text:
Carriera
Gálviz esordì tra gli Under-23/Elite a soli 18 anni con la Lotería del Táchira, squadra in cui rimase per un anno senza ottenere risultati. L'anno successivo passò alla Alcaldía de Páez e vi rimase fino all'età di 19 anni, prima di doverla abbandonare per problemi finanziari. Nel 2008 partecipò con la selezione venezuelana ai Campionati del mondo di Varese, prendendo parte alla prova in linea Under-23. Nel 2009 passò quindi alla Gobernación del Zulia con la quale vinse il campionato nazionale a cronometro nella categoria Under-23.

Tornò quindi nel 2010 alla Lotería del Táchira, confermando le doti di passista con la vittoria di un altro titolo di campione nazionale a cronometro nella categoria Under-23 e piazzandosi terzo nella prova in linea. Vinse anche una tappa alla Vuelta a Guatemala (dove terminò quarto) e colse un secondo posto nella Vuelta a Bolivia. Nel 2011 passò nelle file della formazione Continental Movistar, e si aggiudicò il quarto posto nei campionati nazionali a cronometro tra gli elite, piazzamento che migliorò l'anno successivo arrivando terzo. Nelle corse a tappe arrivò decimo nella Vuelta al Uruguay e ottavo nella corsa di casa, la Vuelta al Táchira.

Nel 2013 passa alla Fegaven-Pdval e si aggiudica la vittoria finale nella Vuelta a El Corozo; l'anno dopo, con la formazione Continental paraguaiana Start-Trigon, vince invece una tappa alla Vuelta Ciclística Independencia Nacional e il titolo nazionale a cronometro. Nel luglio del 2014 si trasferisce quindi tra le file della squadra Professional Continental Androni Giocattoli-Venezuela: nei mesi seguenti riesce a classificarsi secondo, con un successo di tappa, alla Vuelta a Venezuela, e a vincere la medaglia d'oro nella prova su strada ai Giochi centramericani e caraibici in Messico. Nel 2015 vince una frazione alla Vuelta al Táchira, mentre nel 2016, scaduto il contratto con Savio, torna in patria per gareggiare con il team JHS Aves-Intac.

Palmarès
 2009
Campionati venezuelani, Prova a cronometro Under-23
4ª tappa Clásico Virgen de la Consolación de Táriba
4ª tappa Vuelta al Estado Zulia
Classifica Generale Vuelta al Estado Zulia

 2010
Campionati venezuelani, Prova a cronometro Under-23
12ª tappa Vuelta a Guatemala

 2011
Prologo Vuelta a Cundinamarca

 2012
2ª tappa Vuelta a Bramón
4ª tappa Vuelta al Valle del Cauca

 2013
2ª tappa Vuelta a El Corozo
Classifica generale Vuelta a El Corozo

 2014
5ª tappa Vuelta Ciclística Independencia Nacional
Campionati venezuelani, Prova a cronometro
6ª tappa Vuelta a Venezuela
Giochi centramericani e caraibici, Prova in linea

 2015
5ª tappa Vuelta al Táchira (Santa Cruz de Mora > San Juan de Colón)

Piazzamenti

Classiche monumento
Giro di Lombardia
2014: ritirato

Competizioni mondiali
Campionati del mondo
Varese 2008 - In linea Under-23: ritirato
Ponferrada 2014 - In linea Elite: ritirato

Note

Altri progetti

Collegamenti esterni

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Boarding Schools & the History of ICWA
Hayward Indian School in Sawyer County, 1920. Courtesy of Wisconsin Historical Society, WHS- 32164.
From the 1880s to the 1930s, the policy of the United States government towards Native Americans was assimilation into white society. Native languages, spiritual beliefs, foods, traditions and family life were considered "uncivilized" so missionaries and the government opened schools on and off reservations to force children to abandon their traditions. Army officer Richard Pratt, founder of the first federal Indian boarding school, Carlisle Indian Industrial School, gave a speech in 1892 in which he summarized this philosophy as "kill the Indian…save the man." In Wisconsin, the U.S. government ran three boarding schools, three day schools, and contracted out three additional boarding schools to religious and other organizations.
Most Native American children who went to the boarding schools were forcefully taken from their families. Subjects such as reading, writing, math, and history were all taught from the white point of view, and boys were taught to farm while girls were taught domestic work. Children were forced to cut their hair, dress in uniforms, and speak English. These schools emphasized conversion to Christianity and "citizenship training" in the foundations of U.S. society. Today we see this assault on Native cultural identity as cultural genocide. A culture cannot survive without its children to carry on its traditions.
Discipline was often severe at Indian boarding schools. Many children were malnourished and suffered physical, emotional, sexual and spiritual abuse. Schools have cemeteries on-site because so many children died. The legacy of the boarding school era and other attempts to erase Native culture still lives on as historical and intergenerational trauma.
Keshena Indian School in Menominee County, 1929. Courtesy of Wisconsin Historical Society, WHS-35067
Today, schools for Native Americans support and recognize cultural values and traditions. The Bureau of Indian Education (BIE) oversees 183 primary and secondary schools, either operated by tribes or the BIE. In Wisconsin, there is one private school, the Indian Community School of Milwaukee, and the BIE funds Lac Courte Oreilles Ojibwe Schools, Menominee Tribal Schools, and Oneida Nation Schools. There are also currently 35 tribal colleges and universities across the country. These schools are places where Native American history, customs, and culture are honored, taught, and preserved.
After boarding schools closed, families were still separated at high rates. From 1958 to 1967, the Bureau of Indian Administration and Child Welfare League of America encouraged adoption of Native American children by non-Native families through the Indian Adoption Project. Racialized and biased child welfare policies continued to impact Native families even after formal programs ended. In 1978, 25%-35% of all Native American children were removed from their homes. This crisis gave tribal members serious concerns whether or not public child welfare and private adoption agencies had good or legal cause to remove children. Alarmed by history, statistics, and heartbreaking stories, Native American advocates pushed the federal government to pass the Indian Child Welfare Act in 1978.
For more information, see Unspoken: America's Native American Boarding Schools (NPR) and this review of "Remembering the 'Forgotten Child': The American Indian Child Welfare Crisis of the 1960s and 1970s."
Pupils at Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Pennsylvania, c. 1900.
This material may be freely reproduced and distributed. However, when doing so, please credit Kids Matter Inc.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


There isn't a better time to be alive in Montana than in September and October with cool weather, revived fisheries and the start of serious streamer fishing. October 14-19, we offer a school at Healing Waters Lodge that centers on fall fishing. This means fishing October Caddis and Blue Winged Olives along with plenty of streamer fishing. Streamer fishing translates into large trout which becomes the stuff dreams are made. The school will emphasize on streamer techniques with a variety of flies.
Price includes six nights lodging and all meals at the lodge and five days of instruction and fishing for $2,995. Call Mike Geary at 406-459-2030 for more details.
Football games will be recorded for you upon request!


Before smartphones, back even before the Internet and personal computer, a misfit group of technophiles, blind teenagers, hippies, and outlaws figured out how to hack the world's largest machine: the telephone system. Starting with Alexander Graham Bell's revolutionary "harmonic telegraph," by the middle of the twentieth century the phone system had grown into something extraordinary, a web of cutting-edge switching machines and human operators that linked together millions of people like never before. But the network had a billion-dollar flaw, and once people discovered it, things would never be the same.
Exploding the Phone tells this story in full for the first time. It traces the birth of long-distance communication and the telephone, the rise of AT&T's monopoly, the creation of the sophisticated machines that made it all work, and the discovery of Ma Bell's Achilles' heel. Phil Lapsley expertly weaves together the clandestine underground of "phone phreaks" who turned the network into their electronic playground, the mobsters who exploited its flaws to avoid the feds, the explosion of telephone hacking in the counterculture, and the war between the phreaks, the phone company, and the FBI.
The product of extensive original research, Exploding the Phone is a ground-breaking, captivating book.
Phil Lapsley co-founded two high technology companies in the San Francisco Bay Area and was a consultant at McKinsey & Company where he advised Fortune 100 companies on strategy. He holds a Master's degree in electrical engineering and computer sciences from U. C. Berkeley and an MBA from the MIT Sloan School of Management. Lapsley has been interviewed by NPR and the BBC and quoted in The New York Times and Boston Globe on telephone and computer security issues, and is the author of one textbook, sixteen patents, an Internet standard, and many technical articles.
"A fascinating story about a period of time that I lived through but didn't know much about. I can't imagine how much work Lapsley had to do to write this bookit is remarkably well-researched, fun to read, and deserves great praise."Vint Cerf, Internet Pioneer and Chief Internet Evangelist, Google, Inc.


