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How Well Have Climate Models Projected Global Warming?
Written by Zeke Hausfather, Carbon Brief
Scientists have been making projections of future global warming using climate models of increasing complexity for the past four decades.
These models, driven by atmospheric physics and biogeochemistry, play an important role in our understanding of the Earth's climate and how it will likely change in the future.
Carbon Brief has collected prominent climate model projections since 1973 to see how well they project both past and future global temperatures, as shown in the animation below. (Click the play button to start.)
While some models projected less warming than we've experienced and some projected more, all showed surface temperature increases between 1970 and 2016 that were not too far off from what actually occurred, particularly when differences in assumed future emissions are taken into account.
How have past climate models fared?
While climate model projections of the past benefit from knowledge of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations, volcanic eruptions and other radiative forcings affecting the Earth's climate, casting forward into the future is understandably more uncertain. Climate models can be evaluated both on their ability to hindcast past temperatures and forecast future ones.
Hindcasts – testing models against past temperatures – are useful because they can control for radiative forcings. Forecasts are useful because models cannot be implicitly tuned to be similar to observations. Climate models are not fit to historical temperatures, but modellers do have some knowledge of observations that can inform their choice of model parameterisations, such as cloud physics and aerosol effects.
In the examples below, climate model projections published between 1973 and 2013 are compared with observed temperatures from five different organizations. The models used in the projections vary in complexity, from simple energy balance models to fully-coupled Earth System Models.
(Note, these model/observation comparisons use a baseline period of 1970-1990 to align observations and models during the early years of the analysis, which shows how temperatures have evolved over time more clearly.)
Sawyer, 1973
One of the first projections of future warming came from John Sawyer at the UK's Met Office in 1973. In a paper published in Nature in 1973, he hypothesised that the world would warm 0.6C between 1969 and 2000, and that atmospheric CO2 would increase by 25%. Sawyer argued for a climate sensitivity – how much long-term warming will occur per doubling of atmospheric CO2 levels – of 2.4C, which is not too far off the best estimate of 3C used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) today.
Unlike the other projections examined in this article, Sawyer did not provide an estimated warming for each year, just an expected 2000 value. His warming estimate of 0.6C was nearly spot on – the observed warming over that period was between 0.51C and 0.56C. He overestimated the year 2000's atmospheric CO2 concentrations, however, assuming that they would be 375-400ppm – compared to the actual value of 370ppm.
Broecker, 1975
The first available projection of future temperatures due to global warming appeared in an article in Science in 1975 published by Columbia University scientist Prof Wally Broecker. Broecker used a simple energy balance model to estimate what would happen to the Earth's temperature if atmospheric CO2 continued to increase rapidly after 1975. Broecker's projected warming was reasonably close to observations for a few decades, but recently has been considerably higher.
This is mostly due to Broecker overestimating how CO2 emissions and atmospheric concentrations would increase after his article was published. He was fairly accurate up to 2000, predicting 373ppm of CO2 – compared to actual Mauna Loa observations of 370ppm. In 2016, however, he estimated that CO2 would be 424ppm, whereas only 404 pm has been observed.
Broecker also did not take other greenhouse gases into account in his model. However, as the warming impact from methane, nitrous oxide and halocarbons has been largely cancelled out by the overall cooling influence of aerosols since 1970, this does not make that large a difference (though estimates of aerosol forcings have large uncertainties).
As with Sawyer, Broecker used an equilibrium climate sensitivity of 2.4C per doubling of CO2. Broecker assumed that the Earth instantly warms up to match atmospheric CO2, while modern models account for the lag between how quickly the atmosphere and oceans warm up. (The slower heat uptake by the oceans is often referred to as the "thermal inertia" of the climate system.)
You can see his projection (black line) compared to observed temperature rise (coloured lines) in the chart below.
Projected warming from Broecker 1975 (thick black line) compared to observational temperature records from NASA, NOAA, HadCRUT, Cowtan and Way, and Berkeley Earth (thin colored lines) from 1970 to 2020. Baseline period of 1970-1990. Chart by Carbon Brief using Highcharts.
Broecker made his projection at a time when scientists widely thought that the observations showed a modest cooling of the Earth. He began his article by presciently stating that "a strong case can be made that the present cooling trend will, within a decade or so, give way to a pronounced warming induced by carbon dioxide".
Hansen et al, 1981
NASA's Dr James Hansen and colleagues published a paper in 1981 that also used a simple energy balance model to project future warming, but accounted for thermal inertia due to ocean heat uptake. They assumed a climate sensitivity of 2.8C per doubling CO2, but also looked at a range of 1.4-5.6C per doubling.
Projected warming from Hansen et al 1981 (fast growth–thick black line–and slow growth–thin grey line). Chart by Carbon Brief using Highcharts.
Hansen and colleagues presented a number of different scenarios, varying future emissions and climate sensitivity. In the chart above, you can see both the "fast-growth" scenario (thick black line), where CO2 emissions increase by 4% annually after 1981, and a slow-growth scenario where emissions increase by 2% annually (thin grey line). The fast-growth scenario somewhat overestimates current emissions, but when combined with a slightly lower climate sensitivity it provides an estimate of early-2000s warming close to observed values.
The overall rate of warming between 1970 and 2016 projected by Hansen et al in 1981 in the fast-growth scenario has been about 20% lower than observations.
The paper published by Hansen and colleagues in 1988 represented one of the first modern climate models. It divided the world into discrete grid cells of eight degrees latitude by 10 degrees longitude, with nine vertical layers of the atmosphere. It included aerosols, various greenhouse gases in addition to CO2, and basic cloud dynamics.
Hansen et al presented three different scenarios associated with different future greenhouse gas emissions. Scenario B is shown in the chart below as a thick black line, while scenarios A and C are shown by thin grey lines. Scenario A had exponential growth in emissions, with CO2 and other GHG concentrations considerably higher than today.
Projected warming from Hansen et al 1988 (scenario B–thick black line–and scenarios A and C–thin solid and dashed grey lines). Chart by Carbon Brief using Highcharts.
Scenario B assumed a gradual slowdown in CO2 emissions, but had concentrations of 401ppm in 2016 that were pretty close to the 404ppm observed. However, scenario B assumed the continued growth of emissions of various halocarbons that are powerful greenhouse gases, but were subsequently restricted under the Montreal Protocol of 1987. Scenario C had emissions going to near-zero after the year 2000.
Of the three, scenario B was closest to actual radiative forcing, though still about 10% too high. Hansen et al also used a model with a climate sensitivity of 4.2C per doubling CO2 – on the high end of most modern climate models. Due to the combination of these factors, scenario B projected a rate of warming between 1970 and 2016 that was approximately 30% higher than what has been observed.
IPCC First Assessment Report, 1990
The IPCC's First Assessment Report (FAR) in 1990 featured relatively simple energy balance/upwelling diffusion ocean models to estimate changes in global air temperatures. Their featured business-as-usual (BAU) scenario assumed rapid growth of atmospheric CO2, reaching 418ppm CO2 in 2016, compared to 404ppm in observations. The FAR also assumed continued growth of atmospheric halocarbon concentrations much faster than has actually occurred.
The FAR gave a best estimate of climate sensitivity as 2.5C warming for doubled CO2, with a range of 1.5-4.5C. These estimates are applied to the BAU scenario in the figure below, with the thick black line representing the best estimate and the thin dashed black lines representing the high and low end of the climate sensitivity range.
Projected warming from the IPCC First Assessment Report (mean projection–thick black line, with upper and lower bounds shown by thin dotted black lines). Chart by Carbon Brief using Highcharts.
Despite a best estimate of climate sensitivity a tad lower than the 3C used today, the FAR overestimated the rate of warming between 1970 and 2016 by around 17% in their BAU scenario, showing 1C warming over that period vs 0.85C observed. This is mostly due to the projection of much higher atmospheric CO2 concentrations than has actually occurred.
IPCC Second Assessment Report, 1995
The IPCC's Second Assessment Report (SAR) only published readily-available projections from 1990 onward. They used a climate sensitivity of 2.5C, with a range of 1.5-4.5C. Their mid-range emissions scenario, "IS92a", projected CO2 levels of 405ppm in 2016, nearly identical to observed concentrations. SAR also included much better treatment of anthropogenic aerosols, which have a cooling effect on the climate.
Projected warming from the IPCC Second Assessment Report (mean projection–thick black line, with upper and lower bounds shown by thin dotted black lines). Chart by Carbon Brief using Highcharts.
As you can see in the chart above, SAR's projections ended up being notably lower than observations, warming about 28% more slowly over the period from 1990 to 2016. This was likely due to a combination of two factors: a lower climate sensitivity than found in modern estimates (2.5C vs. 3C) and an overestimate of the radiative forcing of CO2 (4.37 watts per square meter versus 3.7 used in the subsequent IPCC report and still used today).
IPCC Third Assessment Report, 2001
The IPCC Third Assessment Report (TAR) relied on atmosphere-ocean general circulation models (GCMs) from seven different modeling groups. They also introduced a new set of socioeconomic emission scenarios, called SRES, which included four different future emission trajectories.
Here, Carbon Brief examines the A2 scenario, though all have fairly similar emissions and warming trajectories up to 2020. The A2 scenario projected a 2016 atmospheric CO2 concentration of 406 ppm, nearly the same as what was observed. The SRES scenarios were from 2000 onward, with models prior to the year 2000 using estimated historical forcings. The dashed grey line in the figure above shows the point at which models transition from using observed emissions and concentrations to projected future ones.
Projected warming from the IPCC Third Assessment Report (mean projection–thick black line, with upper and lower bounds shown by thin dotted black lines). Chart by Carbon Brief using Highcharts.
TAR's headline projection used a simple climate model that was configured to match the average outputs of seven more sophisticated GCMs, as no specific multimodel average was published in TAR and data for individual model runs are not readily available. It has a climate sensitivity of 2.8C per doubling CO2, with a range of 1.5-4.5C. As shown in the chart above, the rate of warming between 1970 and 2016 in the TAR was about 14% lower than what has actually been observed.
IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, 2007
The IPCC's Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) featured models with significantly improved atmospheric dynamics and model resolution. It made greater use of Earth System Models – which incorporate the biogeochemistry of carbon cycles – as well as improved simulations of land surface and ice processes.
AR4 used the same SRES scenarios as the TAR, with historical emissions and atmospheric concentrations up to the year 2000 and projections thereafter. Models used in AR4 had a mean climate sensitivity of 3.26C, with a range of 2.1C to 4.4C.
Projected warming from the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (mean projection–thick black line, two-sigma upper and lower bounds shown by thin dotted black lines). Chart by Carbon Brief using Highcharts.
The figure above shows model runs for the A1B scenario (which is the only scenario with model runs readily available, though its 2016 CO2 concentrations are nearly identical to those of the A2 scenario). AR4 projections between 1970 and 2016 show warming quite close to observations, only 8% higher.
IPCC Fifth Assessment Report, 2013
The most recent IPCC report – the Fifth Assessment (AR5) – featured additional refinements on climate models, as well as a modest reduction in future model uncertainty compared to AR4. The climate models in the latest IPCC report were part of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project 5 (CMIP5), where dozens of different modeling groups all around the world ran climate models using the same set of inputs and scenarios.
Projected warming from the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (mean projection–thick black line, two-sigma upper and lower bounds shown by thin dotted black lines). Dashed black line shows blended model fields. Chart by Carbon Brief using Highcharts.
AR5 introduced a new set of future greenhouse gas concentration scenarios, known as the Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs). These have future projections from 2006 onwards, with historical data prior to 2006. The grey dashed line in the figure above shows where models transition from using observed forcings to projected future forcings.
Comparing these models with observations can be a somewhat tricky exercise. The most often used fields from climate models are global surface air temperatures. However, observed temperatures come from surface air temperatures over land and sea surface temperatures over the ocean.
To account for this, more recently, researchers have created blended model fields, which include sea surface temperatures over the oceans and surface air temperatures over land, in order to match what is actually measured in the observations. These blended fields, shown by the dashed line in the figure above, show slightly less warming than global surface air temperatures, as models have the air over the ocean warming faster than sea surface temperatures in recent years.
Global surface air temperatures in CMIP5 models have warmed about 16% faster than observations since 1970. About 40% of this difference is due to air temperatures over the ocean warming faster than sea surface temperatures in the models; blended model fields only show warming 9% faster than observations.
A recent paper in Nature by Iselin Medhaug and colleagues suggests that the remainder of the divergence can be accounted for by a combination of short-term natural variability (mainly in the Pacific Ocean), small volcanoes and lower-than-expected solar output that was not included in models in their post-2005 projections.
Below is a summary of all the models Carbon Brief has looked at. The table below shows the difference in the rate of warming between each model or set of models and NASA's temperature observations. All the observational temperature records are fairly similar, but NASA's is among the group that includes more complete global coverage in recent years and is thus more directly comparable to climate model data.
* SAR trend differences are calculated over the period from 1990-2016, as estimates prior to 1990 are not readily available.
# Differences in parenthesis based on blended model land/ocean fields
Climate models published since 1973 have generally been quite skillful in projecting future warming. While some were too low and some too high, they all show outcomes reasonably close to what has actually occurred, especially when discrepancies between predicted and actual CO2 concentrations and other climate forcings are taken into account.
Models are far from perfect and will continue to be improved over time. They also show a fairly large range of future warming that cannot easily be narrowed using just the changes in climate that we have observed.
Nevertheless, the close match between projected and observed warming since 1970 suggests that estimates of future warming may prove similarly accurate.
Environmental scientist Dana Nuccitelli helpfully provided a list of past model/observation comparisons, available here. The PlotDigitizer software was used to obtain values from older figures when data was not otherwise available. CMIP3 and CMIP5 model data was obtained from KNMI Climate Explorer.
This article originally appeared on Carbon Brief
Zeke Hausfather covers research in climate science and energy with a US focus. Zeke has masters degrees in environmental science from Yale University and Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, and is completing a PhD in climate science at University of California, Berkeley. He has spent the past 10 years working as a data scientist and entrepreneur in the cleantech sector.
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Xplorealms Ltd
www.xplorealms.com
Xplorealms is launching the world's first educational mobile games app, offering fact checked and inclusive subjects aligned with the British National Curriculum, through mini-games, AI and AR, for 7-14 year olds.
We have developed our MVP History Realm, featuring the Tudors and will launch in the app store in July 2021. This will be followed by other subject realms including Geography - Climate Change, Physics – Solar System, English – A Midsummer Night's Dream, Biology – Cells, Art & Design – Vincent Van Gogh, Modern languages – Arabic amongst others.
Our app is awe inspiring as it revolutionises the way children learn and focuses on;
•	fostering a love of learning through play
•	enhances the way children learn and retain knowledge
•	democratises high quality, creative and immersive education as it's free for children
•	enables children to learn at their own pace in any corner of the world
•	offers a fact checked inclusive curriuclum
In the UK there are 7m children under the age of 16yrs. 39% struggle, or are disengaged, with traditional learning. The National Curriculum is too exam driven and test based. Private tutors are expensive. Teachers are left with little time to produce creative lessons. There is low academic performance in areas of deprivation. This is in contrast to immersive technologies and mobiles games that children are growing up with.
In December 2018, mother of three, Reedah El-Saie, developed the idea for Xplorealms. The educational mobile games app evolved as a direct response to the growing numbers of children suffering low mental health issues over academic performance.
Xplorealms provides a fun and creative way for children to engage with, and be inspired by, learning through play with a focus on 21st century skills. Covid 19 and #BLM increased demand for Xplorealms.
Xplorealms has the potential to revolutionise the way children learn. During beta testing sessions in the park with over 150 children, as well as at independent and state schools, children, parents and teachers were excited to learn through game play. Teachers were astounded at the amount of content that was available collapsed into 15 minute bite size immersive games, which could be set as homework. We are developing various research studies to evaluate impact.
EdTech disruptor
Xplorealms has no direct competitors at present.
Cross Cultural impact
One of our core USP's is that the curriculum is fact check to include diverse characters, whether scientists, mathematicians, artists, thinkers or from key historical events thus allowing child to have an enhanced sense of esteem and identity in their heritage. This presents a unique opportunity for children to learn about diverse cultures and achievements spanning continents over time.
Our focus is to launch in the UK and then EMENASA. We are opening an office in Cairo in 2022 to localise content for the Middle East.
Commercial impact
We have been awarded places on London Mayor's Business Growth Programme, Europe's largest EdTech accelerator – EDUCATE, Google for Startups, Natwest Bank pre-Accelerator, JP Morgan Hatch Female Founders Accelerator, YC Startup School and mentored by Stanford University Launchpad.
On Thursday 17 June 2021, Xplorealms was listed as 1 of 15 top diverse tech startups in London:
https://www.uktech.news/news/most-diverse-tech-startups-london-2021-20210616
https://www.maddyness.com/uk/2020/11/13/a-mumpreneur-creates-the-worlds-first-immersive-learning-platform/
Xplorealms was awarded the Governments Bounce Back Loan scheme in 2020. The founder has seedfunded £272k to develop the MVP from personal savings and salary. She has worked 7 days a week for the last year to get the app launched, whilst balancing family life and FT job. A crowdfunding campaign with Seedrs will be launched in September 2021 to raise £400k (upto £1m) investment to accelerate growth, some of which has already been committed.
Xplorealms has 3 core subscription models, which make it community focused and commercially profitable going forward;
•	Xplora mode for children (FREE)
•	Tracker mode for parents (£11.99 pa)
•	Creator mode for teachers and educators (£29.99 pa)
•	Industry related kids camps, activity packs and merchandise will also generate additional revenue.
As a female founder of diverse heritage the probability of success for Reedah is very low. Being selected for 'One To Watch' will
•	raise our profile, enhance our credibility
•	generate more press coverage and social media followers
•	enhance probability of app downloads in UK and globally
•	enable us to reach a much wider audience in UK and globally
•	open up further partnerships (we are speaking with Lego Ventures)
•	encourage investors to invest during our crowdfunding campaign
Fat Red Bird
The Round Live Ltd.
Peter & Paul
Immersive, Ltd.
Forest Tribe
Swamp Motel

