You will be shown a paragraph from a biomedical research paper, followed by a question about the paper. Please extract text from the paragraph to answer the question. Do not include any text in your repsonse other than the answer.

Paragraph: Nevertheless, there are several challenges by oral immunization, which consist of physical, chemical, and biological barriers when delivering antigens to the gastrointestinal (GI) tract (such as gastric acids, pepsin, and trypsin  in the GI tract) [11] . It is a substantial problem that digestive acids and proteases can degrade antigen proteins for nutrient absorption [12] . Therefore, the vaccine delivery system has been applied to solve the problem. The system can protect antigens from the severe environment of the GI tract and deliver antigens to intestinal mucosa [13] . Currently, Bacillus subtilis (B. subtilis) is widely used as a vaccine delivery system for its unique characteristics. As a nonpathogenic Gram-positive bacterium, B. subtilis has been regarded as a novel probiotic and food additive in humans and animals [14] . The B. subtilis has adjuvant activity and can deliver heterologous antigens to the GI tract, providing additional immunity stimulation [15] . Besides, research had shown that orally administered B. subtilis could also enhance immune regulation and gut health in pigs [16] . Moreover, oral administration of B. subtilis could elicit humoral and cellular immune responses to the maintenance of gut homeostasis by dendritic cells (DCs) [17] . DCs are the most important professional antigen-presenting cells and can effectively regulate antibody titers [18] . DCs naturally exist in the gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT), including Peyer's patches (PPs), isolated lymphoid follicles (ILFs), mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs), and scatter throughout the subepithelial lamina propria (LP) of the small intestine and colon [19] . Furthermore, B. subtilis is convenient for genetic manipulation and has developed a large variety of genetic tools [20] . Therefore, B. subtilis is widely used as an effective vaccine delivery system to induce mucosal immune responses and shows unique effect on the immune system. In the present report, we explored the immune effect of a recombinant B. subtilis (B. subtilis-RC) which had been successfully constructed with expressing PEDV COE protein in piglets. Our research indicated that B. subtilis-RC was beneficial to the mucosal immune system development, and could effectively generate specific antibodies against PEDV infection, suggesting a potential approach for preventing PEDV infection. The B. subtilis WB800 was kindly provided by Dr. Xuewen Gao (from the department of plant pathology, Nanjing Agricultural University) [21] . B. subtilis-RC previously constructed in our laboratory was able to express the gene COE (499-638 amino acids in S protein). Prior to oral administration, the recombinant strain was grown in LB broth at 37 • C for 12 h, and then washed twice with PBS, and suspended in PBS to reach a final concentration of 1 × 10 10 CFU/ml. The PEDV Zhejiang08 strain was provided by the Veterinary Medicine Research Centre of the Beijing Dabeinong Technology Group Co., Ltd. [22] . The virus was cultured in African green monkey kidney cells (Vero cells) and purified by using a discontinuous sucrose density gradient. The virus was UV-inactivated at UV dose of 4 J/cm 2 for 24 h to achieve a complete loss of infectivity [23] . The purified virus concentration was measured using the BCA protein assay kit (Thermo Fisher, MA, U.S.A.). ELISA: Rabbit anti-pig IgG (horseradish peroxidase (HRP)), Goat Anti-Pig IgA (HRP) were purchased from Abcam. Second antibody: DyLight 649-conjugated goat anti-mouse IgG antibody, DyLight 488-conjugated goat anti-rabbit IgG antibody, DyLight 594-conjugated goat anti-rabbit IgG antibody were purchased from Multi-science, Hangzhou, China. ABC-based system (biotinylated goat anti-rabbit IgG antibody) was used as the secondary antibody with DAB as a chromogen was purchased from Boster, Wuhan, China. Specific pathogen-free (SPF) DLY piglets (Duroc and Landrace and Yorkshire) were kindly provided by Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences (Nanjing, China). The animal experiments had been approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Nanjing Agricultural University and followed the National Institutes of Health's guidelines for the performance of animal experiments. Twelve newborn piglets were randomly