Amongst quite possibly the most popular electrical wiring thoughts is regarding how to wire a change. When working with switches in the home is quite straightforward, wiring a single may not be that quick for everybody. An ON-OFF switch is definitely quite simple to wire. You will find different kinds of switches, but for this instance, let's say you are putting in a single-pole toggle switch, a very typical switch (and the most basic).
You'll find three shades of wires in a very regular single-pole toggle switch: black, white, and inexperienced. Splice the black wire in two and link them to the terminal screws - one particular on top rated plus the other around the bottom screw from the swap. The white wire serves for a supply of uninterrupted power which is usually related to a light coloured terminal screw (e.g., silver). Hook up the green wire to your ground screw of your respective swap.
These ways would generally be ample to help make a normal switch perform and not using a challenge. On the other hand, when you usually are not confident that you can execute the activity adequately and safely you superior enable the professionals get it done in its place. Soon after all, you can find a motive why this process is one of the most common electrical wiring inquiries asked by many people.
For many cause, the way to wire a ceiling fan is also one among quite possibly the most typical electrical wiring thoughts. To simplify this activity, you can utilize one change for any single ceiling fan. To wire the fan, it truly is just a matter of connecting the black wire from the ceiling fan to your black wire from the change. If there is a light, the blue wire must be linked for the black wire in the change also.
You will discover good reasons why these are typically essentially the most commonly requested electrical wiring questions. Just one, numerous imagine it is simple to carry out, and two, they're the frequent electrical jobs in the home. But then you really mustn't place your protection at risk inside your purpose to economize. The stakes could even be substantially better if you seek to spend less and do an electrical wiring work with out sufficient expertise or knowledge.


There's nothing worse than discovering that you have a leak in your roof. However, if that leak is left unresolved, it can lead to much bigger problems like damage to your interior, your personal belongings and even extensive mold. You might end up needing Gutter Repair.
It can be quite difficult to find and work with a good contractor. Great Myrtle Beach homes aren't worth anything without a good roof, however, you can't get that without looking into the type of repairs or hiring a professional roofing contractor.
Above The Rest Roofing understands that resolving a roof problem immediately is important to you and your investment. We offer free inspections of your roof and can often be there in the same day. A roof inspection is a procedure that must be done at least once per year to make sure that your home's roof is in great condition.
At Above the Rest Roofing, we know getting the job finished right is the only method to do it. We hope when the time comes for you to change out your roofing system, you'll call us for a complimentary roof assessment of your roof needs complete with a written quote. Above the Rest Roofing adheres to these roof replacement methods based on numerous years of roofing experience. Call us if you need Gutter Repair.
Above The Rest Roofing gives free roof inspections to find out what must be done. You can depend on us to be fair and reliable.We are dedicated to providing you with good and reliable Gutter Repair.


These days, letterpress is used mostly in the service of brides-to-be and wedding planners (thanks, in no small part, to Martha Stewart's advocacy of letterpressed invitations). But that doesn't mean that we at the Book Bench don't appreciate vintage technology. Below is a short video about Firefly Press, in Somerville, Mass., which produces gorgeous, three-dimensional type on everything from note cards and invitations to small books and scrolls. John Kristensen, Firefly's proprietor, guides viewers around the press and discusses why he is so staunchly devoted to the fading technique; at points, he can't hide his disdain for computers. My favorite part is when he describes the "humanness of these mechanical devices," pointing out a linotype machine's "elbows, jaws, and knees."
FireFly Letterpress from ilovetypography.com on Vimeo.


text:
Q: SCROLL JAVASCRIPT Skip one image and go to the next? I am using javascript scroll plugin to scroll full page image horizontally. Now what I want is when I click down arrow it skips the next slide and moves to the third one by just passing by the second one.
How can I do that?

A: You can use html and improve with simply javascript.
To the button, element, arrow or something that will be clicked, but recommend using a (hyperlink):
Go to text

For the text that will receive focus after clicked

your text

To understand The element A, with the attribute href starting with #, lead to another element with the same id, which need not contain the #.
The element has id # + of another html element
Element that receives focus has the ID referring to the element

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
Authorities: Dallas officer arrested on manslaughter charge
This Sept. 21, 2017, photo provided by Harding University in Search, Ark., shows Botham Jean leading worship at a university presidential reception in Dallas. Authorities said Friday, Sept. 7, 2018, that a Dallas police officer returning home from work shot and killed Jean, a neighbor, after she said she mistook his apartment for her own. The officer called dispatch to report that she had shot the man Thursday night, police said. (Jeff Montgomery/Harding University via AP)
"Young King" Solomon Grayson, 6, looks over at a sign that reads "You Could be Botham Shem Jean" during a Mothers Against Police Brutality candlelight vigil for Jean at the Jack Evans Police Headquarters on Friday, Sept. 7, 2018, in Dallas. Authorities are seeking a manslaughter warrant for the Dallas police officer who shot and killed Jean after she said she mistook his apartment for her own, police said Friday. (Shaban Athuman/The Dallas Morning News via AP)
Debra Mendoza, national prime minister of the Brown Berets, embraces an attendant during a Mothers Against Police Brutality candlelight vigil for Botham Jean at the Jack Evans Police Headquarters on Friday, Sept. 7, 2018, in Dallas. Authorities are seeking a manslaughter warrant for the Dallas police officer who shot and killed Jean after she said she mistook his apartment for her own, police said Friday. (Shaban Athuman/The Dallas Morning News via AP)
Dr. Pamela Grayson raises her fist as "Young King" Solomon Grayson, 6, peaks behind her sign during a Mothers Against Police Brutality candlelight vigil for Botham Jean at the Jack Evans Police Headquarters on Friday, Sept. 7, 2018, in Dallas. Authorities are seeking a manslaughter warrant for the Dallas police officer who shot and killed Jean after she said she mistook his apartment for her own, police said Friday. (Shaban Athuman/The Dallas Morning News via AP)
Pastor Michael W. Waters leads a prayer following a Mothers Against Police Brutality candlelight vigil for Botham Jean at the Jack Evans Police Headquarters on Friday, Sept. 7, 2018, in Dallas. Authorities are seeking a manslaughter warrant for the Dallas police officer who shot and killed Jean after she said she mistook his apartment for her own, police said Friday. (Shaban Athuman/The Dallas Morning News via AP)
Lloyd Harvey, left, holds onto Alyssa Kinsey during a Mothers Against Police Brutality candlelight vigil for Botham Jean at the Jack Evans Police Headquarters on Friday, Sept. 7, 2018, in Dallas. Authorities are seeking a manslaughter warrant for the Dallas police officer who shot and killed Jean after she said she mistook his apartment for her own, police said Friday. (Shaban Athuman/The Dallas Morning News via AP)
"Young King" Solomon Grayson, 6, stands on a ledge next to a memorial during a Mothers Against Police Brutality candlelight vigil for Botham Jean at the Jack Evans Police Headquarters on Friday, Sept. 7, 2018, in Dallas. Authorities are seeking a manslaughter warrant for the Dallas police officer who shot and killed Jean after she said she mistook his apartment for her own, police said Friday. (Shaban Athuman/The Dallas Morning News via AP)
Published September 09. 2018 08:40PM

By RYAN TARINELLI and KEN MILLER
 Associated Press

DALLAS (AP) — A white Dallas police officer was arrested Sunday on a manslaughter charge in the off-duty shooting of a black man who was her neighbor, Texas authorities said.
Officer Amber Guyger was booked into the Kaufman County Jail, the Texas Department of Public Safety said in a news release. The department said the investigation is ongoing and that no additional information was available.
A jail employee said Guyger was released on bond. Online records initially showed Guyger was in custody at the jail, but later she was not listed on the jail inmate roster.
Guyger fatally shot 26-year-old Botham Jean on Thursday at Jean's apartment. Lawyers for Jean's family had been calling for Guyger's arrest, saying the fact that she had remained free days after the shooting showed she was receiving favorable treatment. They held a news conference Sunday night, shortly before the arrest was announced, making another plea for the officer to be taken into custody and saying their team had presented new evidence — a witness and video footage — to prosecutors. They didn't provide details.
The family attorneys weren't immediately available for comment after the arrest came.
S. Lee Merritt, one of the attorneys for Jean's family, said Saturday that the man's loved ones weren't calling on the authorities to jump to conclusions or to deny Guyger her right to due process. But Merritt said they wanted Guyger "to be treated like every other citizen, and where there is evidence that they've committed a crime, that there's a warrant to be issued and an arrest to be made."
Guyger, 30, is a four-year veteran of the police force. The Dallas Police Department released her name Saturday night.
Police Chief U. Renee Hall said the day after the shooting that her department was seeking manslaughter charges against Guyger. But she said Saturday that the Texas Rangers, who have taken over the investigation, asked her department to hold off because they had learned new information and wanted to investigate further before a warrant was issued.
Jean's family has also hired attorney Benjamin Crump, who is best known for representing the families of Trayvon Martin and Michael Brown. Martin, a black, unarmed 17-year-old, was shot and killed by a neighborhood watch volunteer in 2012 in Sanford, Florida. Brown, a black, unarmed 18-year-old, was shot and killed by a white police officer in 2014 in Ferguson, Missouri.
Crump has also represented the families of Stephon Clark and Terence Crutcher, both also black and unarmed. Clark, 22, was fatally shot earlier this year by officers in the backyard of his grandparents' home in Sacramento, California. Crutcher, 40, was shot and killed by a white police officer in 2016 in Tulsa, Oklahoma.
According to police, Guyger shot and killed Jean after returning in uniform to the South Side Flats, where they both had apartments, following her shift. She reported the shooting to dispatchers and she told officers who responded that she had mistaken Jean's apartment for her own.
Many questions remain about what led Guyger to shoot Jean. Hall said the officer's blood was drawn at the scene so that it could be tested for alcohol and drugs. Investigators haven't released the results of those tests.
Jean's mother, Allison Jean, wondered whether race could have been a factor. Her son, who grew up in the Caribbean island nation of St. Lucia before attending college in Arkansas, is black. Guyger is white.
"If it was a white man, would it have been different? Would she have reacted differently?" Allison Jean said Friday.
Jean wasn't the first person shot by Guyger. She shot another man, Uvaldo Perez, on May 12, 2017, while she was on duty.
According to an affidavit in the case filed against Perez, police were looking for a suspect when Guyger and another officer were called to assist a third. Perez got out of a car and became combative with Guyger and another officer. A struggle began and Guyger fired her Taser at Perez, who then wrested it away from her. She then drew her gun and fired, wounding Perez in the abdomen.
Guyger was not charged in the 2017 shooting.
Sgt. Mike Mata, president of Dallas' largest police employee organization, the Dallas Police Association, on Saturday called for an "open, transparent and full investigation of the event," the Dallas Morning News reported. He described Jean as an "amazing individual" and said that "if the grand jury deems necessary, this officer should have to answer for her actions in a court of law in Dallas County."
Friends and family gathered Saturday at the Dallas West Church of Christ to remember Jean, who had been working for accounting firm PwC since graduating in 2016 from Harding University in Arkansas, where he often led campus religious services as a student. They described Jean as a devout Christian and a talented singer.
"Botham did everything with passion," Allison Jean told the prayer service. "God gave me an angel."
His uncle, Ignatius Jean, said the killing has devastated the family and left it searching for answers.
"You want to think it's fiction ... and you have to grapple with the reality," he said.
Miller reported from Oklahoma City.
frnt Santiago Man charged with fracturing 8-month-old son's skull 0

