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"Drugs, Money, and Secret Handshakes" is one hundred power-packed pages from author Robin Feldman, the Arthur J. Goldberg Distinguished Professor of Law at the University of California Hastings. Feldman provided Outsourced Pharma a pre-publication copy of the book. Here's part one of my review.
How one biotech started with a list of 35 possible CDMOs and whittled that list down to two.
Today, the success of your programs has never been more contingent upon selecting and working effectively with your service partners. This is what our annual CMO Leadership Awards are all about.
Outsourced Pharma brought together a panel of experts at sponsor companies to discuss specifically how small biopharma can compete for attention at CDMOs.
Tim Scott, founder and CEO at both a CDMO and start-up biotech, maps out financial understanding for leaders of both approaches.
Outsourced Pharma Chief Editor Louis Garguilo continues his coverage of the current state of China pharma manufacturing by interviewing Diana Francis, VP of quality and compliance for BeiGene.
To get to a full digital dialogue that includes everything from AI to blockchain to machine learning, drug sponsors and CDMOs alike will need to muster their resources to usher in what the rest of the world already calls Industry 4.0.
"Basically, industry perceives, reports, and expects no major capacity crunches" related to global bioprocessing needs. So concludes an editor of BioPlan Associates, Inc.'s Fifteenth Annual Report and Survey of Biopharmaceutical Manufacturing Capacity and Production (April 2018), in a response to my recent editorial saying as much. Now we have the data to back the assertions up.
Lee Spach, Director, Global Product & Supply Chain Security, Biogen, says there are about 35,000 online pharmacies in the world. Ninety-eight percent are fake. They transact billions of dollars annually and seriously endanger patients. The criminals can expect a large return on their investment, with relatively little risk. Spach and Biogen are trying to change that. You can help.
President Clinton once said to reject permanent normal trade relations with China would be a mistake of hugely historic proportions. But years later will history judge "free" trade with China "a blunder of truly historic proportions from which America will never recover"? Enter Donald Trump. Our drug industry, dependent on China, should join the public discourse.
Louis Garguilo is chief editor and conference chair for Outsourced Pharma, and a contributing editor to Life Science Leader magazine. He studied public relations and journalism at Syracuse University (and holds a Master's in English), and has 30+ years of international experience in business communications and development positions. Louis spent a decade at a global pharmaceutical contract research, development and manufacturing organization; served under the governor of New York in the state's economic development agency, as liaison to the pharmaceutical/biotechnology industry; was chief strategic officer for an e-learning software company; and spent most of the '80s and '90s in Japan as an educator, author, and business communications consultant, including for the Osaka Medical Center for Cancer and Cardiovascular Diseases.


Acts 5-6: The expansion of the gospel.
February 14, 2015. Daily Reading: Matthew 14-16. Background: Matthew 11-13. Concepts and Connections. Chapter 14 1. Belief without faith: At the beginning of this chapter we gain an interesting perspective into the mind of Herod the tetrarch and can glean an important lesson about a characteristic of man that we might sometimes overlook in our own lives….
Let's study through the bible this year, shall we?
Jonah, Part 2: 4 Lessons.
The church of Christ, Part 2: Unifying Beliefs.
The Christian Virtues, Part 3: Knowledge.


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Home / Forums / Freedom of Information / General Discussion / Wikileaks /
This is why Wikileaks, et. al. & transparency is so important..
Discussion in 'Wikileaks' started by Anonymous, Mar 21, 2011.
Can't depend on government officials to do it for you... this is just sick... Drudge Report caption.. 'Military commanders brace for backlash.. White House works quietly to squelch."
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/art...ers-posing-partially-naked-Afghan-corpse.html
http://www.spiegel.de/fotostrecke/fotostrecke-65981.html
"This image shows the body of Gul Mudin, the son of a farmer, who was killed on Jan. 15, 2010. A member of the "kill team" is posing behind him. SPIEGEL published just three photos out of the some 4,000 images and videos it has seen."
http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,752310,00.html
Anonymous, Mar 21, 2011
1) You just quoted the Daily Fail. Your argument is inherently flawed therefore, otherwise a more worth-while news agency would cover the story.
2) "violence is feared in Afghanistan" - really? In a warzone? Shit. Wouldn't have seen that coming.
3) Meh.
Anonymous said: ↑
1. Every news agency is going to cover it.
2. But you already know about the existence of this sort of barbarism.
3. more happy puppy stories
3. ahem
The guardian and the washington post have reported about it too, though the WP article is gone for some reason.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/201...afghanistan-posed-pictures-murdered-civilians
"Anonymous said: ↑
Commanders in Afghanistan are bracing themselves for possible riots and public fury triggered by the publication of "trophy" photographs of US soldiers posing with the dead bodies of defenceless Afghan civilians they killed.
Senior officials at Nato's International Security Assistance Force in Kabul have compared the pictures published by the German news weekly Der Spiegel to the images of US soldiers abusing prisoners in Abu Ghraib in Iraq which sparked waves of anti-US protests around the world.
They fear that the pictures could be even more damaging as they show the aftermath of the deliberate murders of Afghan civilians by a rogue US Stryker tank unit that operated in the southern province of Kandahar last year. Some of the activities of the self-styled "kill team" are already public, with 12 men currently on trial in Seattle for their role in the killing of three civilians.
Five of the soldiers are on trial for pre-meditated murder, after they staged killings to make it look like they were defending themselves from Taliban attacks. Other charges include the mutilation of corpses, the possession of images of human casualties and drug abuse.
All of the soldiers have denied the charges. They face the death penalty or life in prison if convicted.
The case has already created shock around the world, particularly with the revelations that the men cut "trophies" from the bodies of the people they killed.
An investigation by Der Spiegel has unearthed approximately 4,000 photos and videos taken by the men. The magazine, which is planning to publish only three images, said that in addition to the crimes the men were on trial for there are "also entire collections of pictures of other victims that some of the defendants were keeping".
The US military has strived to keep the pictures out of the public domain fearing it could inflame feelings at a time when anti-Americanism in Afghanistan is already running high.
meh?
WhiteNight Member
WhiteNight, Mar 22, 2011
WhiteNight said: ↑
Only an American would show such callous disregard for human life.
Go ahead, wave that grand old rag...
Nice one Holmes, but I'm a Brit.
inb4 godwin
I totally agree. There is absolutely nothing new to see here in this specimen of the kind of inbreeding and bad crystal meth which seem to be endemic in the MatSu valley of Alaska.
I'd rather they do it there than do it here.
Meh, I don't care where they do it. I'd rather they hadn't, but the US military is dealing with it, the US public will probably shoot one another a bit more often for a while, and there's nothing Anon can (or will, probably) do to speed the court proceedings up or give them harsher sentances.
Whatever. Express suitable disgust and move on.
"Military men are dumb, stupid animals to be used as pawns for foreign policy"
- Herny Kissinger
over9000OT Member
over9000OT, Mar 22, 2011
eddieVroom Member
eddieVroom, Mar 22, 2011
Herro Member
Wait a minute, soldiers fighting in a war become dehumanized and completley dehumanize the enemy? This is truly unprecedented!
Herro, Mar 27, 2011
I'll just leave this here
http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/the-kill-team-20110327?page=1
anonymous612 Member
Herro said: ↑
NO WAY, RLY?
anonymous612, Mar 28, 2011
Smurf Member
Why am I not surprised? http://www.washingtontimes.com/blog...ill-team-brigade-commander-given-wrist-slap/#
The grunts go to jail and the officers overseeing them get simple reprimands. Only in the USA.
"One soldier said of a talk by Tunnell, "If I were to paraphrase the speech and my impressions about the speech in a single sentence, the phrase would be: 'Let's kill those motherfuckers.'"
http://militarytimes.com/blogs/outs...-brigade-commander-pushed-strike-and-destroy/
Smurf, Apr 5, 2011
FWIW, a letter of admonition to an Army officer is a lot more than a slap on the wrist. His career is over. I'm not saying that it's enough. I'm not saying that it's right. But a sense of scale may be worthwhile, no?
Oh... and it's a fucking war, by the way. Sometimes, it's time to kill motherfuckers. That's the way wars work. Odious, stomach-churning and soul-sucking... absolutely. But war nonetheless.
Anonymous, Apr 5, 2011
wars are carried out by states not by individuals. states shouldn't get to say 'kill motherfuckers' and just walk away. 'war is hell' is a bullshit excuse and you sound like you're intelligent enough to know it. U get a sense of scale.
