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VITAMIN D: IRRATIONAL EXUBERANCE?
April 20, 2011 - By Alan R. Gaby, M.D.
During the past decade it has become clear that vitamin D deficiency is relatively common among the general population. Potential consequences of low vitamin D status include accelerated bone loss, an increased risk of falls among the elderly, decreased resistance against influenza and other types of infection, an possibly an increased risk of developing cancer and certain autoimmune diseases. In addition, evidence has accumulated that the amount of vitamin D needed to prevent a deficiency is higher than previously believed. Whereas 400 IU/day had long been thought to be sufficient for most people, it is now known that 800 IU/day is needed to slow the progression of osteoporosis and to prevent falls.
In recent years, a number of researchers have recommended a redefinition of vitamin D deficiency, and many laboratories have changed their reference range for serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25[OH]D) to comply with that recommendation. Historically, the lower limit of normal for 25(OH)D has been 10-15 ng/ml (25-37.5 nmol/L), depending on the laboratory. Many laboratories are now defining vitamin D deficiency as a serum 25(OH)D level < 20 ng/ml (< 50 nmol/L), and vitamin D insufficiency (mild vitamin D deficiency) as a level < 30 ng/ml (< 75 nmol/L).1 It has also been suggested that increasing serum 25(OH)D to an "optimal" level could improve a wide range of health outcomes, including better bone and dental health, fewer falls and fractures, and possible protection against cancer and autoimmune disease. A review article concluded that a protective effect began at a 25(OH)D concentration of 30 ng/ml (75 nmol/L), and that the best outcomes were seen in people with levels of 36-40 ng/ml (90-100 nmol/L).2
If one accepts these new laboratory criteria, then inadequate vitamin D status emerges as a major epidemic, being present in 40-50% of participants in many studies. Moreover, the amount of supplemental vitamin D needed to achieve "adequate" or "optimal" vitamin D status is well above 800 IU/day in many cases. For example, it has been estimated that only 50% of people who take 1,000 IU/day of vitamin D will attain a serum 25(OH)D level of 30 ng/ml (75 nmol/L). The estimated dosage needed to achieve a level of 30-32 ng/ml (75-80 nmol/L) in nearly all healthy adults has ranged from 1,644 IU/day to more than 3,440 IU/day in different studies.3,4 Even larger doses would be needed to achieve an "optimal" level of 36-40 ng/ml (90-100 nmol/L). Based on these findings, some practitioners are recommending long-term supplementation with 2,000, 5,000, or even 10,000 IU/day of vitamin D for many of their patients.
A recurring theme in nutritional medicine is that the dosages of various nutrients needed to promote optimal health are often greater than the amounts needed to prevent a frank deficiency. The same is almost certainly true with respect to vitamin D. However, considering that a substantial minority of the population would need to consume potentially toxic doses of vitamin D in order to achieve a serum 25(OH)D level of at least 30 ng/ml (75 nmol/L), the evidence supporting the benefit and safety of high-dose vitamin D warrants scrutiny.
After reviewing the available research, I have reached several conclusions. First, serum 25(OH)D is not an entirely reliable indicator of vitamin D status. Second, an increase in the lower end of the reference range for serum 25(OH)D may not be appropriate for some populations and some individuals. Third, the evidence supporting the benefit of pushing serum 25(OH)D to an "optimal" level is weak. Fourth, the evidence supporting the long-term safety of vitamin D in doses greater than 2,000 IU/day is weak. Of particular concern is the possibility that long-term use of high doses might promote the development of atherosclerosis or kidney stones. Fifth, the physiological effects of sunlight exposure differ from those of vitamin D supplementation. One implication of that fact is that vitamin D supplementation may not duplicate the beneficial effects of sunlight exposure. Moreover, evidence regarding the safety of vitamin D synthesized in the skin might not apply to orally administered vitamin D.
These conclusions do not negate the observations that large doses of vitamin D have been safe and effective for some patients (such as patients with malabsorption, prostate cancer, or drug-induced vitamin D deficiency). However, routine use more than 2,000 IU/day of vitamin D for the sole purpose of achieving a target 25(OH)D level may be unwarranted. The evidence that has led me to these conclusions is reviewed below.
Assessment of Vitamin D Status
Although 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25[OH]2D) is the biologically active form of vitamin D, serum 1,25(OH)2D is not a reliable indicator of vitamin D status. That is because vitamin D deficiency results in a compensatory increase in the concentration of parathyroid hormone, which increases the renal production of 1,25(OH)2D. Consequently, serum 1,25(OH)2D levels are often normal or elevated in people with vitamin D deficiency.5
The serum vitamin D concentration is also not a reliable indicator of vitamin D status, because its serum half-life is only about 24 hours. Therefore, serum vitamin D levels are dependent largely on recent vitamin D intake and recent sunlight exposure. In contrast, the serum half-life of 25(OH)D is about 3 weeks, which makes this metabolite more reliable than vitamin D itself as an indicator of long-term vitamin D exposure. For that reason, the serum concentration of 25(OH)D is generally considered to be the "gold standard" for assessing vitamin D status.
Reliability of serum 25(OH)D
Metallurgically speaking, however, the reliability of serum 25(OH)D as an indicator of vitamin D status might more aptly be characterized as bronze, rather than gold, even though it is currently the best assessment method available. One problem with this test is that substantial variations have been encountered from one laboratory to another and with the use of different methods of assessment. For example, of 42 serum 25(OH)D measurements made by a laboratory that used an in-house radioimmunoassay, only 17% were reported as < 32 ng/ml (< 80 nmol/L). In contrast, 90% of a group of nearly identical samples sent to a laboratory that used a commercially available radioimmunoassay were reported as < 32 ng/ml.6
Another complicating factor is that 25(OH)D is only one of more than 50 vitamin D metabolites that have been identified. Although little is known about many of these metabolites, at least one (not including 1,25[OH]2D) appears to have biological activity, a point that is discussed below. It would not be surprising if some of these compounds were able to bind to vitamin D receptors or to compete with vitamin D, 25(OH)D, or 1,25(OH)2D as substrates for enzymes involved in vitamin D metabolism. True vitamin D status (as it relates to the regulation of calcium and phosphorus metabolism and to various other biological roles of the vitamin) might therefore be a function of complex interactions between many different vitamin D metabolites. If that is the case, then different individuals could have different serum 25(OH)D "set points" for adequate or optimal vitamin D status, based on factors such as individual differences in the synthesis and degradation of various vitamin D metabolites, and differences in the binding affinity of these metabolites to vitamin D receptors. Considering that the serum level of 1,25(OH)2D itself (the major active form of vitamin D) does not always reliably reflect vitamin D status, one should not necessarily expect that serum levels of its precursor molecule (25[OH]D) would provide more than a rough approximation of vitamin D status. While very low and very high 25(OH)D levels would seem to be reliable indicators of vitamin D deficiency and excess, respectively, basing clinical decisions on serum 25(OH)D levels between those extremes may not always be appropriate.
High-dose vitamin D and serum 25(OH)D
Serum 25(OH)D may be a less reliable indicator of vitamin D status when large doses of the vitamin are being given than when smaller doses are being used. That is because at dosages below 2,000 IU/day, the rate of conversion of vitamin D to 25(OH)D is proportional to the amount of vitamin D administered. However, at higher dosages, hepatic 25-hydroxylases become saturated, and the conversion of vitamin D to 25(OH)D does not increase linearly with increasing vitamin D doses. Instead, large quantities of vitamin D are stored as the native compound, presumably in body fat, and are slowly released to be converted to 25(OH)D. This increase in body stores of vitamin D is not reflected in serum measurements of 25(OH)D.7
Serum 25(OH)D and parathyroid hormone
As serum 25(OH)D levels increase, parathyroid hormone levels tend to decline. Therefore, it is conceivable that measuring serum parathyroid hormone in combination with 25(OH)D would provide a better picture of vitamin D status than would measuring 25(OH)D alone. However, numerous factors influence parathyroid levels, and variations in serum 25(OH)D levels have been found to explain at most only 13% of the variation in parathyroid hormone levels.8,9 For that reason, the serum parathyroid level may not provide reliable information about vitamin D status in patients with borderline-low serum 25(OH)D levels. Moreover, the high cost of the parathyroid hormone test precludes its routine use.
New Definitions of Deficiency and "Optimal" Status: Are They Valid?
The normal range for serum 25(OH)D was originally derived from people who had little sunlight exposure. Therefore, a normal serum 25(OH)D level does not necessarily indicate adequate vitamin D status. In recent years, some investigators have redefined vitamin D deficiency according to biochemical parameters such as parathyroid hormone levels and fractional calcium absorption. In population studies, as serum 25(OH)D levels increased, parathyroid hormone levels tended to decline and fractional calcium absorption tended to increase. Individuals might be considered vitamin D-sufficient when a further increase in their serum 25(OH)D level does not result in further changes in parathyroid hormone levels or in fractional calcium absorption. Based on population studies that examined these biomarkers, it has been suggest that vitamin D deficiency should be defined as a serum 25(OH)D level < 20 ng/ml (< 50 nmol/L) and vitamin D insufficiency (mild vitamin D deficiency) should be defined as a level < 30 ng/ml (< 75 nmol/L).
Examining the new definition of deficiency
As noted above, correlations (albeit weak) have been observed between 25(OH)D, parathyroid hormone,3,4 and fractional calcium absorption.11 However, in the absence of severe vitamin D deficiency, these associations do not seem to apply to all population groups, nor to all individuals within population groups. In one study, serum 25(OH)D and parathyroid hormone levels were measured in 93 young non-overweight adults living in Hawaii. Their mean sun exposure was 29 hours per week, and their mean sun exposure index (hours per week of total body exposure with no sunscreen used) was 11.1 hours. The proportion of subjects who had a serum 25(OH)D level < 30 ng/ml (< 75 nmol/L) was 25-51% (depending on the assay method used), and 3-8% of the individuals had a level < 20 ng/ml (< 50 nmol/L). Of note, there was no correlation between serum 25(OH)D and parathyroid hormone levels,12 which further calls into question the basis upon which the new definitions of vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency were created.
The finding that vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency are so common among healthy young people with heavy sun exposure suggests either that the cut-off levels for 25(OH)D used to define deficiency and insufficiency are inappropriately high for some population groups or that serum 25(OH)D is not always a reliable indicator of vitamin D status (as discussed above). Thus, while some individuals may have inadequate vitamin D status despite having a serum 25(OH)D level greater than 15 ng/ml, others may have adequate vitamin D status despite having a serum 25(OH)D level less than 20-30 ng/ml (50-75 nmol/L).
Of note, in the late 1990s the standard radioimmunoassay for 25(OH)D was changed by the manufacturer by introducing an antibody that improved binding. The new assay procedure decreased measured values by approximately 4 ng/ml (10 mmol/L), which means that values measured by the new method are 4 ng/ml (10 mmol/L) lower than those measured by the old method.13 The fact that the new cut-off points for vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency were based in part on studies conducted prior to the late 1990s could explain to some extent why those cut-off points appear to be inappropriately high in some instances (such as the study cited above, conducted in Hawaii in 2007).
Examining the new definition of optimal
With regard to the concept of optimizing 25(OH)D levels in order to reduce the incidence of certain chronic diseases, the supporting evidence has been derived largely from observational studies, in which associations were found between serum 25(OH)D levels and health outcomes. Of note, not all studies found such an association, and the reported protective effect of higher 25(OH)D levels might be explainable at least in part by a failure to control for confounding factors such as age, body mass index, seasonal variation of 25(OH)D levels, and co-morbidities.14 Additional supporting evidence has come from randomized controlled trials in which vitamin D-supplemented participants who achieved higher serum 25(OH)D levels had better outcomes than vitamin D-supplemented participants whose 25(OH)D levels were lower.
Both of these lines of evidence have limitations. In the observational studies, high serum 25(OH)D levels presumably resulted mainly from abundant sunlight exposure, since very few people ingest enough vitamin D from diet and supplements to achieve 25(OH)D levels of 90-100 nmol/L. People who spend a lot of time in the sun may differ in many respects from people who avoid the sun, and some of these differences could impact health. Even if sun exposure per se produces health benefits, the effect might not be due entirely (or even primarily) to vitamin D. For example, corticotropin-releasing hormone, which is produced by sun-exposed skin, plays a role in regulating endocrine, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, metabolic, and immune function; and increased synthesis of this hormone might have positive effects on various aspects of health.15 Other beneficial effects of sunlight might result from stimulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis through the retina.
The findings from randomized controlled trials also do not necessarily indicate that the reason participants had better outcomes was that they achieved higher 25(OH)D levels. A higher serum 25(OH)D response to vitamin D supplementation may simply reflect efficient nutrient absorption in general, a factor that could improve outcomes irrespective of vitamin D status. In addition, the effect of vitamin D supplementation on serum 25(OH)D levels is presumably influenced by the efficiency with which hepatic enzymes hydroxylate vitamin D. Four different cytochrome P450 enzymes are thought to be capable of hydroxylating vitamin D.16 Since cytochrome P450 enzymes also play a role in detoxifying xenobiotic chemicals, people who achieve high 25(OH)D levels in response to vitamin D supplementation may have more robust detoxification mechanisms than those whose serum 25(OH)D response is less pronounced. Moreover, hydroxylase enzymes play a role in the synthesis of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and estriol, both of which may have beneficial effects on human health. Therefore, the achievement of a high serum 25(OH)D level in response to vitamin D supplementation may be just a marker for the presence of other health-promoting biochemical capabilities.
Adverse Effects of Vitamin D
Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)
The Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine has established a Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) of 1,000 IU/day for children less than 6 months of age, 1,500 IU/day for children aged 6-12 months, 2,500 IU/day for children aged 1-3 years, 3,000 IU/day for children aged 4-8 years, and 4,000 IU/day for older children and adults. The ULs for vitamin D are based on amounts that can apparently be consumed indefinitely by healthy people without causing hypercalcemia.
Are dosages above the ULs safe?
Some investigators have argued that the ULs are excessively conservative, and that 10,000 IU/day is a safe level of intake for most adults.17 This argument is based on two main points. First, with the exception of one study, hypercalcemia has not been observed in studies in which doses up to 10,000 IU/day were given. Second, whole-body sunlight exposure results in the production of at least 10,000 IU/day of vitamin D; and people who obtain large amounts of sun exposure do not exhibit signs of vitamin D toxicity or other long-term adverse effects (other than photoaging of the skin and skin cancer).
However, the contention that the UL for adults should be raised to 10,000 IU/day has four important weaknesses. First, studies of high-dose vitamin D supplementation were of relatively short duration. Second, the absence of hypercalcemia from a given dosage of vitamin D is not proof of safety. Third, it is not clear whether human skin really can synthesize as much as 10,000 IU/day of vitamin D. And fourth, the physiological effects of sunlight exposure differ from those of orally administered vitamin D; consequently, it may be inappropriate to compare the safety of these different methods of obtaining vitamin D.
Questions regarding long-term safety
The studies in which 10,000 IU/day of vitamin D was administered lasted a maximum of 20 weeks. Because vitamin D can accumulate with continued administration, studies lasting 20 weeks or less are not sufficient to establish the long-term safety of high doses.
Furthermore, the absence of hypercalcemia from a particular dosage of vitamin D does not necessarily indicate that that dosage is safe. The human body tightly regulates serum calcium levels by several different mechanisms, and it is likely that hypercalcemia occurs only after all calcium-regulating mechanisms have been overwhelmed. One way in which the body prevents hypercalcemia is by increasing urinary calcium excretion. High vitamin D intake might therefore increase the risk of developing kidney stones, even if serum calcium levels remain normal. In one study, 3 of 45 elderly individuals who received 5,000 IU/day of vitamin D3 for 12 months showed evidence of hypercalciuria, and mean urinary calcium excretion increased in the group as a whole.18 In contrast, other studies found that supplementation with 4,000 IU/day of vitamin D3 for 2-5 months19 or 280,000 IU of vitamin D3 once a week for 6 weeks20 had no effect on serum or urinary calcium levels. While vitamin D-induced hypercalciuria appears to be uncommon, it would be prudent to monitor both serum and urinary calcium levels in patients being treated with large doses of vitamin D for long periods of time, particularly if they are also taking a calcium supplement.
Atherosclerosis and arterial calcification might also result from long-term consumption of large amounts of vitamin D. Swine fed vitamin D3 at a level of 12,500 IU per pound of diet (equivalent to about 11,500 IU/day for humans21) developed pathological changes in the thoracic aorta that were indistinguishable from those found in the thoracic aorta of humans undergoing coronary bypass surgery.22 Even a modest increase in vitamin D3 intake23 (from 331 IU/kg of diet to 2,200 IU/kg of diet) exacerbated coronary atherosclerosis in swine consuming a diet high in saturated fat.24 A vitamin D dosage of 2,200 IU/kg of diet is equivalent to only 917 IU/day for humans.25
Can human skin produce 10,000 IU/day of vitamin D?
Vieth has argued that 10,000 IU/day of vitamin D is safe for the general population. This argument is based in part on the assertion that whole-body sunlight exposure results in the production of at least 10,000 IU/day. One study used to support that assertion found that, in elderly vitamin D-deficient volunteers, exposure of 5% of body surface area to ultraviolet irradiation 3 times a week for 12 weeks increased serum 25(OH)D levels about the same amount as oral administration of 400 IU/day of vitamin D.25 Vieth assumed that whole-body irradiation would result in the production of 20 times as much vitamin D (i.e., 8,000 IU/day) as would irradiation of 5% of body surface area. Younger individuals, who have a greater capacity to synthesize vitamin D in the skin, would presumably manufacture even more than 8,000 IU/day. However, there is no clear evidence that one can extrapolate the effects of irradiating 5% of the skin to the effects of irradiating the entire body.
Another study found that a one-time exposure of young adults to 1 minimal erythemal dose of simulated sunlight (i.e., the minimum amount that produces redness of the skin) was equivalent to oral administration of 10,000-25,000 IU of vitamin D2, as determined by changes in circulating vitamin D levels. However, results from a single-dose study are of doubtful relevance to long-term vitamin D homeostasis, because repeated exposure of the skin to sunlight results in photodegradation of the vitamin D that has not yet escaped into the circulation.26 Thus, the net amount of vitamin D produced on subsequent days of sun exposure may be substantially less than the amount produced on the first day. Even if repeated sunlight exposure does result in the production of relatively large amounts of vitamin D, it would not necessarily indicate that such doses are safe when administered orally (see below).
Sunlight exposure and oral vitamin D are not the same
At least one of the photodegradation products of vitamin D (5,6-trans-vitamin D)(30) has demonstrated biochemical effects similar to those of 1,25(OH)2D in rats, although 5,6-trans-vitamin D is 20-40 times less potent than 1,25(OH)2D.27 As a weak vitamin D agonist, 5,6-trans-vitamin D might compete with 1,25(OH)2D for binding to vitamin D receptors, and thereby function as a regulator of vitamin D activity. Thus, human skin apparently possesses mechanisms not only to prevent the release of excessive amounts of vitamin D into the circulation (as noted above), but also to modulate the action of vitamin D.
In addition to producing vitamin D degradation products, sun-exposed skin synthesizes corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH).13,28 CRH, which is better known as a hypothalamic hormone, has a wide range of physiological effects, some of which might modulate the actions of vitamin D. Furthermore, studies in animals have shown that stimulation of the retina by ultraviolet light directly influences hypothalamic and pituitary function.29
Some of these sunlight-induced responses in the skin and retina might decrease the deleterious effects of vitamin D. Since there is no evidence that any of these ancillary effects of sunlight exposure occur with oral administration of vitamin D, one cannot draw conclusions regarding the safety of ingested vitamin D from data on the safety of vitamin D synthesized by the skin.
Safe and Effective Vitamin D Levels: What to Make of It All
The available evidence suggests that currently recommended vitamin D intakes are not sufficient to promote optimal health. A number of studies have shown that supplementing with 800 IU/day of vitamin D provides greater benefit than supplementing with 400 IU/day. I frequently recommend 800-1,200 IU/day of supplemental vitamin D, and sometimes more, depending on age, body mass index, skin color, and amount of sunlight exposure. However, the safety and efficacy of giving healthy people large doses of vitamin D (such as more than 2,000 IU/day) for the sole purpose of reaching a target serum 25(OH)D level have not been established. For patients with potentially vitamin D-responsive diseases and for those who are at increased risk of developing these diseases, the potential benefits of high-dose vitamin D should be weighed against the risks.
Vitamin D from sunlight
Throughout most of human history, vitamin D was obtained almost exclusively from cutaneous biosynthesis, since typical diets contained little or no vitamin D. Because of its multiple and complex physiological effects, sunlight exposure may be the preferred method of obtaining vitamin D. Of note, John Denver attributed his happiness to sunshine on his shoulder, not to vitamin D pills.
According to one investigator, exposure of the arms and legs or the hands, arms, and face to sunlight for 5-15 minutes two to three times a week between 10 a.m. and 3 p.m. during the spring, summer, and autumn usually results in adequate vitamin D production by individuals with skin type II (fair skinned) or III (darker Caucasian). That amount of sunlight exposure is 25% of what would cause a minimal erythemal response. After the initial 5-15 minutes of sunlight exposure, application of a sunscreen with a sun protection factor (SPF) of at least 15 is recommended.30 While it appears that many people can maintain adequate vitamin D status with fairly modest levels of sunlight exposure, the risks and benefits of sun exposure should be assessed on an individual basis.
Alan R. Gaby, M.D., received his undergraduate degree from Yale University, his M.S. in biochemistry from Emory University, and his M.D. from the University of Maryland. He was in private practice for 17 years, specializing in nutritional medicine. He is past-president of the American Holistic Medical Association and gave expert testimony to the White House Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine on the cost-effectiveness of nutritional supplements. He is the author of Preventing and Reversing Osteoporosis (Prima, 1994), and The Doctor's Guide to Vitamin B6 (Rodale Press, 1984), the co-author of The Patient's Book of Natural Healing (Prima, 1999), and has written numerous scientific papers in the field of nutritional medicine. He has been the contributing medical editor for the Townsend Letter for Doctors since 1985, and contributing editor for Alternative Medicine Review since 1996. Over the past 25 years, he has developed a computerized database of more than 25,000 individually chosen medical-journal articles related to the field of natural medicine. He was professor of nutrition and a member of the clinical faculty at Bastyr University in Kenmore, WA from 1995 to 2002.
Over the past 30 years, he has developed a computerized database of more than 26,000 individually chosen medical journal articles related to the field of natural medicine. He was professor of nutrition and a member of the clinical faculty at Bastyr University in Kenmore, WA, from 1995 to 2002. He is Chief Science Editor for Aisle 7 (formerly Healthnotes, Inc). He has appeared on the CBS Evening News and the Donahue Show. In 2010, Dr. Gaby completed a 30-year project, a textbook of nutritional medicine, which is schedule for release in November.
1. Holick MF. Vitamin D deficiency. N Engl J Med 2007;357:266-281.
2. Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Giovannucci E, Willett WC, et al. Estimation of optimal serum concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D for multiple health outcomes. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;84:18-28.
3. Cashman KD, Hill TR, Lucey AJ, et al. Estimation of the dietary requirement for vitamin D in healthy adults. Am J Clin Nutr 2008;88:1535-1542.
4. Aloia JF, Patel M, Dimaano R, et al. Vitamin D intake to attain a desired serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration. Am J Clin Nutr 2008;87:1952-1958.
5. Holick MF. Vitamin D: importance in the prevention of cancers, type 1 diabetes, heart disease, and osteoporosis. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;79:362-371.
6. Zerwekh JE. Blood biomarkers of vitamin D status. Am J Clin Nutr 2008;87:1087S-1091S.
7. Heaney RP, Armas LAG, Shary JR, et al. 25-Hydroxylation of vitamin D3: relation to circulating vitamin D3 under various input conditions. Am J Clin Nutr 2008;87:1738-1742.
8. Lamberg-Allardt CJE, Outila TA, Karkkainen MUM, et al. Vitamin D deficiency and bone health in healthy adults in Finland: could this be a concern in other parts of Europe? J Bone Miner Res2001;16:2066-2073.
9. Bang UC, Semb S, Nordgaard-Lassen I, Jensen JEB. A descriptive cross-sectional study of the prevalence of 25-hydroxyvitamin D deficiency and association with bone markers in a hospitalized population. Nutr Res 2009;29:671-675.
10. Holick MF. Vitamin D deficiency. N Engl J Med 2007;357:266-281.
11. Heaney RP, Dowell MS, Hale CA, Bendich A. Calcium absorption varies within the reference range for serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D. J Am Coll Nutr 2003;22:142-146.
12. Binkley N, Novotny R, Krueger D, et al. Low vitamin D status despite abundant sun exposure. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007;92:2130-2135.
13. Looker AC, Pfeiffer CM, Lacher DA, et al. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D status of the US population: 1988-1994 compared with 2000-2004. Am J Clin Nutr 2008;88:1519-1527.
14. Bolland MJ, Bacon CJ, Horne AM, et al. Vitamin D insufficiency and health outcomes over 5 y in older women. Am J Clin Nutr 2010;91:82-89.
15. Slominski A, Zbytek B, Zmijewski M, et al. Corticotropin releasing hormone and the skin. Front Biosci2006;11:2230-2248.
16. Prosser DE, Jones G. Enzymes involved in the activation and inactivation of vitamin D. Trends Biochem Sci 2004;29:664-673.
17. Hathcock JN, Shao A, Vieth R, Heaney R. Risk assessment for vitamin D. Am J Clin Nutr 2007;85:6-18.
18. Mocanu V, Stitt PA, Costan AR, et al. Long-term effects of giving nursing home residents bread fortified with 125 mcg (5000 IU) vitamin D3 per daily serving. Am J Clin Nutr 2009;89:1132-1137.
19. Vieth R, Chan PCR, MacFarlane GD. Efficacy and safety of vitamin D3 intake exceeding the lowest observed adverse effect level. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;73:288-294.
20. Kimball SM, Ursell MR, O'Connor P, Vieth R. Safety of vitamin D3 in adults with multiple sclerosis. Am J Clin Nutr 2007;86:645-651.
21. A 2,000-kcal diet providing 30% of total energy from fat would weigh 0.417 kg or 0.92 pounds (dry weight).
22. Kummerow FA. Nutrition imbalance and angiotoxins as dietary risk factors in coronary heart disease.Am J Clin Nutr 1979;32:58-83.
23. Ito M, Cho BHS, Kummerow FA. Effects of a dietary magnesium deficiency and excess vitamin D3 on swine coronary arteries. J Am Coll Nutr 1990;9:155-163.
24. Takagi T, Leszczynski D, Kummerow F. Coronary atherosclerosis in swine induced by a mild dietary excess of vitamin D. Nutr Rep Int 1983;28:1111-1118.
25. Chel VGM, Ooms ME, Popp-Snijders C, et al. Ultraviolet irradiation corrects vitamin D deficiency and suppresses secondary hyperparathyroidism in the elderly. J Bone Miner Res 1998;13:1238-1242.
26. Holick MF. Environmental factors that influence the cutaneous production of vitamin D. Am J Clin Nutr1995;61(Suppl):638S-645S.
27. Holick MF, Garabedian M, DeLuca HF. 5,6-Trans isomers of cholecalciferol and 25-hydroxycholecalciferol. Substitutes for 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol in anephric animals. Biochemistry1972;11:2715-2719.
28. Slominski A, Baker J, Ermak G, et al. Ultraviolet B stimulates production of corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) by human melanocytes. FEBS Lett 1996;399:175-176.
29. Ott J. The eyes' dual function. Part 1. Eye Ear Nose Throat Mon 1974;53:276-281, 288.
30. Holick MF. Sunlight and vitamin D for bone health and prevention of autoimmune diseases, cancers, and cardiovascular disease. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;80(Suppl):1678S-1688S.
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Q: What does "Pseudo object oriented language" mean? What is meant by the term "pseudo object oriented language" ? i have found article that says its harmful but what is meant by it ? I have searched for the term and it doesn't say much.

