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Paragraph: Date: 2017-03-31
DOI: 10.1128/aem.03327-16
License: cc-by

Abstract: There have been an increasing number of reports implicating Gammaproteobacteria  as often carrying genes of drug resistance from colonized sink traps to vulnerable hospitalized patients. However, the mechanism of transmission from the wastewater of the sink P-trap to patients remains poorly understood. Herein we report the use of a designated hand-washing sink lab gallery to model dispersion of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-expressing Escherichia coli from sink wastewater to the surrounding environment. We found no dispersion of GFP-expressing E. coli directly from the P-trap to the sink basin or surrounding countertop with coincident water flow from a faucet. However, when the GFP-expressing E. coli cells were allowed to mature in the P-trap under conditions similar to those in a hospital environment, a GFP-expressing E. coli-containing putative biofilm extended upward over 7 days to reach the strainer. This subsequently resulted in droplet dispersion to the surrounding areas (<30 in.) during faucet operation. We also demonstrated that P-trap colonization could occur by retrograde transmission along a common pipe. We postulate that the organisms mobilize up to the strainer from the P-trap, resulting in droplet dispersion rather than dispersion directly from the P-trap. This work helps to further define the mode of transmission of bacteria from a P-trap reservoir to a vulnerable hospitalized patient. IMPORTANCE Many recent reports demonstrate that sink drain pipes become colonized with highly consequential multidrug-resistant bacteria, which then results in hospital-acquired infections. However, the mechanism of dispersal of bacteria from the sink to patients has not been fully elucidated. Through establishment of a unique sink gallery, this work found that a staged mode of transmission involving biofilm growth from the lower pipe to the sink strainer and subsequent splatter to the bowl and surrounding area occurs rather than splatter directly from the water in the lower pipe. We have also demonstrated that bacterial transmission can occur via connections in wastewater plumbing to neighboring sinks. This work helps to more clearly define the mechanism and risk of transmission from a wastewater source to hospitalized patients in a world with increasingly antibiotic-resistant bacteria that can thrive in wastewater environments and cause infections in vulnerable patients. Text: D espite early reports (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) , the premise that hand-wash sink traps can act as reservoirs of bacteria that cause nosocomial infections has been frequently overlooked. There has recently been an alarming increase in sink-related outbreaks worldwide, with many reports establishing an observational link (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) . A sink often operates as an open conduit to wastewater in a patient care area that is often in the same room as the patient. Health care establishments often invest in desperate interventions to deal with nosocomial outbreaks. The preferred method for addressing most of the environmentrelated transmission is to employ enhanced cleaning using chemical and physical agents (14, 15) . Unfortunately, routine approaches are inefficient in completely eliminating drug-resistant   in an inaccessible microbiologically active area such as a sink trap (6, (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) . The wet, humid, and relatively protected environment in a sink trap favors the formation of rich stable microbial communities (16, 21, 22) . These communities will be exposed to liquids and waste that are discarded in a sink and may include antimicrobials, discarded beverages, soap, presumably pathogenic bacteria from health care workers' hands, and other items. In short, sink traps could serve as a breeding ground for opportunistic and highly antimicrobial-resistant bacteria that cannot be easily cleaned or removed (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (28) . There are many reports of a genetic association between pathogens found in sink traps and those found in patients (29, 30) . However, surprisingly little work has been done to understand the microscale transmission dynamics. It was previously demonstrated using a suspension of fluorescent particles (Glo Germ; Glo Germ Co., Moab, UT) that material injected into the P-trap gets dispersed around a hand-washing sink (6) . This result however has not been replicated hitherto in the follow-up studies. Dispersion has never been investigated with living organisms. Ultimately, many details remain unaddressed surrounding the spread of Enterobacteriaceae in sink-trap wastewater systems: (i) can organisms grow retrograde from the P-trap water to the sink strainer, (ii) can organisms spread from one sink to another along the internal surfaces of pipes with shared drainage systems, and (iii) which