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Trump's trade war with China is 'on hold,' but the fight is far from over
Kyodo News via Getty ImagesUS President Donald Trump (L) and Chinese President Xi Jinping at their joint press conference at the Great Hall of the People in Beijing.
President Donald Trump touted a new agreement with China to help reduce recent trade tensions between the two countries.
The deal is drawing criticism from both Democrats and Republicans.
The Chinese government is also touting the deal as a win, saying their delegation stood strong on key demands.
The tentative nature of the deal means Trump could reverse course at any time.
Experts say that if Trump's summit with North Korea's Kim Jong Un does not go well, the deal with China could fall apart.
The US and China have appeared to reach at least a tentative breakthrough on long-simmering trade tensions with the announcement of a preliminary deal to lower barriers. But many of the dangers of a possible trade fight still linger.
President Donald Trump and Treasury Secretary Steven Mnuchin on Monday touted the deal, which would pause recently announced tariffs on Chinese goods in exchange for China's agreement to purchase more US agricultural and energy products.
But given the unpredictability of Trump's trade positions and the tentative nature of the deal, experts say the trade fight with China could be far from over.
"If these things aren't fixed, and we don't get what we want, the president can always put tariffs back on," Mnuchin said during a Monday appearance on CNBC.
The deal is drawing criticism from all sides
Leaders on both sides of the political aisle claimed Trump had backed off his tough talk on China by agreeing to the deal.
Democrats blasted the agreement for its lack of major reforms. Senate Minority Leader Chuck Schumer said the president needed to stay strong and "not sell out for a temporary purchase of goods." Democratic Sen. Ron Wyden had even harsher words.
"After all the tough-guy rhetoric, the administration is simply getting rolled on trade with China," Wyden said in a statement.
Members of the president's own party also took issue with the direction of the negotiations. Some of Trump's outside advisers on trade during the campaign, including former Nucor CEO Dan DiMicco and American Enterprise Institute scholar Derek Scissors, suggested the administration hadn't secured enough in the negotiations.
Sen. Marco Rubio, a Republican from Florida, suggested China was "winning" the negotiations.
"Their concessions are things they planned to do anyways," Rubio tweeted. "In exchange they get no tariffs, can keep stealing intellectual property & can keep blocking our companies while they invest in the U.S. without limits. #Losing."
China sees the deal as a win
Chinese state media touted the developments as a win.
"Despite all the pressure, China didn't 'fold,' as US President Donald Trump observed," said the state-run China Daily in an editorial. "Instead, it stood firm and continually expressed its willingness to talk."
Mei Xinyu, a researcher at the Chinese Ministry of Commerce, also told the government-sponsored People's Daily that the Chinese did not back down on three key issues: adjusting imports to the US (rather than curtailing exports), declining to set a hard amount on trade deficit reduction, and continuing government support for growing industries.
The New York Times reported that Chinese social media users were comparing a photo featuring the Chinese delegation and US lawmakers to a photo from the negotiation of the Boxer Protocol in 1901.
That 1901 agreement has long been derided by the ruling Communist party as an example of previous Chinese leaders giving in to foreign powers. Social media users on sites like Weibo, however, noted how in this example, the Chinese delegation looked younger while the US lawmakers looked older.
trending on Weibo…people compare the trade negotiation with the signing of Boxer Protocol in 1901 pic.twitter.com/oqhmJQvv4t
— Krystal Hu (@readkrystalhu) May 17, 2018
"Over the past 100 years, American officials have gone from young to old, and Chinese officials have gone from old to young," one Chinese Weibo user wrote, according to the Times. ""his has a lot to do with the current state of the two countries. America today is just as closed off as China was 100 years ago."
Trump could reverse course after the North Korea summit
Trump on Monday praised China for its assistance in laying the groundwork for the president's summit with Kim Jong Un of North Korea. And the summit's success – or failure – could have repercussions for the US-China relationship.
Chris Krueger, a strategist at Cowen Washington Research Group, said the North Korean summit could decide whether the trade deal with China moves forward.
"So long as Singapore is pending, we do not believe these tariffs will be implemented," Krueger said. "But once the summit ends, game on. In our opinion, as goes the summit, so go the tariffs."
Trump's inconsistent trade rhetoric is also a threat to the possible deal. So far, Trump has typically talked tough and then backed down – but there's no reason to think that couldn't work in reverse.
Stephen Moore, a conservative economist who advised Trump during the campaign, told Politico that Trump's stance on the tariffs could flip if China doesn't follow through on its end of the deal.
"If there is minimal progress, I do think Trump will impose tariffs on China," Moore said. "It was a major campaign promise of his. And this is a guy who keeps his promises."
US Trade Representative Robert Lighthizer, who is typically more hawkish when it comes to the US trade relationship with China, emphasised that tariffs were still on the table if China does not make substantial changes to its economy.
"As this process continues, the United States may use all of its legal tools to protect our technology through tariffs, investment restrictions and export regulations," Lighthizer said. "Real structural change is necessary. Nothing less than the future of tens of millions of American jobs is at stake."
china clusterstock donald trump kim jong un moneygame north korea politics-us robert lighthizer us-china relations us-china trade


text:
Grupo Bimbo posts rise and fall in financials during 'traditional year'
23-Feb-2018 - Last updated on 23-Feb-2018 at 10:53 GMT
Bakery giant Grupo Bimbo posted a rise in sales boosted by expanding its global presence through acqusitions. Pic: ©GettyImages/monsitj
Related tags: Generally accepted accounting principles
Mexican bakery conglomerate Grupo Bimbo reported a 6% increase in sales - helped by several acqusitions that expanded the company's presence into new markets - but noted a drop in profits.
Grupo Bimbo's net sales increased by 6.1% to 267.52bn pesos ($14.38bn) versus MXN252.14bn ($13.565bn) for the year prior, as a result of several acquisitions that enabled the company to cement its footprint in 10 new countries in Asia, the Middle East and Africa.
According to a company statement, sales increased by 48% in 2017 for the company's EAA (Europe, Asia & Africa) division, driven by acquisitions completed during the last 12 months, including Bimbo QSR, Ready Roti, Grupo Adghal and Donuts Iberia, which contributed to 45% of growth.
However, organic growth was affected by the delays related to the integration in Iberia, together with production difficulties in a line in the UK and the plant in China, said the company.
Bimbo also reported it had established a record for the number of customers served frequently through its direct distribution system, reaching more than three million points of sale.
FY2017 highlights
Net sales up 6.1% at MXN267.52bn versus MXN252.14bn
Gross profit up 4.9% at MXN142.75bn from MXN136.14bn
Operating income 3.4% lower at MXN17.47bn
Net majority income fell 21.5% to MXN4.63bn
"2017 was a year of transition in terms of reinvestment and positioning of our company for growth and the creation of long-term value," said Bimbo's chairman and CEO Daniel Servitje.
Full year results
The company also reported a rise in FY2017 gross profit of 4.9% to MXN142.75bn ($7.67bn) from MXN136.14bn ($7.32bn)
However, this was offset by a 3.4% decrease in operating income to MXN17.47bn ($0.93bn) from MXN18.03bn ($0.96bn), and a 21.5% fall in net majority income to MXN 4.63bn ($0.24bn) from MXN5.89bn ($0.31bn), mainly due to the increase in costs of raw materials in Mexico and the US.
For the 12 months ending December 31, 2017, Bimbo posted a fourth quarter net profit of MXN427m ($22.9m), up nearly fivefold from the MXN86.2m ($4.63m) profit reported for the year prior.
Grupo Bimbo, the world's largest baking company, has 196 plants and approximately 1,800 sales centers located in 32 countries in the Americas, Europe, Asia and Africa, employing more than 138,000 staff.
It manufactures more than 13,000 products, including boxed and frozen bread, buns, cookies, pastries, muffins, bagels, packaged products, tortillas, salted snacks and confectionery, among others.
The publicly listed company has one of the largest distribution networks in the world around 58,000 routes.
Related topics: Grupo Bimbo, Bread, Manufacturers, Markets, Emerging Markets
'Leaner' Grupo Bimbo reports quarterly loss
Bimbo posts growth in snacks, bread amid growing concern about Mexico's political outlook
Grupo Bimbo to run US operations on wind
Grupo Bimbo finalizes East Balt deal to form Bimbo QSR


Inspired by Surrealist artists and the power of imagination. Drawn from architectural influences and new beginnings, the 16K gold plated Sonar Mini Hoop Earrings reinvents a classic hoop with an art-inspired illusion. Go bold and double up with the Sonar Hoop Earrings to make a statement.


