You will be shown a paragraph from a biomedical research paper, followed by a question about the paper. Please extract text from the paragraph to answer the question. Do not include any text in your repsonse other than the answer.

Paragraph: In the case of COPD, increased ILC2 activation, which retain the capability of differentiating to ILC1, may also further augment the neutrophilic response and further aggravate the exacerbation (Silver et al., 2016) . Interestingly, these factors are not released to any great extent and do not activate an ILC2 response during viral infection in healthy individuals (Yan et al., 2016; Tan et al., 2018a) ; despite augmenting a type 2 exacerbation in chronically inflamed airways (Jurak et al., 2018) . These classical mechanisms of viral induced acute exacerbations are summarized in Figure 1 . As integration of the virology, microbiology and immunology of viral infection becomes more interlinked, additional factors and FIGURE 1 | Current understanding of viral induced exacerbation of chronic airway inflammatory diseases. Upon virus infection in the airway, antiviral state will be activated to clear the invading pathogen from the airway. Immune response and injury factors released from the infected epithelium normally would induce a rapid type 1 immunity that facilitates viral clearance. However, in the inflamed airway, the cytokines and chemokines released instead augmented the inflammation present in the chronically inflamed airway, strengthening the neutrophilic infiltration in COPD airway, and eosinophilic infiltration in the asthmatic airway. The effect is also further compounded by the participation of Th1 and ILC1 cells in the COPD airway; and Th2 and ILC2 cells in the asthmatic airway. Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology | www.frontiersin.org mechanisms have been implicated in acute exacerbations during and after viral infection (Murray et al., 2006) . Murray et al. (2006) has underlined the synergistic effect of viral infection with other sensitizing agents in causing more severe acute exacerbations in the airway. This is especially true when not all exacerbation events occurred during the viral infection but may also occur well after viral clearance (Kim et al., 2008; Stolz et al., 2019) in particular the late onset of a bacterial infection (Singanayagam et al., 2018 (Singanayagam et al., , 2019a . In addition, viruses do not need to directly infect the lower airway to cause an acute exacerbation, as the nasal epithelium remains the primary site of most infections. Moreover, not all viral infections of the airway will lead to acute exacerbations, suggesting a more complex interplay between the virus and upper airway epithelium which synergize with the local airway environment in line with the "united airway" hypothesis (Kurai et al., 2013) . On the other hand, viral infections or their components persist in patients with chronic airway inflammatory disease (Kling et al., 2005; Wood et al., 2011; Ravi et al., 2019) . Hence, their presence may further alter the local environment and contribute to current and future exacerbations. Future studies should be performed using metagenomics in addition to PCR analysis to determine the contribution of the microbiome and mycobiome to viral infections. In this review, we highlight recent data regarding viral interactions with the airway epithelium that could also contribute to, or further aggravate, acute exacerbations of chronic airway inflammatory diseases. Patients with chronic airway inflammatory diseases have impaired or reduced ability of viral clearance (Hammond et al., 2015; McKendry et al., 2016; Akbarshahi et al., 2018; Gill et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2018; Singanayagam et al., 2019b) . Their impairment stems from a type 2-skewed inflammatory response which deprives the airway of important type 1 responsive CD8 cells that are responsible for the complete clearance of virusinfected cells (Becker, 2006; McKendry et al., 2016) . This is especially evident in weak type 1 inflammation-inducing viruses such as RV and RSV (Kling et al., 2005; Wood et al., 2011; Ravi et al., 2019) . Additionally, there are also evidence of reduced type I (IFNβ) and III (IFNλ) interferon production due to type 2-skewed inflammation, which contributes to imperfect clearance of the virus resulting in persistence of viral components, or the live virus in the airway epithelium (Contoli et al., 2006; Hwang et al., 2019; Wark, 2019) . Due to the viral components remaining in the airway, antiviral genes such as type