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A titkosszolgálat az államok érdekeinek védelmében, titkos eszközökkel dolgozó állami szervezetek összefoglaló elnevezése. Feladataik közé tartozik elsősorban az információszerzés az adott állam ellen irányuló, külső és belső titkos tervekről és cselekedetekről, a potenciális ellenfelek stratégiai és gazdasági helyzetének titkairól. Az információszerzés mellett gyakran titkos, úgynevezett aktív intézkedéseket is végeznek az ellenfél helyzetének hátrányos befolyásolása érdekében. Ezek sajtóbotrányok keltésétől akár robbantásokig vagy célzott likvidálásokig is terjedhetnek.

A titkosszolgálatok fajtái

A titkosszolgálatok a kémkedés ősi mesterségéből alakultak ki. A modern titkosszolgálatok a 19. században jelentek meg és a 20. századra fejlődtek ki a világ számos országában.

A modern titkosszolgálatok tevékenységének részleteit, főképpen külső együttműködőiket a szakma szabályai szerint titokban kell tartaniuk feletteseiktől, kormányaiktól is, különösen demokratikus államokban, ahol a kormányok gyakran változhatnak. A kormányok viszont nehezen tűrik a titkosszolgálatok viszonylag nagy függetlenségét e téren. Ezért is gyakori, hogy a nagyhatalmak több párhuzamos titkosszolgálatot is működtetnek, a munkamegosztás mellett részben annak érdekében is, hogy e szolgálatok információit egymással szemben is lehessen ellenőrizni. (A KGB és a GRU az egykori Szovjetunióban, a Gestapo és az Abwehr a hitleri Németországban. Az Egyesült Államokban a "Hírszerző Közösség" 17 különböző szervezetből áll.)

A titkosszolgálatok leggyakoribb felosztásai kétfélék. Az egyik a külső és a belső feladatokat ellátó szervezetek megkülönböztetése: hírszerző szolgálatok (Magyarországon például az Információs Hivatal, az Egyesült Államokban CIA, Nagy-Britanniában az MI6), és biztonsági szolgálatok, mint a (kém)elhárítás (Magyarországon az Alkotmányvédelmi Hivatal, az Egyesült Államokban az FBI, Nagy-Britanniában az MI5), illetve a belső elhárító szolgálatok, amelyeknek különösen a diktatúrákban van nagy szerepe a belső ellenzék elleni elhárító tevékenységben. (Politikai rendőrség, (Államvédelmi Hatóság (ÁVH), KGB, Gestapo, Securitate). Demokratikus államok is végeznek – korlátok között, alkotmányvédelmi jelleggel – ilyen tevékenységet, de általában egy szervezetben a kémelhárítással.

A titkosszolgálatok másik felosztása a katonai jellegű szervezeteket különbözteti meg (például Magyarországon a Katonai Biztonsági Hivatal, a Szovjetunióban, illetve Oroszországban a GRU, az Egyesült Államokban a DIA) a "polgári" jellegű szervezetektől (KGB, CIA, Alkotmányvédelmi Hivatal). A katonai szervezetek fő tevékenysége általában külföldre irányul, de gyakran ezek látják el a hazai katonai kémelhárítást is.

Magyar titkosszolgálatok

Alkotmányvédelmi Hivatal (AH)
Információs Hivatal (IH)
Nemzetbiztonsági Szakszolgálat (NBSZ)
Katonai Nemzetbiztonsági Szolgálat (KNBSZ)
Terrorelhárítási Információs és Bűnügyi Elemző Központ (TIBEK)

A titkosszolgálatok állománya

A titkosszolgálatok számára a hivatásos állományuk mellett a legfontosabb a céljaiknak megfelelő közegben tevékenykedő, tőlük eredetileg független személyek beszervezése. Feladataikat a titkosszolgálatok az esetek nagy többségében csak ilyen együttműködők révén tudják megoldani.

Hálózat
A titkosszolgálatokkal együttműködők sokaságát a szakmai zsargonban hálózatnak nevezik, annak ellenére, hogy tagjai csak kivételes esetekben ismerhetik egymást. A hálózat a korabeli definíció szerint a titkosszolgálattal szervezetszerűen és titkosan, konspiráltan együttműködő külső segítők összessége. A hálózat tagjai tudatosan, beszervezés útján válnak a szolgálat segítőivé.

A hálózat tagjain kívül a titkosszolgálatok és tagjaik lazább kapcsolatokat is kialakítanak a tevékenységükkel összefüggésben a társadalom különböző köreiben. Ezek közül például igen fontosak a hivatali kapcsolatok, amikor az államigazgatás különböző szintjein elhelyezkedő vezetők és beosztottak hivatalból, saját munkájukkal összefüggésben, tudatosan nyújtanak segítséget a biztonsági szolgálatok és tagjaik számára. Más kapcsolatok gyakran nincsenek tisztában azzal, hogy titkosszolgálati személyeknek, szervezeteknek nyújtanak kisebb-nagyobb támogatást.

