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Microbial Ecology
Geomicrobiology of La Zarza-Perrunal Acid Mine Effluent (Iberian Pyritic Belt, Spain)
Elena González-Toril, Ángeles Aguilera, Virginia Souza-Egipsy, Enrique López Pamo, Javier Sánchez España, Ricardo Amils
Elena González-Toril
Centro de Astrobiología (INTA-CSIC), Carretera de Ajalvir km 4, Torrejón de Ardoz, 28850 Madrid, Spain
For correspondence: etoril@cbm.uam.es
Ángeles Aguilera
Virginia Souza-Egipsy
Enrique López Pamo
Instituto Geológico y Minero de España, 28003 Madrid, Spain
Javier Sánchez España
Ricardo Amils
Centro de Astrobiología (INTA-CSIC), Carretera de Ajalvir km 4, Torrejón de Ardoz, 28850 Madrid, SpainCentro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (UAM-CSIC), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
Effluent from La Zarza-Perrunal, a mine on the Iberian Pyrite Belt, was chosen to be geomicrobiologically characterized along a 1,200-m stream length. The pH at the origin was 3.1, which decreased to 1.9 at the final downstream sampling site. The total iron concentration showed variations along the effluent, resulting from (i) significant hydrolysis and precipitation of Fe(III) (especially along the first reach of the stream) and (ii) concentration induced by evaporation (mostly in the last reach). A dramatic increase in iron oxidation was observed along the course of the effluent [from Fe(III)/Fetotal = 0.11 in the origin to Fe(III)/Fetotal = 0.99 at the last sampling station]. A change in the O2 content along the effluent, from nearly anoxic at the origin to saturation with oxygen at the last sampling site, was also observed. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic diversity throughout the effluent was determined by microscopy and 16S rRNA gene cloning and sequencing. Sulfate-reducing bacteria (Desulfosporosinus and Syntrophobacter) were detected only near the origin. Some iron-reducing bacteria (Acidiphilium, Acidobacterium, and Acidosphaera) were found throughout the river. Iron-oxidizing microorganisms (Leptospirillum spp., Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans, and Thermoplasmata) were increasingly detected downstream. Changes in eukaryotic diversity were also remarkable. Algae, especially Chlorella, were present at the origin, forming continuous, green, macroscopic biofilms, subsequently replaced further downstream by sporadic Zygnematales filaments. Taking into consideration the characteristics of this acidic extreme environment and the physiological properties and spatial distribution of the identified microorganisms, a geomicrobiological model of this ecosystem is advanced.
The peculiar ecology and physiology of extremophiles and the environments in which they develop have intrigued microbiologists since their discovery. The biotechnological potential of their unusual properties make their study of great interest (32, 34, 37, 41).
Environments with extremely low pH values do not abound. They are mainly associated with two phenomena: volcanic and hydrothermal activities (hot sulfur springs, mud spots, etc.) and metal mining activities (16). The second category is especially interesting, because, in general, the extreme low pH of the habitat is a consequence of microbial metabolism (18) and not a condition imposed by the system, as is the case in many other extreme environments (e.g., high temperature, ionic strength, radiation, and pressure). Acidophilic chemolithotrophic microorganisms present in these environments have the potential to accelerate the oxidation and dissolution reactions of metal sulfides, resulting in acidic waters with high concentrations of sulfate and heavy metals (35).
These acidic waters are known as acid mine drainage (AMD), and they are a serious environmental problem in the province of Huelva (southwestern Spain). These acidic solutions emerge from mine portals, waste-rock piles, and/or tailings from ponds in the massive sulfide mines of the Iberian Pyrite Belt (IPB), transporting large amounts of acidity, dissolved sulfates, and soluble metals (44, 45, 51).
Although the geomicrobiology of AMD in the Iberian Pyrite Belt has been studied at length (17, 18, 40, 49), our knowledge of the microorganisms involved in iron and sulfur metabolism is far from complete. Most of the studies have been focused on iron and sulfur biological oxidation, but little is known about iron and sulfur biological reduction in AMD. Gathering information about the operation of these activities is fundamental to the development of efficient biotechnological processes such as biomining or AMD bioremediation.
La Zarza-Perrunal effluent represents an excellent model for the study of iron and sulfur metabolism, because a complete transition of these elements can be observed in less than a 2-km stream length in the mine. Although it finally closed in the 1990s, La Zarza-Perrunal site (Huelva, Spain) was mined in pre-Roman and Roman times for the recovery of Ag and Au and, in modern times, for sulfuric acid and metal retrieval (Cu, Zn, and Pb) (36). This acid effluent flows at a fairly constant rate along 2.6 km (43). After receiving some fresh water, this stream meets the Tamujoso creek and, finally, the Tallisca creek, where it is ultimately neutralized. Previous studies have addressed the geochemical evolution of this site (43), but a correlation with the associated microorganisms was needed to understand the geomicrobiology of the system.
There are two clearly differentiated sets of conditions in this effluent: (i) near the portal in which dissolved iron is mainly reduced and the oxygen concentration is rather low and (ii) 1,200 m downstream, where iron is completely oxidized and dissolved oxygen (DO) is near saturation. Also, there is a very clear eukaryotic microbial correlation; the stream bed of the effluent is coated by a continuous photosynthetic biofilm along the first meters, and the biofilm disappears as soon as the concentration of oxidized iron increases.
This study analyzed the microbial diversity of this area in relation to the physical and chemical conditions of the effluent. In order to achieve this goal, several methods were used, including conventional techniques involving species identification based on morphological and morphometric criteria to identify eukaryotes and molecular techniques, such as gene cloning, to characterize prokaryotic diversity. In addition, the structural features of natural phototrophic biofilms were also analyzed by transmitted light and scanning electron microscopy in backscattered electron mode (SEM-BSE).
Study site and environmental conditions.Following a preliminary geochemical characterization of La Zarza-Perrunal mine effluent (43), field work was carried out in May 2007 under low-flow hydrologic conditions. To determine the geomicrobiological transition of the acid waters, three sampling points were established at increasing distances from their respective discharge points: LZ1, an iron-reduced station (20 m downstream from the mine portal); LZ2, a transition station (1,000 m downstream); and LZ3, where iron is completely oxidized (1,200 m downstream) (see Fig. S1 in the supplemental material). Water samples were taken with 60-ml syringes and Millipore sampling equipment, subjected to filtration through 0.45-μm-pore-size membrane filters on site, acidified to pH <2 with HNO3, and stored in 125-ml polyethylene bottles at 4°C.
Field parameters such as pH, Eh, temperature, dissolved oxygen level, and electric conductivity were measured in situ with Hanna portable instruments properly calibrated against calibration standards. Flow rates were measured with digital flow meters (Global Water). A semiquantitative estimation of Fe(II) concentrations was performed in situ with Merckoquant (Merck) strips. A more precise iron species identification was performed by colorimetric digital titration (Hach) using citrate as solution buffer, sodium periodate as an Fe(II) oxidant, and sulfosalicylic acid as an Fe(III) colorimetric detector. The accuracy of this method, calculated by repeated analyses of internal standards, was ±1% in the 100 to 1,000 mg/liter Fet range, ±4% in the 50 to 100 mg/liter Fet range, and ±12% in the 10 to 50 mg/liter Fet range.
Analytical procedures.Water samples were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) for Na, K, Mg, Ca, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn and Al content, by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES) for Ni content, and by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) for As, Cd, Co, Cr, and Pb content. Sulfate was gravimetrically measured as BaSO4. The accuracy of the analytical methods was verified against certified reference waters, and close agreement with certified values was achieved for all metals. 115In was used as an internal standard for calibration of the ICP-MS analyses. The detection limits for trace elements were 10 μg/liter for Zn, 2 μg/liter for Ni, Co, Cr, and Pb, and 0.4 μg/liter for As, Cd, and Cu. The detection limit for the major cations Na, K, Ca, Mg, Mn, Fe, and Al was <1 mg/liter in all cases.
Biofilm sample collection.Photosynthetic biofilm samples were collected from the three sampling stations. Samples for DNA extraction were collected with sterile pipettes and stored at −20°C until further processing. Samples for scanning electron microscopy were secured for transport with a thin layer of alginic acid (1%), which gelled in place on the biofilm surface after the addition of CaCl2 (1%). Samples were fixed in the field with 2.5% glutaraldehyde in acid sterile distilled water (pH 2). Samples were kept cold (5°C) and dark until further processing.
Microscopy and morphotype identification.Identification of algae and heterotrophic protists was carried out to the lowest possible taxonomic level by direct microscopic observation of different phenotypic features based on previous studies of the eukaryotic communities in acid environments (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 29) as well as by the use of identification keys for algae (10), freshwater plankton (13), protozoa (26), euglenoid flagellates (27), Euglenophyta (50), Protoctista (33), and diatoms (39). A Zeiss Axioscope 2 phase-contrast microscope was used in this work.
DNA extraction, PCR amplification, and sequencing.A Fast DNA spin kit for soil (Q-Bio Gene Inc.) was used for DNA extraction from water, sediment, and biofilm samples according to the manufacturer's instructions. Pelleted microorganisms from water samples, sediments, and biofilms were washed five times with acid sterile and filtered water (pH 1) and once with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) (130 mM sodium chloride, 10 mM sodium phosphate buffer; pH 7.2) prior to DNA extraction. DNA was purified by passage through a GeneClean Turbo column (Q-Bio Gene Inc.) and quantified by ethidium bromide-UV detection using an agarose gel. The 16S rRNA genes from bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotic plastids were amplified by PCR in mixtures containing 2 to 3 ng of DNA per 50-μl reaction volume, 1× PCR buffer (Promega Biotech Iberica, Spain), 250 μM (each) deoxynucleotides (Amersham Biosciences, United Kingdom), 2.5 mM MgCl2, 100 μg/ml bovine serum albumin (BSA), 0.5 μM each forward and reverse primer, and 2.5 U of Taq DNA polymerase (Promega Biotech Iberica, Spain). In the amplification reactions, the reverse primer was 1492r (5′-TACCTTGTTACGACTT-3′) (1), and the forward primer was either Bacteria-specific 27f (5′-AGAGTTTGATCCTGGCTCAG-3′) (25) or Archaea-specific 21f (5′-TTCCGGTTGATCCYGCCGGA-3′) (14). PCR conditions were as follows: initial denaturation at 94°C for 5 min, followed by 30 cycles of denaturation at 94°C for 40 s, annealing at 52°C for 1 min for Bacteria amplification and at 56°C for 1 min for Archaea amplification, and extension at 72°C for 1 min.