Rockyj Member
National conference:
WikiLeaks, Journalism and Modern-Day Muckraking
Wikileaks has sent shockwaves through the diplomatic community worldwide, but it has also raised fundamental questions about how journalism is done in an age of digital whistleblowers and online leaks. From its partnership with legacy media organizations like the Guardian, Le Monde and the New York Times to First Amendment questions about reporting on confidential information, Wikileaks has forced journalists to rethink their roles and responsibilities in an age of radical transparency. However, the release of these documents has also reinvigorated the great journalistic tradition of muckraking, as thousands of journalists, citizens and nonprofits have pored over Wikileaks' documents. Complicating matters further, attempts by governments and corporations to silence and marginalize Wikileaks and moves by Amazon and major credit card companies to cut off the flow of funds raise concerns about the digital infrastructure that new journalism efforts rely on.
http://conference.freepress.net/session/502/wikileaks-journalism-and-modern-day-muckraking
Rockyj, Apr 7, 2011
Loki's spawn Member
An investigation by Der Spiegel has unearthed approximately 4,000 photos and videos taken by the men.
Yeah, that's a smart move. "Hey guise, let's do unspeakably evil things, and then document them extensively!"
/facepalm
Loki's spawn, Apr 7, 2011

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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Netflix strategies Juneteenth musical by Kenya Barris, Pharrell Williams
Exclusive: Netflix is in talks with "Black-ish" and "BlackAF" creator Kenya Barris and "Happy" singer Pharrell Williams to produce a characteristic-length musical about Juneteenth – the commemoration of the finish of slavery in the United States.
Deadline understands that the streamer and the pair are in the early levels of functioning up a system for the challenge, and aspects about storyline are less than wraps, while sources say it is a separate undertaking to the are living musical that they declared in 2018.
Williams will make this task with husband or wife Mimi Valdes along with Barris, who will develop by way of his creation organization Khalabo Ink Modern society.
Williams has just returned from his dwelling state of Virginia, where he introduced with Governor Northam that Juneteenth will be acknowledged as a compensated point out holiday getaway for the initial time in Virginia background.
At that celebration, Williams, who was nominated for an Academy Award for Finest Tune for "Despicable Me 2″'s "Happy" and for Greatest Photo for "Hidden Figures," which he was a single of the producers, explained that the transfer was a prospect for the govt, corporations and citizens to "stand in solidarity with their African American brothers and sisters."
"This 12 months, Juneteenth will seem like no other Juneteenth before it," he additional.
Virginia and New York joined Texas as the states that understand Juneteenth, which celebrates June 19, 1865, the day that Common Granger arrived in Galveston, Texas to announce that slaves had been now free of charge, as a point out getaway. Calls to make Juneteenth a federal vacation have enhanced above the past number of months adhering to the killing of George Floyd and the subsequent protests around police brutality and increasing dialogue around systemic racism in the nation.
See also 79% of New Yorkers open to homeschooling put up COVID-19: poll
Barris has also been vocal about his ambition to make Juneteenth a countrywide holiday break. His most recent collection "BlackAF," which launched on Netflix in April, highlighted a Juneteenth social gathering and his ABC comedy "Black-ish" committed a landmark episode to the vacation. That episode, which kicked off the show's fourth period, has been lauded for bringing even much more awareness to the date. It was rebroadcast by ABC on Blackout Tuesday. Barris has mentioned that it's a person of the most significant things that he's at any time labored on.
A variety of big Hollywood corporations including CAA, Endeavor, ICM, UTA, Gersh, APA, SAG-AFTRA, The Lede Company and R&C/PMK as perfectly as the likes of Spotify and Twitter have regarded Juneteenth and have made it an once-a-year paid getaway.
Barris is represented by Artists Very first and lawyer Gregg Gellman and Williams is repped by supervisor Ron Laffite and WME.
LI officers were being warned about fatal limo crash intersection: law firm
Extended Island officers were warned an incident was waiting around to occur...
United States: A member of the House of Representatives says Donald Trump's attempt to use fake voters in the last presidential election will be proven.
Unidentified Indonesians forced to dig graves for Kovid-19 victims
The Polish president blocked a controversial media law
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Julie and the Phantoms: Meet up with the Solid


I got home from Korea on July 2.
Safety // Before I left, I'd done a lot of research about what it was like to travel alone in Korea (and as a woman, to boot), and the overwhelming consensus was that it was extraordinarily safe. Having lived in big cities all of my adult life now, I thought I knew what this would mean, but boy was in for a pleasant surprise. In Korea, in my experience at least, worrying about your safety simply wasn't an issue. I can't really explain why or how the feeling of safety is different there, but last week as I walked Lucy around my neighborhood in the morning, I realized I felt less safe here in San Francisco than I did walking around at midnight, near Cheonggyecheon stream in the middle of Seoul, without knowing any Korean. There was a knot that loosened as you navigated Korea, whereas in other places I've traveled and lived, that nervous knot can tighten easily when you're out and about. It was interesting.
Anonymity // I should pause and note that maybe the feeling of safety is tied to the fact that for the first time in my life, I felt completely anonymous. I had heard from other adoptees—even other non-adopted Koreans—that being in a place where everyone is Asian would be a revelation. And guess what…it was! A lot of my friends back home in America have been very surprised by this, wondering, "Do you really feel like you stick out, even in California?" The answer is kinda, yes. Don't get me wrong, it's not like I feel singled out, or anything like that. One thing I love about living in California is the diversity; when I first moved to Los Angeles for college, I immediately noticed a shift in how I felt—and for the better. But while being treated differently is uncommon here in California, I do often feel aware of the fact that I'm not Caucasian. It's not an in-your-face awareness, or something that even nags at me constantly — it's just always there, in the tiniest doses. In Korea, wandering around and having no one give you a second glance, not even a micro-second recognition of your being Asian, was incredibly freeing.
Respect // I've always heard about the vast differences between altruistic cultures and our more individualistic culture here in America. But it's something to experience, that's for sure! While the differences have pros and cons in both places, one way it plays out in Korea (and from what others have told me, many other parts of Asia) is that there is a huge amount of respect for others as you navigate through the world. For example, someone in our tour group left their wallet in a cab and the driver drove back to our hotel hours and hours later to return it. That would be considered so kind here in the States, but there it was a pretty normal act. After I got over my initial fear, there was one day I was out at a cafe and I left my phone, backpack, and writing materials out on the table where I was enjoying some iced tea. I went to another, out-of-sight part of the cafe to order something else, then came back, and felt totally fine about it. It was unthinkable that anyone would take my stuff. I had read about this dynamic before going, but it was still such a refreshing thing.
Cleanliness! // Tied into the whole respect thing is that Seoul was the CLEANEST place I have ever visited! There is no trash on the streets, anywhere. And oddly, no trash cans either — people accumulate very little trash, and if they are out and about and have something to throw away, they carry it with them until they get home or to somewhere that has a trash can. It's amazing to me that with no trash cans, the city is so clean. You can often find underground public restrooms near subway stations, and those have nary a piece of toilet paper or wet paper towel anywhere. When we were driving through the country, we'd stop at these huge rest stops (which is a whole 'nother thing — rest stops in Korea are like malls!), and the bathrooms would be absolutely pristine. Everything in Korea was just so clean and tidy and as it should be. It was probably very bad before I left, but coming home to SF, I notice the trash EVERYWHERE now. And just how little regard people have for public spaces generally. It is the complete opposite there.
Elevators // This is a super random thing but most elevators in Korea allow you to "cancel" any buttons you've pushed. So if you're going to the 9th floor and you accidentally hit 8, you can hit it again and the elevator won't stop on that floor. This is the most obvious feature of an elevator and I have no idea why this isn't a required thing in the U.S. yet.
Skincare // This one I'm kind of conflicted about as I know there is a lot of criticism of Korean beauty standards and the culture around it. But being a total newbie to the whole K-beauty thing, I really enjoyed learning more about it and experiencing first hand just how massive the industry is there.
There are little beauty stores EVERYWHERE. Seriously. It feels like on every block there's a different store carrying skincare products from this brand or that. One thing that surprised me was how affordable it all was. You could walk into an Etude House (a very popular skincare brand in Korea) and buy a 20-pack of sheet face masks for less than $10USD. I was in Credo Beauty in SF the other day, and one Korean face mask was $11! Face masks are so cheap because a lot of people will use them several times a week, even daily. They're not a "treat yo-self" type thing like they are here.
I have also come to appreciate how many steps are involved in prepping your skin each morning and night. I've started to incorporate this into my own routine, and I don't mind the extra time it takes at all. It's something I look forward to — those few minutes where you can pamper yourself just a little bit and do something small to make yourself feel really good.
One thing that made me do a double take the first time I saw it is a lot of the treatments in Korea are labeled as "whitening." They mean this literally — the standard of beauty there is to have very pale skin. A few other gals on the trip noticed this too and we think the equivalent labels here might read "brightening." It made us reflect on our own culture back at home, as skincare products labeled as "whitening" would be a strange marketing choice, to say the least.
So those are some simple things I miss. Now, some deeper reflections.
…Wait, has it only been a month? It feels like days. No, years. Or…hours? Did it ever even happen?
