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For warfare on the Internet, see Cyberwarfare. For the Underground Resistance album, see Electronic Warfare (album).
Find sources: "Electronic warfare" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Electronic warfare (EW) is any action involving the use of the electromagnetic spectrum (EM spectrum) or directed energy to control the spectrum, attack an enemy, or impede enemy assaults. The purpose of electronic warfare is to deny the opponent the advantage of, and ensure friendly unimpeded access to, the EM spectrum. EW can be applied from air, sea, land, and/or space by manned and unmanned systems, and can target humans, communication, radar, or other assets (military and civilian).[1][2]
1 The Electromagnetic Environment
2 Subdivisions
2.1 Electronic Attack
2.2 Electronic Protection
2.3 Electronic warfare support
6.1 Citations
The Electromagnetic Environment[edit]
Military operations are executed in an information environment increasingly complicated by the electromagnetic spectrum; the electromagnetic spectrum portion of the information environment is referred to as the Electromagnetic Environment (EME). The recognized need for military forces to have unimpeded access to and use of the electromagnetic environment creates vulnerabilities and opportunities for electronic warfare in support of military operations.[1]
Within the information operations construct, EW is an element of information warfare; more specifically, it is an element of offensive and defensive counterinformation.[3]
NATO has a different and arguably[citation needed] more encompassing and comprehensive approach to EW. A military committee conceptual document from 2007 (MCM_0142 Nov 2007 Military Committee Transformation Concept for Future NATO Electronic Warfare)[citation needed] recognised the EME as an operational maneuver space and warfighting environment/domain. In NATO, EW is considered to be warfare in the EME. NATO has adopted simplified language which parallels those used in the other warfighting environments like maritime, land and air/space. For example, Electronic Attack is offensive use of EM energy, Electronic Defence (ED) and Electronic Surveillance (ES); the use of the traditional NATO EW terms, Electronic Countermeasures (ECM), Electronic Protective Measures (EPM) and Electronic Support Measures (ESM) has been retained as they contribute to and support Electronic Attack (EA), Electronic Defense (ED) and Electronic Surveillance (ES). Besides EW, other EM operations include Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition, and Reconnaissance (ISTAR) and Signals Intelligence (SIGINT). Subsequently, NATO has issued EW Policy and Doctrine and is addressing the other NATO defense lines of development.
Primary EW activities have been developed over time to exploit the opportunities and vulnerabilities that are inherent in the physics of EM energy. Activities used in EW include: electro-optical, infrared and radio frequency countermeasures; EM compatibility and deception; Radio jamming, Radar jamming and deception and Electronic counter-countermeasures (or anti-jamming); electronic masking, probing, reconnaissance, and intelligence; electronic security; EW reprogramming; emission control; spectrum management; and wartime reserve modes.[1][3]
Subdivisions[edit]
RAF Menwith Hill, a large ECHELON site in the United Kingdom, and part of the UK-USA Security Agreement
Electronic warfare consists of three major subdivisions: Electronic Attack (EA), Electronic Protection (EP), and Electronic Warfare Support (ES);[1] each of these is discussed below.
Electronic Attack[edit]
Electronic Attack (EA) (previously known as Electronic Counter Measures (ECM)) involves the offensive use of EM energy, directed energy, or anti-radiation weapons to attack personnel, facilities, or equipment with the intent of degrading, neutralizing, or destroying enemy combat capability including human life. In the case of EM energy, this action is most commonly referred to as jamming and can be performed on communications systems or radar systems. In the case of anti-radiation weapons, many times this includes missiles or bombs that can home in on a specific signal (radio or radar) and follow that path directly to impact, thus destroying the system broadcasting.
Electronic Protection[edit]
A right front view of a USAF Boeing E-4 advanced airborne command post (AABNCP) on the electromagnetic pulse (EMP) simulator (HAGII-C) for testing.
Main article: Electronic counter-countermeasure
Electronic Protection (EP) (previously known as Electronic Protective Measures (EPM) or Electronic Counter-CounterMeasures (ECCM)) involves actions taken to protect friendly forces (personnel, facilities, and equipment) from any effects of friendly or enemy use of the electromagnetic spectrum that degrade, neutralize, or destroy friendly combat capability (EA). So, EP brings with it the ability to defeat EA. Not to confuse the issue, but "jamming" is not part of EP, it is the target of EP. Jamming is an EA capability (see above).