PCR amplifications of 16S rRNA genes were purified using a GeneClean Turbo column (Q-Bio Gene Inc.) and cloned using a Topo TA cloning kit (Invitrogen). The PCR products were directly sequenced using a BigDye sequencing kit (Applied Biosystems) according to the manufacturer's instructions.
Phylogenetic analysis.Sequences were analyzed using BLAST at the NCBI database (http://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Blast.cgi). Sequences were also checked for potential chimeras by the use of the Bellerophon Chimera Check program (22) and Mallard program (8) and were subsequently added to the most important BLAST hits to create a database of over 50,000 homologous prokaryotic 16S rRNA primary sequences by using the ARB software package aligning tool (30) (http://www.arb-home.de). The rRNA alignment was corrected manually, and alignment uncertainties were omitted. Only unambiguously aligned positions were used to construct phylogenetic trees with ARB. Phylogenetic trees were generated using parsimony and neighbor joining with a subset of 100 nearly full-length (>1,400 bp) sequences. Filters which excluded highly variable positions were used.
Scanning electron microscopy in backscattered electron detection mode (SEM-BSE).The internal structures of the microbial communities that form the biofilms covering the stream substrate at the selected sites were studied by SEM-BSE. Three different types of samples were collected from each main section of the stream: one covered with green biofilms, a second covered with filamentous biofilms, and a third mostly free of biofilms. The field-fixed samples were washed in the laboratory with acid sterile distilled water and postfixed with 1% osmium tetroxide–distilled water for a minimum of 8 h. Samples were dehydrated using an ascending (30, 50, 70, 90, and 100%) series of ethanol concentrations and then subjected to infiltration with LR-White resin for 24 h. Infiltrated samples were polymerized at 65°C for 24 h. Once polymerized, the blocks were cut transversally using a diamond saw, finely polished, and coated with carbon following the protocols of Ascaso and Wierzchos (7) and Wierzchos and Ascaso (54) and examined under a scanning electron microscope with a backscattered electron (BSE) detector plus an auxiliary X-ray energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) microanalytical system. Transverse sections of the polished surfaces of the rocks were examined using a Jeol 5600LV SEM equipped with a BSE detector and an INCA Oxford microanalytical EDS system. EDS operating conditions were as follows: 0° tilt angle, 35° take-off angle (EDS), 15-kV acceleration potential, and 10- or 20 (EDS)-mm working distance.
Nucleotide sequence accession numbers.Sequences obtained in this study have been deposited in the EMBL sequence database under accession numbers from HM745403 to HM745467.
Geochemical parameters.Sample locations were chosen to cover most of the area under study, and a complete range of the different microbial assemblages was observed. The AMD was monitored at three sampling stations: LZ1, located 20 m downstream from the mine portal, and LZ2 and LZ3, located 1,000 and 1,200 m downstream from the mine portal, respectively (see Fig. S1 in the supplemental material). The geochemical characteristics observed for the different sampling stations, as well as their respective locations, are summarized in Tables 1 and 2. Previous studies had shown that highly anoxic and acidic water with a high concentration of iron in its reduced form emanates at a high temperature (ca. 31°C) from the mine portal (43). The first sample in this study was taken 20 m downstream (LZ1), with a dissolved oxygen of 39% saturation (equivalent to 3.1 mg/liter DO), a pH of 3.1, a temperature of 25.6°C, and a concentration of ferric iron of 300 mg/liter over a total iron concentration of 2.7 g/liter [89% Fe(II)/Fetotal]. At LZ2, the situation was completely different; the dissolved oxygen rose to 51% saturation (4.1 mg/liter DO), the total iron concentration was lower (∼2.3 g/liter), and ferrous iron represented only 36% of the total iron content. The pH decreased to 2.2, and the temperature was around 28°C. Finally, at LZ3, the oxidation of Fe(II) was complete. Dissolved oxygen was near saturation (97% saturation, or 6.6 mg/liter DO), and total iron was around 3.3 g/liter, with only 1% ferrous iron. This station showed the lowest pH value (1.9), and the temperature was 30.8°C. The flow rate was around 0.8 liters/s at the origin and decreased rapidly due to evaporation. Specific conductivity also increased accordingly, from ∼8 mS/cm at the source to ∼13 mS/cm at LZ3, as a result of intense evaporation. These conductivity values correlate with the increase in the concentration of dissolved sulfate (the major anion in solution) and, to a lesser extent, with the increasing concentrations of some major cations such as Fe, Al, Mg, and Ca. The redox potential of the solution continuously increased, ascending from an initial value of 481 mV (characteristic of moderately reduced environments) at the mine portal to 800 mV (typical of fully oxidized mine waters [42]) in LZ3.
Physicochemical data, iron species identification, and major ion concentrations in water samples from the three sampling stations along La Zarza-Perrunal effluenta
Chemical analyses of water samples from the three sampling stations along La Zarza-Perrunal effluent
The sulfate and metal concentrations measured in the different sampling stations are summarized in Tables 1 and 2. The concentrations of sulfate and most metal cations (Al, Cu, Zn, and Ni, but also other conservative cations such as Na, Mg, and Ca, which are not shown in Table 2) increased downstream by a factor of around 2.1 to 2.5 as a consequence of evaporation. However, levels of other major cations and trace elements remained nearly constant (Cd and Co), increased only slightly (Fe), or exhibited sharp decreases (K, As, and Pb) along the studied segment. Given that the increase in concentration was an artifact produced by intense evaporation during the sampling period, the reported variations actually indicate that some elements behaved conservatively (Al, Mg, Ca, Na, Cu, Zn, and Ni), whereas others (e.g., Fe, K, As, Pb, Cd, and Co) were affected by hydrolysis or precipitation and coprecipitation processes to various extents.
With respect to metal toxicity, in addition to the metals reported above, significant concentrations of highly toxic elements such as U (up to 114 μg/liter), Tl (up to 51 μg/liter), and Cr (up to 28 μg/liter) were also measured (not shown), resulting in an increase in the overall toxicity of this acidic mine effluent.
Eukaryotic diversity.Most of the eukaryotic community was distributed in biofilms of different thicknesses all along the riverbed (Fig. 1 A; see also Fig. S2 in the supplemental material). A total of 10 taxa were microscopically distinguished (Table 3), although, of these, only five were detected by molecular techniques. In LZ1, where the water column was light green due to the large amount of ferrous iron, the stream bed of the effluent was coated with a continuous photosynthetic biofilm (Fig. 1A). In this biofilm, species related to the Chlorophyta genus Chlorella dominated the phytobenthic community (Table 3). Additionally, species related to the genera Pinnularia (diatom), Chlamydomonas (green algae), Vahlkampfia (amoeba), Actinophrys (heliozoa), Bodo (flagellate), and Oxytricha (ciliate) were also detected at this location. Between sampling stations LZ1 and LZ2 the water column turned red, since the ferric iron concentration increased from ca. 0.3 to 1.5 g/liter. The phototrophic biofilms disappeared and were replaced by iron-precipitated sediments. At site LZ2, where the water was orange, some sporadic photosynthetic filamentous biofilms were found (Fig. 1C; see also Fig. S3 in the supplemental material). Filamentous algae, represented by the genus Zygnemopsis, were the dominant species, although Chlamydomonas, Pinnularia, and Euglena species were also present in smaller numbers at this location. At the LZ3 station, where the iron was 99% oxidized (Table 1), phototrophic biofilms were smaller and scattered (Fig. 1E; see also Fig. S4 in the supplemental material). The main species detected was Chlamydomonas sp. The filamentous Zygnemopsis species and another Chlorophyta species related to the genus Stichococcus were also identified. Diatoms were represented by species of the genus Pinnularia. Additionally, although algae accounted for the greatest proportion of the biomass, there were other protozoan components present in low numbers such as species of Ochromonas.
Macroscopic and ultrastructure photographs of the different biofilms found in LZ1, LZ2, and LZ3. (A) General view of the Chlorella biofilms present at 20 m from the source. The yellowish areas are where schwertmanite starts to precipitate onto the biofilms. (B) SEM-BSE image of the Chlorella (Chl) biofilms with mineral precipitates around the cells (arrow). (C) General view of the floating filamentous algae (Zygnemopsis) present at 1,000 m from the source. (D) SEM-BSE image of the floating filamentous communities of Zygnemopsis (Zyg), showing the presence of associated Chlorella and bacterial (Bac) communities (arrows). (E) General view of the scarce communities present at 1,200 m from the source. The yellowish areas show where jarosite is more abundant. (F) SEM-BSE image of the structure of the sediments with porous layers of fine-grained minerals.
Eukaryotic community detected in Zarza-Perrunal effluent by different methodologies
Microbial diversity. (i) Bacterial 16S rRNA gene clone libraries.A bacterial rRNA gene clone library was obtained from each sampling site. Sequences of bacterial 16S rRNA clones were compared with those available in the NCBI database by BLAST analysis. Of the 185 sequences analyzed with an average length of ≥1,400 bp, 13% were identified as chimeras or showed other irregularities and were not analyzed further. A total of 161 bacterial sequences were selected for phylogenetic analysis. The number of useful clones was higher in station LZ1 and lower in station LZ3. The 71 analyzed clones from LZ1 were grouped into 19 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) based on 97% sequence homology (Fig. 2; see also Table S1 in the supplemental material). The 56 clones from LZ2 were grouped into 8 OTUs (Fig. 2; see also Table S2 in the supplemental material), and the 34 clones from LZ3 were grouped into 8 OTUs (Fig. 2; see also Table S3 in the supplemental material).