portion of a colonized drain pipe results in dispersion into the sink bowl during a hand-washing event? We aim to better understand the dispersion dynamics of   living in the wastewater of a sink strainer and P-trap into an area where patients and health care workers could be exposed. To study this dynamic, we used a surrogate organism that could be easily tracked while remaining in the Enterobacteriaceae family, where some of the most concerning threats in antimicrobial resistance are developing (30) . Growth and colonization of GFP-expressing E. coli in the P-trap. In the first 14 days following the installation of the P-trap with established green fluorescent protein (GFP)-expressing Escherichia coli and just water running from the faucet, GFPexpressing E. coli was not detected in the tailpipe beyond 1.5 in. above the liquid level in the P-trap. GFP-expressing E. coli, however, was found to be viable in the P-trap without any nutrients added. A nutrient regimen was then instituted to understand the influence of nutrients on mobility and upward growth. The addition of tryptic soy broth (TSB) promoted GFP-expressing E. coli growth as early as day 1, with growth observed in the tailpipe 2 in. above the liquid surface in the P-trap (Table 1) . On day 7, the strainer (ϳ8 in. above the liquid in the P-trap) was found to be colonized with GFP-expressing E. coli. This translates to an average growth rate of 1 in./day along the length of the tailpipe with the addition of nutrients and without faucet operation. GFP-expressing E. coli was not detected in the faucet water. Sink-to-sink transmission of bacteria. In these experiments, a flanking sink (sink 5) was the only P-trap inoculated with GFP-expressing E. coli and therefore was the sole source for transmission to the connected sinks. Starting with a lower inoculum concentration (10 3 CFU/ml) in sink 5, on day 7, GFP-expressing E. coli was detected in the sink 2 and sink 3 P-traps (Fig. 1a) . With inoculum concentrations of 10 6 CFU/ml and Ͼ10 10 CFU/ml in sink 5, all of the sink P-traps in the sink gallery with the exception of sink 1 were found to be colonized with GFP-expressing E. coli after 7 days (Fig. 1b and  c) . Faucet water and aerators tested negative for GFP-expressing E. coli. Irrespective of the starting inoculum concentration, on day 7 the highest level of colonization was recorded in the sink 3 P-trap. After day 7, when the nutrient regimen (described previously) was followed for an additional 7 days in each of the sinks in the sink gallery with an inoculum concentration of Ͼ10 10 CFU/ml, GFP-expressing E. coli was detected in the strainers of sinks 2 and 3 on day 14. This finding validated the upward growth and growth rate in the tailpipe when nutrients were added. Nonfluorescent colonies were occasionally observed in the P-trap water samples collected from the sinks, which were subsequently identified to be Pseudomonas sp. or Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, and fluorescent colonies were confirmed to be E. coli. Dispersion of microspheres from sinks. In the first dispersion experiment, when fluorescent microspheres were inoculated into the offset drain tailpiece only 4 in. below the strainer, no microspheres were detected on the polyester sheets placed on the counter space. However, when the sink bowl was coated with the microspheres, polyester sheets overlaid on the counter space captured the dispersed microspheres caused by the faucet operation. Dispersion was observed on almost all zones of the sink counter space (Fig. 2) . Relatively higher levels of dispersion were observed along the major and minor axes of the elliptical sink bowl (zones 2, 5, 6, 9, 11, and 12) . Anterior corners of the sink counter space (zones 4 and 7), which were most distant from the impact of water in the sink bowl, received the lowest dispersion. Dispersion of GFP-expressing E. coli from sinks. Initially the P-trap alone was inoculated with GFP-expressing E. coli and carefully installed, keeping the tailpipe and strainer free of GFP-expressing E. coli before operating the faucets. No fluorescent CFU were observed on the plates placed on the counter or attached to the bowl surface after faucet operation. Similarly, no fluorescent CFU were detected when GFPexpressing E. coli was inoculated into the offset drain tailpiece only 4 in. below the strainer. Interestingly, when there was conspicuous water backup over the strainer as a result of a higher water flow rate from the faucet than the drainage rate from the P-trap, dispersal was detected on the plates attached to the bowl surface. The dispersion pattern recorded when the sink bowl was coated with GFPexpressing E. coli was comparable to the pattern recorded when the sink bowl was coated with fluorescent microspheres (Fig. 2) . Dispersion was significantly higher along the axes (zones 6, 9, 11, and 12) and lower at the corners of the sink counter space (zones 4, 7, and 10). In contrast, dispersion of GFP-expressing E. coli caused by the faucet operation was much more extensive when the strainer was allowed to be colonized with GFPexpressing E. coli prior to the dispersion experiment. In addition to the sink counter space, we measured dispersion to the sink bowl, faucet, faucet handles, splatter shields, and the extended counter surface. Dispersion of GFP-expressing E. coli was highest on the plates attached to the sink bowl (Fig. 3b) . Further, dispersion was greater along the 