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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Home Order by Publisher E - I IIIT Publications Maqasid al Shariah Made Simple (Mohammad Hashim Kamali)
Maqasid al Shariah Made Simple (Mohammad Hashim Kamali)
Author: Mohammad Hashim Kamali
Publisher: The International Institute of Islamic Thought IIIT (2009)
Pages: 26 Binding: Paperback
Maqasid Al-Shari'ah, or the higher goals and objectives of Islamic law, is an important and somewhat neglected theme of shariah. Generally the Shariah is predicted on the individual and that of the community and its laws are designed so as to protect these benefits and facilitate improvement and perfection of the conditions of human life on earth. This is an easy birds eye view of the subject, simplifying its main principles to help readers understand the subject of Maqasid Al-Shari'ah and how it explains the 'wisdom behind rulings'.
This paper focuses on a general characterization of Maqasid Al-Shari'ah and its origins in the Quran; the classification of maqasid; historical developments and the contributions of some of the leading æulama to the theory of maqasid, the differential approaches the æulamaÆ have taken toward the identification of maqasid; and finally the relevance of maqasidto ijtihad and the ways in which maqasid can enhance the scope and caliber of ijtihad.
Dr Mohammad Hashim Kamali is Professor of Law at the International Islamic University Malaysia where he has been teaching Islamic law and jurisprudence since 1985. Among his other works are: Islamic Commercial Law, Freedom of Expression in Islam, The Dignity of Man: An Islamic Perspective, and Freedom, Equality and Justice in Islam. He is also the author of the well known book: Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence (which is one of the standard text books on Islamic Jurisprudence)
Product Reviews for Maqasid al Shariah Made Simple (Mohammad Hashim Kamali)
Maqasid Al Shariah : A Beginner's Guide (Jasser Auda)
Approaches juridical issues at a higher philosophical ground, and hence, overcomes (historical) differences over politics between Islamic schools of law.
The Islamic Vision of Development in Light of Maqasid al Shari'ah (Muhammad Umer Chapra)
Maintains that Islam has emphasised all the ingredients of human-wellbeing, including the human self, faith, intellect, posterity, as well as wealth, for society to flourish.
Ibn Ashur : Treatise on Maqasid al-Shari'ah (Muhammad Al-Tahir Ibn Ashur)
Comprehensive text proposing maqasid as the basis for methodology for the renewal of the theory of Islamic law.
Maqasid al-Shariah as Philosophy of Islamic Law : A Systems Approach (Jasser Auda)
Explores how Islamic law can fulfill their original purposes of justice, freedom, rights, common good, and tolerance in today's context.
Towards Realization of the Higher Intents of Islamic Law : A Functional Approach of Maqasid al-Shari'ah (Gamal Eldin Attia)
Opens the door towards the integration of contemporary values and worldview into the maqasid terminology.
Toward A Muslim Social Contract in Europe (Mustafa Ceric) : The Zaki Badawi Memorial Lecture Series
Islam, Christianity and Pluralism (Rowan Williams) : The Zaki Badawi Memorial Lecture Series
Feminism Versus Women's Liberation Movements (Abdelwahab M. Almessiri)
Islamic Thought : An Approach to Reform (Taha Jabir al-Alwani)
Interfaith Dialogue : A Guide for Muslims (Muhammad Shafiq; Mohammed Abu-Nimer)
Islamic Books in the Spanish Language (Lengua Española)