Phylogenetic affilations and OTUs observed. Phylogenetic affiliations of the sequences obtained at every station (LZ1, LZ2, and LZ3) are represented together with the numbers of OTUs observed for every phylotype. Unc., uncultured.
The analysis of environmental clones showed that the bacterial communities consisted of various phylogenetic groups. The metabolic relationships of the different identified clones with the iron and sulfur cycles are indicated in the corresponding tables. Members of the Alphaproteobacteria, Betaproteobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, Nitrospira, and Actinobacteria phyla were present at every sampling station. Additionally, members of the Acidobacteria and Firmicutes were present at LZ1 and LZ3 and of the Deltaproteobacteria and Planctomyces at LZ1. The phylogenetic groups detected at the different stations are reported as supplemental data (see Tables S1, S2, and S3 in the supplemental material). Within the Alphaproteobacteria, the most abundant phylotypes were closely related to Acidiphilium (A. crytum, A. angustum, or uncultured Acidiphilium spp.), although some sequences clustered together with Acidosphaera (in LZ1, LZ2, and LZ3) or Aurantimonas (LZ1). A set of 6 sequences from the three stations clustered together with members of the genus Thiomonas from the Betaproteobacteria. Additionally, six sequences in LZ1 were related to other Betaproteobacteria: Ferritrophicum (iron-oxidizing bacteria from a rhizosphera; DQ386263 [52]), Alcaligenaceae (uncultured clone AF232922), and an unclassified Betaproteobacteria ("Ferrovum" cluster; EF409840). With respect to Gammaproteobacteria, sequences clustering with unclassified Xanthomonadaceae species (WJ2 cluster; EF612418) were obtained in every library, and sequences related to the well-characterized acidophilic bacterium Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans appeared only in LZ1 and LZ2. Regarding Deltaproteobacteria, only one sequence related to Syntrophobacter was detected in LZ1. Sequences clustering with species of the Nitrospira phylum (Leptospirillum ferridiazotrophum and Leptospirillum ferrooxidans) were identified in the three sampling sites. Concerning the Actinobacteria phylum, related sequences were obtained in every station. All these sequences were related to strains or uncultured Actinomycetales species isolated and detected in AMD or Río Tinto, an extreme environment with a rather constant acidic pH along 92 km of river and a high concentration of heavy metals (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 18, 29, 49), such as species of Ferromicrobium and other phylogenetically close uncultured bacteria. Sequences related to Acidobacteria species identified in LZ1 and LZ3 clustered with uncultured bacteria detected in acidic soils, AMD, or Río Tinto. Regarding Firmicutes, sequences related to bacilli and clostridia were detected in stations LZ1 and LZ3; the sequences of the bacilli were particularly similar to those of Alicyclobacillus. A total of 26 Clostridium sequences in both stations were similar to those of several uncultured species of Clostridiaceae, and 22 sequences showed similarity to the sulfate-reducing bacterium Desulfosporosinus sp. Finally, one sequence obtained from LZ1 was related to an uncultured Planctomycetes (DQ906078) species isolated from soil in the Río Tinto banks.
(ii) Archaeal 16S rRNA gene clone libraries.Sequences belonging to the Archaea domain were found at every sampling site (Fig. 2; see also Tables S1, S2, and S3 in the supplemental material). At all three stations, sequences related to the Euryarchaeota phylum were obtained, and in LZ1, seven sequences were assigned to the Crenarchaeota. In all cases, the closest relatives for Euryarchaea sequences, specifically, uncultured archaea related to acid environments (EF396244, EF396245, EF396246, AF523936, EU370308, and DQ303248), were assigned to the Thermoplasmata class. For Crenarchaeota, all clones were related (99% similarity) to uncultured archaea from soil associated with trembling aspen (EF021659) and other uncultured archaea from soils.
(iii) Eukaryotic plastid 16S rRNA gene clone libraries.Sequences with similarity to the eukaryotic plastids were found at every sampling site (Table 3). At all three stations, sequences related to the genus Chlorella were obtained. Furthermore, in LZ2 and LZ3, sequences related to the genera Chlamydomonas, Pinnularia, Zygnemopsis, and Poteriochromonas were also detected.
SEM-BSE study of the ultrastructure of the community in photosynthetic biofilms.Macroscopically, the first part of the stream at the LZ1 sampling location was covered by a dense Chlorella biofilm (Fig. 1A). When SEM-BSE was used in the visualization of sections of this material, it was possible to observe how the Chlorella cells were surrounded by hydrous iron oxide precipitates (Fig. 1B). Previous X-ray diffraction analyses (42, 43) indicated that the hydrous iron oxides consisted mostly of schwertmannite, and EDS digital mapping of sulfur and iron indicated that this hydroxysulfate of iron with very low crystallinity was surrounding the Chlorella cells and the areas with bacterial biofilms. As a result, the iron terraces in the first section of the stream were formed by the precipitation of schwertmannite on the biofilms. Both the algae and bacteria previously present on the biofilms were preserved as a cast in the precipitated material (see Fig. S2 in the supplemental material).
At the LZ2 sampling area, the biofilm communities were least abundant, and an increase in the floating communities of filamentous green algae Zygnemopsis was observed (Fig. 1C). There were also chlamydomonas and bacteria associated to filamentous green algae, although they did not form biofilms such as were seen in the stream sediments (Fig. 1D). These filamentous floating communities were covered by schwertmannite. The precipitation of schwertmannite in this case was associated not only with the cell surfaces but also with the extracellular substances surrounding the cells. The minerals precipitated around the floating communities also showed nucleation around bacterial cells and preservation of their presence as a cast in the minerals. In this area it was possible to observe the precipitation and formation of very thin films of schwertmannite on the surface of the filamentous algae (see Fig. S3 in the supplemental material).
Macroscopically and microscopically, the iron terraces at LZ3, the last sampling point, commonly presented a rough lamination consisting of thin, dense, and wavy laminae and thicker, porous, sponge-like layers (Fig. 1E). Morphological and EDS elemental analysis indicated alternate schwertmannite and jarosite precipitations, in correlation with previous XRD results (42, 43). As shown by scanning electron microscopy, the schwertmannite formed very fine spherulite-shaped particles that were commonly aggregated, forming a poorly cohesive layer (Fig. 1F), whereas jarosite had a more crystalline character (see Fig. S4 in the supplemental material).
Most of the filamentous green algae and their associated bacteria and microalgae are present floating in the water (Fig. 1C and E); thus, they do not play an important role in the formation of iron terraces in the sediments, although the presence of the organic surfaces helps trap and nucleate some minerals present in the waters (see Fig. S4 in the supplemental material) and contributes to the formation of the terraces after the organisms decay, as shown in Fig. S3 in the supplemental material.
The transition observed from the purely schwertmannitic to the mixed schwertmannitic-jarositic character of the ferric precipitates from LZ1 to LZ3 agrees with geochemical calculations carried out for the different sampling points (see Fig. S5 in the supplemental material). Thus, the saturation index values obtained for different Fe(III) minerals indicate that, at LZ1, schwertmannite precipitation is favored over other phases such as jarosite or goethite precipitation (saturation index values are positive and comparable, but schwertmannite shows much faster precipitation kinetics). Conversely, the formation of jarosite is increasingly favored with increasing distance (schwertmannite becomes undersaturated as the pH decreases from 3.1 to around 2 in LZ2 and LZ3). The development of these iron terraces resulting from the precipitation of Fe(III) hydroxysulphates around microbial cells has been also observed and discussed in a study of the adjacent Tintillo river (45).
Geochemical parameters.The rapid oxidation of Fe(II) and the subsequent hydrolysis of Fe(III), with precipitation of poorly crystallized minerals such as schwertmannite at pH 2 to 3, constitutes an efficient mechanism of natural attenuation which considerably reduces the transfer of mining-related pollutants (especially Fe and As and, to a lesser extent, Pb) to rivers and water reservoirs. The hydrolysis and precipitation of bacterially oxidized iron result in the release of acidity and the lowering of pH and also promote the formation of abundant mineral colloids that have a very high specific surface area and act as efficient sorbents for certain trace elements. Samples of schwertmannite collected from this area and analyzed in a previous study (43) were reported to exhibit very high concentrations of As and Cd, which supports the assumption that these elements have been significantly adsorbed by the ochreous precipitates.
Overall, among the most important physicochemical variations observed in the present study, there is one that is clearly related to the observed changes in the microbial communities. It is the rapid transition from anoxic conditions and ferrous iron-dominated conditions to oxygen-saturated and highly oxidizing conditions, where ferric iron is the dominant redox species in solution. Thus, the redox chemistry of iron resulting from the microbial processes discussed in the next section determines the geochemical evolution of the acidic effluent.
Microbial ecology model.The changes in the microbial diversity of this effluent were mainly determined by analysis using an oxygen gradient. Within the mine portal, conditions are anoxic, so in the first section of the effluent the microorganisms involved in the various chemical reactions must be anaerobic (obligate or facultative) sulfur- and iron-reducing microorganisms (12, 19). At the LZ1 station, the presence of oxygen generated by the photosynthetic biofilms, together with the atmospheric oxygen diffusing throughout the water column, favors the appearance of iron- and sulfur-oxidizing microorganisms (Fig. 2; see also Table S1 in the supplemental material). This might have affected the level of prokaryotic diversity detected at this point, which was the highest level found in the analyzed effluent.
