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Paragraph: In bacteriological studies non-human primates are rarely used. For group A streptococcal infection longitudinal transcriptome analyses were performed in experimental pharyngitis (Virtaneva et al., 2005) and lower respiratory tract infection in cynomolgus macaques (Olsen et al., 2010a) . The lower respiratory tract disease observed in macaques after GAS infection mimicked the clinical and pathological features of severe bronchopneumonia in humans (Olsen et al., 2010a) . Another study by Olsen and colleagues analyzed the contribution of PVL of a highly virulent USA300 S. aureus strain in respiratory infection (Olsen et al., 2010b) . Although the lower respiratory tract disease observed in monkey mimicked the clinical and pathological features of early mild to moderate pneumonia in humans, no involvement of PVL in lung pathology or immune cell influx of the lungs could be detected (Olsen et al., 2010b) . The same research group has developed a non-lethal IAV (H3N2)-S. aureus co-infection model in cynomolgus macaques (Kobayashi et al., 2013) . Pneumonia progression was monitored by clinical parameters assessment, blood chemistry, nasal swabs, and pathology of the lungs. Seasonal IAV infection in healthy cynomolgus macaques caused mild pneumonia, but did not predispose the animals to subsequent severe infection with the USA300 clone (Kobayashi et al., 2013) . Although macaques are frequently used for evaluation of pneumococcal vaccine efficacy, including testing the impact of 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine and 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine on antigen-specific memory B cell repertoires (Jia et al., 2017) , only two studies on pneumococcal carriage and pneumonia were conducted in the last decade. In 2013, Philipp and colleagues analyzed the carriage rate of pneumococcus in 158 colony animals. None of the surveyed rhesus macaques carried S. pneumoniae in the nasopharynx (Philipp et al., 2012) . The authors concluded that rhesus macaque is probably not a natural host of pneumococci. But, when infants were colonized with 19F strain via nasopharyngeal instillation, the colonization was induced in eight of eight infants, lasted for 2 weeks in all animals and for 7 weeks in more than 60% (Philipp et al., 2012) . The same group tested detoxified pneumolysin (dPly) and pneumococcal histidine triad protein D (PhtD) as potential vaccine candidates to prevent pneumonia (Denoel et al., 2011) . After immunization the rhesus macaques were challenged with a 19F pneumococcal strain. AS02-adjuvanted PhtD-dPly vaccine protected the animals against S. pneumoniae-induced pneumonia, which was linked to the capacity (i) to greatly reduce bacterial load within the first week post-challenge and (ii) the levels of PhtD-and Ply-specific antibodies (Denoel et al., 2011) . Although only a few macaque studies on pneumonia exist, due to the close proximity to humans in terms of physiology and immunity, these animals can be a good model in the context of translational studies evaluating therapeutics and prophylaxis. Despite the wide use of different animal models, the optimal in vivo model for human pneumonia remains to be identified. Small mammals including rodents are well known from a biological, genetic, and immunological point of view and are easy to maintain. The choice of these particular animals for infectious disease studies is often a result of a compromise between technical and financial options. However, they are also far from humans' anatomy, physiology, immunology, and susceptibility to exclusively human pathogens. The experimental animal model should be chosen based on responses comparable to humans. Primates are usually legally reserved to specific topics. In this case, pigs could be an appropriate model system for studying infectious diseases including pneumonia (Figure 1) . The composition and size of the porcine genome is comparable to that of humans (Hart et al., 2007) . In addition, human and porcine organs have many common features and functions (Swindle et al., 2012) . The upper respiratory tract of humans and pigs, including the lymphoid tissue in the nasopharynx, is anatomically similar. Furthermore, like humans, pigs possess tonsils, which are absent in mice (Horter et al., 2003) . A major advantage of studying infectious diseases by utilizing pigs as a host organism