Terminológiai kérdések
A titkosszolgálatok elnevezései is hagyományosan sokfélék és megtévesztők, de leggyakrabban szerepel bennük az utalás a biztonságra, információra, védelemre. A diktatúrákban régebben általában az állam védelmét (például az Államvédelmi Hatóság), biztonságát (például a KGB) helyezték előtérbe az elnevezésben, a demokratikus országokban ehelyett gyakrabban a nemzet védelme, biztonsága szerepel (például a Nemzetbiztonsági Szakszolgálat).

A titkosszolgálatok hivatásos tagjai gyakran katonai rendfokozatokat viselnek, mind a katonai, mind az úgynevezett polgári szolgálatok esetében. Magyarország állampárti korszakában a katonai titkosszolgálat a honvédség, a polgári a rendőrség része volt, szovjet mintára, csakúgy, mint a szövetséges szocialista országokban. Más országokban ezek a szolgálatok általában függetlenek a hadseregtől és a rendőrségtől, de belső használatra gyakran hozzájuk hasonló vagy azokkal azonos rendfokozatokat alakítanak ki.

Az ügynök szó jelentése
A titkosszolgálatok hivatásos tagjait az Egyesült Államokban ügynöknek (agent) nevezik. Ez az elnevezés az amerikai angolból az utóbbi évtizedben beszivárgott magyar nyelvbe is, ami sok értelmezési zavart okoz. Hagyományosan ugyanis magyarul a titkosszolgálat hivatásos tagjai, tisztjei által beszervezett külső személyeket hívták ügynöknek. Ez a helyzet a brit angolban is: a brit hírszerzés, a Secret Intelligence Service (régi, de a mindennapokban ma is használt nevén MI6) hivatásos munkatársainak hivatalos elnevezése officer, a beszervezett, főleg külföldi hálózati személyeké agents. Ugyanakkor a szigetországi köznyelvben is egyre inkább terjed az amerikai szóhasználat. Az ügynök szónak a magyarban meglehetősen pejoratív hangzása is volt, ezért hivatalosan kerülték is, inkább különböző eufemizmusokkal írták körül, mint "titkos munkatárs"; "megnyert személy", és hasonlók. (Az amerikai angolban egyébként a hasonló pozícióban lévő személyeket "forrásnak" – source – nevezik.) A "tiszt" szó a köznyelvben sokkal kedvezőbb csengésű volt. A rendszerváltás után a sajtóban, tömegtájékoztatásban ezért a korábbi titkosszolgálatok hivatásos tagjait is tiszt helyett ügynöknek nevezték, ha negatív benyomást akartak kelteni, mint Medgyessy Péter emlékezetes ügyében (D-209-es "ügynök", tulajdonképpen szigorúan titkos állományú hivatásos tiszt). A későbbiekben az amerikai nyelvhasználat alapján egyre inkább elmosódott az ügynök szó pejoratív jelentése, de a hivatásos állomány és a beszervezett személyek elnevezései közötti keveredés fennmaradt.

Hírszerzés, kémkedés, felderítés
Esetenként félreértést tükröz a hírszerzés és a kémkedés megkülönböztetése is. Fontos látni, hogy ezek szinonimák; a kémkedés pejoratív hangzása miatt azonban a "saját oldalra" ezt a szót általában nem használják. Másrészt az újkori nagy szervezetek vezetőire, vagy olyan tagjaira, akik nem végeznek "terepmunkát", nem is illik ez a szó. Célszerű tehát a kém szót és származékait csak a 19. század előtti hírszerzőkre használni.

Hasonlóképpen keveredik gyakran a hírszerzés és a felderítés szó használata. Az esetek többségében a két szó jelentése azonos vagy közelálló, de a katonai felderítés értelmében lényeges különbségek is vannak. Ebben az esetben a felderítés nem csak az ellenfél titkainak megszerzésére irányuló tevékenység, hanem a katonai tevékenységhez szükséges földrajzi, időjárási és egyéb nyíltnak tekinthető, de az adott helyzetben nehezen hozzáférhető adatok beszerzése is.

Egyes szakszövegek belső és külső hírszerzésről is beszélnek, ebben az esetben a belső hírszerzés megfelel a máshol (kém)elhárításnak vagy belső elhárításnak nevezett tevékenységnek. Gyakran keveredik a belső elhárítás és a belbiztonsági tevékenység fogalma is. Az előbbi a hivatalos szóhasználatban az alkotmányos rend elleni szervezkedések felszámolására irányuló tevékenység, az utóbbi pedig a fegyveres testületeken belüli bűncselekmények feltárására irányuló titkosszolgálati jellegű munka, mint a magyar Nemzeti Védelmi Szolgálat tevékenysége.