A: I assume you are referring to this: http://www.idinews.com/westfall.pdf
Basically it isn't saying that the language is "pseudo oo", he is saying that the way it is being used is.
Just throwing objects into things and claiming that it makes it Object Oriented is wrong and teaches people bad habits. The example there just wraps a procedural methodology in an object, rather than truly being object oriented.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


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We get asked a lot whether new yacht owners will be comfortable piloting larger personal vessels (45ft+) by themselves, and without a captain. Although older vessels require quite a bit of skill and technique when it comes to close-range piloting, the newer yachts with either the Axius (Mercruiser) or IPS system (Volvo) allow for ease of use by any pilot, from the veteran sea-goer to newly-christened waterman. I'd venture to say, even a teenager with gaming skills could pilot a 50ft yacht like a pro- no experience necessary. The close-range piloting is no longer fighting single or twin screw transmissions; it's far more intuitive and natural.
The joystick is perhaps the most well-known feature of Volvo Penta IPS, making it possible to dock in a new and completely intuitive way. Since its release it has been accompanied by many other smart features, such as Dynamic Positioning System and Sportfish mode. The latest generation of Volvo Penta controls has integrated buttons for Low-speed mode, Single-lever mode and Cruise control, making it even easier to enjoy boating with Volvo Penta IPS.
There's little difference between Mercruiser's Zeus pods and the Volvo IPS pods… except that Volvo's support for mechanical issues might help you gear toward their IPS systems.