If you don't want to know when your milestone T shirt is due, don't look at the list.
As Hekkle's parting act as Hon Sec, she's updated all of the Hasher's Hashes Hashed totals so that they're updated in time for the AGPU. This listing includes all current runs recorded for everyone, Members, Ex-members, Visitors. This list will be later amended to included a few Hashers no longer with us. The Webmaster, Hash Cash, Hare Razers and Hon Secs will aim to work off a unified list of Hasher so that we use the same source of information including a consistent way of spelling some of your Hash names!
We hope to update this list more frequently in the future.


text:
Plaintiffs lawyer says he spent 800 hours on case but didn't get his share of $3M in fees
By Carrie Bradon | Mar 18, 2019
PITTSBURGH — An attorney is seeking damages, alleging he invested over 800 hours in a case and was not paid fairly for his work.
Rudy A. Fabian and Fabian Legal Services LLC filed a complaint on Feb. 14 in the Court of Common Pleas of Allegheny County against Richard E. Shenkan and Shenkan Injury Lawyers LLC, alleging judicial estoppel.
Fabian is a resident of Allegheny County where his LLC -- Fabian Legal Services -- operates from its principal place of business. Shenkan resides and has a principal place of business in West Bloomfield.
According to the complaint, the plaintiff and defendant discussed working together in spring 2015. The plaintiff agreed to work with the defendant as an independent contractor and performed services from June 2015 through 2018. The plaintiff served as an attorney in a case known as the Maszgay case, to which he devoted half of the attorney hours, the suit claims.
In September 2018, the defendant allegedly received $2.92 million in attorneys fees from the case but did not disclose this information to the plaintiff. When addressed by the plaintiff, the defendant said he would not pay the plaintiff his portion of the balance until the end of 2018, the suit says.
When the plaintiff was paid, it was for approximately $30,000 for 827 hours the plaintiff worked, the suit says. The defendant retained $1.379 million for the plaintiff's work, the suit says. The defendant and plaintiff ended their working relationship in January 2019, the suit says.
According to the complaint, the plaintiff is still owed over $1.3 million for his portion of work on the Maszgay case.
The plaintiff is seeking payment of $1,334.522.75 for his hours worked; a jury trial is requested. The plaintiff is represented by Bernard Rubb of Bernard S. Rubb & Associates in Sewickley.
Want to get notified whenever we write about Court of Common Pleas of Allegheny County ?
Sign-up Next time we write about Court of Common Pleas of Allegheny County, we'll email you a link to the story. You may edit your settings or unsubscribe at any time.
Court of Common Pleas of Allegheny County
Woman blames stroke, other injuries on fall at Pittsburgh high school
By Carrie Bradon | Jul 15, 2019
Lawsuit: Ground collapsed as woman got off bus, trapping her foot and breaking ankle
Lineman sues Penn Power over alleged electric shock-related injuries
Bullying lawsuit continues against Quaker school; Black girl says she was tormented over race, ADHD


Stating that India's agro-food sector is at a critical juncture, facing multiple challenges, a new OECD-ICRIER report suggested to the government to launch new bold policy initiatives and accelerate existing reforms to achieve higher agriculture growth and ensure better income to farmers.
The report 'Agriculture Policies in India' pointed out that the gross farm revenue declined 6 per cent annually between 2014 and 2016 period because of low market prices even as farmers got large subsidies for various inputs like fertilisers, power and irrigation.
"Farmers in India face complex domestic market regulations and import and export trade restrictions, which together often lead to producer prices that are below comparable international market levels," the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations (ICRIER) said.
Meanwhile, Commerce Secretary Rita Teoatia, who released the report, said, "As far as today's report is concerned and I must say that in the past we have had some difficulties with the OECD studies and the methodologies adopted and we have flagged those issues but the authors of this report were kind enough to share with me a brief discussion on the methodology and the assumptions made by them."
"I think now that the report is complete we need to have a robust discussion around that and to understand the underlying data, the basis for conclusion, some of the wider issues which actually affect national agricultural policies as well and to see what perhaps would be the best the best way forward for India," she added.
Ken Ash, OECD Director for Trade and Agriculture, said, "Many of the policy recommendations in the report are well known to the Indian government, and action on some are already underway. But more can and should be done, and we look forward to continuing to work with India, and to support its efforts to improve outcomes for consumers and farmers alike."
Observing that large subsidies for fertilisers, power and irrigation have offset somewhat the price-depressing effect, the report said, "The overall effect of policy intervention over the 2014-16 period is a 6 per cent annual reduction of gross farm revenues."
Stating that farm policies in India are designed and implemented by a complex system of institutions, the report observed: "...no sufficiently strong mechanism exists to bring state and central level policy makers together to discuss problems, design solutions and monitor performance."
The OECD-ICRIER report highlighted the progress made by the country's agricultural sector over the past two decades and the important challenges now confronting the sector that include prevalence of very large numbers of smallholders, low productivity, climate change, pressure on natural resources, persistent food insecurity and an under-developed food processing and retail sector.


This is truly a luxurious brush.
And boasting a plume of super badger hair a top grade from the pelt.
The handle being a high end acrylic is larger too for maximum control.
Simpson's are a prestigious english company it feel's great to own one of there brushes.
Is the Ruler of the shaving cabinet.It is a wet shavers dream. The Highest grade of badger is used being that of the neck and head of the animal. I have sold simpson brushes a long time due to there excellent reputation.
The Silver tip badger brush is said to create the airiest warmest lather.
Professionals and connoisseurs alike also use silver tips, for the above reasons.
An array of hair is used for shaving brushes globally. Including wild boar, cheetah, and panther,the arabian horse is widespread in asia. But the English have always used the badgers hair.
In practice I recommend immersing the Simpsons Emperor super badger shaving brush in your sink.
until a lather ensues throughout the brush then apply to your boat race in a similar manner.
Always rinse your brush and leave it to dry in a upright position.
Remember if you maintain your brush it will last 10 years.
Traditional shaving is an enjoyable process.
A masculine ritual that gives a man the time necessary for him to contemplate his greatness and compare it to his great role models ie Horatio nelson, Scott of the Antarctic, John Rambo,Carl Jung, Jacob Epstein,Wyatt Earp,Dutch schultz,Nicholas Hawksmoor,Lance Henriksen,Lenny Mclean,Jack Dempsey.


The main New Year tree of the country switched on the lights, having announced on the arrival of New Year, long awaited and the most favourite holiday.
The construction of the railway in Afghanistan for the support the development of Turgundy railway station is carried out according to the schedule.
As is known, the Head of the State gave instructions to the Ministry of Internal Affairs on conduct of the rally "From Amul to Hazar" together with international organization and outlined its routes.
According to the Law of Turkmenistan on Copyrights and Neighbouring Rights, the President of Turkmenistan signed the Resolution, having approved the Regulation on Tax Collection for the procedures of the registration of the copyrights, List of such procedures as well as fees of the collection.
According to the Resolution of President Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov, Yazguly Mammedov, the Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of Turkmenistan to Malaysia was appointed as the Ambassador to the Kingdom of Thailand at the same time.
Turkmenistan actively prepares to the celebration of New Year 2018. The concerts and other creative events will take place on the central squares and in the cultural centres of the capital and velayats in the days remained until New Year.
At the session of the Government of December 15, Vie-premier S. Toyliyev presented the State programme of archaeological excavations of historical and cultural monuments located in our country along the Great Silk Road for the review by the Head of the State.
President Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov held regular session of the Cabinet of Ministers where actual issues of domestic and foreign policy of the State were reviewed as well as important decisions in social and economic life of the country were made.
After being recognized as a permanently neutral country on December 12, 1995, Turkmenistan has become a guarantor of stability in the region. The fact that the United Nations General Assembly declared December 12 as International Neutrality Day on your initiative is seen as the recognition of Your country's contribution to maintaining peace and stability both in the region and in the world. Turkey will continue to support the policy of neutrality carried out by You, – the President of the Republic of Turkey Rejep Tayyip Erdogan said in his message.


text:
Hackney Weekend 2012
June 23, 2012 February 7, 2014 1 min read Andy Miah
(22 June, 2012) You could be forgiven for missing the fact that Hackney Weekend 2012 is an Olympic related cultural event, but if you take a look at the stage shots, you will see a London 2012 Festival logo there and a lot of the BBC coverage has drawn attention to Olympic stories throughout its broadcast – the pervasive 2012 pink colour may also be a giveaway. Billed as bringing music back to its roots in London, the big event was broadcast live over the BBC throughout the weekend and claims to be the biggest UK, free music event of the year.
London 2012 Festival launch in the North
London 2012 Festival Olympic Films
The London 2012 Cultural Olympiad Evaluation
April 4, 2014 November 15, 2020
'Individualising the terrain'. Mapping the impact of the Cultural Olympiad in geological metaphor
A Very Olympic Last night of the Proms