A titkosszolgálatok tevékenységének dokumentációja, irodalma
A nemzetközileg fontosabb hírszerző és biztonsági szolgálatok általában jelentős befolyást gyakoroltak és gyakorolnak nem csak a saját országuk történelmére, hanem bizonyos fokig a világtörténelem alakulására is, bár a nagy nemzetközi konfliktusok végkifejletét mindig az alapvető erőviszonyok, és nem a titkosszolgálatok ilyen vagy olyan húzásai döntik el. Jelentős történelmi szerepük ellenére a titkosszolgálatok dokumentációi általában ténylegesen titokban maradnak, gyakran akár végleg is, mint a brit vagy a volt szovjet szolgálatok iratai. Ennek oka a titkosszolgálatoknak a nyilvánosságtól való irtózásán kívül főleg az, hogy a látszólag teljesen elavult ügyekből is leszűrhetők olyan következtetések, amelyek az ellenérdekelt feleknek segítséget nyújthatnak az adott titkosszolgálat eszközeinek, módszereinek elemzésére. Azt is szem előtt kell tartani, hogy a titkosszolgálatokról mégis megjelenő tények és adatok általában engedéllyel kerülnek nyilvánosságra, és megszövegezésüknél legtöbbször közreműködnek az adott szervezet szakértői is, felügyelve arra, hogy az írás ne sértse érdekeiket, viszont lehetőleg rossz színben tüntesse fel az ellenfelet. Az úgynevezett ügynöklisták nyilvánosságra hozatalának egyik fontos akadálya is az, hogy az aktuálisan működő titkosszolgálatok számára az ilyen közzététel végletesen megnehezítheti a tevékenységükhöz egyébként elengedhetetlenül szükséges új közreműködők beszervezését, mivel az érintettek láthatják, mi történhet velük.

Jegyzetek

Források

További információk

 A titkosszolgálat működése: színészkedés, ideális helyek és módszerek mandadb.hu (Hozzáférés ideje: 2020. január 6.)

Kapcsolódó cikkek
 Ügynök (titkosszolgálattal együttműködő személy)
 Befolyásoló ügynök

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


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NDDC inspects projects, warns contractors in Abia
December 5, 2019 Tech Admin News, Project 1
The Niger Delta Development Commission, NDDC, has warned contractors working for it, to brace up and discharge their obligations fully as the Commission will no longer pay for jobs that are not verified and certified.
The warning came from the NDDC Acting Managing Director, Gbene Dr Joi Nunieh, while inspecting projects, which included the multi-billion erosion control project in Bende Local Government Area of Abia State; erosion control, solar water and a health centre.
The inspection team, led by the NDDC Chief Executive Officer, included the representative of Bende Federal Constituency and member of the House Committee on NDDC, Hon Okezie Kalu; the NDDC Acting Executive Director, Finance and Administration, Chief Ibanga Bassey Etang and other directors of the Commission.
Nunieh stressed the need to intensify the efforts of the Commission with respect to supervision and inspection to facilitate the speedy completion of on-going projects in the nine states covered by the NDDC.
She noted that the inspection was necessary to ensure that development projects in rural communities were properly executed for the benefit of the people, warning that unnecessary delays would not be tolerated.
Inspecting the erosion control works at Bende Road in Umuahia, Nunieh expressed displeasure over the slow pace of work on the project and ordered that the NDDC consultant be relieved of his duties for not being firm in dealing with the contractor.
A project brief of the erosion control, awarded in 2012, showed that it would provide massive retaining walls of 4.5 metres and 7.5 metres, spanning 200 metres. According to the scope, it would involve earth filling of about 160,000 metres.
It further showed that the project would provide reinforced concrete works, including drains, culverts and catch pits. It also includes stone pitching of the erosion site to an accessible gradient. Furthermore, the erosion works would be complemented by the reconstruction of the 1-kilometre adjoining road.
The NDDC team also inspected the Isieke-Ajatah Road being threatened by erosion in Umuahia North Local Government Area, where Nunieh said she was worried that the project appeared to have been abandoned.
At the Etiti-Ulo Road, the NDDC boss expressed shock that what she described as a "very deplorable" road was recorded as completed, when it may not have been done at all. She said that from what she had seen, she decided that the NDDC would no longer clear jobs for payment unless they were inspected.
She observed: "Too many people are asking us to pay for uncompleted projects. Going forward, we must visit project sites to see things for ourselves. We are not going to sit in the office to approve payments for jobs we cannot attest to."
Other projects inspected by the NDDC team were the completed solar water project at Ndiwo Itumbauza in Bende, which was not functional and a similar one at Etiti Ulo, as well as a health centre in Nkalakwu.
The NDDC boss decried the poor state of the health facility and charged the Commission's Directorate for Health and Social Services to take measures to re-activate the health centre, insisting that all abandoned projects would be revamped and completed.
Indigenes of the communities benefiting from the projects trouped out in their numbers to receive the NDDC team. They displayed placards indicating their appreciation of the efforts of the NDDC Interim Management in ensuring that rural communities were positively impacted.
The President General of Bende Development Union, Mr Anthony Njoku, said his people were full of gratitude for the various projects being executed by NDDC in their area.
NDDC
EFCC arrests suspected Yahoo-Yahoo kingpin, 26 others in Lagos
Troops neutralize Boko Haram/ISWAP insurgents nationwide