The hardest and strangest part about "re-entry" into life post-Korea is trying to integrate everything you learned into whatever your story is going to be moving forward. I talk about "my mom" and clarify which one. I'm waiting for the first time someone asks me—after learning I am adopted—whether I've been back or if I've ever met my birth mother, and what that will feel like versus years of succinctly replying "No and no." Sometimes I'll tell Joe a story that begins with, "My sister said…" and he does a double take and has to shake himself into our new reality, because never in the years he's known me have these words come out of my mouth with any regularity (and as an only child, by this I mean NEVER).
Did I tell you had a sister? I have two, in fact. And four brothers. I found out about them back in May, and I'm sure it will take a minute for that to sink in on your side of the screen, because it's still sinking in for me.
Wednesday was my birthday. My first in this new post-trip, post-knowing life. It was the best birthday I have had in years. My family in Korea all messaged me happy wishes on the 31st, when it was already August 1st there. That was pretty cool. But more significant, this was the first birthday where I woke up and didn't think, "It's my birthday! At least…I think it is?" Before, you see, I'd never known if what was in my records was true and accurate.
In years past I would wonder if my birth mother would think about me on the day. I'd wonder what she'd gone through; what the labor was like; where she had given birth; who had been with her; was she okay after? What had happened to me in my first minutes in this life? Did she hold me? See me? Name me? Where had I gone in the days after I entered the world? I hadn't even been sure where I lived from the time I was born to the time I arrived in the U.S. at almost six months old.
So for my entire life, I have been floating around in these questions, untethered, unknowing, not realizing how aimless I really felt in my ignorance.
This year was different. Knowing was everything. It made me feel rooted, to my biological family, my adoptive family, humanity, the planet upon which we're flying through space.
But it also makes me feel guilty and sad and empathic for all the adoptees who are searching and will continue to do so. The Korean adoptee community is nothing if not supportive of wherever the journey leads each of us, but still, those feelings remain—so much do I care and hope for their outcomes, knowing what the struggle is like to not know.
The last month has been the most powerful emotional cocktail. I have been drunk off of it many days. But I'm also beginning to feel a joy and peace that I didn't know was possible in my life, and this has me feeling excited for everything to come.
Thank you for sharing your journey with us, and I am glad that your trip helped you with some of the questions you must have been dealing with for most of your life. I am sure it's been an "interesting" time, learning to live with even more duality, but hopefully you have more peace now.
This is so fascinating (and brave)— thank you for sharing. Happy birthday!
Ive heard Korea is so clean! Love that!
All of your posts about this journey make me cry. A happy cry though! :) I hope you had a great birthday!
I love this so much. The story of your trip to Korea is so personal – thank you for sharing it with us!
I've enjoyed the change of direction with this series. It's refreshing to read raw and authentic content for a change as a lifestyle blogger.


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El Teatre romà de Florència es trobava a Florència, sota l'edifici de l'Antic Palau de Gondi, el front de la càvea a la plaça della Signoria i l'escena al llarg de la plaça San Firenze i Via dei Leoni. Les primeres excavacions del teatre es van fer l'any 1876. L'edifici, que data del , tenia capacitat per a 15.000 espectadors.

Teatres romans d'Itàlia

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Heaven's Table – Personal views and experiences` on faith, food, and fashion, from a Christian's perspective.
Over the last several years I have found myself sharing personal stories and information with my loved ones. Normally this exchange happened in the midst of face to face conversations, however a great deal of exchanges happened via some rather long text and multimedia messages. No matter what the content, my friends and family would tell me one of two things: 1) "Why is all of this in such a long text form?!? It's too much," and 2) This needs to be in written form, like a blog or something." And so, here we are, 2017 and I'm finally able to launch a blog to contain the topics that are especially near and dear to me.
Heaven's Table is a place where I can not only share my personal experiences and takes on the topics of Faith, Food and Fashion, but also a place where I would love to hear from the readers of this blog and get their take on these subjects. Essentially, we're gathered around a grand table, sharing information with one another. GOD created mankind to be helpers one to another, and it is my prayer that this blog does just that.


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Will try to run bullet train in Gujarat by August 2027: NHSRCL MD
The managing director of National High-Speed Rail Corporation Limited, Rajendra Prasad, on Wednesday said that the company will try to run bullet trains in Gujarat by August 2027.
ETInfra
2022 has been a turning point in the development of Mumbai-Ahmedabad bullet train project, says JICA's Chief India Representative SAITO Mitsunori
The most high-profile of JICA's ongoing engagement in India's infrastructure sector is the Mumbai–Ahmedabad High Speed Rail Project. Mitsunori outlined that 2022 has been the turnaround year for the ambitious project, especially in Maharashtra, where the project had faced land acquisition challenges.
Bullet Train project: Maharashtra goverment's acquisition process for Vikhroli land malafide, says Godrej & Boyce
The state's conduct in the acquisition process for its land at Vikhroli for the Bullet Train project is "dishonest and malafide", said Godrej & Boyce in a rejoinder before the Bombay high court on Thursday.
Godrej & Boyce creating unnecessary hurdles in land acquisition for bullet train project: Maharashtra government to HC
A division bench of Justices Nitin Jamdar and Sharmila Deshmukh was hearing a petition filed by Godrej & Boyce Manufacturing Co Ltd challenging an order of September 15, 2022 passed by the state government awarding compensation to it for land acquisition for the project.
Bullet train will be fast-tracked: Deputy chief minister Devendra Fadnavis to Japan officials
Deputy chief minister Devendra Fadnavis has assured the consul general of Japan in Mumbai, Fukahori Yasukata, of fast-tracking infrastructure projects such as the bullet train, funded by Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA).
ET Online
Mumbai-Ahmedabad bullet train project gets clearance from Maha govt
The 508-km Mumbai-Ahmedabad high-speed corridor is being built at an estimated cost of Rs 1.1 trillion and will have 12 stations in Maharashtra and Gujarat, as per a report by news agency PTI.
Railways terminates services of NHSRCL MD and bullet train project head Satish Agnihotri
Rajendra Prasad, Director, Projects, National High Speed Rail Corporation Limited(NHSRCL) has been handed over the charge temporarily, the officials said.
Hope to achieve target of operating 1st bullet train in 2026: Railway Minister Vaishnaw
There has been good progress in the construction of infrastructure for the bullet train between Ahmedabad and Mumbai, and the work is being done at a high speed.
Zetwerk to supply 10,000 mt fabricated girders for the bullet train project
Zetwerk Manufacturing will supply 10,000 MT fabricated girders for the Mumbai - Ahmedabad Bullet Train project being executed by National High Speed Rail Corporation Ltd, the company said.
Centre, Maharashtra govt clash on bullet train eco zone
The state and the Centre are in yet another dispute, this time over the bullet train project. The matter of contention is: How much area in Mumbai and Thane along the proposed route should be notified as eco-sensitive zones (ESZs)?.
Vande Bharat Express gave boost to Make in India initiative, says report
The Vande Bharat Express, India's first semi high-speed inter-city EMU, was initially operated only on two routes. It was designed and manufactured in accordance with the Make in India initiative over a span of 18 months, writes a Saudi publication
89% of land needed for bullet train project acquired, says Railway Minister
Out of total the 1,396 hectares of land required for MAHSR project, about 89 per cent, approximately 1,248 hectares, has been acquired, he noted. In Mahrashtra, 68.65 per cent out of total 297.81 hectares needed for the project has been acquired, he stated.
Delhi-Varanasi High Speed Rail Corridor: Board bullet train every 22 mins from 2029
The Avadh crossing in the state capital that connects expressway and highway with city is also likely to be the pit stop for the 'Bullet Train' planned to start cruising on the Delhi-Varanasi High Speed Rail Corridor (DVHSR) by 2029.
Japanese PM's India visit to give push to bullet train project
Japanese PM Fumio Kishida's proposed short trip to India on March 19-20 will give a much-anticipated push to the Mumbai-Ahmedabad high speed "Shinkansen" bullet train project, which has been delayed due to land acquisition issues
PM bats for early completion of Mumbai-Ahmedabad bullet train project
Prime Minister Narendra Modi has pushed for early completion of the Mumbai-Ahmedabad high-speed rail project and said his government's focus is on creating infrastructure for the 21st century in the financial capital.
Indian Railways proposes Nagpur to Mumbai via bullet train
Union minister of state for railways Raosaheb Danve on Saturday said the development project report (DPR) of the high-speed connectivity project would be ready by February-end
Why the bullet train project has moved at slow speed
With deadlines having been twice deferred, the latest one set for completion of the first phase of the project – a 50 km stretch between Surat and Bilimoria in Gujarat – is 2026
Bids invited for construction of 21km tunnel for Mumbai-Ahmedabad bullet train
NHSRCL has invited bids for the tunnelling work , which will include a 7-km-long undersea tunnel to be built using Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) and New Austrian Tunnelling Method (NATM), a spokesperson said
Mumbai: Bullet train underground station stuck over land delay
The land pocket of 4.2 hectares (ha) at BKC was allotted by the state government to NHSRCL on February 26, 2018 , with the condition that the feasibility of the proposed International Finance and Service Centre (IFSC) should not be compromised.