Further downstream, the increase in levels of oxygen and the oxidizing reactions led to an increase in ferric iron and a concomitant increase in the level of Eh. The hydrolysis and precipitation of ferric iron (in the form of schwertmannite and/or jarosite) led to a decrease in pH. As a result, much lower microbial diversity was detected at LZ2 and LZ3. This gradient is also reflected in the water's color. Near the mine portal, where most of the iron is reduced (88% in LZ1), the water had a transparent greenish color. Downstream, the iron was oxidized and the water became orange and, further on, reddish. At LZ3, where 99% of the iron is oxidized, the water was deep red. This Fe(II)/Fetotal gradient could be linked to the changes in eukaryotic diversity. Most of the eukaryotic biomass is located in the first part of the effluent, where iron is reduced and water transparent. Photosynthetic biofilms in this area had no problem capturing light. Where the water turned red due to iron oxidation and the formation of colloidal precipitates, the light intensity was drastically attenuated and the photosynthetic biofilms were sporadic and located in the shallower areas of the effluent. This phenomenon has been observed in other AMD and in Río Tinto, where ferrous iron-rich waters present a high eukaryotic biomass level (3, 24, 40).
The transition of photosynthetic biofilms can also be clearly shown by ultrastructural analysis using SEM-BSE. As a result of the geochemical transition, levels of precipitates increased along the effluent. This increase in mineral precipitation might be responsible for the decrease in eukaryotic diversity along the effluent. Chlorella was the predominant genus in LZ1, where iron was reduced, and Zygnemopsis sp. was the main photosynthetic organism where iron was oxidized (Table 3). A possible explanation could be that species of Zygnemopsis are filamentous algae that can float on water surfaces, facilitating the capture of radiation. In any case, due to the increase in levels of ferric iron and the corresponding precipitates at the lower part of the effluent, even the Zygnemopsis communities are affected, causing them to appear sporadically. In previous studies, high concentrations of iron and the resulting iron oxide deposition have been reported as inhibitors of algal development on stream substrata (11, 53). Other studies of iron-enriched streams indicated that bacteria also play an important role in deterring the development of algal communities (48). A similar transition of biofilm communities in acidic streams in Río Tinto was previously described (5).
Once the main microorganisms thriving in the Zarza-Perrunal effluent were identified, a model for the microbial ecology based on the physicochemical gradient observed in this effluent was developed. The bacterial and archaeal assemblages found in this ecosystem seem to be dominated by species mainly involved in the sulfur and iron cycles (Fig. 2; see also Tables S1, S2, and S3 in the supplemental material). Near the portal (LZ1), where sequences related to sulfate-reducing microorganisms of genera such as Desulfosporosinus and Syntrophomonas have been detected together with iron-reducing bacteria of the Acidiphilium, unclassified Xanthomonas, Acidobacterium, Acidosphaera, and Clostridium genera, the low concentration of dissolved oxygen favors sulfur and iron reduction metabolisms. The identification of microorganisms such as Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans, a species of the genus Ferrimicrobium, that are able to oxidize or reduce iron depending on the presence or absence of oxygen suggests an increase in the levels of opportunistic microorganisms able to obtain energy under the variable redox conditions of the water column. The identification of iron-oxidizing species of the Leptospirillum and "Ferrovum" genera, and of sulfur oxidizers, such as the previously mentioned Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Thiomonas spp., underlines the existence of a vertical gradient of redox conditions at this site that results from the activity of photosynthetic algae and the diffusion of atmospheric oxygen. Downstream, from LZ2 to LZ3, sulfate-reducing microorganisms were not detected and iron-oxidizing microorganisms such as Leptospirillum spp. were the dominant detected clones.
Some facultative microorganisms were present in the three analyzed stations of the effluent, for example, members of the Acidiphilium or the Ferrimicrobium genera. These bacterial groups consist of obligate or facultative heterotrophic species normally associated with extreme acidic environments (9, 24). In general, they are very versatile microorganisms that are able to adapt to different conditions (24). For example, they can use ferric iron for anaerobic respiration in anoxic conditions and, in the case of some species of Acidiphilium, also in microaerobic and oxic conditions (24). This versatility allows these species to thrive along the length of the effluent in spite of the changes in the environmental conditions. It is widely accepted that organic compounds are toxic for obligate chemolithotrophic acidophiles (21). A potential ecological role of these heterotrophic bacteria might be that of biodegradation of these toxic organic compounds, thereby facilitating growth of the more sensitive chemolithotrophic microorganisms (23).
The versatility of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans allows its metabolic activity to use reduced sulfur compounds as an energy source and ferric iron as an electron acceptor in the anoxic section of the effluent and ferrous iron as an energy source along with oxygen as an electron acceptor in the oxic part (31). However, this species was identified only in stations LZ1 and LZ2; it was not detected at LZ3. This could have been due to the high concentration of ferric iron present at LZ3 (22). It is well established that other iron-oxidizing bacteria like Leptospirillum spp., also present in LZ3, can displace Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans, because the former is more resistant to extreme conditions (38, 46, 47). Leptospirillum spp. can tolerate lower pH and higher ferric iron concentrations and temperatures than species of Acidithiobacillus. LZ3 showed the highest temperature and highest iron concentration and the lowest pH of all the sampling stations (38, 46).
With respect to archaea, species of Thermoplasmatales, which are common in extreme acidic environments, were present all along the effluent (15, 18, 24). The metabolic versatility of the members of this order enables them to thrive in the three analyzed stations. The presence of species of Crenarchaeota in LZ1 is more puzzling, as the sequences detected are not related to acidophilic archaeal sequences. The most closely related sequences were derived from an iron-rich soil (20) and from a soil associated with trembling aspen (28). In future studies, other Archaea- or Crenarchaeota-specific primers could be used to determine the presence of members of these phyla in this ecosystem and other AMD.
Photosynthetic eukaryotes play a fundamental role in this ecosystem due to their autotrophy, especially in the first section of the effluent (LZ1), where the eukaryotic biomass abounds. In addition to the diffusion of atmospheric oxygen along the stream, the oxygen produced by the photosynthetic organisms must favor the aerobic oxidation of iron and sulfur and the subsequent microbial transition described above.
Figure 3 shows a basic geomicrobiological scheme for the Zarza-Perrunal effluent that takes into account the physiological properties of the identified microorganisms. The transition between anoxic and oxic conditions and its influence on the iron redox state can be correlated with the microbial diversity and the known metabolic properties of the identified microorganisms. Although similar schemes have been described for Río Tinto and other AMD (18, 24), the size and the complexity of those ecosystems, especially in the case of the Tinto basin, impede the study of clear transitions such as those detected in this work. In addition, the iron terraces produced by the precipitation of Fe(III) hydroxysulphates around microbial cells have not been studied in other extreme acidic systems. They have been observed and described in a study of the adjacent Tintillo river (45), but in this case, the microbial diversity was not analyzed.
A basic geomicrobiological scheme for the Zarza-Perrunal effluent. Microorganisms are shown associated with their roles in the iron and sulfur cycles. The font sizes of the names of the organisms are proportional to their respective cell numbers. Uncl.*, unclassified.
These results are extremely important for bioleaching and bioremediation processes. It is clear that oxygen is the limiting factor for the formation of a high concentration of ferric iron, which is the oxidizing agent required for efficient bioleaching operations. Furthermore, the generation of anoxic conditions favors the activity of iron-reducing microorganisms, which can further reduce the effective concentration of ferric iron and as a result decrease the efficiency of bioleaching. Anoxic conditions also favor the activity of sulfate-reducing microorganisms that generate H2S and might sequester soluble metals by precipitating metal sulfides. Additionally, the generation of reduced iron could favor an increase in the pH, leading to the formation of iron precipitates that are able to sequester bioleached metals. These results are important observations that have to be considered in the design of heap-leaching processes to ensure an efficient extraction of metals of economical value. From the bioremediation point of view, realizing the possibility of elimination toxic metals from industrial effluents would require knowledge and control of the different biological processes promoting precipitation, sorption, and redissolution of metals. The particular geomicrobial characteristics of La Zarza-Perrunal effluent should allow the evaluation of all these factors of environmental and biotechnological interest in a small, manageable and affordable area of study.
We thank Marina Postigo for DNA sequencing and Marta Diez Ercilla for sampling support.
A.A. and V.S.-E. were supported by a Ramón y Cajal contract from the Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia. E.G.-T. is supported by Instituto Nacional de Tecnica Aeroespacial (INTA). This work has been supported by grants from the MICINN-Spain (CGL2008-02298/BOS) and the Centro de Astrobiología (CSIC-INTA).
Received 18 October 2010.
Accepted 17 February 2011.
Accepted manuscript posted online 25 February 2011.
↵† Supplemental material for this article may be found at http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AEM.02459-10.
Copyright © 2011, American Society for Microbiology
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Applied and Environmental Microbiology Apr 2011, 77 (8) 2685-2694; DOI: 10.1128/AEM.02459-10
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Das Denkmal Zur Deutschen Einheit ist ein Denkmal in München. Es wurde von den Bildhauern Peggy Meinfelder und Klaus Herta zur Erinnerung an die Deutsche Wiedervereinigung 1990 errichtet und am 3. Oktober 2005 zum 15. Jahrestag derselben eingeweiht.

