Post-stroke Epilepsy: Primary Prophylaxis Study
Post-stroke Epilepsy: Primary Prophylaxis Study
Advance in stroke treatment have resulted in a dramatic reduction in the stroke mortality,
 however, the number of stroke survivors living with morbidity has increased significantly. As
 we know, post-stroke epilepsy has been identified as a significant clinical issue in stroke
 survivors and stroke is the most common cause of epilepsy in older adults and for patients
 aged more than 65, post-stroke epilepsy accounts for 30-50% of new-onset seizures. Our
 previous study documented seizures during stroke presentation and during hospitalization
 would worsen the overall morbidity and mortality, suggesting the importance of awareness in
 seizure care in acute ischemic stroke.

 As current studies only focus on anti-seizure/anti-convulsion after the appearance of
 late-onset seizures, without the intervention of the epileptogenesis, it is important to
 develop a potential novel prophylactic treatment on patients with acute severe stroke to
 prevent from late occurrence of seizures and epilepsy.

 We have previously done researches on the medications that might have potential of
 anti-epileptogenesis in pilocarpine-induced animal models, supporting the concept of
 antiepileptogenesis, giving intervention immediately following a brain insult.

 The results of some earlier anecdotal reports or small studies on prophylactic use of
 antiepileptic drug (AED) therapy in stroke, either hemorrhagic or ischemic strokes, remain
 inconclusive. There still lacks a well-established case-control study on prophylaxis of
 post-stroke epilepsy, with the early intervention of AED therapy with potential of
 anti-epileptogenesis in the phase of epileptogenesis.

 Based on our clinical experience, and laboratory researches, we have noted two
 non-conventional AEDs, levetiracetam (LEV) and perampanel (PER) with potential of
 anti-epileptogenesis. It is justified to evaluate if early administration of LEV or PER in
 patients with acute major stroke as a prophylactic therapy could hamper the development of
 epileptogenesis and the later post-stroke epilepsy.

 We aim to conduct a randomized case-control study to evaluate if early prophylactic
 introduction of low dose AED therapy (LEV or PER) in patients with moderate to severe middle
 cerebral artery infarct, could prevent the development of post-stroke epilepsy (primary
 prevention).
Advance in stroke treatment have resulted in a dramatic reduction in the stroke mortality,
 however, the number of stroke survivors living with morbidity has increased significantly.
 Among the morbidities, seizures and epilepsy are not uncommon and post-stroke epilepsy has
 been identified as a significant clinical issue in stroke survivors. As we know, stroke is
 the most common cause of epilepsy in older adults and for patients aged more than 65,
 post-stroke epilepsy accounts for 30-50% of new-onset seizures (Tanaka and Ihara, 2017). The
 incidence of early seizures (occurring within the first 1-2 weeks of stroke) is between
 2.4-5.4% and the risk of post-stroke late seizures (seizures occur later than 14 days of
 stroke) is around 7-18% (Shetty, 2013; Tanaka and Ihara, 2017). The stroke severity, location
 and type of pathological changes, genetic factors and pre-injury and post-injury exposure to
 non-genetic factors such as exposome can divide patients with ischemic stroke into different
 susceptibility (Pitkanen et al., 2016) and the standardized morbidity rate of developing
 epilepsy is highest during the first year. Our previous study also documented seizures during
 stroke presentation and during hospitalization would worsen the overall morbidity and
 mortality (Huang et al., 2014), suggesting the importance of awareness in seizure care in
 acute ischemic stroke. In addition, studies showed higher National Institutes of Health
 Stroke Scale (NIHSS) score, cortical involvement younger age, central nervous system (CNS)
 morbidities are associated with higher risk of post-stroke epilepsy (Tanaka and Ihara, 2017).

 Occurrence of post-stroke epileptic seizure would lead to long-term poor prognosis and
 increased mortality (Bladin et al., 2000; Labovitz et al., 2001), and the post-stroke
 epilepsy has a high recurrence rate (Tanaka et al., 2017), which might lead to anxiety and
 worsen quality of life in the stroke survivors. As current treatments only focus on
 anti-seizure/anti-convulsion, based on our understanding of the epileptogenesis, we aim to
 develop a potential prophylactic treatment on patients with acute severe stroke to prevent
 from late occurrence of seizures and epilepsy.