divided into three groups (four piglets in each group), and housed under similar conditions in different stables in order to avoid probiotic cross-contamination. The piglets were orally dosed with 100 μl of B. subtilis-RC. The control groups of piglets were orally administered with inactivated PEDV (100 μg/dose) and equal volume of PBS. The immunization protocol was performed on the piglets that were 5 days old ( Figure 1C ), and signed as 0 day. Then booster immunizations were administered on 5 days. Specimen collection was then performed every 7 days post boost immunization ( Figure 1C ). Blood samples were collected weekly from all piglets after the boost immunization and allowed to clot overnight at room temperature to collect serum. Blood samples were separated by centrifugation and stored at −20 • C in order to detect the levels of specific IgG and IgA. Three swabs were collected every week lasting for 1 month, including nasal, oral, and feces swabs for the ELISA. The piglets were sacrificed in 33 days. The same location of the small intestine and ileum tissues from each piglet were fixed with Bonn's liquid and 4% paraformaldehyde. The small intestine tissues in same location were fixed with Bouin Fixative Solution for 24 h, embedded in paraffin, and sectioned at 4-μm thickness. The sections were placed on glass slides. Hematoxylin-eosin staining was applied to the paraffin sections, then observing and taking photographs under optical microscope (OLYMPUS CX23). The number of intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs) were counted in every 100 epithelial cells under the same multiple light microscope amongst ten pictures from each group [24] . The immunohistochemistry detection was performed with the SABC kit (Boster Bioscience). Hydrogen peroxide was used to deactivate intrinsic peroxidase. Antigen retrieval was performed in a water bath using citrate-EDTA buffer (10 mM citric acid, 2 mM EDTA, 0.05% Tween 20, pH 6.2). Sections were incubated with diluted anti-IgA antibody (1:100; Abcam) overnight at 4 • C. As negative controls, immunostaining performed by incubating samples with control antiserum instead of primary antibody. The addition of biotin-labeled secondary antibody to the slides was followed by adding HRP-labeled streptavidin. After staining with DAB, the slides were recorded using a digital camera (Leica-DM4000B) [25] . The isolated intestines with PPs were transferred to ice-cold PBS. Then, remaining fat and connective tissue was removed and washed thoroughly with ice-cold PBS. Next, the intestine was cut longitudinally into 0.5-cm fragments. The fragments were incubated with 5 ml of 30 mM EDTA and placed in 5 ml digestion solution containing 4% FBS, 0.5 mg/ml each of Collagenase D (Roche) and DNase I (Sigma), and 50 U/ml Dispase (Fisher). The fragments were incubated with Dulbecco's PBS (DPBS) for 20 min at 37 • C by slow rotation (100 rpm). After incubating, the epithelial cells layer which contained the IELs were separated by intensive vortex and passed through a 70-μm cell strainer. Single cell suspension was collected and washed twice by DPBS, the solution was vortexed intensely and passed through a 40-μm cell strainer. Supernatants was washed by precooled RPMI medium 1640 (Thermo Fisher Scientific) and suspended by 10 ml of the 40% fraction of a 40:80 Percoll gradient, overlaid on 5 ml of the 80% fraction in a 15-ml Falcon tube. Percoll gradient separation was performed by centrifuging for 20 min at 2500 rpm. LP lymphocytes (LPLs) were collected at the interphase of the Percoll gradient, then washed and suspended in FACS buffer or T cell medium. In the meantime, flow cytometry analysis was performed on BD Facscalibur (BD Biosciences) instruments and analyzed by FlowJo software. All antibodies were purchased from BD Pharmingen or eBiosciences. Isolated single-cell suspensions were stained with anti-CD3-APC, anti-CD4-FITC, anti-CD8-PE, all at 1:100 dilution for 30 min on ice, and washed with PBS twice, and analyzed by FACS [26] . Cytokines interleukin (IL) 10 (IL-10) and IL-1β (Abcam) were measured by ELISA according to the manufacturer's instructions. Data were acquired on an automated ELISA plate reader at OD 450 nm immediately. PEDV neutralizing antibodies were measured in intestine washing liquid by plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT). The test was performed as previously described with minor modifications [27] . A total of 450 μl of intestine washing liquid was two-fold serially diluted and mixed with 50 