text:
An Act To Update Maine's Family Law
Sec. 1. 19-A MRSA c. 61 is enacted to read:
MAINE PARENTAGE ACT
SHORT TITLE, SCOPE, DEFINITIONS AND GENERAL PROVISIONS
§ 1831. Short title
This chapter may be known and cited as "the Maine Parentage Act."
§ 1832. Definitions
As used in this chapter, unless the context otherwise indicates, the following terms have the following meanings.
1. Acknowledged father. "Acknowledged father" means a man who has established parentage under subchapter 3.
2. Adjudicated parent. "Adjudicated parent" means a person who has been adjudicated by a court of competent jurisdiction to be the parent of a child.
3. Assisted reproduction. "Assisted reproduction" means a method of causing pregnancy other than sexual intercourse and includes but is not limited to:
A. Intrauterine or vaginal insemination;
B. Donation of gametes;
C. Donation of embryos;
D. In vitro fertilization and transfer of embryos; and
E. Intracytoplasmic sperm injection.
4. Child. "Child" means an individual of any age whose parentage may be determined under this chapter.
5. Donor. "Donor" means a person who contributes a gamete or gametes or an embryo or embryos to another person for assisted reproduction or gestation, whether or not for consideration.
6. Embryo. "Embryo" means a cell or group of cells containing a diploid complement of chromosomes or a group of such cells, not including a gamete, that has the potential to develop into a live born human being if transferred into the body of a woman under conditions in which gestation may be reasonably expected to occur.
7. Gamete. "Gamete" means a cell containing a haploid complement of deoxyribonucleic acid that has the potential to form an embryo when combined with another gamete. "Gamete" includes:
A. Sperm;
B. Eggs; and
C. Deoxyribonucleic acid from one human being combined with the cytoplasm, including without limitation cytoplasmic deoxyribonucleic acid, of another human being.
8. Genetic population group. "Genetic population group" means, for purposes of genetic testing, a recognized group that an individual identifies as all or part of the individual's ancestry or that is so identified by other information.
9. Genetic testing. "Genetic testing" means an analysis of genetic markers to exclude or identify a man as the genetic father or a woman as the genetic mother of a child. "Genetic testing" includes an analysis of one or a combination of the following:
A. Deoxyribonucleic acid;
B. Blood group antigens, red cell antigens, human leukocyte antigens, serum enzymes, serum proteins or red cell enzymes; or
C. Genetic markers other than those in paragraphs A and B.
10. Gestational carrier. "Gestational carrier" means an adult woman who is not an intended parent and who enters into a gestational carrier agreement to bear a child conceived using the gametes of other persons and not her own, except that a woman who carries a child for a family member using her own gametes and who fulfills the requirements of subchapter 8 is a gestational carrier.
11. Gestational carrier agreement. "Gestational carrier agreement" means a contract between an intended parent or parents and a gestational carrier intended to result in a live birth.
12. Intended parent. "Intended parent" means a person, married or unmarried, who manifests the intent to be legally bound as the parent of a child resulting from assisted reproduction or a gestational carrier agreement. In the case of a married couple, any reference to an intended parent includes both spouses for all purposes of this chapter.
13. Parent. "Parent" means an individual who has established parentage that meets the requirements of this chapter.
14. Parentage. "Parentage" means the legal relationship between a child and a parent as established in this chapter.
15. Paternity or maternity index. "Paternity or maternity index" means, with respect to a person who has undergone genetic testing, the likelihood of genetic paternity or maternity calculated by computing the ratio between:
A. The likelihood that the tested person is the genetic father or genetic mother based on the genetic markers of the tested person, birth mother and child and conditioned on the hypothesis that the tested person is the father or mother of the child; and
B. The likelihood that the tested person is not the genetic father or genetic mother based on the genetic markers of the tested person, birth mother and child and conditioned on the hypothesis that the tested person is not the genetic father or genetic mother of the child.
16. Presumed parent. "Presumed parent" means a person who pursuant to section 1881 is recognized as the parent of a child.
17. Probability of paternity; probability of maternity. "Probability of paternity" and "probability of maternity" mean the measure, for the genetic population group to which the alleged genetic father or genetic mother belongs, of the probability that the person in question is the genetic father or genetic mother of the child compared with a random, unrelated person of the same genetic population group and expressed as a percentage incorporating the paternity or maternity index and a prior probability.
18. Record. "Record" means information that is inscribed on a tangible medium or that is stored in an electronic or other medium and is retrievable in perceivable form.
19. Sign. "Sign" means, with the intent to authenticate or adopt a record, to:
A. Execute or adopt a tangible symbol; or
B. Attach to or logically associate with the record an electronic symbol, sound or process.
20. Signatory. "Signatory" means an individual who signs a record and is bound by its terms.
§ 1833. Scope and application
1. Scope. This chapter applies to determination of parentage in this State.
2. Choice of law. The court shall apply the law of this State to adjudicate parentage. The applicable law does not depend on:
A. The place of birth of the child; or
B. The past or present residence of the child.
3. Effect on parental rights. This chapter does not create, enlarge or diminish parental rights or duties under other laws of this State or the equitable powers of the courts, except as provided in this chapter.
§ 1834. Parentage proceeding
1. Proceeding authorized. A proceeding to adjudicate the parentage of a child may be maintained in accordance with this chapter and applicable rules of procedure.
2. Original actions. Original actions to adjudicate parentage may be commenced only in District Court.
3. Other proceedings. The District Court and the Probate Court are authorized to adjudicate parentage under this chapter when parentage is an issue in any other pending proceeding.
4. No right to jury. There is no right to demand a jury trial in an action to determine parentage.
5. Disclosure of social security numbers. A person who is a party to a parentage action shall disclose that person's social security number to the court. The social security number of a person subject to a parentage adjudication must be placed in the court records relating to the adjudication. The record of a person's social security number is confidential and is not open to the public. The court shall disclose a person's social security number to the department for child support enforcement purposes.
§ 1835. Standing to maintain proceeding
Subject to other provisions of this chapter, a proceeding to adjudicate parentage may be maintained by:
1. Child. The child;
2. Woman giving birth. The woman who gave birth to the child;
3. Person whose parentage to be adjudicated. A person whose parentage is to be adjudicated;
4. Department of Health and Human Services. The department; or
5. Representative of individual. A representative authorized by law to act for an individual who would otherwise be entitled to maintain a proceeding but who is deceased, incapacitated or a minor.
§ 1836. Parties to proceeding
In addition to a child whose parentage is to be adjudicated, all parents of the child must be joined as parties in a proceeding to adjudicate parentage.
§ 1837. Personal jurisdiction
1. Personal jurisdiction. An individual may not be adjudicated to be a parent unless the court has personal jurisdiction over the individual.
2. Personal jurisdiction over nonresident. A court of this State having jurisdiction to adjudicate parentage may exercise personal jurisdiction over a nonresident individual, or the guardian or conservator of the individual, if the conditions prescribed in section 2961 are fulfilled.
3. Adjudication. Lack of jurisdiction over one individual does not preclude the court from making an adjudication of parentage binding on another individual over whom the court has personal jurisdiction.
§ 1838. Venue
Venue for a proceeding to adjudicate parentage is in the county or division in which:
1. Child. The child resides or is present or, for purposes of subchapter 7 or 8, is or will be born;
2. Parent. The parent or intended parent resides;
3. Respondent. The respondent resides or is present if the child does not reside in this State;
4. Estate proceeding. A proceeding for probate or administration of the parent or alleged parent's estate has been commenced; or
5. Child protection proceeding. A child protection proceeding with respect to the child has been commenced.
§ 1839. Joinder of proceedings
1. Joinder permitted. Except as otherwise provided in subsection 2, a proceeding to adjudicate parentage may be joined with a proceeding for parental rights and responsibilities, child support, child protection, termination of parental rights, child custody or visitation, divorce, annulment, legal separation, guardianship, probate or administration of an estate or other appropriate proceeding or a challenge or rescission of acknowledgment of paternity.
2. Joinder not permitted. A respondent may not join a proceeding described in subsection 1 with a proceeding to adjudicate parentage brought as part of an interstate child support enforcement action under chapter 67.
§ 1840. Orders
1. Interim order for support. In a proceeding under this subchapter, the court may issue an interim order for support of a child in accordance with the child support guidelines under chapter 63 with respect to a person who is:
A. A presumed, acknowledged or adjudicated parent of the child;
B. Petitioning to have parentage adjudicated;
C. Identified as the genetic parent through genetic testing under subchapter 6;
D. An alleged parent who has declined to submit to genetic testing; or
E. The woman who gave birth to the child.
2. Interim order for parental rights and responsibilities. In a proceeding under this subchapter, the court may order an initial allocation of parental rights and responsibilities. The order of the court must provide notice that if either party objects to the allocation, that party may file a complaint pursuant to section 1654 and that an order from that action supersedes this initial allocation of parental rights and responsibilities. In resolving parental rights and responsibilities issues, the court may not delay entering a determination of parentage and an initial order concerning child support.
3. Final orders. Final orders concerning child support or parental rights and responsibilities are governed by chapters 51 and 55, respectively.
§ 1841. Admission of parentage authorized
1. Admission of parentage. A respondent in a proceeding to adjudicate parentage may admit to the parentage of a child by filing a pleading to that effect or by admitting parentage under penalty of perjury when making an appearance or during a hearing.
2. Order adjudicating parentage. If the court finds that an admission of parentage satisfies the requirements of this section and finds that there is no reason to question the admission, and no other party contests it, the court may issue an order adjudicating the child to be the child of the person admitting parentage.
