots. Successful sim-to-real transfer systems have difficulty producing policies which generalize across tasks, despite training for thousands of hours equivalent real robot time. To address this shortcoming, we present a novel approach to efficiently learning new robotic skills directly on a real robot, based on model-predictive control (MPC) and an algorithm for learning task representations. In short, we show how to reuse the simulation from the pre-training step of sim-to-real methods as a tool for foresight, allowing the sim-to-real policy adapt to unseen tasks. Rather than end-to-end learning policies for single tasks and attempting to transfer them, we first use simulation to simultaneously learn (1) a continuous parameterization (i.e. a skill embedding or latent) of task-appropriate primitive skills, and (2) a single policy for these skills which is conditioned on this representation. We then directly transfer our multi-skill policy to a real robot, and actuate the robot by choosing sequences of skill latents which actuate the policy, with each latent corresponding to a pre-learned primitive skill controller. We complete unseen tasks by choosing new sequences of skill latents to control the robot using MPC, where our MPC model is composed of the pre-trained skill policy executed in the simulation environment, run in parallel with the real robot. We discuss the background and principles of our method, detail its practical implementation, and evaluate its performance by using our method to train a real Sawyer Robot to achieve motion tasks such as drawing and block pushing.

Cited Abstract(s):
[1]: 

[2]: Data efficiency, i.e., learning from small data sets, is critical in many practical applications where data collection is time consuming or expensive, e.g., robotics, animal experiments or drug design. Meta learning is one way to increase the data efficiency of learning algorithms by generalizing learned concepts from a set of training tasks to unseen, but related, tasks. Often, this relationship between tasks is hard coded or relies in some other way on human expertise. In this paper, we propose to automatically learn the relationship between tasks using a latent variable model. Our approach finds a variational posterior over tasks and averages over all plausible (according to this posterior) tasks when making predictions. We apply this framework within a model-based reinforcement learning setting for learning dynamics models and controllers of many related tasks. We apply our framework in a model-based reinforcement learning setting, and show that our model effectively generalizes to novel tasks, and that it reduces the average interaction time needed to solve tasks by up to 60 compared to strong baselines.

[3]: Simulations are attractive environments for training agents as they provide an abundant source of data and alleviate certain safety concerns during the training process. But the behaviours developed by agents in simulation are often specific to the characteristics of the simulator. Due to modeling error, strategies that are successful in simulation may not transfer to their real world counterparts. In this paper, we demonstrate a simple method to bridge this "reality gap." By randomizing the dynamics of the simulator during training, we are able to develop policies that are capable of adapting to very different dynamics, including ones that differ significantly from the dynamics on which the policies were trained. This adaptivity enables the policies to generalize to the dynamics of the real world without any training on the physical system. Our approach is demonstrated on an object pushing task using a robotic arm. Despite being trained exclusively in simulation, our policies are able to maintain a similar level of performance when deployed on a real robot, reliably moving an object to a desired location from random initial configurations. We explore the impact of various design decisions and show that the resulting policies are robust to significant calibration error.

[4]: As robots become more widely available, many capabilities that were once only practical to develop and test in simulation are becoming feasible on real, physically grounded, robots. This newfound feasibility is important because simulators rarely represent the world with sufficient fidelity that developed behaviors will work as desired in the real world. However, development and testing on robots remains difficult and time consuming, so it is desirable to minimize the number of trials needed when developing robot behaviors. This paper focuses on reinforcement learning (RL) on physically grounded robots. A few noteworthy exceptions notwithstanding, RL has typically been done purely in simulation, or, at best, initially in simulation with the eventual learned behaviors run on a real robot. However, some recent RL methods exhibit sufficiently low sample complexity to enable learning entirely on robots. One such method is transfer learning for RL. The main contribution of this paper is the first empirical demonstration that transfer learning can significantly speed up and even improve asymptotic performance of RL done entirely on a physical robot. In addition, we show that transferring information learned in simulation can bolster additional learning on the robot.
Simulation-to-real transfer learning approaches include randomizing the dynamic parameters of the simulation [3] , and varying the visual appearance of the environment [1] , both of which scale linearly or quadratically the amount of computation needed to learn a transfer policy. Other strategies, such as that of Barrett al [3]2 reuse models trained in simulation to make sim-to-real transfer more efficient, similar to our method, however this work requires an explicit pre-defined mapping between seen and unseen tasks. Saemundson al [2] use meta-learning and learned representations to generalize from pre-trained seen tasks to unseen tasks, however their approach requires that the unseen tasks be very similar to the pre-trained tasks, and is few-shot rather than zero-shot. Our method is zero-shot with respect to real environment samples, and can be used to learn unseen tasks which are significantly out-of-distribution, as well as for composing learned skills in the time domain to achieve unseen tasks which are more complex than the underlying pre-trained task set.