text:
muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptor, A-type & muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptor, B-type: Biological Overview | References
Gene names - muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptor, A-type & muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptor, B-type
Cytological map positions - 60C7-60C7 & 84E10-84E10
Functions - G-protein coupled receptors
Keywords - olfactory associative learning, ON/OFF discrimination in the Drosophila larval visual system, modulation of locomotion and neural circuit excitability in larvae
Symbol - mAChR-A & mAChR-B
FlyBase ID: FBgn0000037 & FBgn0037546
Genetic map positions - chr2R:24,378,630-24,390,294 & chr3R:8,059,284-8,087,049
Classification - muscarinic acetylcholine receptor DM1, member of the class A family of seven-transmembrane G protein-coupled receptors
NCBI link for mAChR-A: EntrezGene, Nucleotide, Protein
NCBI links for mAChR-B: EntrezGene, Nucleotide, Protein
mACHR-A orthologs: Biolitmine
mACHR-B orthologs: Biolitmine
Recent literature
Rozenfeld, E., Lerner, H. and Parnas, M. (2019). Muscarinic modulation of antennal lobe GABAergic local neurons shapes odor coding and behavior. Cell Rep 29(10): 3253-3265. PubMed ID: 31801087
In the antennal lobe (AL), the first olfactory relay of Drosophila, excitatory neurons are predominantly cholinergic. Ionotropic nicotinic receptors play a vital role in the effects of acetylcholine in the AL. However, the AL also has a high expression level of metabotropic muscarinic acetylcholine receptors type A (mAChRs-A). Nevertheless, the neurons expressing them and their role in the AL are unknown. Elucidating their function may reveal principles in olfactory modulation. This study shows that mAChRs-A shape AL output and affect behavior. Effects of mAChRs-A were localized to a sub-population of GABAergic local neurons (iLNs), where they play a dual role: direct excitation of iLNs and stabilization of the synapse between receptor neurons and iLNs, which undergoes strong short-term depression. These results reveal modulatory functions of the AL main excitatory neurotransmitter. Striking similarities to the mammalian olfactory system predict that mammalian glutamatergic metabotropic receptors could be associated with similar modulations.
Olfactory associative learning in Drosophila is mediated by synaptic plasticity between the Kenyon cells of the mushroom body and their output neurons. Both Kenyon cells and their inputs from projection neurons are cholinergic, yet little is known about the physiological function of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in learning in adult flies. This study shows that aversive olfactory learning in adult flies requires type A muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChR-A), particularly in the gamma subtype of Kenyon cells. mAChR-A inhibits odor responses and is localized in Kenyon cell dendrites. Moreover, mAChR-A knockdown impairs the learning-associated depression of odor responses in a mushroom body output neuron. These results suggest that mAChR-A function in Kenyon cell dendrites is required for synaptic plasticity between Kenyon cells and their output neurons (Bielopolski, 2019).
Animals learn to modify their behavior based on past experience by changing connection strengths between neurons, and this synaptic plasticity is often regulated by metabotropic receptors. In particular, neurons commonly express both ionotropic and metabotropic receptors for the same neurotransmitter, where the two may mediate different functions (e.g., direct excitation/inhibition vs. synaptic plasticity). In mammals, where glutamate is the principal excitatory neurotransmitter, metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) have been widely implicated in synaptic plasticity and memory. Given the complexity of linking behavior to artificially induced plasticity in brain slices, it would be useful to study the role of metabotropic receptors in learning in a simpler genetic model system with a clearer behavioral readout of synaptic plasticity. One such system is Drosophila, where powerful genetic tools and well-defined anatomy have yielded a detailed understanding of the circuit and molecular mechanisms underlying associative memory. The principal excitatory neurotransmitter in Drosophila is acetylcholine, but, surprisingly, little is known about the function of metabotropic acetylcholine signaling in synaptic plasticity or neuromodulation in Drosophila. This study addresses this question using olfactory associative memory (Bielopolski, 2019).
Flies can learn to associate an odor (conditioned stimulus, CS) with a positive (sugar) or a negative (electric shock) unconditioned stimulus (US), so that they later approach 'rewarded' odors and avoid 'punished' odors. This association is thought to be formed in the presynaptic terminals of the ~2000 Kenyon cells (KCs) that make up the mushroom body (MB), the fly's olfactory memory center. These KCs are activated by odors via second-order olfactory neurons called projection neurons (PNs). Each odor elicits responses in a sparse subset of KCs so that odor identity is encoded in which KCs respond to each odor. When an odor (CS) is paired with reward/punishment (US), an odor-specific set of KCs is activated at the same time that dopaminergic neurons (DANs) release dopamine onto KC presynaptic terminals. The coincident activation causes long-term depression (LTD) of synapses from the odor-activated KCs onto mushroom body output neurons (MBONs) that lead to approach or avoidance behavior. In particular, training specifically depresses KC-MBON synapses of the 'wrong' valence (e.g. odor-punishment pairing depresses odor responses of MBONs that lead to approach behavior), because different pairs of 'matching' DANs/MBONs (e.g. punishment/approach, reward/avoidance) innervate distinct regions along KC axons (Bielopolski, 2019).
Both MB input (PNs) and output (KCs) are cholinergic, and KCs express both ionotropic (nicotinic) and metabotropic (muscarinic) acetylcholine receptors. The nicotinic receptors mediate fast excitatory synaptic currents, while the physiological function of the muscarinic receptors is unknown. Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) are G-protein-coupled receptors; out of the three mAChRs in Drosophila (mAChR-A, mAChR-B and mAChR-C), mAChR-A (also called Dm1, mAcR-60C or mAChR) is the most closely homologous to mammalian mAChRs. Mammalian mAChRs are typically divided between 'M1-type' (M1/M3/M5), which signal via Gq and are generally excitatory, and 'M2-type' (M2/M4), which signal via Gi/o and are generally inhibitory. Drosophila mAChR-A seems to use 'M1-type' signaling: when heterologously expressed in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, it signals via Gq protein (Collin, 2013; Ren, 2015) to activate phospholipase C, which produces inositol trisphosphate to release Ca2+ from internal stores (Bielopolski, 2019).
Recent work indicates that mAChR-A is required for aversive olfactory learning in Drosophila larvae, as knocking down mAChR-A expression in KCs impairs learning (Silva, 2015). However, it is unclear whether mAChR-A is involved in olfactory learning in adult Drosophila, given that mAChR-A is thought to signal through Gq, and in adult flies Gq signaling downstream of the dopamine receptor Damb promotes forgetting, not learning. Moreover, it is unknown how mAChR-A affects the activity or physiology of KCs, where it acts (at KC axons or dendrites or both), and how these effects contribute to olfactory learning (Bielopolski, 2019).
This study shows that mAChR-A is required in KCs for aversive olfactory learning in adult Drosophila. Surprisingly, genetic and pharmacological manipulations of mAChR-A suggest that mAChR-A is inhibitory and acts on KC dendrites. Moreover, mAChR-A knockdown impairs the learning-associated depression of odor responses in an MB output neuron, MB-MVP2, that is required for aversive memory retrieval. It is suggested that dendritically acting mAChR-A is required for synaptic depression between KCs and their outputs (Bielopolski, 2019).
This study shows that mAChR-A is required in γ KCs for aversive olfactory learning and short-term memory in adult Drosophila. Knocking down mAChR-A increases KC odor responses, while the mAChR-A agonist muscarine suppresses KC activity. Knocking down mAChR-A prevents aversive learning from reducing responses of the MB output neuron MB-MVP2 to the conditioned odor, suggesting that mAChR-A is required for the learning-related depression of KC-->MBON synapses (Bielopolski, 2019).
Why is mAChR-A only required for aversive learning in γ KCs, not αβ or α'β' KCs? Although the mAChR-A MiMIC gene trap agrees with single-cell transcriptome analysis that α'β' KCs express less mAChR-A than do γ and αβ KCs, transcriptome analysis indicates that α'β' KCs do express some mAChR-A. Moreover, γ and αβ KCs express similar levels of mAChR-A. It may be that the RNAi knockdown is less efficient at affecting the physiology of αβ and α'β' KCs than γ KCs, whether because the knockdown is less efficient at reducing protein levels, or because αβ and α'β' KCs have different intrinsic properties or a different function of mAChR-A such that 40% of normal mAChR-A levels is sufficient in αβ and α'β' KCs but not γ KCs. This interpretation is supported by the finding that mAChR-A RNAi knockdown significantly increases odor responses only in the γ lobe, not the αβ or α'β' lobes. Alternatively, γ, αβ and α'β' KCs are thought to be important mainly for short-term memory, long-term memory, and memory consolidation, respectively; as this study tested only short-term memory, mAChR-A may carry out the same function in all KCs, but only its role in γ KCs is required for short-term (as opposed to long-term) memory. Indeed, the key plasticity gene DopR1 is required in γ, not αβ or α'β'4 KCs, for short-term memory. It may be that mAChR-A is required in non-γ KC types for other forms of memory besides short-term aversive memory, such as appetitive conditioning or other phases of memory like long-term memory. The finding that mAChR-A is required in γ KCs for aversive short-term memory is consistent with the finding that mAChR-A knockdown in KCs disrupts training-induced depression of odor responses in MB-MVP2, an MBON postsynaptic to γ KCs required for aversive short-term memory. However, the latter finding does not rule out the possibility that other MBONs postsynaptic to non-γ KCs may also be affected by mAChR-A knockdown in KCs (Bielopolski, 2019).
mAChR-A seems to inhibit KC odor responses, because knocking down mAChR-A increases odor responses in the calyx and γ lobe, while activating mAChR-A with bath or local application of muscarine decreases KC odor responses. Some details differ between the genetic and pharmacological results. In particular, while mAChR-A knockdown mainly affects γ KCs, with other subtypes inconsistently affected, muscarine reduces responses in all KC subtypes. What explains these differences? mAChR-A might be weakly activated in physiological conditions, in which case gain of function would cause a stronger effect than loss of function. Similarly, pharmacological activation of mAChR-A is likely a more drastic manipulation than a 60% reduction of mAChR-A mRNA levels. Although network effects from muscarine application cannot be entirely ruled out, the effect of muscarine does not stem from PNs or APLand locally applied muscarine would have little effect on neurons outside the mushroom body (Bielopolski, 2019).
How does mAChR-A inhibit odor-evoked Ca2+ influx in KCs? Given that mAChR-A signals through Gq when expressed in CHO cells (Ren, 2015), that muscarinic Gq signaling normally increases excitability in mammal, and that pan-neuronal artificial activation of Gq signaling in Drosophila larvae increases overall excitability, it may be surprising that mAChR-A inhibits KCs. However, Gq signaling may exert different effects on different neurons in the fly brain, and some examples exist of inhibitory Gq signaling by mammalian mAChRs. M1/M3/M5 receptors acting via Gq can inhibit voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels, reduce voltage-gated Na +currents, or trigger surface transport of KCNQ channels, thus increasing inhibitory K+ currents. Drosophila mAChR-A may inhibit KCs through similar mechanisms (Bielopolski, 2019).
What is the source of ACh which activates mAChR-A and modulates odor responses? In the calyx, cholinergic PNs are certainly a major source of ACh. However, KCs themselves are cholinergic and release neurotransmitter in both the calyx and lobes. KCs form synapses on each other in the calyx, possibly allowing mAChR-A to mediate lateral inhibition, in conjunction with the lateral inhibition provided by the GABAergic APL neuron (Bielopolski, 2019).