§ 1842. Order on default
The court may issue an order adjudicating the parentage of a person who is in default, as long as:
1. Served with notice. The person was served with notice of the proceeding; and
2. Found to be parent. The person is found by the court to be the parent of the child.
§ 1843. Order adjudicating parentage
1. Issuance of order. In a proceeding under this subchapter, the court shall issue a final order adjudicating whether a person alleged or claiming to be a parent is the parent of a child.
2. Identify child. A final order under subsection 1 must identify the child by name and date of birth.
3. Change of name. On request of a party and for good cause shown, the court may order that the name of the child be changed.
4. Amended birth registration. If the final order under subsection 1 is at variance with the child's birth certificate, the State Registrar of Vital Statistics shall issue an amended birth registration.
§ 1844. Binding effect of determination of parentage
1. Determination binding; signatories and parties. Except as otherwise provided in subsection 2, a determination of parentage is binding on:
A. All signatories to an acknowledgment of paternity or denial of parentage as provided in subchapter 3; and
B. All parties to an adjudication by a court acting under circumstances that satisfy the jurisdictional requirements of section 2961.
2. Adjudication in proceeding to dissolve marriage. In a proceeding to dissolve a marriage, the court is deemed to have made an adjudication of the parentage of a child if the court acts under circumstances that satisfy the jurisdictional requirements of section 2961 and the final order:
A. Expressly identifies a child as a "child of the marriage" or "issue of the marriage" or by similar words indicates that the parties are the parents of the child; or
B. Provides for support of the child by the parent or parents.
3. Determination a defense. Except as otherwise provided in this chapter, a determination of parentage may be a defense in a subsequent proceeding seeking to adjudicate parentage by an individual who was not a party to the earlier proceeding.
4. Challenge to adjudication. A party to an adjudication of parentage may challenge the adjudication only by appeal or in a manner otherwise consistent with the Maine Rules of Civil Procedure.
§ 1845. Full faith and credit
A court of this State shall give full faith and credit to a determination of parentage, including but not limited to an acknowledgment of paternity, from another state if the determination is valid and effective in accordance with the law of the other state.
ESTABLISHMENT OF PARENTAGE
§ 1851. Establishment of parentage
Parentage may be established by:
1. Birth. Giving birth to the child, except as otherwise provided in subchapter 8;
2. Adoption. Adoption of the child pursuant to Title 18-A, Article 9;
3. Acknowledgment. An effective voluntary acknowledgment of paternity under subchapter 3;
4. Presumption. An unrebutted presumption of parentage under subchapter 4;
5. De facto parentage. An adjudication of de facto parentage, under subchapter 5;
6. Genetic parentage. An adjudication of genetic parentage under subchapter 6;
7. Assisted reproduction. Consent to assisted reproduction under subchapter 7; and
8. Gestational carrier agreement. Consent to a gestational carrier agreement under subchapter 8 by the intended parent or parents.
§ 1852. Nondiscrimination
Every child has the same rights under law as any other child without regard to the marital status or gender of the parents or the circumstances of the child's birth.
§ 1853. Consequences of establishment of parentage
1. All purposes. Unless parental rights are terminated, parentage established under this chapter applies for all purposes, except as otherwise specifically provided by other law of this State.
2. Preservation of parent-child relationship. Consistent with the establishment of parentage under this chapter, a court may determine that a child has more than 2 parents.
§ 1854. Determination of maternity
Provisions of this chapter relating to determination of paternity may apply to determination of maternity as needed to determine parentage consistent with this chapter.
§ 1855. No limitation on child
Nothing in this subchapter limits the right of a child to bring an action to adjudicate parentage.
VOLUNTARY ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF PATERNITY
§ 1861. Acknowledgment of paternity
The woman who gives birth to a child and a man, not her spouse, claiming to be the genetic father of the child may sign an acknowledgment of paternity with intent to establish paternity.
§ 1862. Execution of acknowledgment of paternity
1. Requirements. An acknowledgment of paternity under section 1861 must:
A. Be in a record;
B. Be signed, or otherwise authenticated, under penalty of perjury by the woman giving birth and by the man seeking to establish his paternity;
C. State that:
(1) There is no other presumed parent of the child or, if there is another presumed parent, state that parent's full name; and
(2) There is no other acknowledged father and no adjudicated parent of the child other than the woman giving birth;
D. State whether there has been genetic testing and, if so, that the acknowledging man's claim of paternity is consistent with the results of the testing;
E. State that the man signing the acknowledgement believes himself to be the biological father; and
F. State that the signatories understand that the acknowledgment is the equivalent of a court determination of paternity of the child and that a challenge to the acknowledgment is permitted only under limited circumstances and is barred after 2 years.
2. Notice. Before the woman giving birth or alleged father may sign an acknowledgment of paternity under section 1861, the woman giving birth and the putative father must be given oral and written notice of the alternatives to, the legal consequences of and the rights and responsibilities that arise from signing the acknowledgment.
3. Acknowledgment voidable. An acknowledgment of paternity under section 1861 is voidable if it:
A. States that another person is a presumed parent, unless a denial of parentage signed or otherwise authenticated by the presumed parent is filed with the State Registrar of Vital Statistics;
B. States that another person is an acknowledged father or adjudicated parent; or
C. Falsely denies the existence of a presumed parent, acknowledged father or adjudicated parent of the child.
4. Presumed parent. A man who is a presumed parent under section 1881, subsection 3 may sign or otherwise authenticate an acknowledgment of paternity in accordance with the requirements of this subchapter.
§ 1863. Denial of parentage
A person presumed to be a parent under section 1881 may execute a denial of parentage only in the limited circumstances set forth in this section. A denial of parentage is valid only if:
1. Acknowledgment. An acknowledgment of paternity signed or otherwise authenticated by another man is filed pursuant to this subchapter;
2. Under penalty of perjury. The denial is in a record and is signed or otherwise authenticated under penalty of perjury; and
3. Person executing. The person executing the denial has not previously:
A. Acknowledged paternity, unless the previous acknowledgment has been rescinded pursuant to section 1867 or successfully challenged pursuant to section 1868; or
B. Been adjudicated to be the parent of the child.
§ 1864. Filing of an acknowledgment of paternity and related denial of parentage
1. Acknowledgment and denial. An acknowledgment of paternity and related denial of parentage under this subchapter must be filed with the State Registrar of Vital Statistics and may be contained in a single document or may be signed in counterparts and may be filed separately or simultaneously. If the acknowledgment and denial are both necessary, neither is valid until both are filed.
2. Effective date. Subject to subsection 1, an acknowledgment of paternity or denial of parentage takes effect on the filing of the document with the State Registrar of Vital Statistics, whichever occurs later.
3. Signed by minor. An acknowledgment of paternity or denial of parentage signed by a minor is valid if it is otherwise in compliance with this chapter.
§ 1865. Equivalent to adjudication
1. Acknowledgment. Except as otherwise provided in sections 1867 and 1868, a valid acknowledgment of paternity under section 1861 filed with the State Registrar of Vital Statistics is equivalent to an adjudication of parentage of a child and confers upon the acknowledged father all of the rights and duties of a parent.
2. Denial. Except as otherwise provided in section 1867 and section 1868, subsection 1, a valid denial of parentage under section 1863 filed with the State Registrar of Vital Statistics in conjunction with a valid acknowledgment of paternity under section 1861 is equivalent to an adjudication of the nonparentage of the presumed parent and discharges the presumed parent from all rights and duties of a parent.
§ 1866. No filing fee
The State Registrar of Vital Statistics may not charge a fee for filing an acknowledgment of paternity or denial of parentage under section 1864.
§ 1867. Proceeding for rescission
A signatory may rescind an acknowledgment of paternity or denial of parentage under this subchapter by commencing a proceeding to rescind before the earlier of:
1. Sixty days after effective date. Sixty days after the effective date of the acknowledgment or denial, as provided in section 1864; and
2. Date of first hearing. The date of the first hearing, in a proceeding to which the signatory is a party, before a court to adjudicate an issue relating to the child, including a proceeding seeking child support.
§ 1868. Challenge to acknowledgment
1. Challenge by signatory. After the period for rescission under section 1867 has expired, a signatory of an acknowledgment of paternity or denial of parentage may commence a proceeding to challenge the acknowledgment or denial only:
A. On the basis of fraud, duress or material mistake of fact; and
B. Within 2 years after the acknowledgment or denial is filed with the State Registrar of Vital Statistics.
2. Challenge by person not a signatory. If an acknowledgment of paternity has been made in accordance with this subchapter, an individual who is neither the child nor a signatory to the acknowledgement of paternity and who seeks to challenge the validity of the acknowledgment and adjudicate parentage must commence a proceeding not later than 2 years after the effective date of the acknowledgment, as provided in section 1864, unless the individual did not know and could not reasonably have known of the individual's potential genetic parentage on account of material misrepresentation or concealment, in which case the proceeding must be commenced no later than 2 years after discovery.
3. Burden of proof. A party challenging an acknowledgment of paternity or denial of parentage pursuant to this section has the burden of proof.
§ 1869. Procedure for rescission or challenge
1. Every signatory party. Every signatory to an acknowledgment of paternity and any related denial of parentage under this subchapter must be made a party to a proceeding under section 1867 or 1868 to rescind or challenge the acknowledgment or denial.