Travel between Delhi and Ayodhya at 'bullet speed' to be reality soon
The train travel time that takes around 11-12 hours at present will get reduced to 3 hours once the Delhi–Varanasi High-Speed Rail (DVHSR) project gets ready


ARPA Journal is a forum for debates on what is applied research in architecture. We celebrate contemporary research projects, and scrutinize the ethical implications of techniques of inquiry to examine their ethical stance and spark ideas for their potential transformation. If the term 'applied research' conventionally describes a practice adulterated by practical concern or funding bias, ARPA Journal asks how research can embrace its entangled nature.
ARPA Journal is published two times a year. Each issue focuses on a technique or protocol of research.


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Relationships between leaf anatomy, morphology, and water use efficiency in Aloe vera (L) Burm f. as a function of water availability
Herman SilvaI, *; Susana SagardiaI; Mauricio OrtizI; Nicolás FranckI; Marcela OpazoI; Madeleine QuirozI; Cecilia BaginskyI; Cristián TapiaII, *
ILaboratorio Relación Suelo Agua Planta, Facultad de Ciencias Agronómicas, Universidad de Chile, Santa Rosa 11.315, La Pintana, Casilla 1004, Santiago, Chile
IILaboratorio de Operaciones Unitarias, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Chile, Sergio Livingstone 1007, Independencia, Santiago, Chile
The effects of water availability were evaluated on the photosynthetic tissue anatomy in Aloe vera(L) Burm f. and its relationship with morphological, physiological parameters, and water use efficiency as a function of aerial biomass and gel production. Plants were subjected to four levels of water availability equivalent to 20% (T1), 15% (T2), 10% (T3), and 5% (T4) of the atmospheric evaporative demand. The plants exhibited anatomical, morphological, and physiological responses to the different watering treatments. The extreme treatments produced negative responses due to excess water in T1 and water deficit in T4. Treatments T2 and T3 elicited positive responses in cell characteristics and productivity. Anatomical and structural characteristics were closely linked to physiology. Increased stomata number was negatively related to leaf length, width, and thickness (r = -0.85, -0.81, and -0.59, respectively) and to biomass production (r = -0.84), and positively related to the increase of cuticle thickness (r = 0.78). Treatment T2 showed the maximum efficiency of water use for biomass production (24.6 g L-1), which was closely related to cell size (r = 0.68) and number of stomata (r = -0.70).
Keywords: Anatomical adaptations; Biomass production; Growth; Stomata
Some plant species possess specific pathway of carbon fixation that allow them to survive and even grow under conditions of severe water stress. The best known are the crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plants, particularly the species of the genera Opuntia, Agave, and a liliaceous species, Aloe vera. Most of the anatomical and morphological studies of CAM plants have been descriptive and make little mention of the water relationships and gas exchange, except for the work of Nobel (1980), Herrera et al. (2000), Nelson et al. (2005), and Herrera (2009). Although CAM species exhibit great variability in structure, adaptation to stressful environments, and in CAM metabolism expression (Borland and Taybi 2004), they share characteristics that reflect enhanced drought tolerance (Nelson et al. 2005). These plants are characterized by the maintenance of a favorable water state through their ability to minimize transpiration by closing their stomata during the day and opening them at night when the vapor pressure deficit is low (Pierce et al. 2002; Caird et al. 2007).
Another common feature of CAM plants is succulence, characterized by cells with large vacuoles, called hydrenchyma. Succulence is more frequently found in xeric than in mesic CAM species (Borland et al. 2009), which further contributes to water use efficiency (Borland et al. 2009; Herrera et al. 2008). Compared to C3 and C4 species, CAM plants characteristically have lower stomatal density which is modified by plant water availability (Silva et al. 2001). In many cases, water restrictions reportedly reduce the number of stomata (Silva and Acevedo 1984; Silva et al.1999, 2001). The frequency is regulated by asymmetric division of epidermal cells and cell-to-cell signals that determine where the epidermal cell should undergo a new asymmetric division (Bergman and Sack 2007; Nadeau 2009). Plant water status may also be a signal that can modify gene expression to control the frequency at which epidermal cells undergo this asymmetric cell division. Guard cell size may also be modified by water restriction (Nadeau 2009).
The leaf of CAM species may be divided into two principal parts, the grey-green external area including from the cuticle to the vascular bundles on both the abaxial and adaxial surfaces, and a clear internal zone comprising cells with large vacuoles containing the gel or hydrenchyma.
The mesophyll has chloroplasts, making it a photosynthetically active tissue, and it can directly influence CO2 capture due to its effects on diffusive resistance (Nobel 1999). The intercellular air space (IAS) (Nelson et al. 2005) is the proportion of photosynthetic tissue that acts as the effective surface for CO2 diffusion, and it affects photosynthesis and water use efficiency (Evans et al. 1994; Warren 2008).
In plants, water loss can be reduced by increased wax deposition in the cuticle, a reduced number of stomata per unit area, the presence of trichomes, reduction in leaf size, and by the disposition of leaves with respect to the incident radiation (Nobel 1995). In CAM plants, water loss is reduced by the nocturnal CO2 uptake with an efficient synthesis of sugars and osmolytes which allow water retention (Borland et al. 2009). However, the cuticle may also contribute to the energy balance due to the reduction of net radiation and increase of reflectance. Variations in the anatomy of gas exchange tissues such as the thickness of the mesophyll and cuticle, cell dimensions, and the relation between the cell wall surfaces of the chlorenchyma and the external surface (Ames/A) all function as adaptations to hot and dry climates (Nobel et al. 1975; Nobel1980; Silva et al. 2001). A. vera L. is a perennial liliaceous plant with succulent green leaves joined at the steam in a whorled pattern. It is highly appreciated due to its short growth period and high economic value among all the aloe species and is used in pharmaceutical, folk medicine, healthcare, cosmetic products, and food products (Reynolds and Dweek 1999). This plant is different from other CAM species because it is a native of the semitropical regions of South Africa (Cowling 1982). Thus, the behavior of such plants cultivated under a semiarid environment may be different from that of the native species. We postulate that water availability induces anatomical and morphological changes that help to maintain the water use efficiency in A. vera. Our objective was to determine the effect of the four levels of water availability on the anatomy of the photosynthetic tissue of A. vera and its relation with water use efficiency.
Materials and study site
The trial was performed during the 2006 to 2007 season in the Campo Experimental Las Cardas, located in the community of Coquimbo, Region IV of Chile, at about 31° south latitude. The area has an arid Mediterranean climate, with a water deficit of 94% per year and a dry season of 10 months. The mean maximum temperature of the warmest month is 29°C; no freezes occur. The soil is Tambillo Series; the site has a slight inclination (1% to 2%) with micro-relief and abundant pebbles on the surface and in the soil (50%). The soil texture in profile is sandy loam. The N level is low, while the levels of P and K are normal for this type of soil (Aburto et al. 2008; INIA 2010).
Field experiment and experimental design
In May 2006, approximately 3-year-old plants were established at a density of 6,666 plants ha-1. The border of the plantation was 1 × 1.5 m, giving a total area of 720 m2.
The experimental design was completely randomized blocks with four block irrigation treatments randomized with four replications. The experimental unity was a plot of 45 m2, with five rows and six plants per row.
Irrigation treatments
Based on previous information regarding the atmospheric evaporative demand at the experimental site, the available metabolic information about the species (Genet and Van Schooten 1992), and the water retaining characteristics of the soil, we designed four irrigation treatments representing 20% (T1), 15% (T2), 10% (T3), and 5% (T4) of the reference evapotranspiration (ETo). An irrigation system was installed with independent electrical valves for each water treatment, along with a volumetric water meter to quantify each applied amount. Drip irrigation was used, with a double drip line for each row of plants. For treatments T1, T2, T3, and T4, respectively, an emission flow of 4 L h-1 was applied for 60, 45, 30, and 15 min to deliver 8, 6, 4, and 2 L h-1. Irrigation was performed every 7 days during of greatest atmospheric evaporative demand (no precipitation) from October to May.
Histological studies
At the end of the experimental period, histological studies of photosynthetic tissue were performed, measuring both abaxial and adaxial tissues. Histological studies of photosynthetic tissue were performed at the end of the experimental period, measuring both abaxial and adaxial tissues. Samples from eight individuals per each treatment were taken with a 0.5-cm-diameter punch, sampling both sides of the central part of the leaf simultaneously. After elimination of the central (gel-containing) portion separating the surfaces, four sections per treatment were fixed in 2.5% glutaraldehyde in 0.1 M phosphate buffer at pH 7.2 for scanning electronic micrographs, and four sections per treatment were fixed in 3% 0.1 M glutaraldehyde buffer phosphate at pH 4.3 and 1% OSO4 for transmission electronic micrographs.