What function does mAChR-A serve in learning and memory? The results indicate that mAChR-A knockdown prevents the learning-associated weakening of KC-MBON synapses, in particular for MBON-γ1pedc>α/β, aka MB-MVP2. One potential explanation is that the increased odor-evoked Ca2+ influx observed in knockdown flies increases synaptic release, which overrides the learning-associated synaptic depression. However, increased odor-evoked Ca2+ influx per se is unlikely on its own to straightforwardly explain a learning defect, because other genetic manipulations that increase odor-evoked Ca2+ influx in KCs either have no effect on, or even improve, olfactory learning. For example, knocking down GABA synthesis in the inhibitory APL neuron increases odor-evoked Ca2+ influx in KCs and improves olfactory learning (Bielopolski, 2019).
The most intuitive explanation would be that mAChR-A acts at KC synaptic terminals in KC axons to help depress KC-MBON synapses. Yet overexpressed mAChR-A localizes to KC dendrites, not axons, and functionally rescues mAChR-A hypomorphic mutants, showing that dendritic mAChR-A suffices for its function in learning and memory. Does this show that mAChR-A has no role in KC axons? The inability to detect GFP expressed from the mAChR-A MiMIC gene trap suggests that normally there may only be a small amount of mAChR-A in KCs. It may be that with mAChR-A-FLAG overexpression, the correct (undetectable) amount of mAChR-A is trafficked to and functions in axons, but due to a bottleneck in axonal transport, the excess tagged mAChR-A is trapped in KC dendrites. While the results do not rule out this possibility, a general bottleneck in axonal transport seems unlikely as many overexpressed proteins are localized to KC axons. It is more parsimonious to take the dendritic localization of mAChR-A-FLAG at face value and infer that mAChR-A functions in KC dendrites (Bielopolski, 2019).
How can mAChR-A in KC dendrites affect synaptic plasticity in KC axons? mAChR-A signaling might change the shape or duration of KC action potentials, an effect that could potentially propagate to KC axon terminals. Such changes in the action potential waveform may not be detected by calcium imaging, but could potentially affect a 'coincidence detector' in KC axons that detects when odor (i.e. KC activity) coincides with reward/punishment (i.e., dopamine). This coincidence detector is generally believed to be the Ca2+-dependent adenylyl cyclase Rutabaga. Changing the waveform of KC action potentials could potentially affect local dynamics of Ca2+ influx near Rutabaga molecules. In addition, rutabaga mutations do not abolish learning (mutants have ~40-50% of normal learning scores), so there may be additional coincidence detection mechanisms affected by action potential waveforms. Testing this idea would require a better understanding of biochemical events underlying learning at KC synaptic terminals (Bielopolski, 2019).
Alternatively, mAChR-A's effects on synaptic plasticity may not occur acutely. Although purely developmental effects of mAChR-A were ruled out through adult-only RNAi expression, knocking out mAChR-A for several days in adulthood might still affect KC physiology in a not-entirely-acute way. Perhaps, as with other G-protein-coupled receptors, muscarinic receptors can affect gene expression -- if so, this could have wide-ranging effects on KC physiology: for example, action potential waveform, expression of key genes required for synaptic plasticity, etc. Another intriguing possibility is suggested by an apparent paradox: both mAChR-A and the dopamine receptor Damb signal through Gq, but mAChR-A promotes learning while Damb promotes forgetting. How can Gq mediate apparently opposite effects? Perhaps Gq signaling aids both learning and forgetting by generally rendering synapses more labile. Indeed, although damb mutants retain memories for longer than wildtype, their initial learning is slightly impaired; damb mutant larvae are also impaired in aversive olfactory learning. Although one study reports that knocking down Gq in KCs did not impair initial memory, the Gq knockdown may not have been strong enough; also, that study shocked flies with 90 V shocks, which also gives normal learning in mAChR-A knockdown flies (Bielopolski, 2019).
Such hypotheses posit that mAChR-A regulates synaptic plasticity 'competence' rather than participating directly in the plasticity mechanism itself. Why should synaptic plasticity competence be controlled by an activity-dependent mechanism? It is tempting to speculate that mAChR-A may allow a kind of metaplasticity in which exposure to odors (hence activation of mAChR-A in KCs) makes flies' learning mechanisms more sensitive. Indeed, mAChR-A is required for learning with moderate (50 V) shocks, not severe (90 V) shocks. Future studies may further clarify how muscarinic signaling contributes to olfactory learning (Bielopolski, 2019).
Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor signaling generates OFF selectivity in a simple visual circuit
ON and OFF selectivity in visual processing is encoded by parallel pathways that respond to either light increments or decrements. Despite lacking the anatomical features to support split channels, Drosophila larvae effectively perform visually-guided behaviors. To understand principles guiding visual computation in the larval visual system, focus was placed on investigating the physiological properties and behavioral relevance of larval visual interneurons. The ON vs. OFF discrimination in the larval visual circuit emerges through light-elicited cholinergic signaling that depolarizes a cholinergic interneuron (cha-lOLP) and hyperpolarizes a glutamatergic interneuron (glu-lOLP). Genetic studies further indicate that muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAchR)/Galphao signaling produces the sign-inversion required for OFF detection in glu-lOLP, the disruption of which strongly impacts both physiological responses of downstream projection neurons and dark-induced pausing behavior. Together, these studies identify the molecular and circuit mechanisms underlying ON vs. OFF discrimination in the Drosophila larval visual system (Qin, 2019).
ON and OFF selectivity, the differential neuronal responses elicited by signal increments or decrements, is an essential component of visual computation and a fundamental property of visual systems across species. Extensive studies of adult Drosophila optic ganglia and vertebrate retinae suggest that the construction principles of ON and OFF selective pathways are shared among visual systems, albeit with circuit-specific implementations. Anatomically, dedicated neuronal pathways for ON vs. OFF responses are key features in visual circuit construction. Specific synaptic contacts are precisely built and maintained in laminar and columnar structures during development to ensure proper segregation of signals for parallel processing. Molecularly, light stimuli elicit opposite responses in ON and OFF pathways through signaling events mediated by differentially expressed neurotransmitter receptors in target neurons postsynaptic to the photoreceptor cells (PRs). This has been clearly demonstrated in the mammalian retina, where light-induced changes in glutamatergic transmission activate ON-bipolar cells via metabotropic glutamate receptor 6 (mGluR6) signaling and inhibit OFF-bipolar cells through the actions of ionotropic AMPA or kainate receptors. In the adult Drosophila visual system, functional imaging indicates that ON vs. OFF selectivity emerges from visual interneurons in the medulla. However, despite recent efforts in transcriptome profiling and genetic analyses, the molecular machinery mediating signal transformation within the ON and OFF pathways has not yet been clearly identified (Qin, 2019).
Unlike the ~6000 PRs in the adult visual system, larval Drosophila eyes consist of only 12 PRs on each side. Larval PRs make synaptic connections with a pair of visual local interneurons (VLNs) and approximately ten visual projection neurons (VPNs) in the larval optic neuropil (LON). VPNs relay signals to higher brain regions that process multiple sensory modalities. Despite this simple anatomy, larvae rely on vision for negative phototaxis, social clustering, and form associative memories based on visual cues. How the larval visual circuit effectively processes information and supports visually guided behaviors is not understood (Qin, 2019).
Recent connectome studies mapped synaptic interactions within the LON in the first instar larval brain, revealing two separate visual pathways using either blue-tuned Rhodopsin 5 (Rh5-PRs) or green-tuned Rhodopsin 6 (Rh6-PRs). Rh5-PRs project to the proximal layer of the LON (LONp) and form direct synaptic connections with all VPNs, whereas Rh6-PRs project to the distal layer of the LON (LONd) and predominantly target one cholinergic (cha-lOLP) and one glutamatergic (glu-lOLP) local interneurons. The two PR pathways then converge at the level of VPNs (Qin, 2019).
These connectome studies also revealed potential functions for cha- and glu-lOLP. The pair of lOLPs, together with one of the VPNs, the pOLP, are the earliest differentiated neurons in the larval optic lobe and are thus collectively known as optic lobe pioneer neurons (OLPs). Besides relaying visual information from Rh6-PRs to downstream VPNs, the lOLPs also form synaptic connections with each other and receive neuromodulatory inputs from serotonergic and octopaminergic neurons, suggesting that they may act as ON and OFF detectors. This proposal is further supported by recent studies on the role of the Rh6-PR/lOLP pathway in larval movement detection and social clustering behaviors. However, it remains unclear how the lOLPs support differential coding for ON and OFF signals without anatomical separation at either the input or output level (Qin, 2019).
This study investigated the lOLPs' physiological properties and determined the molecular machinery underlying their information processing abilities. Functional imaging studies revealed differential physiological responses towards light increments and decrements in cha-lOLP and glu-lOLP, indicating their functions in detecting ON and OFF signals. Furthermore, it was found that light-induced inhibition on glu-lOLP is mediated by mAchR-B/Gαo signaling, which generates the sign inversion required for the OFF response and encodes temporal information between the cholinergic and glutamatergic transmissions received by downstream VPNs. Lastly, genetic manipulations of glu-lOLP strongly modified the physiological responses of VPNs and eliminated dark-induced pausing behaviors. Together, these studies identify specific cellular and molecular pathways that mediate OFF detection in Drosophila larvae, reveal functional interactions among key components of the larval visual system, and establish a circuit mechanism for ON vs. OFF discrimination in this simple circuit (Qin, 2019).
The Drosophila larval visual circuit, with its small number of components and complete wiring diagram, provides a powerful model to study how specific synaptic interactions support visual computation. Built on knowledge obtained from connectome and behavioral analyses, the current physiological and genetic studies revealed unique computational strategies utilized by this simple circuit for processing complex outputs. Specifically, the results indicate that ON vs. OFF discrimination emerges at the level of the lOLPs, a pair of second-order visual interneurons. In addition, the essential role is demonstrated of glu-lOLP, a single glutamatergic interneuron, in meditating OFF detection at both the cellular and behavior levels and identify mAchR-B/Gαo signaling as the molecular machinery regulating its physiological properties (Qin, 2019).
Functional imaging studies using genetically encoded calcium and voltage indicators provide valuable information regarding the physiological properties of synaptic interactions among larval visual interneurons and projection neurons. However, optical recording approaches have certain technical limitations, including the kinetics and sensitivities of the voltage and calcium sensors, as well as the imaging and visual stimulation protocols. In addition, although glu-lOLP displays a biphasic response towards the light stimulation, calcium reductions and increases for only the initial set of physiological characterizations were quantified. Compared to the delayed calcium rise, the light-induced calcium reductions have low amplitudes and high variabilities, possibly due to the half-wave rectification of the intracellular calcium previously described in adult visual interneurons. For the genetic experiments, focus was placed on evaluating the activation of glu-lOLP, which is reflected by the increase of intracellular calcium signals that lead to neurotransmitter release (Qin, 2019).