2. Submission to personal jurisdiction. For the purpose of rescission of or challenge to an acknowledgment of paternity or denial of parentage, a signatory submits to personal jurisdiction of this State by signing the acknowledgment or denial, effective upon the filing of the document with the State Registrar of Vital Statistics pursuant to section 1864.
3. Suspension of legal responsibilities. Except for good cause shown, during the pendency of a proceeding under section 1867 or 1868 to rescind or challenge an acknowledgment of paternity or denial of parentage, the court may not suspend the legal responsibilities of a signatory arising from the acknowledgment, including the duty to pay child support.
4. Proceeding to rescind or challenge. A proceeding under section 1867 or 1868 to rescind or challenge an acknowledgment of paternity or denial of parentage must be conducted as a proceeding to adjudicate parentage under subchapter 1.
5. Amendment to birth record. At the conclusion of a proceeding under section 1867 or 1868 to rescind or challenge an acknowledgment of paternity or denial of parentage, the court shall order the State Registrar of Vital Statistics to amend the birth record of the child, if appropriate.
§ 1870. Ratification not permitted
A court or administrative agency conducting a judicial or administrative proceeding may not ratify an unchallenged acknowledgment of paternity under section 1861.
§ 1871. Forms for acknowledgment and denial of paternity
To facilitate compliance with this subchapter, the State Registrar of Vital Statistics shall prescribe forms for the acknowledgment of paternity and the denial of parentage. A valid acknowledgment of paternity or denial of parentage is not affected by a later modification of the prescribed form.
§ 1872. Release of information
The State Registrar of Vital Statistics may release information relating to an acknowledgment of paternity under section 1861 as provided in Title 22, section 2706.
§ 1873. Adoption of rules
The State Registrar of Vital Statistics may adopt rules to implement this subchapter. Rules adopted pursuant to this section are routine technical rules for the purposes of Title 5, chapter 375, subchapter 2-A.
PRESUMED PARENTAGE
§ 1881. Presumption of parentage
1. Marital presumption established. A person is presumed to be the parent of a child if:
A. The person and the woman giving birth to the child are married to each other and the child is born during the marriage;
B. The person and the woman giving birth to the child were married to each other and the child is born within 300 days after the marriage is terminated by death, annulment, divorce or declaration of invalidity or after a decree of separation; or
C. Before the birth of the child, the person and the woman giving birth to the child married each other in apparent compliance with law, even if the attempted marriage is or could be declared invalid, and the child is born during the invalid marriage or within 300 days after its termination by death, annulment, divorce or declaration of invalidity or after a decree of separation.
2. Equivalent status in other jurisdictions. The marital presumption in subsection 1 applies to a legal relationship that provides substantially the same rights, benefits and responsibilities as marriage and is recognized as valid in the state or jurisdiction in which it was entered.
3. Nonmarital presumption established. A person is presumed to be a parent of a child if the person resided in the same household with the child and openly held out the child as that person's own from the time the child was born or adopted and for a period of at least 2 years thereafter and assumed personal, financial or custodial responsibilities for the child.
4. Rebuttal of presumption. A presumption established under this subchapter may be rebutted only by a court determination.
§ 1882. Challenge to presumed parent
1. Two-year limitation. Except as provided in subsection 2, a proceeding to challenge the parentage of an individual whose parentage is presumed under section 1881 must be commenced not later than 2 years after the birth of the child; otherwise the presumption cannot be rebutted.
2. Later than 2 years. A proceeding to challenge the parentage of an individual whose parentage is presumed under section 1881 may be commenced more than 2 years after the birth of the child in the following situations.
A. A presumed parent under section 1881, subsection 1 who is not the genetic parent of a child and who could not reasonably have known about the birth of the child may commence a proceeding under this subsection within 2 years after learning of the child's birth.
B. An alleged genetic parent who did not know of the potential genetic parentage of a child, and who could not reasonably have known on account of material misrepresentation or concealment, may commence a proceeding under this subsection within 2 years after discovering the potential genetic parentage. If the individual is adjudicated to be the genetic parent of the child, the court may not disestablish a presumed parent and, consistent with section 1853, subsection 2, the court shall determine parental rights and responsibilities of the parents in accordance with section 1653.
C. A mother or a presumed parent under section 1881, subsection 3 disputing the validity of the presumption may commence a proceeding under this subsection at any time.
§ 1883. Multiple presumptions
If 2 or more conflicting presumptions arise under this subchapter, the court shall adjudicate parentage and determine parental rights and responsibilities in accordance with section 1653.
DE FACTO PARENTAGE
§ 1891. De facto parentage
1. De facto parentage. The court may adjudicate a person to be a de facto parent.
2. Standing to seek de facto parentage. A person seeking to be adjudicated a de facto parent of a child under this subchapter must establish standing to maintain the action in accordance with the following.
A. A person seeking to be adjudicated a de facto parent of a child shall file with the initial pleadings an affidavit alleging under oath specific facts to support the existence of a de facto parent relationship with the child as set forth in subsection 3. The pleadings and affidavit must be served upon all parents and legal guardians of the child and any other party to the proceeding.
B. An adverse party, parent or legal guardian who files a pleading in response to the pleadings in paragraph A shall also file an affidavit in response, serving all parties to the proceeding with a copy.
C. The court shall determine on the basis of the pleadings and affidavits under paragraphs A and B whether the person seeking to be adjudicated a de facto parent has presented prima facie evidence of the requirements set forth in subsection 3. The court may in its sole discretion, if necessary and on an expedited basis, hold a hearing to determine disputed facts that are necessary and material to the issue of standing.
D. If the court's determination under paragraph C is in the affirmative, the party claiming de facto parentage has standing to proceed to adjudication under subsection 3.
3. Adjudication of de facto parent status. The court shall adjudicate a person to be a de facto parent if the court finds by clear and convincing evidence that the person has fully and completely undertaken a permanent, unequivocal, committed and responsible parental role in the child's life. Such a finding requires a determination by the court that:
A. The person has resided with the child for a significant period of time;
B. The person has engaged in consistent caretaking of the child;
C. A bonded and dependent relationship has been established between the child and the person, the relationship was fostered or supported by another parent of the child and the person and the other parent have understood, acknowledged or accepted that or behaved as though the person is a parent of the child;
D. The person has accepted full and permanent responsibilities as a parent of the child without expectation of financial compensation; and
E. The continuing relationship between the person and the child is in the best interest of the child.
4. Orders. The court may enter the following orders as appropriate.
A. The court may enter an interim order concerning contact between a person with standing seeking adjudication under this subchapter as a de facto parent and the child.
B. Adjudication of a person under this subchapter as a de facto parent establishes parentage, and the court shall determine parental rights and responsibilities in accordance with section 1653. The court shall make appropriate orders for the financial support for the child in accordance with the child support guidelines under chapter 63. An order requiring the payment of support to or from a de facto parent does not relieve any other parent of the obligation to pay child support unless otherwise ordered by a court.
5. Other parents. The adjudication of a person under this subchapter as a de facto parent does not disestablish the parentage of any other parent.
GENETIC PARENTAGE
§ 1901. Scope of subchapter
This subchapter governs procedures and requirements of genetic testing and genetic testing results of an individual to determine parentage and adjudication of parentage based on genetic testing, whether the individual voluntarily submits to testing or is tested pursuant to an order of the court or the department.
§ 1902. Requirements for genetic testing
1. Type of genetic testing. Genetic testing must be of a type reasonably relied upon by experts in the field of genetic testing and performed in a testing laboratory accredited by:
A. A national association of blood banks approved by the department; or
B. An accrediting body designated by the federal Secretary of Health and Human Services.
2. Specimen. A specimen used in genetic testing may consist of one or more samples, or a combination of samples, of blood, buccal cells, bone, hair or other body tissue or fluid. The specimen used in the testing need not be of the same kind for each individual undergoing genetic testing.
3. Selection of databases; objections. Based on the genetic population group of an individual, a testing laboratory shall determine the databases from which to select frequencies for use in calculation of the probability of genetic parentage. If there is disagreement as to the testing laboratory's choice, the following provisions apply.
A. The court, upon motion, may require the testing laboratory, prior to adjudication, to recalculate the test results using a different database for genetic population groups from that used by the laboratory.
B. The individual objecting to the testing laboratory's initial choice shall:
(1) If the frequencies are not available to the testing laboratory for the genetic population groups requested, provide the requested frequencies compiled in a manner recognized by an accrediting body under subsection 1; or
(2) Engage another accredited testing laboratory to perform the calculations.
C. The testing laboratory may use its own statistical estimate if there is a question regarding which database for genetic population groups is appropriate. The testing laboratory shall calculate the frequencies using statistics, if available, for any other database requested.
4. Additional genetic testing. If, after recalculation under subsection 3 using a different database for genetic population groups, genetic testing does not rebuttably identify the genetic parent of a child under section 1904, an individual who has been tested may be required to submit to additional genetic testing.
§ 1903. Report of genetic testing
1. Report; self-authenticating. A report of genetic testing must be in a record and signed under penalty of perjury by a designee of the testing laboratory. A report made under the requirements of this subchapter is self-authenticating.