is that pigs have a full set of innate and adaptive immune effectors. According to whole genome sequencing results the porcine immune system resembles over 80% of the human immune system, whereas mice share less than 10% with humans (Dawson et al., 2016) . Most of the immune cell compartments identified in humans are also present in pigs (Piriou-Guzylack and Salmon, 2008; Fairbairn et al., 2011) . In contrast to mice and similar to humans, pigs have 50-70% of circulating polymorph nuclear cells (Fairbairn et al., 2011) . In addition, all functional cytokines or orthologs involved in Th1, Th2, Th17, and Treg paradigm and corresponding immune cells have been described in pigs (Murtaugh et al., 2009; Kaser et al., 2011; Kiros et al., 2011) . Especially the very prominent human pro-inflammatory chemo-attractant, CXCL8, is present as an ortholog in pigs, whereas there is no homologue in mice (Fairbairn et al., 2011) . In contrast to human monocytes, which can be divided in three subclasses (classical CD14 + CD16 − , nonclassical CD14 + CD16 + , and intermediate CD14 ++ CD16 + ), porcine monocytes consist of four subclasses (Chamorro et al., 2005; Fairbairn et al., 2013) . Like human monocytes they express adhesion molecules, such as VLA-4 and LFA-1 and costimulatory molecules, including CD80 and CD86 (Chamorro et al., 2005) . The pig has previously been used to mimic a number of human infectious diseases. Examples for S. aureus infections with this model organism are wound infections Svedman et al., 1989) , osteomyelitis (Jensen et al., 2010) , and sepsis (Nielsen et al., 2009) . Intravenous inoculation of piglets with pneumococci led to bacteremia during a 5 days period and was associated with fever and septic arthritis. Intranasal inoculation of piglets led to colonization for at least six consecutive days without causing clinical signs (De Greeff et al., 2016) . In addition, research on respiratory infections of pigs by human pathogens including S. aureus (Luna et al., 2009) , Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Gil et al., 2010) , Bordetella pertussis (Elahi et al., 2007) , Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Luna et al., 2009) , and IAV (Khatri et al., 2010) , was performed in recent years. The fact that pigs and humans are infected with identical subtypes of IAV (H1N1, H3N2), and show similar clinical presentation and pathogenesis, makes pigs an ideal model organism for studies on respiratory co-infections (Van Reeth et al., 1998) . Especially IAV infections are already well established in swine (Van Reeth et al., 1998 , 2002a Jung et al., 2007; Khatri et al., 2010; Barbe et al., 2011) . In addition to the limited number of publications on pigs and human pathogens, a lot can be translated and learned from studies on the porcine zoonotic pathogen Streptococcus suis. S. suis usually inhabits mucosal surfaces of tonsils, nares, genital and alimentary tract of piglets. Once the microbial balance is disturbed, the bacteria can cause meningitis, septicemia, arthritis, and pneumonia in pigs (Staats et al., 1997) . Some S. suis strains are considered to be hyper-virulent and others hypo-or avirulent. In general, serotype 2 is most frequently isolated from diseased pigs (Staats et al., 1997) . S. suis can also cause severe diseases in humans including septicemia, meningitis, arthritis, and streptococcal toxic shock syndrome (Tang et al., 2006; Yu et al., 2006; Gottschalk et al., 2007) . Although many in vivo studies on S. suis have been performed by utilizing mice as a model organism (Seitz et al., 2012; Auger et al., 2016) , several other studies have shown the advantage of using swine as a natural host for S. suis (Bi et al., 2014; Ferrando et al., 2015) . A recent publication by Lin and colleagues on H1N1 and S. suis co-infected piglets demonstrated the synergistic effects of both pathogens (Lin et al., 2015) . Co-infected piglets had more severe clinical presentation and pathological changes in the lung, as compared to animals infected with single pathogens (Lin et al., 2015) . In addition, genes associated with immune responses, inflammatory cytokine production, and apoptotic pathways were highly overexpressed in the coinfected group (Lin et al., 2015) . Although the porcine model seems to be ideal to mimic human infectious diseases, there are also disadvantages, including, e.g., requirement for specialized experimental animal facilities, time