In '03, Central Oregon's meth problem was raging. State legislators eventually passed a law in 2006 that required a prescription to buy pseudoephedrine, a key component for home meth labs, greatly cutting down on its manufacture in the state.
t first saw the light of day as a new and improved (more potent) version of the pharmaceutical decongestant amphetamine. Armies saw it as the answer to battlefield fatigue and administered it to their soldiers during World War II. In the '50s, students, athletes, and truck drivers filled prescriptions for it to enhance performance and stay awake.
But when a "speed freak" subculture of addicts injecting the drug emerged during the 1960s, methamphetamine use was promptly locked down. Firm legal restrictions on prescription of the drug were put in place. The pharmaceutical supply dried up. To satisfy continued demand, rural, black-market production facilities started springing up all over the western United States. The concept of the high desert biker meth lab was born.
Forty-some years later, methamphetamine abuse and addiction are an endless plague on public health and safety in Oregon's communities—even in semi-urban communities like Redmond and Bend.
The drug, referred to in recent years as speed, tweak, crank, white dope, etc., in the language of the counterculture, owes its particularly malevolent short- and long-term effects to its ingredients. Products involved in the meth "cooking" process, all of which are readily available to the public, include denatured alcohol, kerosene, lye, acetone, battery acid, phosphorus, and anhydrous ammonia. The end product can vary considerably from batch to batch.
"Over here, the methamphetamine that I've seen the most is pretty nasty stuff," said Dustin, a Bend man who's a recovering addict and an ex-meth cook/dealer from McMinnville. (He agreed to speak with the Source Weekly on the condition that his last name be omitted.) According to Dustin, most meth changing hands in Central Oregon is "a lot of cut and not a lot of drug." He describes such methamphetamine as particularly apt to compel users to do "whatever it takes" to get more of the drug. "Whatever it takes," said Dustin, might include burglary, violence, and other crimes.
Dustin started using meth regularly while in the Navy in the mid-'80s. More income and the lack of parental supervision made it easy for him to try the drug and to use heavy amounts once he decided he liked it. "It was the first thing I did I really enjoyed," he said. "I guess it really grabbed ahold of me." Initially, Dustin was into the sustained "upper" high meth provided—staying up all night, feeling compelled to be busier than normal. "I'm not a downer type of person," he said.
Dustin spent the ensuing 15 years in various states of active addiction to the drug before the threat of a four-year prison sentence helped convince him to put his best foot forward in treatment at Serenity Lane in Bend. He's been clean ever since.
But the effects Dustin experienced during the years he abused methamphetamine continue to affect his health. The appetite-reducing effect caused him to drop weight significantly when using and to gain excess weight when not using. Dustin's chiropractor tells him his habit caused deterioration in his spine that led to four fused vertebrae. He's experienced lots of upper respiratory illness, damage to arteries, chemical burns from splattered drain cleaner (sustained when cooking meth)—not to mention perhaps-unseen effects from exposure to toxic and carcinogenic fumes during the cooking process.
Dr. Tom Wendel, who's worked for about two years at Bend Memorial Clinic's Urgent Care Center, has seen countless patients like Dustin over the course of his career. In the 15 years before moving his practice to Bend, Wendel worked strictly as a rural doctor. He practiced in Burns during the last 13 of those years, covering all aspects of medical care, in his words, "from the womb to the grave."
Wendel noted that bacterial endocarditis (inflammation of the lining of the heart), major infections out-of-control asthma, high blood pressure, and hepatitis also are common health-related repercussions of methamphetamine abuse. And many medical problems, he added, are compounded by the meth addict's neglect of his or her health in general.
These "secondary complications," according to Wendel, also often include a wide variety of metal health problems—mood disorders such as bipolar disease and depression, and even psychotic states. Dustin alluded to the same in layman's terms, saying meth "distorts your perception of reality greatly" and "you lose yourself into it."
Wendel saw firsthand the worst possible outcomes of methamphetamine abuse and addiction during his time in Burns. He watched a large hotel burn to the ground after a meth lab inside exploded. As the Harney County coroner, he worked through a two-year period in which three murders were committed in the area, all of them drug-related. The county's normal homicide rate, according to Wendel, previously had been one murder every 10 years.
In rural communities such as Burns, Prineville, Madras, John Day, Lakeview, and Klamath Falls, said Wendel, methamphetamine generally is much more pervasive than in more urbanized places such as Bend. Since the first clandestine meth cooks smuggled in large quantities of precursor chemicals from Mexico and started setting up ship in the 1970s, the most out-of-the way places throughout California and Oregon have been choice locations for the labs.
endel hasn't treated any "acute, directly related manifestations" (such as overdoses) of meth addiction in Bend. Nonetheless, he does see a significant number of local patients who are recovering from meth addiction or are still using. Among such people, indirectly related complications such as depression ad major infections are common. He's also noticed evidence of a large amount of methamphetamine in Central Oregon's high schools.
Karen Tamminga, supervisor for the Deschutes County Mental Health Department's Adult Community Treatment Program, deals somewhat more directly with the country's active meth addicts. According to an e-mail from Tamminga, methamphetamine is the third most commonly abused drug in Central Oregon, after alcohol and marijuana. She supplemented the list of complications arising from the meth abuse to include high blood pressure-related instances of stroke and tachycardia (abnormally fast heartbeat), dental problems, "meth sores" (abscesses), and more. Overdoses, she added, cause hyperthermia (elevated body temperature) and convulsions. Without prompt treatment, they can be fatal.
Tamminga also mentioned the specific phenomenon called Methamphetamine-Induced Psychosis, a condition "common in ERs around the Northwest" and marked by paranoia, hallucinations, mood disturbances, and repetitive motor activity. Most people with this condition are "clear" within two to three weeks, she said, but in a few cases such mental health problems fail to subside. Incidentally, the Adult Community Treatment Program has seen a trend of success in treatment regimens involving "proper mental health medication" along with addiction treatment and counseling.
Tamminga also highlighted the serious risks of methamphetamine use in pregnant women. Every year in Oregon, she said, children born with the drug in their systems are removed from their parents' custody. Meth use in the first trimester of pregnancy inflicts fetal damage that often affects both the physical and mental health of the child.
On Nov. 14, the Deschutes County Commission on Children & Families held a Methamphetamine Summit at St. Charles Medical Center to discuss the problem of meth in Central Oregon and strategize solutions. Speakers at the Summit included Deputy District Attorney Steve Gunnels, who prosecutes all of the Central Oregon Drug Enforcement (CODE) Team's cases, and Linda Swearingen, a former Deschutes County commissioner and founder of Bridges to Hope Ministries. Almost all of Gunnels' cases have to do with methamphetamine-related arrests; 95 percent of the women whom Swearingen assists in transitioning from jail back into society are recovering addicts—most of them meth users.
"You can come back from it. If you work at it, there's some hope to it. But you've gotta reach out and try."


text:
Trump says TikTok sale can go through but only if the US gets a cut
US President, Donald Trump has revealed he would allow an American company to buy social media app, Tiktok but only if the United States gets a sizeable cut from any deal that takes place.
Trump's comments come after Microsoft released a statement on Sunday August 3, revealing they intend buying TikTok from Bytedance, a Chinese company that owns Tiktok.
The US president announced last week that Tiktok will be banned from the United States after lawmakers and intelligence agencies expressed concerns that the Chinese government could use the app to spy on Americans.
After Microsoft announced it was considering buying the app, Trump on Monday August 3, said any potential sale must benefit the US Treasury.
He then set September 15 as the deadline for TikTok to find a US buyer, or else he will shut down the app in the country.
"Right now they don't have any rights unless we give it to them. So if we're going to give them the rights, then ... it has to come into this country," Trump said on Monday.
"It's a great asset, but it's not a great asset in the United States unless they have approval in the United States."
TikTok, in defence says they will become an extinct company and that it remains committed to its large American user base.
"TikTok is loved by 100 million Americans because it is a home for entertainment, self-
expression, and connection," company spokesperson Josh Gartner said in a statement.
"TikTok will be here for many years to come."


text:
Leigh Francis Barczewski (* 25. Dezember 1955 in Milwaukee) ist ein ehemaliger US-amerikanischer Bahnradsportler, der auf die Kurzzeitdisziplinen spezialisiert war.

Sportliche Laufbahn
Leigh Barczewski begann seine sportliche Karriere als Eisschnellläufer, bevor er mit 14 Jahren zum Radsport wechselte. Bei den UCI-Bahn-Weltmeisterschaften der Junioren 1973 wurde er Vierter im Sprint, im Jahr darauf Vierter der nationalen Meisterschaft der Elite. 1976 wurde er erstmals US-amerikanischer Meister im Sprint. Diesen Titelgewinn konnte er bis 1979 dreimal in Folge wiederholen. Den nationalen Titel im Tandemrennen konnte er 1978 und 1979 mit Jerry Ash als Partner gewinnen.

1978 startete er bei den Weltmeisterschaften in München und errang gemeinsam mit Jerry Ash im Tandemrennen die Silbermedaille; nach einem Sturz konnten die beiden Fahrer das Finale um Gold nicht beenden.

1976 nahm Barczewski an den Olympischen Spielen in Montreal im Sprint teil und belegte den letzten Platz. Am 4. Mai 1980 stellte er gemeinsam mit David Grylls auf dem Ontario Motor Speedway in einem dreirädrigen Velomobil Vector mit 62,92 Meilen einen neuen Geschwindigkeitsweltrekord auf. Im selben Jahr trat er vom aktiven Radsport zurück und arbeitete in verschiedenen Funktionen im Valley Preferred Cycling Center. Auch sein Sohn Ben war als Radsportler aktiv.

2016 wurde Leigh Barczewski in die United States Bicycling Hall of Fame aufgenommen.