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When Paul E Jacobs took over from his father as chief executive of chip maker Qualcomm in 2005, mobile phones were just beginning their transition from tools for talking to hand-held computers delivering data and entertainment.
"We talk about the future of computing being mobile, but I don't feel that way," said Jacobs. "I feel the present of computing is mobile."
While his father Irwin Jacobs was known for his dogged defense of the company's intellectual property, Paul is more prone to talk about a connected world where mobile devices diagnose our illnesses, turn on our lights and control our thermostats.
In fact, the younger Jacobs has positioned Qualcomm to lead the smartphone chip market as consumers increasingly do their computing in their palms.
Last year Qualcomm dominated a diverse field of smartphone chip makers with 41% of the marketshare in terms of revenue, according to research firm Strategy Analytics.
The company's strategy has been to create high-function, low-powered chip sets for smartphones and tablets that connect with other devices. It's ARM-based Snapdragon chips are just such all-in-one processors.
"Qualcomm has been able to do the handoff from father to son that most others have not been able to do," said Cody Acree, analyst, Williams Financial Group. "I think the industry as a whole respected Paul, who has been a brilliant technologist, knowing he was not just being given the job because it was his dad's."


"This region tackled air transport development from the larger end of the market because you cannot have mega-hubs without widebodies, but now the economies are maturing to the point where smaller routes with lower density are being examined." So declared ATR's sales director for the Middle East and Africa, Milco Rappuoli, who reported busy traffic through the company air show stand.
Rappuoli's title is a tad misleading as his territory cover a tricky triangle from Tunisia down to Somalia and up to Afghanistan. He remains very confident though about prospects in his region.
"We've had an extremely busy show. There have been solid meetings with more than 30 airlines and other likely customers and these talks have real potential," Rappuoli emphasised. He also noted the support coming from lessors which have already placed orders for ATR aircraft, including the region's own Dubai Aerospace Enterprise.
One of the challenges faced by ATR has been the expectation that all flights need to be lengthy, reported Rappuoli. "We've had to educate people about regional routes, that they're not four hours long. Take a route like Tabuk to Amman, for example. It's about 160 nm but by car can take quite a few hours across the desert as well as getting across the Saudi Arabia–Jordan border. It's about a 45 minute flight on an ATR," he explained.
Saudi Arabia is indeed one of the countries which Rappuoli believes will benefit from regional services. "There are more than 30 regional airports in the Kingdom and they're mostly underserved," he noted.
In Iraq, once the turmoil in the country has subsided, there is likely to be air transport development to the remoter regions. "One of the drivers will be the need to visit Najaf and Karbala for religious pilgrimages. These are holy cities for Shi'a Muslims where an annual visit is required," Rappuoli explained. "Turboprop operations to cut travel time will be welcomed and there are many airfields from where people may travel where aircraft such as A320s cannot go.
"There has been a considerable commitment from ATR in this region," Rappuoli emphasised, but his busy week at the show looks like making it all worthwhile.


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Gowan Marc Titles, Movies and Posters
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The Thin Blue Line
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Kiss the Boys Goodbye
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Claudia and David
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Nothing But the Truth
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8: The Mormon Proposition
CAST: Reed Cowan, Rocky Mayor Anderson, Matt Aune, David Berrett Baker, Tyler Barrick, Bruce Barton, Melissa Bird, Dustin Lance Black, Mac Borrowman, D. Chris Buttars, George Cole, Pali Cooper, Darren Curtis, Peter Danzig, Eric Ethington,


Grove Team Keller Williams: Do you need a home warranty?
When buying a home in Texas, the contract allows for the seller to provide a home warranty of the buyer's choice up to a specified amount. A common question from a buyer is, do I have to have one?
Although as a buyer you are under no obligation to request or select a one year home warranty the Grove Team highly recommends that you do. Throughout the buying process we will coach you through general home inspections, HVAC inspections and more. All of these services provide you, the buyer, with great insight on the functionality of the home you are purchasing, however, it is still no guarantee.
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For more information, please visit our website to learn more or give us a call, (817) 337-0000.