I interferons, inflammasome activating factors and cytokines remained activated resulting in prolong airway inflammation (Wood et al., 2011; Essaidi-Laziosi et al., 2018) . These factors enhance granulocyte infiltration thus prolonging the exacerbation symptoms. Such persistent inflammation may also be found within DNA viruses such as AdV, hCMV and HSV, whose infections generally persist longer (Imperiale and Jiang, 2015) , further contributing to chronic activation of inflammation when they infect the airway (Yang et al., 2008; Morimoto et al., 2009; Imperiale and Jiang, 2015; Lan et al., 2016; Tan et al., 2016; Kowalski et al., 2017) . With that note, human papilloma virus (HPV), a DNA virus highly associated with head and neck cancers and respiratory papillomatosis, is also linked with the chronic inflammation that precedes the malignancies (de Visser et al., 2005; Gillison et al., 2012; Bonomi et al., 2014; Fernandes et al., 2015) . Therefore, the role of HPV infection in causing chronic inflammation in the airway and their association to exacerbations of chronic airway inflammatory diseases, which is scarcely explored, should be investigated in the future. Furthermore, viral persistence which lead to continuous expression of antiviral genes may also lead to the development of steroid resistance, which is seen with RV, RSV, and PIV infection (Chi et al., 2011; Ford et al., 2013; Papi et al., 2013) . The use of steroid to suppress the inflammation may also cause the virus to linger longer in the airway due to the lack of antiviral clearance (Kim et al., 2008; Hammond et al., 2015; Hewitt et al., 2016; McKendry et al., 2016; Singanayagam et al., 2019b) . The concomitant development of steroid resistance together with recurring or prolong viral infection thus added considerable burden to the management of acute exacerbation, which should be the future focus of research to resolve the dual complications arising from viral infection. On the other end of the spectrum, viruses that induce strong type 1 inflammation and cell death such as IFV (Yan et al., 2016; Guibas et al., 2018) and certain CoV (including the recently emerged COVID-19 virus) (Tao et al., 2013; Yue et al., 2018; Zhu et al., 2020) , may not cause prolonged inflammation due to strong induction of antiviral clearance. These infections, however, cause massive damage and cell death to the epithelial barrier, so much so that areas of the epithelium may be completely absent post infection (Yan et al., 2016; Tan et al., 2019) . Factors such as RANTES and CXCL10, which recruit immune cells to induce apoptosis, are strongly induced from IFV infected epithelium (Ampomah et al., 2018; Tan et al., 2019) . Additionally, necroptotic factors such as RIP3 further compounds the cell deaths in IFV infected epithelium . The massive cell death induced may result in worsening of the acute exacerbation due to the release of their cellular content into the airway, further evoking an inflammatory response in the airway (Guibas et al., 2018) . Moreover, the destruction of the epithelial barrier may cause further contact with other pathogens and allergens in the airway which may then prolong exacerbations or results in new exacerbations. Epithelial destruction may also promote further epithelial remodeling during its regeneration as viral infection induces the expression of remodeling genes such as MMPs and growth factors . Infections that cause massive destruction of the epithelium, such as IFV, usually result in severe acute exacerbations with non-classical symptoms of chronic airway inflammatory diseases. Fortunately, annual vaccines are available to prevent IFV infections (Vasileiou et al., 2017; Zheng et al., 2018) ; and it is recommended that patients with chronic airway inflammatory disease receive their annual influenza vaccination as the best means to prevent severe IFV induced exacerbation. Another mechanism that viral infections may use to drive acute exacerbations is the induction of vasodilation or tight junction opening factors which may increase the rate of infiltration. Infection with a multitude of respiratory viruses causes disruption of tight junctions with the resulting increased rate of viral infiltration. This also increases the chances of allergens coming into contact with airway immune cells. For example, IFV infection was found to induce oncostatin M (OSM) which causes tight junction opening (Pothoven et al., 2015; Tian et al., 2018) . Similarly, RV and RSV infections usually cause tight junction opening which may also increase the infiltration rate of