Ϫ" and "ϩ" denote the absence and presence of GFP-expressing E. coli, respectively. minor axis of the sink bowl (Fig. 3b , zones B3, B4, and B10) than along the major axis of the sink bowl, associated with a shorter distance from the strike point of the faucet water to the bowl along this axis. The next highest CFU count from the dispersal was recorded on the counter area near the faucets (Fig. 3a , zones 12 and 11). A similar pattern of higher dispersion near the faucets and lower dispersion at the corners of the counter space (Fig. 3a , zones 4, 7, and 10) was also observed using microspheres. Dispersion was also recorded in other zones of the counter space, on the Plexiglas splatter shields, faucets, faucet handles, and extended surface (Fig. 3c ). There were no GFP-expressing E. coli CFU recorded on plates placed beyond 30 in. from the strainer, demarcating the range of dispersion under these experimental conditions. Table 2 gives a summary of the total distribution loads recorded using fluorescent microspheres and GFP-expressing E. coli across each experiment. The loads of dispersion on the sink counter were comparable when the sink bowl was coated with microspheres or GFP-expressing E. coli before the faucet operation. Although the dispersion load on the sink counter was lower when the sink strainer was colonized, it is interesting to note that the sink bowl received the highest dispersion. To mimic dispersion in a hospital setting, we first investigated whether GFPexpressing E. coli would establish consistent colonization in a sink trap as many other   implicated in nosocomial outbreaks have done (6, 28) . Many recent reports demonstrate that P-traps become colonized with highly consequential  , which then results in nosocomial transmission (29, 31, 32) . The retained water in a sink P-trap is present to provide a water barrier to prevent off-gassing of sewer smell, but it may inadvertently provide favorable conditions for pathogenic and opportunistic antibiotic-resistant microorganisms to survive and develop resilient biofilms (3, 33) . However, the mechanism of dispersal of the bacteria in the P-trap to patients or the surrounding health care area had not been fully elucidated. We began with the hypothesis that the bacteria originate from the P-trap via droplet creation when the water from the faucet hits the P-trap water, thus contaminating the sink bowl and the surrounding area. The finding supporting this theory had been previously reported using Glo Germ particles (6) . However, in the present study with careful attention to avoid strainer and tail piece contamination, the dispersal directly from the sink P-trap with either microspheres or GFP-expressing E. coli could not be reproduced as previously reported (6) . Rather this work demonstrates a different, more staged mode of transmission from a P-trap reservoir to the sink and surrounding environment. GFP-expressing E. coli in the P-trap alone was sustained for 14 days but did not grow or mobilize up the tailpipe to the strainer with just intermittent water exposure. However, when nutrients were subsequently added to the system, the organisms rapidly grew up the tailpipe to the strainer at approximately an inch per day. In a real-world setting, motility of bacteria inside the tailpipe is restricted to relatively sporadic and brief wetting events in which swimming is an opportunity to colonize new surfaces. It is assumed that once established, the biofilm promotes the upward growth of GFP-expressing E. coli in the tailpipe at an accelerated rate. The nutrient regimen that promoted colonization in our model reflects our and others' observations of items commonly disposed of in hospital sinks (intravenous fluids, feeding supplements, and leftover beverages) (5, 32) . Transmission of bacteria between sinks via a common pipe was a key finding in this study as this highlights the concept that premise plumbing may be a more continuous system with shared microbiology than a single isolated sink. The sink gallery used in this study provided a unique in situ advantage to investigate sink-to-sink transmission of bacteria through common drains. The two possible mechanisms for P-trap strainers becoming colonized are seeding of organisms from above and retrograde spread of organisms along common pipes in a hospital wastewater infrastructure. Here we demonstrate that it is possible for GFP-expressing E. coli to contaminate adjacent P-traps with just time and water given a standard U.S. code piping rise of 0.25 ft/ft.

Question: Which type of bacteria are implicated in carrying genes of drug resistance?
Gammaproteobacteria