Histological slices (9 µm) were made by hand using a razor blade or using a freezing microtome (n = 20 per treatment). Slices were fixed in epoxy resin or paraffin, stained with toluidine blue, and used to analyze transverse and tangential sections. Slices were mounted on slides, and measurements were made using a light microscope with an ocular micrometer (Lam Research Corporation, Fremont, CA, USA; Bosch Company, Stuttgart, Germany). Tangential sections were used to measure the density (N° mm-2) and dimensions (µm) of the occlusive cells. Transverse sections were used to measure the dimensions of epidermal cells, length and width of chlorenchyma cells, thickness of the mesophyll (between the limits of the epidermis and the beginning of the hydrenchyma) on both leaf surfaces, thicknesses of the cuticle and epidermis, and the distance between vascular bundles (all in µm). A succulence index was estimated as the fresh leaf weight divided by total area, expressed in grams per square centimeter. Using digitalized images, the proportion of IAS was measured in the photosynthetic tissue on both sides of the leaf as follows: Proportion of intercellular space = Intercellular area/Mesophyll area, expressed as a percentage of the photosynthetic tissue (Nelson et al. 2005).
Growth, photosynthetic area, aerial biomass production, and gel
At the end of the experimental period, we measured the length, width, and thickness of adult leaves and calculated the leaf volume according to the method of Rodríguez-García et al. (2002). In 10 leaves per treatment, photosynthetic area was measured, using a Li-6200 measurer (LI-COR Biosciences - Biotechnology, Lincoln, NE, USA) and multiplied by 2 to account for both leaf surfaces. We also measured total fresh weight, sectioned the leaves to separate, and measured the fresh weight of the gel and photosynthetic tissue.
According to Silva et al. (2010), five leaf harvests were conducted during the experiment (in February, June, July, September, and December 2007), with 10 leaves selected per treatment (one per plant) from the peripheral part of the plants. The leaves were collected by cutting the plant with a basal area of insertion, without destroying the tissue, and the collected leaves were placed in a cooler. The total fresh weight was measured. Then, the leaves were filleted to remove the gel from the photosynthetic tissue, and the samples were weighed separately on aluminum trays. Samples were then dried in an oven at 70°C to until reaching a constant weight. The photosynthetic tissue was the material remaining after gel extraction. The water use efficiency (WUE) was calculated for each harvest as the quotient of leaf biomass production or gel production and the total water applied per treatment, expressed in grams per liter. WUE was also calculated based on dry weight.
Analyses of variance (ANOVA) were performed for histological variables, after checking normality and variance homoscedasticity assumptions, with the InfoStat software (Di Rienzo et al. 2013). When significant differences among treatment means were found, these were compared with Tukey's test (P < 0.05). To explore the association between the histological observations, growth, photosynthetic area, aerial biomass and gel production, and water use efficiency variables, and their behavior in the different water treatments, a principal components analysis (PCA) was performed with the InfoStat software (Di Rienzo et al. 2013).
The transversal section of an A. vera leaf showed well-defined limits, enabling the separation of the hydrenchyma in the median zone from the mesophyll associated with the abaxial and adaxial epidermis. The succession of tissues to the abaxial surface included an epidermis with a thick external cell wall covered by a layer of cuticle, followed by two cell layers that could be called an exodermis (Figure 1a,b) except that they contained chloroplasts and thus were considered an assimilating tissue or chlorenchyma. There was a gradual increase of the cell size, which reached a maximum in the median zone of the mesophyll and then diminished towards the interior, forming about four compact cell layers. These layers ended in the vascular bundles, which represented the limit separating the mesophyll from the hydrenchyma or gel (Figure 1a,b). Tukey's test indicated variability in all observed parameters among treatments and minor variability between abaxial and adaxial surfaces except for stomatal density and cuticle thickness (Table 1; Figure 1c,d).
Figure 1 Optical microscopy of a cross section of Aloe vera. Mesophyll cells, vascular bundles, and hydrenchyma in (a) T1 and (b) T2 plants (×280). (c) The epidermis, a stomatal complex, the substomatal chamber, and mesophyll cells (×1,120). (d) The cuticle and the stomatal complex (×1,500).
Table 1 Average values of cuticular thickness, stomatal density, and sizes of occlusive cells and ostioles by treatment in abaxial and adaxial leaf surfaces of A. vera(n = 20)
Values with different letter designations in the same column and surface are significantly different (P < 0.05).
Cuticle, epidermis, and stomata
Both leaf surfaces were grey-green in color, glabrous, and without trichomes. The cuticle layer thickness did not allow visualization of either the epidermic cells or the stomata (Figure 2c,d); this was achieved with successive tangential cuts that eliminated the cuticle and exposed the spatial relation of the occlusive cells with the subsidiary and epidermal cells (Figure 2e,f). Both leaf surfaces had a thick cuticle layer that increased the water loss resistance of the leaves and stomata (Figure 1c,d). Table 1 shows the cuticle thickness with slightly greater mean values for the abaxial epidermis. T4 plants had a greater cuticle thickness, with a mean of 18.7 µm compared to 13.24 µm in T1 (Table 1). This suggests that the plants reacted to the greatest water stress (5% of the atmospheric evaporative demand) by forming a thicker cuticle layer, which contributed to their survival. The cuticle layer was interrupted only at the level of stomata, and cuticular extension was observed even at the bottom of the guard cells (Figure 1c,d). The A. vera plants were amphistomatic (Table 1), having stomata in both the abaxial and adaxial epidermis, which is a characteristic of CAM plants.
Figure 2 Scanning electron micrographs of leaves. Cross and tangential sections of the abaxial surface of leaves from (a) T2 and (b)T4 plants, with arrows indicating a stoma on the leaf surface (×300). The tangential section also shows the mesophyll tissue (Me) and epidermis-cuticle (Ep). Images of the stomata of leaves of (c) T2 and (d) T4 plants, showing the difference in the amount of epidermal wax surrounding the stomata of the two plants; arrows indicate the ostioles (OS) of the stomata (×1,500). (e, f) Close-up images of stomata, showing guard cells (GC) and ostioles (Os).
In both abaxial and adaxial epidermis, T4 plants had the largest number of stomata per unit area: 30.8 ± 1.04 mm-2, which was 42% greater than the 20.8 ± 0.44 stomata mm-2 observed in T1 plants. There was a strong inverse correlation between density and water availability (r = -0.87). These findings may be explained by the smaller size of the epidermal cells in T4 plants, which resulted in a greater number of stomata per unit area. However, the occlusive cells increased in length and decreased in width; therefore, there was no correlation between the decrease of epidermal cell sizes and occlusive cell sizes. The mean distance between stomata was 110 ± 11.7 µm in T4 plants (data not shown) and ranged from 130 to 154 µm in the other treatments. Therefore, the spatial distribution in T4 was 30% lower than the values for the other treatments.
The dimensions of the occlusive cells of the abaxial surface also differed among treatments; in T1 plants, these cells were 52.2 ± 1.3 by 52.1 ± 0.6 µm (an isodiametric shape), while the dimensions in T4 plants were 55.2 ± 0.72 by 49.6 ± 1.33 µm (rectangular). Similar values were found for the adaxial side (Table 1). The ostiole lengths were similar among the treatments, except for T3 abaxial side, whose mean 297 value was 32.6 µm. However, the ostiole width was significantly smaller in T4 compared to in other treatments. Ostiole width was 6.2 ± 0.25 µm in T1 and 3.2 ± 0.22 µm in T4, showing a 50% decrease and representing about 8% of the total stoma width, which seems to indicate that the stomata were nearly closed or closed in T4.
Mesophyll, cell dimensions, and intercellular spaces
The two leaf surfaces were analyzed separately for variations in the mesophyll thickness. From T2 to T4, increasing water deficit decreased the mesophyll thickness in both abaxial and adaxial surfaces, with the abaxial mesophyll being 28% less in T3 than T2 and 33% less in T4 than T2 (Tables 2 and 3). However, greater water availability did not assure larger mesophyll cell dimensions, as this thickness increased from T1 to T2 (significantly for the adaxial surface; P < 0.05) (Table 2). The maximum thickness was 1,827 µm observed in the adaxial surface of T2 plants, compared to 1,327 µm in T4 plants; a similar effect was found in the abaxial surface. The total mesophyll thickness at the leaf level was 3.4 in T2 and 2.9 mm in T4 (Table 3). All of these results are in agreement with WUE, as recently reported by Silva et al. (2010).
Table 2 Epidermis and mesophyll thickness, photosynthetic cell size, and percent intercellular space by treatment in abaxial and adaxial leaf surfaces of A. vera(n = 20)
Table 3 Average values of leaf thickness, mesophyll thickness, hydrenchyma width, and percent intercellular spaces by treatment (n = 30)
Values with different letter designations in the same column are significantly different (P < 0.05).