Beschreibung

Das Denkmal liegt am Platz Zur Deutschen Einheit im Münchener Stadtteil Denning im Stadtbezirk 13 Bogenhausen. Es besteht aus einer etwa drei Meter hohen und einen Meter breiten Stele aus Beton, die in der Ost-West-Richtung ausgerichtet ist. Etwas unterhalb der halben Höhe ist diese Stele von einem Schriftzug "3 OKT 1990" durchbrochen, der das Wiedervereinigungsdatum wiedergibt. Dieser Schriftzug ist links und rechts (also im Osten und Westen) jedoch nicht durch den Stein abgeschlossen, sondern durchbricht dessen Rand nach außen, wodurch die Öffnung der Grenzen angedeutet wird.

Beidseitig der Mauer sind Sitzbänke aus Beton angeordnet. Dabei können sich die Sitzenden durch die Durchbrüche in der Mauer ansehen, eine weitere Andeutung der Öffnung der Mauer.

Etwa zehn Meter östlich des Denkmals steht ein Trafohäuschen, das durch einen mit Platten belegten Weg mit dem Denkmal verbunden ist. Auf der dem Denkmal zugewandten Rückseite des Trafohäuschens sind in Profilschrift auf den Putz aufgebrachte Gedanken zur Deutschen Einheit und Eindrücke der Wiedervereinigung angebracht.

Literatur
 Verein für Stadtteilkultur im Münchner Nordosten e.V. (Hrsg.): Denkmal "Zur Deutschen Einheit". Nord-Ost-Verlag, München 2005

Weblinks
 Denkmal Zur Deutschen Einheit auf der Webseite des Vereins für Stadtteilkultur im Münchner Nordosten e.V.

Bauwerk in Denning (München)
Zur Deutschen Einheit

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Welcome to the Student Peace Referendum. As you may know, as we get older, many of us get set in our ways and lose some of our youthful idealism. Vote World Parliament continues to reach out to the youth of the world and has developed a complete program for conducting a peace referendum in a local school.


A Simply Amazing Opportunity for All Aspiring Doctors!
*Includes 5 days of intensive medical mentoring, a variety of medical instruments and items, lunch and tea/coffee.
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Dr Anton really knew his stuff and was a great teacher. The hands-on activities and field trips were all fun.
Get the feeling of real med school.
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The camp was very interesting. I learned about a lot of new tools and techniques used in the field of medicine, I also learned a lot of new vocabulary for parts of the body.
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To All Future Doctors in Australia – Welcome!


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Tue, 27 Jul 2010
JAKCHAT/Govt aims to achieve rice, corn self sufficiency in 2014
From: JakChat
By Om Pong
Plus they drained the peat bogs for Suharto's Mega Rice fuck up thus massively adding to global warming. Indo rice is crap anyway, all sticky and stodgy. They should at least grow long grain. Or
By KuKuKaChu
teh rice self-sufficiency fetish seems common in asia. perhaps it can be traced back to when famines were more common in these parts.
what ever the reason, indonesian farmers are not very good at rice growing. they are not especially productive and they demand (and a given) subsidised fuel and fertilizers to grow their sub-standard products. furthermore, they are protected from competition from efficient rice producers like vietnam.
"Self-sufficiency in food production as a manifestation of food resilience is of great importance to meet the people`s basic necessities, and ensure national economic and political stability," he said.
Bollocks, it's just typical Indo rice fetishism. Why self sufficient in rice? Why not sugar, tea, courgettes, broccoli? They should be diversifying their agricultural output and getting some cash crops going. What need for self sufficiency in a global marketplace? You buy what you need and sell what you grow.
ANT/Govt aims to achieve rice, corn self sufficiency in 2014
From: Antara News
Maros, S Sulawesi (ANTARA News) - The government has set itself the target of achieving self sufficiency in rice and corn production in 2014, a minister said.
To that end, the government had targeted the annual increase in rice and corn production at 3.22 percent and 10.02 percent respectively, Agriculture Minister Suswono said here on Monday.
"This means that by 2014 rice production will reach 75.7 million tons and corn 17.66 million tons," he said.
In 2010 alone, rice production had been projected to reach 66.88 million tons and corn 19.8 million tons, he said.
"Rice and corn are strategic commodities and are among the five main focuses of the agricultural development," he said.
The program to increase rice and corn production in the next five years would be directed towards achieving sustained self-sufficiency in the two commodities, he said.
Sustained self-sufficiency in food production would also enable the country to reduce its dependence on imported food staples and eventually play a greater role in fulfilling global demand for food, he said.(*)

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Pulley systems require the synchronized movement of all pulleys. How can pulleys escape this rule?
Pulleys using twisted belts may move in opposing directions.
The design of pulleys prohibits the pairing of pulley and gear, and a simple reversal of belts will result in synchronized reversal of all pulleys. To violate this rule, a belt must be twisted.
Shifting to a higher gear in a car or truck causes
What is used to determine the speed of gears?
If a mechanical device is reported to have an advantage of 2, what does this mean?
If you have an engine that supplies 5 hp but is only 85% efficient, what's the power input?
Which of the following rules about force is correct?
What is the purpose of mechanical comprehension?
How much resistance could a 200 lb. effort force lift using a block and tackle pulley that has 10 ropes supporting the resistance?
The mass of an object is measured in
If this lever is in equilibrium with an effort force of 18 ft. lb. at the blue arrow and a resistance force of 9 ft. lb. at the green box, what is its mechanical advantage?
A man is using 90 lbs. of effort to lift a 540 lb. box. What is the mechanical advantage in this situation?
How does a hydraulic jack perform the task of moving objects?
What's the last gear in a gear train called?
A block and tackle refers to a device which is used to
Two gears are connected and the smaller gear drives the larger gear. The speed of rotation will ____ and the torque will ____.
A shovel is an example of which class of lever?
Which of the following is an example of kinetic energy?
A wedge converts force applied to its blunt end into force ____ its inclined surface.
A truck's wheel with a diameter of 18 inches moves another wheel with a diameter of 9 inches. What is the mechanical advantage of the system?


Definition - What does Underwrite mean?
Underwrite in insurance has two varying meanings. First, it is the process of defining, pricing, and evaluating insurance and reinsurance perils (risks) and concluding whether they are acceptable or not. Secondly, the term refers to the acceptance of liability or obligation to compensate the reassured or the insured an agreed amount as per the insurance contract.
To underwrite involves information gathering and evaluation to maintain a profitable book for the firm and the stakeholders. An insurance firm with a broad range of underwriting information will gain a competitive edge. Maintaining a broad range of such a database enables any insurer to be at the helm of the industry, even if the underwriting cycle changes.
Second, to underwrite can also refer to insuring an entity. This is accepting others' liability for compensation known as premiums. Simply explained, when an individual or a company agrees to cover risks for another in exchange for money, this is to underwrite.


NEW YORK – Tens of thousands of union members gathered at Battery Park here Sept. 3, just blocks from where the World Trade Towers used to stand. They came to honor the 600 union members and thousands of other workers who died last Sept. 11 and to declare to the Bush Administration that national security will not be used as a pretext to impede workers' rights to organize and bargain collectively.
In addition to the physical and emotional devastation, Sept. 11 took an enormous economic toll. As a result of the terrorists' attacks, 80,000 people, nearly two-thirds of the total job loss suffered in New York since 2001, are still unemployed.
The AFL-CIO has set a goal of electing 4,000 trade unionists to public offices by the 2004 elections and of electing a pro-worker majority to the Senate and Congress this November.


Norhalla Crew on the Deck of Draken Viking Ship 2016 – Norhalla, Inc.
The Draken Harald Hårfagre (English: Dragon Harald Fairhair) is the worlds largest Viking ship sailing from Norway to America. The expedition left in April 2016 and made their way across the Atlantic to America. One of their stops on their North American tour was in Fairport Harbor, Ohio in July 2016 on Lake Erie. Norhalla's home town is also on Lake Erie only a couple of hours away, and we couldn't miss the opportunity to see this magnificent ship!
Upon seeing the Draken, our initial impression was awe and amazement. She is a marvel of engineering and craftsmanship.
Draken Harald Hårfagre is a clinker-built Viking longship. She is not a replica of a known ship, she is a reconstruction of what the Norse Sagas refer to as a "Great ship".
Norhalla crew pictured on the deck of the Draken. The Captain and crew were warm and friendly!
Hugin and Munin watch over the Draken.
Some of the Norhalla crew on deck with the Draken prow.
Video of the first few days at sea of the Draken leaving Norway and heading to North America.


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The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services and is the primary agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical and health-related research. It comprises 27 separate institutes and centers (ICs) that carry out its mission in different areas of biomedical research. It also includes the Office of the Director, which sets policies and coordinates activities of the 27 ICs.

Institutes

Centers of the NIH
In addition to being divided by research area, NIH has many operating groups called centers operating across all of the Institutes.

Office of the Director
The Office of the Director is the central office at NIH. The OD is responsible for setting policy for NIH and for planning, managing, and coordinating the programs and activities of all the NIH components. Program offices in the Office of the Director are responsible for stimulating specific areas of research throughout NIH and for planning and supporting research and related activities. Current program areas are: minority health, women's health, AIDS research, disease prevention, and behavioral and social sciences research. In July 2009, President Barack Obama nominated Dr. Francis S. Collins, M.D., PhD, to be the Director of the NIH. On August 7, 2009, the US Senate confirmed Collins by unanimous vote.