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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Posts Tagged 'G. F. Williams
Exhibition: 'Distance and Desire: Encounters with the African Archive Part III: Poetics and Politics' at The Walther Collection Project Space, New York: Part 2
Categories: African photography, beauty, black and white photography, documentary photography, exhibition, existence, gallery website, landscape, light, memory, photographic series, photography, portrait, reality, space and time
Tags: A. James Gribble, A. James Gribble Masupa Kaffir Chief & sons, African art, African photographer, African photography, Album page with photographs of Cetshwayo and his family, Bamangwato people, Bamangwato people of Bechuanaland, Basutoland, Bechuanaland, Buluwayo, Cape Town, carte-de-visite, Cetshwayo and his family, Chief Sekhukhune, Collecting wild beast in South Africa, Crewes & Van Laun, Damara Servant Girl, Dressing hair. Women of the E. Coast. Africa, ethnographic photography, ethnography, G. F. Williams, G. F. Williams Studio photograph of two women, G. T. Ferneyhough, G. T. Ferneyhough Albumen prints mounted to album page, gelatin silver, Gray Brothers, Gray Brothers (Diamond Fields), H. F. Gros, Indaba of Induna Chiefs, induna, izinDuna, Khama the Good, King Khama III, Lawrence Brothers Kaffir girl, Masupa Kaffir Chief & sons, Monsiga Chief of Mafeking, Native Policemen, Photograph of a young woman, Portrait of King Khama III, S. Africa, Samuel Baylis Barnard, Samuel Baylis Barnard Damara Servant Girl, South Africa, South African art, South African artist, South African colonial photography, South African colonialisation, South African photographer, South African photography, studio photograph, Studio photograph of a man, Studio photograph of two women, The Walther Collection, The Walther Collection Project Space, unidentified photographer, Unidentified photographer Native Policemen, Unidentified Photographer Portrait of a Man, Unidentified photographers Albumen prints mounted to album page, W. Rausch, W. Rausch Indaba of Induna Chiefs, Women of the E. Coast. Africa, Young Warrior in fighting order, Zulu / Young Warrior in fighting order, Zulu Kaffir
Exhibition dates: 22nd March – 18th May 2013
Unidentified photographer, inscribed:
Dressing hair. Women of the E. Coast. Africa
Tanzania, early twentieth century
Gelatin or collodion printed-out print mounted on album page
"Distance invokes travel, geographic dichotomies, estrangement, otherness, and separation in time. Whereas desire implies proximity, closeness, affect, and unfulfilled longing."
Part 2 of the posting about the exhibition Distance and Desire: Encounters with the African Archive Part III. I have added notes under some of the photographs to give context to the tribes, the people and the titles of the photographs. For more information see The New Yorker: Photo Booth's interview with curator South African scholar Tamar Garb.
*PLEASE NOTE THIS POSTING CONTAINS PHOTOGRAPHS OF FEMALE NUDITY – IF YOU DO NOT LIKE PLEASE DO NOT LOOK, FAIR WARNING HAS BEEN GIVEN*
Many thankx to The Walther Collection for allowing me to publish the photographs in the posting. Please click on the photographs for a larger version of the image.
Samuel Baylis Barnard (English, 1841-1916), inscribed:
Damara Servant Girl, S. Africa
South Africa, late nineteenth century
Albumen print
Unidentified photographer
Photograph of a young woman
East Africa, Early twentieth century
Gelatin-silver developed-out print
Zulu Kaffir
Studio photograph of a man
East Africa, late nineteenth century
This man is from the Hadendowa tribe, eastern Sudan.
Hadendoa (or Hadendowa) is the name of a nomadic subdivision of the Beja people, known for their support of the Mahdiyyah rebellion during the 1880s to 1890s. The area historically inhabited by the Hadendoa is today parts of Sudan, Egypt and Eritrea.
Monsiga Chief of Mafeking
Mahikeng – formerly, and still commonly, known as Mafikeng and historically Mafeking in English – is the capital city of the North-West Province of South Africa. It is best known internationally for the Siege of Mafeking, the most famous engagement of the Second Boer War.
Located close to South Africa's border with Botswana, Mahikeng is 1,400 km (870 mi) northeast of Cape Town and 260 km (160 mi) west of Johannesburg. In 2001, it had a population of 49,300. In 2007, Mafikeng was reported to have a population of 250,000 of which the CBD constitutes between 69,000 and 75,000. It is built on the open veld at an elevation of 1,500 m (4,921 ft), by the banks of the Upper Molopo River. TheMadibi goldfields are some 15 km (9.3 mi) south of the town.
A. James Gribble, inscribed:
Masupa. Kaffir Chief & sons. Basutoland
Basutoland or officially the Territory of Basutoland, was a British Crown colony established in 1884 after the Cape Colony's inability to control the territory. It was divided into seven administrative districts; Berea, Leribe, Maseru, Mohales Hoek, Mafeteng, Qacha's Nek and Quthing.
Basutoland was renamed the Kingdom of Lesotho upon independence from the United Kingdom on October 4, 1966.
