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Paper: Harnessing Cognitive Features for Sarcasm Detection

In this paper, we propose a novel mechanism for enriching the feature vector, for the task of sarcasm detection, with cognitive features extracted from eye-movement patterns of human readers. Sarcasm detection has been a challenging research problem, and its importance for NLP applications such as review summarization, dialog systems and sentiment analysis is well recognized. Sarcasm can often be traced to incongruity that becomes apparent as the full sentence unfolds. This presence of incongruity- implicit or explicit- affects the way readers eyes move through the text. We observe the difference in the behaviour of the eye, while reading sarcastic and non sarcastic sentences. Motivated by his observation, we augment traditional linguistic and stylistic features for sarcasm detection with the cognitive features obtained from readers eye movement data. We perform statistical classification using the enhanced feature set so obtained. The augmented cognitive features improve sarcasm detection by 3.7% (in terms of F-score), over the performance of the best reported system.

Introduction
Sarcasm is an intensive, indirect and complex construct that is often intended to express contempt or ridicule . Sarcasm, in speech, is multi-modal, involving tone, body-language and gestures along with linguistic artifacts used in speech. Sarcasm in text, on the other hand, is more restrictive when it comes to such non-linguistic modalities. This makes recognizing textual sarcasm more challenging for both humans and machines.
Sarcasm detection plays an indispensable role in applications like online review summarizers, dialog systems, recommendation systems and sentiment analyzers. This makes automatic detection of sarcasm an important problem. However, it has been quite difficult to solve such a problem with traditional NLP tools and techniques. This is apparent from the results reported by the survey from DBLP:journals/corr/JoshiBC16. The following discussion brings more insights into this.
Consider a scenario where an online reviewer gives a negative opinion about a movie through sarcasm: “This is the kind of movie you see because the theater has air conditioning”. It is difficult for an automatic sentiment analyzer to assign a rating to the movie and, in the absence of any other information, such a system may not be able to comprehend that prioritizing the air-conditioning facilities of the theater over the movie experience indicates a negative sentiment towards the movie. This gives an intuition to why, for sarcasm detection, it is necessary to go beyond textual analysis.
We aim to address this problem by exploiting the psycholinguistic side of sarcasm detection, using cognitive features extracted with the help of eye-tracking. A motivation to consider cognitive features comes from analyzing human eye-movement trajectories that supports the conjecture: Reading sarcastic texts induces distinctive eye movement patterns, compared to literal texts. The cognitive features, derived from human eye movement patterns observed during reading, include two primary feature types:
The cognitive features, along with textual features used in best available sarcasm detectors, are used to train binary classifiers against given sarcasm labels. Our experiments show significant improvement in classification accuracy over the state of the art, by performing such augmentation.

Eye-tracking Database for Sarcasm Analysis
Sarcasm often emanates from incongruity BIBREF9 , which enforces the brain to reanalyze it BIBREF10 . This, in turn, affects the way eyes move through the text. Hence, distinctive eye-movement patterns may be observed in the case of successful processing of sarcasm in text in contrast to literal texts. This hypothesis forms the crux of our method for sarcasm detection and we validate this using our previously released freely available sarcasm dataset BIBREF8 enriched with gaze information.

Task Description
The task assigned to annotators was to read sentences one at a time and label them with with binary labels indicating the polarity (i.e., positive/negative). Note that, the participants were not instructed to annotate whether a sentence is sarcastic or not., to rule out the Priming Effect (i.e., if sarcasm is expected beforehand, processing incongruity becomes relatively easier BIBREF12 ). The setup ensures its “ecological validity” in two ways: (1) Readers are not given any clue that they have to treat sarcasm with special attention. This is done by setting the task to polarity annotation (instead of sarcasm detection). (2) Sarcastic sentences are mixed with non sarcastic text, which does not give prior knowledge about whether the forthcoming text will be sarcastic or not.
The eye-tracking experiment is conducted by following the standard norms in eye-movement research BIBREF13 . At a time, one sentence is displayed to the reader along with the “aspect” with respect to which the annotation has to be provided. While reading, an SR-Research Eyelink-1000 eye-tracker (monocular remote mode, sampling rate 500Hz) records several eye-movement parameters like fixations (a long stay of gaze) and saccade (quick jumping of gaze between two positions of rest) and pupil size.
The accuracy of polarity annotation varies between 72%-91% for sarcastic texts and 75%-91% for non-sarcastic text, showing the inherent difficulty of sentiment annotation, when sarcasm is present in the text under consideration. Annotation errors may be attributed to: (a) lack of patience/attention while reading, (b) issues related to text comprehension, and (c) confusion/indecisiveness caused due to lack of context.
For our analysis, we do not discard the incorrect annotations present in the database. Since our system eventually aims to involve online readers for sarcasm detection, it will be hard to segregate readers who misinterpret the text. We make a rational assumption that, for a particular text, most of the readers, from a fairly large population, will be able to identify sarcasm. Under this assumption, the eye-movement parameters, averaged across all readers in our setting, may not be significantly distorted by a few readers who would have failed to identify sarcasm. This assumption is applicable for both regular and multi-instance based classifiers explained in section SECREF6 .