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Results for 'Elizabeth Burns [Philosophy Staff]'
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Images of Reality: Iris Murdoch's Five Ways From Art to Religion.Elizabeth Burns [Philosophy Staff] - 2015 - Religions 6 (3):875-890.details
Art plays a significant role in Iris Murdoch's moral philosophy, a major part of which may be interpreted as a proposal for the revision of religious belief. In this paper, I identify within Murdoch's philosophical writings five distinct but related ways in which great art can assist moral/religious belief and practice: art can reveal to us "the world as we were never able so clearly to see it before"; this revelatory capacity provides us with evidence for the existence of the (...) Good, a metaphor for a transcendent reality of which God was also a symbol; art is a "hall of reflection" in which "everything under the sun can be examined and considered"; art provides us with an analogue for the way in which we should try to perceive our world; and art enables us to transcend our selfish concerns. I consider three possible objections: that Murdoch's theory is not applicable to all forms of art; that the meaning of works of art is often ambiguous; and that there is disagreement about what constitutes a great work of art. I argue that none of these objections are decisive, and that all forms of art have at least the potential to furnish us with important tools for developing the insight required to live a moral/religious life. (shrink)
Between Philosophy and Art: A Collaboration at The Lock-Up, Newcastle.Jennifer A. McMahon, Elizabeth Burns Coleman, David Macarthur, James Phillips & Daniel von Sturmer - 2016 - Australasian Journal of Popular Culture 5 (2/3):135-150.details
At The Lock-Up in Newcastle one weekend in September 2015, a group of artists, musicians and performers, performed to an audience which included philosopher commentators. The idea was to look for points of intersection, interface or divergence between art and philosophy. However, what we found was that the commentators were not engaged in analysing what was simply given them, but instead actively constructing the meaning they would ascribe to the work. As such they were co-creators. The objective of this report (...) of the event is to establish a basis for more collaboration between art and philosophy in the future on the assumption that interdisciplinarity reveals possibilities and perspectives masked by the general insularity of well-established disciplines. (shrink)
Classical and Revisionary Theism on the Divine as Personal: A Rapprochement?Elizabeth Burns - 2015 - International Journal for Philosophy of Religion 78 (2):151-165.details
To claim that the divine is a person or personal is, according to Swinburne, 'the most elementary claim of theism'. I argue that, whether the classical theist's concept of the divine as a person or personal is construed as an analogy or a metaphor, or a combination of the two, analysis necessitates qualification of that concept such that any differences between the classical theist's concept of the divine as a person or personal and revisionary interpretations of that concept are merely (...) superficial. Thus, either the classical theist has more in common with revisionary theism than he/she might care to admit, or classical theism is a multi-faceted position which encompasses interpretations which some might regard as revisionist. This article also explores and employs the use of a gender-neutral pronoun in talk about God. (shrink)
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'Ontological' Arguments From Experience: Daniel A. Dombrowski, Iris Murdoch, and the Nature of Divine Reality.Elizabeth D. Burns - 2013 - Religious Studies 49 (4):459-480.details
Dombrowski and Murdoch offer versions of the ontological argument which aim to avoid two types of objection – those concerned with the nature of the divine, and those concerned with the move from an abstract concept to a mind-independent reality. For both, the nature of the concept of God/Good entails its instantiation, and both supply a supporting argument from experience. It is only Murdoch who successfully negotiates the transition from an abstract concept to the instantiation of that concept, however, and (...) this is achieved by means of an ontological argument from moral experience which, in a reversal of the Kantian doctrine, depends ultimately on a form of the cosmological argument. (shrink)
On an Alleged Case of Propaganda: Reply to McKinnon.Sophie R. Allen, Elizabeth Finneron-Burns, Mary Leng, Holly Lawford-Smith, Jane Clare Jones, Rebecca Reilly-Cooper & R. J. Simpson - manuscriptdetails
In her recent paper 'The Epistemology of Propaganda' Rachel McKinnon discusses what she refers to as 'TERF propaganda'. We take issue with three points in her paper. The first is her rejection of the claim that 'TERF' is a misogynistic slur. The second is the examples she presents as commitments of so-called 'TERFs', in order to establish that radical (and gender critical) feminists rely on a flawed ideology. The third is her claim that standpoint epistemology can be used to establish (...) that such feminists are wrong to worry about a threat of male violence in relation to trans women. In Section 1 we argue that 'TERF' is not a merely descriptive term; that to the extent that McKinnon offers considerations in support of the claim that 'TERF' is not a slur, these considerations fail; and that 'TERF' is a slur according to several prominent accounts in the contemporary literature. In Section 2, we argue that McKinnon misrepresents the position of gender critical feminists, and in doing so fails to establish the claim that the ideology behind these positions is flawed. In Section 3 we argue that McKinnon's criticism of Stanley fails, and one implication of this is that those she characterizes as 'positively privileged' cannot rely on the standpoint-relative knowledge of those she characterizes as 'negatively privileged'. We also emphasize in this section McKinnon's failure to understand and account for multiple axes of oppression, of which the cis/trans axis is only one. (shrink)
Where the Conflict Really Lies: Plantinga, the Challenge of Evil, and Religious Naturalism.Elizabeth D. Burns - 2014 - Philosophia Reformata 79 (1):66-82.details
In this paper I argue that, although Alvin Plantinga's Felix Culpa theodicy appears on only two pages of his recent book Where the Conflict Really Lies: Science, Religion and Naturalism (2011) (i.e. 58-59), it is of pivotal importance for the book as a whole. Plantinga argues that there is superficial conflict but deep concord between science and monotheism, and that there is superficial concord but deep conflict between science and naturalism. I contend that the weakness of the Felix Culpa theodicy (...) lends support to the view that there is more than superficial conflict between science and monotheism, and offer an alternative response to the challenge of evil which suggests that there might be, after all, concord between science and (religious) naturalism. (shrink)
Gender and Gender Terms1.Elizabeth Barnes - 2020 - Noûs 54 (3):704-730.details
Philosophical theories of gender are typically understood as theories of what it is to be a woman, a man, a nonbinary person, and so on. In this paper, I argue that this is a mistake. There's good reason to suppose that our best philosophical theory of gender might not directly match up to or give the extensions of ordinary gender categories like 'woman'.
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Quantum Entanglement, Bohmian Mechanics, and Humean Supervenience.Elizabeth Miller - 2014 - Australasian Journal of Philosophy 92 (3):567-583.details
David Lewis is a natural target for those who believe that findings in quantum physics threaten the tenability of traditional metaphysical reductionism. Such philosophers point to allegedly holistic entities they take both to be the subjects of some claims of quantum mechanics and to be incompatible with Lewisian metaphysics. According to one popular argument, the non-separability argument from quantum entanglement, any realist interpretation of quantum theory is straightforwardly inconsistent with the reductive conviction that the complete physical state of the world (...) supervenes on the intrinsic properties of and spatio-temporal relations between its point-sized constituents. Here I defend Lewis's metaphysical doctrine, and traditional reductionism more generally, against this alleged threat from quantum holism. After presenting the non-separability argument from entanglement, I show that Bohmian mechanics, an interpretation of quantum mechanics explicitly recognized as a realist one by proponents of the non-separability argument, plausibly rejects a key premise of that argument. Another holistic worry for Humeanism persists, however, the trouble being the apparently holistic character of the Bohmian pilot wave. I present a Humean strategy for addressing the holistic threat from the pilot wave by drawing on resources from the Humean best system account of laws. (shrink)
The Relationship Between Belief and Credence.Elizabeth G. Jackson - 2020 - Philosophy Compass 15 (6):1–13.details
Sometimes epistemologists theorize about belief, a tripartite attitude on which one can believe, withhold belief, or disbelieve a proposition. In other cases, epistemologists theorize about credence, a fine-grained attitude that represents one's subjective probability or confidence level toward a proposition. How do these two attitudes relate to each other? This article explores the relationship between belief and credence in two categories: descriptive and normative. It then explains the broader significance of the belief-credence connection and concludes with general lessons from the (...) debate thus far. (shrink)
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Realism and Social Structure.Elizabeth Barnes - 2017 - Philosophical Studies 174 (10):2417-2433.details
Social constructionism is often considered a form of anti-realism. But in contemporary feminist philosophy, an increasing number of philosophers defend views that are well-described as both realist and social constructionist. In this paper, I use the work of Sally Haslanger as an example of realist social constructionism. I argue: that Haslanger is best interpreted as defending metaphysical realism about social structures; that this type of metaphysical realism about the social world presents challenges to some popular ways of understanding metaphysical realism.
The Philosophy of Labour.C. Delisle Burns - 2015 - Routledge.details
Originally published in 1925, C. Delisle Burns' _The Philosophy of Labour _attempts to lay down key aspects of labour and the working class of that time period, covering aspects such as economic obstacles, standards of living and patriotism. Burns does not draw on past philosophers or sociological thinkers of the working-class and instead chose to focus only on the attitude of the workers in factories, mines, roads, railways and other forms of manual labour. This title will be of (...) interest to students of philosophy. (shrink)
Permissivism, Underdetermination, and Evidence.Elizabeth Jackson & Margaret Greta Turnbull - forthcoming - In Clayton Littlejohn & Maria Lasonen-Aarnio (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of the Philosophy of Evidence. New York: Routledge. pp. 1-13.details
Permissivism is the thesis that, for some body of evidence and a proposition p, there is more than one rational doxastic attitude any agent with that evidence can take toward p. Proponents of uniqueness deny permissivism, maintaining that every body of evidence always determines a single rational doxastic attitude. In this paper, we explore the debate between permissivism and uniqueness about evidence, outlining some of the major arguments on each side. We then consider how permissivism can be understood as an (...) underdetermination thesis, and show how this moves the debate forward in fruitful ways: in distinguishing between different types of permissivism, in dispelling classic objections to permissivism, and in shedding light on the relationship between permissivism and evidentialism. (shrink)
A Defense of Belief-Credence Dualism.Elizabeth Jackson - 2018 - In João Luis Pereira Ourique (ed.), Proceedings of the Fifth Conference of the Brazilian Society of Analytic Philosophy. Pelotas, Brazil: pp. 77-78.details
I defend belief-credence dualism, the view that we have both beliefs and credences and both attitudes are equally fundamental. First, I explain belief, credence, and three views on their relationship. Then, I argue for dualism. I do so first by painting a picture of the mind on which belief and credence are two cognitive tools that we use for different purposes. Finally, I respond to two objections to dualism. I conclude that dualism is a promising view, and one that both (...) epistemologists and philosophers of mind should take seriously. (shrink)
Reply to Guy Kahane and Julian Savulescu.Elizabeth Barnes - 2016 - Res Philosophica 93 (1):295-309.details
Guy Kahane and Julian Savulescu respond to my paper "Valuing Disability, Causing Disability" by arguing that my assessment of objections to the mere-difference view of disability is unconvincing and fails to explain their conviction that it is impermissible to cause disability. In reply, I argue that their response misconstrues, somewhat radically, both what I say in my paper and the commitments of the mere-difference view more generally. It also fails to adequately appreciate the unique epistemic factors present in philosophical discussions (...) of disability. (shrink)
The Trouble with Being Earnest: Deliberative Democracy and the Sincerity Norm.Elizabeth Markovits - 2006 - Journal of Political Philosophy 14 (3):249–269.details
This paper examines the idea that straight talk can actually pose certain dangers for democracy by asking two interrelated questions. First, does our belief in the importance of sincerity necessarily improve political deliberation? Second, does our belief cause us to under-appreciate other important communicative resources? We will see that much hinges on our answers to these questions because they deal directly with whose voices are to be considered legitimate and authoritative in our public sphere. This paper begins from a deliberative (...) democratic standpoint: democracy is a logocentric enterprise—that is, language is at the center of democratic political projects. So it is critical that we pay attention to how we evaluate political words. Otherwise, not only can we not really understand what is going on in the public sphere, but we are also more likely to make poor judgments about what sort of speech and speakers make our democracy more robust. -/- To explore these questions, this paper examines the discourse ethics that underwrite much of deliberative democratic theory (section I). It then goes on to discuss some of the dangers that the particular ethic of sincerity poses for democratic communication. The paper argues that the emphasis on sincerity: -/- 1) too easily collapses the relation between claims to truthfulness and truth claims and contributes to an undemocratic epistemology; 2) oversimplifies human psychology, ignoring the possibility of multiple and complexly related intentions; 3) denigrates "rhetorical" forms of speech; and 4) privileges a seemingly non-rhetorical mode of communication: hyper-sincerity. (shrink)
Wagering Against Divine Hiddenness.Elizabeth Jackson - 2016 - European Journal for Philosophy of Religion 8 (4):85-108.details
J.L. Schellenberg argues that divine hiddenness provides an argument for the conclusion that God does not exist, for if God existed he would not allow non-resistant non-belief to occur, but non-resistant non-belief does occur, so God does not exist. In this paper, I argue that the stakes involved in theistic considerations put pressure on Schellenberg's premise that non-resistant non-belief occurs. First, I specify conditions for someone's being a resistant non-believer. Then, I argue that many people fulfill these conditions because, given (...) some plausible assumptions, there is a very good pragmatic reason to be a theist rather than an atheist. I assume it is more likely that theists go to heaven than atheists, and I argue there is a non-zero probability that one can receive infinite utility and a method of comparing outcomes with infinite utilities in which the probability of each outcome affects the final expected values. Then, I show how this argument entails there is no good reason to think that there are very many non-resistant non-believers. (shrink)
Credence: A Belief-First Approach.Andrew Moon & Elizabeth Jackson - 2020 - Canadian Journal of Philosophy 50 (5):652–669.details