 Process of epileptogenesis is classically thought to occur in three phases: first the
 occurrence of a precipitating injury or event; second, a 'latent' period during which changes
 set in motion by the preceding injury act to transform the previously normal brain into an
 epileptic brain; and third, chronic, established epilepsy. It is during the latent period
 that the process of acquired epileptogenesis is thought to coalesce, and it is at this point
 in the process that interventions might be used to prevent the subsequent development of
 epilepsy (Goldberg and Coulter, 2013; Kikuyama et al., 2017). We have previously done
 researches on the medications that might have potential of anti-epileptogenesis in
 pilocarpine-induced animal models, supporting the concept of anti-epileptogenesis, giving
 intervention immediately following a brain insult (Lai et al., 2018, Hung et al., 2019).

 Potential medications with potential of anti-epileptogenesis Based on our clinical
 experience, and laboratory researches (Huang et al., 2009, 2013; Lai et al., 2018; Hung et
 al., 2019), we have noted two newer AEDs with potential of anti-epileptogenesis. LEV, a
 current standard AED with a distinct synaptic vesicle modulating mechanism, has been
 demonstrated its potential in ameliorating epileptogenesis (Itoh et al., 2016; Kikuyama et
 al., 2017). Synaptic vesicle 2A (SV2A) is considered to play an important role for synaptic
 vesicle recycling and neurotransmitter excretion to the synaptic cleft, because mice lacking
 SV2A failed to grow, experienced severe seizures, and died within 3 weeks (Crowder et al.,
 1999). A clear correlation was seen between the affinity of LEV and its analogues to SV2A and
 the potency of their antiseizure protection in the mouse audiogenic model of epilepsy (Lynch
 et al., 2004). Furthermore, the LEV-treated adult male Node epileptic rats showed a
 significant increase of Bax/Bcl-2 mRNA expression ratio in the prefrontal cortex than the
 control group, but no change in the Bax/Bcl-2 mRNA expression ratio in hippocampus,
 suggesting the mechanism of acquired anti-epileptogenesis by LEV may be similar to
 spontaneous recovery of idiopathic generalized epilepsy during adolescence (Kikuyama et al.,
 2017). Our earlier study suggests its broad spectrum of modulating neuronal excitability
 (Huang et al., 2009). It is not metabolized through the P-450 hepatic cytochrome system and
 has not clinically relevant drug-drug interactions (Rosati et al., 2010). It has also been
 suggested as a first-choice drug against post-stroke seizures, based on safety and efficacy
 profiles in clinical studies (Belcastro et al., 2008). Thus, it is potentially worth
 investigation in primary prevention for patients with acute major stroke.

 Perampanel (PER), a current standard antiepileptic drug with a distinct mechanism of
 selective non-competitive antagonist of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic
 acid (AMPA)-type receptors, has also been demonstrated its efficacy in treatment
 wide-spectrum epileptic seizures with good tolerability profile (Tyrlikova et al., 2008).
 Based on its block of glutamate excitotoxicity, PER is theoretically capable of modulating
 epileptogenesis and it has been demonstrated its potential in ameliorating epileptogenesis
 (Mohammad et al., 2019; Dupuis et al., 2017). As we know, the AMPA receptor has become a
 therapeutic target due to its involvement in ictogenesis and epileptogenesis. GluA2 subunit
 plays a role in calcium permeability. Thereby, AMPA receptor-mediated calcium signaling
 increases affects brain excitability. Recent report indicated that perampanel can block both
 calcium permeable and calcium in permeable AMPA receptors (Barygin et al., 2016). Our recent
 study on PER pharmacology also revealed it, for the first time, could inhibit voltage-gated
 sodium channels, suggesting its broad-spectrum properties in modulating neuronal excitability
 (Lai et al., 2019). Thus, it is potentially justified to evaluate if early administration of
 PER in patients with acute major stroke as a prophylactic therapy could hamper the
 development of epileptogenesis and the later post-stroke epilepsy.

 Purpose of our study We aim to investigate if early administration of AEDs with potential
 anti-epileptogenesis could prevent the development of post-stroke epilepsy (primary
 prevention).

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Inclusion Criteria:

 -  Patients with acute MCA infarct (NIHSS > 8) and confirmed by brain MRI studies
 (excluding lacunar infarct) during hospital admission

 Exclusion Criteria:

 -  Patients with prior clinical history of major stroke, significant head injury, brain
 tumor, major psychiatric illness, progressive neurodegenerative disorder, CNS
 infection, epilepsy, which might be precipitating to seizures or history of use of
 AEDs, including LEV or PER, during pregnancy or lactation, history of inadequate
 medical compliance, or any other significant major systemic disease with safety
 concern, determined by physician