2. Documentation. Documentation from the testing laboratory of the following information is sufficient to establish a reliable chain of custody that allows the results of genetic testing to be admissible without testimony:
A. The names and photographs of the individuals whose specimens have been taken;
B. The names of the individuals who collected the specimens;
C. The places and dates the specimens were collected;
D. The names of the individuals who received the specimens in the testing laboratory; and
E. The dates the specimens were received.
§ 1904. Genetic testing results
1. Results identify as genetic parent. Under this chapter, a person is rebuttably identified as the genetic parent of a child if the genetic testing of the person complies with this subchapter and the results disclose:
A. In the case of paternity:
(1) That the man has at least a 99% probability of paternity, using a prior probability of 0.50, as calculated by using the paternity index obtained in the testing; and
(2) A paternity index of at least 100 to 1; and
B. In the case of maternity:
(1) That the woman has at least a 99% probability of maternity, using a prior probability of at least 0.50, as calculated by using the maternity index obtained in the testing; and
(2) A maternity index of at least 100 to 1.
2. Identification of genetic parent. Identification of a genetic parent through genetic testing does not establish parentage absent adjudication under this chapter.
3. Rebuttal. A person identified under subsection 1 as the genetic father or genetic mother of the child may rebut the genetic testing results only by other genetic testing satisfying the requirements of this subchapter that:
A. Excludes the person as a genetic father or genetic mother of the child; or
B. In the case of a genetic father, identifies another man as the possible genetic father of the child or, in the case of a genetic mother, identifies another woman as the possible genetic mother of the child.
4. Further genetic testing. Except as otherwise provided in section 1909, if more than one person is identified by genetic testing as the possible genetic father or genetic mother of the child, the court shall order them to submit to further genetic testing to identify the sole genetic father or genetic mother.
§ 1905. Costs of genetic testing
1. Payment for the costs advanced. The payment for the costs, if any, of initial genetic testing must be advanced:
A. By the department in a proceeding in which the department is providing services;
B. By the individual who made the request;
C. As agreed by the parties; or
D. As ordered by the court.
2. Reimbursement. In cases in which the payment for the costs of initial genetic testing is advanced pursuant to subsection 1, paragraph A, the department may seek reimbursement from a person who is rebuttably identified through the genetic testing as the genetic father or genetic mother.
§ 1906. Additional genetic testing
The court shall order additional genetic testing upon the request of a party who contests the result of the initial testing. If the initial genetic testing identified a person as the genetic father or genetic mother of the child under section 1904, the court or agency may not order additional testing unless the party provides advance payment for the testing.
§ 1907. Genetic testing when specimens not available
1. Specimen not available; submission of specimens. Subject to subsection 2, if a genetic testing specimen is not available from a person who may be the genetic father or genetic mother of a child, for good cause and under circumstances the court considers to be just, the court may order the following individuals to submit specimens for genetic testing:
A. The parents of the person;
B. Brothers and sisters of the person;
C. Other children of the person and their mothers; and
D. Relatives of the person necessary to complete genetic testing.
2. Finding required. Issuance of an order under this section requires a finding that a need for genetic testing outweighs the legitimate interests of the individual sought to be tested.
§ 1908. Deceased person
For good cause shown, the court may order genetic testing of a deceased person.
§ 1909. Identical sibling
1. Genetic testing of sibling. The court may order genetic testing of a sibling of a person if the person is commonly believed to have an identical sibling and evidence suggests that the sibling may be the genetic father or genetic mother of the child.
2. Nongenetic evidence. If a person and a sibling of the person tested pursuant to subsection 1 satisfy the requirements as the identified genetic father or genetic mother of the child under section 1904 without consideration of another identical sibling being identified as the genetic father or genetic mother of the child, the court may rely on nongenetic evidence to adjudicate parentage under this chapter.
§ 1910. Confidentiality of genetic testing
1. Release of report. A report of genetic testing for parentage is confidential and may not be released except as provided in this subchapter.
2. Intentional release of identifiable specimen. An individual who intentionally releases an identifiable specimen of another individual for any purpose other than that relevant to a proceeding regarding parentage without a court order or the written permission of the individual who furnished the specimen commits a Class E crime.
§ 1911. Court order for testing
1. Order to submit to genetic testing. Except as provided in section 1912 or as otherwise provided in this chapter, the court may order a child and other designated individuals to submit to genetic testing if the request for testing is supported by the sworn statement of a party to a proceeding setting forth a reasonable, good faith basis for alleging or denying genetic parentage.
2. Presumption of genetic maternity. Genetic testing of the woman who gave birth to a child is not required and may not be ordered to prove that she is the genetic mother, unless there is a reasonable, good faith basis to dispute genetic maternity.
3. No presumed, acknowledged or adjudicated parent. The department may seek an order for genetic testing only if there is no presumed parent, acknowledged father, adjudicated parent or intended parent who consented to assisted reproduction pursuant to this chapter. Genetic testing may not be ordered if the person who is the subject of the request for order is a donor.
4. In utero testing. If a request for genetic testing of a child is made before birth, the court may not order in utero testing.
5. Concurrent or sequential testing. If 2 or more individuals are subject to court-ordered genetic testing, the testing may be ordered concurrently or sequentially.
§ 1912. Authority to deny requested order for genetic testing or admission of test results
1. Grounds for denial. In a proceeding to adjudicate parentage, the court may deny a motion seeking an order for genetic testing or deny admissibility of the test results at trial if the court determines that:
A. The conduct of the parties estops a party from denying parentage; or
B. It would be an inequitable interference to the relationship between the child and a parent or otherwise contrary to the best interest of the child.
2. Factors. In determining whether to deny a motion seeking an order for genetic testing under this chapter or a request for admission of such test results at trial, the court shall consider the best interest of the child, including the following factors, if relevant:
A. The length of time between the proceeding to adjudicate parentage and the time that a parent was placed on notice that genetic parentage is at issue;
B. The length of time during which the parent has assumed a parental role for the child;
C. The facts surrounding discovery that genetic parentage is at issue;
D. The nature of the relationship between the child and the parent;
E. The age of the child;
F. Any adverse effect on the child that may result if parentage is successfully disproved;
G. The nature of the relationship between the child and any alleged parent;
H. The extent to which the passage of time reduces the chances of establishing the parentage of another person and a child support obligation in favor of the child; and
I. Factors in addition to those in paragraphs A to H that may affect the equities arising from the disruption of the relationship between the child and the parent or the chance of other adverse effect to the child.
3. Guardian ad litem. In a proceeding involving the application of this section, a minor or incapacitated child may be represented by a guardian ad litem.
4. Order. In cases involving an acknowledged or presumed parent, if the court denies a motion seeking an order for genetic testing, the court shall issue an order adjudicating the acknowledged or presumed parent to be the parent of the child.
§ 1913. Admissibility of results of genetic testing; expenses
1. Record admissible; objection. Except as otherwise provided in subsection 3, a record of a genetic testing expert is admissible as evidence of the truth of the facts asserted in the report unless a party objects to its admission within 14 days after its receipt by the objecting party and cites specific grounds for exclusion. The admissibility of the report is not affected by whether the testing was performed:
A. Voluntarily or pursuant to an order of the court; or
B. Before or after the commencement of the proceeding.
2. Testimony of experts. A party objecting to the results of genetic testing may call one or more genetic testing experts to testify in person or by telephone, videoconference, deposition or another method approved by the court. Unless otherwise ordered by the court, the party offering the testimony bears the expense for the expert's testifying.
3. Results inadmissible; exceptions. If a child has a presumed parent, acknowledged father or adjudicated parent, the results of genetic testing are admissible to adjudicate parentage only:
A. With the consent of each person who is a parent of the child under this chapter, unless the court otherwise orders under section 1912; or
B. Pursuant to an order of the court under section 1911.
4. Copies of bills and records as evidence. Copies of bills and records of expenses paid for prenatal care, childbirth, postnatal care and genetic testing are admissible as evidence without requiring 3rd-party foundation testimony and are prima facie evidence of amounts incurred for those expenses or testing on behalf of the child.
§ 1914. Consequences of declining genetic testing
1. Adjudication contrary to position. If an individual whose paternity is being determined under this chapter declines to submit to genetic testing ordered by the court, the court for that reason may adjudicate parentage contrary to the position of that individual.
2. Testing of woman giving birth; unavailable or declines. Genetic testing of the woman who gave birth to a child is not a condition precedent to testing the child and a man whose paternity is being determined under this chapter. If the woman who gave birth is unavailable or declines to submit to genetic testing, the court may order the testing of the child and every person whose genetic parentage is being adjudicated.
§ 1915. Adjudication of parentage based on genetic testing
1. Parentage based on genetic testing. If the court adjudicates parentage based on genetic testing, the following apply.
A. Unless the results of genetic testing are admitted to rebut other results of genetic testing:
(1) If genetic testing results pursuant to section 1904 exclude a person as the genetic parent of a child, the court shall find that person is not a genetic parent of the child and may not adjudicate the person as the child's parent on the basis of genetic testing; and
(2) If genetic testing results pursuant to section 1904 identify a person as the genetic parent of a child, the court shall find that person to be the genetic parent and may adjudicate the person as the child's parent, unless otherwise provided by this chapter.
B. If the court finds that genetic testing under section 1904 neither identifies nor excludes a person as the genetic parent of a child, the court may not dismiss the proceeding. In that event, the results of genetic testing and other evidence are admissible to adjudicate the issue of parentage.
2. Inadmissible evidence. Testimony relating to sexual relations or possible sexual relations of the woman giving birth at a time other than the probable time of conception of the child is inadmissible in evidence.
3. Adjudication consistent with this chapter. An adjudication of parentage based on genetic testing is subject to the requirements and limitations of this chapter.
PARENTAGE BY ASSISTED REPRODUCTION
This subchapter does not apply to the birth of a child conceived by means other than assisted reproduction.
