You are provided with the abstract of a scientific paper and the abstracts of the papers it references. Your task is to write a Related Work section for the main paper. This section should concisely summarize and integrate the key points from the cited abstracts, reflecting how they relate to the main paper's contributions and context. In your summary, use numerical citation markers like [1], [2], etc., to refer to the corresponding papers.

Main Abstract:
We present a simple, fully-convolutional model for real-time instance segmentation that achieves 29.8 mAP on MS COCO at 33 fps evaluated on a single Titan Xp, which is significantly faster than any previous competitive approach. Moreover, we obtain this result after training on only one GPU. We accomplish this by breaking instance segmentation into two parallel subtasks: (1) generating a set of prototype masks and (2) predicting per-instance mask coefficients. Then we produce instance masks by linearly combining the prototypes with the mask coefficients. We find that because this process doesn't depend on repooling, this approach produces very high-quality masks and exhibits temporal stability for free. Furthermore, we analyze the emergent behavior of our prototypes and show they learn to localize instances on their own in a translation variant manner, despite being fully-convolutional. Finally, we also propose Fast NMS, a drop-in 12 ms faster replacement for standard NMS that only has a marginal performance penalty.

Cited Abstract(s):
[1]: Most contemporary approaches to instance segmentation use complex pipelines involving conditional random fields, recurrent neural networks, object proposals, or template matching schemes. In this paper, we present a simple yet powerful end-to-end convolutional neural network to tackle this task. Our approach combines intuitions from the classical watershed transform and modern deep learning to produce an energy map of the image where object instances are unambiguously represented as energy basins. We then perform a cut at a single energy level to directly yield connected components corresponding to object instances. Our model achieves more than double the performance over the state-of-the-art on the challenging Cityscapes Instance Level Segmentation task.

[2]: Semantic instance segmentation remains a challenging task. In this work we propose to tackle the problem with a discriminative loss function, operating at the pixel level, that encourages a convolutional network to produce a representation of the image that can easily be clustered into instances with a simple post-processing step. The loss function encourages the network to map each pixel to a point in feature space so that pixels belonging to the same instance lie close together while different instances are separated by a wide margin. Our approach of combining an off-the-shelf network with a principled loss function inspired by a metric learning objective is conceptually simple and distinct from recent efforts in instance segmentation. In contrast to previous works, our method does not rely on object proposals or recurrent mechanisms. A key contribution of our work is to demonstrate that such a simple setup without bells and whistles is effective and can perform on par with more complex methods. Moreover, we show that it does not suffer from some of the limitations of the popular detect-and-segment approaches. We achieve competitive performance on the Cityscapes and CVPPP leaf segmentation benchmarks.

[3]: We introduce associative embedding, a novel method for supervising convolutional neural networks for the task of detection and grouping. A number of computer vision problems can be framed in this manner including multi-person pose estimation, instance segmentation, and multi-object tracking. Usually the grouping of detections is achieved with multi-stage pipelines, instead we propose an approach that teaches a network to simultaneously output detections and group assignments. This technique can be easily integrated into any state-of-the-art network architecture that produces pixel-wise predictions. We show how to apply this method to multi-person pose estimation and report state-of-the-art performance on the MPII and MS-COCO datasets.

[4]: We propose a new method for semantic instance segmentation, by first computing how likely two pixels are to belong to the same object, and then by grouping similar pixels together. Our similarity metric is based on a deep, fully convolutional embedding model. Our grouping method is based on selecting all points that are sufficiently similar to a set of "seed points", chosen from a deep, fully convolutional scoring model. We show competitive results on the Pascal VOC instance segmentation benchmark.

[5]: We introduce an approach to integrate segmentation information within a convolutional neural network (CNN). This counter-acts the tendency of CNNs to smooth information across regions and increases their spatial precision. To obtain segmentation information, we set up a CNN to provide an embedding space where region co-membership can be estimated based on Euclidean distance. We use these embeddings to compute a local attention mask relative to every neuron position. We incorporate such masks in CNNs and replace the convolution operation with a “segmentation-aware” variant that allows a neuron to selectively attend to inputs coming from its own region. We call the resulting network a segmentation-aware CNN because it adapts its filters at each image point according to local segmentation cues, while at the same time remaining fully-convolutional. We demonstrate the merit of our method on two widely different dense prediction tasks, that involve classification (semantic segmentation) and regression (optical flow). Our results show that in semantic segmentation we can replace DenseCRF inference with a cascade of segmentation-aware filters, and in optical flow we obtain clearly sharper responses than the ones obtained with comparable networks that do not use segmentation. In both cases segmentation-aware convolution yields systematic improvements over strong baselines.

[6]: This work addresses the task of instance-aware semantic segmentation. Our key motivation is to design a simple method with a new modelling-paradigm, which therefore has a different trade-off between advantages and disadvantages compared to known approaches. Our approach, we term InstanceCut, represents the problem by two output modalities: (i) an instance-agnostic semantic segmentation and (ii) all instance-boundaries. The former is computed from a standard convolutional neural network for semantic segmentation, and the latter is derived from a new instance-aware edge detection model. To reason globally about the optimal partitioning of an image into instances, we combine these two modalities into a novel MultiCut formulation. We evaluate our approach on the challenging CityScapes dataset. Despite the conceptual simplicity of our approach, we achieve the best result among all published methods, and perform particularly well for rare object classes.

[7]: Instance-level object segmentation is an important yet under-explored task. Most of state-of-the-art methods rely on region proposal methods to extract candidate segments and then utilize object classification to produce final results. Nonetheless, generating reliable region proposals itself is a quite challenging and unsolved task. In this work, we propose a Proposal-Free Network (PFN) to address the instance-level object segmentation problem, which outputs the numbers of instances of different categories and the pixel-level information on i) the coordinates of the instance bounding box each pixel belongs to, and ii) the confidences of different categories for each pixel, based on pixel-to-pixel deep convolutional neural network. All the outputs together, by using any off-the-shelf clustering method for simple post-processing, can naturally generate the ultimate instance-level object segmentation results. The whole PFN can be easily trained without the requirement of a proposal generation stage. Extensive evaluations on the challenging PASCAL VOC 2012 semantic segmentation benchmark demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed PFN solution without relying on any proposal generation methods.
Finally, some methods first perform semantic segmentation followed by boundary detection [6] , pixel clustering [1] [7] , or learn an embedding to form instance masks [3] [5] [2] [4] . Again, these methods have multiple stages and or involve expensive clustering procedures, which limits their viability for real-time applications.