The IAS was significantly smaller for T4 plants, with the abaxial surface reduced by 50% and the adaxial surface reduced by about 30% compared to in T1 and T2. Table 2 presents values based on measurements of the mesophyll in the area with the largest cells, which are probably the cells with the greatest photosynthetic activity. These cell lengths varied from 111.2 to 163 µm and the widths from 65 to 76 µm. There were significant differences among treatments (Table 2); T2 plant cells were 34% and 43% larger than the cells of treatments T3 and T4, respectively. The adaxial surface mesophyll thickness was 100 µm greater in T2 plants compared to T1 due to the larger size of the photosynthetic cells. The smaller cell size in T4 plants was also responsible for the smaller intercellular spaces at the leaf level compared to in the other treatment groups (Table 2). The hydrenchyma thickness was also variable; T2 plants had a mean thickness of 18.14 mm, 32% greater than in T4 plants (12.38 mm). These treatment-related differences in A. vera were statistically significant (P < 0.05) (Table 3).
The vascular bundles were observed to be similar to those in C4 plants, showing a cluster of cells surrounding the xylem and phloem, with excess mechanical tissue (probably collenchyma). The outer cells formed a bundle of sheath cells, similar to those that formed the hydrenchyma (Figure 1a,b). The greatest distance between vascular bundles was observed in the most irrigated plants, with a significantly higher number of vascular bundles per unit area in the less irrigated plants. Figure 1a,b shows the effects of treatment on the number of vascular bundles, with the number of cells separating the beams ranging from 2 to 3 cells in T4 plants to 8 to 9 cells in T2 plants. The vascular bundles and the cells between vascular bundles (similar to the exodermis) represent the boundary between the mesophyll and hydrenchyma (Figure 1a,b).
T2 plants had the greatest production of total green biomass, followed by the plants of T3, T1, and T4. The slope of the biomass produced per quantity of water applied corresponded to WUE; thus, the greatest WUE values were those of the T2 and T3 plants (24.5 and 15.6 g L-1, respectively) while the lowest values were those of the T4 and T1 plants (10.9 and 10.8 g L-1, respectively). Similar results were found regarding gel production. As expected, lower water availability negatively influenced the WUE in T4 plants due to deficit. In contrast, water supply equalling 20% of the evaporative atmospheric demand negatively influenced the WUE value due to water excess. Watering to produce 15% of ETo proved to be the minimum quantity of water required to obtain the maximum aerial biomass production. Similar to the above results, the linear relation between the gel produced and the water utilized during the experimental period varied as a function of water availability; the slopes represent the WUE for gel production per unit quantity of water applied by plant. The least efficient treatments were the extremes, T1 and T4. The maximum gel production was observed in the T2 plants, followed by T3 plants (17.7 and 13.1 g L-1, respectively); the differences were not significant. The amounts of water applied in these cases were close to the minimum to achieve maximum gel production in these edaphoclimatic conditions (Silva et al. 2010).
Principal component analysis (Figure 3) showed the effect of water treatments on the photosynthetic tissue anatomy of the abaxial surface and its relationship with morphological and physiological parameters, which explained 86% of the total variation. Of the 25 responses, 22 were positively and only 3 negatively associated with water treatments. The analysis determined that eight anatomical parameters were associated with T2, twelve with T1, one with T3, and two with T4. The most important variables for T2 plants were mesophyll thickness (MT), length of photosynthetic cells (FCL), ostiole length (OL), succulence index (Suc index), and total biomass (Tbiomass); all with values of r > 0.70 (vector length Figure 3); the least important were basal leaf thickness (BT leaf) and epidermis thickness (EpT). The variables with greatest correlation for T1 and T3 were leaf basal width (BWleaf), stoma width (stmW), photosynthetic cell width (FCW), and ostiole width (OW). The effect of the low water availability in T4 was positively and significantly associated with stoma number (stmN°, r = 0.86), the stoma length, (StmL, r = 0.75), and cuticle thickness (CT, r = 0.82), and negatively associated with parameters of growth and productivity (Figure 3).
Figure 3 Principal component analysis showing the relationships between anatomy, morphology, and WUE in A. vera. T1 to T4, treatments; CT, cuticle thickness; stmN°, stomata number; stmL, stomata length; stmD, distance between stomata; stmW, stomata width; OW, ostiole width; OL, ostiole length; EpT, epidermis thickness; MT, mesophyll thickness; VD, distance between vascular bundles; FCW, photosynthetic cells width; FCL, photosynthetic cells length; BWleaf, leaf basal width; BTleaf, leaf basal thickness; LeafVol, leaf volume; LA, leaf area; FW, leaf fresh weight; Suc index, succulence index; DWleaf, leaf dry weight; Tbiomass, total biomass; WUE, water use efficiency.
Our results show that A. vera showed a great variability in the evaluated morphological and physiological traits in response to different irrigation levels. By considering the entire system, our results enable the establishment of relationships among drought tolerance, yield, and water use efficiency. We found that morphological and anatomical changes observed in A. vera plants contributed to increasing WUE. CAM plants generally exhibit improved survival under low water conditions due to increased WUE and succulence, which delay dehydration; these structural characteristics make them more adaptive to drought and, at the same time, able to produce a high yield in biomass, grains, or fruits of good quality. Drought tolerance appears to be an important characteristic of A. vera. The low-water treatments in this study triggered the development of the cell wall cuticle layer, which grew thicker with less water availability. Plants typically react to extreme water stress by favoring photosynthetic tissue maintenance and producing less gel to accumulate water (Silva et al. 2010). In our study, the T4 plants (irrigated with 5% of the 395 ETo) only showed apical necrosis of the leaves.
Biomass decreased significantly under water stress (P < 0.05), tending to coincide with increased WUE. In five evaluations during the experimental period, Silva et al. (2010) reported a seasonal relationship between leaf biomass and gel produced and the amount of water used for production; their data indicated that total aerial biomass production is a function of water availability, with more water producing more aerial biomass. In each case, there was a linear relationship between the variables, but the slopes differed. In the present study, reduced growth was observed at both extremes of the range of water treatments at T1 due to excess water and at T4 due to a lack of water which is typical of CAM plants (Silva and Acevedo 1995, Silva et al. 2010). The T2 plants had the maximum green biomass yield, corresponding with the observed larger cell size of the photosynthetic tissue in these plants. This maximum green biomass yield is also in agreement with the IAS since the intercellular spaces were larger in T2 plants than in T3 and T4 plants. This finding indicates greater CO2 uptake in the T2 plants, favoring a higher WUE. A high WUE is often associated with a lower growth rate and yield; however, our results show that in A. vera, a high WUE can be associated with high green biomass productivity (Silva et al. 2010).
The stomata of A. vera were parallelocytic and polycyclic which is characteristic of monocot plants, such as barley (Zeiger 1972) and onion (Zeiger and Cardemil 1973). The ostiole was surrounded by two occlusive cells that were, in turn, surrounded by three layers of subsidiary cells. The stomata were at the same level as the epidermal cells. The main variation found to be associated with water deficit was that the cuticular layer, which covered the cell walls homogeneously, reaching the border of the ostiole opening. The occlusive cell length in the abaxial epidermis also changed with water treatment, increasing slightly but significantly from 52.77 µm in T1 to 55.29 µm in T4. These cells also exhibited a width reduction, suggesting that the stomata were almost closed or totally closed in T4 compared to T1. However, our group recently demonstrated that A. vera plants subjected to 3 months of severe water deficit still open the stomata at night because the sap of these plants flows at a rate that is 10% of the flow rate of plants under normal irrigation (Delatorre-Herrera et al. 2010). The sap flow rate directly depends on the stomatal opening (Medrano et al. 2007). The comparison of the evaluated parameters showed few differences between the two leaf surfaces, except for the occlusive cell lengths and widths; these were slightly longer and narrower on the adaxial surface and shorter and wider on the abaxial surface, indicating higher stomata resistance. This difference probably occurs because the plants receive more solar radiation on the adaxial than the abaxial surface.
The number of stomata per unit area is a genetic characteristic, with differences associated with different metabolic pathways. CAM plants generally have a lower stomata density compared to C3 and C4 plants (Hernández et al. 2007; Silva and Acevedo 1984). In A. vera, several cellular mechanisms may account for changes in stomata density, including altered expansion of pavement cells, changes in the number of entry and amplifying divisions in the stomatal lineage, and the arrest or dedifferentiation of meristemoids (Bergman and Sack 2007). The partial pressure of CO2 also reportedly regulates stoma density at the gene level (Heterington and Woodward 2003; Nadeau 2009). The present study showed that water availability was another environmental factor that regulated stoma density, which may be explained by the spatial relationships between stomata, subsidiary, and epidermal cells when cell size was reduced. Stomatal and epidermal cells are produced by a series of asymmetric divisions and cell transitions within cell lineages, with specific genes regulating the initiation of new stomata by asymmetric divisions, controlling the spacing between the asymmetric divisions, and regulating the initiation of new lineages (Nadeau 2009). In A. vera, water restriction probably activates the genes that control the frequency of asymmetric divisions, producing more stomata per unit area in T4 plants.