Flares are often used to distract infrared homing missiles to miss their target; the use of flare rejection logic in the guidance (seeker head) of an infrared homing missile to counter an adversary's use of flares is an example of EP. While defensive EA actions (jamming) and EP (defeating jamming) both protect personnel, facilities, capabilities, and equipment, EP protects from the effects of EA (friendly and/or adversary). Other examples of EP include spread spectrum technologies, use of restricted frequency lists, emissions control (EMCON), and low observability (stealth) technology.[1]
Electronic Warfare Self Protection (EWSP) is a suite of countermeasure systems fitted primarily to aircraft for the purpose of protecting the host from weapons fire and can include among others: Directional Infrared Counter Measures (DIRCM - protection against IR missiles), Flare systems (protection against IR missiles) and other forms of Infrared countermeasures (protection against IR missiles), Chaff (protection against radar guided missiles), and DRFM decoy systems (protection against radar targeted anti-aircraft weapons).
An Electronic Warfare Tactics Range (EWTR) is a practice range which provides for the training of personnel in electronic warfare. There are two examples of such ranges in Europe; one at RAF Spadeadam in the northwest county of Cumbria, England and the Multinational Aircrew Electronic Warfare Tactics Facility Polygone range on the border between Germany and France. EWTRs are equipped with ground-based equipment to simulate electronic warfare threats that aircrew might encounter on missions. Other EW training and tactics ranges are available for ground and naval forces as well.
Antifragile EW is a step beyond standard EP, occurring when a communications link being jammed actually increases in capability as a result of a jamming attack, although this is only possible under certain circumstances such as reactive forms of jamming.[4]
Electronic warfare support[edit]
Main article: Electronic warfare support measures
Electronic Warfare Support (ES) is a subdivision of EW involving actions taken by an operational commander or operator to detect, intercept, identify, locate, and/or localize sources of intended and unintended radiated electromagnetic (EM) energy; this is often referred to as simply reconnaissance, although today, more common terms are Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (ISR) or Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition, and Reconnaissance (ISTAR). The purpose is to provide immediate recognition, prioritization, and targeting of threats to battlefield commanders.[1]
Signals Intelligence (SIGINT), a discipline overlapping with ES, is the related process of analyzing and identifying intercepted transmissions from sources such as radio communication, mobile phones, radar or microwave communication. SIGINT is broken into three categories: Electronic Intelligence (ELINT), Communications Intelligence (COMINT), and Foreign Instrumentation Signals Intelligence FISINT. Analysis parameters measured in signals of these categories can include frequency, bandwidth, modulation, and polarization.
The distinction between SIGINT and ES is determined by the controller of the collection assets, the information provided, and the intended purpose of the information. Electronic warfare support is conducted by assets under the operational control of a commander to provide tactical information, specifically threat prioritization, recognition, location, targeting, and avoidance. However, the same assets and resources that are tasked with ES can simultaneously collect information that meets the collection requirements for more strategic intelligence.[1]
The history of Electronic Warfare goes back to at least the beginning of the 20th century; the earliest documented consideration of EW was during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. The Japanese auxiliary cruiser, Shinano Maru, had located the Russian Baltic Fleet in Tsushima Strait, and was communicating the fleet's location by "wireless" to the Imperial Japanese Fleet HQ; the captain of the Russian warship, Orel, requested permission to disrupt the Japanese communications link by attempting to transmit a stronger radio signal over the Shinano Maru's signal hoping to distort the Japanese signal at the receiving end. Russian Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky refused the advice and denied the Orel permission to electronically jam the enemy, which in those circumstances might have proved invaluable; the intelligence the Japanese gained ultimately led to the decisive Battle of Tsushima. The battle was humiliating for Russia; the Russian navy lost all their battleships and most of its cruisers and destroyers. These staggering losses effectively ended the Russo-Japanese War in Japan's favor. 4,380 Russians were killed and 5,917 were captured, including two admirals, with a further 1,862 interned.[5]
During World War II, the Allies and Axis Powers both extensively used EW, or what Winston Churchill referred to as the "Battle of the Beams".[5] Navigational radars had gained in use to vector bombers to their targets and back to their home base; the first application of EW in WWII was to defeat those navigational radars.[5] Chaff was also introduced during WWII to confuse and defeat tracking radar systems.