W. Rausch (South African, 1862-1900), inscribed:
Indaba of Induna Chiefs, Buluwayo
Zimbabwe, 1890s
Gelatin or collodion printed-out print mounted on card
InDuna (plural: izinDuna) is a Zulu title meaning advisor, great leader, ambassador, headman, or commander of group of warriors. It can also mean spokesperson or mediator as the izinDuna often acted as a bridge between the people and the king. The title was reserved for senior officials appointed by the king or chief, and was awarded to individuals held in high esteem for their qualities of leadership, bravery or service to the community. The izinDuna would regularly gather for an indaba to discuss important issues. An indaba is an important conference held by the izinDuna (principal men) of the Zulu or Xhosa peoples of South Africa. (Text from Wikipedia)
William Rausch was born in Cape Colony, South Africa in 1862. Eventually he made his way to Bulawayo where established himself as a photographer. His earliest photos date from 1895. He is one of four photographers listed in Matabeleland during this time: C. Hines, C. H. Newberry, J. Parkin, and W. Rausch. The Rhodesia Scientific Association (1899) lists Rausch as having won a prize for his Rhodesian photographs. He died of pneumonia at Memorial Hospital on 24 September, 1900. H. A. de Beers was appointed as executor and his estate was finalised 24 January 1901.
Gray Brothers (Diamond Fields), inscribed:
Zulu / Young Warrior in fighting order, and in skin Kaross. Armed with hatchet and assegai
South Africa. c. 1870s
G. F. Williams
Studio photograph of two women
South Africa, c. 1870s
Lawrence Brothers, Cape Town (attr.), inscribed:
Kaffir girl
The partners of Lawrence Bros. were James Lawrence and Colin Gibb Lawrence and they were doing business from Ashley street, Cape Town in 1864. Left for England in 1865. James employed his brothers Alexander and Colin Gibb as his assistants and later joined with Colin in a partnership.
Portrait of King Khama III
South Africa, early twentieth century
Khama III (1837?-1923), also known as Khama the Good, was the kgosi (meaning chief or king) of the Bamangwato people of Bechuanaland (now Botswana), who made his country a protectorate of the United Kingdom to ensure its survival against Boer and Ndebele encroachments.
After Khama became king in 1875, after overthrowing his father Sekgoma and elbowing away his brother Kgamane his ascension came at a time of great dangers and opportunities. Ndebele incursions from the north (from what is now Zimbabwe), Boer and "mixed" trekkers from the south, and German colonialists from the West, all hoping to the seize his territory and its hinterlands. He answered these challenges by aligning his state with the administrative aims of the British, which provided him with cover and support, and, relatedly, by energetically expanding his own control over a much wider area than any "kgosi" before him. Khama converted to Christianity, which moved him to criminalise sectarianism and to deprecate the institutions favoured by traditionalists. At Khama's request stringent laws were passed against the importation of alcohol. (Text from Wikipedia)
G. T. Ferneyhough (attr.) and unidentified photographers
Albumen prints mounted to album page
South Africa, last third of the nineteenth century
G. T. Ferneyhough (attr.), Crewes & Van Laun (attr.), H. F. Gros (attr.), and unidentified photographers
Album page with photographs of Cetshwayo and his family, Chief Sekhukhune, and unidentified persons
The bottom right hand text says, "Cetshwayo's wives who came to England." Obviously on the ship that took the King to England in 1882 (see below)
Invading Zululand
Lieutenant-General Sir Frederic Thesiger, 2nd Baron Chelmsford, led the invasion of Zululand on 11 January, with British centre column crossing at Rorke's Drift. Additional British forces massed at Lower Drift on the Thukela River, near the coast, and on the north-western border near Utrecht.
Isandlawana and Rorke's Drift
Despite an early success at Isandlwana (22 January) where 24,000 Zulu warriors overran the British camp of 1,700 – over 1,300 British and Imperial troops were annihilated (only 60 of the survivors were Europeans). That evening the small garrison at Rorke's Drift regained British self-respect by defending the (hospital) station against a force of more than 3,000 Zulu warriors.
Defeat at Ulundi
Cetshwayo's army was finally defeated at oNdini (Ulundi) on 4 July 1879 and his royal homestead burnt to the ground. Although Cetshwayo escaped from oNdini, he was soon captured in the Ngome Forest by British dragoons (28 August). He was informed by Shepstone that he was to be exiled from Zululand and that the nation would be divided into 13 independent chiefdoms under the authority of the British.
On 15 September 1879 Cetshwayo was dispatched to Cape Town. He was held as a prisoner of war until February 1881 when he was transferred from the castle to Oude Molen, a farm on the Cape Flats.
"In 1882 Cetshwayo was permitted to travel to England for audience with Queen Victoria – he petitioned for his return to Zululand as ruler. He was a hit amongst London society and became a favourite of the public."