To process light and dark information in parallel, both mammalian and adult fly visual systems utilize anatomical segregation to reinforce split ON and OFF pathways. In the larval visual circuit, however, almost all VPNs receive direct inputs from both cha-lOLP and glu-lOLP as well as the Rh5-PRs. Therefore, the response signs of the VPNs cannot be predicted by their anatomical connectivity to ON and OFF detectors. Based on the cumulative evidence obtained through genetic, anatomical, and physiological studies, it is proposed that temporal control of inhibition potentially contributes to ON vs. OFF discrimination in larvae. While cha-lOLP displays clear ON selectivity, the OFF selectivity in glu-lOLP is strengthened by the extended suppression of its light response by mAchR-B/Gαo signaling. This temporal control may also produce a window of heightened responsiveness in cha-lOLP and ON-VPNs towards light signals, similar to the case in mammalian sensory systems where the temporal delay of input-evoked inhibition relative to excitation sharpens the tuning to preferred stimuli. Together, the temporal separation between cholinergic and glutamatergic transmission could reinforce the functional segregation in the VPNs and lead to distinct transmissions of ON and OFF signals. Although further functional validations are needed, temporal control of inhibition provides an elegant solution that may be of general use in similar contexts where parallel processing is achieved without anatomically split pathways (Qin, 2019).
The connectome study identified ten larval VPNs which receive both direct and filtered inputs from two types of PRs and transmit visual information to higher brain regions, including four LNvs (PDF-LaNs), five LaN, nc-LaN1, and two pVL09, VPLN, and pOLP17. Based on these studies on LNvs and pOLP, it is expected the functional diversity in VPNs generated by differential expression of neurotransmitter receptors or molecules involved in electric coupling will be observed. Besides basic ON vs. OFF discrimination, VPNs are also involved in a variety of visually guided behaviors. The temporal regulation of their glutamatergic and cholinergic inputs as well as the local computation within the LON are among potential cellular mechanisms that increase the VPNs' capability to process complex visual information. Further physiological and molecular studies of the VPNs and behavioral experiments targeting specific visual tasks are needed to elucidate their specific functions (Qin, 2019).
Besides the similarities observed between larval lOLPs and the visual interneurons in the adult fly visual ganglia, an analogy can be drawn between lOLPs and interneurons in mammalian retinae based on their roles in visual processing. Cha-lOLP and glu-lOLP carry sign-conserving or sign-inverting functions and activate ON- or OFF-VPNs, respectively, performing similar functions as bipolar cells in mammalian retinae. At the same time, lOLPs also provide inhibitory inputs to either ON- or OFF-VPNs and thus exhibit the characteristics of inhibitory amacrine cells. The dual role of lOLPs is the key feature of larval ON and OFF selectivity, which likely evolved to fulfill the need for parallel processing using limited cellular resources (Qin, 2019).
Lastly, these studies reveal signaling pathways shared between mammalian retinae and the larval visual circuit. Although the two systems are constructed using different neurochemicals, Gαo signaling is responsible for producing sign inversion in both glu-lOLP and the ON-bipolar cell. In mGluR6-expressing ON-bipolar cells, light increments trigger Gαo deactivation, the opening of TrpM1 channels, and depolarization. In larval glu-lOLP, how light induces voltage and calcium responses via mAchR-B signaling has yet to be determined. Gαo is known to have functional interactions with a diverse group of signaling molecules including potassium and calcium channels that could directly link the light-elicited physiological changes in glu-lOLP. Genetic and physiological studies in the larval visual circuit will facilitate the discovery of these target molecules and contribute to the mechanistic understanding of visual computation (Qin, 2019).
Unexpected role of a conserved domain in the first extracellular loop in G protein-coupled receptor trafficking
G protein-coupled receptors are the largest superfamily of cell surface receptors in the Metazoa and play critical roles in transducing extracellular signals into intracellular responses. This action is mediated through conformational changes in the receptor following ligand binding. A number of conserved motifs have critical roles in GPCR function, and this study focused on a highly conserved motif (WxFG) in extracellular loop one (EL1). A phylogenetic analysis documents the presence of the WxFG motif in approximately 90% of Class A GPCRs and the motif is represented in 17 of the 19 Class A GPCR subfamilies. Using site-directed mutagenesis, the conserved tryptophan residue was mutagenized in eight receptors which are members of disparate class A GPCR subfamilies from different taxa. The modification of the Drosophila leucokinin receptor shows that substitution of any non-aromatic amino acid for the tryptophan leads to a loss of receptor function. Additionally, leucine substitutions at this position caused similar signaling defects in the follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (FSHR), Galanin receptor (GALR1), AKH receptor (AKHR), corazonin receptor (CRZR), and muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mACHR1). Visualization of modified receptors through the incorporation of a fluorescent tag revealed a severe reduction in plasma membrane expression, indicating aberrant trafficking of these modified receptors. Taken together, these results suggest a novel role for the WxFG motif in GPCR trafficking and receptor function (Rizzo, 2018).
Pharmacological identification of cholinergic receptor subtypes: modulation of locomotion and neural circuit excitability in Drosophila larvae
Acetylcholine (ACh) is an abundant neurotransmitter and neuromodulator in many species. In Drosophila melanogaster ACh is the neurotransmitter used in peripheral sensory neurons and is a primary excitatory neurotransmitter and neuromodulator within the central nervous system (CNS). The receptors that facilitate cholinergic transmission are divided into two broad subtypes: the ionotropic nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) and the metabotropic muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs). This receptor classification is shared in both mammals and insects; however, both the pharmacological and functional characterization of these receptors within the Drosophila nervous system has lagged behind its mammalian model counterparts. In order to identify the impact of ACh receptor subtypes in regulating the performance of neural circuits within the larval CNS, this study used a behavioral and electrophysiological approach to assess cholinergic modulation of locomotion and sensory-CNS-motor circuit excitability. Intact and semi-intact 3rd instar larvae were exposed to ACh receptor agonists and antagonists to observe their roles in behavior and regulation of neural circuit excitability and to investigate AChR pharmacological properties in vivo. This was combined with targeted AChR RNAi-mediated knockdown to identify specific receptor subtypes facilitating ACh modulation of circuit efficacy. A contribution by both mAChRs and nAChRs was identified in regulation of locomotor behavior, and it was revealed that they play a role in modulation of the excitability of a sensory-CNS-motor circuit. A conspicuous role for mAChR-A and mAChR-C in motor neurons was identified in modulation of their input-output efficacy (Malloy, 2019).
Drosophila larval to pupal switch under nutrient stress requires IP3R/Ca2+ signalling in glutamatergic interneurons
Neuronal circuits are known to integrate nutritional information, but the identity of the circuit components is not completely understood. Amino acids are a class of nutrients that are vital for the growth and function of an organism. This study reports a neuronal circuit that allows Drosophila larvae to overcome amino acid deprivation and pupariate. Nutrient stress is sensed by the class IV multidendritic cholinergic neurons. Through live calcium imaging experiments, this study shows that these cholinergic stimuli are conveyed to glutamatergic neurons in the ventral ganglion through mAChR. IP3R-dependent calcium transients in the glutamatergic neurons convey this signal to downstream medial neurosecretory cells (mNSCs). The circuit ultimately converges at the ring gland and regulates expression of ecdysteroid biosynthetic genes. Activity in this circuit is thus likely to be an adaptation that provides a layer of regulation to help surpass nutritional stress during development (Jayakumar, 2016).
Muscarinic ACh receptors contribute to aversive olfactory learning in Drosophila
The most studied form of associative learning in Drosophila consists in pairing an odorant, the conditioned stimulus (CS), with an unconditioned stimulus (US). The timely arrival of the CS and US information to a specific Drosophila brain association region, the mushroom bodies (MB), can induce new olfactory memories. Thus, the MB is considered a coincidence detector. It has been shown that olfactory information is conveyed to the MB through cholinergic inputs that activate acetylcholine (ACh) receptors, while the US is encoded by biogenic amine (BA) systems. In recent years, understanding has advanced with regard to the specific neural BA pathways and receptors involved in olfactory learning and memory. However, little information exists on the contribution of cholinergic receptors to this process. This study evaluates the proposition that, as in mammals, muscarinic ACh receptors (mAChRs; see mAChR-A) contribute to memory formation in Drosophila. The results show that pharmacological and genetic blockade of mAChRs in MB disrupts olfactory aversive memory in larvae. This effect is not explained by an alteration in the ability of animals to respond to odorants or to execute motor programs. These results show that mAChRs in MB contribute to generating olfactory memories in Drosophila (Silva, 2015).
Different training protocols used in Drosophila have helped advance understanding of the cellular and genetic basis for learning and memory. One of the most studied and best understood is the associative learning of odors, where an odorant that has or does not has an intrinsic value for the animal (the CS) is paired with the US. Thus, the odorant acquires a new value for this animal. The type of memory generated depends on the quality of the US: while in some training protocols electric shock or aversive chemicals such as quinine or salt have been used as US to generate aversive memories, odors can also be paired with sugar to generate appetitive memories. Behavioral and genetic studies have demonstrated that this associative learning depends on the integrity of the major neuropil in the fly brain, the MB, and their principal neurons, the Kenyon Cells (KCs). Therefore, it has been accepted that the timely, coincident arrival of the information of the CS and the US to MB KCs is essential to generate new olfactory memories. This is valid not only for adult flies but also in animals at the larval stage (Silva, 2015).
The literature supports the idea that neurons containing and releasing BAs transmit the US information to the MB, both in adult flies and also in larvae. Remarkably, recent reports have advanced knowledge on the neural aminergic pathways innervating the MB, the specific receptors activated, and some of the cellular events gated by amines in KCs that could underlie the generation of new memories both in larva and the adult fly (Silva, 2015).
However, it is possible the CS is relayed to KCs through cholinergic inputs arising from the antennal lobe (AL) via the inner antennal cerebral tract. This is consistent with the idea that ACh is the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the insect brain. In mammals it is well known that ACh exerts its diverse actions by activation of the fast-acting ionotropic nicotinic receptors (nAChRs) and also metabotropic muscarinic ACh receptors (mAChRs). Ten different genes encode the different subunits for Drosophila nAChRs and although the exact subunit composition of native fly neuronal nAChRs is not known, cell physiology experiments have led to some insights on the functional properties of these channels. For instance, electrophysiological studies have shown that ACh activates α-bungarotoxin-sensitive nAChRs underlying fast excitatory synaptic currents in Drosophila brain neurons. Moreover, it has been recently shown in an in vitro preparation that the enhancement of the AL Projection Neuron-MB synapse depends on the activity of nAChRs. Consistent with all these data, imaging studies have shown that activation of nAChRs induces an increase in intracellular calcium that mediates cellular plasticity (Silva, 2015).
To date, one mAChR has been identified and cloned in Drosophila. The Drosophila mAChR shows high sequence homology to the vertebrate M1-type mAChR and accordingly it was shown to increase the metabolism of membrane phospholipids when expressed in heterologous systems. Interestingly, no information is available on the possibility that mAChRs are involved in olfactory processing in Drosophila, even though it has been shown that this receptor is highly expressed in MB. This lab has generated a new protocol to induce olfactory aversive memories in Drosophila larvae. By using this protocol, this study shows that mAChRs expressed in Drosophila MB contribute to larval olfactory aversive learning and memory (Silva, 2015).