§ 1922. Parental status of donor
1. Donor not a parent. A donor is not a parent of a child conceived through assisted reproduction.
2. Exceptions. Notwithstanding subsection 1:
A. A person who provides a gamete or gametes or an embryo or embryos to be used for assisted reproduction for the person's spouse is a parent of the resulting child; and
B. A person who provides a gamete or gametes or an embryo or embryos for assisted reproduction is a parent of the resulting child if the person has a written agreement or agreements with the person giving birth and any intended parent that the person will be a parent.
§ 1923. Parentage of child of assisted reproduction
A person who provides gametes for and consents to or a person who consents to assisted reproduction by a woman as provided in section 1924 with the intent to be the parent of a resulting child is a parent of the resulting child.
§ 1924. Consent to assisted reproduction
1. Written consent. Consent by a person who intends to be a parent of a child born through assisted reproduction must be set forth in a signed record that is executed by each intended parent and provides that the signatories consent to use of assisted reproduction to conceive a child with the intent to parent the child.
2. Lack of written consent; parentage. Failure of a person to sign a consent required by subsection 1 before or after birth of the child does not preclude a finding of parentage:
A. If consent can be proved by other means and the consenting individual resided with the child after birth and undertook to develop a parental relationship with the child; or
B. As provided in this chapter.
3. Consent form. Consent under subsection 1 executed via a consent form adopted by the Office of Data, Research and Vital Statistics must be accepted and relied upon for purposes of issuing a birth record.
§ 1925. Challenge by spouse to consent
1. Challenge by spouse to consent. The spouse of a person who gives birth to a child through assisted reproduction may challenge the spouse's own parentage of the child only if:
A. The spouse did not provide gametes or embryos for the assisted reproduction;
B. The spouse did not before or after the birth of the child consent to the assisted reproduction by the person who gave birth;
C. The spouse and the person who gave birth to the child have not cohabitated since the time of the child's birth; and
D. The spouse did not openly hold out the child as the spouse's own.
§ 1926. Effect of dissolution of marriage or withdrawal of consent
1. Dissolution of marriage prior to transfer or implantation. If a marriage is dissolved before transfer or implantation of gametes or embryos, the former spouse is not a parent of the resulting child unless the former spouse consented in a signed record with notice to the other spouse and the woman giving birth that, if assisted reproduction were to occur after a divorce, the former spouse would be a parent of the child.
2. Withdrawal of consent prior to transfer or implantation. The consent of a person to assisted reproduction under section 1924 may be withdrawn by that person in a signed record with notice to the person giving birth and any other intended parent before transfer or implantation of gametes or embryos. A person who withdraws consent under this subsection is not a parent of the resulting child.
§ 1927. Parent status of deceased person
If a person who consented in a signed record under section 1924 to be a parent by assisted reproduction dies before transfer or implantation of gametes or embryos, the deceased person is not a parent of the resulting child unless the deceased person consented in a signed record that, if assisted reproduction were to occur after death, the deceased person would be a parent of the child.
§ 1928. Birth orders
1. Proceeding for birth order. Before or after the birth of the resulting child, a party consenting to assisted reproduction, a person who has a written agreement to be a parent pursuant to section 1922, subsection 2, paragraph B, the intended parent or parents or the person giving birth may commence a proceeding in District Court to obtain an order:
A. Declaring that the intended parent or parents are the parent or parents of the resulting child and ordering that parental rights and responsibilities vest exclusively in the intended parent or parents immediately upon the birth of the child;
B. Sealing the record from the public to protect the privacy of the child and the parties; or
C. For any relief that the court determines necessary and proper.
2. State not a necessary party. Neither this State nor the State Registrar of Vital Statistics is a necessary party to a proceeding under subsection 1.
§ 1929. Laboratory error
If due to a laboratory error the resulting child is not genetically related to either of the intended parents, the intended parents are the parents of the child unless otherwise determined by the court.
GESTATIONAL CARRIER AGREEMENT
§ 1931. Eligibility to enter gestational carrier agreement
1. Eligibility of gestational carrier. In order to execute an agreement to act as a gestational carrier, a woman must:
A. Be at least 21 years of age;
B. Have previously given birth to at least one child;
C. Have completed a medical evaluation that includes a mental health consultation;
D. Have had independent legal representation of her own choosing and paid for by the intended parent or parents regarding the terms of the gestational carrier agreement and have been advised of the potential legal consequences of the gestational carrier agreement; and
E. Not have contributed gametes that will ultimately result in an embryo that she will attempt to carry to term, unless the gestational carrier is entering into an agreement with a family member.
2. Eligibility of intended parent or parents. Prior to executing a gestational carrier agreement, a person or persons intending to become a parent or parents, whether genetically related to the child or not, must:
A. Complete a medical evaluation and mental health consultation; and
B. Retain independent legal representation regarding the terms of the gestational carrier agreement and have been advised of the potential legal consequences of the gestational carrier agreement.
§ 1932. Gestational carrier agreement authorized
1. Written agreement. A prospective gestational carrier who is eligible pursuant to section 1931, her spouse if she is married and the intended parent or parents may enter into a written agreement that:
A. The prospective gestational carrier agrees to pregnancy by means of assisted reproduction;
B. The prospective gestational carrier and her spouse, if she is married, have no rights and duties as the parents of a child conceived through assisted reproduction; and
C. The intended parent or parents will be the parents of any resulting child.
2. Intended parents. The intended parent or parents must be parties to a gestational carrier agreement.
3. Enforceable. A gestational carrier agreement is enforceable only if it meets the following requirements.
A. The agreement must be in writing and signed by all parties.
B. The agreement must require no more than a one-year term to achieve pregnancy.
C. At least one of the parties must be a legal resident of the State.
D. The agreement must be executed before the commencement of any medical procedures other than the medical evaluations required by section 1931 and, in every instance, before transfer of embryos.
E. The gestational carrier and the intended parent or parents must meet the eligibility requirements of section 1931.
F. If any party is married, the party's spouse also must be required to execute the agreement.
G. The gestational carrier and the intended parent or parents must be represented by independent legal counsel in all matters concerning the agreement and each counsel shall affirmatively so state in a written declaration attached to the agreement. The declarations must state that the agreement meets the requirements of this chapter and must be solely relied upon by health care providers and staff at the time of birth and by the Office of Data, Research and Vital Statistics for birth registration and certification purposes.
H. The gestational carrier and each intended parent must sign a written acknowledgment of having received a copy of the agreement.
I. The signature of each party to the agreement must be notarized, acknowledged or attested by a person authorized to take oaths in accordance with the laws of the jurisdiction where it is executed.
J. The agreement must expressly provide that:
(1) The gestational carrier:
(a) Must undergo assisted reproduction and attempt to carry and give birth to any resulting child;
(b) Has no claim to parentage of all resulting children to the intended parent or parents immediately upon the birth of the child or children regardless of whether a court order has been issued at the time of birth; and
(c) Must acknowledge the exclusive parentage of the intended parent or parents of all resulting children;
(2) If the gestational carrier is married, her spouse:
(a) Must acknowledge and agree to abide by the obligations imposed on the gestational carrier by the terms of the gestational carrier agreement;
(b) Has no claim to parentage of any resulting children to the intended parent or parents immediately upon the birth of the children regardless of whether a court order has been issued at the time of birth; and
(3) The gestational carrier has the right to use the services of a health care provider of her choosing to provide her care during her pregnancy;
(4) The intended parent or parents must:
(a) Be the exclusive parent or parents and accept parental rights and responsibilities of all resulting children immediately upon birth regardless of the number, gender or mental or physical condition of the child or children; and
(b) Assume responsibility for the financial support of all resulting children immediately upon the birth of the children; and
(5) All parties must provide records related to the medical evaluations conducted pursuant to section 1931, subsection 2, paragraph A.
4. Reasonable expenses. A gestational carrier agreement may provide for payment of reasonable expenses, which, if paid to a prospective gestational carrier, must be negotiated in good faith between the parties.
5. Decision of gestational carrier. A gestational carrier agreement may not limit the right of the gestational carrier to make decisions to safeguard her health.
§ 1933. Parentage; parental rights and responsibilities
If a gestational carrier agreement satisfies the requirements of this chapter:
1. Parentage. The intended parent or parents are by operation of law the parent or parents of the resulting child immediately upon the birth of the child, and the resulting child is considered the child of the intended parent or parents immediately upon the birth of the child.
A. Neither the gestational carrier nor her spouse, if any, is the parent of the resulting child.
B. A person who is determined to be a parent of the resulting child is obligated to support the child. The breach of the gestational carrier agreement by the intended parent or parents does not relieve the intended parent or parents of the obligation to support the resulting child;
2. Parental rights and responsibilities. Parental rights and responsibilities vest exclusively in the intended parent or parents immediately upon the birth of the resulting child; and
3. Laboratory error. If due to a laboratory error the resulting child is not genetically related to either the intended parent or parents or any donor who donated to the intended parent or parents, the intended parent or parents are considered the parent or parents of the child.