This paper explains and defends a belief-first view of the relationship between belief and credence. On this view, credences are a species of beliefs, and the degree of credence is determined by the content of what is believed. We begin by developing what we take to be the most plausible belief-first view. Then, we offer several arguments for it. Finally, we show how it can resist objections that have been raised to belief-first views. We conclude that the belief-first view is (...) more plausible than many have previously supposed. (shrink)
The Curious Case of Collective Experience: Edith Stein's Phenomenology of Communal Experience and a Spanish Fire-Walking Ritual.Burns Timothy - 2016 - The Humanistic Psychologist 44 (4):366-380.details
In everyday language, we readily attribute experiences to groups. For example, 1 might say, "Spain celebrated winning the European Cup" or "The uncovering of corruption caused the union to think long and hard about its internal structure." In each case, the attribution makes sense. However, it is quite difficult to give a nonreductive account of precisely what these statements mean because in each case a mental state is ascribed to a group, and it is not obvious that groups can have (...) mental states. In this article, I do not offer an explicit theory of collective experience. Instead, I draw on phenomenological analyses and empirical data in order to provide general conditions that a more specific theory of collective experience must meet in order to be coherent. (shrink)
Agency, Identity, and Narrative: Making Sense of the Self in Same-Sex Divorce.Elizabeth Victor - 2013 - APA Newsletter on Philosophy and Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Issues 12 (2):16-19.details
I argue that same-sex divorce presents a different kind of potential constraint to the agency of persons pursuing the dissolution of their marriage; a constraint upon one's counterstory and the reconstitution of one's personal identity. The dialectic within the paper mirrors the movements that I have had to make as I have sought to constitute and reconstitute myself throughout my divorce process. Beginning from a juridical perspective, I examine how the constraints on same-sex divorce present constraints on one's agency that (...) are antithetical to the spirit of a liberal democratic conception of freedom of movement. I then explore the role of narrative in my self-(re)constitution, as well as the limits of the narrative and counterstories, when the institutional framework of the State fails to acknowledge the change in my State-sanctioned personal relationship. I end by arguing that this view from the law ignores the ways in which we relationally constitute ourselves, and in so doing covers over the harms done to persons that find themselves in a married-yet-not state of limbo. (shrink)
Getting It: On Jokes and Art.Steven Burns & Alice MacLachlan - 2004 - AE: Journal of the Canadian Society of Aesthetics 10.details
"What is appreciation?" is a basic question in the philosophy of art, and the analogy between appreciating a work of art and getting a joke can help us answer it. We first propose a subjective account of aesthetic appreciation (I). Then we consider jokes (II). The difference between getting a joke and not, or what it is to get it right, can often be objectively articulated. Such explanations cannot substitute for the joke itself, and indeed may undermine the very power (...) of the joke to evoke an appropriate response. Sometimes the discourse of art critics can have a similar effect. We therefore explore the analogy between getting jokes and appreciating works of art (III), and find it unexpectedly strong. Finally (IV), we consider Wittgensteinian grounds for thinking as we do, considering the language game of joke-telling, the relevance of seeing aspects, and giving reasons. (shrink)
From Nature to Spirit: Husserl's Phenomenology of the Person in Ideen II.Timothy Burns - 2014 - Perspectives: International Postgraduate Journal of Philosophy 5 (1):4-22.details
In this article, I explicate Husserl's phenomenology of the person as found in Ideen II by examining the most important aspects of persons in this work. In the first section, I explicate the concept of the surrounding world (Umwelt) with special attention to the difference between the different attitudes (Einstellungen) that help determine the sense of constituted objects of experience. In the second section, I investigate Husserl's description of the person as a founded, higher order, spiritual (geistig) objectivity. I consider (...) this description of the person by examining the symmetry between the organization of Ideen II as a whole and the order of the constitution of the person. In the final section, I look at the relationship between the constitution of the person and the spiritual (geistig) world. (shrink)
Vagueness, Indiscernibility, and Pragmatics: Comments on Burns.Achille C. Varzi - 1995 - Southern Journal of Philosophy 33 (S1):49-49.details
In 'Something to Do with Vagueness ...', Linda Burns defends an analogy between the informational and the borderline-case variety of vagueness. She argues that the latter is in fact less extraordinary and less disastrous than people in the tradition of Michael Dummett and Crispin Wright have told us. However, her account involves presuppositions that cannot be taken for granted. Here is to take a closer look at some of these presuppositions and argue hat they may—when left unguarded—undermine much of (...) Burns' general account. (shrink)
Philosophy of Mind and Cognitive Science Since 1980.Elizabeth Schier & John Sutton - 2014 - In Graham Oppy & Nick Trakakis (eds.), History of Philosophy in Australia and New Zealand. New York: Springer.details
If Australasian philosophers constitute the kind of group to which a collective identity or broadly shared self-image can plausibly be ascribed, the celebrated history of Australian materialism rightly lies close to its heart. Jack Smart's chapter in this volume, along with an outstanding series of briefer essays in A Companion to Philosophy in Australia and New Zealand (Forrest 2010; Gold 2010; Koksvik 2010; Lycan 2010; Matthews 2010; Nagasawa 2010; Opie 2010; Stoljar 2010a), effectively describe the naturalistic realism of Australian philosophy (...) of mind. In occasional semi-serious psychogeographic speculation, this long-standing and strongly-felt intellectual attitude has been traced back to the influences of our light, land, or lifestyle (Devitt 1996, x; compare comments by Chalmers and O'Brien in Mitchell, 2006). Australasian work in philosophy of mind and cognition has become more diverse in the last 40 years, but is almost all still marked, in one way or another, by the history of these debates on materialism. (shrink)
Deep Brain Stimulation, Authenticity and Value.Sven Nyholm & Elizabeth O'Neill - 2017 - Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 26 (4):658-670.details
In this paper, we engage in dialogue with Jonathan Pugh, Hannah Maslen, and Julian Savulescu about how to best interpret the potential impacts of deep brain stimulation on the self. We consider whether ordinary people's convictions about the true self should be interpreted in essentialist or existentialist ways. Like Pugh et al., we argue that it is useful to understand the notion of the true self as having both essentialist and existentialist components. We also consider two ideas from existentialist philosophy (...) – Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir's ideas about "bad faith" and "ambiguity" – to argue that there can be value to patients in regarding themselves as having a certain amount of freedom to choose what aspects of themselves should be considered representative of their true selves. Lastly, we consider the case of an anorexia nervosa-patient who shifts between conflicting mind-sets. We argue that mind-sets in which it is easier for the patient and his or her family to share values can plausibly be considered to be more representative of the patient's true self, if this promotes a well-functioning relationship between the patient and the family. However, we also argue that families are well-advised to give patients room to figure out what such shared values mean to them, since it can be alienating for patients if they feel that others try to impose values on them from the outside. (shrink)
Elizabeth Millán-Zaibert, Friedrich Schlegel and the Emergence of Romantic Philosophy. [REVIEW]Meade Mccloughan - 2008 - Philosophy in Review 28 (4):287-289.details
Elizabeth Anscombe and Contraception.Anthony McCarthy - 2019 - Logos I Ethos 50:47-65.details
In the 1960s, before the promulgation of Humanae Vitae, the Catholic philosophers Elizabeth Anscombe and Herbert McCabe OP debated whether there are convincing natural law arguments for the claim that contraception violates an exceptionless moral norm. This article revisits those arguments and critiques McCabe's approach to natural law, concerned primarily with 'social sin' and not simply violations of 'right reason,' as one particularly ill-suited to addressing questions in sexual ethics and unable both to distinguish properly between certain forms of (...) sexual wrongdoing and more obviously social sins such as theft, and also to distinguish between 'natural' and 'unnatural' sexual acts. Anscombe's views, I argue, are closer to those of Thomas Aquinas and provide reasons for making the distinctions McCabe does not. An argument concerning the nature of the institution of marriage and the effects of non-marital acts on that institution is proposed as a way of strengthening Anscombe's argument that contraception violates an exceptionless moral norm. (shrink)
Review of Constantine Sandis, Character and Causation: Hume's Philosophy of Action. [REVIEW]Elizabeth S. Radcliffe - 2017 - Hume Studies 43 (1):139-42.details
This review offers an overview of Sandis's book and raises a few questions about it.
The Relation of Brentano to British Philosophy.Elizabeth Valentine - 2003 - Brentano Studien. Internationales Jahrbuch der Franz Brentano Forschung 10:263-268.details
Elizabeth Anscombe on Consequentialism and Absolute Prohibitions.Sergio Volodia Marcello Cremaschi - 2012 - Danish Yearbook of Philosophy 47:7-39.details
I discuss the third of Anscombe's theses from "Modern Moral Philosophy", namely that post-Sidgwickian consequentialism makes the worst action acceptable. I scrutinize her comprehension of "consequentialism", her reconstruction of Sidgwick's view of intention, her defence of casuistry, her reformulation of the double-effect doctrine, and her view of morality as based on Divine commands. I argue that her characterization of consequentialism suffers from lack of understanding of the history of utilitarianism and its self-transformation through the Intuitionism-Utilitarianism controversy; that she uncritically accepted (...) an impoverished image of Kantian ethics and intuitionism, which was, ironically, an unaware bequest from her consequentialist opponents; that her action theory, yet, is a decisive contribution that may prove useful in formulating answers to questions that have been left open in both utilitarian and Kantian or intuitionist theories; that, to make the best of her actions theory, it is as well to drop her divine law view of ethics, which is incompatible with the former; and that the rather obscure traditional theological doctrine of absolute prohibitions is unnecessary to her project that could fare well with the more sober distinction between perfect and imperfect duties. (shrink)
Mathematics as Make-Believe: A Constructive Empiricist Account.Sarah Elizabeth Hoffman - 1999 - Dissertation, University of Alberta (Canada)details
Any philosophy of science ought to have something to say about the nature of mathematics, especially an account like constructive empiricism in which mathematical concepts like model and isomorphism play a central role. This thesis is a contribution to the larger project of formulating a constructive empiricist account of mathematics. The philosophy of mathematics developed is fictionalist, with an anti-realist metaphysics. In the thesis, van Fraassen's constructive empiricism is defended and various accounts of mathematics are considered and rejected. Constructive empiricism (...) cannot be realist about abstract objects; it must reject even the realism advocated by otherwise ontologically restrained and epistemologically empiricist indispensability theorists. Indispensability arguments rely on the kind of inference to the best explanation the rejection of which is definitive of constructive empiricism. On the other hand, formalist and logicist anti-realist positions are also shown to be untenable. It is argued that a constructive empiricist philosophy of mathematics must be fictionalist. Borrowing and developing elements from both Philip Kitcher's constructive naturalism and Kendall Walton's theory of fiction, the account of mathematics advanced treats mathematics as a collection of stories told about an ideal agent and mathematical objects as fictions. The account explains what true portions of mathematics are about and why mathematics is useful, even while it is a story about an ideal agent operating in an ideal world; it connects theory and practice in mathematics with human experience of the phenomenal world. At the same time, the make-believe and game-playing aspects of the theory show how we can make sense of mathematics as fiction, as stories, without either undermining that explanation or being forced to accept abstract mathematical objects into our ontology. All of this occurs within the framework that constructive empiricism itself provides the epistemological limitations it mandates, the semantic view of theories, and an emphasis on the pragmatic dimension of our theories, our explanations, and of our relation to the language we use. (shrink)
Franciscan Philosophy at Oxford in the Thirteenth Century.Dorothea Elizabeth Sharp - 1930 - Farnborough (Hants.)Gregg P..details
Robert Grosseteste.--Thomas of York.--Roger Bacon.--John Pecham.--Richard of Middleton.--Duns Scotus.--Conclusion.--Bibliography (p. [409]-412).
Between Philosophy and Art.Jennifer A. McMahon, Elizabeth B. Coleman, David Macarthur, James Phillips & Daniel von Sturmer - 2016 - Australasian Journal of Popular Culture 5 (2/3):135-150.details
Similarity and difference, patterns of variation, consistency and coherence: these are the reference points of the philosopher. Understanding experience, exploring ideas through particular instantiations, novel and innovative thinking: these are the reference points of the artist. However, at certain points in the proceedings of our Symposium titled, Next to Nothing: Art as Performance, this characterisation of philosopher and artist respectively might have been construed the other way around. The commentator/philosophers referenced their philosophical interests through the particular examples/instantiations created by the (...) artist and in virtue of which they were then able to engage with novel and innovative thinking. From the artists' presentations, on the other hand, emerged a series of contrasts within which philosophical and artistic ideas resonated. This interface of philosopher-artist bore witness to the fact that just as art approaches philosophy in providing its own analysis, philosophy approaches art in being a co-creator of art's meaning. In what follows, we discuss the conception of philosophy-art that emerged from the Symposium, and the methodological minimalism which we employed in order to achieve it. We conclude by drawing out an implication of the Symposium's achievement which is that a counterpoint to Institutional theories of art may well be the point from which future directions will take hold, if philosophy-art gains traction. (shrink)
New Waves in Philosophy of Technology.Amy E. Wendling & Elizabeth M. Sokolowski - 2010 - Historical Materialism 18 (2):195-207.details
Essay Review of New Waves in the Philosophy of Technology (Olsen/Selinger). Treats issue of difference of technology in Marx and Heidegger at some length.
Ruminations on Ruinations.Elizabeth Scarbrough - 2018 - The Philosophers' Magazine 81:62-67.details
What to Do with Dead Monuments.Elizabeth Scarbrough - 2020 - The Philosophers' Magazine 91:26-32.details
I propose that removed statues be placed in a monument graveyard. This would transfigure a monument, whose purpose is to honour a person or evoke a "glorious past," into a memorial, whose purpose is to help us grieve. Thus, we dethrone the man who committed violent racists acts, like Edward Colson, and place the statue's corpse in a graveyard. This repurposing will give old monuments new meanings more in line with our contemporary values.
Why Credences Are Not Beliefs.Elizabeth Jackson - forthcoming - Australasian Journal of Philosophy.details