Cetshwayo was returned in secret to Zululand on 10 January 1883. He was met at Port Durnford by Sir Theophilus Shepstone (who was brought out of retirement for the process). Shepstone arranged the details of Cetshwayo's restoration (29 January), but he was not permitted an army to defend his somewhat reduced 'nation' – part of the arrangement was that the north of Zululand was to be put under the control of his rival, Zibhebhu kaMaphitha.
Defeat and Retreat
By March 1883 Zibhebhu was moving against Cetshwayo's supporters in his assigned northern territory and Cetshwayo's uSuthu marched against him. The uSuthu were defeated and driven into Transvaal and back south to oNdini. The civil war between Cetshwayo and Zibhebhu ranged across the Mahlabathini plain and the uSuthu was once again defeated. Whilst Cetshwayo and his 15-year old heir, Dinizulu, were able to escape the capital of oNdini and hide out in the Nkandla forest, theuSuthu leadership was decimated. Cetshwayo was escorted to Eshowe by Henry Francis Fynn jr, the British Resident in Zululand, on the 15 October 1883.
A Disputed Cause of Death
On the afternoon of 8 February 1884 Cetshwayo died. Although officially recorded as a heart attack (Surgeon Scott, the resident military medical officer, was refused permission to do an autopsy and so could record no other cause). However an abortive assassination attempt (by poison) was made against Mnyamana kaNgqengelele, chief of the Buthelezi and Cetshwayo's chief inDuna, around the same so time it seems likely that Cetshwayo was also poisoned.
Text from the African History website [Online] Cited 11/05/2013 no longer available online
Unidentified photographers
South Africa, late nineteen century
Native Policemen
from Albumen prints mounted to album page
Portrait of a Man (detail)
Notice how the white spots have been painted on by the photographer after exposure, presumably to "exoticise" the noble savage.
Album page
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Tags: A Zulu girl, A. James Gribble Kaffer woman, A.C. Gomes & Son, A.C. Gomes & Son Natives Hairdressing Tanzania, A.C. Gomes & Son Views in Zanzibar, African carte de visite, African colonial photography, African history, African oppression, African photographer, African photographic archive, African photography, Africans, Afrikaans, amaFengu, amaZulu, Bantu, Bantu language, Bantu people, Basuto, Boers, Caney Brothers, Caney Brothers Ordinary & Fighting Dresses, Cape Province, Cape Town, carte de visite portraits of Africans, carte-de-visite, Choubouk Sudan, Collodion printed-out print, colonial period in Africa, colonial photography, colonial photography in Africa, colonial photography in South Africa, colonial South Africa, colonialism, complex issues of gender and identity, Diamond Fields of Kimberley, Distance and Desire, Distance and Desire: Encounters with the African Archive, Distance and Desire: Poetics and Politics, ethnographic imagery, European depictions of Africans, Fengu, Fingo people, Fingo swells, Fingoland, Fingoland (Mfenguland), frontier wars, G. F. Williams, G. F. Williams Studio photograph of a man, gender, Guerrier Zulu a manteau de fourrure et armé de piques, Henri Noyer, Henri Noyer Taisaka Spearsmen, Hottentott, identity, ideological framework, J. E. Middlebrook, J. E. Middlebrook A Zulu girl, John Salmon, John Salmon Basuto, Kaffer, Kaffer woman, Kimberley Studio, Kimberley Studio Warrior in skin kaross armed with assegais, Kimberley Studio Zulu, KwaZulu-Natal, M. Veniery, M. Veniery Choubouk, Macomo and his chief wife, Madagascar, Mfenguland, Mouv Nthaka warrior, Native Peoples, Native Peoples of Africa, Native Peoples of South Africa, Native Police, Natives Hairdressing Tanzania, negotiations of costume and pose, Nthaka warrior, Ordinary & Fighting Dresses, politics of colonialism, Portrait of Maqoma and his wife Katyi, Samuel Baylis Barnard, Samuel Baylis Barnard Hottentott S. Africa, Samuel Baylis Barnard Photograph of a woman, sexualized images of semi-nude models, South Africa, South Africa colony, South African artist, South African carte de visite, South African colonial photography, South African colonialisation, South African photographer, South African photographers, South African photographic history, South African photography, South African photography pre Apartheid, Southern and Eastern Africa, Studio photograph of a man, Sudan, Taisaka Spearsmen, Taisaka Spearsmen Madagascar, the curiosity between subject and photographer, The Walther Collection, The Walther Collection Project Space, Transkei, typical European depictions of Africans, Unidentified photographer Bushman, Unidentified photographer Fingo swells, Unidentified photographer Mouv Nthaka warrior, Unidentified photographer Native Police, Unidentified photographer Studio photograph of a man, Unidentified photographer Zulu mothers, Views in Zanzibar, Warrior in skin kaross armed with assegais, will for self-representation, William Moore, William Moore Macomo and his chief wife, Xhosa, Xhosa people, Zulu, Zulu mothers, Zulu people
Photograph of a man