Program offices within the Office of the Director fund research through the institutes:

See also
 List of Max Planck Institutes
 Center of Advanced European Studies and Research
 Ernst Strüngmann Institute
 List of IBS Centers

References

External links

 Institutes at NIH

National Institutes of Health
NIH
National Institutes of Health


Tips & Reminders To Keep Everything Healthy and in Bloom!
Do not go out and buy plants — that includes trees/shrubs — that may have already been shipped and on display at some home improvement/garden centers. First consult an expert that can advise you on whether it is too early or not to plant perennial trees and flowerings shrubs in your specific region (or grow zone).
Keep flowers such as pansies and ranunculus in bloom, by "dead-heading" (removal of spent blooms) and watered well.
Prolong spring blooming plants' bloom cycle by staking existing hyacinths, daffodils, tulips, and even get a head start on peonies before they become unmanageable. It only takes one heavy rainfall for them to collapse and get ruined.
Roses can also be cut back at this time (if you didn't get to them last fall before the frost); cut back to live wood, which is the point where there is a green fleshy tissue that is visible towards the center of the canes versus the dead brownish color when you prune it.
Now is also the time to check on flowering perennials in your garden that are over-crowded and properly divide and replant them.
Finally, feed, feed, feed! Give your garden a strong spring boost to help promote stronger more vibrant plants for a fuller/healthier garden (which actually also helps keeps weeds out).
Is it true that spring thunderstorms make grass greener?


The Funariaceae compose a lineage of short-lived annual mosses well suited for exploring patterns and processes of the diversification of mosses. It has long provide model systems for the study of development, genetics and reproduction in mosses. Our research has focused on the systematics of the family, in an effort to resolve the delineation of the genera, understand the polarity in sporophytic transformation, and the origin of the model taxon Physcomitrella patens. We also studied several Funariaceae to explore the development and role of the calyptra. Currently we are using Physcomitrium pyriforme as a model to explore the evolutionary implications of autopolyploidy in mosses.


i love cycling very much.
Iam planning to buy a carbon bike. I search the websites and i found two carbon bikes cannondale six 6 and treck madone 4.7. Now iam in double mind which one should i buy. Or anybody has another suggestions.
I KNOW ONLY THE DATE OF PUNE BARAMATI RACE THAT IS 22 JULY, ANBODY CAN TELL ME WHOM TO CONTACT.


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If Music Could Talk
http://www.clashcity.com/boards/
The Beatles song you're thinking about right now thread
http://www.clashcity.com/boards/viewtopic.php?f=11&t=5693
Re: The Beatles song you're thinking about right now thread
Posted: 11 Sep 2019, 8:39am
by Marky Dread
Dr. Medulla wrote: ↑
11 Sep 2019, 8:26am
Marky Dread wrote: ↑
Neat twist to conventional thinking about Abbey Road being the purposeful swan song: https://www.theguardian.com/music/2019/ ... rnsey-road
Interesting interview and not that surprising they were still considering something more. But you can hear from John when he makes the back handed comment regards to George's song writing that the writing was on the wall.
You mean Paul's comment about George (it's baffling how petty and sniping Paul could be toward George, like he felt he had to keep the youngest one in his place). But yeah, it had run its course. I maintain that what sets the Beatles apart favourably from their peers at the time (Beach Boys, Rolling Stones, most prominently) is that they quit before the rot set in. Leave while the audience is calling for more, not when they're throwing tomatoes or yawning.
Ahh yes Paul not John. Yes agreed regards the winding up of the band. I think Paul Weller did the same with The Jam.
by Dr. Medulla
I think Paul Weller did the same with The Jam.
It's rather remarkable that with decades-later reunions becoming rather predictable, that Weller hasn't done some 40th anniversary kind of Jam reunion tour, even tho they'd all make an obscene amount of dough from it.
I think Paul makes enough from reissues etc. Plus there is "From the Jam" with Bruce Foxton playing all the old Jam favourites. Paul plays a smattering of Jam tracks in his live set.
Certainly, but that hasn't stopped other bands from getting together again, doing a world nostalgia tour and pocketing a few million in the bank. The lure of a shit ton of cash for a few months of work is rarely resisted.
You were not talking about "other bands" you were talking about Paul Weller. Plus many of those "other bands" you mention do not have members whose career has spanned 4 decades with anywhere close to PWs success.
Sorry, I thought it was implied when I mentioned how predictable reunion tours are now that I was comparing him to his old peers. The only other band that I can think of that has resisted so obviously is ABBA (there are more, I know, but that's the one that sticks in my mind besides the Jam).
Posted: 11 Sep 2019, 10:29am
Definitely bound to be more bands. What I'm saying is Weller has no need to retread former glories. Sure if he reformed The Jam they would make a lot of money. I don't think he's friends with Rick Buckler though so that wouldn't help. Weller makes plenty from his own solo career and still plays some Jam tunes live. It's not like many others who have reformed to pay off mortgages and kids college fees etc. I don't blame any old band from reforming and making money as it makes good financial sense. If Paul Weller wasn't making money from his very successful solo career where his shows sell out etc then maybe the lure would be different.
Heh, I'm suggesting he's idealistic; you're saying he's just happily loaded. You're so cynical.
Artistically satisfied with his new product. I'll take being a cynic.
Posted: 11 Sep 2019, 12:30pm
by Heston
He's a stubborn bugger as well. His career hit the doldrums in the early 90s and he was playing very small clubs. He could have cleaned up with The Jam back then but resisted.
Heston wrote: ↑
11 Sep 2019, 12:30pm
Maybe re. cleaning up. The nostalgia payday circuit wasn't as lucrative as it is now, but the timing would have been good, with the dominance of Britpop.
by Kory
I think the Smiths are a good example here.
Wasn't short of money though mate.
Posted: 11 Sep 2019, 1:07pm
Kory wrote: ↑
Oh yeah, that's an excellent one. And the payday there would be massive, but I can't imagine the trepidation all involved would have being in each other's company for however many months.
True mate. I've heard he has struggled financially recently though, he sold the publishing for his Jam stuff apparently. I think that's the reason they keep popping up in adverts recently. He has about 34 kids to support, maybe that's why he's skint.