A question of recent interest in epistemology and philosophy of mind is how belief and credence relate to each other. A number of philosophers argue for a belief-first view of the relationship between belief and credence. On the belief-first view, what it is to have a credence just is to have a particular kind of belief, that is, a belief whose content involves probabilities or epistemic modals. Here, I argue against the belief-first view: specifically, I argue that it cannot account (...) for agents who have credences in propositions they barely comprehend. I conclude that, however credences differ from beliefs, they do not differ in virtue of adding additional content to the believed proposition. (shrink)
Introduction: Possibilities of Embodiment.Elizabeth A. Behnke & Cristian Ciocan - 2012 - Studia Phaenomenologica 12:11-15.details
Elizabeth Anscombe e la svolta normativa del 1958.Sergio Volodia Marcello Cremaschi - 2010 - In Juan Andrés Mercado (ed.), Elisabeth Anscombe e la psicologia morale. Roma, Italy: Armando. pp. 43-80.details
I discuss the three theses defended by Anscombe in 'Modern Moral Philosophy'. I argue that: a) her answer to the question "why should I be moral?" requires a solution of the problem of theodicy and ignores any attempts to save the moral point of view without recourse to divine retribution; b) her notion of divine law is an odd one, more neo-Augustinian than Biblical or Scholastic; c) her image of Kantian ethics and intuitionism is the impoverished image manufactured by consequentialist (...) opponents for polemical purposes, which she seems to endorse even though it is an image manufactured by the same writers she choose as a polemical target; d) the difficulty to identify the "relevant descriptions" of acts is not an argument in favor of an ethics of virtue and against consequentialism or Kantian ethics, and indeed the role of judgment in the latter is precisely a response to difficulties raised by the case of judgment concerning future action, a case for which Anscombe herself has nothing better to offer. (shrink)
Political Disagreement: Epistemic or Civic Peers?Elizabeth Edenberg - forthcoming - In Michael Hannon & Jeroen De Ridder (eds.), Routledge Handbook of Political Epistemology.details
This chapter brings together debates in political philosophy and epistemology over what we should do when we disagree. While it might be tempting to think that we can apply one debate to the other, there are significant differences that may threaten this project. The specification of who qualifies as a civic or epistemic peer are not coextensive, utilizing different idealizations in denoting peerhood. In addition, the scope of disagreements that are relevant vary according to whether the methodology chosen falls within (...) ideal theory or nonideal theory. Finally, the two literatures focus on different units of analysis that diverge according to the philosophical purpose behind their investigation of disagreement. Epistemologists analyze the rationality of individuals' belief states whereas political philosophers focus on the just governance of a diverse society. Despite these differences, political epistemologists can learn valuable lessons by considering these debates side by side in order to provide insights that address a host of different challenges posed by political disagreement. The core lesson to draw from the disanalogies outlined in this paper is that to make progress, careful attention should be paid to specifying the goal of any particular project within political epistemology. (shrink)
Children, Fetuses, and the Non-Existent: Moral Obligations and the Beginning of Life.Elizabeth Jackson - forthcoming - Journal of Medicine and Philosophy.details
The morality of abortion is a longstanding controversy. One may wonder whether it's even possible to make significant progress on an issue over which so much ink has already been split and there is such polarizing disagreement (Boyle 1994). The papers in this issue show that this progress is possible—there is more to be said about abortion and other crucial beginning-of-life issues. They do so largely by applying contemporary philosophical tools to moral questions involving life's beginning. The first two papers (...) defend the pro-life view from recent objections involving miscarriage and abortion doctors. The third shows how the social model of disability and the concept of transformative experience applies to classic debates like abortion and euthanasia. The final two papers address how rights and harms apply to children and to beings that do not yet exist. All five papers make a noteworthy contribution to the moral issues that arise at the beginning of life. (shrink)
Teaching & Learning Guide For: The Relationship Between Belief and Credence.Elizabeth G. Jackson - 2020 - Philosophy Compass 15 (6).details
This guide accompanies the following article(s): Jackson, E., Philosophy Compass 15/6 (2020) pp. 1-13 10.1111/phc3.12668.x.
Precis of The Minority Body.Elizabeth Barnes - 2020 - Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 100 (1):207-208.details
Replies to Commentaries.Elizabeth Barnes - 2020 - Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 100 (1):232-243.details
Exploring People's Beliefs About the Experience of Time.Jack Shardlow, Ruth Lee, Christoph Hoerl, Teresa McCormack, Patrick Burns & Alison S. Fernandes - forthcoming - Synthese:1-23.details
Philosophical debates about the metaphysics of time typically revolve around two contrasting views of time. On the A-theory, time is something that itself undergoes change, as captured by the idea of the passage of time; on the B-theory, all there is to time is events standing in before/after or simultaneity relations to each other, and these temporal relations are unchanging. Philosophers typically regard the A-theory as being supported by our experience of time, and they take it that the B-theory clashes (...) with how we experience time and therefore faces the burden of having to explain away that clash. In this paper, we investigate empirically whether these intuitions about the experience of time are shared by the general public. We asked directly for people's subjective reports of their experience of time—in particular, whether they believe themselves to have a phenomenology as of time's passing—and we probed their understanding of what time's passage in fact is. We find that a majority of participants do share the aforementioned intuitions, but interestingly a minority do not. (shrink)
Review of Elizabeth A. Wilson, Neural Geographies: Feminism and the Microstructure of Cognition. [REVIEW]John Sutton - 1999 - Philosophy in Review/ Comptes Rendus Philosophiques:299-301.details
Writing within and against the set critical practices of psychoanalytic-deconstructive-Foucauldian-feminist cultural theory, Elizabeth Wilson demonstrates, in this provocative and original book, the productivity and the pleasure of direct, complicitous engagement with the contemporary cognitive sciences. Wilson forges an eclectic method in reaction to the 'zealous but disavowed moralism' of those high cultural Theorists whose 'disciplining compulsion' concocts a monolithic picture of science in order to keep their 'sanitizing critical practice' untainted by its sinister reductionism. Her unsettling accounts of texts (...) by, for example, Karl Popper, Judith Butler, Derrida, Turing, Ebbinghaus and Freud will send many readers back to the sources. It is no surprise that such a broad and ambitious project leaves many threads loose, and no criticism at all that it succeeds more in hinting at the promise of a new connectionist politics than in offering up such a hybrid fully-formed. (shrink)
Grounding Knowledge and Normative Valuation in Agent-Based Action and Scientific Commitment.Catherine Elizabeth Kendig - 2018 - In Hauke Riesch, Nathan Emmerich & Steven Wainwright (eds.), Philosophies and Sociologies of Bioethics: Crossing the Divides. Cham, Switzerland: pp. 41-64.details
Philosophical investigation in synthetic biology has focused on the knowledge-seeking questions pursued, the kind of engineering techniques used, and on the ethical impact of the products produced. However, little work has been done to investigate the processes by which these epistemological, metaphysical, and ethical forms of inquiry arise in the course of synthetic biology research. An attempt at this work relying on a particular area of synthetic biology will be the aim of this chapter. I focus on the reengineering of (...) metabolic pathways through the manipulation and construction of small DNA-based devices and systems synthetic biology. Rather than focusing on the engineered products or ethical principles that result, I will investigate the processes by which these arise. As such, the attention will be directed to the activities of practitioners, their manipulation of tools, and the use they make of techniques to construct new metabolic devices. Using a science-in-practice approach, I investigate problems at the intersection of science, philosophy of science, and sociology of science. I consider how practitioners within this area of synthetic biology reconfigure biological understanding and ethical categories through active modelling and manipulation of known functional parts, biological pathways for use in the design of microbial machines to solve problems in medicine, technology, and the environment. We might describe this kind of problem-solving as relying on what Helen Longino referred to as "social cognition" or the type of scientific work done within what Hasok Chang calls "systems of practice". My aim in this chapter will be to investigate the relationship that holds between systems of practice within metabolic engineering research and social cognition. I will attempt to show how knowledge and normative valuation are generated from this particular network of practitioners. In doing so, I suggest that the social nature of scientific inquiry is ineliminable to both knowledge acquisition and ethical evaluations. (shrink)
Andy Clark and His Critics.Matteo Colombo, Elizabeth Irvine & Mog Stapleton (eds.) - 2019 - Oxford University Press.details
In this volume, a range of high-profile researchers in philosophy of mind, philosophy of cognitive science, and empirical cognitive science, critically engage with Clark's work across the themes of: Extended, Embodied, Embedded, Enactive, and Affective Minds; Natural Born Cyborgs; and Perception, Action, and Prediction. Daniel Dennett provides a foreword on the significance of Clark's work, and Clark replies to each section of the book, thus advancing current literature with original contributions that will form the basis for new discussions, debates and (...) directions in the discipline. (shrink)
A Guide to Political Epistemology.Michael Hannon & Elizabeth Edenberg - forthcoming - In Jennifer Lackey & Aidan McGlynn (eds.), Oxford Handbook of Social Epistemology.details
Political epistemology is a newly flourishing area of philosophy, but there is no comprehensive overview to this burgeoning field. This chapter maps out the terrain of political epistemology, highlights some of the key questions and topics of this field, draws connections across seemingly disparate areas of work, and briefly situates this field within its historical and contemporary contexts.
The Moral Status of an Action Influences its Perceived Intentional Status in Adolescents with Psychopathic Traits.Elise Cardinale, Elizabeth Finger, Julia Schechter, Ilana Jurkowitz, R. J. R. Blair & Abigail Marsh - 2014 - In Tania Lombrozo, Joshua Knobe & Shaun Nichols (eds.), Oxford Studies in Experimental Philosophy: Volume 1. Oxford University Press. pp. 131-151.details
Moral judgments about an action are influenced by the action's intentionality. The reverse is also true: judgments of intentionality can be influenced by an action's moral valence. For example, respondents judge a harmful side-effect of an intended outcome to be more intentional than a helpful side-effect. Debate continues regarding the mechanisms underlying this "side-effect effect" and the conditions under which it will persist. The research behind this chapter tested whether the side-effect effect is intact in adolescents with psychopathic traits, who (...) are characterized by persistent immoral behavior, deficient moral emotions, and impairments in some forms of moral judgment. Results showed no differences between healthy adolescents and those with psychopathic traits: both groups judged harmful side-effects to be more intentional than helpful side-effects by an approximately 2:1 ratio. The chapter discusses these results in light of hypothesized mechanisms underlying the side-effect effect, and in light of our current understanding of moral reasoning deficits in psychopathy. (shrink)
Getting to the Point Commentary on Elizabeth Anderson's "Uses of Value Judgments in Science".Sharyn Clough - 2006 - Symposia on Gender, Race and Philosophy Volume 1, Number 2. January 2006.details
In lieu of an abstract here is the first paragraph: -/- I mean the subtitle of my essay both as praise for the clarity with which Elizabeth Anderson writes about what is at stake in debates about values in science, and as a promise to outline an even more direct route to the heart of the matter. I begin with a quick review of the steps in Anderson's argument that seem necessary and, indeed, laudable, followed by a brief discussion (...) of those steps in her argument that we might fruitfully skip. The hope is that we will arrive at roughly the same location but with a firmer foothold. (shrink)
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Home Lifestyle Entertainment Nigeria's National Electricity Commission (NERC) on Thursday disclosed that all Nigerian homes...
Nigeria's National Electricity Commission (NERC) on Thursday disclosed that all Nigerian homes will have access to prepaid meters by 2020. NERC chairman James Momoh made the disclosure on Channels Television 'Sunrise Daily' show. "With all the mechanisms we have put in place, I am certain that every Nigerian home that wishes to have prepaid meter can have it by 2020," Momoh said. Current Nigeria government claim it is supplying 7000 megawatts of electricity generation, having improved it from 3000 where it was in 2015. However, other African countries boast of better electricity supply than Nigeria. South Africa, which has 56 million population compared to Nigeria's 180 million has a total domestic electricity generation capacity of 51,309 megawatts. Momoh stated that the current Muhammadu Buhari led government since 2015 had been working on providing Nigerians with stable and affordable electricity.
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After a brief hiatus in the music scene, Bukola Elemide, popularly known as Asa, has announced to SaharaTV that she will release her next album early next year.
Four years ago, in 2014 precisely, was the last time the singer released a complete body of work. The project which was titled 'Bed of Stone' was well received as singles like 'Dead Again', 'Eyo', 'Satan Be Gone' and 'The One That Never Comes' became instant favourites with Asa's fans.
Asa has been going on a world tour which took place from 2015 to 2018. However, within that period, fans have called for new songs from the artiste.
SaharaReporters had earlier written a feature article asking the whereabouts of the singer.
In an interview with SaharaTV on Thursday, she revealed that her next project would be early next year. Upon release, Asa said she will be going on tour.
"My next album is ready and I am excited. I think you'd like it because I enjoyed it. I love the songs in them and I am very excited to introduce it to people. So, early next year. There is going to be a tour definitely, Nigeria," She told SaharaTV.
Speaking further, Asa who is in Nigeria, said her stay in Nigeria has been good. "It's home. I'm home with my family and friends. It's been good," the soulful singer said.
Asa was born in Paris to Nigerian parents and she grew up listening to artistes like Marvin Gaye, Fela Kuti, Bob Marley, Aretha Franklin, King Sunny Adé, Diana Ross, Nina Simone, whom she learnt from. Her first album was self-titled 'Asa', which was released in 2007 with production credit to Cobhams Asuquo.
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In their perception of reality people can't avoid personal context. In this process, emotions are assigned to the reality that is perceived. This distorts the world that appear to our senses. This distortions are the result of the past experiences, current mood, use of the attributions and – although this element has been omitted in the previous studies – the perception of time. The way in which we see the world around us, and especially our interpretation of incoming stimuli, have a primary influence on the creation of a sense of fear. Moreover, the perceived level of fear determines the way we perceive the world around us. This leads to a vicious circle which affect the individual sense of security. The lack of fulfillment of the need for security affects human life and development and is now one of the most important problems facing whole society and individual human beings. This is particularly true for the members of social groups involved in providing safety for the public.


