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Allen, S. E. M. (1998). Categories within the verb category: Learning the causative in Inuktitut. Linguistics, 36(4), 633-677.
Ameka, F. K. (1998). Particules énonciatives en Ewe. Faits de langues, 6(11/12), 179-204.
Particles are little words that speakers use to signal the illocutionary force of utterances and/or express their attitude towards elements of the communicative situation, e.g. the addresses. This paper presents an overview of the classification, meaning and use of utterance particles in Ewe. It argues that they constitute a grammatical word class on functional and distributional grounds. The paper calls for a cross-cultural investigation of particles, especially in Africa, where they have been neglected for far too long.
Ameka, F. K. (1995). The linguistic construction of space in Ewe. Cognitive Linguistics, 6(2/3), 139-182. doi:10.1515/cogl.1995.6.2-3.139.
This paper presents the linguistic means of describing spatial relations in Ewe with particular emphasis on the grammar and meaning of adpositions. Ewe ( N iger-Congo ) has two sets of adpositions: prepositions, which have evolvedfrom verbs, and postpositions which have evolvedfrom nouns. The postpositions create places and are treated äs intrinsic parts or regions of the reference object in a spatial description. The prepositions provide the general orientation of a Figure (located object). It is demonstrated (hat spaiial relations, such äs those encapsulated in "the basic topological prepositions at, in and on" in English (Herskovits 1986: 9), are not encoded in single linguistic elements in Ewe, but are distributed over members of dijferent form classes in a syntagmatic string, The paper explores the r öle of compositionality andits interaction with pragmatics to yield understandings of spatial configurations in such a language where spatial meanings cannot he simply read off one form. The study also examines the diversity among languages in terms of the nature and obligatoriness of the coding of relational and ground Information in spatial constructions. It is argued that the ränge and type of distinctions discussed in the paper must be accountedfor in semantic typology and in the cross-linguistic investigation of spatial language and conceptualisation.
Baayen, H., & Lieber, R. (1991). Productivity and English derivation: A corpus-based study. Linguistics, 29(5), 801-843. doi:10.1515/ling.1991.29.5.801.
The notion of productivity is one which is central to the study of morphology. It is a notion about which linguists frequently have intuitions. But it is a notion which still remains somewhat problematic in the literature on generative morphology some 15 years after Aronoff raised the issue in his (1976) monograph. In this paper we will review some of the definitions and measures of productivity discussed in the generative and pregenerative literature. We will adopt the definition of productivity suggested by Schultink (1961) and propose a number of statistical measures of productivity whose results, when applied to a fixed corpus, accord nicely with our intuitive estimates of productivity, and which shed light on the quantitative weight of linguistic restrictions on word formation rules. Part of our purpose here is also a very simple one: to make available a substantial set of empirical data concerning the productivity of some of the major derivational affixes of English.
Bailey, A., Hervas, A., Matthews, N., Palferman, S., Wallace, S., Aubin, A., Michelotti, J., Wainhouse, C., Papanikolaou, K., Rutter, M., Maestrini, E., Marlow, A., Weeks, D. E., Lamb, J., Francks, C., Kearsley, G., Scudder, P., Monaco, A. P., Baird, G., Cox, A. and 46 moreBailey, A., Hervas, A., Matthews, N., Palferman, S., Wallace, S., Aubin, A., Michelotti, J., Wainhouse, C., Papanikolaou, K., Rutter, M., Maestrini, E., Marlow, A., Weeks, D. E., Lamb, J., Francks, C., Kearsley, G., Scudder, P., Monaco, A. P., Baird, G., Cox, A., Cockerill, H., Nuffield, F., Le Couteur, A., Berney, T., Cooper, H., Kelly, T., Green, J., Whittaker, J., Gilchrist, A., Bolton, P., Schönewald, A., Daker, M., Ogilvie, C., Docherty, Z., Deans, Z., Bolton, B., Packer, R., Poustka, F., Rühl, D., Schmötzer, G., Bölte, S., Klauck, S. M., Spieler, A., Poustka., A., Van Engeland, H., Kemner, C., De Jonge, M., Den Hartog, I., Lord, C., Cook, E., Leventhal, B., Volkmar, F., Pauls, D., Klin, A., Smalley, S., Fombonne, E., Rogé, B., Tauber, M., Arti-Vartayan, E., Fremolle-Kruck., J., Pederson, L., Haracopos, D., Brondum-Nielsen, K., & Cotterill, R. (1998). A full genome screen for autism with evidence for linkage to a region on chromosome 7q. International Molecular Genetic Study of Autism Consortium. Human Molecular Genetics, 7(3), 571-578. doi:10.1093/hmg/7.3.571.
Autism is characterized by impairments in reciprocal social interaction and communication, and restricted and sterotyped patterns of interests and activities. Developmental difficulties are apparent before 3 years of age and there is evidence for strong genetic influences most likely involving more than one susceptibility gene. A two-stage genome search for susceptibility loci in autism was performed on 87 affected sib pairs plus 12 non-sib affected relative-pairs, from a total of 99 families identified by an international consortium. Regions on six chromosomes (4, 7, 10, 16, 19 and 22) were identified which generated a multipoint maximum lod score (MLS) > 1. A region on chromosome 7q was the most significant with an MLS of 3.55 near markers D7S530 and D7S684 in the subset of 56 UK affected sib-pair families, and an MLS of 2.53 in all 87 affected sib-pair families. An area on chromosome 16p near the telomere was the next most significant, with an MLS of 1.97 in the UK families, and 1.51 in all families. These results are an important step towards identifying genes predisposing to autism; establishing their general applicability requires further study.
Bauer, B. L. M. (1994). [Review of the book Du latin aux langues romanes ed. by Maria Iliescu and Dan Slusanski]. Studies in Language, 18(2), 502-509. doi:10.1075/sl.18.2.08bau.
Bauer, B. L. M. (1998). Impersonal verbs in Italic. Their development from an Indo-European perspective. Journal of Indo-European Studies, 26, 91-120.
Bauer, B. L. M. (1998). Language loss in Gaul: Socio-historical and linguistic factors in language conflict. Southwest Journal of Linguistics, 15, 23-44.
Bauer, B. L. M. (1994). The development of Latin absolute constructions: From stative to transitive structures. General Linguistics, 18, 64-83.
Bickel, B. (1994). In the vestibule of meaning: Transivity inversion as a morphological phenomenon. Studies in Language, 19(1), 73-127.
Blair, H. J., Ho, M., Monaco, A. P., Fisher, S. E., Craig, I. W., & Boyd, Y. (1995). High-resolution comparative mapping of the proximal region of the mouse X chromosome. Genomics, 28(2), 305-310. doi:10.1006/geno.1995.1146.
The murine homologues of the loci for McLeod syndrome (XK), Dent's disease (CICN5), and synaptophysin (SYP) have been mapped to the proximal region of the mouse X chromosome and positioned with respect to other conserved loci in this region using a total of 948 progeny from two separate Mus musculus x Mus spretus backcrosses. In the mouse, the order of loci and evolutionary breakpoints (EB) has been established as centromere-(DXWas70, DXHXF34h)-EB-Clcn5-(Syp, DXMit55, DXMit26)-Tfe3-Gata1-EB-Xk-Cybb-telomere. In the proximal region of the human X chromosome short arm, the position of evolutionary breakpoints with respect to key loci has been established as DMD-EB-XK-PFC-EB-GATA1-C1CN5-EB-DXS1272E-ALAS2-E B-DXF34-centromere. These data have enabled us to construct a high-resolution genetic map for the approximately 3-cM interval between DXWas70 and Cybb on the mouse X chromosome, which encompasses 10 loci. This detailed map demonstrates the power of high-resolution genetic mapping in the mouse as a means of determining locus order in a small chromosomal region and of providing an accurate framework for the construction of physical maps.
De Bleser, R., Willmes, K., Graetz, P., & Hagoort, P. (1991). De Akense Afasie Test. Logopedie en Foniatrie, 63, 207-217.
Boland, J. E., & Cutler, A. (1995). Interaction with autonomy: Defining multiple output models in psycholinguistic theory. Working Papers in Linguistic, 45, 1-10. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/2066/15768.
There are currently a number of psycholinguistic models in which processing at a particular level of representation is characterized by the generation of multiple outputs, with resolution involving the use of information from higher levels of processing. Surprisingly, models with this architecture have been characterized as autonomous within the domain of word recognition and as interactive within the domain of sentence processing. We suggest that the apparent internal confusion is not, as might be assumed, due to fundamental differences between lexical and syntactic processing. Rather, we believe that the labels in each domain were chosen in order to obtain maximal contrast between a new model and the model or models that were currently dominating the field.
Boland, J. E., & Cutler, A. (1995). Interaction with autonomy: Multiple Output models and the inadequacy of the Great Divide. Cognition, 58, 309-320. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(95)00684-2.
There are currently a number of psycholinguistic models in which processing at a particular level of representation is characterized by the generation of multiple outputs, with resolution - but not generation - involving the use of information from higher levels of processing. Surprisingly, models with this architecture have been characterized as autonomous within the domain of word recognition but as interactive within the domain of sentence processing. We suggest that the apparent confusion is not, as might be assumed, due to fundamental differences between lexical and syntactic processing. Rather, we believe that the labels in each domain were chosen in order to obtain maximal contrast between a new model and the model or models that were currently dominating the field. The contradiction serves to highlight the inadequacy of a simple autonomy/interaction dichotomy for characterizing the architectures of current processing models.
Böttner, M. (1998). A collective extension of relational grammar. Logic Journal of the IGPL, 6(2), 175-793. doi:10.1093/jigpal/6.2.175.
Relational grammar was proposed in Suppes (1976) as a semantical grammar for natural language. Fragments considered so far are restricted to distributive notions. In this article, relational grammar is extended to collective notions.
Bowerman, M. (1994). From universal to language-specific in early grammatical development. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 346, 34-45. doi:10.1098/rstb.1994.0126.
Attempts to explain children's grammatical development often assume a close initial match between units of meaning and units of form; for example, agents are said to map to sentence-subjects and actions to verbs. The meanings themselves, according to this view, are not influenced by language, but reflect children's universal non-linguistic way of understanding the world. This paper argues that, contrary to this position, meaning as it is expressed in children's early sentences is, from the beginning, organized on the basis of experience with the grammar and lexicon of a particular language. As a case in point, children learning English and Korean are shown to express meanings having to do with direct motion according to language-specific principles of semantic and grammatical structuring from the earliest stages of word combination
Li, P., & Bowerman, M. (1998). The acquisition of lexical and grammatical aspect in Chinese. First Language, 18, 311-350. doi:10.1177/014272379801805404.
This study reports three experiments on how children learning Mandarin Chinese comprehend and use aspect markers. These experiments examine the role of lexical aspect in children's acquisition of grammatical aspect. Results provide converging evidence for children's early sensitivity to (1) the association between atelic verbs and the imperfective aspect markers zai, -zhe, and -ne, and (2) the association between telic verbs and the perfective aspect marker -le. Children did not show a sensitivity in their use or understanding of aspect markers to the difference between stative and activity verbs or between semelfactive and activity verbs. These results are consistent with Slobin's (1985) basic child grammar hypothesis that the contrast between process and result is important in children's early acquisition of temporal morphology. In contrast, they are inconsistent with Bickerton's (1981, 1984) language bioprogram hypothesis that the distinctions between state and process and between punctual and nonpunctual are preprogrammed into language learners. We suggest new ways of looking at the results in the light of recent probabilistic hypotheses that emphasize the role of input, prototypes and connectionist representations.
Brown, P. (1998). [Review of the book by A.J. Wootton, Interaction and the development of mind]. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 4(4), 816-817.
Brown, P. (1998). Children's first verbs in Tzeltal: Evidence for an early verb category. Linguistics, 36(4), 713-753.
A major finding in studies of early vocabulary acquisition has been that children tend to learn a lot of nouns early but make do with relatively few verbs, among which semantically general-purpose verbs like do, make, get, have, give, come, go, and be play a prominent role. The preponderance of nouns is explained in terms of nouns labelling concrete objects beings "easier" to learn than verbs, which label relational categories. Nouns label "natural categories" observable in the world, verbs label more linguistically and culturally specific categories of events linking objects belonging to such natural categories (Gentner 1978, 1982; Clark 1993). This view has been challenged recently by data from children learning certain non-Indo-European languges like Korean, where children have an early verb explosion and verbs dominate in early child utterances. Children learning the Mayan language Tzeltal also acquire verbs early, prior to any noun explosion as measured by production. Verb types are roughly equivalent to noun types in children's beginning production vocabulary and soon outnumber them. At the one-word stage children's verbs mostly have the form of a root stripped of affixes, correctly segmented despite structural difficulties. Quite early (before the MLU 2.0 point) there is evidence of productivity of some grammatical markers (although they are not always present): the person-marking affixes cross-referencing core arguments, and the completive/incompletive aspectual distinctions. The Tzeltal facts argue against a natural-categories explanation for childre's early vocabulary, in favor of a view emphasizing the early effects of language-specific properties of the input. They suggest that when and how a child acquires a "verb" category is centrally influenced by the structural properties of the input, and that the semantic structure of the language - where the referential load is concentrated - plays a fundamental role in addition to distributional facts.