Erfolge
1976
  US-amerikanischer Meister – Sprint
1977
  US-amerikanischer Meister – Sprint
1978
  Weltmeisterschaft – Tandem (mit Jerry Ash)
  US-amerikanischer Meister – Sprint
1979
  US-amerikanischer Meister – Sprint

Literatur

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Radsportler (Vereinigte Staaten)
Olympiateilnehmer (Vereinigte Staaten)
Teilnehmer der Olympischen Sommerspiele 1976
US-amerikanischer Meister (Radsport)
Bahnradfahrer
Mitglied der US Bicycling Hall of Fame
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1955
Mann


text:
Sovereign state and constitutional monarchy
Koninkrijk der Nederlanden (Dutch)
Motto: "Je maintiendrai" (French)[a]
(English: "I will uphold")
Anthem: "Wilhelmus" (Dutch)
(English: "William of Nassau")
Map of the four constituent countries shown to scale
Amsterdam[b]
52°22′N 4°53′E / 52.367°N 4.883°E / 52.367; 4.883
Government seat
The Hague[b]
Dutch[c]
Official regional languages[c]
West Frisian
Recognised languages[c]
Dutch Low Saxon
Dutch Sign Language
Sinte Romani
Countries (non‑sovereign parts)
Devolved unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy
Willem-Alexander
• Chairman of the Council of Ministers[d]
• Minister Plenipotentiary of Aruba
Guillfred Besaril
• Minister Plenipotentiary of Curaçao
Anthony Begina
• Minister Plenipotentiary of Sint Maarten
Rene Violenus
from Spain and France
• Dutch Republic
26 July 1581 (declared)
30 January 1648 (recognised)
• Batavian Republic
• Kingdom of Holland
• Annexation by First French Empire
• Kingdom of the Netherlands
• Secession of Belgium
4 October 1830 (declared)
19 April 1839 (recognised)
• Charter for the Kingdom
(colonial inclusion)
42,531[8] km2 (16,421 sq mi) (131st)
• 2022 estimate
17,749,262[9] (64th)
515/km2 (1,333.8/sq mi)
4 currencies
(Caribbean Netherlands)
NA guilder (ANG)
(Curaçao/Sint Maarten)
(Aruba)
European Netherlands:
CEST (UTC+2) (DST) Caribbean Netherlands:
AST (UTC-4)
DST not observed
4 codes
+31 (Netherlands)
+297 (Aruba)
+599 (Curaçao / Caribbean)
+1 721 (Sint Maarten)
5 TLDs
.nl (Netherlands)[e]
.aw (Aruba)
.cw (Curaçao)
.sx (Sint Maarten)
.bq (Caribbean Netherlands)[f]
The Kingdom of the Netherlands (Dutch: Koninkrijk der Nederlanden; pronounced [ˈkoːnɪŋkrɛiɡ dɛr ˈneːdərlɑndə(n)] ( listen)),[g] commonly known as simply the Netherlands,[h] is a sovereign state and constitutional monarchy with 98% of its territory and population in Western Europe and with several small West Indian island territories in the Caribbean (in the Leeward Islands and Leeward Antilles groups).
The four parts of the Kingdom—Aruba, Curaçao, the Netherlands and Sint Maarten—are constituent countries (landen in Dutch; singular: land) and participate on a basis of equality as partners in the Kingdom.[10] In practice, however, most of the Kingdom's affairs are administered by the Netherlands—which comprises roughly 98% of the Kingdom's land area and population—on behalf of the entire Kingdom. Consequently, Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten are dependent on the Netherlands for matters like foreign policy and defence, but are autonomous to a certain degree, with their own parliaments.
The vast majority of land area of the constituent country of the Netherlands is in Europe, while its three special municipalities (Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba) are located in the Caribbean, as are the other three constituent countries. The kingdom has a population of 17,737,438 as of November 2019[update].[9]
The Kingdom of the Netherlands originated in the aftermath of French Emperor Napoleon I's defeat in 1815. In that year the Netherlands regained its independence from France under its First French Empire, which had annexed its northern neighbour in 1810, as the Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands. The great powers of Europe, united against Napoleonic France, had decided in the secret treaty of the London Protocol to establish a single state in the territories that were previously the Dutch Republic/Batavian Republic/Kingdom of Holland, the Austrian Netherlands and the Prince-Bishopric of Liège, awarding rule over this to William, Prince of Orange and Nassau, although the southern territories remained under Prussian (German) rule until Napoleon's return from his first exile on Elba ("Hundred Days").
In March 1815, amidst the turmoil of the Hundred Days, the Sovereign Prince William of Orange and Nassau adopted the style of "King of the Netherlands". Following Napoleon's second defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815, the Vienna Congress supplied international recognition of William's unilateral move.[11] The new King of the Netherlands was also made Grand Duke of Luxembourg, a part of the Kingdom that was, at the same time, a member state of the German Confederation.
Belgium and Luxembourg independence
In 1830, Belgium seceded from the Kingdom, a step that was recognised by the Netherlands only in 1839 in the Treaty of London. At that point, Luxembourg became a fully independent country in a personal union with the Netherlands. Luxembourg also lost more than half of its territory to Belgium. To compensate the German Confederation for that loss, the remainder of the Dutch province of Limburg received the same status that Luxembourg had enjoyed before, as a Dutch province that at the same time formed a Duchy of the German Confederation. That status was reversed when the German Confederation ceased to exist in 1867, when Limburg became an ordinary Dutch province.
The Netherlands did not abolish slavery in its colonies until 1863.[12]
The Kingdom's 1954 administrative reform was sparked by the 1931 Statute of Westminster and the 1941 Atlantic Charter (stating ″the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live, and the desire for a permanent system of general security″), which was signed by the Netherlands on 1 January 1942. Changes were proposed in the 7 December 1942 radio speech by Queen Wilhelmina. In this speech, the Queen, on behalf of the Dutch government in exile in London, expressed a desire to review the relations between the Netherlands and its colonies after the end of the war. After liberation, the government would call a conference to agree on a settlement in which the overseas territories could participate in the administration of the Kingdom on the basis of equality. Initially, this speech had propaganda purposes; the Dutch government had the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) in mind, and hoped to appease public opinion in the United States, which had become skeptical towards colonialism.[13]
With Indonesia's independence, a federal constitution was considered too heavy as the economies of Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles were insignificant compared to that of the Netherlands. By the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands, as enacted in 1954, a composite state was created (also known as the "Tripartite Kingdom of the Netherlands"), consisting of the Netherlands (mainland), Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles. Under the provisions of the Charter, both former colonies were granted internal autonomy. Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles each got a Minister Plenipotentiary based in the Netherlands, who had the right to participate in Dutch cabinet meetings that discussed affairs of the Kingdom as a whole when they pertained directly to Suriname or the Netherlands Antilles. Delegates of Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles could participate in sessions of the First and Second Chamber of the States General. An overseas member could be added to the Council of State when appropriate. According to the Charter, Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles could each alter its "Basic Law" (Staatsregeling). The right of the two autonomous countries to leave the Kingdom, unilaterally, was not recognised; yet it also stipulated that the Charter could be dissolved by mutual consultation.[13]
Before the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands was proclaimed in 1954, Suriname, Netherlands New Guinea, and the Netherlands Antilles, (formerly, Kolonie Curaçao en Onderhorige Eilanden, "Colony of Curaçao and subordinates") were colonies of the Netherlands.
Suriname was a constituent country within the Kingdom from 1954 to 1975, while the Netherlands Antilles was a constituent country from 1954 until 2010. Suriname has since become an independent republic, and the Netherlands Antilles was divided into six. Three are constituent countries: Aruba (since 1986), Curaçao and Sint Maarten (since 2010); three are special municipalities of the Netherlands proper: Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba. Netherlands New Guinea was a dependent territory of the Kingdom until 1962, followed by seven-month transitional period when it was annexed by Indonesia.[14][15] It was not an autonomous country, and was not mentioned in the Charter.
In 1955, Queen Juliana and Prince Bernhard visited Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles. The visit was a great success.[by whom?] The royal couple were welcomed enthusiastically by the local population, and the trip was widely reported in the Dutch press. Several other royal visits were to follow.[16]
In 1969, an unorganised strike on the Antillean island of Curaçao resulted in serious disturbances and looting, during which a part of the historic city centre of Willemstad was destroyed by fire. Order was restored by Dutch marines. In the same year, Suriname saw serious political instability with the Surinamese prime minister, Jopie Pengel, threatening to request military support to break a teachers' strike.
In 1973, a new Dutch cabinet under Labour leader Joop den Uyl assumed power. In the government policy statement, the cabinet declared a wish to determine a date for the independence of Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles with the governments of those nations. The Antillean government was non-committal; the same held for the Surinamese Sedney cabinet (1969–1973). Suriname's 1973 elections brought the National Party Combination (Nationale Partij Kombinatie) to power, with Henck Arron as prime minister. The new government declared that Suriname would be independent before 1976. This was remarkable, as independence had not been an issue during the election campaign. The Den Uyl government in The Hague now had a willing partner in Paramaribo to realise its plans for Surinamese independence. Despite vehement and emotional resistance by the Surinamese opposition, Den Uyl and Arron reached an agreement, and, on 25 November 1975, Suriname became independent.[17]
In January 1986, Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles, becoming a constituent country of the Kingdom in its own right. In October 2010, the Netherlands Antilles was dissolved and Curaçao and Sint Maarten became the newest constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
Modern events
The Kingdom celebrated its bicentennial in a series of festive occasions spanning from 2013 to 2015, the last being the year of the actual 200th anniversary of the Kingdom.[18][19]
Constituent countries
The Kingdom of the Netherlands consists of four constituent countries: the Netherlands, Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten. There is a difference between the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Netherlands: the Kingdom of the Netherlands is the comprehensive sovereign state, while the Netherlands is one of its four constituent countries. Three Caribbean islands (Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten) are the three remaining constituent countries. Three other Caribbean islands (Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba) are special municipalities within the country of the Netherlands. Until its dissolution in 2010, the islands had formed the Netherlands Antilles, with the exception of Aruba, which left the grouping in 1986.
Constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands
Population[9]
(as of November 2019)
Kingdom's population
Area[8][20]
Kingdom's area
Netherlands[i] 17,424,978 98.24% 41,873 km2 (16,167 sq mi) 98.45% 516/km2 (1,340/sq mi)
Mainland provinces 17,399,821 98.10% 41,545 km2 (16,041 sq mi) 97.68% 521/km2 (1,350/sq mi)
Bonaire†‡ 20,104 0.11% 288 km2 (111 sq mi) 0.69% 69/km2 (180/sq mi)
Sint Eustatius†‡ 3,138 0.02% 21 km2 (8.1 sq mi) 0.05% 150/km2 (390/sq mi)
Saba†‡ 1,915 0.01% 13 km2 (5.0 sq mi) 0.03% 148/km2 (380/sq mi)
Aruba† 112,309 0.63% 180 km2 (69 sq mi) 0.42% 624/km2 (1,620/sq mi)
Curaçao† 158,665 0.89% 444 km2 (171 sq mi) 1.04% 358/km2 (930/sq mi)
Sint Maarten† 41,486 0.23% 34 km2 (13 sq mi) 0.08% 1,221/km2 (3,160/sq mi)
42,525 km2 (16,419 sq mi)
515/km2 (1,330/sq mi)
† Forms a part of the Dutch Caribbean.
‡ Forms a part of the Caribbean Netherlands.
Major religions
Netherlands Euro Dutch No religion, Christianity
Bonaire US dollar Papiamento, Dutch (official) Catholic, Protestant
Sint Eustatius US dollar English, Dutch (official) Protestant, Catholic
Aruba Aruban florin Papiamento, Dutch (official), Spanish Catholic
Saba US dollar English, Dutch (official) Catholic
Curaçao Netherlands Antillean guilder Papiamento, Dutch (official) Catholic
Sint Maarten Netherlands Antillean guilder English, Dutch (official), Spanish Catholic, Protestant
Tree structure of subdivisions of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, showing the geographic location of its four constituent countries
The Netherlands is a representative parliamentary democracy organised as a unitary state. Its administration consists of the Monarch and the Council of Ministers, which is headed by a Prime Minister (currently Mark Rutte). The people are represented by the States General of the Netherlands, which consists of a House of Representatives and a Senate. The Netherlands is divided into 12 provinces: Drenthe, Flevoland, Friesland, Gelderland, Groningen, Limburg, North Brabant, North Holland, Overijssel, South Holland, Utrecht and Zeeland. The provinces are divided into municipalities. The Netherlands has the euro as its currency, except in the special municipalities of the Caribbean Netherlands (BES islands), where the Netherlands Antillean guilder was replaced by the U.S. dollar in 2011.[21]
