You will be shown a paragraph from a biomedical research paper, followed by a question about the paper. Please extract text from the paragraph to answer the question. Do not include any text in your repsonse other than the answer.

Paragraph: Unfortunately, their benefits have been significantly restricted by drug-resistance and frequent antigenic mutation  [5, 6] . Therefore, the development of novel antiinfluenza agents against the H5N1 subtype is very important. The invasive plant Eupatorium adenophorum, native to Central America, has a strong ability to adapt to different environments all over the world. This plant first invaded southern Yunnan Province (China) in the 1940s from Burma and Vietnam, and quickly spread across southwestern China throughout the 1950s [7, 8] . Over the past 50 years, E. adenophorum has seriously impacted the ecological environment in China's middle subtropical zones, including Yunnan, Guizhou, Sichuan, and Guangxi Provinces, by encroaching farmlands, pasture fields, and forests [7] . Manual, chemical, or biological control of E. adenophorum has hindered its comprehensive development and utilization for economic benefit. Many bioactive components isolated from E. adenophorum have shown antimicrobial activity and immunomodulating 2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine properties [9] . In a recent study, the anti-inflammatory properties of ethanolic leaf extract was evaluated [10] . However, there have been few reports addressing the bioactivity of E. adenophorum polysaccharide (EAP). The immunomodulating properties and therapeutic potential of a large number of botanical polysaccharides have been reported [11] . Several polysaccharides from Cordyceps militaris, Portulaca oleracea, Gracilaria lemaneiformis, Gyrodinium impudium, and Panax ginseng have been described as efficacious antiinfluenza agents against H1N1 and H3N2 strains [12] [13] [14] [15] . In recent reports, polysaccharidebased adjuvants enhanced the immunogenicity and improved the protective efficacy of H5N1 vaccines in animal infection models [16, 17] . However, to our knowledge there have not been any reports regarding the treatment with EAP against highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza. In the present study, we investigated the potential effect of EAP against H5N1 influenza infection in a mouse model. Immune enhancement effects and the innate immune recognition of EAP were also evaluated. Our results suggest the anti-H5N1 effects of EAP offer an alternative strategy for developing antiinfluenza agents and the utilization of E. adenophorum products. Virus. The H5N1 influenza virus (A/bar-headed goose/ Qinghai/1/2010) used in this study was isolated from Qinghai Lake in May 2010. This isolate is highly pathogenic in poultry, mouse, and Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells. The virus was propagated in MDCK cells at 37 ∘ C for 48 h, and the viral supernatant was harvested, aliquoted, and stored at −80 ∘ C. Viral titers were determined by plaque assay as described previously [18] . Animal and Cells. 8-10-week-old Female BALB/c mice were obtained from Vital River Laboratories (Beijing, China), and the original breeding pairs were purchased from Charles River (Beijing, China). Mice were raised in independent ventilated cages (IVC) and received pathogen-free food and water. Animal treatments were governed by the Regulations of Experimental Animals of Beijing Authority, and approved by the Animal Ethics Committee of the China Agriculture University. The mouse leukemic monocyte macrophage Raw 264.7 cell line, human lung adenocarcinoma epithelial A549 cell line, and Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cell lines were provided by the Cell Resource Center of Peking Union Medical College. The cells were cultured and maintained according to the supplier's recommendations. Yunnan province, China. The leaves were sliced and dried in shade. 100 g dried materials were powdered in a mixer and then filtered with 40 meshes. Leaf powder was extracted by ultrasonic treatment with 1000 mL of distilled water for 45 min. The supernatant was collected and the precipitate resuspended in 1000 mL of distilled water and again extracted by ultrasonic treatment for 30 min. The resulting supernatant was combined with that obtained from the first ultrasonic treatment. The final aqueous fraction was evaporated to dryness in a rotary evaporator. The residue obtained was dissolved in distilled water and kept frozen at 4 ∘ C.