Brown, P. (1998). Conversational structure and language acquisition: The role of repetition in Tzeltal adult and child speech. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology, 8(2), 197-221. doi:10.1525/jlin.1998.8.2.197.
When Tzeltal children in the Mayan community of Tenejapa, in southern Mexico, begin speaking, their production vocabulary consists predominantly of verb roots, in contrast to the dominance of nouns in the initial vocabulary of first‐language learners of Indo‐European languages. This article proposes that a particular Tzeltal conversational feature—known in the Mayanist literature as "dialogic repetition"—provides a context that facilitates the early analysis and use of verbs. Although Tzeltal babies are not treated by adults as genuine interlocutors worthy of sustained interaction, dialogic repetition in the speech the children are exposed to may have an important role in revealing to them the structural properties of the language, as well as in socializing the collaborative style of verbal interaction adults favor in this community.
Brown, P. (1998). La identificación de las raíces verbales en Tzeltal (Maya): Cómo lo hacen los niños? Función, 17-18, 121-146.
This is a Spanish translation of Brown 1997.
Brown, P. (1994). The INs and ONs of Tzeltal locative expressions: The semantics of static descriptions of location. Linguistics, 32, 743-790.
This paper explores how static topological spatial relations such as contiguity, contact, containment, and support are expressed in the Mayan language Tzeltal. Three distinct Tzeltal systems for describing spatial relationships - geographically anchored (place names, geographical coordinates), viewer-centered (deictic), and object-centered (body parts, relational nouns, and dispositional adjectives) - are presented, but the focus here is on the object-centered system of dispositional adjectives in static locative expressions. Tzeltal encodes shape/position/configuration gestalts in verb roots; predicates formed from these are an essential element in locative descriptions. Specificity of shape in the predicate allows spatial reltaions between figure and ground objects to be understood by implication. Tzeltal illustrates an alternative stragegy to that of prepositional languages like English: rather than elaborating shape distinctions in the nouns and minimizing them in the locatives, Tzeltal encodes shape and configuration very precisely in verb roots, leaving many object nouns unspecified for shape. The Tzeltal case thus presents a direct challenge to cognitive science claims that, in both languge and cognition, WHAT is kept distinct from WHERE.
Castro-Caldas, A., Petersson, K. M., Reis, A., Stone-Elander, S., & Ingvar, M. (1998). The illiterate brain: Learning to read and write during childhood influences the functional organization of the adult brain. Brain, 121, 1053-1063. doi:10.1093/brain/121.6.1053.
Learning a specific skill during childhood may partly determine the functional organization of the adult brain. This hypothesis led us to study oral language processing in illiterate subjects who, for social reasons, had never entered school and had no knowledge of reading or writing. In a brain activation study using PET and statistical parametric mapping, we compared word and pseudoword repetition in literate and illiterate subjects. Our study confirms behavioural evidence of different phonological processing in illiterate subjects. During repetition of real words, the two groups performed similarly and activated similar areas of the brain. In contrast, illiterate subjects had more difficulty repeating pseudowords correctly and did not activate the same neural structures as literates. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that learning the written form of language (orthography) interacts with the function of oral language. Our results indicate that learning to read and write during childhood influences the functional organization of the adult human brain.
Choi, S., & Bowerman, M. (1991). Learning to express motion events in English and Korean: The influence of language-specific lexicalization patterns. Cognition, 41, 83-121. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(91)90033-Z.
English and Korean differ in how they lexicalize the components of motionevents. English characteristically conflates Motion with Manner, Cause, or Deixis, and expresses Path separately. Korean, in contrast, conflates Motion with Path and elements of Figure and Ground in transitive clauses for caused Motion, but conflates motion with Deixis and spells out Path and Manner separately in intransitive clauses for spontaneous motion. Children learningEnglish and Korean show sensitivity to language-specific patterns in the way they talk about motion from as early as 17–20 months. For example, learners of English quickly generalize their earliest spatial words — Path particles like up, down, and in — to both spontaneous and caused changes of location and, for up and down, to posture changes, while learners of Korean keep words for spontaneous and caused motion strictly separate and use different words for vertical changes of location and posture changes. These findings challenge the widespread view that children initially map spatial words directly to nonlinguistic spatial concepts, and suggest that they are influenced by the semantic organization of their language virtually from the beginning. We discuss how input and cognition may interact in the early phases of learning to talk about space.
Chwilla, D., Brown, C. M., & Hagoort, P. (1995). The N400 as a function of the level of processing. Psychophysiology, 32, 274-285. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1995.tb02956.x.
In a semantic priming paradigm, the effects of different levels of processing on the N400 were assessed by changing the task demands. In the lexical decision task, subjects had to discriminate between words and nonwords and in the physical task, subjects had to discriminate between uppercase and lowercase letters. The proportion of related versus unrelated word pairs differed between conditions. A lexicality test on reaction times demonstrated that the physical task was performed nonlexically. Moreover, a semantic priming reaction time effect was obtained only in the lexical decision task. The level of processing clearly affected the event-related potentials. An N400 priming effect was only observed in the lexical decision task. In contrast, in the physical task a P300 effect was observed for either related or unrelated targets, depending on their frequency of occurrence. Taken together, the results indicate that an N400 priming effect is only evoked when the task performance induces the semantic aspects of words to become part of an episodic trace of the stimulus event.
Chwilla, D., Hagoort, P., & Brown, C. M. (1998). The mechanism underlying backward priming in a lexical decision task: Spreading activation versus semantic matching. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 51A(3), 531-560. doi:10.1080/713755773.
Koriat (1981) demonstrated that an association from the target to a preceding prime, in the absence of an association from the prime to the target, facilitates lexical decision and referred to this effect as "backward priming". Backward priming is of relevance, because it can provide information about the mechanism underlying semantic priming effects. Following Neely (1991), we distinguish three mechanisms of priming: spreading activation, expectancy, and semantic matching/integration. The goal was to determine which of these mechanisms causes backward priming, by assessing effects of backward priming on a language-relevant ERP component, the N400, and reaction time (RT). Based on previous work, we propose that the N400 priming effect reflects expectancy and semantic matching/integration, but in contrast with RT does not reflect spreading activation. Experiment 1 shows a backward priming effect that is qualitatively similar for the N400 and RT in a lexical decision task. This effect was not modulated by an ISI manipulation. Experiment 2 clarifies that the N400 backward priming effect reflects genuine changes in N400 amplitude and cannot be ascribed to other factors. We will argue that these backward priming effects cannot be due to expectancy but are best accounted for in terms of semantic matching/integration.
Costa, A., Cutler, A., & Sebastian-Galles, N. (1998). Effects of phoneme repertoire on phoneme decision. Perception and Psychophysics, 60, 1022-1031.
In three experiments, listeners detected vowel or consonant targets in lists of CV syllables constructed from five vowels and five consonants. Responses were faster in a predictable context (e.g., listening for a vowel target in a list of syllables all beginning with the same consonant) than in an unpredictable context (e.g., listening for a vowel target in a list of syllables beginning with different consonants). In Experiment 1, the listeners' native language was Dutch, in which vowel and consonant repertoires are similar in size. The difference between predictable and unpredictable contexts was comparable for vowel and consonant targets. In Experiments 2 and 3, the listeners' native language was Spanish, which has four times as many consonants as vowels; here effects of an unpredictable consonant context on vowel detection were significantly greater than effects of an unpredictable vowel context on consonant detection. This finding suggests that listeners' processing of phonemes takes into account the constitution of their language's phonemic repertoire and the implications that this has for contextual variability.
Crago, M. B., Chen, C., Genesee, F., & Allen, S. E. M. (1998). Power and deference. Journal for a Just and Caring Education, 4(1), 78-95.
Cutler, A. (1991). Proceed with caution. New Scientist, (1799), 53-54.
https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg13217995-700-forum-proceed-with-caution-…
Cutler, A., Norris, D., & McQueen, J. M. (1994). Modelling lexical access from continuous speech input. Dokkyo International Review, 7, 193-215.
The recognition of speech involves the segmentation of continuous utterances into their component words. Cross-linguistic evidence is briefly reviewed which suggests that although there are language-specific solutions to this segmentation problem, they have one thing in common: they are all based on language rhythm. In English, segmentation is stress-based: strong syllables are postulated to be the onsets of words. Segmentation, however, can also be achieved by a process of competition between activated lexical hypotheses, as in the Shortlist model. A series of experiments is summarised showing that segmentation of continuous speech depends on both lexical competition and a metrically-guided procedure. In the final section, the implementation of metrical segmentation in the Shortlist model is described: the activation of lexical hypotheses matching strong syllables in the input is boosted and that of hypotheses mismatching strong syllables in the input is penalised.
Cutler, A., & Otake, T. (1994). Mora or phoneme? Further evidence for language-specific listening. Journal of Memory and Language, 33, 824-844. doi:10.1006/jmla.1994.1039.
Japanese listeners detect speech sound targets which correspond precisely to a mora (a phonological unit which is the unit of rhythm in Japanese) more easily than targets which do not. English listeners detect medial vowel targets more slowly than consonants. Six phoneme detection experiments investigated these effects in both subject populations, presented with native- and foreign-language input. Japanese listeners produced faster and more accurate responses to moraic than to nonmoraic targets both in Japanese and, where possible, in English; English listeners responded differently. The detection disadvantage for medial vowels appeared with English listeners both in English and in Japanese; again, Japanese listeners responded differently. Some processing operations which listeners apply to speech input are language-specific; these language-specific procedures, appropriate for listening to input in the native language, may be applied to foreign-language input irrespective of whether they remain appropriate.
Cutler, A. (1994). The perception of rhythm in language. Cognition, 50, 79-81. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(94)90021-3.
Cutler, A., & Butterfield, S. (1991). Word boundary cues in clear speech: A supplementary report. Speech Communication, 10, 335-353. doi:10.1016/0167-6393(91)90002-B.
One of a listener's major tasks in understanding continuous speech is segmenting the speech signal into separate words. When listening conditions are difficult, speakers can help listeners by deliberately speaking more clearly. In four experiments, we examined how word boundaries are produced in deliberately clear speech. In an earlier report we showed that speakers do indeed mark word boundaries in clear speech, by pausing at the boundary and lengthening pre-boundary syllables; moreover, these effects are applied particularly to boundaries preceding weak syllables. In English, listeners use segmentation procedures which make word boundaries before strong syllables easier to perceive; thus marking word boundaries before weak syllables in clear speech will make clear precisely those boundaries which are otherwise hard to perceive. The present report presents supplementary data, namely prosodic analyses of the syllable following a critical word boundary. More lengthening and greater increases in intensity were applied in clear speech to weak syllables than to strong. Mean F0 was also increased to a greater extent on weak syllables than on strong. Pitch movement, however, increased to a greater extent on strong syllables than on weak. The effects were, however, very small in comparison to the durational effects we observed earlier for syllables preceding the boundary and for pauses at the boundary.