1. Action for birth order. Pursuant to a valid gestational carrier agreement under this subchapter, before or after the birth of the resulting child a party to the gestational carrier agreement may commence a proceeding in District Court to obtain an order:
A. Designating the contents of the birth certificate in accordance with Title 22, section 2761 and directing the Office of Data, Research and Vital Statistics to designate the intended parent or parents as the parent or parents of the child. The State Registrar of Vital Statistics may charge a reasonable fee for the issuance of a birth certificate;
B. Declaring that the intended parent or parents are the parent or parents of the resulting child and ordering that parental rights and responsibilities vest exclusively in the intended parent or parents immediately upon the birth of the child;
C. Sealing the record from the public to protect the privacy of the child and the parties; or
D. For any relief that the court determines necessary and proper.
§ 1935. Exclusive, continuing jurisdiction
Subject to the jurisdictional standards of section 1745, the court conducting a proceeding under this subchapter has exclusive, continuing jurisdiction of all matters arising out of the gestational carrier agreement until a child born to the gestational carrier during the period governed by the agreement attains the age of 180 days.
§ 1936. Termination of gestational carrier agreement
1. Termination of agreement; parties. A party to a gestational carrier agreement may withdraw consent to any medical procedure and may terminate the gestational carrier agreement at any time prior to any embryo transfer or implantation by giving written notice of termination to all other parties.
2. Obligations upon termination; no liability to gestational carrier. Upon termination of the gestational carrier agreement under subsection 1, the parties are released from all obligations recited in the agreement except that the intended parent or parents remain responsible for all expenses that are reimbursable under the agreement incurred by the gestational carrier through the date of termination. The gestational carrier is entitled to keep all payments she has received and obtain all payments to which she is entitled. Neither a prospective gestational carrier nor her spouse, if any, is liable to the intended parent or parents for terminating a gestational carrier agreement.
§ 1937. Effect of subsequent marriage
1. Agreement valid. The subsequent marriage of the gestational carrier does not affect the validity of a gestational carrier agreement.
2. Subsequent consent not required. The consent of the subsequent spouse of the gestational carrier to the agreement is not required.
3. No marital presumption. The subsequent spouse of the gestational carrier is not presumed to be a parent of the resulting child.
§ 1938. Effect of noncompliance; standard of review; remedies
1. Not enforceable. Except as otherwise provided, a gestational carrier agreement that does not meet the requirements of this subchapter is not enforceable.
2. Standard of review. In the event of noncompliance with the requirements of this subchapter or with a gestational carrier agreement, a court shall determine the respective rights and obligations of the parties to the gestational carrier agreement, including evidence of the intent of the parties at the time of execution.
3. Remedies. Except as expressly provided in a gestational carrier agreement and in subsection 4, in the event of a breach of the gestational carrier agreement by the gestational carrier or the intended parent or parents, the gestational carrier or the intended parent or parents are entitled to all remedies available at law or in equity.
4. Genetic testing. If the parentage of a child born to a gestational carrier is alleged to not be the result of assisted reproduction, and this question is relevant to the determination of parentage, the court may order genetic testing.
5. Specific performance. Specific performance is not an available remedy for a breach by the gestational carrier of any term in a gestational carrier agreement that requires the gestational carrier to be impregnated or to terminate a pregnancy. Specific performance is an available remedy for a breach by the gestational carrier of any term that prevents the intended parent or parents from exercising the full rights of parentage immediately upon birth of the child.
Sec. 2. Effective date. This Act takes effect July 1, 2016.
This bill offers an updated, comprehensive statutory framework for determining a child's legal parentage. It is patterned after, and follows in part, the Uniform Parentage Act, a uniform law initially developed in 1973 and most recently updated in 2002 by the Uniform Law Commission. Even though the bill adopts portions of the Uniform Parentage Act, it is sufficiently different from the Uniform Parentage Act overall that the chapter of statute the bill enacts merits its own, distinct title, "the Maine Parentage Act."
The Maine Parentage Act is organized into 8 subchapters. Subchapter 1 provides definitions of key terms. It authorizes actions to adjudicate legal parentage and establishes the parameters for such actions. Subchapter 2 is the hub of the bill. It organizes and lists in one place the grounds upon which legal parentage may be based. They are: birth, adoption, voluntary acknowledgment of paternity, unrebutted presumption of parentage, de facto parentage, genetic parentage, consent to assisted reproduction and consent through a valid gestational carrier agreement. The six subchapters that follow address individual grounds for parentage.
The bill confirms a number of grounds for parentage under current law and in several instances proposes amendments to clarify and update the law with respect to these grounds. For example, it updates the standards applicable to genetic testing to reflect current science and practice; provides more detailed procedures for use of the voluntary acknowledgment of paternity process in suitable cases; and codifies a traditional presumption of parentage in the legal spouse of the mother, which is only found now in a rule of evidence. The bill also codifies the de facto parent doctrine, now firmly established by case law, to require an explicit determination of standing as a prerequisite for maintaining an action, recognize the elevated burden of proof that a person claiming such status must satisfy and clarify the elements of proof so as to address some practical problems encountered by practitioners and courts under the case law.
The bill recognizes and clarifies the legal parentage of children born to parents who use medical assisted reproduction as well as children born by means of assisted reproduction in conjunction with a gestational carrier. Clear statutory guidelines and requirements serve to regulate usage, protect the rights of parties and reduce reliance on judicial actions in this area.
Finally, consistent with the Uniform Parentage Act and legislation in a number of other states, the bill recognizes the presumption of parentage in an unmarried partner of the mother who lives with the mother at the time of birth and holds out the child as that person's own for 2 years from birth.
A more detailed summary of the bill is provided in Appendix B to the Family Law Advisory Commission Report to Maine Legislature Joint Standing Committee on Judiciary, pursuant to Resolve 2014, c. 83 on Proposed "Maine Parentage Act" dated December 15, 2014.
The effective date is July 1, 2016.


text:
Grammy awards 2021: Women rule as Taylor Swift and Beyonce break records
The cascade of performances and success for black female artists glossed over a growing wave of criticism over the Grammys' opaque nomination process, alleged conflicts of interest and years of appearing to snub black artistry.
Mar 16, 2021 - 05:25 Updated: Mar 16, 2021 - 05:44
It was a historic, triumphant night for ladies in music at the 2021 Grammys, as a variety of female artists took home the highest awards. HER took home song of the year for the Black Lives Matter anthem I Can't Breathe, Taylor Swift became the primary woman to win album of the year 3 times , and therefore the rapper Megan Thee Stallion won both best new artist and best rap performance for her Savage remix with Beyoncé, now the foremost awarded singer (male or female) and feminine artist of all time.
The first Grammys from executive producer Ben Winston, 39, best known for turning James Corden's Carpool Karaoke series into a viral staple and therefore the first new producer since Ken Ehrlich took over the show in 1980, stuck mostly to measure or pre-recorded performances spliced with videos highlighting new, streaming-bolstered stars. The production's Covid precautions – 6ft-compliant tables and chairs beneath a garlanded outdoor terrace, five separate stages at the l. a. Convention Center, widespread testing – added millions to the show's budget but helped the show avoid a number of the tech glitches and Zoom awkwardness that plagued last month's Golden Globes.
The cascade of performances and success for black female artists glossed over a growing wave of criticism over the Grammys' opaque nomination process, alleged conflicts of interest and years of appearing to snub black artistry. The Canadian artist referred to as The Weeknd, real name Abel Tesfaye, led an anti-Grammys chorus including such artists as Zayn and Drake, after his album After Hours, a critical and commercial smash containing the year's biggest song, Blinding Lights, was surprisingly exclude of nominations. during a statement to the ny Times last week, the Weeknd said he would boycott the awards from now on and direct his record label to not submit his music for future contention, citing the anonymous committees with final say on nominations.
But the controversy mostly stayed outside the frame on Sunday, save a press release within the final 10 minutes from the interim Grammys president, Harvey Mason Jr, promising a renewed diversity effort and calling on artists to "work with us, not against us". Instead, the 3.5-hour mega-concert was about "bringing us together like only music can", said the night's ebullient host, the Daily Show's Trevor Noah, and "never forgetting what happened in 2020, but hope for what's to come".
Noah mostly served to line up the roll of performances grouped loosely by genre, from pop/rock (Harry Styles, last year's Grammy sweeper Billie Eilish, sister-act Haim), to country (Mickey Guyton, performing Black Like Me, a rejoinder to a genre notoriously unwelcoming to black and feminine artists, then Miranda Lambert and Maren Morris with John Mayer)
Bad Bunny – the foremost streamed artist of 2020 – foreshadowed the reopening of clubs during a light tunnel, while Dua Lipa, whose album Future Nostalgia took over early quarantine in 2020, went full Studio 2054 with DaBaby for his or her remix of Levitating.
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Funding approved for Bloomington pool and library projects; Ward 1's Jamie Mathy resigns
WGLT | By Michele Steinbacher
Published March 28, 2022 at 10:12 PM CDT
Eric Stock
WGLT
At its meeting Monday, the Bloomington City Council OK'd a nearly $14 million construction contract with Normal-based P.J. Hoerr to handle the O'Neil Pool and Park Project. In this file photo, from October 2021, Bloomington officials take part in a ceremonial groundbreaking for the project, which includes a pool, lazy river, and skate park.
The Bloomington City Council's Monday night meeting included expected big-money decisions on two major capital projects, but also brought the surprise resignation of Ward 1 council member Jamie Mathy.
The council OK'd a nearly $14 million construction contract for O'Neil Park's Pool and Park Project. The city is borrowing a combined $20 million to cover that, and to assist the Bloomington Public Library in its renovation project, using general obligation bonds.
Moments before the two-plus hour meeting ended, Mathy, who also is Bloomington mayor pro-tem, announced he'd be resigning immediately, to focus on a business opportunity.
"This is going to come as a shock to a lot of people," he said. Mathy said he was stepping down for a business opportunity that wouldn't be compatible with holding the citywide office.