Variation in the Average Fixation Duration per Word
Since sarcasm in text can be expected to induce cognitive load, it is reasonable to believe that it would require more processing time BIBREF14 . Hence, fixation duration normalized over total word count should usually be higher for a sarcastic text than for a non-sarcastic one. We observe this for all participants in our dataset, with the average fixation duration per word for sarcastic texts being at least 1.5 times more than that of non-sarcastic texts. To test the statistical significance, we conduct a two-tailed t-test (assuming unequal variance) to compare the average fixation duration per word for sarcastic and non-sarcastic texts. The hypothesized mean difference is set to 0 and the error tolerance limit ( INLINEFORM0 ) is set to 0.05. The t-test analysis, presented in Table TABREF11 , shows that for all participants, a statistically significant difference exists between the average fixation duration per word for sarcasm (higher average fixation duration) and non-sarcasm (lower average fixation duration). This affirms that the presence of sarcasm affects the duration of fixation on words.
It is important to note that longer fixations may also be caused by other linguistic subtleties (such as difficult words, ambiguity and syntactically complex structures) causing delay in comprehension, or occulomotor control problems forcing readers to spend time adjusting eye-muscles. So, an elevated average fixation duration per word may not sufficiently indicate the presence of sarcasm. But we would also like to share that, for our dataset, when we considered readability (Flesch readability ease-score BIBREF15 ), number of words in a sentence and average character per word along with the sarcasm label as the predictors of average fixation duration following a linear mixed effect model BIBREF16 , sarcasm label turned out to be the most significant predictor with a maximum slope. This indicates that average fixation duration per word has a strong connection with the text being sarcastic, at least in our dataset.
We now analyze scanpaths to gain more insights into the sarcasm comprehension process.

Complex Gaze Based Features
For these features, we rely on a graph structure, namely “saliency graphs", derived from eye-gaze information and word sequences in the text.
For each reader and each sentence, we construct a “saliency graph”, representing the reader's attention characteristics. A saliency graph for a sentence INLINEFORM0 for a reader INLINEFORM1 , represented as INLINEFORM2 , is a graph with vertices ( INLINEFORM3 ) and edges ( INLINEFORM4 ) where each vertex INLINEFORM5 corresponds to a word in INLINEFORM6 (may not be unique) and there exists an edge INLINEFORM7 between vertices INLINEFORM8 and INLINEFORM9 if R performs at least one saccade between the words corresponding to INLINEFORM10 and INLINEFORM11 .
Figure FIGREF15 shows an example of a saliency graph.A saliency graph may be weighted, but not necessarily connected, for a given text (as there may be words in the given text with no fixation on them). The “complex” gaze features derived from saliency graphs are also motivated by the theory of incongruity. For instance, Edge Density of a saliency graph increases with the number of distinct saccades, which could arise from the complexity caused by presence of sarcasm. Similarly, the highest weighted degree of a graph is expected to be higher, if the node corresponds to a phrase, incongruous to some other phrase in the text.