Dimroth, C. (1998). Indiquer la portée en allemand L2: Une étude longitudinale de l'acquisition des particules de portée. AILE (Acquisition et Interaction en Langue étrangère), 11, 11-34.
Drozd, K. F. (1995). Child English pre-sentential negation as metalinguistic exclamatory sentence negation. Journal of Child Language, 22(3), 583-610. doi:10.1017/S030500090000996X.
This paper presents a study of the spontaneous pre-sentential negations of ten English-speaking children between the ages of 1; 6 and 3; 4 which supports the hypothesis that child English nonanaphoric pre-sentential negation is a form of metalinguistic exclamatory sentence negation. A detailed discourse analysis reveals that children's pre-sentential negatives like No Nathaniel a king (i) are characteristically echoic, and (it) typically express objection and rectification, two characteristic functions of exclamatory negation in adult discourse, e.g. Don't say 'Nathaniel's a king'! A comparison of children's pre-sentential negations with their internal predicate negations using not and don't reveals that the two negative constructions are formally and functionally distinct. I argue that children's nonanaphoric pre-sentential negatives constitute an independent, well-formed class of discourse negation. They are not 'primitive' constructions derived from the miscategorization of emphatic no in adult speech or children's 'inventions'. Nor are they an early derivational variant of internal sentence negation. Rather, these negatives reflect young children's competence in using grammatical negative constructions appropriately in discourse.
Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I., & Senft, G. (1991). Trobriander (Papua-Neu-guinea, Trobriand -Inseln, Kaile'una) Tänze zur Einleitung des Erntefeier-Rituals. Film E 3129. Trobriander (Papua-Neuguinea, Trobriand-Inseln, Kiriwina); Ausschnitte aus einem Erntefesttanz. Film E3130. Publikationen zu wissenschaftlichen Filmen. Sektion Ethnologie, 17, 1-17.
Eisenbeiß, S., Bartke, S., Weyerts, H., & Clahsen, H. (1994). Elizitationsverfahren in der Spracherwerbsforschung: Nominalphrasen, Kasus, Plural, Partizipien. Theorie des Lexikons, 57.
Fear, B. D., Cutler, A., & Butterfield, S. (1995). The strong/weak syllable distinction in English. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 97, 1893-1904. doi:10.1121/1.412063.
Strong and weak syllables in English can be distinguished on the basis of vowel quality, of stress, or of both factors. Critical for deciding between these factors are syllables containing unstressed unreduced vowels, such as the first syllable of automata. In this study 12 speakers produced sentences containing matched sets of words with initial vowels ranging from stressed to reduced, at normal and at fast speech rates. Measurements of the duration, intensity, F0, and spectral characteristics of the word-initial vowels showed that unstressed unreduced vowels differed significantly from both stressed and reduced vowels. This result held true across speaker sex and dialect. The vowels produced by one speaker were then cross-spliced across the words within each set, and the resulting words' acceptability was rated by listeners. In general, cross-spliced words were only rated significantly less acceptable than unspliced words when reduced vowels interchanged with any other vowel. Correlations between rated acceptability and acoustic characteristics of the cross-spliced words demonstrated that listeners were attending to duration, intensity, and spectral characteristics. Together these results suggest that unstressed unreduced vowels in English pattern differently from both stressed and reduced vowels, so that no acoustic support for a binary categorical distinction exists; nevertheless, listeners make such a distinction, grouping unstressed unreduced vowels by preference with stressed vowels
Fisher, S. E., Van Bakel, I., Lloyd, S. E., Pearce, S. H. S., Thakker, R. V., & Craig, I. W. (1995). Cloning and characterization of CLCN5, the human kidney chloride channel gene implicated in Dent disease (an X-linked hereditary nephrolithiasis). Genomics, 29, 598-606. doi:10.1006/geno.1995.9960.
Dent disease, an X-linked familial renal tubular disorder, is a form of Fanconi syndrome associated with proteinuria, hypercalciuria, nephrocalcinosis, kidney stones, and eventual renal failure. We have previously used positional cloning to identify the 3' part of a novel kidney-specific gene (initially termed hClC-K2, but now referred to as CLCN5), which is deleted in patients from one pedigree segregating Dent disease. Mutations that disrupt this gene have been identified in other patients with this disorder. Here we describe the isolation and characterization of the complete open reading frame of the human CLCN5 gene, which is predicted to encode a protein of 746 amino acids, with significant homology to all known members of the ClC family of voltage-gated chloride channels. CLCN5 belongs to a distinct branch of this family, which also includes the recently identified genes CLCN3 and CLCN4. We have shown that the coding region of CLCN5 is organized into 12 exons, spanning 25-30 kb of genomic DNA, and have determined the sequence of each exon-intron boundary. The elucidation of the coding sequence and exon-intron organization of CLCN5 will both expedite the evaluation of structure/function relationships of these ion channels and facilitate the screening of other patients with renal tubular dysfunction for mutations at this locus.
Fisher, S. E., Hatchwell, E., Chand, A., Ockenden, N., Monaco, A. P., & Craig, I. W. (1995). Construction of two YAC contigs in human Xp11.23-p11.22, one encompassing the loci OATL1, GATA, TFE3, and SYP, the other linking DXS255 to DXS146. Genomics, 29(2), 496-502. doi:10.1006/geno.1995.9976.
We have constructed two YAC contigs in the Xp11.23-p11.22 interval of the human X chromosome, a region that was previously poorly characterized. One contig, of at least 1.4 Mb, links the pseudogene OATL1 to the genes GATA1, TFE3, and SYP and also contains loci implicated in Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome and synovial sarcoma. A second contig, mapping proximal to the first, is estimated to be over 2.1 Mb and links the hypervariable locus DXS255 to DXS146, and also contains a chloride channel gene that is responsible for hereditary nephrolithiasis. We have used plasmid rescue, inverse PCR, and Alu-PCR to generate 20 novel markers from this region, 1 of which is polymorphic, and have positioned these relative to one another on the basis of YAC analysis. The order of previously known markers within our contigs, Xpter-OATL1-GATA-TFE3-SYP-DXS255146- Xcen, agrees with genomic pulsed-field maps of the region. In addition, we have constructed a rare-cutter restriction map for a 710-kb region of the DXS255-DXS146 contig and have identified three CPG islands. These contigs and new markers will provide a useful resource for more detailed analysis of Xp11.23-p11.22, a region implicated in several genetic diseases.
Fisher, S. E., Black, G. C. M., Lloyd, S. E., Wrong, O. M., Thakker, R. V., & Craig, I. W. (1994). Isolation and partial characterization of a chloride channel gene which is expressed in kidney and is a candidate for Dent's disease (an X-linked hereditary nephrolithiasis). Human Molecular Genetics, 3, 2053-2059.
Dent's disease, an X-linked renal tubular disorder, is a form of Fanconi syndrome which is characterized by proteinuria, hypercalciuria, nephrocalcinosis, kidney stones and renal failure. Previous studies localised the gene responsible to Xp11.22, within a microdeletion involving the hypervariable locus DXS255. Further analysis using new probes which flank this locus indicate that the deletion is less than 515 kb. A 185 kb YAC containing DXS255 was used to screen a cDNA library from adult kidney in order to isolate coding sequences falling within the deleted region which may be implicated in the disease aetiology. We identified two clones which are evolutionarily conserved, and detect a 9.5 kb transcript which is expressed predominantly in the kidney. Sequence analysis of 780 bp of ORF from the clones suggests that the identified gene, termed hCIC-K2, encodes a new member of the CIC family of voltage-gated chloride channels. Genomic fragments detected by the cDNA clones are completely absent in patients who have an associated microdeletion. On the basis of the expression pattern, proposed function and deletion mapping, hCIC-K2 is a strong candidate for Dent's disease.
Fisher, S. E., Vargha-Khadem, F., Watkins, K. E., Monaco, A. P., & Pembrey, M. E. (1998). Localisation of a gene implicated in a severe speech and language disorder. Nature Genetics, 18, 168 -170. doi:10.1038/ng0298-168.
Between 2 and 5% of children who are otherwise unimpaired have significant difficulties in acquiring expressive and/or receptive language, despite adequate intelligence and opportunity. While twin studies indicate a significant role for genetic factors in developmental disorders of speech and language, the majority of families segregating such disorders show complex patterns of inheritance, and are thus not amenable for conventional linkage analysis. A rare exception is the KE family, a large three-generation pedigree in which approximately half of the members are affected with a severe speech and language disorder which appears to be transmitted as an autosomal dominant monogenic trait. This family has been widely publicised as suffering primarily from a defect in the use of grammatical suffixation rules, thus supposedly supporting the existence of genes specific to grammar. The phenotype, however, is broader in nature, with virtually every aspect of grammar and of language affected. In addition, affected members have a severe orofacial dyspraxia, and their speech is largely incomprehensible to the naive listener. We initiated a genome-wide search for linkage in the KE family and have identified a region on chromosome 7 which co-segregates with the speech and language disorder (maximum lod score = 6.62 at theta = 0.0), confirming autosomal dominant inheritance with full penetrance. Further analysis of microsatellites from within the region enabled us to fine map the locus responsible (designated SPCH1) to a 5.6-cM interval in 7q31, thus providing an important step towards its identification. Isolation of SPCH1 may offer the first insight into the molecular genetics of the developmental process that culminates in speech and language.
Ghatan, P. H., Hsieh, J. C., Petersson, K. M., Stone-Elander, S., & Ingvar, M. (1998). Coexistence of attention-based facilitation and inhibition in the human cortex. NeuroImage, 7, 23-29.
A key function of attention is to select an appropriate subset of available information by facilitation of attended processes and/or inhibition of irrelevant processing. Functional imaging studies, using positron emission tomography, have during different experimental tasks revealed decreased neuronal activity in areas that process input from unattended sensory modalities. It has been hypothesized that these decreases reflect a selective inhibitory modulation of nonrelevant cortical processing. In this study we addressed this question using a continuous arithmetical task with and without concomitant disturbing auditory input (task-irrelevant speech). During the arithmetical task, irrelevant speech did not affect task-performance but yielded decreased activity in the auditory and midcingulate cortices and increased activity in the left posterior parietal cortex. This pattern of modulation is consistent with a top down inhibitory modulation of a nonattended input to the auditory cortex and a coexisting, attention-based facilitation of taskrelevant processing in higher order cortices. These findings suggest that task-related decreases in cortical activity may be of functional importance in the understanding of both attentional mechanisms and taskrelated information processing.
Gullberg, M. (1995). Giving language a hand: gesture as a cue based communicative strategy. Working Papers, Lund University, Dept. of Linguistics, 44, 41-60.
All accounts of communicative behaviour in general, and communicative strategies in particular, mention gesture1 in relation to language acquisition (cf. Faerch & Kasper 1983 for an overview). However, few attempts have been made to investigate how spoken language and spontaneous gesture combine to determine discourse referents. Referential gesture and referential discourse will be of particular interest, since communicative strategies in second language discourse often involve labelling problems. This paper will focus on two issues: 1) Within a cognitive account of communicative strategies, gesture will be seen to be part of conceptual or analysis-based strategies, in that relational features in the referents are exploited; 2) It will be argued that communication strategies can be seen in terms of cue manipulation in the same sense as sentence processing has been analysed in terms of competing cues. Strategic behaviour, and indeed the process of referring in general, are seen in terms of cues, combining or competing to determine discourse referents. Gesture can then be regarded as being such a cue at the discourse level, and as a cue-based communicative strategy, in that gesture functions by exploiting physically based cues which can be recognised as being part of the referent. The question of iconicity and motivation vs. the arbitrary qualities of gesture as a strategic cue will be addressed in connection with this.
Gumperz, J. J., & Levinson, S. C. (1991). Rethinking linguistic relativity. Current Anthropology, 32(5), 613-623. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2743696.
Hagoort, P. (1994). Afasie als een tekort aan tijd voor spreken en verstaan. De Psycholoog, 4, 153-154.
Hagoort, P. (1998). De spreker als sprinter. Psychologie, 17, 48-49.
Hagoort, P. (1998). De electrofysiologie van taal: Wat hersenpotentialen vertellen over het menselijk taalvermogen. Neuropraxis, 2, 223-229.
