You will be shown a paragraph from a biomedical research paper, followed by a question about the paper. Please extract text from the paragraph to answer the question. Do not include any text in your repsonse other than the answer.

Paragraph: Infection with a multitude of respiratory viruses causes disruption of tight junctions with the resulting increased rate of viral infiltration. This also increases the chances of allergens coming into contact with airway immune cells. For example, IFV infection was found to induce oncostatin M (OSM) which causes tight junction opening (Pothoven et al., 2015; Tian et al., 2018) . Similarly, RV and RSV infections usually cause tight junction opening which may also increase the infiltration rate of eosinophils and thus worsening of the classical symptoms of chronic airway inflammatory diseases (Sajjan et al., 2008; Kast et al., 2017; Kim et al., 2018) . In addition, the expression of vasodilating factors and fluid homeostatic factors such as angiopoietin-like 4 (ANGPTL4) and bactericidal/permeabilityincreasing fold-containing family member A1 (BPIFA1) are also associated with viral infections and pneumonia development, which may worsen inflammation in the lower airway Akram et al., 2018) . These factors may serve as targets to prevent viral-induced exacerbations during the management of acute exacerbation of chronic airway inflammatory diseases. Another recent area of interest is the relationship between asthma and COPD exacerbations and their association with the airway microbiome. The development of chronic airway inflammatory diseases is usually linked to specific bacterial species in the microbiome which may thrive in the inflamed airway environment (Diver et al., 2019) . In the event of a viral infection such as RV infection, the effect induced by the virus may destabilize the equilibrium of the microbiome present (Molyneaux et al., 2013; Kloepfer et al., 2014; Kloepfer et al., 2017; Jubinville et al., 2018; van Rijn et al., 2019) . In addition, viral infection may disrupt biofilm colonies in the upper airway (e.g., Streptococcus pneumoniae) microbiome to be release into the lower airway and worsening the inflammation (Marks et al., 2013; Chao et al., 2014) . Moreover, a viral infection may also alter the nutrient profile in the airway through release of previously inaccessible nutrients that will alter bacterial growth (Siegel et al., 2014; Mallia et al., 2018) . Furthermore, the destabilization is further compounded by impaired bacterial immune response, either from direct viral influences, or use of corticosteroids to suppress the exacerbation symptoms (Singanayagam et al., 2018 (Singanayagam et al., , 2019a Wang et al., 2018; Finney et al., 2019) . All these may gradually lead to more far reaching effect when normal flora is replaced with opportunistic pathogens, altering the inflammatory profiles  (Teo et al., 2018) . These changes may in turn result in more severe and frequent acute exacerbations due to the interplay between virus and pathogenic bacteria in exacerbating chronic airway inflammatory diseases (Wark et al., 2013; Singanayagam et al., 2018) . To counteract these effects, microbiome-based therapies are in their infancy but have shown efficacy in the treatments of irritable bowel syndrome by restoring the intestinal microbiome (Bakken et al., 2011) . Further research can be done similarly for the airway microbiome to be able to restore the microbiome following disruption by a viral infection. Viral infections can cause the disruption of mucociliary function, an important component of the epithelial barrier. Ciliary proteins FIGURE 2 | Changes in the upper airway epithelium contributing to viral exacerbation in chronic airway inflammatory diseases. The upper airway epithelium is the primary contact/infection site of most respiratory viruses. Therefore, its infection by respiratory viruses may have far reaching consequences in augmenting and synergizing current and future acute exacerbations. The destruction of epithelial barrier, mucociliary function and cell death of the epithelial cells serves to increase contact between environmental triggers with the lower airway and resident immune cells. The opening of tight junction increasing the leakiness further augments the inflammation and exacerbations. In addition, viral infections are usually accompanied with oxidative stress which will further increase the local inflammation in the airway. The dysregulation of inflammation can be further compounded by modulation of miRNAs and epigenetic modification such as DNA methylation and histone modifications that promote dysregulation in inflammation. Finally, the change in the local airway environment and inflammation promotes growth of pathogenic bacteria that may replace the airway microbiome. Furthermore, the inflammatory environment may also disperse upper airway commensals into the lower airway, further causing inflammation and alteration of the lower airway environment, resulting in prolong exacerbation episodes following viral infection. Viral specific trait contributing to exacerbation mechanism (with literature evidence) Oxidative stress ROS production (RV, RSV, IFV, HSV)