The special municipalities of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba (referred to as Caribbean Netherlands or BES islands) are part of the Netherlands proper but are not part of any province.[22] They resemble ordinary Dutch municipalities in most ways (with a mayor, aldermen, and a municipal council, for example) and are subject to the ordinary Dutch legislative process. Residents of these three islands are also able to vote in Dutch national and European elections. There are, however, some derogations for these islands. Social security, for example, is not on the same level as it is in the Netherlands proper. In November 2008 it was decided to introduce the U.S. dollar in the three islands.[23] The date of introduction was 1 January 2011. The Netherlands carries the risk of exchange rate fluctuations regarding cash flows between the state and the islands.
Aruba, with its own constitution, is a representative parliamentary democracy organised as a unitary state. Its administration consists of the Governor, who represents the Monarch, and the (Aruban) Council of Ministers, headed by a Prime Minister. The sovereign people of Aruba are represented by 21 parliamentarians in the Parliament of Aruba. The Governor of Aruba is Alfonso Boekhoudt, and the Prime Minister is Evelyn Wever-Croes. It has its own Central Bank and currency, the Aruban florin, linked to the U.S. dollar; the U.S. dollar is accepted almost everywhere on the island. Aruba has two official languages: its own national language Papiamento and the Kingdom of the Netherlands' Dutch language.[24]
Historic Area of Willemstad, declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1997
Curaçao is a centralised unitary state, with similar administrative characteristics to Aruba. It has the Netherlands Antillean guilder as its currency.
Sint Maarten is a centralised unitary state, with similar administrative characteristics to Aruba. It has the Antillean Guilder as its currency. Unlike the other Dutch Caribbean countries and special municipalities, Sint Maarten covers only part of an island. It consists of roughly the southern half of the divided island of Saint Martin. The northern half of the island is the French Collectivity of Saint Martin.
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Charter and constitutions
Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten regulate the governance of their respective countries, but are subordinate to the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The Netherlands is ruled by the provisions and institutions of the Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands that also constitutes and regulates the institutions of the Kingdom that are mentioned in the Charter. The Constitution is also subordinate to the Charter. The provisions in the Charter for some of these institutions are additional and are applicable only for those affairs of the Kingdom, as described in the Charter, when they affect Aruba, Curaçao, or Sint Maarten directly. In cases where affairs of the Kingdom do not affect Aruba, Curaçao, or Sint Maarten, they are dealt with according to the provisions laid down in the Constitution. In these cases the Netherlands, the jurisdiction ruled directly by the Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands, acts alone, according to its constitution and in its capacity as the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The other three countries cannot do the same for affairs of the Kingdom that only pertain to them and not to the Netherlands proper. In these cases, the provisions of the Charter prevail.
Changes in the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands can only be made when all constituent countries agree.
King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands, the reigning monarch of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. At the time this picture was taken he was still the Prince of Orange.
The Monarch and the ministers he appoints form the Government of the Kingdom. According to Article 7 of the Charter, the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom of the Netherlands consists of the Council of Ministers of the Netherlands complemented by one Minister Plenipotentiary of Aruba, one Minister Plenipotentiary of Curaçao, and one Minister Plenipotentiary of Sint Maarten.[25] The Dutch Prime Minister chairs the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom.[26]
In December 2007, a Deputy Council for Kingdom Relations was established.[27][28] This deputy council prepares the meetings of the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom. The establishment of such a Council has long been advocated by the Council of State of the Kingdom.[29]
The Government and the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom, along with the monarchy itself, are subject to Article 5 of the Charter that refers their regulation mainly to the Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands as far as the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands does not provide for that.
Two legal instruments are available at the Kingdom level: the Kingdom act (Dutch: Rijkswet) and the Order-in-Council for the Kingdom (Dutch: Algemene maatregel van Rijksbestuur). An example of a Kingdom act is the "Kingdom Act regarding Dutch citizenship" (Dutch: Rijkswet op het Nederlanderschap).
The Monarch of the Netherlands is the head of state of the Kingdom. The Monarch is represented in Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten by a governor.
The legislature of the Kingdom consists of the States General of the Netherlands and the Government. Articles 14, 16 and 17 of the Charter give some participation to the parliaments of the Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten.
Council of State
Article 13 of the Charter specifies that there is a Council of State of the Kingdom. It is (as all institutions of the Kingdom) regulated in the Constitution, but the Charter implies that at the request of Aruba, Curaçao, or Sint Maarten, a member from each of these islands can be included in the Council of State.[25] Aruba is currently exercising this right.[26] This has not always been the case; the Netherlands Antilles had no member until 1987 and Aruba had none until 2000.[30] Sint Maarten's first member of the Council of State will be former Lieutenant Governor Dennis Richardson.[31]
The Hoge Raad der Nederlanden is the supreme court of the Kingdom by virtue of the Cassation regulation for the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba.[32] The basis for this regulation is article 23 of the Charter. The second paragraph of that article specifies that if an overseas country of the Kingdom so requests, the Kingdom Act should provide for an additional court member from that country.[25] To date, neither Aruba, Curaçao, nor Sint Maarten has used this right.
According to Article 39 of the Charter, "civil and commercial law, the law of civil procedure, criminal law, the law of criminal procedure, copyright, industrial property, the office of notary, and provisions concerning weights and measures shall be regulated as far as possible in a similar manner in the Netherlands, Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten". The Article further stipulates that when a drastic amendment of the existing legislation in regard to these matters is proposed, the proposal shall not be submitted to or considered by a representative assembly until the Governments in the other countries have had the opportunity to express their views on the matter.[25]
Mutual arbitration between the constituent countries and the Kingdom
In case of a conflict between a constituent country and the Kingdom, Article 12 of the Charter prescribes an administrative reconciliation procedure. This was often deemed a democratic deficit of the Kingdom, leading to the adoption of an amendment to the Charter, which entered into force on 10 October 2010. The new Article 12a specifies that in addition to the administrative reconciliation procedure, "by Kingdom Act measures shall be made allowing for the arbitration of certain conflicts, as specified by Kingdom Act, between the Kingdom and the countries."[25] The imperative formulation was the result of an amendment in the Chamber of Representatives by special delegates Evelyna Wever-Croes and J.E. Thijsen of Aruba; the original formulation was "by Kingdom Act measures can be made".[33]
The new Article 38a allows for measures to be made for arbitration between countries as well. In contrast with Article 12a, this article is not imperatively formulated.[25]
Kingdom affairs
Article 3 of the Charter specifies the Affairs of the Kingdom:
Maintenance of the independence and the defence of the Kingdom;
Foreign relations;
Netherlands nationality;
Regulation of the orders of chivalry, the flag and the coat of arms of the Kingdom;
Regulation of the nationality of vessels and the standards required for the safety and navigation of seagoing vessels flying the flag of the Kingdom, with the exception of sailing ships;
Supervision of the general rules governing the admission and expulsion of Netherlands nationals;
General conditions for the admission and expulsion of aliens;
Extradition.
One additional Kingdom affair is specified in article 43(2):
The safeguarding of fundamental human rights and freedoms, legal certainty and good governance shall be a Kingdom affair.
Paragraph 2 of Article 3 specifies that "other matters may be declared to be Kingdom affairs in consultation".[25]
These Kingdom affairs are only taken care of by the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, if the affair affects Aruba, Curaçao or St. Maarten. Article 14, paragraph 3, of the Charter, foresees the handling of Kingdom affairs in all other cases by the Netherlands.[25]
On the basis of Article 38, the countries of the Kingdom can decide to adopt a Kingdom Act outside of the scope of the aforementioned Kingdom affairs. Such acts are referred to as Consensus Kingdom Acts, as they require the consent of the parliaments of Aruba, Curaçao and St. Maarten.[25]
The Kingdom negotiates and concludes international treaties and agreements. Those that do not affect Aruba, Curaçao, or Sint Maarten directly are dealt with by the provisions of the Constitution (in fact by the Netherlands alone). Article 24 of the Charter specifies that when an international treaty or agreement affects Aruba, Curaçao, or Sint Maarten, the treaty or agreement concerned shall be submitted to their representative assemblies. The article further specifies that when such a treaty or agreement is submitted for the tacit approval of the States General of the Netherlands (Dutch: Staten-Generaal der Nederlanden), the Ministers Plenipotentiary may communicate their wish that the treaty or agreement concerned shall be subject to the express approval of the States General.[25]
Article 25 gives Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten the opportunity to opt out from an international treaty or agreement.[25] The treaty or agreement concerned then has to specify that the treaty or agreement does not apply to Aruba, Curaçao, or Sint Maarten.
Article 26 specifies that when Aruba, Curaçao, or Sint Maarten communicate their wish for the conclusion of an international economic or financial agreement that applies solely to the country concerned, the Government of the Kingdom shall assist in the conclusion of such an agreement, unless this would be inconsistent with the country's ties with the Kingdom.[25]
Article 27 specifies the involvement of Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten in the preparations for a treaty or agreement that affects them and Article 28 specifies that Aruba, Curaçao, or Sint Maarten may, if they so desire, accede to membership of international organisations.[25]
Among other affiliations, the state is also a founding member of NATO, OECD and WTO.
Constitutional nature
Most scholars agree that it is difficult to group the constitutional arrangements of the Kingdom in one of the traditional models of state organisation, and consider the Kingdom to be a sui generis arrangement.[30][34] Instead, the Kingdom is said to have characteristics of a federal state, a confederation, a federacy, and a devolved unitary state.
The Kingdom's federal characteristics include the delineation of Kingdom affairs in the Charter, the enumeration of the constituting parts of the Kingdom in the Charter, the fact that the Charter subordinates the law of the constituting countries to the law of the Kingdom, the establishment of Kingdom institutions in the Charter, and the fact that the Kingdom has its own legislative instruments: the Kingdom act and the Order-in-Council for the Kingdom.
Its confederal characteristics include the fact that the Charter can only be amended by consensus among the constituent countries.[30]
Characteristics that point more or less to a federacy include the fact that the functioning of the institutions of the Kingdom is governed by the Constitution of the Netherlands where the Charter does not provide for them. The Charter also does not provide a procedure for the enactment of Kingdom acts; articles 81 to 88 of the Constitution of the Netherlands also apply for Kingdom acts, but with some additions and corrections stipulated in articles 15 to 22 of the Charter. The only Kingdom institution that requires the participation of the Caribbean countries in a mandatory way is the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom; both the Supreme Court and the Council of State of the Kingdom only include Caribbean members if one or more Caribbean countries ask for it, and the Caribbean countries are almost completely excluded from participating in the Kingdom's legislature. They can, however, participate in the drafting of a Kingdom act and their Ministers Plenipotentiary can oppose a Kingdom act otherwise supported by the Kingdom government in front of the Kingdom's parliament. Furthermore, according to article 15 of the Charter, the Ministers Plenipotentiary can request the Kingdom parliament to introduce a draft Kingdom act.[30] Last, but not least, the Netherlands can, according to article 14 of the Charter, conduct Kingdom affairs on its own if conducting such affairs does not affect Aruba, Curaçao, or Sint Maarten. Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten do not have this right.[30]