Hagoort, P., Brown, C. M., & Swaab, T. Y. (1995). Semantic deficits in right hemisphere patients. Brain and Language, 51, 161-163. doi:10.1006/brln.1995.1058.
Hagoort, P. (1998). Hersenen en taal in onderzoek en praktijk. Neuropraxis, 6, 204-205.
Hagoort, P. (1994). Het brein op een kier: Over hersenen gesproken. Psychologie, 13, 42-46.
Indefrey, P. (1998). De neurale architectuur van taal: Welke hersengebieden zijn betrokken bij het spreken. Neuropraxis, 2(6), 230-237.
Indefrey, P., Gruber, O., Brown, C. M., Hagoort, P., Posse, S., & Kleinschmidt, A. (1998). Lexicality and not syllable frequency determine lateralized premotor activation during the pronunciation of word-like stimuli: An fMRI study. NeuroImage, 7, S4.
Jescheniak, J. D., & Levelt, W. J. M. (1994). Word frequency effects in speech production: Retrieval of syntactic information and of phonological form. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20(4), 824-843.
In 7 experiments the authors investigated the locus of word frequency effects in speech production. Experiment 1 demonstrated a frequency effect in picture naming that was robust over repetitions. Experiments 2, 3, and 7 excluded contributions from object identification and initiation of articulation. Experiments 4 and 5 investigated whether the effect arises in accessing the syntactic word (lemma) by using a grammatical gender decision task. Although a frequency effect was found, it dissipated under repeated access to word's gender. Experiment 6 tested whether the robust frequency effect arises in accessing the phonological form (lexeme) by having Ss translate words that produced homophones. Low-frequent homophones behaved like high-frequent controls, inheriting the accessing speed of their high-frequent homophone twins. Because homophones share the lexeme, not the lemma, this suggests a lexeme-level origin of the robust effect.
Kempen, G. (1995). 'Hier spreekt men Nederlands'. EMNET: Nieuwsbrief Elektronische Media, 22, 1.
Kempen, G. (1998). Comparing and explaining the trajectories of first and second language acquisition: In search of the right mix of psychological and linguistic factors [Commentory]. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1, 29-30. doi:10.1017/S1366728998000066.
When you compare the behavior of two different age groups which are trying to master the same sensori-motor or cognitive skill, you are likely to discover varying learning routes: different stages, different intervals between stages, or even different orderings of stages. Such heterogeneous learning trajectories may be caused by at least six different types of factors: (1) Initial state: the kinds and levels of skills the learners have available at the onset of the learning episode. (2) Learning mechanisms: rule-based, inductive, connectionist, parameter setting, and so on. (3) Input and feedback characteristics: learning stimuli, information about success and failure. (4) Information processing mechanisms: capacity limitations, attentional biases, response preferences. (5) Energetic variables: motivation, emotional reactions. (6) Final state: the fine-structure of kinds and levels of subskills at the end of the learning episode. This applies to language acquisition as well. First and second language learners probably differ on all six factors. Nevertheless, the debate between advocates and opponents of the Fundamental Difference Hypothesis concerning L1 and L2 acquisition have looked almost exclusively at the first two factors. Those who believe that L1 learners have access to Universal Grammar whereas L2 learners rely on language processing strategies, postulate different learning mechanisms (UG parameter setting in L1, more general inductive strategies in L2 learning). Pienemann opposes this view and, based on his Processability Theory, argues that L1 and L2 learners start out from different initial states: they come to the grammar learning task with different structural hypotheses (SOV versus SVO as basic word order of German).
Kempen, G. (1991). Conjunction reduction and gapping in clause-level coordination: An inheritance-based approach. Computational Intelligence, 7, 357-360. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8640.1991.tb00406.x.
Kempen, G. (1995). De mythe van het woordbeeld: Spellingherziening taalpsychologisch doorgelicht. Onze Taal, 64(11), 275-277.
Kempen, G. (1994). De mythe van het woordbeeld: Spellingherziening taalpsychologisch doorgelicht. Spektator, tijdschrift voor Neerlandistiek, 23, 292-301.
Kempen, G. (1995). Drinken eten mij Nim. Intermediair, 31(19), 41-45.
Kempen, G. (1994). Klare taal: Zicht op zinsbouw. Natuur en Techniek, 62, 380-391.
Kempen, G. (1994). Nederlands als computertaal. EMNET: Nieuwsbrief Elektronische Media, 2, 9-12.
Kempen, G. (1995). Processing separable complex verbs in Dutch: Comments on Frazier, Flores d'Arcais, and Coolen (1993). Cognition, 54, 353-356. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(94)00649-6.
Raises objections to L. Frazier et al's (see record 1994-32229-001) report of an experimental study intended to test Schreuder's (1990) Morphological Integration (MI) model concerning the processing of separable and inseparable verbs and shows that the logic of the experiment is flawed. The problem is rooted in the notion of a separable complex verb. The conclusion is drawn that Frazier et al's experimental data cannot be taken as evidence for the theoretical propositions they develop about the MI model.
Kempen, G. (1995). Processing discontinuous lexical items: A reply to Frazier. Cognition, 55, 219-221. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(94)00657-7.
Comments on a study by Frazier and others on Dutch-language lexical processing. Claims that the control condition in the experiment was inadequate and that an assumption made by Frazier about closed class verbal items is inaccurate, and proposes an alternative account of a subset of the data from the experiment
Kempen, G. (1995). IJ of Y? Onze Taal, 64(9), 205-206.
Kempen, G. (1994). In de grammaticadiscussie is de empirie aan zet. Levende Talen, 486, 27-28.
Kempen, G., Konst, L., & De Smedt, K. (1984). Taaltechnologie voor het Nederlands: Vorderingen bij de bouw van een Nederlandstalig dialoog- en auteursysteem. Informatie, 26, 878-881.
Kempen, G. (1984). Taaltechnologie voor het Nederlands: Vorderingen bij de bouw van een Nederlandstalig dialoog- en auteursysteem. Toegepaste Taalwetenschap in Artikelen, 19, 48-58.
Kempen, G. (1995). Van leescultuur en beeldcultuur naar internetcultuur. De Psycholoog, 30, 315-319.
Klein, W. (1995). A time-relational analysis of Russian aspect. Language, 71(4), 669-695.
Klein, W. (1995). Das Vermächtnis der Geschichte, der Müll der Vergangenheit, oder: Wie wichtig ist zu wissen, was die Menschen früher getan oder geglaubt haben, für das, was wir jetzt tun oder glauben? Zeitschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Linguistik; Metzler, Stuttgart, 100, 77-100.
Klein, W., & Dittmar, N. (1994). Einleitung. Zeitschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Linguistik; Metzler, Stuttgart, (93), 7-8.
Klein, W. (1991). Geile Binsenbüschel, sehr intime Gespielen: Ein paar Anmerkungen über Arno Schmidt als Übersetzer. Zeitschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Linguistik, 84, 124-129.
Klein, W., & Dittmar, N. (Eds.). (1994). Interkulturelle Kommunikation [Special Issue]. Zeitschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Linguistik, (93).
Klein, W. (1995). Literaturwissenschaft, Linguistik, LiLi. Zeitschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Linguistik; Metzler, Stuttgart, (100), 1-10.
Klein, W. (1991). Raumausdrücke. Linguistische Berichte, 132, 77-114.
Klein, W., & Von Stutterheim, C. (1991). Text structure and referential movement. Arbeitsberichte des Forschungsprogramms S&P: Sprache und Pragmatik, 22.
Klein, W. (Ed.). (1984). Textverständlichkeit - Textverstehen [Special Issue]. Zeitschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Linguistik, (55).
Klein, W. (1998). The contribution of second language acquisition research. Language Learning, 48, 527-550. doi:10.1111/0023-8333.00057.
During the last 25 years, second language acquisition (SLA) research hasmade considerable progress, but is still far from proving a solid basis for foreign language teaching, or from a general theory of SLA. In addition, its status within the linguistic disciplines is still very low. I argue this has not much to do with low empirical or theoretical standards in the field—in this regard, SLA research is fully competitive—but with a particular perspective on the acquisition process: SLA researches learners' utterances as deviations from a certain target, instead of genuine manifestations of underlying language capacity; it analyses them in terms of what they are not rather than what they are. For some purposes such a "target deviation perspective" makes sense, but it will not help SLA researchers to substantially and independently contribute to a deeper understanding of the structure and function of the human language faculty. Therefore, these findings will remain of limited interest to other scientists until SLA researchers consider learner varieties a normal, in fact typical, manifestation of this unique human capacity.
Klein, W. (1998). Von der einfältigen Wißbegierde. Zeitschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Linguistik, 112, 6-13.
Klein, W. (1991). Was kann sich die Übersetzungswissenschaft von der Linguistik erwarten? Zeitschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Linguistik, 84, 104-123.
Klein, W. (Ed.). (1982). Zweitspracherwerb [Special Issue]. Zeitschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Linguistik, (45).
Köster, O., Hess, M. M., Schiller, N. O., & Künzel, H. J. (1998). The correlation between auditory speech sensitivity and speaker recognition ability. Forensic Linguistics: The international Journal of Speech, Language and the Law, 5, 22-32.
In various applications of forensic phonetics the question arises as to how far aural-perceptual speaker recognition performance is reliable. Therefore, it is necessary to examine the relationship between speaker recognition results and human perception/production abilities like musicality or speech sensitivity. In this study, performance in a speaker recognition experiment and a speech sensitivity test are correlated. The results show a moderately significant positive correlation between the two tasks. Generally, performance in the speaker recognition task was better than in the speech sensitivity test. Professionals in speech and singing yielded a more homogeneous correlation than non-experts. Training in speech as well as choir-singing seems to have a positive effect on performance in speaker recognition. It may be concluded, firstly, that in cases where the reliability of voice line-up results or the credibility of a testimony have to be considered, the speech sensitivity test could be a useful indicator. Secondly, the speech sensitivity test might be integrated into the canon of possible procedures for the accreditation of forensic phoneticians. Both tests may also be used in combination.
Krämer, I. (1998). Children's interpretations of indefinite object noun phrases. Linguistics in the Netherlands, 1998, 163-174. doi:10.1075/avt.15.15kra.
Levelt, W. J. M., Praamstra, P., Meyer, A. S., Helenius, P., & Salmelin, R. (1998). An MEG study of picture naming. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 10(5), 553-567. doi:10.1162/089892998562960.
The purpose of this study was to relate a psycholinguistic processing model of picture naming to the dynamics of cortical activation during picture naming. The activation was recorded from eight Dutch subjects with a whole-head neuromagnetometer. The processing model, based on extensive naming latency studies, is a stage model. In preparing a picture's name, the speaker performs a chain of specific operations. They are, in this order, computing the visual percept, activating an appropriate lexical concept, selecting the target word from the mental lexicon, phonological encoding, phonetic encoding, and initiation of articulation. The time windows for each of these operations are reasonably well known and could be related to the peak activity of dipole sources in the individual magnetic response patterns. The analyses showed a clear progression over these time windows from early occipital activation, via parietal and temporal to frontal activation. The major specific findings were that (1) a region in the left posterior temporal lobe, agreeing with the location of Wernicke's area, showed prominent activation starting about 200 msec after picture onset and peaking at about 350 msec, (i.e., within the stage of phonological encoding), and (2) a consistent activation was found in the right parietal cortex, peaking at about 230 msec after picture onset, thus preceding and partly overlapping with the left temporal response. An interpretation in terms of the management of visual attention is proposed.
Levelt, W. J. M. (1991). Die konnektionistische Mode. Sprache und Kognition, 10(2), 61-72.
Levelt, W. J. M., & Wheeldon, L. (1994). Do speakers have access to a mental syllabary? Cognition, 50, 239-269. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(94)90030-2.
The first, theoretical part of this paper sketches a framework for phonological encoding in which the speaker successively generates phonological syllables in connected speech. The final stage of this process, phonetic encoding, consists of accessing articulatory gestural scores for each of these syllables in a "mental syllabary". The second, experimental part studies various predictions derived from this theory. The main finding is a syllable frequency effect: words ending in a high-frequent syllable are named faster than words ending in a low-frequent syllable. As predicted, this syllable frequency effect is independent of and additive to the effect of word frequency on naming latency. The effect, moreover, is not due to the complexity of the word-final syllable. In the General Discussion, the syllabary model is further elaborated with respect to phonological underspecification and activation spreading. Alternative accounts of the empirical findings in terms of core syllables and demisyllables are considered.
Levelt, W. J. M. (1995). Hoezo 'neuro'? Hoezo 'linguïstisch'? Intermediair, 31(46), 32-37.