The anatomical pattern observed in A. vera showing tight cell packing, cell size, mesophyll thickness, stoma number, cuticle thickness, and reduced IAS to all be related to low water availability may improve water accumulation and/or water conservation (Nelson et al. 2005). Many species maximize light interception by having a high IAS ratio. However, A. vera possesses a low IAS, presumably because of its requirements for water economy. A low IAS ratio decreases transpirational water loss and increases water storage capacity and water use efficiency. Additionally, CAM plants have very efficient CO2 uptake due to the C4 metabolism occurring in the same mesophyll cell, with temporal separation between the C4- and C3-CO2 assimilation, and underpinning the WUE because of the temporal difference in activity between PEP carboxylase (night) and Rubisco (day) (Borland et al. 2009; Evans and Loreto 2000). Our results indicate that under severe water stress (T4), A. vera plants decreased leaf production and total growth, directly affecting biomass production (Silva et al. 2010). The strategy that A. vera adopts under water stress appears to involve channeling CO2 assimilates to osmolyte synthesis and partially replacing acemannan with other polysaccharides that hold water more efficiently and better protect the plant against water stress (Delatorre et al. 2010).
Leaf length, width, and thickness were negatively associated with increased numbers of stomata; thus, these dimensions were greatest in plants that received more water (T1 and T2) and had the least number of stomata. Similar stoma number decreases have also been reported in other CAM plants, such as Opuntia sp. (Silva et al. 2001) and in the C3 plant Phaseolus vulgaris (Silva et al.1999) probably due to decreased size of the pavement cells of the epidermis. Our allometric analysis showed a correlation between greater 470 cell size in T1 and T2 plants and greater water availability. Finally, it is important to note that cuticle thickness which protected the T3 and T4 plants against water loss that can induce plant death was negatively related to growth parameters. Overall, A. vera shows great plasticity to adapt to a water deficit, with close relationships between anatomical and growth parameters and physiological responses for survival under water restrictions.
This study of water relationships in A. vera showed that responses in growth and physiological/productive characteristics are highly dependent on the species anatomy. The key factor at the cell level is the stomata, the structure and physiology of which determine the crop viability. The strongest associations were found between stomatal characteristics and morpho-physiological responses. For a density of 6,666 plants ha-1, the highest yield of biomass and gel was obtained by applying 15% of ETo, suggesting that the crop coefficient (KC) would be 0.15. Water use efficiency is an indicator related to plant growth and is a function of the amount of water used to produce biomass. Knowledge of the biology of the species, the water retention characteristics of the soil, and the atmospheric evaporative demand of the experimental (or cultivation) site enabled demonstration of the close relationship between water use efficiency, anatomical parameters, and tolerance to water deficit.
This work was funded by the Vice-Rectoría de Investigación y Desarrollo (VID), Universidad de Chile (MULT 05/30-2).
Aburto F, Hernández C, Pfeiffer M, Casanova M, Luzio W (2008) Soil: a work of art of nature. northern field guide between 30 S° and 33 S°. In: Casanova M, Luzio W (eds) The international conference and field workshop on soil classification. Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile, Ovalle, Chile, p 94 [ Links ]
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Borland A, Taybi T (2004) Synchronization of metabolic processes in plants with crassulacean acid metabolism. J Exp Bot 55:1255-1265 [ Links ]
Borland AM, Griffith H, Hartwell H, Smith AC (2009) Exploiting the potential plants with crassulacean acid metabolism for bioenergy production on marginal land. J Exp Bot 10:2879-2896 [ Links ]
Caird MA, Richards JH, Donovan LA (2007) Nighttime stomatal conductance and transpiration in C3 and C4 plants. Plant Physiol 143:4-10 [ Links ]
Cowling (1982) Patterns of plant endemism in the south east Cape. The Naturalist 27:17-36 [ Links ]
Delatorre-Herrera J, Silva H, Delfino I, Cardemil L (2010) Irrigation restriction effects on water use efficiency and osmotic adjustment in Aloe Vera plants (Aloe barbadensis Miller). Agric Water Manag 97:1564-1570 [ Links ]
Di Rienzo JA, Casanoves F, Balzarini MG, Gonzalez L, Tablada M, Robledo CW (2013) InfoStat versión 2013. Grupo InfoStat, FCA, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Argentina, URL http://www.infostat.com.ar [ Links ]
Evans JR, Loreto F (2000) Acquisition and diffusion of CO2 in higher plants leaves. In: Leegood RC, Sharkey TD, Von Caemmerer S (eds) Photosynthesis: physiology and metabolism. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, pp 321-351 [ Links ]
Evans JR, Von Caemmerer S, Setchell BA, Hudson GS (1994) The relationships between CO2 transfer conductance and leaf anatomy in transgenic tobacco with a reduced content of Rubisco. Aust J Plant Physiol 21:475-495 [ Links ]
Genet WBM, Van Schooten CAM (1992) Water requirement of Aloe vera in a dry Caribbean climate. Irrig Sci 13:81-85 [ Links ]
Hernández M, Terrazas T, Delgado-Alvarado A, Cavazos ML (2007) Los estomas de Myrtillocactusgeometrizans (Mart.ex.Pfeiff.) Console (Cactaceae): Variación en su área de distribución. Rev Fitotec Mex 30:235-240 [ Links ]
Herrera A (2009) Crassulacean acid metabolism and fitness under water deficits stress: if not for carbon gain, what is facultative CAM good for? Ann Bot 103:645-653 [ Links ]
Herrera A, Fernández MD, Taisma MA (2000) Effects of drought on CAM water relations in plants of Peperomia carnevalii. Ann Bot 86:511-517 [ Links ]
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Medrano H, Galmes J, Ribas-Carbo M, Gulias J, Bota J, Pon A, Moreno M, Cifre J, Flexas J (2007) Photosynthesis and water use efficiency: improving plant productivity in semi-arid environments. Photosynth Res 91:277-277 [ Links ]
Nadeau JA (2009) Stomatal development: new signals and fate determinants. Curr Opin Plant Biol 12:29-35 [ Links ]
Nelson EA, Sage TL, Sage RF (2005) Functional leaf anatomy of plants with crassulacean acid metabolism. Funct Plant Biol 32:409-419 [ Links ]
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* Corresponding authors: hsilva@uchile.cl


The semi-annual Manhattanhenge will make its debut tonight at 8:16 pm, according Bloomberg Businessweek and another one is to occur July 11 at 8:25 pm.
The Manhattanhenge creates an ethereal glow amongst the city-line skyscrapers. From the East-West streets align with the sun setting on the longest day of the year—the summer solstice.
The cosmic effect of the Manhattanhenge resembles the effects of the famous Stonehenge sundial.
According to the American Museaum of Natural History's Hayden Planetarium the best places to view the spectacle are at 14th, 23rd, 34th, 42nd, and 57th streets as well the Chrysler Building and Empire State building are known to offer spectacular views.
Neil de Grasse Tyson, an astrophysicist at the Hayden Planetarium, coined the term Manhattanhenge back in 2002. Tyson says it's best to position yourself on the far-east of the city facing west.
Other cities with a uniform street grid experience a similar phenomenon to the Manhattanhenge, cities like Chicago, Toronto and Montreal. City grids must have a grid-plan where its alignment is with the true north—not magnetic north—laid out exactly north-south and east-west streets.
The phenomenon can be witnessed during its winter solstice, if anyone is willing to wake up early for that.


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Marist Old Pupils Plan NZ Dinner Party Months In Advance
Marist Brothers Old Pupils' Association (Samoa) ("MBOPA") will be hosting a corporate dinner fundraiser event at Skycity Auckland Convention Centre, New Zealand on Friday 15 November 2019. Supporting the event will be "Marist Brothers Old Pupils Association Samoa NZ" and other Marist affiliates in New Zealand and Australia.
MY SAY: Violence Thrives In The Silence
Shock waves continue to reverberate since the tragic death of CEO Sa'u Justina Sa'u just over two weeks ago.
The latest is confirmation by the Commissioner of Police that her husband has been arrested and charged with her murder.
Sa'u is a prominent public figure and the alleged manner in which she died is what has given her untimely passing a very high profile.
Rev. Dr. Upolu Vaai appointed Principal of Pacific Theological College
Samoan Theologian and Scholar Rev. Dr. Upolu Luma Vaai has been appointed Principal of the Pacific Theological College in Suva, Fiji.
His appointment announced early this week by the PTC's Mission and Research Institute.
PTC says it is "wonderful news for PTC and for the Pacific Churches."
Mary Kay Letourneau claims she had no idea there was a law against having sex with children
The American schoolteacher who made headlines around the world for her secret affair with a 12-year-old student still insists today she had no idea what she did was a crime.
Mary Kay Letourneaou, then 34, was still married to the father of her first four children when she began a relationship with 12-year-old student Vili Fualaau during summer school, the Daily Mail reported.