Rubén Ortiz Torres is a Mexican photographer, painter, sculptor, and film and video producer. He was the subject of the mid-career survey show "Desmothernismo" at the Huntington Beach Art Center, a show that toured to the Museo Universitario de Ciencias y Arte in Mexico City. His low-rider/video installation "Alien Toy" was shown as part of the "InSite" show in San Diego in 1997 then in 1998 at Track 16 in Los Angeles. He co-directed the feature-length experimental documentary "Frontierland" with Jesse Lerner in 1995.
Ortiz is currently a Faculty Member in the Department of Visual Arts at the University of California, San Diego. He also publishes a blog entitled For the Record.
Ortiz's work can be viewed in numerous museum collections, including the UCLA Armand Hammer Museum of Art, the Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes, Mexico City, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, Museum of Modern Art, New York, and Tate Modern, London.


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Madden 22 is accessible in three unique forms
Автор Тема: Madden 22 is accessible in three unique forms (Прочитано 310 раз)
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FIFA 22 is, in our opinion, the highlight of the sale it scored 8 out of 10 in our review earlier this year mut coins. It's true that FIFA 22 doesn't change much from FIFA 21, and we do not like the microtransactions in Ultimate Team mode, but the football game is fun games are well-paced and the player animations look great through EA's HyperMotion tech.
In the case of Madden NFL 22, we gave it a score of 7 in our review, and declared it "a recent high mark for the series," thanks to better and more varied AI teams, brand new features like Gameday Atmosphere and Gameday Momentum and a revamped Franchise mode that makes the time between games more exciting than last year's outing.
We didn't have a look at NBA 2K22 or NHL 22 as such, but both games picked favorable reviews from the critics this year. NBA 2K22 is sitting at a Metacritic score of 78, and the general feedback is that the game's gameplay is excellent but held back by issues with the technical aspect and microtransactions in some modes.
NHL 22 is, on the contrary, was viewed more negatively, and averaged a rating of 71 on Metacritic. As noted in our review roundup of NHL 22 The majority of reviewers are overwhelmingly positive about the sport, but down on the lack of innovation. The shift onto EA's Frostbite engine offers NHL 22 a visual bump over previous versions. However, it's not a huge improvement.
The latest sports titles for just $60 at launch can be a gamble but the cost of $26 per game is an excellent way to add the most recent versions of each franchise to your library cheap Mut 22 coins. There are many additional Black Friday discounts from Walmart to take advantage of this week, too like the open-world sandbox for extreme sports Rider's Republic for just $25.
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When The Sullivan Company wanted to expand their artistic abilities to offer custom graphic design to customers, we knew that had to employ someone who is talented, hardworking, and calm under pressure. When we found Jason, a recent graduate in Visual Communications from St. Petersburg College with a background in print production management, we knew we had found the right fit. Jason has since gone above & beyond his role as a graphic designer, not only offering high-quality graphic solutions to customers but working as our production manager, helping with custom manufacturing, and taking on big clients.
When Jason is not working at The Sullivan Company, you can find him spending time with his wife and 2 boys, playing ice hockey, or eating "a scoop of Jeni's Darkest Chocolate and Black Cat Espresso ice cream.. okay, maybe two of each." When he can get out of town, he loves the beach. "Beach vacations remind me of both visiting the Jersey shore a child & my time living in South-West Florida. Plus, who doesn't love sitting on a beach soaking up some sun & beautiful ocean scenery (other than my mom)?"
Here, Jason enjoys working with clients to bring their ideas to life. "I love being able to take an idea that has been bouncing around in a client's head for a while & making it reality." He also thinks we have something special here at The Sullivan Company, "Besides being a great 'one stop shop' for any business in need creative work, corporate apparel & uniforms &/or promotional products, it's the people who make up the company. Everyone does their part to make sure we exceed our client's expectations."
Thank you Jason for all your hard work!


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JOSE MOURINHO is reportedly on the verge of snapping up a house in Manchester.
Starsport understand ex-Chelsea boss Mourinho has been lined-up as a replacement for Louis van Gaal at the end of the season.
And Portuguese outlet Correio da Manha claim he has identified a pad in the local area and is finalising a deal for his new base.
The Manchester Evening News yesterday reported that Mourinho has a 'gentleman's agreement' with executive vice-chairman Ed Woodward.
Mourinho is yet to sign a Red Devils deal but is reportedly confident that he has the job.
He was in Milan at the weekend to watch former club Inter, fuelling speculation of a shock return to the San Siro.
But Inter director Bedy Moratti claimed the Portuguese was heading to Old Trafford.
Moratti said: "Mourinho to Inter? No, he's happy now, he's going to Manchester."
Van Gaal's position would have become untenable had Shrewsbury claimed a famous win in the FA Cup last night - just days after their woeful Europa League defeat to FC Midtjylland.
But they beat League One side Shrewsbury to ease some of the pressure on the Dutchman.


A traditional herbal medicinal product for the temporary relief of anxiety.
Lavender oil has a long standing association with relieving symptoms of mild anxiety such as stress and nervousness.
Comes in a convenient one-a-day soft capsule.
Each soft capsule of this product contains 80mg of oil from flowering tops of Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Miller, aetheroleum), which is the active ingredient. This product also contains the following ingredients: Gelatin succinylated, glycerol 85%, refined rapeseed oil, sorbi - tol (E420), carmine lacquer (E120), patent blue V aluminium lacquer (E131), titanium dioxide (E171).
Adults and the elderly For oral use only. Take one capsule daily. Swallow the capsule whole with a full glass of water or other liquid. Do not chew the capsules. This product is not recommended for use in children or adolescents under 18 years of age. Do not exceed the stated dose.
This product is intended for the relief of symptoms of mild anxiety such as stress and nervousness. If you have signs and symptoms of depression such as persistent low mood you should seek medical advice for appropriate treatment. Important information about the ingredients This product contains sorbitol. If you have been told by your doctor that you have an intolerance to some sugars, contact your doctor before taking this product. Driving and using machines This product may impair your ability to drive or use machines. If affected, do not drive or use machines. Taking other medicines Do not take Kalms Lavender One-A-Day Capsules if you are already taking another medicine for sleep or anxiety. Tell your doctor before starting to take this product if you are ta - king any other medicines including any bought without a prescription.