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The Slumbear's design is based upon the Pandaffodil's, although there are differences between the two.


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text:
// Copyright (c) Microsoft.  All Rights Reserved.  Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0.  See License.txt in the project root for license information.

using System;
using System.Collections.Concurrent;
using System.Collections.Generic;
using System.Collections.Immutable;
using System.Composition;
using System.Diagnostics;
using System.IO;
using System.Linq;
using System.Threading;
using System.Threading.Tasks;
using Microsoft.CodeAnalysis.Diagnostics.Telemetry;
using Microsoft.CodeAnalysis.Execution;
using Microsoft.CodeAnalysis.Host;
using Microsoft.CodeAnalysis.Host.Mef;
using Microsoft.CodeAnalysis.Options;
using Microsoft.CodeAnalysis.Remote;
using Microsoft.CodeAnalysis.Workspaces.Diagnostics;
using Roslyn.Utilities;

namespace Microsoft.CodeAnalysis.Diagnostics.EngineV2
{
    [ExportWorkspaceServiceFactory(typeof(ICodeAnalysisDiagnosticAnalyzerExecutor)), Shared]
    internal class DiagnosticAnalyzerExecutor : IWorkspaceServiceFactory
    {
        private readonly AbstractHostDiagnosticUpdateSource _hostDiagnosticUpdateSourceOpt;

        [ImportingConstructor]
        public DiagnosticAnalyzerExecutor([Import(AllowDefault = true)]AbstractHostDiagnosticUpdateSource hostDiagnosticUpdateSource)
        {
            // hostDiagnosticUpdateSource can be null in unit test
            _hostDiagnosticUpdateSourceOpt = hostDiagnosticUpdateSource;
        }

        public IWorkspaceService CreateService(HostWorkspaceServices workspaceServices)
        {
            return new AnalyzerExecutor(_hostDiagnosticUpdateSourceOpt);
        }

        private class AnalyzerExecutor : ICodeAnalysisDiagnosticAnalyzerExecutor
        {
            private readonly AbstractHostDiagnosticUpdateSource _hostDiagnosticUpdateSourceOpt;