The Colleges of the University of Cambridge are committed to the principle that no student should be deterred from studying for an undergraduate degree at the University of Cambridge by financial considerations. There are many sources of support available including Government-funded student loans and bursaries, University bursaries and bursaries offered by the College.
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#1530 Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised (12th Edition) - 7-HOLE PUNCHED
Due to a high volume of orders, this item may take longer to ship.
Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised (RONR) is the most comprehensive and most recognized authority on parliamentary procedure. It is used throughout the world by non-profit and not-for-profit organizations. RONR provides operational guidelines for members, officers, boards and committees. It answers most parliamentary questions and provides examples of terminology for use by members and officers. RONR provides essential information to ensure that meetings are fair and efficient.
The 12th edition supports modern technology while retaining the fundamental principals of parliamentary procedure—rules based on the rights of the majority, of the minority, of individual members, of absentees, and of all of these together.
Updated features of the 12th edition include section-based paragraph numbering to facilitate cross-references and e-book compatibility, an expanded appendix of charts, tables and lists, helpful summary explanations about postponing a motion, reconsidering a vote, making and enforcing points of order and appeals, and newly expanded procedures for filling blanks, new provisions regarding debate on nominations, reopening nominations, and completing an election after its scheduled time. This edition provides dozens more clarifications and additions to improve the presentation of existing rules, include new interpretations, and address common inquiries.
The pre-punched edition is only available at the National Association of Parliamentarians and contains the same information as the paperback and fits in our Deluxe Binder.
The pre-punched RONR is slightly larger than 4 ½ x 6 ½ inches, 816 pages.