The reciprocal training protocol regularly used in these experiments is aimed at getting a robust, reproducible memory of odors that is thought to be independent of the odorant dilutions used for training and/or memory testing, as in different sets of experiments the US-paired odorant is switched. This is different from training protocols where only one odorant is associated with an US. However, the current data show that even when using the reciprocal training protocol it is necessary to establish the adequate experimental conditions leading to an equilibrated distribution of animals exposed to the odorants in the test chamber before any training. In fact, two different experiments carried out with EA/AA dilution ratios of 10 lead to a different naïve preference: when this ratio is obtained starting from a 1:10 AA dilution, preference observed is above 60%; when a 1:100 AA dilution is used to prepare this dilution ratio, the preference observed is about 50%. This data suggests that it is important to control for naïve preference of animals for the odorants to be used in olfactory learning and memory experiments, as this complex behavior depends on the ability of animals to adequately sense and respond to odorant stimuli. Other factors that could also affect the performance of animals in this associative behavior include the presence of drugs (in the current case atropine) or the US (i.e., salt in these experiments). All these factors have been controlled in the experiments to make sure the results are indeed explained by the ability of animals to generate new memories (Silva, 2015).
The existence of one G-protein coupled metabotropic muscarinic ACh receptor (mAChR, aka mAChR-A) has been shown in Drosophila. This mAChR shows high sequence homology to vertebrate M1-type mAChRs and as expected induces the activation of PLC to modulate membrane phospholipids in heterologous systems. Recently a second mAChR was identified (a.k.a. mAChR-B). This second putative mAChR shows several differences in its amino acid sequence and pharmacological and physiological properties with all previously described vertebrate and invertebrate mAChRs, including the fact that it is not activated by muscarine or blocked by atropine or scopolamine, two well-known mAChR antagonists. Thus, it is not clear whether this is actually a mAChR. For all these reasons this study focused only on the mAChR-A (Silva, 2015).
Expression studies have shown that the mAChR is highly expressed in the adult MB and AL. Information obtained from high-throughput expression studies indicates that this receptor is also expressed in the larval CNS, although up to now there was no information on the expression of this receptor in specific larval brain regions. The current data show that the mAChR is expressed in somas and processes in the ventral nerve cord and the larval MB region, specifically in the calyx and larval MB lobes, positioning this receptor in the right place to modulate olfactory learning (Silva, 2015).
Two different but complementary approaches were used to assess the contribution of mAChRs to olfactory aversive learning in larvae. In one hand, animals were trained and tested in presence of atropine, a well-known antagonist for mAChRs. Data obtained show that these animals are unable to form an aversive olfactory memory, which suggests that mAChRs are required for memory formation. This approach does not speak of the site where mAChRs are acting to modulate memory formation, and therefore several situations could explain this result. Since cholinergic neurons convey the information of the CS to the MB, it is possible that mAChRs are presynaptically located in the AL Projection Neuron-MB synapse to modulate ACh release in the MB region, similar to what has already been suggested for nAChRs in an in vitro AL-MB synapse preparation. mAChRs could also be located in the aminergic terminals responsible for sending the information of the US to the MB, modulating this synapse. The modulation of the release of amines by cholinergic ligands is a possibility that has recently been shown in an in vitro fly brain preparation. It is also possible that mAChRs expressed in the MB neurons directly modulate the activity of these cells to induce memory formation. Since the current expression studies support this proposition, this study used a genetic approach to assess this last possibility. Remarkably, the specific expression of an RNAimAChR in MB fully inhibited the formation of new aversive olfactory memory in larvae. Altogether, these data demonstrate for the first time that mAChRs expressed in MB are required for the generation of aversive memory in Drosophila larvae (Silva, 2015).
The contribution of mAChRs in olfactory memory is something already established in other systems. For instance, it has been previously shown that mAChRs contribute to olfactory memories in honeybees. Interestingly, these data support the idea that the muscarinic receptors are only required for olfactory memory retrieval, not acquisition. Moreover, the effect of mAChRs on olfactory memory in honeybees depends specifically on the MB ?-lobe. It is not known whether mAChRs are required for specific memory phases or processes in Drosophila or if as in bees mAChRs are required in specific larval MB regions, but these are issues are currently being evaluated (Silva, 2015).
For example, it has been shown that the administration of scopolamine, a nonselective antagonist for M1-M5 vertebrate mAChRs, decreases different types of memory in mammals. Moreover, data obtained in mice expressing a mutation for the M1-type mAChR show defects on memory acquisition and consolidation. Remarkably, rats treated with scopolamine in the prelimbic cortex show deficient olfactory memory. These data show that mAChRs are important contributors in the generation of memories, particularly olfactory memory, in mammals as it is in insects. The data contribute to the understanding of the molecular underpinnings of memory formation in Drosophila but further support the proposition that regardless of obvious anatomical differences, the key contributors to complex phenomenon including olfactory learning and memory are conserved from arthropods to mammals (Silva, 2015).
The A- and B-type muscarinic acetylcholine receptors from Drosophila melanogaster couple to different second messenger pathways
Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that are activated by the agonists acetylcholine and muscarine and blocked by several antagonists, among them atropine. In mammals five mAChRs (m1-m5) exist of which m1, m3, and m5 are coupled to members of the Gq/11 family and m2 and m4 to members of the Gi/0 family. Drosophila melanogaster and other arthropods have two mAChRs, named mAChR-A and mAChR-B, where the A-type has the same pharmacology as the mammalian mAChRs, while the B-type has a very low affinity to muscarine and no affinity to classical antagonists such as atropine. This study found that the D. melanogaster A-type mAChR is coupled to Gq/11 and D. melanogaster B-type mAChR to Gi/0. Furthermore, by comparing the second and third intracellular loops of all animal mAChRs for which the G protein coupling has been established, it was possible to identify several amino acid residues likely to be specific for either Gq/11 or Gi/0 coupling. Using these hallmarks for specific mAChR G protein interaction it was found that all protostomes with a sequenced genome have one mAChR coupled to Gq/11 and one to four mAChRs coupled to Gi/0. Furthermore, in protostomes, probably all A-type mAChRs are coupled to Gq/11 and all B-type mAChRs to G0/i (Ren, 2015).
Two types of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in Drosophila and other arthropods
Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) play a central role in the mammalian nervous system. These receptors are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), which are activated by the agonists acetylcholine and muscarine, and blocked by a variety of antagonists. Mammals have five mAChRs (m1-m5). In this study two structurally related GPCRs were cloned from the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, which, after expression in Chinese hamster ovary cells, proved to be muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. One mAChR (the A-type; encoded by gene CG4356) is activated by acetylcholine and muscarine and blocked by the classical mAChR antagonists atropine, scopolamine, and 3-quinuclidinyl-benzilate (QNB), while the other (the B-type; encoded by gene CG7918) is also activated by acetylcholine, but has a 1,000-fold lower sensitivity to muscarine, and is not blocked by the antagonists. A- and B-type mAChRs were also cloned and functionally characterized from the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum. Haga published the crystal structure of the human m2 mAChR, revealing 14 amino acid residues forming the binding pocket for QNB. These residues are identical between the human m2 and the D. melanogaster and T. castaneum A-type mAChRs, while many of them are different between the human m2 and the B-type receptors. Using bioinformatics, one orthologue of the A-type and one of the B-type mAChRs could also be found in all other arthropods with a sequenced genome. Protostomes, such as arthropods, and deuterostomes, such as mammals and other vertebrates, belong to two evolutionarily distinct lineages of animal evolution that split about 700 million years ago. Animals that originated before this split, such as cnidarians (Hydra), had two A-type mAChRs. From these data, a model is proposed for the evolution of mAChRs (Collin, 2013).
Functions of mACHR orthologs in other species
Extrasynaptic muscarinic acetylcholine receptors on neuronal cell bodies regulate presynaptic function in Caenorhabditis elegans
Acetylcholine (ACh) is a potent neuromodulator in the brain, and its effects on cognition and memory formation are largely performed through muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs). mAChRs are often preferentially distributed on specialized membrane regions in neurons, but the significance of mAChR localization in modulating neuronal function is not known. This study shows that the C. elegans homolog of the M1/M3/M5 family of mAChRs, gar-3, is expressed in cholinergic motor neurons, and GAR-3-GFP fusion proteins localize to cell bodies where they are enriched at extrasynaptic regions that are in contact with the basal lamina. GAR-3 can be activated by endogenously produced ACh released from neurons that do not directly contact cholinergic motor neurons. Together, these results suggest that humoral activation of asymmetrically localized mAChRs by ACh is an evolutionarily conserved mechanism by which ACh modulates neuronal function (Chan, 2013).
Search PubMed for articles about Drosophila mACHr-1 and mACHr-2
Bielopolski, N., Amin, H., Apostolopoulou, A. A., Rozenfeld, E., Lerner, H., Huetteroth, W., Lin, A. C. and Parnas, M. (2019). Inhibitory muscarinic acetylcholine receptors enhance aversive olfactory learning in adult Drosophila. Elife 8. PubMed ID: 31215865
Chan, J. P., Staab, T. A., Wang, H., Mazzasette, C., Butte, Z. and Sieburth, D. (2013). Extrasynaptic muscarinic acetylcholine receptors on neuronal cell bodies regulate presynaptic function in Caenorhabditis elegans. J Neurosci 33: 14146-14159. PubMed ID: 23986249
Collin, C., Hauser, F., Gonzalez de Valdivia, E., Li, S., Reisenberger, J., Carlsen, E. M., Khan, Z., Hansen, N. O., Puhm, F., Sondergaard, L., Niemiec, J., Heninger, M., Ren, G. R. and Grimmelikhuijzen, C. J. (2013). Two types of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in Drosophila and other arthropods. Cell Mol Life Sci 70(17): 3231-3242. PubMed ID: 23604020
Jayakumar, S., Richhariya, S., Reddy, O. V., Texada, M. J. and Hasan, G. (2016). Drosophila larval to pupal switch under nutrient stress requires IP3R/Ca2+ signalling in glutamatergic interneurons. Elife 5 [Epub ahead of print] PubMed ID: 27494275
Malloy, C. A., Somasundaram, E., Omar, A., Bhutto, U., Medley, M., Dzubuk, N. and Cooper, R. L. (2019). Pharmacological identification of cholinergic receptor subtypes: modulation of locomotion and neural circuit excitability in Drosophila larvae. Neuroscience 411: 47-64. PubMed ID: 31102763
Qin, B., Humberg, T. H., Kim, A., Kim, H. S., Short, J., Diao, F., White, B. H., Sprecher, S. G. and Yuan, Q. (2019). Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor signaling generates OFF selectivity in a simple visual circuit. Nat Commun 10(1): 4093. PubMed ID: 31501438
Ren, G. R., Folke, J., Hauser, F., Li, S. and Grimmelikhuijzen, C. J. (2015). The A- and B-type muscarinic acetylcholine receptors from Drosophila melanogaster couple to different second messenger pathways. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 462(4):358-64. PubMed ID: 25964087
Rizzo, M. J., Evans, J. P., Burt, M., Saunders, C. J. and Johnson, E. C. (2018). Unexpected role of a conserved domain in the first extracellular loop in G protein-coupled receptor trafficking. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 503(3): 1919-1926. PubMed ID: 30064912
Silva, B., Molina-Fernandez, C., Ugalde, M. B., Tognarelli, E. I., Angel, C. and Campusano, J. M. (2015). Muscarinic ACh receptors contribute to aversive olfactory learning in Drosophila. Neural Plast 2015: 658918. PubMed ID: 26380118
date revised: 26 September 2019