As time progressed and battlefield communication and radar technology improved, so did electronic warfare. Electronic warfare played a major role in many military operations during the Vietnam War. Aircraft on bombing runs and air-to-air missions often relied on EW to survive the battle, although many were defeated by Vietnamese ECCM.[6]
As another example, in 2007, an Israeli attack on a suspected Syrian nuclear site during Operation Outside the Box (or Operation Orchard) used electronic warfare systems to disrupt Syrian air defenses while Israeli jets crossed much of Syria, bombed their targets, and returned to Israel undeterred;[7][8] the target of the flight of 10 F-15 aircraft was a suspected nuclear reactor under construction near the Euphrates River modeled after a North Korean reactor and supposedly financed with Iranian assistance. Some reports say[8] Israeli EW systems deactivated all of Syria's air defense systems for the entire period of the raid, infiltrating the country, bombing their target and escaping.
In December 2010, the Russian army received their first land-based Army operated multifunctional electronic warfare system known as Borisoglebsk 2 developed by Sozvezdie. Development of the system started in 2004 and evaluation testing successfully completed in December 2010; the Borisoglebsk-2 brings four different types of jamming stations into a single system with a single control console helping the operator make battlefield decisions within seconds. The Borisoglebsk-2 system is mounted on nine MT-LB armored vehicles and is intended to suppress mobile satellite communications and satellite-based navigation signals;[9] this EW system is developed to conduct electronic reconnaissance and suppression of radio-frequency sources.[10] Newspaper, Svenska Dagbladet, claimed its initial usage caused concern within NATO.[11] A Russian blog[12] described Borisoglebsk-2 thusly:
" The 'Borisoglebsk-2', when compared to its predecessors, has better technical characteristics: wider frequency bandwidth for conducting radar collection and jamming, faster scanning times of the frequency spectrum, and higher precision when identifying the location and source of radar emissions, and increased capacity for suppression. "
Electromagnetic pulse
Electronic harassment
Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD)
Other Electronic Warfare Systems:
Radar warning receiver (RWR)
Samyukta Electronic Warfare System
Krasukha (electronic warfare system)
ADM-160 MALD
Sky Shadow (radar)
Historic:
Battle of Latakia: the first recorded use of deception EW in a naval battle
No. 100 Group RAF
36th Electronic Warfare Squadron
55th Wing
U.S. specific:
Association of Old Crows
Electronic warfare officer
Fleet Electronic Warfare Center
Joint Functional Component Command – Network Warfare
U.S. Marine Corps Radio Reconnaissance Platoon
National Electronics Museum
USACEWP (United States Army Computer Network Operations-Electronic Warfare Proponents )
FM 3-36: Electronic Warfare In Operations. Safeguarding Soldiers Through Technology. Fort Leavenworth, U.S. Army Combined Arms Center (CAC), 26 February 2009 – PDF, 114 p., 4,5 MB. – See also: John Milburn: Army manual raises emphasis on electronic warfare. Washington Post, 26 February 2009.
Jon Latimer, Deception in War, London: John Murray, 2001
David Adamy EW 101: A First Course in Electronic Warfare
David Adamy EW 102: A Second Course in Electronic Warfare
Joint Publication 3-13.1: Electronic Warfare[1]
Jogiaas, Aadu. "Disturbing soviet transmissions in August 1991". Archived from the original on 14 November 2011.
Bolton, Matt; Munro, Matt (2011). "The Tallinn Cables" (PDF). Lonely Planet Magazine (December): 48–55. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-11-13.