Who has owned/driven a 190E 2.3-16?
Looking for some comments on the 190E 2.3-16, either US-spec or Euro-spec.
Would like to hear from anyone who has owned or driven one.
Are they fun cars? I know they aren't as sporty as an E30 M3, but I figure they must still be entertaining, especially compared to a lot of newer cars these days.
Any comparisons would be great.
It's kind of like what you said. Roughly the same power as the E30M3, but far less sporty and without the brilliant handling of the E30M3. By today's standards it feels quite slow in acceleration, which a stock E30M3 does also, but the E30M3 kind of makes up for it when pushed to the limit. For me, the 190E 2.3-16 did not. It feels heavier than an E30M3, not as responsive, etc.
I can say this...the 190 was for years a car I really wanted. After driving it, I no longer lusted after one much. Although I have to admit the one I drove was a fairly tired example.
If you wanted an '80s DTM homologation car to use as a DD, the 190 might be a better choice than the E30M3. It is more civilized, less buzzy, etc. It is also less entertaining, however.
If you want a track day car, I think the E30M3 is far superior.
Last edited by Ironhead; 04-14-2018, 07:00 AM.
Yep, I know of a clean one for sale, Euro spec 5spd. Was thinking about using it as an occasional DD since I don't dare drive my E30 M3 as much these days. The roads I drive are pretty twisty, no highway, so it would be fun to wind it out and row the gears to + from work.
I have driven regular 190E's, although only automatic, and they are still fun due to their small size like an E30 - just not the thrilling ride that an E30 can be. I figured a 16v 190E would be a noticeable step above in driving entertainment.
I hear what you are saying. I have just come to the point that for a DD I want something Japanese, moderately priced, that gets good gas mileage, and is 100% reliable. I stopped several years ago trying to merge toy cars with cars that I need for transportation. The demands of each are kind of irreconcilable.
I bounce back and forth between German toys and Japanese appliances. The appliances are just so boring.... I miss the soul of a driver's car.
Interesting video - that's quite a collection.
Good info on the 2.3-16 - I will probably drop you a line if I go forward on the car.
I´ll have e30 M3 and 2.5-16 Mercedes. If I have to choose one and drive that for the rest of my life, then it is Mercedes.
If both of these cars are with original suspension and original tyre sizes, then there is only very small difference. Mercedes feels a bit softer, but it has also better sound insulation and that is maybe one reason, why people say it is not as sportier than M3.
Having driven a euro spec and us spec 2.3-16, the only car worth having is the euro spec. The Merc is well built and people like the rigidity. However, the price is a heavier more complex car. The euro spec car with c/r gearbox is awesome but even then it's only on par with the US E30 M3 in stock form without a chip, not counting the weight disadvantage. I think they are cool and love the styling. I tried to convince myself to get one many years ago but missed the boat as I would only want the euro version with a manual and those are harder to find. Pick it up if you can get a fair deal on it. Perfect car to add to the collection but if I could only have one it would be the M3 all day.
Last edited by Reelizmpro; 04-16-2018, 06:20 AM.
Yeah, it would be a supplement to my E30 M3, not a replacement by any means. Just looking for a fun sometimes-DD car.
Definitely appreciate all the comments. Keep 'em comin'!
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CCD vs CMOS in sensor technology?
Discussion in 'This or That? (MFT only)' started by gdourado, Jun 7, 2012.
CCD vs CMOS vs Foveon in sensor technology?
But I also hear from people who, for example, shoot Sigmas with their Foveon sensors, and they swear by them in color reproduction and detail... So, what's your take?
Practically, there is no difference. Since every image goes through signal processing and every manufacturer manages their own color, the sensor type make less of a difference. I doubt you could spot a difference in any image made by both sensor types. I use cameras with both CCDs and CMOSs. But Foveon sensors are different and you can see it in the images.
When CMOS first came out, it was a mass-production product which greatly reduced cost of manufacture as well as power draw of the old CCD technology. People took the hit in image quality for cheaper manufacture and low power consumption.
This is no longer the case, as CCD technology hit a stand-still while CMOS technology moved forward due to its more practical nature. Our CMOS sensors of today can greatly out-resolve the old CCD sensors of old, so the inherent image quality gain of the old CCD technology is now moot.
Olympus and Panasonic Four-Thirds sensors do not use CCD or CMOS... and have in fact never used CMOS. The original Four-Thirds sensors were CCD then they were switched over to NMOS, which is supposed to give you the higher image quality of a CCD along with the lower power consumption of the CMOS. The best of both worlds supposedly, though in reality it was more of an "in-between". I don't think the early NMOS sensors ever produced the same quality as the late CCD sensors.
However, CMOS and NMOS have been around long enough now that CCD holds no more advantage. It's just like Compact Flash (CF) cards and Secure Digital (SD). SD was the cheap way, but were not as fast, reliable, or high-capacity as CF. So SD cards started gaining in consumer cameras (ie, point-and-shoots), while CF remained the standard for any professional digital photography from DSLR to Medium Format. Now you see SD used in all kinds of camera types, but they are now far more robust, fast, and high-capacity. With the SDHC (SD High Capacity, 4GB - 32GB) and SDXC (SD Xtra-High Capacity - 64GB+) formats, we now have even greater capacity in SD than we did in CF. Where SD cards used to fail and fall apart easily, they are now built really durable (especially cards like Sandisk) and reliable.
We may see this same progression with Non-Reflex cameras soon. DSLRs were the de facto format for many for so long. They hold a few inherent advantages, but SLR technology has now now been around for over 60 years and has come to a standstill. Non-Reflex technology is overall a more "practical" system with a great reduction in size and cost, and we are seeing this technology grow by leaps and bounds in a race to catch up and surpass existing DSLRs. People are continuing to invest more and more in non-reflex technology, and we are seeing the same drastic shifts in use of formats as we had seen with CCD vs CMOS and CF vs SD.
Years from now, people will be starting threads saying, "I read on the internet that there used to be this camera format called DSLR which was even better for sports than the cameras we use now".
PS, I will admit that I was once one of those who resisted these changes. I didn't like the switch from CCD to the lower-quality CMOS or NMOS sensors. I also wanted to hold onto my CF cards and hated when companies started replacing their CF slots with SD. Until the first Olympus Digital PEN came out, then I saw that there was no way around using the smaller SD format. I eventually became relieved that I was finally able to use much cheaper, smaller cards which also had no problems with bending pins - and one which was embraced by consumer electronics, allowing me to have built-in SD readers in my laptop, digital picture frames, etc. and SD card readers sold everywhere. CF always required hard-to-find card readers because although professional photographers embraced the format, computer manufacturers did not (Remember Firewire vs USB? Same thing - all professional videographers used firewire, yet computer manufacturers never made that technology easily available. Even I use USB now, because I could only outfit my desktop with firewire and not my laptop - but desktops are now passé).
I am now much more open to embracing these changes, and pioneering new formats which show better potential for the future. There will always be inherent strengths that we leave behind in the old formats, but the overall change for the better helps us to move forward to bigger things.
Here's a bit of trivia. A CMOS sensor is basically just a RAM chip. Back in the olden days, we used to lift the lid off of RAM chips to use as camera sensors. This is back when chip housing were made out of ceramic with a metal lid on top.
Separating the amps from the photosites allowed photosite design to take maximum advantage of the given real estate, therefore CCD photosites can sometimes be physically larger on the surface as well as in the substrate. In contrast, CMOS amps are generally built-in to the substrate beneath the photosites, sometimes leading to cramped photosites. Additionally, each amplifier may have slightly different characteristics due to manufacturing tolerances so that the differences appear as a baseline noise characteristic which is visibly worse than the shared amps from CCDs.
CCD amps are bigger and need more power, and their signals have to be higher voltage. CMOS amps are distributed through the sensor, and tend to dissipate heat into the substrate such that noise can be introduced as a side effect of the heat.
On the other hand, the proximity of CMOS amps to the photosites provides for greater sensitivity and faster response times. The image can be pulled from each photosite approximately simultaneously to allow for video and live view.
I personally prefer the look of CCD, but I definitely prefer the high-ISO improvements of CMOS. I keep a K10D because at ISO 100 it looks amazing. I keep a K-5 because at ISO 6400 it looks amazing (for the conditions). Other than that, most people won't choose one technology over the other, but rather take the technology that is implemented in the camera of their choice.
I'd also like to clarify that you'd have to be some sort of connoisseur to tell a modern CMOS apart from CCD at ISO 100. I think CCD looks great at base ISO, but CMOS also looks great.
Aegon and Ned pretty much said it all.
From a practical point of view: I have shots from my Canon compact 1/1.8" SD800 at ISO80 where the skies are really blue, and there is little visible noise. Something I can't really get in the 43 and even APS-C CMOS sensors today. But the SD800 maxed out at 640X480 video (Canon did get a TX1 I think it was called, to do 720 with a CCD) and high ISO was poor. "High ISO" being 400 and up!
Which is very similar to what people love about the old Olympus E-1 with the 5MP Kodak CCD sensor. The signature blues especially in the skies are what most distinguish the E-1. But just as with your compact, ISO 400 is high. lol.
The only advantage to CMOS is live view. As far as a difference in image quality between CMOS and CCD, I have never been able to see it, which is not surprising as they both have color blind pixels and the same Bayer filters--I shoot medium-format digital and scientific cameras which have CCDs.
I kept my old Canon 1D classic 4mp for a while because of one advantage the CCD sensor gave, that it could flash sync at 1/500 or even higher with strobes or just about any flash. The old Nikon D70 had the same feature.
What's better live performance, vinyl, 8 tracks, cassettes, reel to reel, CD's, MP3 ... tech marches on. Depends on what you want to do - nice to have choices. Same goes for eyeballs, paintings, film, CCD, EBCCD, CMOS, NMOS, sCMOS, InGaAs, etc.
CCDs started out as memory chips ... Viagra started out as blood pressure meds.
Sometimes I even remember to take of the lens cap.
So, today I saw on a store a kit with a Sigma SD15 with the 18-50 2.8-4.5 lens for one very good price.
It is a 2010 camera, but it has a unique sensor, a Foveon.
Form what I read, it is suposed to deliver excellent color thanks to it's 3 layers and excellent sharpness because it does not have a low pass filter.
Any experience with this sensor? Is it really that good?
The Foveon has a different color response, but the real bonus is the removeable hot-mirror. Instant IR camera.
And the part of the different color response? Is it that much different or just slightly?
Is it a technology worth exploring? Or just a gimmick?
I don't have one myself, but by having each photo site capture all three colors, you should get a truer/better color capture than the guess work that goes into Bayer-types. The problem with the Sigma, is that it's quite slow by dslr standards. Still not bad for a new 'toy'.
I think Ned pretty much covered the essence of the debate. I have invested in a company that pioneered one CMOS technology and have been following the the image sensor development for years. CMOS sensor is on its way to overtake the image sensor market starting from the mass market of the cell phones and now invading the digital still and video market. The new BSI (Back Side Imaging) technology of CMOS image sensor pioneered by Omnivision Technology was adopted by iPhone 4 due to its superior quality (efficiency, low light sensitivity, dynamic range, etc.). Now Sony and Samsang all have caught up and are supplying this new type of CMOS sensors. When a Sony 8MP BSI CMOS was found inside of an iPhone 4S, the news caused quite a splash. Many of you might be aware that some of the new cameras introduced this year use the new 16MP CMOS sensors that are of this type.
The battle between the CCD and CMOS is essentially over, after two of the largest chip makers/image sensor producers joined the bandwagon in full force.
I agree that the debate is essentially over. The market has ended it for all practical purposes.
I thought a fair bit about this, and did a lot of image review, when I sold my D200. The differences in sensor results weren't that great, and the sensor was becoming somewhat limited by the body in which it was captive.
Over for whom? I still use medium-format and scientific cameras that have CCDs. There is no way I can replace the sensor in them and there is no point in buying a different camera.
Over from the perspective of new cameras available for sale - I should have been clearer.
And yes, I agree about "outdated" cameras still taking great pictures. My M8 did not suddenly start making bad files when the M9 was introduced, nor my GF1 when the GX1 was introduced, nor my D200 when the D300 was introduced...but there are sometimes other reasons to replace a camera (e.g., improved AF or high speed operation).
"Over" from the perspective of sensor technology development, not from camera user's in a short term. I am also using scientific cameras that have CCD and CMOS sensors and cost more than $50,000. But I have seen where the image sensor developers are putting their money these days. A few players failed to see the "light" soon enough and was left behind. Kodak happened to be one of them.