The extract was centrifuged at 3000 g/min for 25 min and concentrated under 80 ∘ C for 8 h to prepare polysaccharide. The supernatant was then deproteinized using the Sevag method, and dialyzed against water for 48 h. The final liquid was mixed with three-fold volume of 95% ethanol (v/v) and centrifuged at 3000 g/min for 10 min. The precipitates were successively washed with absolute ethanol, ether, and dried under vacuum at 40 ∘ C to obtained the crude polysaccharide (yield = 1.2%). EAP content was determined by the phenol-H 2 SO 4 method [19] . Vitro. 2.5 mL A549 and Raw 264.7 cells (4 × 10 5 /mL) per well were plated in 6-well plates and cultured at 37 ∘ C under 5% CO 2 for 24 h. Media was removed and 2.5 mL culture medium containing different concentrations of EAP (50, 100, 200 g/mL) was added to each well. Controls were treated with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). Cells were collected 36 h after treatment for RNA extraction and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Assay. Mice were administrated EAP at a dose of 5, 10, 25, or 50 mg/kg body weight, intranasally once daily for 5 days before the challenge. Control mice were administered PBS using the same schedule. Influenza virus stocks were diluted in PBS. Mice were anesthetized with Zotile (Virbac, France) intramuscularly at 15 mg/kg (body weight) and then infected intranasally with 120 plaqueforming units (PFU) of H5N1 influenza virus in 50 L. The lung tissue of five mice per group was collected on day 0 before challenge for qPCR and ELISA. Lung tissue from another five mice on day 3 postinfection was collected for plaque assay and qPCR. Ten mice per group were observed for survival for 14 days and body weights recorded. 2.6. Plaque Assay. MDCK cells were cultured in DMEM (Hyclone Laboratories, Logan, UT, USA) containing 10% FBS (Hyclone Laboratories), 100 U/mL penicillin, and 100 g/mL streptomycin (Invitrogen, San Diego, CA, USA). Lung tissue supernatant was diluted 10-fold and added to a cell monolayer covered by semisolid agar containing 0.5 g/mL of trypsin TPCK (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA). Plates were incubated at 37 ∘ C, 5% CO 2 for 60-72 h and stained with 1% crystal violet. Total RNA from 1 × 10 6 cells or 10 mg lung tissue were prepared by Trizol (Invitrogen) according to the manufacturer's instructions. DNaseItreated RNA (0.2 g) was reverse transcribed into cDNA using random primers. The expression of the hemagglutinin (HA) gene of H5N1 influenza virus was detected by qPCR using the Power SYBR Green PCR Master Mix kit (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA, USA). The following primers AGG CAC CA-3  5 -CTC CTT AAT GTC ACG CAC GAT TTC-3  h IL-6  5 -CCT TCG GTC CAG TTG CCT TCT-3  5 -CCA GTG CCT CTT TGC TGC TTT C-3  h IFN were used: forward primer, 5 -CGC AGT ATT CAG AAG AAG CAAGAC-3 ; and reverse primer, 5 -TCC ATA AGG ATA GAC CAG CTA CCA-3 . The reaction was run on an ABI 7500 thermal cycler with an initial denaturation step at 95 ∘ C for 10 min, followed by 40 cycles of 95 ∘ C for 15 s, 56 ∘ C for 30 s, and 72 ∘ C for 40 s. The copy number of the HA gene was calculated by 7500 software v2.0 (Applied Biosystems) using an HA-containing plasmid of known concentration as a standard. Relative qPCR was performed for other eight genes: hactin, h IL-6, h IFN-, and hTNF-for A549 cells; mactin, mTLR-2, mTLR-4, mDectin-1, mMR, mIL-6, mIFN-, and mTNF-for Raw264.7 cells. The sequences of primers were shown in Table 1 . The reaction was run with 95 ∘ C for 10 min, followed by 40 cycles of denaturation at 95 ∘ C for 15 sec, annealing at 52 ∘ C for 30 s, and extension at 72 ∘ C for 40 s. The fold change in gene expression was normalized to controls (naive mice) by 2 −ΔΔCT using -actin as an internal standard [20] . 2.8. ELISA. IL-6, TNF-, and IFN-levels in lung were tested with ELISA kits (Boster, Wuhan, China) according to the manufacturer's protocol. One gram of lung tissue from each mouse was ground in 1 mL PBS and centrifuged for 20 min at 5000 rpm. The supernatants were collected and diluted 10fold for ELISA. 