Results
Table TABREF17 shows the classification results considering various feature combinations for different classifiers and other systems. These are:
Unigram (with principal components of unigram feature vectors),
Sarcasm (the feature-set reported by joshi2015harnessing subsuming unigram features and features from other reported systems)
Gaze (the simple and complex cognitive features we introduce, along with readability and word count features), and
Gaze+Sarcasm (the complete set of features).
For all regular classifiers, the gaze features are averaged across participants and augmented with linguistic and sarcasm related features. For the MILR classifier, the gaze features derived from each participant are augmented with linguistic features and thus, a multi instance “bag” of features is formed for each sentence in the training data. This multi-instance dataset is given to an MILR classifier, which follows the standard multi instance assumption to derive class-labels for each bag.
For all the classifiers, our feature combination outperforms the baselines (considering only unigram features) as well as BIBREF3 , with the MILR classifier getting an F-score improvement of 3.7% and Kappa difference of 0.08. We also achieve an improvement of 2% over the baseline, using SVM classifier, when we employ our feature set. We also observe that the gaze features alone, also capture the differences between sarcasm and non-sarcasm classes with a high-precision but a low recall.
To see if the improvement obtained is statistically significant over the state-of-the art system with textual sarcasm features alone, we perform McNemar test. The output of the SVM classifier using only linguistic features used for sarcasm detection by joshi2015harnessing and the output of the MILR classifier with the complete set of features are compared, setting threshold INLINEFORM0 . There was a significant difference in the classifier's accuracy with p(two-tailed) = 0.02 with an odds-ratio of 1.43, showing that the classification accuracy improvement is unlikely to be observed by chance in 95% confidence interval.

Considering Reading Time as a Cognitive Feature along with Sarcasm Features
One may argue that, considering simple measures of reading effort like “reading time” as cognitive feature instead of the expensive eye-tracking features for sarcasm detection may be a cost-effective solution. To examine this, we repeated our experiments with “reading time” considered as the only cognitive feature, augmented with the textual features. The F-scores of all the classifiers turn out to be close to that of the classifiers considering sarcasm feature alone and the difference in the improvement is not statistically significant ( INLINEFORM0 ). One the other hand, F-scores with gaze features are superior to the F-scores when reading time is considered as a cognitive feature.

How Effective are the Cognitive Features
We examine the effectiveness of cognitive features on the classification accuracy by varying the input training data size. To examine this, we create a stratified (keeping the class ratio constant) random train-test split of 80%:20%. We train our classifier with 100%, 90%, 80% and 70% of the training data with our whole feature set, and the feature combination from joshi2015harnessing. The goodness of our system is demonstrated by improvements in F-score and Kappa statistics, shown in Figure FIGREF22 .
We further analyze the importance of features by ranking the features based on (a) Chi squared test, and (b) Information Gain test, using Weka's attribute selection module. Figure FIGREF23 shows the top 20 ranked features produced by both the tests. For both the cases, we observe 16 out of top 20 features to be gaze features. Further, in each of the cases, Average Fixation Duration per Word and Largest Regression Position are seen to be the two most significant features.

Example Cases
Table TABREF21 shows a few example cases from the experiment with stratified 80%-20% train-test split.
Example sentence 1 is sarcastic, and requires extra-linguistic knowledge (about poor living conditions at Manchester). Hence, the sarcasm detector relying only on textual features is unable to detect the underlying incongruity. However, our system predicts the label successfully, possibly helped by the gaze features.
Similarly, for sentence 2, the false sense of presence of incongruity (due to phrases like “Helped me” and “Can't stop”) affects the system with only linguistic features. Our system, though, performs well in this case also.
Sentence 3 presents a false-negative case where it was hard for even humans to get the sarcasm. This is why our gaze features (and subsequently the complete set of features) account for erroneous prediction.
In sentence 4, gaze features alone false-indicate presence of incongruity, whereas the system predicts correctly when gaze and linguistic features are taken together.
From these examples, it can be inferred that, only gaze features would not have sufficed to rule out the possibility of detecting other forms of incongruity that do not result in sarcasm.

Acknowledgments
We thank the members of CFILT Lab, especially Jaya Jha and Meghna Singh, and the students of IIT Bombay for their help and support. 

Figure 3: Effect of training data size on classification in terms of (a) F-score and (b) Kappa statistics

Figure 4: Significance of features observed by ranking the features using Attribute Evaluation based on Information Gain and Attribute Evaluation based on Chi-squared test. The length of the bar corresponds to the average merit of the feature. Features marked with * are gaze features.

Question: What other evaluation metrics are looked at?
{"answer": ["F-score", "Kappa"], "evidence": ["For all the classifiers, our feature combination outperforms the baselines (considering only unigram features) as well as BIBREF3 , with the MILR classifier getting an F-score improvement of 3.7% and Kappa difference of 0.08. We also achieve an improvement of 2% over the baseline, using SVM classifier, when we employ our feature set. We also observe that the gaze features alone, also capture the differences between sarcasm and non-sarcasm classes with a high-precision but a low recall."]}