eosinophils and thus worsening of the classical symptoms of chronic airway inflammatory diseases (Sajjan et al., 2008; Kast et al., 2017; Kim et al., 2018) . In addition, the expression of vasodilating factors and fluid homeostatic factors such as angiopoietin-like 4 (ANGPTL4) and bactericidal/permeabilityincreasing fold-containing family member A1 (BPIFA1) are also associated with viral infections and pneumonia development, which may worsen inflammation in the lower airway Akram et al., 2018) . These factors may serve as targets to prevent viral-induced exacerbations during the management of acute exacerbation of chronic airway inflammatory diseases. Another recent area of interest is the relationship between asthma and COPD exacerbations and their association with the airway microbiome. The development of chronic airway inflammatory diseases is usually linked to specific bacterial species in the microbiome which may thrive in the inflamed airway environment (Diver et al., 2019) . In the event of a viral infection such as RV infection, the effect induced by the virus may destabilize the equilibrium of the microbiome present (Molyneaux et al., 2013; Kloepfer et al., 2014; Kloepfer et al., 2017; Jubinville et al., 2018; van Rijn et al., 2019) . In addition, viral infection may disrupt biofilm colonies in the upper airway (e.g., Streptococcus pneumoniae) microbiome to be release into the lower airway and worsening the inflammation (Marks et al., 2013; Chao et al., 2014) . Moreover, a viral infection may also alter the nutrient profile in the airway through release of previously inaccessible nutrients that will alter bacterial growth (Siegel et al., 2014; Mallia et al., 2018) . Furthermore, the destabilization is further compounded by impaired bacterial immune response, either from direct viral influences, or use of corticosteroids to suppress the exacerbation symptoms (Singanayagam et al., 2018 (Singanayagam et al., , 2019a Wang et al., 2018; Finney et al., 2019) . All these may gradually lead to more far reaching effect when normal flora is replaced with opportunistic pathogens, altering the inflammatory profiles (Teo et al., 2018) . These changes may in turn result in more severe and frequent acute exacerbations due to the interplay between virus and pathogenic bacteria in exacerbating chronic airway inflammatory diseases (Wark et al., 2013; Singanayagam et al., 2018) . To counteract these effects, microbiome-based therapies are in their infancy but have shown efficacy in the treatments of irritable bowel syndrome by restoring the intestinal microbiome (Bakken et al., 2011) . Further research can be done similarly for the airway microbiome to be able to restore the microbiome following disruption by a viral infection. Viral infections can cause the disruption of mucociliary function, an important component of the epithelial barrier. Ciliary proteins FIGURE 2 | Changes in the upper airway epithelium contributing to viral exacerbation in chronic airway inflammatory diseases. The upper airway epithelium is the primary contact/infection site of most respiratory viruses. Therefore, its infection by respiratory viruses may have far reaching consequences in augmenting and synergizing current and future acute exacerbations. The destruction of epithelial barrier, mucociliary function and cell death of the epithelial cells serves to increase contact between environmental triggers with the lower airway and resident immune cells. The opening of tight junction increasing the leakiness further augments the inflammation and exacerbations. In addition, viral infections are usually accompanied with oxidative stress which will further increase the local inflammation in the airway. The dysregulation of inflammation can be further compounded by modulation of miRNAs and epigenetic modification such as DNA methylation and histone modifications that promote dysregulation in inflammation. Finally, the change in the local airway environment and inflammation promotes growth of pathogenic bacteria that may replace the airway microbiome. Furthermore, the inflammatory environment may also disperse upper airway commensals into the lower airway, further causing inflammation and alteration of the lower airway environment, resulting in prolong exacerbation episodes following viral infection. Viral specific trait contributing to exacerbation mechanism (with literature evidence) Oxidative stress ROS production (RV, RSV, IFV, HSV)

As RV, RSV, and IFV

Question: Which are the most commonly  studied viruses in chronic airway inflammatory diseases?
RV, RSV, and IFV