Citations[edit]
^ a b c d e f g h "Joint Publication 3-13.1 Electronic Warfare" (Online PDF available for download). Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS) - Armed Forces of the United States of America. 25 January 2007. pp. i, v–x. Retrieved 2011-05-01. EW contributes to the success of information operations (IO) by using offensive and defensive tactics and techniques in a variety of combinations to shape, disrupt, and exploit adversarial use of the EM spectrum while protecting friendly freedom of action in that spectrum.
^ Russian Electronic Warfare. Page 20
^ a b "Electronic Warfare; Air Force Doctrine Document 2-5.1" (PDF). Secretary of the Air Force. 5 November 2002. pp. i, v–x. Archived from the original (Online PDF available for download) on 12 August 2011. Retrieved 1 May 2011.
^ Lichtman, Marc; Vondal, Matthew; Clancy, Charles; Reed, Jeffrey (Feb 2016). "Antifragile Communications". IEEE Systems Journal. 12: 659–670. doi:10.1109/JSYST.2016.2517164.
^ a b c "History of Electronic Warfare". Blogspot.com. December 7, 2009. Retrieved August 14, 2018.
^ Dickson (Col), John R. (May 1987). "Electronic Warfare in Vietnam: Did We Learn Our Lessons?" (PDF). DTIC.mil. Retrieved August 14, 2018.
^ Katz, Yaakov (September 29, 2010). "And They Struck Them With Blindness". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved August 14, 2018.
^ a b Fulghum, David (November 26, 2007). "Israel Shows Electronic Prowess". Aviation Week and Space Technology. Retrieved August 14, 2018.
^ "Borisoglebsk-2". Deagel.com.
^ Administrator (February 11, 2015). "Russian Army Units of Eastern District Have Received New Borisoglebsk-2 Electronic Warfare Vehicles". armyrecognition.com. Retrieved August 14, 2018.
^ "Putins nya supervapen skrämmer Nato" [Putin's New Superpower Scares NATO]. Svenska Dagbladet. 16 August 2015.
^ Shoki Driver. "Russian Military News in English". shokidriver.blogspot.se.
This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Air Force website https://www.af.mil.
This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Government document "Joint Publication 3-13.1 Electronic Warfare, DTIC.mil".
The Changing Capability of Manpack Electronic Warfare Systems
Carlo Kopp. "Electronic Warfare in Operation Desert Storm", Australian Aviation, June/July/August, 1993
Electronic Warfare Jamming Systems
Information Warfare, Information Operations and Electronic Attack on APA
Electronic Warfare Products
Air Force Instruction on Electronic Warfare (EW) Operations PDF
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electronic_warfare&oldid=899283072"
Information operations and warfare
Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the United States Air Force
Wikipedia articles incorporating text from public domain works of the United States Government
A weapon, arm or armament is any device that can be used with intent to inflict damage or harm. Weapons are used to increase the efficacy and efficiency of activities such as hunting, law enforcement, self-defense, warfare. In broader context, weapons may be construed to include anything used to gain a tactical, material or mental advantage over an adversary or enemy target. While ordinary objects such as sticks, cars, or pencils can be used as weapons, many are expressly designed for the purpose – ranging from simple implements such as clubs and axes, to complicated modern intercontinental ballistic missiles, biological weapons and cyberweapons. Something, re-purposed, converted, or enhanced to become a weapon of war is termed weaponized, such as a weaponized virus or weaponized laser; the use of objects as weapons has been observed among chimpanzees, leading to speculation that early hominids used weapons as early as five million years ago. However, this can not be confirmed using physical evidence because wooden clubs and unshaped stones would have left an ambiguous record.
The earliest unambiguous weapons to be found are the Schöningen spears, eight wooden throwing spears dating back more than 300,000 years. At the site of Nataruk in Turkana, numerous human skeletons dating to 10,000 years ago may present evidence of traumatic injuries to the head, ribs and hands, including obsidian projectiles embedded in the bones that might have been caused from arrows and clubs during conflict between two hunter-gatherer groups, but the evidence interpretation of warfare at Nataruk has been challenged. The earliest ancient weapons were evolutionary improvements of late neolithic implements, but significant improvements in materials and crafting techniques led to a series of revolutions in military technology; the development of metal tools began with copper during the Copper Age and was followed by the Bronze Age, leading to the creation of the Bronze Age sword and similar weapons. During the Bronze Age, the first defensive structures and fortifications appeared as well, indicating an increased need for security.