A characteristic that points to a devolved unitary state is the ability of the Kingdom government, according to article 50 of the Charter, to render a legislative or administrative measure of one of the Caribbean countries void if it is inconsistent with the Charter, an international agreement, a Kingdom act, an Order-in-Council for the Kingdom, or if it regulates an otherwise Kingdom affair.[30]
The constitutional structure of the Kingdom is summarised by constitutional scholar C. Borman, in an often-cited definition, as follows:
a voluntary association of autonomous countries in a sovereign Kingdom that is placed above them, in which the institutions of the Kingdom largely coincide with the institutions of the largest country, in which on the level of the Kingdom only a few affairs are governed, and in which from the level of the Kingdom a limited influence can be exerted on the smaller countries.[35]
Constitutional scholar C. A. J. M. Kortmann speaks of an "association of countries that has characteristics of a federation, yet one of its own kind."[36] Belinfante and De Reede do speak about a "federal association" without any reservations.[37]
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Despite being of a sui generis constitutional nature, some other states have similar properties. In particular, the Kingdom of Denmark consists of Denmark, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands; the Realm of New Zealand consists of New Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau, and the Ross Dependency. These comparisons are not exact; for instance, aside from the King of New Zealand, there is no constitutional structure shared between New Zealand, the Cook Islands, and Niue.
Other states also have multiple territories, but such territories are distinct. Some states, such as the United Kingdom and its overseas territories, as well as the United States and its insular areas, do not consider their external territories as integral parts of the state.
Other states, such as the Commonwealth of Australia, do treat their external territories as integral components, but have only one country/nationality level equivalent to the state.
Relationship with the European Union
The Kingdom of the Netherlands is a founding member state of the European Union. Although originally both Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles were explicitly excluded from association with the European Economic Community by means of a special protocol attached to the Treaty of Rome,[38] the status of Suriname as an overseas country (OCT) of the Community was established by a Supplementary Act completing the instrument of ratification of the Kingdom of the Netherlands on 1 September 1962.[39] The Convention on the association of the Netherlands Antilles with the European Economic Community entered into force on 1 October 1964, signalling the attainment of OCT status by the Netherlands Antilles. Suriname is now an independent republic and a sovereign country, outside the EU. The Antilles have been dissolved.
The Caribbean islands, including the BES islands that are part of the Netherlands proper, are OCTs. Since citizenship is a Kingdom affair, and is thus not distinguished for the four countries, citizens from all four countries are also citizens of the European Union. However, these territories are not part of the European Union.[40]
Constitutional reform of the Netherlands Antilles
In 2004, a joint commission proposed major reforms for the Netherlands Antilles. On 11 October and 2 November 2006, agreements were signed between the Dutch government and the governments of each island that would put into effect the commission's findings by 15 December 2008.[41] The reform took effect on 10 October 2010. Under these reforms, the Netherlands Antilles were dissolved and Curaçao and Sint Maarten became constituent countries within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, obtaining the same status as Aruba which seceded from the Netherlands Antilles in 1986.
The BES islands (i.e., Bonaire, Saba, and Sint Eustatius) became direct parts of the Netherlands, which is itself the major constituent country of the Kingdom. As special municipalities, they were constituted as "public bodies" (Dutch: openbare lichamen) under the Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands. These municipalities resemble ordinary Dutch municipalities in most ways (e.g., they have mayors, aldermen, and municipal councils) and the laws of the Netherlands would operate in them. As a transitional measure, however, only Netherlands law necessary to function within its legal system took immediate effect when the BES islands joined the Netherlands on 10 October 2010, while most laws of the Netherlands Antilles remained in force. Since that date, Dutch legislation slowly replaced Netherlands Antilles laws. Nevertheless, some derogations exist: e.g., social security is not at the same level as in the European part of the Netherlands, and the islands' currency is the U.S. dollar, not the euro.[42]
The special municipalities will be represented in the affairs of the Kingdom by the Netherlands, as they vote for the Dutch parliament. The Dutch Senate is chosen by provincial councils; however, as the BES islands are not part of any province, each elects an electoral college who then choose the Senators similarly to the provincial councils.[42]
The Netherlands has proposed to conducted a study on the BES islands acquiring the European Union status of Outermost Regions (OMR), also called Ultra Peripheral Regions (UPR). The study would also look into how the islands would fare under UPR status.[42]
Distinction between the Netherlands and the Kingdom
Outside the Kingdom of the Netherlands, "Netherlands" is used as the English short-form name to describe the Kingdom of the Netherlands. At the United Nations, for example, the Kingdom is identified in the General Assembly by its English short-form name "Netherlands", whereas the English long-form name "Kingdom of the Netherlands" may be used in place of the name "Netherlands" in formal UN documentation. International treaties, also, frequently shorten "Kingdom of the Netherlands" to "Netherlands". The Dutch name that is commonly used is Nederland, which is a singular form, whereas the official Dutch name Koninkrijk der Nederlanden like the English "(Kingdom of the) Netherlands", uses the plural form. In Dutch practice, however, "Kingdom of the Netherlands" is shortened to "Kingdom" and not to "Netherlands", as the latter name could be confused with the Kingdom's principal constituent country rather than with the Kingdom in its Charter capacity.[j] The Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands also shortens "Kingdom of the Netherlands" to "Kingdom" rather than to "Netherlands".[25]
Apart from the fact that referring to the Kingdom of the Netherlands as the "Netherlands" can be confusing, the term "Kingdom" is also used to prevent any feelings of ill will that could be associated with the use of the term "Netherlands." The use of the term "Netherlands" for the Kingdom as a whole might imply that Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten are not equal to the Kingdom's country in Europe and that the three island countries have no say in affairs pertaining to the Kingdom but are instead subordinate to the European country. Though the influence of the islands in Kingdom affairs is limited, it certainly exists.
Talking about the negotiation tactics of then Minister for Kingdom Affairs Alexander Pechtold, ChristenUnie leader, and then demissionary Deputy Prime Minister of the Netherlands André Rouvoet illustrated the sensitivity in this matter by remarking in the House of Representatives that "[...] the old reproof that constantly characterised the relationship between the Netherlands and the Antilles immediately surfaced again. The Netherlands identifies the Kingdom with the Netherlands and dictates. The Netherlands Antilles can like it or lump it."[43] In addition, the Werkgroep Bestuurlijke en Financiële Verhoudingen Nederlandse Antillen—the commission that explored the current constitutional reform of the Kingdom—recommended that the "identification of the Netherlands with the Kingdom needs to be eliminated".[44] The Council of State of the Kingdom joins the commission in this by remarking that the Kingdom of the Netherlands has no telephone number, no budget and that the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom usually meets very briefly with a summary agenda.[45] To counter this habit, the Council of State has suggested that with the pending constitutional reform in the Kingdom, a Secretariat for the Kingdom will be instituted that prepares the agenda for the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom and guards the enforcement of decisions of the council.
Map of the Dutch Caribbean islands, all part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten are separate constituent countries within the Kingdom, whereas Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba are part of the constituent country of the Netherlands.
The Kingdom of the Netherlands covers a total area of 42,531 km2 (16,421 sq mi); and a land area of 34,467 km2 (13,308 sq mi). The Kingdom of the Netherlands has land borders with Belgium, Germany (both in the European Netherlands), and France (on Saint Martin).
About one quarter of the Netherlands lies below sea level, as much land has been reclaimed from the sea. Dikes were erected to protect the land from flooding. Previously, the highest point of the Netherlands was the Vaalserberg in Limburg at only 322.7 m (1,059 ft), but with the constitutional reform of 10 October 2010 this changed as Saba became part of the Netherlands as a special municipality, and its Mount Scenery (887 m; 2,910 ft) took the place of the Vaalserberg.
The Caribbean parts of the Kingdom consist of two zones with different geographic origins. The Leeward Islands (Saba, Sint Eustatius and Sint Maarten) are all of volcanic origin and hilly, leaving little ground suitable for agriculture. The Leeward Antilles (Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao) are largely lacking in volcanic activity: the island arc occurs along the deformed southern edge of the Caribbean Plate and was formed by the plate's subduction under the South American Plate.
The Caribbean islands have a tropical climate, with warm weather all year round. The Leeward Islands are subject to hurricanes in the summer months. The European part of the Netherlands has a moderate maritime climate, with cool summers and mild winters.
Timeline of constituent countries
Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands signed
Suriname gained independence and became the Republic of Suriname
Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles to become a constituent country in its own right
The Netherlands Antilles was dissolved. Curaçao and Sint Maarten became constituent countries, while the BES islands became special municipalities of the Netherlands.
Federacy
Koninkrijksdag
Personal union
Monarchy of the Netherlands
British West Indies Federation (1958–1962), made up of 10 provinces of the UK
^ The official motto is in French. The literal translation into English is "I will maintain"; a better translation, however, is "I will hold firm" or "I will uphold" (namely, the integrity and independence of the territory).[original research?]
^ a b Amsterdam is the constitutional capital of the kingdom and the Netherlands, while The Hague is the seat of the government representing both; Oranjestad is the capital of Aruba; Willemstad is the capital of Curaçao; and Philipsburg is the capital of Sint Maarten.
^ a b c Dutch is an official language in all four constituent countries. English is an official language in Curaçao[1] and Sint Maarten,[2] and has a formal status on Saba and Sint Eustatius.[3] Papiamento is an official language in Aruba[4] and Curaçao,[1] and has a formal status on Bonaire.[3] In Friesland, the West Frisian language has a formal status.[5] Dutch Low Saxon, Dutch Sign Language, Limburgish, Sinte Romani and Yiddish are recognised as regional or non-territorial languages in the Netherlands.[6][7]
^ The Prime Minister of the Netherlands is referred to as "Our Prime Minister, in his capacity as chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom" (Dutch: Onze Minister-President, in zijn hoedanigheid van voorzitter van de raad van ministers van het Koninkrijk) when he acts as a Minister of the Kingdom. An example of this can be found in article 2(3a) of the Act on financial supervision for Curaçao and Sint Maarten. Other ministers of the Netherlands are referred to with the additional line "in his capacity as Minister of the Kingdom" (Dutch: in zijn hoedanigheid van Minister van het Koninkrijk) when they act as Kingdom Ministers, as for example with "Our Minister of Justice in his capacity as Minister of the Kingdom" (Dutch: Onze Minister van Justitie in zijn hoedanigheid van minister van het Koninkrijk), except for the Minister of Foreign Affairs and the Minister of Defence, since they always act in a Kingdom capacity. For more information on this, see Borman 2005 and Borman 2010.
^ Also .eu, shared with other EU member states.
^ .bq is designated, but not in use, for the Caribbean Netherlands.
^ In isolation, Koninkrijk is pronounced [ˈkoːnɪŋkrɛik].
^ Not to be confused with the constituent country the Netherlands, which is only a part of the Kingdom. In some contexts "the Netherlands" refers to the constituent country, in more formal contexts it may refer to the Kingdom.
^ The population statistics of the Central Bureau of Statistics for the Netherlands do not include the Caribbean Netherlands (Source 1, 2). The number given here results from adding the population statistics of the Netherlands with those of the Caribbean Netherlands.