Gelatin or collodion printed-out print
Undertaking research in to the work of South African photographer Ernest Cole, I wanted to know more about "South African colonial photography" pre-Apartheid. If you type the phrase into Google images there is absolutely nothing online about this historical archive. So it is a great privilege that The Walther Collection has allowed me to publish nearly 40 photographs over two postings on Art Blart. What a honour to be the first online space to promote this important historical record.
It is vital that colonial photographs such as these are visible in contemporary society for they bare witness to the conditions of the past and provide a visual language to textualise our experience and thereby make it available for interpretation and closure – for people of all colours and races. This is particularly true for a post-colonial country such as South Africa where the history of the nation must be examined impartially no matter how painful the subject matter in order to understand how the actions of the past influence the present and will continue to be re/sighted in the future. Through continual re/citation by being present in the public sphere for all to see (not hidden away offline) these images will become a source of pride (for person, family, tribe, country) – for these were strong human beings that survived the vicissitudes of colonialism to form the history and lineage of a nation.
We must thank numerous private collectors that have saved many of these photographs from the rubbish tip when no public institution was interested in collecting them. Interesting books about the South African archive include Surviving the Lens: Photographic Studies of South and East African People, 1870-1920 by Michael Graham Stewart (2001) and Contemporary African Photography from the Walther Collection. Events of the Self, Portraiture and Social Identity by Okwui Enwezor (ed.) Göttingen, Steidl, 2010.
Caney Brothers, inscribed:
Ordinary & Fighting Dresses.
Henri Noyer (attr.), inscribed:
Taisaka Spearsmen No. 2
Madagascar, early twentieth century
The Taisaka come from the South-East coast of the island of Madagascar.
Mouv, Nthaka warrior
Gelatin or collodion developed out print
The Ameru had an age set system which provided the community with warriors for defence. Boys are circumcised and become Nthaka (warriors). They stay in a Gaaru and learn to defend the community and take care of their families. The warriors were called Nthaka and were isolated from the community for military training
J. E. Middlebrook (South African, active 1870s-1900s) (attr.), inscribed:
A Zulu girl. Hair strung with beads
Gelatin-silver printed-out print
The Zulu (Zulu: amaZulu) are the largest South African ethnic group, with an estimated 10-11 million people living mainly in the province of KwaZulu-Natal. Small numbers also live in Zimbabwe, Zambia and Mozambique. Their language, Zulu, is a Bantu language; more specifically, part of the Nguni subgroup. The Zulu Kingdom played a major role in South African history during the 19th and 20th centuries. Under apartheid, Zulu people were classed as third-class citizens and suffered from state-sanctioned discrimination. They remain today the most numerous ethnic group in South Africa, and now have equal rights along with all other citizens.
J. E. Middlebrook. Late 19th-century South African photographer. The flourishing diamond mines in Kimberley brought hundreds of workers and photographers to the area beginning in 1867. J. E. Middlebrook followed soon thereafter in the early 1870s, and set up his photography studio, The Premier Studio, on West Street West ; he had a second studio in Durban, "Opposite the Club." Middlebrook photographed the landscape, farms, cities, and people of South Africa. His photographs of the Zulu people are considered to be theatrical, deliberating portraying the native people in an idyllic, romantic, and exotic light. He took photographs during the South African war (1899-1902). A number of well-known photographers were based at the studio, including C. Evans, Wunsch, Atkinson and Dyer, who documented Kimberley's early days. By 1906, Middlebrook's was bought by Frank Hancox and when German, Charles Seidenstucker, arrived in South Africa, he promptly became the studio's new owner.
A. James Gribble (South African, 1863-1943), inscribed:
Kaffer woman
The word kaffer is a word that is used widely in South Africa and is a derogatory word for a black person. Used mainly by Afrikaans people. In old Dutch it means unbeliever (in God), so should not necessarily mean black, but just unholy or non-Christian. Boers gave the name in early South African history as native Africans did not believe in Jesus. Name came after Bantu – which means the same thing, but was banned as it was discriminatory.
Zulu mothers
Gelatin-silver printed out print
Samuel Baylis Barnard (English, 1841-1916), inscribed
Hottentott S. Africa [Portait of /A!kunta]
South Africa, early 1870s