Weapons designed to breach fortifications followed soon after, such as the battering ram, in use by 2500 BC. The development of iron-working around 1300 BC in Greece had an important impact on the development of ancient weapons, it was not the introduction of early Iron Age swords, however, as they were not superior to their bronze predecessors, but rather the domestication of the horse and widespread use of spoked wheels by c. 2000 BC. This led to the creation of the light, horse-drawn chariot, whose improved mobility proved important during this era. Spoke-wheeled chariot usage peaked around 1300 BC and declined, ceasing to be militarily relevant by the 4th century BC. Cavalry developed; the horse increased the speed of attacks. In addition to land based weaponry, such as the trireme, were in use by the 7th century BC. European warfare during the Post-classical history was dominated by elite groups of knights supported by massed infantry, they were involved in mobile combat and sieges which involved various siege tactics.
Knights on horseback developed tactics for charging with lances providing an impact on the enemy formations and drawing more practical weapons once they entered into the melee. By contrast, infantry, in the age before structured formations, relied on cheap, sturdy weapons such as spears and billhooks in close combat and bows from a distance; as armies became more professional, their equipment was standardized and infantry transitioned to pikes. Pikes are seven to eight feet in length, used in conjunction with smaller side-arms. In Eastern and Middle Eastern warfare, similar tactics were developed independent of European influences; the introduction of gunpowder from the Asia at the end of this period revolutionized warfare. Formations of musketeers, protected by pikemen came to dominate open battles, the cannon replaced the trebuchet as the dominant siege weapon; the European Renaissance marked the beginning of the implementation of firearms in western warfare. Guns and rockets were introduced to the battlefield.
Firearms are qualitatively different from earlier weapons because they release energy from combustible propellants such as gunpowder, rather than from a counter-weight or spring. This energy is released rapidly and can be replicated without much effort by the user; therefore early firearms such as the arquebus were much more powerful than human-powered weapons. Firearms became important and effective during the 16th century to 19th century, with progressive improvements in ignition mechanisms followed by revolutionary changes in ammunition handling and propellant. During the U. S. Civil War new applications of firearms including the machine gun and ironclad warship emerged that would still be recognizable and useful military weapons today in limited conflicts. In the 19th century warship propulsion changed from sail power to fossil fuel-powered steam engines. Since the mid-18th century North American French-Indian war through the beginning of the 20th century, human-powered weapons were reduced from the primary weaponry of the battlefield yielding to gunpowder-based weaponry.
Sometimes referred to as the "Age of Rifles", this period was characterized by the development of firearms for infantry and cannons for support, as well as the beginnings of mechanized weapons such as the machine gun. Of particular note, Howitzers were able to destroy masonry fortresses and other fortifications, this single invention caused a Revolution in
Area denial weapon
An area denial weapon or Anti Access/Area Denial weapon system is a device or a strategy used to prevent an adversary from occupying or traversing an area of land, sea or air. The specific method used does not have to be effective in preventing passage as long as it is sufficient to restrict, slow down, or endanger the opponent; some area denial weapons pose long-lasting risks to anyone entering the area to civilians, thus are controversial. In medieval warfare and sturdy stakes were buried at the bottom of long lines of ditches, pointed end up diagonally, in order to prevent cavalry charges in a given area. If the stakes were spotted, soldiers would be forced to dismount and give up their advantage as cavalry as well as becoming easier targets; the correct layout of these extensive lines of ditches and the quality control of stake size and placement was part of the craft of war. A more modern version, allowing quicker dispersal and providing the advantage of being hidden more are caltrops, though items bearing close similarity had been in use for most of antiquity.