^ Examples of this practice can be found in all government documents and in nearly all press reports on Kingdom affairs, as well as in institutions that are related to the Kingdom of the Netherlands: Raad van Ministers van het Koninkrijk ("Council of Ministers of the Kingdom"), Ministerie van Binnenlanse Zaken en Koninkrijksrelaties ("Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Affairs"), the Koninkrijksspelen ("Kingdom Games", the Dutch equivalent of the Commonwealth Games), etc.
^ a b "LANDSVERORDENING van de 28ste maart 2007 houdende vaststelling van de officiële talen (Landsverordening officiële talen)" (in Dutch). Government of the Netherlands. 10 October 2010. Archived from the original on 10 September 2019. Retrieved 30 July 2013.
^ According to Art. 1 para 2. Constitution of Sint Maarten Archived 25 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine: "The official languages are Dutch and English"
^ a b "Invoeringswet openbare lichamen Bonaire, Sint Eustatius en Saba" (in Dutch). wetten.nl. Archived from the original on 21 December 2017. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
^ Migge, Bettina; Léglise, Isabelle; Bartens, Angela (2010). Creoles in Education: An Appraisal of Current Programs and Projects. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 268. ISBN 978-90-272-5258-6. Archived from the original on 1 January 2021. Retrieved 26 October 2020.
^ "Wet gebruik Friese taal" (in Dutch). wetten.nl. Archived from the original on 27 December 2017. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
^ "Welke erkende talen heeft Nederland?" (in Dutch). Rijksoverheid. 11 January 2016. Archived from the original on 27 December 2017. Retrieved 29 December 2018.
^ "Besluit van 24 juni 2021 tot vaststelling van het tijdstip van inwerkingtreding van de Wet erkenning Nederlandse Gebarentaal" (PDF). Staatsblad van Het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden. 2021. ISSN 0920-2064. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 July 2021. Retrieved 1 July 2021.
^ a b "Oppervlakte". Archived from the original on 13 January 2020. Retrieved 10 January 2020.
^ a b c "CBS Statline". opendata.cbs.nl. Archived from the original on 25 July 2019. Retrieved 3 December 2018.
^ The Charter of the Kingdom was fully explained in an "EXPLANATORY MEMORANDUM to the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands", transmitted to the United Nations Secretary-General in compliance with the wishes expressed in General Assembly resolutions 222 (III) and 747 (VIII). New York, 30 March 1955 (* Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken, 41, Suriname en de Nederlandse Antillen in de Verenigde Naties III, Staatsdrukkerij-en uitgeversbedrijf/ 's Gravenhage, 1956)
^ Edward, J.E.; Acton, D.A.; Ward, A.W.; Prothero, G.W.; Benians, E.A. (1907). The Cambridge Modern History. Vol. X: The Restoration. MacMillan. pp. 522–524.
^ "Dutch involvement in the transatlantic slave trade and abolition". 24 June 2013. Archived from the original on 12 December 2021. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
^ a b Peter Meel, Tussen autonomie en onafhankelijkheid. Nederlands-Surinaamse betrekkingen 1954–1961 (Between Autonomy and Independence. Dutch-Surinamese Relations 1954–1961; Leiden: KITLV 1999).
^ Paddock, Richard C. (12 December 2020). "'Free Papua Movement' Intensifies Amid Escalating Violence". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
^ Vandenbosch, Amry (1976). "Indonesia, the Netherlands and the New Guinea Issue". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 7 (1): 102–118. doi:10.1017/S0022463400010298. JSTOR 20070166. S2CID 163500918. Archived from the original on 25 December 2021. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
^ Gert Oostindie, De parels en de kroon. Het koningshuis en de koloniën (The Pearls and the Crown. The Royal House and the Colonies; Amsterdam: De Bezige Bij, 2006).
^ Gert Oostindie and Inge Klinkers, Knellende Koninkrijksbanden. Het Nederlandse dekolonisatiebeleid in de Caraïben, 1940–2000, II, 1954–1975 (Stringent Kingdom Ties. The Dutch De-colonisation Policy in the Caribbean; Amsterdam: University Press 2001).
^ "Koning en Koningin bij viering 200 jaar Koninkrijk in Maastricht". Dutch Royal House. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015.
^ De monarchie in Nederland, C.A. Tamse; Amsterdam / Brussel: Elsevier 1980 pp 43 – 44
^ Ministerie van Algemene Zaken (19 May 2015). "Waaruit bestaat het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden? - Rijksoverheid.nl". onderwerpen. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)[permanent dead link]
^ "Monetary, Safety Law BES islands approved islands". The Daily Herald. 19 May 2010. Archived from the original on 10 August 2010. Retrieved 27 June 2011.
^ "31.954, Wet openbare lichamen Bonaire, Sint Eustatius en Saba" (in Dutch). Eerste kamer der Staten-Generaal. Archived from the original on 25 November 2010. Retrieved 15 October 2010. De openbare lichamen vallen rechtstreeks onder het Rijk omdat zij geen deel uitmaken van een provincie. (The public bodies (...), because they are not part of a Province)
^ "The Bonaire Insider – InfoBonaire". Archived from the original on 7 August 2010. Retrieved 11 October 2010.
^ "Aruba and the Kingdom". Aruba Government. 5 April 2017. Archived from the original on 5 April 2017. Retrieved 4 April 2017.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n "Coming Soon". www.arubaforeignaffairs.com. Archived from the original on 14 March 2019. Retrieved 18 March 2019.
^ a b "Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles: Political relations within the Kingdom of the Netherlands". Ministerie van Binnenlandse Zaken en Koninkrijksrelaties. Archived from the original on 17 February 2008. Retrieved 13 October 2007.
^ Wetten.overheid.nl – Instellingsbesluit raad voor Koninkrijksrelaties Archived 15 February 2022 at the Wayback Machine
^ Nationaal Archief – "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 April 2010. Retrieved 16 April 2010. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link), page 12
^ RNW – Onderraad voor Koninkrijksrelaties
^ a b c d e f H.G. Hoogers (2008) "De landen en het Koninkrijk", in Schurende rechtsordes: over juridische implicates van de UPG-status voor de eilandgebieden van de Nederlandse Antillen en Aruba[permanent dead link], Groningen: Faculteit rechtsgeleerdheid van de Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, pp. 119–124. This study was mandated by the Dutch State Secretary for Kingdom Relations Archived 15 February 2022 at the Wayback Machine and was used for government policy.
^ RNW.nl – Dennis Richardson voorgedragen voor Raad van State Archived 11 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine
^ In Dutch: Cassatieregeling voor de Nederlandse Antillen en Aruba, text available here "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 March 2016. Retrieved 17 March 2016. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^ Ikregeer.nl – Nr. 17 Amendement van de Bijzonder Gedelegeerden Wever en Thijsen Archived 25 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
^ "De in het statuut neergelegde staatsvorm heeft een uniek karakter en is moeilijk in een bepaalde categorie onder te brengen [...] Veelal wordt dan ook geconcludeerd dat het Koninkrijk niet van een duidelijke classificate kan worden voorzien. Gesproken wordt van een quasi-, dan wel pseudo-federatie of van een constructie sui generis", in: C. Borman (2005) Het Statuut voor het Koninkrijk Archived 12 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Deventer: Kluwer, pp. 23–24.
^ "Een poging om de structuur van het Koninkrijk samen te vatten leidt tot de volgende omschrijving: een vrijwillig samengaan van autonome landen in een boven die landen geplaatst soeverein Koninkrijk, waarbij de organen van het Koninkrijk grotendeels samenvallen met die van het grootste land, op het niveau van het Koninkrijk slechts enkele taken worden verricht en vanwege het Koninkrijk een beperkte invloed kan worden uitgeoefend op het autonome bestuur in de kleinere landen", in: C. Borman (2005) Het Statuut voor het Koninkrijk Archived 12 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Deventer: Kluwer, p. 24.
^ "associatie van landen die trekken heeft van een federatie (Bondsstaat), maar wel een eigensoortige", in: C. A. J. M. Kortmann (2005) Constitutioneel recht, Deventer, p. 107.
^ A.D. Belinfante, J.L. De Reede (2002) Beginselen van het Nederlandse Staatsrecht, Deventer, p. 315.
^ "Treaty Establishing the EEC – Protocol on the Application of the Treaty Establishing the European Economic Community to the Non-European Parts of the Kingdom of the Netherlands
The High Contracting Parties,
Anxious, at the time of signature of the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community, to define the scope of the provisions of Article 227 of this Treaty in respect of the Kingdom of the Netherlands,
Have agreed upon the following provisions, which shall be annexed to this Treaty:
The Government of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, by reason of the constitutional structure of the Kingdom resulting from the Statute of 29 December 1954, shall, by way of derogation from Article 227, be entitled to ratify the Treaty on behalf of the Kingdom in Europe and Netherlands New Guinea only.
Done at Rome this twenty-fifth day of March in the year one thousand nine hundred and fifty-seven.", in: cvce.eu – Treaty establishing the EEC – Protocol on the application of the Treaty establishing the EEC to the non-European parts of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (1957)
^ "The provisions of Part Four of the Treaty were applied to Surinam, by virtue of a Supplementary Act of the Kingdom of the Netherlands to complete its instrument of ratification, from 1 September 1962 to 16 July 1976.", in: eur-lex.europa.eu – Treaty establishing the European Community (consolidated version) – Text of the Treaty Archived 21 October 2021 at the Wayback Machine
^ "The Netherlands also includes 6 overseas countries and territories in the Caribbean. These territories are not part of the EU." EU website Archived 19 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine
^ "Agreement on division of Netherlands Antilles". Government.nl. 13 February 2007. Archived from the original on 12 March 2007. Retrieved 24 February 2007.
^ a b c The Daily Herald (12 October 2006). "St. Eustatius, Saba, Bonaire and The Hague Reach Historic Agreement". Archived from the original on 6 October 2007. Retrieved 21 October 2006.
^ André Rouvoet (12 October 2005). "Bijdrage debat Begroting Koninkrijksrelaties 2006" (in Dutch). ChristenUnie.nl. Archived from the original on 6 May 2009. Retrieved 21 October 2007. Hoewel Minister De Grave er wat ons betreft meer vaart achter had mogen zetten, had hij onmiskenbaar de goede richting te pakken én, dat is in Koninkrijkszaken cruciaal, de goede toon. Zijn opvolger, Minister Pechtold, bleek die broodnodige prudentie te ontberen met als dieptepunt zijn brief van 24 augustus waarin hij staatkundige veranderingen afhankelijk maakte van financiële verbeteringen. Het oude verwijt dat steeds de relatie tussen Nederland en de Antillen heeft gekenmerkt, speelde onmiddellijk weer op. Nederland vereenzelvigt het Koninkrijk met Nederland en dicteert. De Nederlandse Antillen moeten slikken of stikken. Gevolg: ergernis in de West, verstoorde verhoudingen en verlies van momentum; geen frisse wind, maar meer een storm in de Caribische porseleinkast. Het zal allemaal wel te maken hebben met de behoefte van deze minister om te zeggen wat hij denkt en heilige huisjes niet te sparen, maar echt behulpzaam voor de verhoudingen in het Koninkrijk is het niet.
^ Werkgroep Bestuurlijke en Financiële Verhoudingen Nederlandse Antillen (8 October 2004). "Nu kan het... nu moet het! Advies Werkgroep Bestuurlijke en Financiële Verhoudingen Nederlandse Antillen" (PDF) (in Dutch). pp. 37–38. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 October 2007. Retrieved 21 October 2007. Aanbevelingen Koninkrijk "Nieuwe Stijl": [...] 7. De vereenzelviging van Nederland met het Koninkrijk wordt doorbroken.
^ Raad van State van het Koninkrijk (18 September 2006). "Voorlichting overeenkomstig artikel 18, tweede lid, van de Wet op de Raad van State inzake de hervorming van de staatkundige verhoudingen van de Antilliaanse eilanden binnen het Koninkrijk" (PDF) (in Dutch). pp. 34–35. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 21 October 2007. Het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden heeft geen adres of telefoonnummer en al evenmin een eigen budget. Als het Koninkrijk wordt gebeld, krijgt men Nederland aan de lijn. De relaties binnen het Koninkrijk zijn vooral een dynamisch onderhandelingsproces. Een democratisch gelegitimeerd centrum ontbreekt. Het duidelijkst geldt dit voor de rijksministerraad, die gewoonlijk slechts zeer kortstondig beraadslaagt, met een zeer summiere agenda en met weinig discussie over de koers van het Koninkrijk als geheel. Voor de voorbereiding is de raad vrijwel geheel afhankelijk van (voorbereidend) overleg tussen vertegenwoordigers van de drie landsregeringen.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Holland".
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kingdom of the Netherlands.
Official English website of the government of the Netherlands
Official Dutch website of the government of the Netherlands
Official website of the government of Aruba
Official website of the government of Curaçao
Official website of the government of Sint Maarten
Official website of the Royal Family
Dutch Empire
Colonies and trading posts of the Dutch East India Company (1602–1798)
Governorate General
Cape Colony
Northeast coast of Java
Suratte
West coast of Sumatra
Cheribon
Preanger
Opperhoofd settlements
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Vietnam (1637–43)
Colonies and trading posts of the Dutch West India Company (1621–1792)
Colonies in the Americas
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1 Governed by the Society of Berbice
2 Governed by the Society of Suriname
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3 Became constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands; Suriname gained full independence in 1975, Curaçao and Dependencies was renamed to the Netherlands Antilles, which was eventually dissolved in 2010.
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands&oldid=1133293909"