As RV, RSV, and IFV were the most frequently studied viruses in chronic airway inflammatory diseases, most of the viruses listed are predominantly these viruses. However, the mechanisms stated here may also be applicable to other viruses but may not be listed as they were not implicated in the context of chronic airway inflammatory diseases exacerbation (see text for abbreviations). that aid in the proper function of the motile cilia in the airways are aberrantly expressed in ciliated airway epithelial cells which are the major target for RV infection (Griggs et al., 2017) . Such form of secondary cilia dyskinesia appears to be present with chronic inflammations in the airway, but the exact mechanisms are still unknown (Peng et al., , 2019 Qiu et al., 2018) . Nevertheless, it was found that in viral infection such as IFV, there can be a change in the metabolism of the cells as well as alteration in the ciliary gene expression, mostly in the form of down-regulation of the genes such as dynein axonemal heavy chain 5 (DNAH5) and multiciliate differentiation And DNA synthesis associated cell cycle protein (MCIDAS) (Tan et al., 2018b . The recently emerged Wuhan CoV was also found to reduce ciliary beating in infected airway epithelial cell model (Zhu et al., 2020) . Furthermore, viral infections such as RSV was shown to directly destroy the cilia of the ciliated cells and almost all respiratory viruses infect the ciliated cells (Jumat et al., 2015; Yan et al., 2016; Tan et al., 2018a) . In addition, mucus overproduction may also disrupt the equilibrium of the mucociliary function following viral infection, resulting in symptoms of acute exacerbation (Zhu et al., 2009) . Hence, the disruption of the ciliary movement during viral infection may cause more foreign material and allergen to enter the airway, aggravating the symptoms of acute exacerbation and making it more difficult to manage. The mechanism of the occurrence of secondary cilia dyskinesia can also therefore be explored as a means to limit the effects of viral induced acute exacerbation. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short non-coding RNAs involved in post-transcriptional modulation of biological processes, and implicated in a number of diseases (Tan et al., 2014) . miRNAs are found to be induced by viral infections and may play a role in the modulation of antiviral responses and inflammation (Gutierrez et al., 2016; Deng et al., 2017; Feng et al., 2018) . In the case of chronic airway inflammatory diseases, circulating miRNA changes were found to be linked to exacerbation of the diseases (Wardzynska et al., 2020) . Therefore, it is likely that such miRNA changes originated from the infected epithelium and responding immune cells, which may serve to further dysregulate airway inflammation leading to exacerbations. Both IFV and RSV infections has been shown to increase miR-21 and augmented inflammation in experimental murine asthma models, which is reversed with a combination treatment of anti-miR-21 and corticosteroids (Kim et al., 2017) . IFV infection is also shown to increase miR-125a and b, and miR-132 in COPD epithelium which inhibits A20 and MAVS; and p300 and IRF3, respectively, resulting in increased susceptibility to viral infections (Hsu et al., 2016 (Hsu et al., , 2017 . Conversely, miR-22 was shown to be suppressed in asthmatic epithelium in IFV infection which lead to aberrant epithelial response, contributing to exacerbations (Moheimani et al., 2018) . Other than these direct evidence of miRNA changes in contributing to exacerbations, an increased number of miRNAs and other non-coding RNAs responsible for immune modulation are found to be altered following viral infections (Globinska et al., 2014; Feng et al., 2018; Hasegawa et al., 2018) . Hence non-coding RNAs also presents as targets to modulate viral induced airway changes as a means of managing exacerbation of chronic airway inflammatory diseases. Other than miRNA modulation, other epigenetic modification such as DNA methylation may also play a role in exacerbation of chronic airway inflammatory diseases. Recent epigenetic studies have indicated the association of epigenetic modification and chronic airway inflammatory diseases, and that the nasal methylome was shown to be a sensitive marker for airway inflammatory changes (Cardenas et al., 2019; Gomez, 2019) . At the same time, it was also