text:
#include <Furrovine++/Platform.Graphics.h>
#include <Furrovine++/Graphics/Declarations.Graphics.h>
#include <Furrovine++/Graphics/graphics_handle.h>

namespace Furrovine { namespace Graphics { namespace Gl {

#ifdef FURROVINEOPENGL

	struct ptrptr_cast {

		furrovineapi static GLuint to( graphics_handle a );

		furrovineapi static graphics_handle from( GLuint a );

	};

	template <typename TPtr>
	ptrptr_type<TPtr, GLuint, ptrptr_cast> ptrptr( TPtr& p ) { return ptrptr_type<TPtr, GLuint, ptrptr_cast>( p ); }

	namespace detail {
		namespace detail {
			template <typename T>
			GLuint native_handle( T&, graphics_handle target ) {
				return target.gl;
			}
		}

		furrovineapi GLuint native_handle( GpuBuffer& target );

		furrovineapi GLuint native_handle( GpuMultiBuffer& target, ulword n = 0 );

		furrovineapi GLuint native_handle( ShaderResourceView& target );
	}

	template <typename T, typename... Tn>
	inline GLuint native_handle( T& target, Tn&&... argn ) {
		return detail::native_handle( target, std::forward<Tn>( argn )... );
	}

	template <typename T, typename... Tn>
	inline GLuint native_handle( T* target, Tn&&... argn ) {
		typedef decltype( detail::native_handle( *target, std::forward<Tn>( argn )... ) ) TR;
		return detail::native_handle<TR>( target, std::forward<Tn>( argn )... );
	}

	template <typename T, typename... Tn>
	inline GLuint native_handle( graphics_handle target, Tn&&... argn ) {
		return detail::native_handle( null_ref<T>::value, target, std::forward<Tn>( argn )... );
	}