text:
Asessment of muscle strength in para-athletes: A systematic review of observational studies
Seán R. O'Connor, Kristina Fagher, Samuel Williamson, Babette M Pluim, Clare Ardern, Dina C. Janse van Rensburg, Neil Heron
Rehabiliteringsmedicin
Forskningsoutput: Tidskriftsbidrag › Översiktsartikel › Peer review
Accurate and reliable evaluation of muscle strength in para-athletes is essential for monitoring the effectiveness of strength training and/or rehabilitation programmes, and sport classification. Our aim is to synthesise evidence related to assessing muscle strength in para-athletes. Four databases were searched from January 1990 to July 2021 for observational studies focusing on strength assessment. Independent screening, data extraction, and quality assessment were performed in duplicate. A total of 1764 potential studies were identified. Thirty met the inclusion criteria and were included in the review. The mean age of participants was 30.7 years (standard deviation (SD): 2.4). The majority were men (88%) participating in wheelchair sports, including basketball, rugby, and tennis (23/30: 76%). Overall quality varied, with more than half of the studies failing to identify strategies for dealing with confounding variables. Despite manual muscle testing being a standard component of para-sport classification systems, evidence examining strength characteristics in para-athletes is derived primarily from isometric and isokinetic testing. In studies that included comparative strength data, findings were mixed. Some studies found strength values were similar to or lower than able-bodied athletic controls. However, an important observation was that others reported higher shoulder strength in para-athletes taking part in wheelchair sports than both able-bodied and disabled non-athletes. Studies need to develop accessible, standardised strength testing methods that account for training influence and establish normative strength values in para-athletes. There is also a need for additional studies that include female para-athletes and para-athletes with greater functional impairments.
Sidor (från-till)
Tidskrift
Sports Medicine and Health Science
Tidigt onlinedatum
2022 aug. 29
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smhs.2022.07.004
Published - 2022 dec.
Idrottsvetenskap
10.1016/j.smhs.2022.07.004Licens: CC BY-NC-ND
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Para-Athletes Medicin och livsvetenskap 100%
Muscle Strength Medicin och livsvetenskap 61%
Observational Studies Medicin och livsvetenskap 46%
Systematic Reviews Medicin och livsvetenskap 44%
Sports Medicin och livsvetenskap 37%
Wheelchairs Medicin och livsvetenskap 21%
Tennis Medicin och livsvetenskap 11%
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O'Connor, S. R., Fagher, K., Williamson, S., Pluim, B. M., Ardern, C., Janse van Rensburg, D. C., & Heron, N. (2022). Asessment of muscle strength in para-athletes: A systematic review of observational studies. Sports Medicine and Health Science, 4(4), 225-238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smhs.2022.07.004
O'Connor, Seán R. ; Fagher, Kristina ; Williamson, Samuel et al. / Asessment of muscle strength in para-athletes: A systematic review of observational studies. I: Sports Medicine and Health Science. 2022 ; Vol. 4, Nr. 4. s. 225-238.
@article{33f66bb9fb6d4d5db9f80ca0cae1c939,
title = "Asessment of muscle strength in para-athletes: A systematic review of observational studies",
abstract = "Accurate and reliable evaluation of muscle strength in para-athletes is essential for monitoring the effectiveness of strength training and/or rehabilitation programmes, and sport classification. Our aim is to synthesise evidence related to assessing muscle strength in para-athletes. Four databases were searched from January 1990 to July 2021 for observational studies focusing on strength assessment. Independent screening, data extraction, and quality assessment were performed in duplicate. A total of 1764 potential studies were identified. Thirty met the inclusion criteria and were included in the review. The mean age of participants was 30.7 years (standard deviation (SD): 2.4). The majority were men (88%) participating in wheelchair sports, including basketball, rugby, and tennis (23/30: 76%). Overall quality varied, with more than half of the studies failing to identify strategies for dealing with confounding variables. Despite manual muscle testing being a standard component of para-sport classification systems, evidence examining strength characteristics in para-athletes is derived primarily from isometric and isokinetic testing. In studies that included comparative strength data, findings were mixed. Some studies found strength values were similar to or lower than able-bodied athletic controls. However, an important observation was that others reported higher shoulder strength in para-athletes taking part in wheelchair sports than both able-bodied and disabled non-athletes. Studies need to develop accessible, standardised strength testing methods that account for training influence and establish normative strength values in para-athletes. There is also a need for additional studies that include female para-athletes and para-athletes with greater functional impairments.",
author = "O'Connor, {Se{\'a}n R.} and Kristina Fagher and Samuel Williamson and Pluim, {Babette M} and Clare Ardern and {Janse van Rensburg}, {Dina C.} and Neil Heron",
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O'Connor, SR, Fagher, K, Williamson, S, Pluim, BM, Ardern, C, Janse van Rensburg, DC & Heron, N 2022, 'Asessment of muscle strength in para-athletes: A systematic review of observational studies', Sports Medicine and Health Science, vol. 4, nr. 4, s. 225-238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smhs.2022.07.004
Asessment of muscle strength in para-athletes: A systematic review of observational studies. / O'Connor, Seán R.; Fagher, Kristina; Williamson, Samuel et al.
I: Sports Medicine and Health Science, Vol. 4, Nr. 4, 12.2022, s. 225-238.
T1 - Asessment of muscle strength in para-athletes: A systematic review of observational studies
AU - O'Connor, Seán R.
AU - Fagher, Kristina
AU - Williamson, Samuel
AU - Pluim, Babette M
AU - Ardern, Clare
AU - Janse van Rensburg, Dina C.
AU - Heron, Neil
N2 - Accurate and reliable evaluation of muscle strength in para-athletes is essential for monitoring the effectiveness of strength training and/or rehabilitation programmes, and sport classification. Our aim is to synthesise evidence related to assessing muscle strength in para-athletes. Four databases were searched from January 1990 to July 2021 for observational studies focusing on strength assessment. Independent screening, data extraction, and quality assessment were performed in duplicate. A total of 1764 potential studies were identified. Thirty met the inclusion criteria and were included in the review. The mean age of participants was 30.7 years (standard deviation (SD): 2.4). The majority were men (88%) participating in wheelchair sports, including basketball, rugby, and tennis (23/30: 76%). Overall quality varied, with more than half of the studies failing to identify strategies for dealing with confounding variables. Despite manual muscle testing being a standard component of para-sport classification systems, evidence examining strength characteristics in para-athletes is derived primarily from isometric and isokinetic testing. In studies that included comparative strength data, findings were mixed. Some studies found strength values were similar to or lower than able-bodied athletic controls. However, an important observation was that others reported higher shoulder strength in para-athletes taking part in wheelchair sports than both able-bodied and disabled non-athletes. Studies need to develop accessible, standardised strength testing methods that account for training influence and establish normative strength values in para-athletes. There is also a need for additional studies that include female para-athletes and para-athletes with greater functional impairments.
AB - Accurate and reliable evaluation of muscle strength in para-athletes is essential for monitoring the effectiveness of strength training and/or rehabilitation programmes, and sport classification. Our aim is to synthesise evidence related to assessing muscle strength in para-athletes. Four databases were searched from January 1990 to July 2021 for observational studies focusing on strength assessment. Independent screening, data extraction, and quality assessment were performed in duplicate. A total of 1764 potential studies were identified. Thirty met the inclusion criteria and were included in the review. The mean age of participants was 30.7 years (standard deviation (SD): 2.4). The majority were men (88%) participating in wheelchair sports, including basketball, rugby, and tennis (23/30: 76%). Overall quality varied, with more than half of the studies failing to identify strategies for dealing with confounding variables. Despite manual muscle testing being a standard component of para-sport classification systems, evidence examining strength characteristics in para-athletes is derived primarily from isometric and isokinetic testing. In studies that included comparative strength data, findings were mixed. Some studies found strength values were similar to or lower than able-bodied athletic controls. However, an important observation was that others reported higher shoulder strength in para-athletes taking part in wheelchair sports than both able-bodied and disabled non-athletes. Studies need to develop accessible, standardised strength testing methods that account for training influence and establish normative strength values in para-athletes. There is also a need for additional studies that include female para-athletes and para-athletes with greater functional impairments.
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O'Connor SR, Fagher K, Williamson S, Pluim BM, Ardern C, Janse van Rensburg DC et al. Asessment of muscle strength in para-athletes: A systematic review of observational studies. Sports Medicine and Health Science. 2022 dec.;4(4):225-238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smhs.2022.07.004