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Music|A Pianist's Warsaw: 'Fascination and Pain'
A Pianist's Warsaw: 'Fascination and Pain'
The pianist Piotr Anderszewski at the Steinway showroom in Midtown Manhattan. He has made a 36-minute film, "Je M'Appelle Varsovie" ("Warsaw Is My Name"), without a specific narrative.CreditCreditAndrew White for The New York Times
By Anthony Tommasini
In 2006, the pianist Piotr Anderszewski took his first sabbatical. He had no clear purpose in scheduling a break from concertizing and recording — no special project in mind, like learning new repertory. He just wanted time to think and relax, to "cook a beautiful meal and share it with good friends," as he explained in an interview last month in New York.
Pleased with the rejuvenating results, Mr. Anderszewski, who plays a solo recital at Carnegie Hall on Friday, Feb. 17, took another sabbatical five years later, an extended break of 16 months. But when he embarked on his latest one, an eight-month pause that ended in November, he did have a project in mind, and an unusual one: This musician wanted to become a filmmaker. His subject? Warsaw, the city where he was born and which has always been, he said, "a fascination and pain for me."
Mr. Anderszewski, 47, remains deeply connected to Warsaw, though he lives in Paris. He has been haunted by growing up in a city that had, he said, "ceased existing" not that long before his childhood, given the horrors inflicted on the Jewish ghetto under Nazi rule and the almost total annihilation of the city in 1944. Mr. Anderszewski's mother is of Hungarian Jewish heritage. His father is Polish. And though he said it is difficult for him to talk about something so personal and painful, his paternal grandfather, who was not Jewish, died in Auschwitz.
"I have a trauma related to Warsaw," he said.
He had picked up some filmmaking techniques when he was the subject of several documentaries by Bruno Monsaingeon. So during his sabbatical, with a camera in hand and a filmmaker friend to assist him, Mr. Anderszewski walked Warsaw, a city he said he knows "like my pocket." He filmed buildings, squares, a cemetery on a hillside dotted with wooden crosses — whatever inspired him. He didn't want a scenario or spoken narration — just images and music, using pieces from his own recordings.
With no specific narrative, the 36-minute film, "Je M'Appelle Varsovie" ("Warsaw Is My Name"), unfolds in lingering shots of contrasting places and people: swirling traffic, dingy stonewalled buildings with peeling paint, commercial signs in downtown areas, a rumpled street musician with a long white beard playing the accordion, an old solitary woman sitting on a street bench. There are slow pans across the gray walls of Soviet-style housing units and lovely images of fall foliage in almost empty parks.
"For some reason," he said, "I spent hours one day looking at and filming this wall, rebuilt in the 1960s, some monument to the Gestapo prison, with fences, gray stones and horrible wires."
A still from "Je M'Appelle Varsovie" ("Warsaw Is My Name").CreditJulien Condemine
The only text scrolls by at the start, in silence; Mr. Anderszewski writes of his paternal grandmother, who helped raise him. Born in Warsaw in 1910, she died there in 1995. How was it possible, he writes, to live through the "succession of reversals, occupations, uprisings, capitulations and massacres" — from brutal invasions during the First World War through the re-emergence of Warsaw as the capital of an independent Poland in 1989 after decades of Soviet control — to "live through all this in one place and in the span of a single life?"
For the score, Mr. Anderszewski chose several works by Chopin, that greatest of Polish composers: some pensive late mazurkas and part of the well-known Polonaise in A flat. A champion of the Polish composer Karol Szymanowski, Mr. Anderszewski also included the restless, dark "Schéhérazade" from that composer's "Masques" suite and a turbulent movement from his Third Sonata. Some forlorn scenes are accompanied by Webern's Variations for Piano, Op. 27, an austerely captivating, rigorously 12-tone score, played here with articulate elegance.
The film will be included as a bonus DVD with Mr. Anderszewski's latest Warner Classics recording, due out this month, called "Fantasies." (He will eventually make the film available for streaming.) The album offers probing, intense performances of Mozart's Fantasia in C minor and Sonata in C minor, paired with Schumann's great Fantasie in C and that composer's seldom-heard "Ghost" Variations. Mr. Anderszewski will perform the Mozart pieces in his Carnegie Hall recital this month, a program that also includes works by Chopin and Bach.
The film is personal and impressionistic, the quality of the cinematography excellent and the blend of imagery and music powerful. Mr. Anderszewski said he has no expectations for how audiences will react. But he added that making "Warsaw Is My Name" has helped him come to terms with his conflicted feelings about his homeland.
He visits family and friends in Warsaw often and performs there regularly. For a while, he lived in Lisbon, a move that he said was probably a reaction to his feelings about the Polish capital. Lisbon is a city of gentleness, he explained, where "continuity of history is beautifully kept. For some reason, nobody wanted to invade Lisbon."
Mr. Anderszewski came to international attention in 2002, when he received the prestigious Gilmore Artist Award, a kind of noncompetition competition in which a jury secretly follows the work of an artist, then announces the prize. He has since received wide acclaim for his thoughtful, intensely dramatic performances, especially of Bach. His Carnegie program concludes with Bach's English Suite No. 6 in D minor.
That Bach's keyboard music is so texturally exposed presents a difficult yet irresistible challenge, he said. Every note matters so much in contrapuntal music: "A two-part gigue of an English suite has just two lines. You have to make it have sense." And yet the implications of those two lines can be vast. "There are so many possibilities," Mr. Anderszewski said. "You have to reduce, find form, set limits." He compared it to making a swimming pool out of an ocean.
And, within that reduction process, "you must convey some kind of feeling."
Mr. Anderszewski combines his insightful musicianship with consummate technique. Yet he emphasized that the element of struggle in many of the pieces he plays must come through in performance. He cited the daunting fugue of Beethoven's late "Hammerklavier" Sonata.
Piotr Anderszewski performing at Carnegie Hall in 2015.CreditHiroyuki Ito for The New York Times
"If you play it effortlessly, this is absurd," he said. "I want to hear a fight. I want to hear how hard it is, how the piece is an obstacle."
"Facility is your greatest enemy," he added. "Where the difficulty lies, you have to overcome it. How? By going sideways, by using imagination. If everything comes easily, you lose imagination."
On his new recording, Mr. Anderszewski plays the march movement of Schumann's Fantasie at a measured tempo, slower than you typically hear, and with uncommon lightness and clarity, until the famously difficult coda, with its keyboard-spanning leaps. During this breathless conclusion, an intentional sense of manic wrestling comes through in Mr. Anderszewski's performance. "You have to give the impression that you cannot play it," he said.
For a recital program for next season, he is returning to Beethoven's "Diabelli" Variations, a piece that brought him early acclaim. He played it in 1990, when he was 21, at the Leeds Competition, and kept reworking it over the years. (During the semifinals of that competition, in a much reported incident, he walked off the stage during his performance of Webern's Op. 27 Variations because he thought he wasn't playing well enough.) In 2000, he recorded the "Diabelli" in sessions that were also filmed by Mr. Monsaingeon for a penetrating documentary.
He will place Beethoven's epic set of variations alongside Webern's and, if all goes well, a new work (by an as yet unchosen composer) written in reaction to the Beethoven, and to the overall concept of variation form. It will be, at least partly, a way of Mr. Anderszewski addressing a gap in his career to date: He has played few works by living composers.
"I feel slightly guilty about this," he said. "Every piece I take into my repertory I engage with personally and very deeply. I guess I have no energy left."
Creative energy — and personal energy. He now lives, he said, "pretty much on my own" in Paris.
"I've never been married," he said. "I am so devoted to music. I must say, when I learn a new piece, it's like a love story. I have to be in love with my whole being."
He added that he had never managed to find time for a long-term relationship.
"I hope it happens," he said, smiling shyly. "That's maybe a project for the next sabbatical."
A version of this article appears in print on , Section AR, Page 8 of the New York edition with the headline: A Pianist's Warsaw, Onscreen. Order Reprints | Today's Paper | Subscribe


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Gender Revolution UK was founded by Julie Miller, Transgender Educator and Speaker.
Julie practices transgender education and speaking as her small contribution to educating the wider public on what is transgender and why it should be accepted as a normal strand of British culture, see details below.
Julie is available for bookings at schools, colleges, universities, places of work to deliver presentations on a variety of transgender topics. She customises her presentations to suit the audience and theme of the day.
Julie is a former Army Officer who has endured the Transgender experience for almost half a century and uses her presentational skills and unique style to explain Transgender. Julie is not a transgender professional, for example doctor, counsellor or psychotherapist, but is an accomplished speaker having honed her skills in her training as a British Army commander. She specializes in converting transgender theory published in scientific papers and other references, into light-hearted and entertaining lectures, designed to educate and captivate the audience in a memorable learning experience.
Speech in Bournemouth Town Square during a protest against Trump's transgender erasure proposals.
Speech entitled "My Big Decision" at Toastmasters International.