My cramping got better last night and isn't too bad today. I haven't felt as nauseous today, but when I went to eat I was. For lunch I got my favorite stomboli with blue cheese dressing for dipping and my first bite was terrible. The blue cheese just tasted gross. I have some back pain, but I don't want to count on that because I have problems with my back some times. I also just went to the bathroom and had some CM, but it had a slight brownish tint to it. Of course I could just be imagining that too, I decided to put on a light day anyway. So how are you feeling today?
hey, last night was terrible for me.. loads of cramping... but i think that was coz i walked a lot yday lol!!! but today it reduced ... having a little back pain.... saw some spotting lst night but i think am imaginig.. today felt dizzy at times... no food was tasty... very very very tired and sleeeeeeeeepyyyyyyyyy... am going to test tomorrow 1st pee... all the best ! wish me luck too... lolll!!!!!!!!!


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Sexolog er en person, som beskæftiger med sexologi, der er læren om menneskets seksualitet. I Danmark er titlen "sexolog" ikke beskyttet og kan benyttes af alle, også personer med ingen relevant uddannelse overhovedet. Patienter kan således behandles af ikke-autoriserede behandlere, hvor de kun er beskyttet af Forbrugerklagenævnet i stedet for at være beskyttet af fagpersoner, som er omfattet af Sundhedsstyrelsens autorisationssystem ligesom læger, sygeplejersker, jordemødre og psykologer.