consuming management, high maintenance costs, and limited availability of transgenic animals. Although the use of animals contributes greatly to our understanding of infectious diseases, human 3D-organotypic tissue models and ex vivo organ tissues should be considered, as they are most valuable tools to study host-pathogen interactions in a more complex setting (Figure 1) . Tissue engineering approaches were originally focused on regenerative medicine (Langer and Vacanti, 1993) . In contrast to standard monolayer cell cultures, tissue models much more closely resemble the 3D architecture, cellular composition, and matrix complexity of the respective organ. In recent years tissue engineering was also successfully employed in a number of studies in infectious diseases, including Zika virus infections of cerebral organoids (Lancaster et al., 2013; Dang et al., 2016) , Helicobacter pylori infections of gastric epithelial organoids (McCracken et al., 2014; Schlaermann et al., 2016) , Escherichia coli and Rotavirus infections of gastrointestinal and small intestinal enteroids (Saxena et al., 2015; VanDussen et al., 2015) , Entamoeba histolytica or Hepatitis B virus infections of hepatic sinusoid tissue (Petropolis et al., 2014 (Petropolis et al., , 2016 , group A and G streptococcal or staphylococcal infections of skin tissue models Mairpady Shambat et al., 2016) , and staphylococcal and Andes hantavirus infections of human lung tissue (Mairpady Shambat et al., 2015; Sundstrom et al., 2016) . The adaptability of these tissue-engineered models to multiple pathogens suggests a great potential for studies of infectious diseases. For instance, the lung tissue model relevant for pneumonia consists of lung fibroblasts embedded in a collagen matrix with a stratified epithelial layer on top (Nguyen Hoang et al., 2012) . The engineered tissue is suitable for implanting and studying immune cells, including dendritic cells, monocytes, macrophages, and even peripheral blood mononuclear cells (Nguyen Hoang et al., 2012; Mairpady Shambat et al., 2015) . A recent publication demonstrated a two-hit-event of lung pathology in staphylococcal necrotizing pneumonia (Mairpady Shambat et al., 2015) . While the α-toxin had direct damaging effect on the lung epithelium, PVL induced lung pathology indirectly through the lysis of neutrophils (Mairpady Shambat et al., 2015) . All the studies mentioned above highlight a significant progress in the field of infectious diseases not only from a scientific point of view but also by contributing to the three R principle of animal experimentation (Russell, 1995) . On these terms, the use of cultured ex vivo human organ biopsies, which are rare due to ethical considerations, is an additional option to study host-pathogen interactions. This ex vivo system may overcome even the limitations of the engineered tissue. In recent years human ex vivo lung tissue infections with various microorganisms, including pneumococci (Szymanski et al., 2012; Fatykhova et al., 2015) , Bacillus anthracis (Chakrabarty et al., 2007) , Haemophilus influenzae (Zhang et al., 2016) , and IAV (Nicholls et al., 2007; Chan et al., 2009) , were performed. In the human setting, most of the work focused on tropism, severity of infections, release of inflammatory mediators, and replication rates of the microorganisms. In addition, recently also experiments on swine influenza virus (SIV) and S. suis co-infections of the porcine ex vivo lung slices were reported. Meng and colleagues showed that SIV promotes subsequent bacterial infections in a two-step process of which the first initial step was dependent on capsule expression, whereas the second step of bacterial invasion into deeper layers was capsuleindependent and required virus-mediated damage (Meng et al., 2015) . However, this is just a beginning and more investigations are needed to unravel the complexity underlying these highly invasive infections. In summary, bacterial and viral co-infections of the respiratory tract are highly lethal and present a dramatic burden for the global health system. The synergy between bacterial and viral infectious agents is related to a variety of factors, including epithelial barrier damage, exaggerated innate immune response, and cytokine storm

Question: What factors make bacterial and viral co-infections so lethal?
epithelial barrier damage, exaggerated innate immune response, and cytokine storm