text:
"It is more than sexual violence. We are fighting gender-based war," Egyptian women say - Daily News Egypt
In Focus "It is more than sexual violence. We are fighting gender-based war," Egyptian women say
Pin +1 WhatsApp Tweet Share Share Jobzella Email
"It is more than sexual violence. We are fighting gender-based war," Egyptian women say
50,000 women were killed last year at hands of intimate partners, family members: UN study
Fatma Lotfi December 3, 2018 Be the first to comment
In order to mark the International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women, a group of Egyptian women spoke out about their experiences and the forms of violence they face, or believe need more attention.
Women in the whole world struggle with various forms of gender-based violence. According to the World Health Organization, one in three women experience either physical or sexual violence, most likely from their intimate partners.
The types of violence do not just include sexual violence (sexual abuse, sexual harassment, rape, sexual exploitation) but also forced early marriage, domestic violence, marital rape, trafficking, and female genital mutilation (FGM).
According to the UN, 87% Egyptian girls and women, with ages ranging from 15 to 49, had been subjected to FGM starting from 2015.
The UN defines violence against women as "any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, or mental harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life."
Forms of violenceincluded economic, physical, psychological violence, which also have been reported among women and girls. According to a Daily News Egypt's poll, which included 70 Twitter users, on which of the previous forms of violence is the most prevalent in Egyptian society, 40% of people voted for the sexual violence option, 21% for physical violence, 27% for psychological violence, and 12% voted for economic violence.
Gender-based war
"The first thing comes to my mind when you say violence is how men treat women in a degrading manner in the streets and at work. This is a very violent act," Evangeline informed DNE. "Even when my male colleagues burden me with more tasks at work based on my gender, it is an act of violence," she added.
The young art director said that her male manager is "a mad and abusive man," adding that he bothers her whenever he gets a chance.
She continued, "He always tries to put me down. He does not come to work so I have to accomplish his tasks. However, this does not satisfy him but makes him angrier." She added that he sometimes tries to soften things up but eventually returns to his "annoying manners."
Evangeline mentioned that a clash between her and her manager recently erupted, after which she was fed up by his behaviour."He tried to hit me, and insulted and cursed me. However, my colleagues supported me. But they justified his behaviour by saying that when he comes face-to-face with a woman who is more skilled, or smarter than him, he feels his masculinity is threatened."
Furthermore, Evangeline believes that Egyptian men try at any chance they can to jostle women in lines or streets because they consider them weak. "We are still fighting a gender-based war. They want us to be jailed in our homes. But we will never be imprisoned. We have got some earnings, but the war is still ongoing."
Moreover, Evangeline said that Egyptian society asks of women to "remain silent because if she speaks up or fights for her rights people consider her ill-mannered."
"Men are afraid of their fake positions (in society). They are afraid of women's success. And if she's successful in her career this could threaten their position."
Rape, kidnapping among female refugees living in Egypt
"The term violence" became associated with rape incidents which female refugees are facing inside Egypt," said Menna, a case manager on gender-based violence for refugees, whose work depends for some time on gender-based violence.
Menna elaborated that, "most cases were rape incidents in the streets, or kidnapping in a microbus or even while at their workplace, as most of them are domestic workers."
Cases of domestic violence, physical violence, and honour killings are also reported, Menna added.
It is not just sexual violence, they harm you physically
On a daily basis, Egyptian women and girls face distinct forms of sexual violence in the streets of Egypt, in both public and private places, whether in transportation vehicles or in workplaces. It could be verbal or physical harassment, and sometimes escalating all the way to rape. Women are usually blamed by society for being subjected to such acts. They are accused of 'provoking' men via their outfits or actions.
"I regularly face sexual violence. A group of young men once passed by me in a car. One of them grabbed my arm and dragged me in the street, I could never forget this," said Heba, a journalist.
She said that she regularly faces similar situations, adding that once a sexual harasser threw a burning paper at her handbag. "This also includes verbal harassment, and curses due to your rejected outfit for them," Heba noted.
"Sexual harassment is not just about touching your body without your permission, or bothering you in the street. They intended to harm you physically," Heba concluded.
"He punches me in the face over a car accident"
"Five years ago, I had a car accident as my car collided with another one. The car's male driver got out of his vehicleand started shouting at me. He cursed me and opened my car as he wanted to take my keys by force. He then punched me in my face," Shereen recalled.
"I cried and screamed and people gathered to urge him to file a report at a police station, they said: you do not have the right to hit her," Shereen said.
However, she noted that she also filled a report over what he did, but nothing happened. "We paid him money for his car repair, but for me, nothing happened. He was not punished for what he did. And it took a month to recover from my severe injury," Shereen concluded.
Egyptian women drivers reported they face struggles on a daily basis in the streets, as male drivers consider them 'less skilled' than them because they are females.
"I always face difficult situations while driving in Cairo, from male drivers or the valet parking guards who are responsible for parking in streets. They force you to pay money in order to allow you to park your car. If you refuse they could smash your car," said Sarah. "I always think, if I was not a woman, would they behave the same way?"
About 87,000 women lost their lives in homicides
The UN's recent study in 2018 issued on the IDEVW, disclosed in a stark finding, a new report has unveiled that globally some 50,000 women were killed last year at the hands of intimate partners or family members, urging greater coordination between police, justice, and social systems to better protect women and girls.
Globally, about 87,000 women lost their lives in homicides (intentional killings) in 2017, according to the global study on homicide: the gender-related killing of women and girls, issued by the UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC).
Topics: sexual violence women
Fatma Lotfi
More in In Focus
More in Fatma Lotfi
Prices soar in Egypt, but people find ways to cope
Growing Ethiopian economy, yet facing political troubles, external risks
Libya Tajoura attack: Migrants caught up in spiral of violence
Warda case raises question: how the society sees sexual harassment?
Can homeschooling replace formal education in Egypt?
Discounting weight of crystal stones when returning jewellery disrupts Egyptian gold market
Sudanese protester shot dead as talks between TMC, opposition postponed
Sexual harassment at workplace: unprotected women
Sudan's protesters commemorate Khartoum sit-in dispersal's 40-day memory
EFA in hot water over Pharaohs AFCON elimination
Sudan power-share deal: international, local welcome
iSagha does not compete with gold companies, actually aims to maximise their sales: CEO
After appointing new female judge, will Egypt see more women in courts?
Algerian team came to Cairo to win AFCON title: Djamel Belmadi
Egypt, Uzbekistan study establishing pharmaceutical plant
Living Yards obtains ministerial approval for The Loft development
Nexign, Giza Systems agree to accelerate African telcos' digital transformation
https://cdn2.dailynewsegypt.com/2018/12/03/it-is-more-than-sexual-violence-we-are-fighting-gender-based-war-egyptian-women-say/
Story behind Egypt's National Day for Elimination of FGM
UN welcomes, supports Egypt efforts to end FGM
Say No to FGM: campaign calling for zero tolerance to FGM launched across Egypt
Trafficking cases as form of sexual exploitation, dropped to zero in Egypt: UNODC
Consumers are looking for smart home systems which save money, effort: Survey
Egypt among top 20 fastest-growing markets, if we want to grow, we need to invest in this country: Twitter's Middle East, North Africa managing director
Egyptian woman pioneers exposé of entrepreneurship ecosystem in Egypt
Egypt's GDP to grow by 34% if women get equal chance with men at work: Amin
Journey started from being violence victim, to suicidal, to becoming productive individual
MSF helps 157 women in South Sudan after 'dramatic increase' in sexual violence
How Egypt celebrates 16 days of activism against gender-based violence
Why world launches 16 days of activism against gender-based violence as of 25 November
Not By Force: online campaign combating marital rape
Video: Alcazar CEO reveals company's plans during The Solar Show MENA 2019
Exchange rate in banks More
highest rate to buy US Dollar
16.67 EGP June 27, 6:55 am
lowest rate to sell US Dollar
The United Bank
16.65 EGP July 4, 2:00 am
Abu Dhabi Islamic Bank June 26, 9:00 pm 16.67 16.76
The Hongkong And Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC) June 26, 9:00 pm 16.66 16.76
Egyption Gulf Bank June 26, 9:00 pm 16.66 16.76
Albaraka Bank June 26, 9:00 pm 16.66 16.76
Alexandria Bank June 26, 9:00 pm 16.65 16.75
Lazard to promote Egypt's investment opportunities
There will be no float of shares before mid-January 2019: Minister of Public Enterprise Sector
Pomegranate: one of Egyptians favourite winter fruits
Tweets by @DailyNewsEgypt
Young South Africans want to farm. But the system isn't ready for them
Changing dominant narrative of women on stage
Hamilton gives Trump facts about US history
Why AMF is a good idea and what can be done to get it going?
December 3, 2018 Breaking News