Many variants were used, such as boards with metal hooks, as described during battles of Julius Caesar. Passive fortification—ditches and obstacles such as dragon's teeth and Czech hedgehogs—were used as anti-tank measures during World War II. Simple rows or clusters of sharpened sticks, the use of small caltrops have been a feature of anti-infantry warfare since antiquity. However, due to the difficulty of mass-producing them in the pre-modern age, they were used except in the defense of limited areas or chokepoints during sieges, where they were used to help seal breaches. Increasing ease of production still did not prevent these methods from falling out of favor from the late Middle Ages onward. Caltrops are still sometimes used in modern conflicts, such as during the Korean War, where Chinese troops wearing only light shoes, were vulnerable. In modern times, special caltrops are sometimes used against wheeled vehicles with pneumatic tires; some South American urban guerrillas such as the Tupamaros and Montoneros, who called them "miguelitos," have used caltrops to avoid pursuit after ambushes.
The most common planted by hand or dispersed by artillery. Some modern prototypes experiment with automatic guns or artillery-delivered ammunitions that are fired only after remote sensing detects enemies. Booby traps or improvised explosive devices in sufficient concentration qualify as area denial weapons, though they are much easier to clear and pose less long-term danger. During an armed conflict there are several methods of countering land mines; these include using armoured vehicles to negate the effects of anti-personnel land mines. Land mines can be cleared either by hand, or by using specialised equipment such as tanks equipped with flails. Explosives can be used to clear mine fields, either by artillery bombardment, or with specialised charges such as Bangalore torpedoes, the Antipersonnel Obstacle Breaching System and the Python Minefield Breaching System. 156 states are parties to the Ottawa Treaty under which they have agreed not to use, produce or transfer anti-personnel mines. Anti-ship missiles are a modern method of stopping a potential adversary from attacking by sea.
China, North Korea and Iran all have developed or imported such weapons in an effort to develop a modern anti-access or A2/AD strategy to counter modern United States weaponry. In response to China's pursuit of such A2/AD capabilities, the United States has developed the AirSea Battle doctrine. Amitai Etzioni of the Institute for Communitarian Policy Studies has suggested that AirSea Battle is an escalatory military posture that entails restructuring United States military forces and ordering additional weapons systems, that AirSea Battle could "lead to an arms race with China, which could culminate in a nuclear war."Other methods of area denial at a strategic level include aircraft carriers, surface-to-air missiles, ballistic missiles, cruise missiles, electronic warfare and interceptor aircraft. Various CBRNE weapons can be used for area denial, as long. Fallout from nuclear weapons might be used in such a role. While never employed in this form, its use had been suggested by Douglas MacArthur during the Korean War.
Anthrax spores can contaminate the ground for long periods of time, thus providing a form of area denial. However, the short-term effects are to be low - the psychological effects on an opponent would be more significant; the massive use of defoliants such as Agent Orange can be used as an interdiction measure because they leave areas empty of any form of vegetation cover. In the desert-like terrain that ensues, it is impossible for the enemy to travel without being seen, there is little cover in case of an attack from the air. Many chemical weapons produce toxic effects on any personnel in an affected area. However, this has no tactical value, as the effects of indirect exposure do not develop fast or enough - though again, the psychological effect upon an enemy aware of the chemical usage may be considerable. There are however some chemical agents that are by design non-degrading, such as the nerve agent VX. Sulfur mustard was extensively used by both German and allied forces on the west front in World War I as an effective area-denial weapon through contaminating large land stripes by extensive shelling with HD/Gelbkreuz ordnance
Deep operation known as Soviet Deep Battle, was a military theory developed by the Soviet Union for its armed forces during the 1920s and 1930s. It was a tenet that emphasized destroying, suppressing or disorganizing enemy forces not only at the line of contact, but throughout the depth of the battlefield; the term comes from Vladimir Triandafillov, an influential military writer, who worked with others to create a military strategy with its own specialized operational art and tactics. The concept of deep operations was a national strategy, tailored to the economic and geopolitical position of the Soviet Union. In the aftermath of several failures or defeats in the Russo-Japanese War, First World War and Polish–Soviet War, the Soviet High Command focused on developing new methods for the conduct of war; this new approach considered military strategy and tactics, but introduced a new intermediate level of military art: operations. The Soviet Union was the first country to distinguish the third level of military thinking which occupied the position between strategy and tactics.