#endif // endif

}}}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
» Active Zionism - A complex argumentative website on Israel, Zionism, apartheid, racism, propaganda and the root of the conflict.
» American Zionist Movement - Providing a broad range of information about Zionism in America, Jewish organizational life, Israel, and activities in the United States. A coalition of groups and individuals, the AZM is the US affiliate of the World Zionist Organization.
» Awesome Seminars - International speaking schedule and seminars from Neil Lazarus, a prominent Zionist and Jewish activist.
» Blogs of Zion - Blogs of Zion is an on-line forum for Zionists, young and old, from across the ideological and social spectrum to decipher, develop and debate issues affecting the Jewish people around the world.
» Cultural Zionism ~ Get - Togethers - An interactive online process to promote the social aspects of cultural zionism and to empower the individual aspirations in making significant Jewish related connections.
» Dafka - Pro-Zionist information and articles aimed at countering Palestinian and anti-US activism on American campuses.
» The Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History - A comprehensive compilation of information on Israel and Zionism, organized by topic.
» The Drawing Board: Grappling with Post-Zionism - Paul J. White of the University of Sydney reviews The Challenge of Post-Zionism and The Other Israel: Voices of Refusal and Dissent.
» Dutchblog Israel - Observations, articles and opinions in Dutch and English. Author is a historian who specialized in modern Jewish history and in history of the Middle East, and who in 1995 emigrated from the Netherlands to Israel.
» Hadassah, The Women's Zionist Organization of America - A volunteer women's organization, whose members are motivated and inspired to strengthen their partnership with Israel, ensure Jewish continuity, and realize their potential as a dynamic force in American society.
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» Helping Israel - An outgrowth of Vaad LeMa'an Zion (Organization For the Sake of Zion), a grassroots organization of citizens of Jerusalem who opposed the Oslo Accords.
» Israel Arab Conflict - Articles and opinions of the Israel-Arab conflict, from Israel's perspective. Supportive of Zionism.
» Israel Independence - Israel's progress up to its 57th Anniversary.
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» Land of the Jews - Personal site of a Canadian Zionist that includes commentary about Jews in Canada, terrorism in Israel and suggestions about what people can do to help Israel.
» Mercaz USA - Zionist organization of Conservative Jewry. Mission, programs, officers, and membership.
» Middle East Facts Weblog - Important stories and pro-Israel commentary regarding news in the Middle East.
» The Myth of "Zionism=Racism" - After Durban - Background and activities for responding to attacks on Israel in the UN.
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Concept of Fluid Balance and Pathophysiology
Concept of Fluid Balance and Pathophysiology ORDER NOW FOR CUSTOMIZED AND ORIGINAL ESSAY PAPERS ON Concept of Fluid Balance and Pathophysiology As a learner in Pathophysiology, it's important to take the information you are absorbing from your coursework and connect it to real life. Throughout the semester you will be invited to make connections by locating, reviewing, and summarizing current and relevant journal articles. Concept of Fluid Balance and Pathophysiology Use the following link to learn how to find and evaluate an online source: https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/online-health-information-it-reliable#where (Links to an external site.) Please follow the instructions below: Locate a current (medical or scientific) news or journal article based on one of the topics listed below: Distribution of body fluids and Electrolytes (Chapter 5, p. 114), Alterations in Potassium & other Electrolytes (Ch 5, P. 122) Note: As you read through the article, think about how it connects to Pathophysiology and why is it relevant. Provide a write-up summarizing the article. Within your document, include how the information connects to Pathophysiology, and why it is relevant. Aim to include 150 – 200 words in the summary. Remember to cite your source(s) in APA Format! attachment_1 School of Nursing and Midwifery Mount Royal University Calgary, Alberta U.S. AUTHORS Sue E. Huether, MS, PhD Professor Emeritus College of Nursing University of Utah Salt Lake City, Utah Kathryn L. McCance, MS, PhD Professor Emeritus College of Nursing University of Utah Salt Lake City, Utah U.S. Section Editors Valentina L. Brashers, MD Professor of Nursing and Woodard Clinical Scholar Attending Physician in Internal Medicine University of Virginia Health System Charlottesville, Virginia Neal S. Rote, PhD Academic Vice-Chair and Director of Research Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology University Hospitals Case Medical Center William H. Weir, MD, Professor of Reproductive Biology and Pathology Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine 3 102. Shennan T. Postmortems and morbid anatomy. 3rd ed. William Wood: Baltimore; 1935. 103. Riley MW. Foreword: the gender paradox. Ory MG, Warner HR. Gender, health, and longevity: multidisciplinary perspectives. Springer: New York; 1990. 104. Katsumata Y, Sato K, Yada S. Green pigments in epidermal blisters of decomposed cadavers. Forensic Science International. 1985;28(3–4):167–174. 364 5 Fluids and Electrolytes, Acids and Bases Sue E. Huether, Stephanie Zettel CHAPTER OUTLINE Distribution of Body Fluids and Electrolytes, 115 Water Movement Between Plasma and Interstitial Fluid, 115 Water Movement Between ICF and ECF, 116 Alterations in Water Movement, 116 Edema, 116 Sodium, Chloride, and Water Balance, 117 Alterations in Sodium, Chloride, and Water Balance, 120 Isotonic Alterations, 121 Hypertonic Alterations, 121 Hypotonic Alterations, 121 Alterations in Potassium and Other Electrolytes, 122 Potassium, 122 Other Electrolytes—Calcium, Phosphate, and 365 Magnesium, 126 Acid-Base Balance, 126 Hydrogen Ion and pH, 126 Buffer Systems, 126 Acid-Base Imbalances, 128 PEDIATRIC CONSIDERATIONS: Distribution of Body Fluids, 132 GERIATRIC CONSIDERATIONS: Distribution of Body Fluids, 132 The cells of the body live in a fluid environment with electrolyte and acid-base concentrations maintained within a narrow range. Changes in electrolyte concentration affect the electrical activity of nerve and muscle cells and cause shifts of fluid from one compartment to another. Alterations in acid-base balance disrupt cellular functions. Fluid fluctuations also affect blood volume and cellular function. Disturbances in these functions are common and can be life-threatening. Understanding how alterations occur and how the body compensates or corrects the disturbance is important for comprehending many pathophysiological conditions. Distribution of Body Fluids and Electrolytes The sum of fluids within all body compartments constitutes total 366 body water (TBW)—about 60% of body weight in adults (Table 51). The volume of TBW is usually expressed as a percentage of body weight in kilograms. One litre of water weighs 1 kg. The rest of the body weight is composed of fat and fat-free solids, particularly bone. TABLE 5-1 Total Body Water (%) in Relation to Body Weight Body Build Adult Male Adult Female Child (1–10 yr) Infant (1 mo–1 yr) Newborn (Up to 1 mo) Normal Lean Obese 60 70 50 50 60 42 65 50-60 50 70 80 60 70–80 NOTE: Total body water is a percentage of body weight. mo, month; yr, year. Body fluids are distributed among functional compartments, or spaces, and provide a transport medium for cellular and tissue function. Intracellular fluid (ICF) comprises all the fluid within cells, about two thirds of TBW. Extracellular fluid (ECF) is all the fluid outside the cells (about one third of TBW) and includes interstitial fluid (the space between cells and outside the blood vessels) and intravascular fluid (blood plasma) (Table 5-2). The total volume of body water for a 70-kg person is about 42 litres. Concept of Fluid Balance and Pathophysiology Other ECF compartments include lymph and transcellular fluids, such as synovial, intestinal, and cerebrospinal fluid; sweat; urine; and pleural, peritoneal, pericardial, and intraocular fluids. TABLE 5-2 Distribution of Body Water (70-kg Man) Fluid Compartment % of Body Weight Volume (L) Intracellular fluid (ICF) Extracellular fluid (ECF) Interstitial Intravascular Total body water (TBW) 40 20 15 5 60 28 14 11 3 42 Electrolytes and other solutes are distributed throughout the intracellular and extracellular fluid (Table 5-3). Note that ECF contains a large amount of sodium and chloride and a small amount 367 of potassium, whereas the opposite is true of ICF. The concentrations of phosphates and magnesium are greater in ICF, and the concentration of calcium is greater in ECF. These differences are important for the maintenance of electroneutrality between the extracellular and intracellular compartments, the transmission of electrical impulses, and the movement of water among body compartments (see Chapter 1). TABLE 5-3 Representative Distribution of Electrolytes in Body Compartments Electrolytes Cations Sodium Potassium Calcium Magnesium TOTAL Anions Bicarbonate Chloride Phosphate Proteins Other anions TOTAL ECF (mmol/L) ICF (mmol/L) 142 4.2 2.5 1 149.7 12 150 0 12 174 24 103 2 16 8 153 12 4 100 65 6 187 ECF, extracellular fluid; ICF, intracellular fluid. Although the amount of fluid within the various compartments is relatively constant, solutes (e.g., salts) and water are exchanged between compartments to maintain their unique compositions. The percentage of TBW varies with the amount of body fat and age. Because fat is water repelling (hydrophobic), very little water is contained in adipose (fat) cells. Individuals with more body fat have proportionately less TBW and tend to be more susceptible to dehydration. The distribution and the amount of TBW change with age (see the Pediatric Considerations and Geriatric Considerations boxes later in this chapter), and although daily fluid intake may fluctuate widely, the body regulates water volume within a relatively narrow range. Water obtained by drinking, water ingested in food, and water derived from oxidative metabolism are the primary sources of body water. Normally, the largest amounts of water are lost through renal excretion, with lesser amounts lost through the stool and 368 vaporization from the skin and lungs (insensible water loss) (Table 5-4). TABLE 5-4 Normal Water Gains and Losses (70-kg Man) Daily Intake (mL) Daily Output (mL) Drinking Water in food Water of oxidation 1 400–1 800 700–1 000 300–400 Urine Stool Skin Lungs TOTAL 2 400–3 200 TOTAL 1 400–1 800 100 300–500 600–800 2 400–3 200 Water Movement Between Plasma and Interstitial Fluid The distribution of water and the movement of nutrients and waste products between the capillary and interstitial spaces occur as a result of changes in hydrostatic pressure (pushes water) and osmotic or oncotic pressure (pulls water) at the arterial and venous ends of the capillary (see Figure 1-24). Concept of Fluid Balance and Pathophysiology Water, sodium, and glucose readily move across the capillary membrane. The plasma proteins normally do not cross the capillary membrane and maintain effective osmolality by generating plasma oncotic pressure (particularly albumin). As plasma flows from the arterial to the venous end of the capillary, four forces determine whether fluid moves out of the capillary and into the interstitial space (filtration) or whether fluid moves back into the capillary from the interstitial space (reabsorption). These four forces acting together are described as net filtration or Starling forces: 1. Capillary hydrostatic pressure (blood pressure) facilitates the outward movement of water from the capillary to the interstitial space. 2. Capillary (plasma) oncotic pressure osmotically attracts water from the interstitial space back into the capillary. 3. Interstitial hydrostatic pressure facilitates the inward movement of water from the interstitial space into the capillary. 