            // TODO: this should be removed once we move options down to compiler layer
            private readonly ConcurrentDictionary<string, ValueTuple<OptionSet, CustomAsset>> _lastOptionSetPerLanguage;

            public AnalyzerExecutor(AbstractHostDiagnosticUpdateSource hostDiagnosticUpdateSource)
            {
                _hostDiagnosticUpdateSourceOpt = hostDiagnosticUpdateSource;

                // currently option is a bit wierd since it is not part of snapshot and
                // we can't load all options without loading all language specific dlls.
                // we have tracking issue for this.
                // https://github.com/dotnet/roslyn/issues/13643
                _lastOptionSetPerLanguage = new ConcurrentDictionary<string, ValueTuple<OptionSet, CustomAsset>>();
            }

            public async Task<DiagnosticAnalysisResultMap<DiagnosticAnalyzer, DiagnosticAnalysisResult>> AnalyzeAsync(CompilationWithAnalyzers analyzerDriver, Project project, CancellationToken cancellationToken)
            {
                var workspace = project.Solution.Workspace;
                if (workspace.Options.GetOption(RemoteFeatureOptions.DiagnosticsEnabled))
                {
                    var service = project.Solution.Workspace.Services.GetService<IRemoteHostClientService>();
                    if (service != null)
                    {
                        var remoteHostClient = await service.TryGetRemoteHostClientAsync(cancellationToken).ConfigureAwait(false);
                        if (remoteHostClient != null)
                        {
                            // due to OpenFileOnly analyzer, we need to run inproc as well for such analyzers
                            var inProcResultTask = AnalyzeInProcAsync(CreateAnalyzerDriver(analyzerDriver, a => a.IsOpenFileOnly(project.Solution.Workspace)), project, cancellationToken);
                            var outOfProcResultTask = AnalyzeOutOfProcAsync(remoteHostClient, analyzerDriver, project, cancellationToken);

                            // run them concurrently in vs and remote host
                            await Task.WhenAll(inProcResultTask, outOfProcResultTask).ConfigureAwait(false);

                            // make sure things are not cancelled
                            cancellationToken.ThrowIfCancellationRequested();

                            // merge 2 results
                            return DiagnosticAnalysisResultMap.Create(
                                inProcResultTask.Result.AnalysisResult.AddRange(outOfProcResultTask.Result.AnalysisResult),
                                inProcResultTask.Result.TelemetryInfo.AddRange(outOfProcResultTask.Result.TelemetryInfo));
                        }
                    }
                }

                // host doesn't support RemoteHostService such as under unit test
                // remote host is not running. this can happen if remote host is disabled.
                return await AnalyzeInProcAsync(analyzerDriver, project, cancellationToken).ConfigureAwait(false);
            }

            private async Task<DiagnosticAnalysisResultMap<DiagnosticAnalyzer, DiagnosticAnalysisResult>> AnalyzeInProcAsync(
                CompilationWithAnalyzers analyzerDriver, Project project, CancellationToken cancellationToken)
            {
                if (analyzerDriver == null ||
                    analyzerDriver.Analyzers.Length == 0)
                {
                    // quick bail out
                    return DiagnosticAnalysisResultMap.Create(ImmutableDictionary<DiagnosticAnalyzer, DiagnosticAnalysisResult>.Empty, ImmutableDictionary<DiagnosticAnalyzer, AnalyzerTelemetryInfo>.Empty);
                }

                var version = await DiagnosticIncrementalAnalyzer.GetDiagnosticVersionAsync(project, cancellationToken).ConfigureAwait(false);

                // PERF: Run all analyzers at once using the new GetAnalysisResultAsync API.
                var analysisResult = await analyzerDriver.GetAnalysisResultAsync(cancellationToken).ConfigureAwait(false);

                // get compiler result builder map
                var builderMap = analysisResult.ToResultBuilderMap(project, version, analyzerDriver.Compilation, analyzerDriver.Analyzers, cancellationToken);

                return DiagnosticAnalysisResultMap.Create(builderMap.ToImmutableDictionary(kv => kv.Key, kv => new DiagnosticAnalysisResult(kv.Value)), analysisResult.AnalyzerTelemetryInfo);
            }

            private async Task<DiagnosticAnalysisResultMap<DiagnosticAnalyzer, DiagnosticAnalysisResult>> AnalyzeOutOfProcAsync(
                RemoteHostClient client, CompilationWithAnalyzers analyzerDriver, Project project, CancellationToken cancellationToken)
            {
                var solution = project.Solution;
                var snapshotService = solution.Workspace.Services.GetService<ISolutionSynchronizationService>();

                // TODO: this should be moved out
                var analyzerMap = CreateAnalyzerMap(analyzerDriver.Analyzers.Where(a => !a.IsOpenFileOnly(project.Solution.Workspace)));
                if (analyzerMap.Count == 0)
                {
                    return DiagnosticAnalysisResultMap.Create(ImmutableDictionary<DiagnosticAnalyzer, DiagnosticAnalysisResult>.Empty, ImmutableDictionary<DiagnosticAnalyzer, AnalyzerTelemetryInfo>.Empty);
                }

                var optionAsset = GetOptionsAsset(solution, project.Language, cancellationToken);

                var argument = new DiagnosticArguments(
                    analyzerDriver.AnalysisOptions.ReportSuppressedDiagnostics,
                    analyzerDriver.AnalysisOptions.LogAnalyzerExecutionTime,
                    project.Id, optionAsset.Checksum, analyzerMap.Keys.ToArray());

                using (var session = await client.TryCreateCodeAnalysisServiceSessionAsync(solution, cancellationToken).ConfigureAwait(false))
                {
                    if (session == null)
                    {
                        // session is not available
                        return DiagnosticAnalysisResultMap.Create(ImmutableDictionary<DiagnosticAnalyzer, DiagnosticAnalysisResult>.Empty, ImmutableDictionary<DiagnosticAnalyzer, AnalyzerTelemetryInfo>.Empty);
                    }

                    session.AddAdditionalAssets(optionAsset);

                    var result = await session.InvokeAsync(
                        WellKnownServiceHubServices.CodeAnalysisService_CalculateDiagnosticsAsync,
                        new object[] { argument },
                        (s, c) => GetCompilerAnalysisResultAsync(s, analyzerMap, project, c)).ConfigureAwait(false);

                    ReportAnalyzerExceptions(project, result.Exceptions);

                    return result;
                }
            }

            private CompilationWithAnalyzers CreateAnalyzerDriver(CompilationWithAnalyzers analyzerDriver, Func<DiagnosticAnalyzer, bool> predicate)
            {
                var analyzers = analyzerDriver.Analyzers.Where(predicate).ToImmutableArray();
                if (analyzers.Length == 0)
                {
                    // return null since we can't create CompilationWithAnalyzers with 0 analyzers
                    return null;
                }

                return analyzerDriver.Compilation.WithAnalyzers(analyzers, analyzerDriver.AnalysisOptions);
            }

            private CustomAsset GetOptionsAsset(Solution solution, string language, CancellationToken cancellationToken)
            {
                // TODO: we need better way to deal with options. optionSet itself is green node but
                //       it is not part of snapshot and can't save option to solution since we can't use language
                //       specific option without loading related language specific dlls
                var options = solution.Options;

                // we have cached options
                if (_lastOptionSetPerLanguage.TryGetValue(language, out var value) && value.Item1 == options)
                {
                    return value.Item2;
                }

                // otherwise, we need to build one.
                var assetBuilder = new CustomAssetBuilder(solution);
                var asset = assetBuilder.Build(options, language, cancellationToken);

                _lastOptionSetPerLanguage[language] = ValueTuple.Create(options, asset);
                return asset;
            }

            private async Task<DiagnosticAnalysisResultMap<DiagnosticAnalyzer, DiagnosticAnalysisResult>> GetCompilerAnalysisResultAsync(Stream stream, Dictionary<string, DiagnosticAnalyzer> analyzerMap, Project project, CancellationToken cancellationToken)
            {
                // handling of cancellation and exception
                var version = await DiagnosticIncrementalAnalyzer.GetDiagnosticVersionAsync(project, cancellationToken).ConfigureAwait(false);

                using (var reader = ObjectReader.TryGetReader(stream))
                {
                    Debug.Assert(reader != null,
    @"We only ge a reader for data transmitted between live processes.
This data should always be correct as we're never persisting the data between sessions.");
                    return DiagnosticResultSerializer.Deserialize(reader, analyzerMap, project, version, cancellationToken);
                }
            }

            private void ReportAnalyzerExceptions(Project project, ImmutableDictionary<DiagnosticAnalyzer, ImmutableArray<DiagnosticData>> exceptions)
            {
                foreach (var kv in exceptions)
                {
                    var analyzer = kv.Key;
                    foreach (var diagnostic in kv.Value)
                    {
                        _hostDiagnosticUpdateSourceOpt?.ReportAnalyzerDiagnostic(analyzer, diagnostic, project);
                    }
                }
            }

            private Dictionary<string, DiagnosticAnalyzer> CreateAnalyzerMap(IEnumerable<DiagnosticAnalyzer> analyzers)
            {
                // TODO: this needs to be cached. we can have 300+ analyzers
                return analyzers.ToDictionary(a => a.GetAnalyzerIdAndVersion().Item1, a => a);
            }
        }
    }
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


The Mahindra Treo electric tuk-tuk has launched in Sri Lanka, it is the first-ever electric three-wheeler in Sri Lanka. The electric tuk-tuk is priced at just below a million rupees and can travel up to 130 kilometres in one charge. Mahindra & Mahindra Ltd anticipates utilising Sri Lanka as a model to promote the vehicle in several states in India. For more information see the IDTechEx report on Micro EVs, e-Bikes, e Scooters, e Motorbikes, Mobility for Disabled 2018-2028.
Zero tail-pipe emission: Zero pollution and noiseless drive, making Treo environment friendly.
Global battery technology: Zero maintenance, lithium-ion battery for more than 5 years of life.
Cloud based mobility platform: Remote monitoring of range, speed, location and more for Next Generation Mobility (NEMO) is an optional feature available only in Treo) and efficient utilisation of fleet.
Quick charging: It is as simple as charging a mobile phone. Just 3 hours & 50 min for a 130 km range for Treo & 2 hours & 30 min for an 85 km range for Treo Yaari. A top up during lunch break can add over 32 km to the range.
Regenerative braking system: Kinetic energy generated on braking is fed back into the battery, thereby ensuring minimum wastage of energy.