Using these templates, the Soviets developed the concept of deep battle and by 1936 it had become part of the Red Army Field Regulations. Deep operations had two phases. Deep battle envisaged the breaking of the enemy's forward defenses, or tactical zones, through combined arms assaults, which would be followed up by fresh uncommitted mobile operational reserves sent to exploit the strategic depth of an enemy front; the goal of a deep operation was to inflict a decisive strategic defeat on the enemy's logistical abilities and render the defence of their front more difficult, impossible—or, irrelevant. Unlike most other doctrines, deep battle stressed combined arms cooperation at all levels: strategic and tactical. Russian military thinking had changed little over the course of three centuries prior to the 1920s; the Russian Empire had kept pace with its enemies and allies and performed well in its major conflicts in the run-up to the 19th century. However, despite some notable victories in the Napoleonic Wars and in various Russo-Turkish Wars, Russian defeats in the Crimean War, Russo-Japanese War and First World War, together with a series of Soviet defeats at the hands of Poland in the Polish–Soviet War, highlighted the inferiority of Russian methodology in organisation and training.
After the Russian Revolution of 1917, the new Bolshevik regime sought to establish an new military system that reflected the Bolshevik revolutionary spirit. The new Red Army combined the new methods, it still relied on the country's enormous manpower reserves. Once this had been achieved, the Soviets turned their attention to solving the problem of military operational mobility. Primary advocates of this development included Alexander Svechin, Mikhail Frunze, Mikhail Tukhachevsky, they promoted the development of military scientific societies and they identified groups of talented officers. Many of these officers entered the Soviet Military Academy during Tukhachevsky's tenure as its commandant in 1921–1922. Others came particularly Nikolai Varfolomeev and Vladimir Triandafillov, who made significant contributions to the use of technology in deep offensive operations. In the aftermath of the wars with Japan and Poland several senior Soviet Commanders called for a unified military doctrine; the most prominent was Mikhail Frunze.
The call prompted opposition by Leon Trotsky. Frunze' position found favour with the officer elements that had experienced the poor command and control of Soviet forces in the conflict with Poland during the Polish-Soviet War; this turn of events prompted Trotsky's replacement by Frunze in January 1925. The nature of this new doctrine was to be political; the Soviets were to fuse the military with the Bolshevik ideal. This would define the nature of war for the Soviet Union; the Soviets believed their most enemy would be the capitalist states of the west they had to defend themselves against before and that such a conflict was unavoidable. The nature of this war raised four major questions: Would the next war be won in one decisive campaign or would it be a long struggle of attrition? Should the Red Army be offensive or defensive? Would the nature of battle be fluid or static? Would mechanized or infantry forces be more important? The discussion evolved into debate between those, like Alexander Svechin, who advocated a strategy of attrition, others, like Tukhachevsky, who thought that a strategy of decisive destruction of the enemy forces was needed.
The latter opinion was motivated in part by the condition of the Soviet Union's economy: the country was still not industrialized and thus was economically too weak to fight a long war of attrition. By 1928 Tukhachevsky's ideas had changed: he considered that, given the nature and lessons of the First World War, the next major war would certainly be one of attrition, he determined, that the vast size of the Soviet Union ensured that some mobility was still possible. Svechin allowed for the first offensives to be fast and fluid; this would require a strong economy and a loyal and politically indoctrinated population in order to outlast the enemy. The
Industrial warfare
Industrial warfare is a period in the history of warfare ranging from the early 19th century and the start of the Industrial Revolution to the beginning of the Atomic Age, which saw the rise of nation-states, capable of creating and equipping large armies and air forces, through the process of industrialisation. The era featured mass-conscripted armies, rapid transportation and wireless communications, the concept of total war. In terms of technology, this era saw the rise of rifled breech-loading infantry weapons capable of high rates of fire, high-velocity breech-loading artillery, chemical weapons, armoured warfare, metal warships and aircraft. One of the main features of industrial warfare is the concept of "total war"; the term was coined during World War I by Erich Ludendorff, which called for the complete mobilization and subordination of all resources, including policy and social systems, to the German war effort. It has come to mean waging warfare with absolute ruthlessness, its most identifiable legacy today has been the reintroduction of civilians and civilian infrastructure as targets in destroying the enemy's ability to engage in war.