text:
Bulgarian Football Genius
Dimitar Berbatov Biography
Tag: bengaluru fc
Uncategorized	bengaluru fc, dimitar berbatov, rene meulensteen
Dimitar Berbatov Blasts David James
Post By index June 20, 2018 No Comments
Former Manchester United striker Dimitar Berbatov has responded harshly to claims by David James through an Instagram post. The player posted a picture of himself on a plane heading back to his home country following the end of the Indian Super League season.
Berbatov stars for Kerala Blasters in the league with former Liverpool and Aston Villa goalkeeper James as the coach. The former England international finished his career in India and returned to lead the side from mid-season following the club's contract termination of Rene Meulensteen.
The Blasters lost due to stoppage time goals by Bengaluru FC after 90 minutes of intense back and forth. At the post match conference, James said it was just that football is cruel for his side to not have gone through. He praised the defence of the opposition as a major factor in the game. The managers believes the strong defence and team spirit of Bengaluru FC can help them break the jinx of league stage winners not going on to be eventual champions of the ISL.
Dimitar Berbatov | Designed by: Theme Freesia © 2020 WordPress


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Super su mi apartmani ,tj kucice,odlicno su opremljene.
Bilo je na odlični lokaciji in to kar smo si želeli mir.
Terme Topolsica Apartments This rating is a reflection of how the property compares to the industry standard when it comes to price, facilities and services available. It's based on a self-evaluation by the property. Use this rating to help choose your stay!
The wooden 4-star chalets of the Holiday Homes Ocepkov gaj are only a 5-minute walk away from the Terme Topolšica Spa. They offer free Wi-Fi and free parking.
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This property also has one of the top-rated locations in Topolšica! Guests are happier about it compared to other properties in the area.
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When would you like to stay at Terme Topolsica Apartments?
This apartment has a double bedroom, a twin bedroom with a sofa bed, a single bedroom, a kitchen with a dining table, a patio and a balcony.
House Rules Terme Topolsica Apartments takes special requests – add in the next step!
One child under 2 years is charged EUR 2 per person per night in a crib.
Free! One older child or adult stays free of charge in an extra bed.
Terme Topolsica Apartments accepts these cards and reserves the right to temporarily hold an amount prior to arrival.
Walk to swimming and sauna area is quite far as houses are up the hill. Also saunas are nothing special and need some renovation.


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