shown that viral infections such as RV and RSV alters DNA methylation and histone modifications in the airway epithelium which may alter inflammatory responses, driving chronic airway inflammatory diseases and exacerbations (McErlean et al., 2014; Pech et al., 2018; Caixia et al., 2019) . In addition, Spalluto et al. (2017) also showed that antiviral factors such as IFNγ epigenetically modifies the viral resistance of epithelial cells. Hence, this may indicate that infections such as RV and RSV that weakly induce antiviral responses may result in an altered inflammatory state contributing to further viral persistence and exacerbation of chronic airway inflammatory diseases (Spalluto et al., 2017) . Finally, viral infection can result in enhanced production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction in the airway epithelium (Kim et al., 2018; Mishra et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2018) . The airway epithelium of patients with chronic airway inflammatory diseases are usually under a state of constant oxidative stress which sustains the inflammation in the airway (Barnes, 2017; van der Vliet et al., 2018) . Viral infections of the respiratory epithelium by viruses such as IFV, RV, RSV and HSV may trigger the further production of ROS as an antiviral mechanism Aizawa et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2018) . Moreover, infiltrating cells in response to the infection such as neutrophils will also trigger respiratory burst as a means of increasing the ROS in the infected region. The increased ROS and oxidative stress in the local environment may serve as a trigger to promote inflammation thereby aggravating the inflammation in the airway (Tiwari et al., 2002) . A summary of potential exacerbation mechanisms and the associated viruses is shown in Figure 2 and Table 1 . While the mechanisms underlying the development and acute exacerbation of chronic airway inflammatory disease is extensively studied for ways to manage and control the disease, a viral infection does more than just causing an acute exacerbation in these patients. A viral-induced acute exacerbation not only induced and worsens the symptoms of the disease, but also may alter the management of the disease or confer resistance toward treatments that worked before. Hence, appreciation of the mechanisms of viral-induced acute exacerbations is of clinical significance to devise strategies to correct viral induce changes that may worsen chronic airway inflammatory disease symptoms. Further studies in natural exacerbations and in viral-challenge models using RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) or single cell RNA-seq on a range of time-points may provide important information regarding viral pathogenesis and changes induced within the airway of chronic airway inflammatory disease patients to identify novel targets and pathway for improved management of the disease. Subsequent analysis of functions may use epithelial cell models such as the air-liquid interface, in vitro airway epithelial model that has been adapted to studying viral infection and the changes it induced in the airway (Yan et al., 2016; Boda et al., 2018; Tan et al., 2018a) . Animal-based diseased models have also been developed to identify systemic mechanisms of acute exacerbation (Shin, 2016; Gubernatorova et al., 2019; Tanner and Single, 2019) . Furthermore, the humanized mouse model that possess human immune cells may also serves to unravel the immune profile of a viral infection in healthy and diseased condition (Ito et al., 2019; Li and Di Santo, 2019) . For milder viruses, controlled in vivo human infections can be performed for the best mode of verification of the associations of the virus with the proposed mechanism of viral induced acute exacerbations . With the advent of suitable diseased models, the verification of the mechanisms will then provide the necessary continuation of improving the management of viral induced acute exacerbations. In conclusion, viral-induced acute exacerbation of chronic airway inflammatory disease is a significant health and economic burden that needs to be addressed urgently. In view of the scarcity of antiviral-based preventative measures available for only a few viruses and vaccines that are only available for IFV infections, more alternative measures should be explored to improve the management of the disease. Alternative measures targeting novel viral-induced acute exacerbation mechanisms, especially in the upper airway, can serve as supplementary treatments of the currently available management strategies to augment their efficacy.

Question: What does all this gradually lead to?
more far reaching effect when normal flora is replaced with opportunistic pathogens, altering the inflammatory profiles