2.10. Statistical Analysis. The statistical analysis was performed using one-way ANOVAs with SPSS 12.0 (SPSS Taiwan Corp., Taiwan), and < 0.05 was considered significant. Many botanical polysaccharides exhibit an immunomodulatory effect [11] . To determine the immunomodulatory properties of EAP, we investigated the potential effect of the polysaccharides on A549 and Raw264.7 cells. Cells were treated with various concentrations of EAP (50, 100, 200 g/mL) for 36 h. The mRNA levels of IL-6, TNF-, and IFN-were detected by qPCR. Figure 1 shows the immunomodulatory activities of EAP in vitro. Various concentrations of EAP triggered a strong secretion of IL-6, TNF-, and IFN-in a dosedependent manner both in A549 cells (Figures 1(a)-1(c) ) and Raw264.7 cells (Figures 1(d) -1(f)) compared with the PBS treatment group. To test whether EAP could protect H5N1 infected mice, mice were treated with EAP at a dose of 5, 10, 25, or 50 mg/kg body weight intranasally once daily for 5 days prior to viral challenge with 120 PFU. Ten mice per group were monitored for 14 days for the survival rate. As shown in Figure 2 (a), all mice receiving PBS died at day 11. Mice administrated 25 mg/kg EAP had a survival rate of 50% at day 14, which was significantly higher than those receiving PBS (by log rank analysis). EAP treatment of 10 mg/kg and 50 mg/kg also appeared to have a survival advantage, but not statistically significant. This result suggests that the protective effect of EAP against H5N1 infection requires a moderate dose. EAP treatment also alleviated weight loss in infected mice (Figure 2(b) ). To determine the viral load in the lung of the infected mice, plaque assays and qPCR were performed. The pulmonary viral titers in the EAP (25 mg/kg) group were significantly lower than the titers in the mice that received PBS at day 3 postinfection (Figures 2(c) and 2(d) ). These data clearly indicate that intranasal administration of EAP controls H5N1 viral replication and improves survival rates in a mouse model. The protective effect of EAP against H5N1 virus is likely due to its immunomodulatory properties. To detect IL-6, TNF-, and IFN-expression, lungs of five mice per group were collected at day 0 before infection and tested by qPCR and ELISA. The mRNA levels in the EAP group (25 mg/kg) were significantly higher than those in the PBS control (naive mice) (Figures 3(a)-3(c) ). Soluble cytokine levels at day 0 were measured by ELISA, and results were consistent with the qPCR results, even though IFN-production in the EAP group was not significantly higher than that of the PBS group ( = 0.0599) (Figures 3(g)-3(i) ). These results suggest that EAP increases the IL-6, TNF-, and IFN-production. IL-6, TNF-, and IFN-expression at day 3 postinfection was determined by qPCR. In contrast, TNF-mRNA levels following EAP (25 mg/kg) treatment were significantly lower than those in the PBS group (Figure 3(e) ), while IL-6 and IFN-expression were only slightly lower (not significant) (Figures 3(d) and 3(f) ). These results may be explained by a higher viral load, and the more severe inflammatory response in PBS treated mice. Excessive inflammation can cause severe lung lesions during H5N1 influenza infection. To evaluate histopathological changes in the lungs of infected mice, tissues of each group at day 3 postinfection were examined. The lungs of PBS treated mice exhibited a severe inflammation response, characterized by interstitial edema, inflammatory cellular infiltration around small blood vessels, alveolar lumen flooded with edema fluid mixed with exfoliated alveolar epithelial cells, and a thickening of alveolar walls (Figures 4(c) and 4(d) ). The lungs of EAP (25 mg/kg) treated mice exhibited milder lesions than those receiving PBS, characterized by signs of bronchopneumonia with interstitial edema, and inflammatory cell infiltration around small blood vessels (Figures 4(a) and 4(b) ). Viral loads and inflammatory cytokine production in the lung were correlated; suggesting that EAP treatment reduces lung lesions in H5N1 infected mice.

Question: Why have antiretrovirals medications had limited benefit in treating influenza?
drug-resistance and frequent antigenic mutation