μl viral suspension containing 10 3 TCID 50 PEDV virus for 1 h at 37 • C in 12-well flat bottomed tissue culture plates. The mixture was then inoculated for 1 h at 37 • C and 5% CO 2 . Then, the mixture was inoculated with Vero cells suspension (approximately 1.0 × 10 6 ml −1 ) for another 3-4 days. After staining with Crystal Violet, the plates were observed under a microscope for cytopathic effect. Data were obtained as the means + − S.E.M. of three replicates per test in a single experiment. GraphPad Prism V6.0 (San Diego, CA, U.S.A.) used to perform statistical analyses. Tukey's multiple comparison tests and one-way ANOVA were used to analyze the significance of the difference between means. P-values less than 0.05 (P<0.05) were considered significant and P-values less than 0.01 (P<0.01) as highly significant. PPs are a concentrate of lymphoid tissue and the primary site for immunoglobulin A (IgA) production which is crucial to regulate the homeostatic balance of intestine [28] . The area of PPs is a key immunity indicator. Oral administration with B. subtilis-RC significantly (P<0.01) increased the area of PPs compared with two control groups as shown in Figure 1A . In addition, the villi length of ileum got longer by oral administration with B. subtilis-RC (P<0.01) than the other two groups ( Figure 1B) . These primarily confirmed that B. subtilis-RC was beneficial to maintain the structure of intestine. Intestinal IELs are a large and diverse population of lymphoid cells residing within the intestinal epithelial cells (IECs), and forming the intestinal mucosal barrier [29] . IELs are important part of the gut mucosal immune system. The level of specific anti-PEDV ileum IgA + secreting (SIgA) antibody in piglets was measured by ELISA in the mouth and feces. As shown in Figure 3A ,B, antigen-specific mucosal SIgA in the above sites was clearly higher than inactivated PEDV group (P<0.05 or P<0.01). As expected, the mouth had higher levels of SIgA than other sites. After oral immunization, the level of serum anti-PEDV IgG antibody in piglets immunized with B. subtilis-RC, inactivated PEDV or PBS were determined by ELISA, as shown in Figure 3C . The results indicated that although the titers dropped during sampling period, the IgG level of B. subtilis-RC still significantly increased from 0 to 33 days than inactivated PEDV group (P<0.05 or P<0.01). CD3 + T lymphocytes are the fundamental cell surface markers of T lymphocytes, therefore, the number of CD3 + T lymphocytes could represent the quantity of T lymphocytes. Consequently, we analyzed the number of CD3 + T lymphocytes in ileum. The data indicated that both B. subtilis-RC and inactivated PEDV could dramatically (P<0.05) increase CD3 + T lymphocytes compared with PBS group ( Figure 4A ). These changes showed confident evidence that oral administration with B. subtilis-RC had a good influence on intestinal mucosal immunity in piglets. SIgA is the main immunoglobulin isotype in animals, largely secreted across the intestinal mucosal surface especially in the small intestine [30] . SIgA plays an important role in intestinal mucosal immunity and reflects on the intestinal mucosal immunity. After oral administration with B. subtilis-RC, the number of IgA secreting cells had quickly risen compared with the other two groups (P<0.05) ( Figure 4B) . These results showed that oral administration with B. subtilis-RC was conducive to intestinal mucosal immunity and could increase the number of IgA secreting cells to produce positive effects on against PEDV infection. A great deal of immune cells are scattered in the epithelial cells. IECs indirectly or directly interact with innate and adaptive immune cells by presenting antigens to lymphocytes [31] . Consequently, learning about how the lymphocytes are distributed in the small intestinal mucosa is very meaningful for mucosal immunology. Previous data had shown that CD3 + T lymphocytes significantly (P<0.05) increased ( Figure 4A ), so we further analyzed the immunological classification of CD3 + T lymphocytes. The lymphocyte of the ileum with PPs junction was isolated and the lymphocytes of CD3, CD4, and CD8 were analyzed by three colors flow cytometry ( Figure 5A ). These results showed that CD3 + CD4 + T cells have obviously (P<0.01) increased ( Figure 5B ), nevertheless the CD3 + CD8 + T cells remarkably (P<0.05) declined ( Figure 5C ).

Question: What intestinal factors may reduce the effectiveness of orally-administered immunizations?
gastric acids, pepsin, and trypsin