Later Monday night, Mathy told WGLT he didn't know the opportunity would present itself when he ran for re-election , or he wouldn't have campaigned. He declined to share more details.
Mayor Mboka Mwilambwe will interview candidates, and appoint a replacement for the Ward 1 vacancy, as required within 60 days. This marks the second council member the mayor will appoint since his April election.
"It has been an honor and a privilege to serve the residents of the city of Bloomington," said Mathy.
Also at the meeting in the downtown Government Center, the council began a city ward redistricting process, and held a public hearing on the city's proposed $269 million annual budget. No one signed up for public comments at the hearing.
The budget document, about 7% higher than last year's mostly due to federal COVID-relief funding, is set for adoption April 11.
Normal's P.J. Hoerr to handle O'Neil project
The council voted 7-2 to award Normal-based P.J. Hoerr Construction a nearly $14 million contract to oversee the extensive renovation of O'Neil Park, including its centerpiece, a new aquatic center.
The city's borrowing about $6 million for the project. The council also approved amending Bloomington's fiscal 2022 budget by roughly $10,500, for project costs.
Eric Veal, the Bloomington Parks, Recreation and Cultural Arts director, shared details on the project, which includes a pool, lazy river, and splash pad, as well as a new skate park.
"This will make Bloomington better for current and future residents," he said, noting the city hasn't built a public pool in nearly 50 years. "This is one to be proud of," he added.
Ward 3's Sheila Montney and Ward 5's Nick Becker voted against the contract, citing increasing costs since the project first was proposed.
"It's the prioritization of spending that I question," said Becker. "We're already up 50 percent (from the original proposed $10 million), and we haven't even broken ground yet," he said.
But Mathy said higher costs are expected. "The whole world has gotten more expensive" as the COVID-19 pandemic has played out, he said.
Mwilambwe echoed those sentiments, adding the city's committed to the renovation: "It's been a long time coming for the west side."
"It is a question of priorities," said Ward 4's Julie Emig. "I believe this is a community investment. I don't see it as something that diminishes the other responsibilities we have, but enhances Bloomington."
An endowment to offset entry-fees for lower-income residents, now at $32,000, continues to grow, the mayor said.
Library project funding OK'd
To enable the Bloomington Public Library's major expansion, the council unanimously approved an intergovernmental agreement with BPL, relating to the city issuing more than $14 million in bonds for the renovation project.
However, in a separate vote authorizing a nearly $21.3 million amendment to the FY22 budget tied to that expansion, Becker and Montney voted "no."
In an unrelated matter, the council voted unanimously to allow the city to issue up to $20 million in general obligation bonds to finance capital improvements.
Census data leads to redistricting
The council voted unanimously Monday to begin a redistricting process for the city's ward system.
Residency in each ward shouldn't vary by more than a 10% margin, said city attorney Jeff Jurgens. However, 2020 U.S. Census data shows Ward 8 is 25% over the median, and Ward 7 is 12% under.
So, staff will draft a few proposals to adjust the map. Council will see those drafts in June, and could vote on a new map by July, he said.
jamiemathy.com
Mayor: Mathy's resignation 'bit of a shocker'
"I find myself at a crossroads — where I must focus on the needs of my business, and with it the financial security of both my family and my employees," Mathy told the council, in explaining his resignation. An unplanned opportunity arose over the winter, and legally, to take that, he had to step down from council, he said.
"It's a bit of a shocker," said Mwilambwe, after he and the council gave Mathy a standing ovation. "But we definitely understand you have to do what you need to do for yourself, your family, as well as your employees."
Mathy owns the game store Red Raccoon Games in downtown Bloomington. He first was appointed to council in 2013. He was elected in 2017, and re-elected in 2021.
He said he'll continue serving Bloomington, just in different ways. A member of the Community Health Care Clinic board, he'll serve as president of that next year, he noted.
Ward 1's Mathy said he's had three main focus areas as an elected city leader, and feels proud about strides made in each area — investing in older neighborhoods, modernizing the city's technology footprint, and improving communication between the council and city partners.
Challenges ahead for the council include expanding affordable housing opportunities, fighting urban sprawl, and improving Bloomington's infrastructure, he said.
In other business, the council:
Approved spending about $670,000 to buy three heavy-duty rear loaders from McNeilus Truck Manufacturing Co.
Heard the annual report of its police review board, the Public Safety Community Relations Board.
Adopted the city's 2021 zoning map.
Amended city code regarding fees tied to debt collections.
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Local News Bloomington City CouncilO'Neil PoolO'Neil ParkBloomington BudgetBloomington Public Library
Michele Steinbacher
Michele Steinbacher is a WGLT correspondent. She joined the staff in 2020.
See stories by Michele Steinbacher
Bloomington council OKs plan for waste disposal site, rejects proposal for D.C. lobbyist
Bloomington council hears about city's new ADA plan and police ideas for spending $500K grant
Bloomington-Normal council candidate nonpartisan forum turns partisan
Union for Bloomington police sergeants, lieutenants gets new contract with pay raises
Bloomington city leaders look ahead to 2023


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Sinnie Coldwater
(This is a thread from Mizahar's fantasy roleplay forum. Why don't you register today? This message is not shown when you are logged in. Come roleplay with us, it's fun!)
by Sinnie Coldwater on February 18th, 2019, 3:14 am
Race: Ghost
Age: 18 (16 at death)
Birthday: 92, Winter, 500
Deaththday: 92, Winter, 516
Birthplace: Snowsong, Avanthal
In her fleshy years, Sinnie was a petite Vantha with wavy, shimmering brown hair and dark blue eyes like jewels. Sinnie was on the curvier side for her race, and this was a small source of insecurity, though she was mostly definitely more self-conscious of her 4'11 stature. Sinnie was also dotted with many freckles across her face and body, and her opinion on them swayed back in forth throughout her life. In the afterlife, of course, everything changes. Whatever made Sinnie flawed and imperfect also made her alive, and Sinnie often thinks fondly upon memories of flushed cheeks and bad hair days.
Now sporting an almost ethereal pallor, Sinnie seeks only for simple definition of appearance- a way in which her features discern themselves into a human-like assembly, rather than a swirling cloud of a young girl taken too soon. Still, Sinnie would rather be a collection of whispering shadows than simply gone all together.
Something that most people wouldn't assume at first glance is Sinnie's aversion to anything she deems "unclean". This stems from an overprotective mother and immaculate childhood home, in which Sinnie accustomed herself to prefer such conditions. In her form now, Sinnie finds herself much more tolerant to squalor, considering the town in which she chooses to roam, but it should be noted that places of moderate filth cause Sinnie considerable distress, and she pays mind to avoid prolonged presence in such spaces.
Sinnie is kind of like a a jawbreaker- sweet on the outside and progressively more sour towards the center. Though incredibly friendly and curious and most any situation, this could translate to blunt, nosy confrontations. Furthermore, if Sinnie is especially intrigued by a certain someone, she tends to linger and perhaps overstay her welcomes. Those who have taken the time and patience to unravel Sinnie will reveal a lonely and longing girl with a persistence for reliving both her feats and traumas in the form of disassociate episodes. The reoccurring theme in them is most often either her or her husband's death. Interpersonally, this manifests itself into a scornful attitude towards Kelvics (the race of her murderer), and when acted upon, can range from a mean comment or avoidance to sabotage and revenge, depending on the person or opportunity.
Sinnie's mother was born into the Coldwater hold, but later married and moved to the Snowsong hold with Sinnie's father. The two met at a festival in honor of Morwen, in which Sinnie's father proved himself to be an extremely charming, almost manipulative character. Of course, nothing seemed truly amiss, and eventually Sinnie was born, a healthy- albeit small- baby girl. Sinnie's father, who had previously lived off of his family's income alongside various odd jobs, had made himself into a rather successful merchant of Vanthan instruments. With the added income, Sinnie's mother had no reason to question his increasingly long endeavors away from home, that is until he failed to return.
Word of mouth finally informed her that indeed Sinnie's father had taken a mistress and went to pursue a life with the younger woman. Sinnie has little memory of this time, as she was only around 4 or 5 years old. Going forward, Sinnie was actually quite popular in her younger years, even despite her father's dishonor. She was considerably confident, and though not entirely fearless, Sinnie wasn't afraid of making a fool of herself for a good laugh. This is a time in which Sinnie refers to in terms of how she wishes to act during her stay in Sunberth. This was also when Sinnie learned nearly all of the Vantha songs, hymns, and lullabies she knows today.
Between the ages of 13 to the time around a year before her death, Sinnie's life was at it's all time low. Gradually, simple teen drama progressed to a despise for anything that reminded Sinnie of her father, even if that meant outcasting her own mother (against her better judgement). Perhaps this was a reflection of Sinnie's record low placement among her peers, for as it turns out, people aren't too attracted to self-hatred, and Sinnie had enough of it to wrap around the entirety of Mizahar. Vicious yet indulgent negativity reigned supreme in Sinnie's life until her sixteenth birthday, in which she faced serious questions about her future and where it was going. Sinnie resolved she was to be married as soon as possible, despite the clear consequences her mother endured with a similar decision. Sinnie needed someone who could take her far, far away from her life, and eventually her wish came true. Another Vantha by the name of Askar swept Sinnie off her feet just as she had had hoped, with grand promises of the new life she always dreamed of.