The word 'Hottentots' was a name disparagingly used to refer to the Khoikhoi people that lived in the southern parts of the African continent as early as the 5th century AD and continued to live till the first colonists arrived in the middle of the seventeenth century. The Dutch colonists called them Hottentots. It means 'stammerer' in Dutch. Khoikhoi means 'people people'. The word Hottentot is no longer used to describe the people.
The Walther Collection is pleased to announce Poetics and Politics, the third and last exhibition in the series Distance and Desire: Encounters with the African Archive, curated by Tamar Garb. Poetics and Politics presents an extraordinary range of previously unseen vintage portraits, cartes de visite, postcards, and album pages from Southern and Eastern Africa, produced from the 1870s to the early twentieth century. The exhibition makes visible both the ideological frameworks that prevailed during the colonial period in Africa and the exceptional skill of photographers working in the studio and landscape.
The culmination of Distance and Desire, Poetics and Politics offers a remarkable opportunity to view the narratives that emerge from this African photographic archive, describing in particular the experience of the studio – the curiosity between subject and photographer, the negotiations of costume and pose, and the will for self-representation. The exhibition investigates typical European depictions of Africans, from scenes in nature, to sexualised images of semi-nude models, to modern sitters posing in elaborate studios, critically addressing the politics of colonialism and the complex issues of gender and identity.
Among over 75 vintage prints, Poetics and Politics includes a selection of elegant studio portraits by Samuel Baylis Barnard, one of Cape Town's most prominent nineteenth century photographers. Original album pages of landscapes and ethnographic imagery are displayed alongside a series of carte de visite portraits of Africans, created in the 1870s in the Diamond Fields of Kimberley, South Africa. The exhibition also features several double-sided displays of album pages, showing striking combinations of personal and stock images, and the juxtapositions of prominent figures in both African and Western contexts.
Distance and Desire is accompanied by an extensive catalogue, published by The Walther Collection and Steidl, and edited by Tamar Garb. Including twelve original essays, the catalogue offers new perspectives by contemporary artists and scholars on the African archive, reimagining its diverse histories and changing meanings. On June 8, 2013 the expanded exhibition incorporating all three parts of Distance and Desire: Encounters with the African Archive will open at The Walther Collection in Neu-Ulm, Germany. The Walther Collection is a private non-profit foundation dedicated to researching, collecting, exhibiting, and publishing modern and contemporary photography and video art, based in Neu-Ulm, Germany and New York. Distance and Desire is part of the collection's multi-year investigation of African photography and video.
Press release from the Walther Collection website
Native Police
Albumen print mounted on album page
Kimberley Studio (New Rush, Diamond Fields), inscribed:
Zulu / Warrior in skin kaross, armed with assegais and Guerrier Zulu a manteau de fourrure et armé de piques
John Salmon, inscribed:
Basuto
See Sotho people on Wikipedia
Samuel Baylis Barnard (English, 1841-1916)
Photograph of a woman
William Moore (attr.), inscribed:
Macomo and his chief wife [Portrait of Maqoma and his wife Katyi]
South Africa, c. 1869
Studio photograph of a man, South Africa
Fingo swells
The Fengu (plural amaFengu) are a Bantu people; originally closely related to the Zulu people, but now often considered to have assimilated to the Xhosa people whose language they now speak. Historically they achieved considerable renown for their military ability in the frontier wars. They were previously known in English as the "Fingo" people, and they gave their name to the district of Fingoland (Mfenguland), the South West portion of the Transkei division, in the Cape Province.
M. Veniery, inscribed:
Choubouk
Sudan, early twentieth century
Gelatin or collodion printedout print mounted on card
The San peoples, also known as the Bushmen, are members of various Khoe, Tuu, or Kx'a-speaking indigenous hunter-gatherer groups that are the first nations of Southern Africa, and whose territories span Botswana, Namibia, Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Lesotho and South Africa. In 2017, Botswana was home to approximately 63,500 San people, which is roughly 2.8% of the country's population, making it the country with the highest population of San people. "Bushmen" is now considered derogatory by many South Africans.
A.C. Gomes & Son, inscribed:
Views in Zanzibar – Natives Hairdressing, Tanzania
Late nineteenth century
Gelatin or collodion printed-out print mounted to album page
A. C. Gomes established a photo studio in Zanzibar perhaps as early as 1868. He had a brief partnership with J. B. Coutinho in the 1890s. His son P. F. Gomes continued the family business in Zanzibar for many years, he died in 1932. Over those years both have left us with some marvellous images.