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Orpheus Theatre presents Mary Poppins Jr.
The Creative Direction team at Orpheus Theatre had only two weeks to prepare for their production of Mary Poppins Jr. All hands were on deck and coordinated their efforts to allow for an extraordinary production for these young thespians! Enjoy the highlight video montage or click here to view the entire Mary Poppins Jr. Gallery of Images.
PMHS Garden Club '21
As I navigate the corridors in this, my final spring season at PMHS, I had the opportunity to take pause and glance at one of the many courtyards on campus. Most are non-descript at best, though this spring day, I was captivated by one courtyard in particular that had received the attention of our Garden Club. I had only my iphone with me, though I was drawn to capture it's beauty. I put together this video montage as a tribute of appreciation to the students and faculty advisors for truly beautifying our campus...
Tri-Town Theatre presents Jekyll & Hyde
Tri-Town Theatre (Sidney, NY) presented Jekyll & Hyde under the Direction of Kate Murray (Rob Egan, Musical Director). Enjoy the highlight video montage or click here to view the entire Jekyll & Hyde Gallery of images.
Orpheus Theatre presents Spamalot
The Orpheus Theatre (Oneonta, NY) presented Spamalot at the Foothills Performing Arts & Civic Center (Directed and produced by Kerri L. Hogle & Tim Iversen). Enjoy the highlight video montage or click here to view the entire Spamalot Gallery of Images.
Orpheus Theatre presents Frozen Jr.
The Orpheus Theatre Starstruck Players (Oneonta, NY) welcomed the winter season with a sparkling production of Frozen Jr. at the Foothills Performing Arts & Civic Center (Sarah Lynn Serafin - Director, Micaelina Velardi - Choreographer, Dan Chien - Vocal Coach). Three incredible performances by these young cast and crew members delighted audiences of all ages. Enjoy the highlight video montage or click here to view the entire Frozen Jr. Gallery of Images.
Bronx Zoo Holiday Lights
The Holiday Lights event at the world-class Bronx Zoo is without doubt a NYC must-see! Animal lanterns, animated sculptures and colorful designs are on exhibit throughout the park. Enjoy the video montage or click here to view the entire gallery of images.
Orpheus Theatre presents Elf the Musical
The Orpheus Theatre (Oneonta, NY) welcomed the holiday season with a spectacular, festive production of Elf the Musical at SUNY Oneonta's Goodrich Theater (Mary-Jo Merk - Director/Choreographer, Tim Iversen - Musical Director). An amazing cast, musicians and production crew entertained and delighted audiences for these 35th season holiday performances. Enjoy the highlight video montage or click here to view the entire Elf the Musical Gallery of Images.
Bold Theatrics presents Matilda the Musical
Bold Theatrics (Oneonta, NY) recently presented a superb, whimsical production of Matilda the Musical at SUNY Oneonta's Goodrich Theater under the Direction of Brooke Tallman-Birkett (Musical Direction by Tim Horne & Choreography by Drue Quackenbush). Community theatre is alive and well in the "City of the Hills." Enjoy the highlight video montage or click here to view the entire gallery of images.
The Orpheus Theatre presents Mamma Mia! '19
The Orpheus Theatre (Oneonta, NY) recently presented an outstanding production of Mamma Mia! at SUNY Oneonta's Goodrich Theater under the Direction of Kerri Hogle (Musical Direction by Timothy Iversen & Choreography by Micaelina Velardi). Kudos to this community theatre program which highlights local talent, making the broadway experience accessible to one of the northernmost cities in the Appalachian region of New York. Enjoy the highlight video montage or click here to view the entire Mamma Mia! Gallery of Images.
The Shrine of Our Lady of the Island
A must-visit location on Long Island is the Shrine of Our Lady of the Island in Manorville. I spent several hours on a tranquil and mild winter's-day, walking the paths, visiting the Blessed Sacrament Chapel, Pilgrim Hall and Gift Shop. I highly recommend a visit in any season for reflection, prayer or simply enjoying the beauty of the serene surroundings. Enjoy the highlight of selected images video montage below or click here to visit my gallery to view all images and the high resolution video montage.
Anthony Celebrates 80 years of life, 60 as a Letter Carrier
A celebration of an eightieth birthday and sixtieth anniversary with the United States Postal Service... Anthony's colleagues recently surprised him with a birthday bash at Taino Towers in East Harlem to honor all that he is and has been to their community. How does one deliver mail for 60 years? He loves the community and his USPS family!
"One Life to Give" is filmed on Long Island...
TBR News Media recently filmed "One Life to Give," a soon-to-be-released feature-length film which recants the events which led up to the formation of the Culper Spy Ring. I had the opportunity to shoot a production day at Benner's Farm in Setauket. Check out the video montage below, or click here to view all of the production images. Click here for more information about the film.
Dr Paul Lam visits Long Island
Dr Paul Lam, family physician and tai chi practitioner and teacher for over 40 years, recently visited Long Island for a workshop in Stony Brook. Dr Lam is a world leader in the field of tai chi for health improvement. The Long Island tai chi community was privileged, honored and overjoyed to experience this event. Click here to view all of the images...
Hannah's Recital
As the culminating experience to Hannah's studies at the Crane School of Music, we traveled to Potsdam to attend her senior recital. Words cannot capture the pride and joy experienced throughout the performance. Her dedication to her studies and craft, combined with the outstanding support and opportunities provided at Crane, enabled Hannah to ultimately obtain the position of Choral Director at Westhampton Beach High School upon graduation. We wish her well as she begins a new chapter...
Phish at The Mann
This August I found myself sitting, or shall I say "standing," amidst a sea of loyal Phish fans who flocked to The Mann in Philadelphia to attend a 3+ hour concert given by this incredibly talented band of musicians. The group formed in Vermont in 1983 and are noted for their improvisation, extended jams, and combination of musical elements from a wide variety of genres. It was well-worth the trip to Philly, and my 16 year-old son (a guitarist) highlights the experience as the "best day of his life..."
Click here to view additional concert images...
Hummingbird Encounter
Nice guys still exist... and Baiting Hollow is home to one of them. On a spectacular property overlooking the Long Island Sound, Paul has created an environment which attracts hummingbirds as they frequent our Island during the summer. This sanctuary is a labor of love which is shared by Paul for folks to enjoy by appointment only during the month of August. Not only did I have the opportunity to capture these unique and beautiful birds, but received an education about their migration and behaviors as well. Without doubt this experience was a highlight of my summer. Thank you Paul... Click here to enjoy my images.
Mashmeet at NY Aquarium
Thanks to mashable.com for arranging the Under The Sea mashmeet to photograph the NY Aquarium. A fabulous time was had by all and kudos to the NY Aquarium and Wildlife Conservation Society for having us! Click here to enjoy my images captured at the event...
It's all about the Strawberries...
Sunday was a beautiful day to celebrate summer and strawberries down on Benner's Farm in Setauket, Long Island (www.bennersfarm.com). Cool weather, a light breeze, food, entertainment, demonstrations, farm animals, up close and personal experiences with baby bunnies and chicks.... and of course... strawberries... were the order of the day! If you missed it this year be sure to bring the family next year to this annual event. Click here to view all of my images captured at the festival.
Never Ever After ...
I recently had the pleasure of shooting my daughter's final performance as the Director of the SUNY Potsdam CLEAR Program, an after-school creative arts program for students in grades K-5. The students worked very hard as a team writing the script, memorizing lines and developing skills in diction, voice projection and stage presence. The students had the privilege of performing their show in the newly constructed Proscenium Theatre, complete with costumes, scenery, props, stage lighting and live piano accompaniment. There was even a "big kid" prince and a special surprise first-time cameo appearance at showtime... not even this unexpected change could rattle these fine young thespians. What an incredible opportunity it was for these students to perform on a college campus with such professional resources. The standing ovation at the conclusion of the performance was certainly well-deserved by these talented, hard-working students. Click here to view my gallery of all of the images and a video montage.
Mother's Day at the Peconic River Herb Farm... an annual excursion which has become a tradition to celebrate my wonderful wife and mother of our three children. Though we certainly missed having our two daughters with us as they are away at college, we still have our son with us for a couple more years. It was indeed a lovely day to enjoy the spring sunshine, cool breeze and tour the grounds. The day culminated with a picnic and an afternoon of gardening at the Pawluk homestead.
The Peconic River Herb Farm
As Spring has hopefully arrived for good, I wanted to take a moment to highlight a gem of a location on the banks of the lazy, picturesque Peconic River which is not to be missed. My family has been frequenting the Peconic River Herb Farm for over 20 years and we never tire of the experience. If you wish to step away from the hustle and bustle of life for a few hours and commune with our good earth, this is the place to go...
The grounds are simply beautiful and the selection and quality of the plants and herbs are second to none. The staff is friendly, knowledgeable and helpful and visitors always feel welcome to explore the gardens, greenhouses and garden shop. In addition to plants and herbs, goods for the garden and home can be found in the two-story barn.
Click here to view my featured gallery of images that I have captured and be sure to visit in person to experience the beauty of the Peconic River Herb Farm for yourself. You won't be disappointed!
The Crane Touring Choir performs in Europe
This past May I traveled with the SUNY Potsdam, Crane School of Music Touring Choir on a ten-day European excursion with concerts at incredible churches & cathedrals in Budapest, Eisenstadt, Vienna & Prague. It was a privilege for me to travel with this exceptionally talented group of young men and women to share and document the experience.
The sights were breathtaking and I am very thankful to have had the opportunity to capture the beauty of Hungary, Austria and the Czech Republic. I would highly recommend that every photographer add stops in these countries to their bucket lists.
Click here to view my gallery of images from the tour. Before you do, make sure you have some time to spend as there are over 800 images to peruse. Perhaps you'd like to make yourself a cup of tea to enjoy while taking in the sights... and sounds! Also included is a 20-minute video montage of a collection of images with the live performance voices of the Crane Touring Choir, dedicated to Dr. Rebecca Reames. The European Tour became a reality due to the efforts of Dr. Reames, Choir Director and Associate Professor of Music at the Crane School of Music. As she was unable to accompany the choir on the tour due to an illness, it is my hope that the montage and gallery images will provide a sense of shared experience as her presence was very much missed by all on the tour. A special thank you is also extended to Dr. Lonel Woods, Voice Chair and Assistant Professor of Voice, for leading and directing the choir in fine fashion!
Buda Castle
St Nicholas Church, Prague
Angel of Music - A Salute to Andrew Lloyd Webber
This past spring I received a call from my daughter who studies Voice and Early Childhood Education at the Crane School of Music and SUNY Potsdam. She had auditioned for and was selected to sing in a performance in Ogdensburg, NY with Broadway Legend Franc D'Ambrosio, Glory Crampton, Kevin Massey, Merideth Kaye Clark & Michael Tilley. I packed my bags and traveled 9 hours on a day's notice to witness this wonderful opportunity for my daughter.
Kudos to these talented Broadway performers who not only put on a spectacular show, but provided a master class for Michaela and two of her peers. What an opportunity for this trio to have received a wonderful sharing of experience, knowledge and talents.
Franc is best known as the "Phantom" in Andrew Lloyd Webber's "Phantom of the Opera." He played the role for over a decade and has earned the distinction as the "World's Longest Running Phantom." Glory Crampton is known for her roles in "Phantom of the Opera," "The Fantastics," "Camelot" and "My Fair Lady." Kevin Massey has performed in "Memphis," "Tarzan" and "Big River" and Merideth Kaye Clark has graced the stage in "Wicked," "Twelfth Night" and "Meet Me in St. Louis." Click here to see all images from the performance.
Welcome to my blog !
Photography has been a life-long creative outlet for me since my parents first gifted me a Konica T4 35mm film camera at the age of 15. Back in the day there was no Photoshop or Lightroom to speak of, and my editing capabilities were reflected in my cutouts, rearranging, and swapping of body parts to create what I thought were humorous images, often to the chagrin of my family members.
In the following years life would continue to happen... college, careers, relationships and the day-to-day obligations of supporting and raising a family would occupy the majority of my time. In 2005 I jumped on the digital camera bandwagon with my purchase of a Konica-Minolta Maxxuum D5 and my passion for the art was reignited. With the digital age came the burgeoning interest in Photoshop and post-processing in general as a way of developing opportunities for creative expression as never experienced before.
For the past several years I have been honing my skills and study of light, composition, post-processing and a myriad of other topics. Enjoy reading and viewing my blog as a reflection of my experience behind the lens.