When Askar approached Sinnie's mother to discuss the terms of her dowry, Sinnie's mother was almost comically opposed, and upon such judgement declared that the two were to never wed, at least not until they could prove they could commit. If you haven't already guessed, this essentially meant Sinnie's mother had made up her mind for good and there wasn't a thing to do about it. Perhaps the woman didn't understand young long, or perhaps Sinnie was making a true mistake. Paying no mind to this thought, Sinnie and Askar (after a few more months of superfluous convincing) decided to elope to Coldwater, where Askar was from originally, and get married on Sinnie's birthday. Afterwards, because they knew people might go after looking for them, the two were to move to Sunberth, a seemingly low-cost city in which Askar claimed he had family who could help them acclimate to their new lives. After the excuses for their absence were made, a straight path was ahead, and all was well until the wedding reception. All too late, the newly weds received word of the Vantha bounty, and to avoid a true red wedding, the celebration was promptly cut short. All the guests went into hiding in whatever way they could, and even those with their hastily put together weapons were no match for the relentless Kelvics in search of heads. It was on this day Sinnie and her lover lost a particularly high-stakes game of hide and seek.
After finding herself in her currently ghostly form, without her young lover for direction or companionship, Sinnie vowed to carry out their final plans. So, Sinnie made her way to Sunberth, which took her over a year, and when there, spent a few months looking for Askar's seemingly immaterial relatives. After losing most hope of finding Askar or his family, Sinnie spent the remainder of her time up until her first appearance learning how to make the best of her (un)life. Let's just say for someone as nosy as Sinnie, the ability to sneak through walls was a welcome perk.
Basic Language: Vani
Poor Language: N/A
Possesions
As ghosts aren't able to have possessions, the only things which SInnie truly owns are the clothes she died in. It should also be noted that Sinnie's ring is her utmost prized possession, and she values it more than life itself- her's or anyone else's.
- Reception dress (Blue)
- Ring (Engagement)
- Simple flats (White)
Possession +14SP 14 Novice
Soulmist Projection +20SP 20 Novice
Materialization +10RB, +16SP 26 Competent
Lore of Sunberth Street Layout
Lore of traditional Vantha music
Location: Sunberth
House: What does your home look like?
While traveling to Sunberth, Sinnie spent the first while of her undead existence in vagrancy. She eventually made herself at home in an abandoned, relatively clean house in Stumble Alley. Besides it's location, the house also remains untouched partially due to a time in which Sinnie made a point to scare a low level gang member looking for a place to crash, and partially due to the dense structure of dead trees and rubble that only someone who could penetrate solid matter could bypass.
Coming soon to a thread near you
Last edited by Sinnie Coldwater on February 20th, 2019, 1:09 pm, edited 4 times in total.
Joined roleplay: February 12th, 2019, 5:13 pm
by Sinnie Coldwater on February 20th, 2019, 12:56 pm
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A new exhibition space showcasing local, regional, national and international artists and craftsmen has opened at The Dartington Hall Trust.
The new space will house a rich and diverse programme of 2-, 3- and 4D art, and opens on 1 August with a three-month exhibition of two South Hams-based sculptors.
The Graffiti Tree features work by Jilly Sutton and Ian Carr, and runs from 10am to 5pm each day until 10 October.
An addition to Dartington's internationally-renowned Arts programme, The Gallery reinforces Dartington's role in building creative, resilient communities. It will also feature selected items from the Dartington collection alongside relevant exhibits.
Jilly Sutton's sculptures have been exhibited internationally and are in public and private collections in the UK and abroad. Her carved wooden portrait of the former Poet Laureate Andrew Motion is in the National Portrait Gallery's permanent collection. Ian Carr has exhibited widely including the Arnolfini Gallery, Bristol, the Liverpool's Walker Art Gallery, Manchester's Whitworth Art Gallery, the Roundhouse, Chalk Farm, Leeds City Art Gallery and most recently the Bunker Project in south Devon. All artwork will be for sale.


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The Fixer
Fixing footbridge stairs is a step in the right direction: Fixer
Concrete stairs in Glen Stewart Park had been crumbling for a year, until our column last week. There were more signs of progress around the city.
By Jack LakeyStaff Reporter
Sun., Oct. 25, 2015timer2 min. read
Bring on winter, now that the steps to the pedestrian bridge in Glen Stewart Park are in good order.
Our Wednesday column was about the stairs at the east end of the footbridge that runs across a ravine in the park and connects to Balsam Ave. and the surrounding residential area.
A reader said she was concerned that the erosion, which was mostly limited to one side of the stairs, was spreading to the other side and would result in the stairs being entirely closed to all traffic.
Mark Hawkins, the area parks supervisor, sent us a note saying the stairs were fixed the same day our column was in the paper.
We went back on the weekend and found wooden forming still in place around stairs that had been repaired with fresh concrete. Once the wood and caution tape comes down, it'll be back to normal.
Last Thursday, we wrote about new Canada Post community mailboxes in Markham that were plunked down on a boulevard on Clendenen Ct., instead of being installed where they're supposed to go.
No more than 10 metres away was a concrete base that was built into the curb for the boxes, which had people wondering why they weren't put there in the first place.
A reader said he and his neighbours started calling Canada Post when the boxes first appeared, but could only leave voicemail messages and had no idea if anyone heard their complaints, or were acting on them.
We sent a note about it to Anick Losier, who deals with media for Canada Post. She emailed back on Friday to say she had just received confirmation that the boxes were relocated to the base that was made for them.
On Oct. 12 we reported on "no cycling" signs in Riverdale Park West that were at odds with other signage that identifies a recreational path that cuts through it as part of a cycling route.
When we asked parks officials which sign is correct, they weren't sure. But we recalled writing about a similar situation several years ago, and that the old bylaw which the "no cycling" signs are meant to enforce is no longer in effect.
The parks department has since sent us a note saying the outdated signs have been removed, and that cycling is permitted.
What's broken in your neighbourhood? Wherever you are in Greater Toronto, we want to know. To contact us, go to thestar.com/yourtoronto/the_fixer or call us at 416-869-4823 email jlakey@thestar.ca . To read our blog, go to thestar.com/news/the_fixer . Report problems and follow us on Twitter @TOStarFixer.
More Your Toronto


A Dashboard in Targetprocess is a single page that groups a set of Widgets, views, and reports. A Dashboard provides a brief overview of the current state of progress at various levels.
Dashboards are a great way to track progress on various levels. For example, with our Dashboard tool you can view the progress of several projects, such asQA or Help Desk activities. In the Usage Cases section, we reveal more detailed scenarios to help provide context.
In Targetprocess' dashboard tools, a two-column layout is selected by default, but you can switch to a three or four-column layout. It's safe to switch to another layout; all widgets are preserved on the Dashboard.
Only column layout is supported for Dashboards. If you need an advanced layout, let us know, and we'll consider this for future improvements.
Private. If the Dashboard is only for you, then make it private. This makes it invisible to all other users.
Public. Only a Targetprocess Admin can make public Dashboards. Public Dashboards are visible to all users in your organization.
Team/Project. You may need a Dashboard for a specific Team or Project. In this case, use the custom sharing option and select the relevant groups.
A Dashboard software is useless without widgets, so we have plenty of them. You can add the same widget to a Dashboard several times. For instance, let's say that you want to see Burndown charts for two iterations at the same time. Just add two Burndown chart widgets to a Dashboard and select different iterations from the widgets' settings.
To add a Widget, find the required feature and click the large green + button. By default, the new Widget is positioned in an empty column and Targetprocess' Dashboard software will try to fill any empty spaces. You can always reposition Widgets later using drag and drop.
When you are done, click on Finish setup at the top right corner.
Remove a Widget from the Dashboard with a single click on the trash can icon. You can always add it again from the Widget library.
Change Widget settings. For example, to change the filter in a List Widget click on the cogwheel icon to see available settings.
Rename a Widget with a double-click on a Widget's name.
Move a Widget by dragging its title to the desired position.
See a detailed review of Widgets here.
There are many different use cases for Dashboards. You will likely create many dashboards for different needs. Here are some examples that might be useful.


Kukkola torrent offers a nice area for fishing salmon, enjoy nature and a marvellous restaurant near by.
A view over Kukkolafors or the river by Kukkola.
At this moment, summertime, it´s less water in torne elf. You see cottages on both sides and people fishing salmon. Click on the picture to see the restaurant and museum.


Cobra and Bellamy was established in 1980 in Sloane Street London. With a world wide reputation for the unique collection of vintage and contemporary jewellery. Now online with it's timeless and elegant jewellery to be worn casually or in a more sophisticated way. Cobra and Bellamy Jewellery includes one off pieces of both modern and vintage, and the well known Cobra and Bellamy collection of earrings and necklaces with gem stones and pearls in silver or gold. All the collection of jewellery is hand made in London.


In our area, in the southeast – Atlanta to be specific, we are able to go blueberry picking in July. It is a great activity to do with kids. It is free, other than the amount you pay for the actual blueberries you pick. It's also a great learning opportunity for kids to see how food grows. Picking food shows kids how food makes its way from Mother Nature's garden to the kitchen table.
We were able to go out and pick blueberries around July 4th of this year. We decided to visit Berry Patch Farms in Woodstock, Georgia.
TIP: Call ahead and find out what the blueberry picking conditions are like before you head out to pick.
It was very hot, so starting early in the morning was very helpful.
TIP: You work up high, while the kids work down low. Kids can reach the blueberries lower to the ground, while adults can reach up and pick the blueberries that are high up.
Here are some great links to other Berry picking locations in the Atlanta & surrounding area courtesy of Red Tricycle.