In 2014, 14-week-old staffie Ivy ingested a tiny amount of her owner's e-juice. Despite him rushing her to a vet within minutes, she was unable to pull through and passed away a few hours later. The cause of death? Nicotine poisoning.
Ivy didn't drink the liquid, she simply pierced its container with her teeth. If such a small amount of nicotine ingested can cause such damage, then can we be sure that nicotine inhaled by pets from their owners' second-hand vapor is not harmful?
Is e-cigarette vapor harmful to pets?
What are the symptoms of nicotine poisoning in pets?
What to do if you suspect your pet has nicotine poisoning?
E-cigarette retailers say that vaping is only dangerous for pets if they ingest e-juice. However, according to the principles of toxicology, any poisonous compound is harmful in large amounts, and the definition of 'large amounts' is relative to the size of the organism ingesting the toxic substance.
So, can we be certain that the amount of nicotine in second-hand vapor is not harmful to pets?
Even though studies are not unanimous, the prevailing sentiment is that e-cigarettes are less harmful than normal cigarettes. That said, e-cigarettes haven't been around for long enough to allow us to objectively evaluate the long-term effects of second-hand vapor on people and pet health. After all, when smoking was first growing in popularity in the 40s and 50s, even medical doctors endorsed it by often appearing in cigarettes ads.
Regardless of the lack of scientific proof that e-cigarettes vapor is harmful for pets, we should remember that nicotine is a poison and despite the delivery system – ingested or inhaled – large amounts of it can be toxic; and for a small animal, a very small amount can be enough to cause harm.
First and foremost, always keep your e-cigarette items, eg e-juice cartridges, somewhere your pets can't find them. Remember that even the smallest drop of e-juice can be toxic to your pet, so don't refill your e-cigarette or change its cartridge when your pets are around. And never charge your e-cigarette somewhere you pets can find it.
Try to vape when you're pets are not around, and if you really can't get away and must vape in their presence, try to do it near a window and don't exhale the vapor in their direction.
Dogs are attracted to the smell and tend to chase after the clouds of vapor released. Cats have a well-known intolerance to PG or propylene glycol, a substance often used in certain types of e-cigarette liquid. PG can cause severe anaemia in cats, so if you have a cat, go for VG e-juice if you can.
Nicotine acts quickly, so if your pet is ever poisoned by nicotine, you will observe one, or more, of the above symptoms within an hour. The symptoms may be mild to severe, depending on the dose inhaled or ingested.
Call your vet or an emergency veterinary clinic. If both of those are out of reach, take your pet to the nearest veterinary surgery.
If your pet has ingested e-juice and has an upset stomach, avoid giving him or her antacids as they might exacerbate the toxic effects of the nicotine.
A lot of people swear by the harmlessness of e-cigarettes, while just as many are concerned that the vapor released during vaping contains enough toxic substances to harm human and pet health. A 2015 press release by the department of Public Health in England deemed e-cigarettes 95% less harmful than smoking but many experts disagree.
As to the validity of both opinions – the jury is out. But, if you are of the 'better-safe-than-sorry' school of thought you might feel compelled to reconsider vaping in the presence of your pets, purely for the peace of mind of knowing that your furry companions are safe and sound.
The US shop Vape Craft has created a comprehensive guide to all the nicotine products that can be toxic to pets.