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Teaching and learning from the youth in Morocco
By Dominick Tanoh
I find myself at a strange and exciting transition moment in my service as a Peace Corps Volunteer. The shock I felt arriving in my final site, and the shock I'm sure more than a few of my neighbors felt at meeting a random American, has long since faded away.
I believe that we now find ourselves in a situation where I, and many of the people in my community, have dropped some of our ill-conceived preconceptions and begun to try to learn from each other in a more honest and openhearted kind of way.
Due to the work my site mate began the year before I arrived, my community and I have recently opened a new sports court that has made our youth center even more popular. Together we do athletic workouts and skills workshops for soccer and basketball. More importantly, we go out of our way to emphasize fair play and sportsmanship to the young people we work with. Now that school has let out for the summer in Morocco, I find myself often acting as a referee, coach, and occasional substitute player when an extra pair of hands is needed to play ball at the center.
I also run a film club at the youth center. This was an effort to combine goodhearted fun with more substantive opportunities for personal growth for the teenagers in my area. By watching popular American film and TV series during the club, I hope to share some pieces of my own culture with the young Moroccans I work with. I also try to take in all that I can from the local culture that surrounds me. By simultaneously encouraging the youth to analyze the works that we watch and giving the opportunity for students to write and produce their own work, I try to encourage a spirit of creativity and imagination in not only creating a story, but finding the resources they need to bring their visions to fruition.
Sports and film take up much of my time, but I've found my most rewarding work acting as an English teacher and tutor in my community. I work with everyone from absolute beginners to long time students who wish to increase their skill and fluency in conversation. Through these sessions, I've had the opportunity to hear honest opinions from my students on culture, religion, and their prospects for their own future and the future of their country. In those moments, my English classes became more than a chance to drill conjugation and grammar. They became my first true insights into the outlook of the people whom I call my neighbors.
These learning opportunities have thankfully moved out of the classroom into my normal everyday life experience. During Ramadan, the call to prayer rising from the minarets represents both the end of a long day's fast. It also serves as a call for neighbors and even strangers to invite me to their homes in order to break my fast with them.
The mountains around my new home have become a beautiful place to both bike and reflect on my time and work in Morocco. Most importantly of all, I've been blessed with the opportunity to learn from the Moroccans who have grown closest to me during this time. My tutors and coworkers balance of some of the loneliness and homesickness that inevitably comes up during Peace Corps service. Through them, I get to dive into some of the nuances of a foreign culture that would have left me incredibly confused otherwise.
My relationship I've made with the people in my community here has allowed me to initiate projects that are actually useful. The work I do to develop opportunities for the young people in my community is deeply rewarding, but it is made so much more consequential by work with kindhearted Moroccans who go out of their way to welcome and work with me. The path is not always easy, but the work I do with the Peace Corps has led me to cross paths with committed people that I never would have met otherwise, and without whom none of what I've attempted would be possible.
Dominick Tanoh is a current Youth in Development Volunteer in Morocco. He is a graduate of Middlebury College where he majored in International Politics and Economics. He comes to Morocco by way of Chicago, Illinois and spends most of his days either lesson planning, teaching English to interested students, playing sports with local youth, and keeping local goats from invading the youth center courtyard.
Category: North Africa and the Middle East, Morocco, Youth in Development, From the Field
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Resolve to be the first: Q&A with a first-generation college student who served in Paraguay English Theater: Getting Students Excited to Learn a New Language A Cozy and Rustic Wood Cabin in the Heart of Costa Rica Mentorship Program: Bridging the gap between primary and secondary school


Tekashi69 has a sparkle in his eye again because the rapper got replacements for his allegedly jacked jewelry less than two weeks after they went missing.
The "FEFE" rapper showed off his brand new 24 carat Jigsaw and 69 spinner chains, made from scratch in 10 days by Jimmy Boi, a celebrity street jeweler.
As we reported, Tekashi claimed he was kidnapped and robbed at gunpoint a couple weeks back, but clammed up once it came to cooperating with police on the details surrounding the incident.
At least with his jewelry back, it's back to taking W's for the kid.


IAN HOLLOWAY feared he would never get another job in football when he was sacked by Leicester.
Two years on, he is leading tiny Blackpool into the promised land after winning a £90m Wembley shoot-out against Cardiff.
Holloway spent 12 months out of work wondering where the next pay cheque was coming from after his Foxes nightmare.
Relegation into League One cost the 47-year-old his job at the Walkers Stadium and caused him to question his ability.
But he will now get a crack at the Premier League after leading Blackpool to promotion – on the anniversary of that dark day.
Holloway said: "In my darkest moments after Leicester I thought I would never get another job. That's the truth.
"It was pretty ruthless, what happened to me. I didn't get a job for a year, but it didn't break my spirit. I had to bounce back.
"You're only as good as your last job, and I learned that the hard way. I was devastated for the Leicester people who bought their ticket and saw their team bow out like that.
"I had to look at myself and my part in it – and it didn't go well.
"Now we'll have the biggest test of our lives, but you will see me stay positive no matter what.
Maybe. But how they enjoyed their day in the sun at Wembley.
The king of the one-liner, Holloway has been labelled a clown, a joker and a madman.
But he was deadly serious about leading Blackpool to glory with a 3-2 win over Cardiff, who led twice.
Charlie Adam and Gary Taylor-Fletcher equalised after goals from Michael Chopra and Joe Ledley put the Bluebirds in front, before golden oldie Brett Ormerod hit the winner.
It was fully deserved for a performance of swashbuckling, cavalier football which Holloway has instilled in the Tangerines.
He has worked miracles on a shoestring budget and knows he will have to do so again next season.
His players are in line for a healthy bonus for winning promotion, but cash will still be tight for the smallest club ever to reach the Premier League. But Holloway is already resigned to shopping in the bargain basement and the loan market as he bids to keep Blackpool up in their first top-flight campaign since 1971.
But he said: "It's not all about money. I come from a council house, so it's beyond my wildest dreams, the money that's around in the Premier League.
"It's obscene, but that's the way it is. Let's see what we can do with it. Hopefully these rich boys will loan us one or two, but if I get some wedge I want my own players.
"I don't want to spend a lot of money on players who don't care as much as my lads do.
Blackpool striker Ben Burgess reckons there is more than meets the eye about Holloway, who is trying to shed his joker image.
Burgess said: "He's clever because we were favourites to go down and look at us now. He's proved a lot of people wrong.
"In our first meeting with him we thought, 'Wow'.
"He almost had the boys in tears with his pre-match speech at Wembley.
"It was like going into battle. It was fantastic. He was just saying it was our time. Every team has its time and this is ours.


Minnesota is home to the best rivers and waterways, but did you know they are also some of the most stunning waterfalls too? There are 8 waterfalls near Minneapolis that won't take all day to get to. I've also added a few nearby waterfalls in Minnesota just outside the Twin Cities that you have to see. I like to think of the Twin Cities as flat, so I was surprised at the number of waterfalls so close. Pack the camera because here is my top 8 to check out.
Second to Minnehaha Falls in Minneapolis, Saint Anthony Falls is right in the heart of downtown Mpls. It was once the only natural falls on the Mississippi. Now it is a little more industrial looking, but a must-see for any Minneapolis native. The best view can be found on the Stone Arch Bridge.
Nestled on an undisclosed pathway in Hidden Falls Park is a secluded little falls. Besides to the falls, they have a scenic overlook of the river, sandy beach, picnicking and a boat dock. To access the falls, take the pathway located behinds the women's restrooms in the picnic area. It will lead you straight to it.
Being at Shadow Falls reminds me of being in the mountains. It is the most challenging falls on my list to find but with worth it. Head over to Shadow Falls Park and take the path near the parking lot. Once you get to the end of the bend, you'll notice a trail sign with a warning to those who intend on ice climbing. Then, it's just a matter of following the stream until you reach the top of the falls. Be warned, if it has rained, you will get muddy. For more details check out A Hiking Adventure at Shadow Falls.
Minnehaha Falls is one of the most famous in Minnesota. Largely because it freezes during the winter and those crazy enough, will get a view from behind. I don't recommend it not only because it's illegal, but because there is often open water close by. After doing a polar plunge, I can tell you it's cold! The whole park is stunning year round. For a look at what it's like in winter, check out The Frozen Falls.
Dropping 35ft, Vermillion Falls is a traditional waterfall. It is in Vermillion Falls Park, next to an old factory. The park has vantage points to allow you to get a good picture. For more info on the park, check out Hiking in Vermillion Falls Park.
Cannon Falls is a small town about an hour south of Minneapolis. These are the smallest falls on the list. The falls are just off the main street, only a few blocks away from Cannon River Winery. I recommend getting a drink and later taking a stroll to look at the falls. It's a relaxing adventure that won't have a crowd.
Minneopa Falls in Mankato MN is just outside my Minneapolis Radius, but still worth a trip. About 90 minutes from the Twin Cities, this is located in Minneopa State Park. It will require a small fee or a State Parks Parking pass to get in. You can get to the top of the falls with a short hike, or go down about a half mile and get to the base of the falls.
If you have a little more time, check out some more of the secret waterfalls all over the state. Lisa Crayfords book, Waterfalls of Minnesota: Your Guide to the Most Beautiful Waterfalls in the State is an excellent resource to get started. Waterfalls of Minnesota's North Shore & More also provides great details on how to get to each falls. This is my top list of waterfalls close by Minneapolis. Do you have any that you feel should be added to the list? If so, I'd love to hear about it.
When To Visit: Year-round or after we get rain.
Other Recommends: For more waterfalls around the state, check out Minneopa State Park | Waterfalls, Bison and Prairie or How To Beat the Crowds At Gooseberry Falls.
Thanks for this list–I can't believe I've lived in the Cities for several years and have only made it to one of them! Definitely will have to check some of them out, especially the ones in St. Paul since they're so close.
If it makes you feel better, I have lived in MN for 32 years and just got to the first falls last year. We always went out of town to see waterfalls. Have fun checking them out!
I've always heard that there are tons of waterfalls in Minnesota and I have seen a few. I didn't realize there were so many, especially so close to the Citites!
I guess it's time for a road trip! Have fun exploring and thanks for stopping by!