369 4. Interstitial oncotic pressure osmotically attracts water from the capillary into the interstitial space. The forces moving fluid back and forth across the capillary wall are summarized as follows: At the arterial end of the capillary, hydrostatic pressure exceeds capillary oncotic pressure and fluid moves into the interstitial space (filtration). At the venous end of the capillary, capillary oncotic pressure exceeds capillary hydrostatic pressure and fluids are attracted back into the circulation (reabsorption). Interstitial hydrostatic pressure promotes the movement of about 10% of the interstitial fluid along with small amounts of protein into the lymphatics, which then returns to the circulation. Because albumin does not normally cross the capillary membrane, interstitial oncotic pressure is normally minimal. Figure 5-1 illustrates net filtration. 370 Net Filtration—Fluid Movement Between Plasma and Interstitial Space. The movement of fluid between the vascular, interstitial spaces and the lymphatics is the result of net filtration of fluid across the semipermeable capillary membrane. Capillary hydrostatic pressure is the primary force for fluid movement out of the arteriolar end of the capillary and into the interstitial space. At the venous end, capillary oncotic pressure (from plasma proteins) attracts water back into the vascular space. Interstitial hydrostatic pressure promotes the movement of fluid and proteins into the lymphatics. Osmotic pressure accounts for the movement of fluid between the interstitial space and the intracellular space. Normally, intracellular and extracellular fluid osmotic pressures are equal (280 to 294 mOsm) and water is equally distributed between the interstitial and intracellular compartments. FIGURE 5-1 Water Movement Between ICF and ECF Water moves between ICF and ECF compartments primarily as a function of osmotic forces. Water moves freely by diffusion through the lipid bilayer cell membrane and through aquaporins, a family of water channel proteins that provide permeability to water.1 371 Sodium is responsible for the ECF osmotic balance, and potassium maintains the ICF osmotic balance. The osmotic force of ICF proteins and other nondiffusible substances is balanced by the active transport of ions out of the cell. Water crosses cell membranes freely, so the osmolality of TBW is normally at equilibrium. Normally ICF is not subject to rapid changes in osmolality, but when ECF osmolality changes, water moves from one compartment to another until osmotic equilibrium is reestablished (see "Isotonic Alterations," p. 121). Alterations in Water Movement Edema Edema is excessive accumulation of fluid within the interstitial spaces. The forces favouring fluid movement from the capillaries or lymphatic channels into the tissues are increased capillary hydrostatic pressure, decreased plasma oncotic pressure, increased capillary membrane permeability, and lymphatic channel obstruction2 (Figure 5-2).Concept of Fluid Balance and Pathophysiology FIGURE 5-2 Mechanisms of Edema Formation. H2O, water; Na+, sodium. 372 Pathophysiology Capillary hydrostatic pressure increases as a result of venous obstruction or salt and water retention. Venous obstruction causes hydrostatic pressure to increase behind the obstruction, pushing fluid from the capillaries into the interstitial spaces. Thrombophlebitis (inflammation of veins), hepatic obstruction, tight clothing around the extremities, and prolonged standing are common causes of venous obstruction. Heart failure, renal failure, and cirrhosis of the liver are associated with excessive salt and water retention, which cause plasma volume overload, increased capillary hydrostatic pressure, and edema. Since plasma albumin acts like a magnet to attract water, loss or diminished production (e.g., from liver disease or protein malnutrition) contributes to decreased plasma oncotic pressure. Plasma proteins are lost in glomerular diseases of the kidney, serous drainage from open wounds, hemorrhage, burns, and cirrhosis of the liver. The decreased oncotic attraction of fluid within the capillary causes filtered capillary fluid to remain in the interstitial space, resulting in edema. Capillaries become more permeable with inflammation and immune responses, especially with trauma such as burns or crushing injuries, neoplastic disease, and allergic reactions. Proteins escape from the vascular space and produce edema through decreased capillary oncotic pressure and interstitial fluid protein accumulation. The lymphatic system normally absorbs interstitial fluid and a small amount of proteins. When lymphatic channels are blocked or surgically removed, proteins and fluid accumulate in the interstitial space, causing lymphedema.3 For example, lymphedema of the arm or leg occurs after surgical removal of axillary or femoral lymph nodes, respectively, for treatment of carcinoma. Inflammation or tumours may cause lymphatic obstruction, leading to edema of the involved tissues. Clinical manifestations Edema may be localized or generalized. Localized edema is usually limited to a site of trauma, as in a sprained finger. Another kind of localized edema occurs within particular organ systems and includes cerebral, pulmonary, and laryngeal edema; pleural 373 effusion (fluid accumulation in the pleural space); pericardial effusion (fluid accumulation within the membrane around the heart); and ascites (accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal space). Edema of specific organs, such as the brain, lung, or larynx, can be life-threatening. Generalized edema is manifested by a more uniform distribution of fluid in interstitial spaces. Dependent edema, in which fluid accumulates in gravity-dependent areas of the body, might signal more generalized edema. Dependent edema appears in the feet and legs when standing and in the sacral area and buttocks when supine (lying on back). It can be identified by pressing on tissues overlying bony prominences. A pit left in the skin indicates edema (hence the term pitting edema) (Figure 5-3). FIGURE 5-3 Pitting Edema. (From Bloom, A., & Ireland, J. [1992]. Color atlas of diabetes [2nd ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby.) Edema usually is associated with weight gain, swelling and puffiness, tight-fitting clothes and shoes, limited movement of affected joints, and symptoms associated with the underlying pathological condition. Fluid accumulations increase the distance required for nutrients and waste products to move between capillaries and tissues. Blood flow may be impaired also. Therefore wounds heal more slowly, and with prolonged edema the risks of 374 infection and pressure sores over bony prominences increase. Concept of Fluid Balance and Pathophysiology As edematous fluid accumulates, it is trapped in a "third space" (i.e., the interstitial space, pleural space, pericardial space) and is unavailable for metabolic processes or perfusion. Dehydration can develop as a result of this sequestering. Such sequestration occurs with severe burns, where large amounts of vascular fluid are lost to the interstitial spaces, reducing plasma volume and causing shock (see Chapter 24). Evaluation and Treatment Specific conditions causing edema require diagnosis. Edema may be treated symptomatically until the underlying disorder is corrected. Supportive measures include elevating edematous limbs, using compression stockings, avoiding prolonged standing, restricting salt intake, and taking diuretics. Administration of intravenous (IV) albumin can be required in severe cases. Quick Check 5-1 1. How does an increase in capillary hydrostatic pressure cause edema? 2. How does a decrease in capillary oncotic pressure cause edema? Sodium, Chloride, and Water Balance The kidneys and hormones have a central role in maintaining sodium and water balance. Because water follows the osmotic gradients established by changes in salt concentration, sodium concentration and water balance are intimately related. Sodium concentration is regulated by renal effects of aldosterone (see Figure 18-18). Water balance is regulated primarily by antidiuretic hormone (ADH; also known as vasopressin). Sodium (Na+) accounts for 90% of the ECF cations (positively charged ions) (see Table 5-3). Along with its constituent anions (negatively charged ions) chloride and bicarbonate, sodium regulates extracellular osmotic forces and therefore regulates water 375 balance. Sodium is important in other functions, including maintenance of neuromuscular irritability for conduction of nerve impulses (in conjunction with potassium and calcium; see Figure 129), regulation of acid-base balance (using sodium bicarbonate and sodium phosphate), participation in cellular chemical reactions, and transport of substances across the cellular membrane. The kidney, in conjunction with neural and hormonal mediators, maintains normal serum sodium concentration within a narrow range (136 to 145 mmol/L) primarily through renal tubular reabsorption. Hormonal regulation of sodium (and potassium) balance is mediated by aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid synthesized and secreted from the adrenal cortex as a component of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Aldosterone secretion is influenced by circulating blood volume, blood pressure, and plasma concentrations of sodium and potassium. When circulating blood volume or blood pressure is reduced, sodium levels are depressed, or potassium levels are increased, renin, an enzyme secreted by the juxtaglomerular cells of the kidney, is released. Renin stimulates the formation of angiotensin I, an inactive polypeptide. Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) in pulmonary vessels converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II, which stimulates the secretion of aldosterone and ADH and also causes vasoconstriction.Concept of Fluid Balance and Pathophysiology The aldosterone promotes renal sodium and water reabsorption and excretion of potassium, increasing blood volume (Figure 5-4; see also Figure 29-9). Vasoconstriction elevates the systemic blood pressure and restores renal perfusion (blood flow). This restoration inhibits the further release of renin. 376 The Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System. BP, blood pressure; ECF, extracellular fluid; Na+, sodium. (Modified from Herlihy, B., & FIGURE 5-4 Maebius, N. [2011]. The human body in health and disease [4th ed.]. Philadelphia: Saunders. Borrowed from Lewis, S.L., Bucher, L., Heitkemper, M.M., et al. [2014]. Medical-surgical nursing: Assessment and management of clinical problems [9th ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby.) Natriuretic peptides are hormones primarily produced by the myocardium. Atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH) is produced by the atria. B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) is produced by the ventricles. Urodilatin (an ANP analogue) is synthesized within the kidney. Natriuretic peptides are released when there is an increase in transmural atrial pressure (increased volume), which may occur with heart failure or when there is an increase in mean arterial pressure4 (Figure 5-5). They are natural antagonists to the reninangiotensin-aldosterone system. Natriuretic peptides cause vasodilation and increase sodium and water excretion, decreasing blood pressure. Natriuretic peptides are sometimes called a "third factor" in sodium regulation. (Increased glomerular filtration rate is thus the first factor and aldosterone the second factor.) 377 The Natriuretic Peptide System. ANH, atrial natriuretic hormone; BNP, brain natriuretic peptide; GFR, glomerular filtration rate; Na+, sodium FIGURE 5-5 Chloride (Cl?) is the major anion in ECF and provides electroneutrality, particularly in relation to sodium. Chloride transport is generally passive and follows the active transport of sodium so that increases or decreases in chloride concentration are proportional to changes in sodium concentration. Chloride concentration tends to vary inversely with changes in the concentration of bicarbonate ( ), the other major anion. Water balance is regulated by the secretion of ADH. ADH is secreted when plasma osmolality increases or circulating blood volume decreases and blood pressure drops … Get a 10 % discount on an order above $ 100 Use the following coupon code : NURSING10
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