text:
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Cost of Owning an Electric Vehicle in Singapore
The Electric Vehicle revolution is well and truly underway, with major car manufacturers all over the world pledging to go green and discontinue the production of internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles in the next 20 years.
Similarly in Singapore, the Government's "Singapore Green Plan 2030" outlines a slew of nationwide initiatives to advance the country's national agenda on sustainable development.
These initiatives outline a number of ambitious goals for the transport industry, including further support for electric vehicle adoption. These include a target of 60,000 EV charging points by 2030, revisions in the road tax structure for EVs and the ceasing of new diesel car and taxi registrations by 2025.
Additionally, with the Electric Vehicle Early Adoption Incentive (EEAI) and enhanced VES scheme, drivers can enjoy up to $45,000 in rebate, which is another positive move by the Government to encourage EV adoption.
But even with all these plans, how much would it actually cost to own an EV in Singapore?
In this article, we'll take a look at the 3 different costs for drivers – maintenance, petrol and road tax.
How Expensive are EVs in Singapore?
Electric vehicles tend to be more expensive than ICE vehicles due to the cost of materials used to build an electric car, cost of development and basic economies of scale.
So how much you'll have to fork out for the car will usually be higher and dependant on the brand and model you choose. While you will be eligible for up to $45,000 in rebates, some EVs are still quite expensive.
Right now, the most affordable fully electric car is the BYD e6, an amazing option that offers excellent value for money and the only EV in the Category A COE.
While the initial costs might be higher than the average ICE models, you will definitely save on your annual running costs like maintenance and petrol.
Unlike ICE vehicles, there are fewer moving parts built into an electric car which make them more reliable.
The electric motor is a simple machine and consists of roughly half a dozen moving parts. So there's no oil to change, gaskets to replace or valves to clog up. There's no need to replace your spark plugs, fluids or any of the typical consumables.
As such, there's less wear and tear of components and the electric motor requires a lot less maintenance than the conventional engine, which reduces a lot of costs. The total cost an EV owner can expect to save is around 40% to 50% of the normal maintenance cost of ICE cars.
So if you typically spend around $1,000 – $1,500 a year on maintenance, you can expect to save $500 – $750 a year when you switch to an EV.
Petrol Costs
One of the biggest costs drivers will incur every year will be for petrol. These costs will definitely defer from driver to driver as it depends on how much you actually drive, and the current cost of petrol.
On average, Singaporeans drive around 20,000KM a year. With that in mind, you can expect to fork out around $3,260 on petrol every year.
For EV owners, the annual amount you'll spend on charging will minimally be halved. The amount you'll spend will depend on how you charge your EV as prices differ from Commercial charging stations, Public charging and charging at Home.
Here's a breakdown of annual charging costs based on where you charge, using the BYD e6 as an example.
70% home charging & 30% DC public charging S$ 902
70% commercial charging & 30% DC public charging S$ 842
70% DC public charging, 30% commercial charging S$ 1,441
Furthermore, your cost of charging will also be affected by the energy price at the time and the type of EV you own. So the costs will differ, and it might be higher or lower depending on your car.
For years, the road tax for electric cars has always been higher than ICE cars. So EV owners can expect to pay anywhere from a few tens of dollars to a few hundred dollars more a year when they make the switch.
Using the BYD e6 as an example, road tax will cost on average $1,246 a year while your typical ICE model will cost around $1,200 a year. That's $46 more a year, or $460 over the cost of 10 years, which is that much more.
Especially if you take into account the savings you'll get from your maintenance and petrol costs, it pretty much pays for itself in the first year.
Additionally, from 2022, road tax for mass-market electric cars will be lowered, which will make it on par with similar ICE models.
The bracket for 90kW to 230kW cars will be merged with the 30kW to 90kW band, which amounts to up to 34% in reduction of road tax payable for electric cars in this band.
So How Much Can You Save Over the Course of 10 Years?
One of the biggest draws of EVs is the cost savings. When you add the cost of maintenance, petrol, road tax, and even insurance, the difference in costs becomes more obvious.
Using the BYD e6 as an example, switching to an EV can save you up to $30,000 over the course of 10 years. That's a whole lot of money! That's money you could use for the more important things in your life like your kids' school fees, a holiday, or just for building your nest egg.
If you're looking to make the switch to an EV, the BYD e6 is definitely an electric car you should consider. With 522KM of range on the super safe BYD Blade Battery, fast charging capabilities at just 40mins to go from 20% – 80% on a DC Charger and 1 hour on an AC Charger, there's no better option out there!
3 Things to Consider Before Buying an Electric Car
What's the Difference Between AC and DC Charging?
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text:
A teen gamer is forced to level up to full-time babysitter when his favorite video game drops three superpowered infants from space into his backyard.
Genre: Animation, Comedy, Family, Science Fiction
Director: Cory Edwards
Actors: Amari McCoy, Dwyane Wade, Fat Joe, Gabrielle Union, Leyon Azubuike, Miles Robbins, Yara Shahidi
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In Ancient Polynesia, when a terrible curse incurred by Maui reaches an impetuous Chieftain's daughter's island, she answers the Ocean's call to seek out the demigod to set things right.
Genre: Adventure, Animation, Comedy, Family, Fantasy, Musical
Thor: Tales of Asgard
Hungry for adventure, Thor secretly embarks on the journey of a lifetime, joined by his loyal brother Loki, whose budding sorcery equips him with just enough magic to conjure up…
Genre: Action, Adventure, Animation, Fantasy, Science Fiction
A retired pop singer turned actress' sense of reality is shaken when she is stalked by an obsessed fan and seemingly a ghost of her past.
Genre: Animation, Horror, Mystery, Thriller
A neurotic worker ant in love with a rebellious princess rises to unlikely stardom when he switches places with a soldier. Signing up to march in a parade, he ends…
A Grand Day Out
Wallace and Gromit have run out of cheese and this provides an excellent excuse for the animated duo to take their holiday on the moon, where, as everyone knows, there…
Genre: Adventure, Animation, Comedy, Family, Science Fiction, Short
Set in 1879 Paris. An orphan girl dreams of becoming a ballerina and flees her rural Brittany for Paris, where she passes for someone else and accedes to the position…
Country: Canada, France
Genre: Adventure, Animation, Comedy, Family, Music
Garden gnomes, Gnomeo & Juliet, recruit renown detective, Sherlock Gnomes, to investigate the mysterious disappearance of other garden ornaments.
Country: Belgium, Canada, France, India, UK, USA
Genre: Adventure, Animation, Comedy, Family, Fantasy, Mystery, Romance
Elliot: The Littlest Reindeer
When Blitzen announces his retirement on December 21st, a miniature horse has 3 days to fulfill his lifelong dream of earning a spot on Santa's team at the North Pole…
Tom and Jerry & The Wizard of Oz
They're off to see the Wizard, the wonderful Wizard of Oz! Tom and Jerry soar over the rainbow and travel down the yellow brick road in this all-animated retelling of…
Ella Bella Bingo
Ella Bella Bingo and Henry are best friends, but one day a new boy moves into the neighbourhood and everything changes.
As Batman hunts for the escaped Joker, the Clown Prince of Crime attacks the Gordon family to prove a diabolical point mirroring his own fall into madness.
Genre: Action, Animation, Crime, Drama, Thriller
The Gruffalo's Child
A follow up to the 2009 animated feature and adapted from the childrens' book by Julia Donaldson and Alex Scheffler. The Gruffalo's child explores the deep dark wood in search…
Country: Germany, UK
Genre: Animation, Family, Short
Trailer: Fearless
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text:
News Disney mask policy at Walt Disney World theme parks
Thread starter wdwmagic
Have you ever worn an N95? They're miserable.
I haven't. Didn't know that, I have a N95 respirator for my air paint sprayer and that's pretty miserable though.
Tony the Tigger
I noticed you smartly brought N95 masks which brings up a question…are N95 masks readily available now?
They are infinitely superior to cloth masks and offer protection to the wearer and those around them, compared to cloth masks which primarily protect those around the wearer. I'd think someone wearing an N95 mask, even if no one else was masked, would be safer than everyone wearing cloth masks.
Guess my question is have we ramped up production over the last year to the point that anyone who wants an N95 can get one? If not why not? If so why are we stil pushing clothe masks and not pushing N95 masks since they are vastly superior?
Mine say KN95. I still have never figured out for certain if that's the same as N95, but it's all I've ever worn from the beginning.
As far as those go, in the beginning, I was paying $6 each if I could find them. (Someone on this board actually sent me some, which was helpful.) Eventually, I was able to buy boxes of 100 for $50 each at wholesale, and sell them in my store for $2.99. So yes, they became more readily available and affordable.
They aren't miserable at all; in fact, the shape is easier on the nose.
Reactions: Vegas Disney Fan
Sirwalterraleigh
Kn95 is the Chinese rating designation that is pretty close to N95
…other countries have similar ratings…a lot of the kn95s in the US don't come directly from China (like everything sold in Walmart and/or made with Disney characters on it)…but rather through South Korea. Weird.
Reactions: Bullseye1967, Tony the Tigger, Ayla and 2 others
LittleBuford
I would rather never again visit Walt Disney World for the rest of my life than wear a mask for ANY part of the trip.
You can think that is weird or extreme. That's okay. I think a lot of views about masks here, especially from the "it's just a piece of cloth, big deal" crowd are weird or extreme. But that's how I feel.
I won't be back at WDW before masks are gone. Fortunately, I still feel strongly that we are only weeks away from that happening.
I don't find masks much of an imposition and I wear them whenever I'm indoors, but I too refuse to return to Disney until I can go without a face covering (though I suspect we have different reasons for feeling as we do). No-one here, as far as I can recall, has suggested that those of us who feel this way are being weird or extreme. Rather, it's the complaints about the mask requirements that some find overblown.
Reactions: mellyf, ImperfectPixie, Chip Chipperson and 2 others
Chi84 said:
Great. Vaccinated people who don't need to are wearing N95 masks. That'll help.
Why is that an issue for you, though? As long as no-one is telling you to follow suit, why does it bother you?
Reactions: Tony the Tigger
Chi84
LittleBuford said:
It doesn't. I just find it telling that the people who are being most cautious are the least likely to be causing a problem.
Reactions: Vegas Disney Fan, Sirwalterraleigh and Tony the Tigger
I plan to wear an N95 mask on what'll be my first flight since the pandemic later this month. It'll make me feel safer, and that's all that matters to me. I don't view myself as helping (or hindering) the overall fight; I'm just doing what I can to remain halfway happy and sane during this miserable pandemic.
Reactions: Vegas Disney Fan, ImperfectPixie, Tony the Tigger and 1 other person
I plan to wear an N95 mask on what'll be my first flight since the pandemic later this month. It'll make me feel safer, and that's all that matters to me. My being (arguably) overcautious doesn't change the bigger picture at all.
Would you agree, though, that if you are fully vaccinated and are also taking the further precaution of wearing an N95 mask, the gold standard for mask protection, that you shouldn't really be concerned with whether or not those around you are wearing a mask?
As I understand it, the gold standard is a properly fitted N95 mask, which I really can't claim mine will be. Still, I'm happy to agree with your statement on an intellectual level, but that doesn't change the fact that I am too scared at present to be among unmasked people (except for close friends whose vaccination status I can be certain of). What happened to my father has left me more concerned than I otherwise might have been.
Reactions: mellyf, ImperfectPixie, Angel Ariel and 2 others
If you're wearing an N95 mask to protect yourself that's great. But if you're wearing one to protect others or avoid spreading the virus, don't you want to know how much more effective that actually is? I mean over being triple vaccinated?
I think that's fair and I respect the fact that you can acknowledge that your approach is being driven more by emotion than intellectual argument right now. And I think it is totally reasonable in your situation. I just hope that you can understand, intellectually if not emotionally, why some other people might feel differently.
For me, I have had Covid plus have been fully vaccinated. So I have natural immunity boosted by the vaccine. In my situation, I am comfortable taking certain risks and believing that my risk level is relatively low. For me, being unmasked and being around other unmasked people doesn't bother me.
I think if we could just get to the point where we can acknowledge the legitimate disagreement on both sides, and not that you're either a religious mask cultist or an anti-science Covid denier, we'd be better off.
Reactions: sullyinMT and DisneyCane
If you're wearing an N95 mask to protect yourself that's great. But if you're wearing one to protect others or avoid spreading the virus, don't you want to know how effective that actually is?
The CDC recommends that vaccinated people continue to wear masks indoors to slow the spread of the Delta variant in areas of substantial or high transmission. That guidance must be based on something, though I do wish the relevant studies were foregrounded on the CDC website.
Reactions: Angel Ariel and Tony the Tigger
My honest opinion is that the CDC believes that fully vaccinated people are at low enough risk to go without masks. Hence their guidance earlier this year. However, when they issued that guidance, unvaccinated people threw away the masks as well. I think the CDC went back to recommending that everyone mask up because they felt that's the only way they could get unvaccinated people to do it.
Reactions: TeriofTerror, mellyf, danv3 and 6 others
I agree the debate has become overly divisive and vituperative. I think we need to start recognising each other's humanity and stop imagining that our own opinions and experiences are representative of what most people think or should think.
Reactions: Angel Ariel, Vegas Disney Fan and Tom P.
Perhaps there's some truth to that. As someone who would continue masking anyway and never stopped masking even when the CDC said I could, I suppose I just accept the current guidance at face value (no pun intended).
Reactions: ImperfectPixie, Sirwalterraleigh and Tom P.
In my situation, I am comfortable taking certain risks and believing that my risk level is relatively low. For me, being unmasked and being around other unmasked people doesn't bother me.
I wonder how much our comfort level is based on our situations, I work in a casino and have been surrounded by literally hundreds of unmasked people most days since March, I qualified to get my first shot before we reopened but those first few weeks were pretty terrifying knowing I wasn't fully vaccinated yet. NV has mask mandates but with most people drinking and/or smoking not many people are wearing them very often.
Seven months of daily exposure to maskless people and (knock on wood) my Pfizer vaccine and my immune system have done their job. My guess is I'm exposed to Covid most days and I've even worked with unvaccinated coworkers who got sick (fortunately none serious) and despite working side by side with them for hours I didn't get sick.
Because of this I have absolutely no concern being around unmasked people, I'm around them all day, but if I worked at home or in a small office isolated from people I suspect my comfort level would likely be very different.
Reactions: Tom P. and helenabear
HairyChest
Get your popcorn ready kids. Monday will be a very interesting day.
Reactions: TehPuddingMan
bdearl41
Wait the concept of using actual data to make decisions. Nah, not into it. Arbitrary rules for all.
Reactions: yonafunu and Tony the Tigger
CaptainAmerica
The CDC recommending masks indoors to slow the spread in areas of Substantial or High transmission is not the problem. The problem is that they defined "Substantial" so hilariously low that pretty much EVERYWHERE is considered "Substantial."
Reactions: danv3, Vegas Disney Fan, threvester and 2 others
The Mom said:
IMO, if WDW only had FL residents visiting, there would be no need to mask. But I see a whole lot of red on that map, and those people may be coming to FL and WDW in particular..
I can understand this perspective. However, tourists are visiting many other destinations in FL from those red areas and none of them require masks, including the extremely similar crowded theme park environments down I-4.
Also, the majority of out of state visitors to WDW are coming from the northeast where, even though they are "red" for community transmission, it's still under 0.3% of the population testing positive weekly AND the people coming from those states are even more likely to be vaccinated than FL residents.
Sirwalterraleigh said:
you also were very local in early 2020 about how "great" Florida was doing. And that turned out to be "not correct"
The map was flipped about 4 months ago, Mom…so I'm not sure they have anything figured out. That there looks like a pattern from NATURE.
At least you have acknowledged that the spread of COVID (or any virus) is a natural phenomenon and follows a naturally occurring outbreak curve.
In early 2020 I never used the word "great" to describe anything. Very early on when we were led to believe that 15, then 47 days to slow the spread would lead to cases going to zero, the cases in FL appeared to be headed that way. FL was mostly "locking down" at the time. After that period, I would compare FL's "numbers" to other states with much more strict "mitigation" and point out that FL was around average and that the amount "better" the states like NY and CA were doing was not significant enough to justify the drastically different mitigation philosophy.
Reactions: Vegas Disney Fan, DisneyDave71 and Tony the Tigger