I Danmark findes der kun to offentlige danske sexologiske klinikker, en ved Regionshospitalet i Randers og en på Rigshospitalet i København. Ved disse klinikker er der ansat sundhedsfagligt personale med en offentlig klinisk specialistuddannelse i sexologi fra universitet.

Private foreninger udbyder kortere eller længere uddannelser i sexologi. For eksempel udbyder Dansk Forening for Klinisk Sexologi tre uddannelser i foreningens regi: Basis sexologi på et år og den to årige Councellor in Clinical Sexology, der kan få såkaldt autorisation gennem Nordic Association for Clinical Sexology.

Offentlige personligheder som Jakob Olrik, Joan Ørting, Carl-Mar Møller, Yazmin Fox, etc har ligeledes private uddannelser og kurser af sexologisk art, som ikke er kliniske sexologer og disse personer har ikke gennemgået universitetsuddannelsen i Klinisk Sexologi, men har valgt at kalde sig sexologer med baggrund i deres uddannelse og livserfaring.

Kritik
Der foreligger eksempler på, at mange par har fået deres sexliv fuldstændig ødelagt i flere år, fordi såkaldte "sexologer" har fejldiagnosticeret og blandt andet behandler med samtale i situationer, hvor der er brug for medicinsk behandling.

Eksterne henvisninger

Offentlig regi
Sexologiske kliniker under offentlig regi der tilbyder behandling af forskellige sexologiske problemer. Det kan fx være af psykiatrisk, psykologisk eller kropslig og social art.
 Sexologisk Klinik ved Rigshospitalet - Region Hovedstaden. Set den 28. december 2017.
 Regionshospitalet Randers - JSK Jysk Sexologisk Klinik. Set den 28. december 2017.

Private regi
 Dansk Forening for Klinisk Sexologi. Privat forening, stiftet i år 1981.
 Dansk sexologforening. Privat forening, stiftet i år 2006.
 Nordic Association for Clinical Sexology. Privat forening, stiftet i år 1981.

Referencer

Sexologi

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Light-flooded and reay to enjoy, this stylish apartment in a coveted East-end pocket takes contemporary beachside living to the next level. Showcasing an intuitively designed, open yet private interior layout capturing cooling sea breezes, its main focal point is an all-weather terrace offering views through to the blue waters of Newcastle Harbour. The electric kitchen, three bedrooms, two bathrooms and secure carpark complete this prized lifestyle opportunity that lies footsteps to popular restaurants, wine bars, cafes and the city's iconic surf beaches.
- Combined living/dining with alfresco flow and a sunlit northerly aspect.
- Well-appointed master with ensuite bathrooom.
- Two further bedrooms served by a spotless main bathroom.
- Modern electric kitchen showcasing smooth granite benchtops.
- Split-system air conditioning; secure building entry and carpark.