There are several reasons for the rise of total warfare in the 19th century. The main one is industrialization; as countries' capital and natural resources grew, it became clear that some forms of warfare demanded more resources than others. The greater cost of warfare became evident. An industrialized nation could distinguish and choose the intensity of warfare that it wished to engage in. Additionally, warfare was becoming more mechanized and required greater infrastructure. Combatants could no longer live off the land, but required an extensive support network of people behind the lines to keep them fed and armed; this required the mobilization of the home front. Modern concepts like propaganda were first used to boost production and maintain morale, while rationing took place to provide more war materiel; the earliest modern example of total war was the American Civil War. Union generals Ulysses S. Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman were convinced that, if the North was to be victorious, the Confederacy's strategic and psychological ability to wage war had to be definitively crushed.
They believed that to break the backbone of the South, the North had to employ scorched earth tactics, or as Sherman called it, "Hard War". Sherman's advance through Georgia and the Carolinas was characterized by widespread destruction of civilian supplies and infrastructure. In contrast to conflicts, the damage done by Sherman was entirely limited to property destruction. In Georgia alone, Sherman claimed he and his men had caused $100,000,000 in damages. Conscription is the compulsory enrollment of civilians into military service. Conscription allowed the French Republic to form La Grande Armée, what Napoleon Bonaparte called "the nation in arms", which battled European professional armies. Conscription when the conscripts are being sent to foreign wars that do not directly affect the security of the nation, has been politically contentious in democracies. For instance, during World War I, bitter political disputes broke out in Canada, Newfoundland and New Zealand over conscription. Canada had a political dispute over conscription during World War II.
Both South Africa and Australia put limits on where conscripts could fight in WWII. Mass protests against conscription to fight the Vietnam War occurred in several countries in the late 1960s. In developed nations, the increasing emphasis on technological firepower and better-trained fighting forces, the sheer unlikelihood of a conventional military assault on most developed nations, as well as memories of the contentiousness of the Vietnam War experience, make mass conscription unlikely in the foreseeable future. Russia, as well as many smaller nations such as Switzerland, retain conscript armies. Prior to the invention of the motorized transport, combatants were transported from by wagons, horses and by marching. With the advent of locomotives, large groups of combatants and equipment were able to be transported faster and in larger numbers. To counter this, an opposing force would destroy rail lines to hinder their enemies' movements. General Sherman's men during the American Civil War, would destroy tracks, heat the rails, wrap them around trees.
The mass transportation of combatants was further revolutionized with the advent of the internal combustion engine and the automobile. Combined with the widespread use of the machine gun, the horse, after millennia of use, was supplanted in its war time role. During both WWI and WWII, trucks were used to carry combatants and materiel, while cars and jeeps were used to scout enemy positions; the mechanization of infantry occurred during WWII. The tank, a product of World War I invented by the British to break through trenches while withstanding machine gun fire, while discounted by many, came into its own. Tanks evolved from thin-skinned, lumbering vehicles into fast, powerful war machines of various types that dominated the battlefield and allowed the Germans to conquer most of Europe; as a result of the tank's evolution, a number of armored transport vehicles appeared, such as armoured personnel carriers and amphibious vehicles. After the war ended, armored transports continued to evolve; the armored car and train declined in use becoming relegated to military and civilian use as transportation for VIPs.
Infantry fighting vehicles rose to prominence with the creation of th
Prehistoric warfare
Prehistoric warfare refers to war that occurred between societies without recorded history. The existence — and the definition — of war in humanity's hypothetical state of nature has been a controversial topic in the history of ideas at least since Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan argued a "war of all against all", a view directly challenged by Jean-Jacques Rousseau in a Discourse on Inequality and The Social Contract; the debate over human nature continues, spanning contemporary anthropology, ethnography, political science, psychology and philosophy in such divergent books as Azar Gat's War in Human Civilization and Raymond C. Kelly's Warless Societies and the Origin of War. For the purposes of this article, "prehistoric war" will be broadly defined as a state of organized lethal aggression between autonomous preliterate communities. According to cultural anthropologist and ethnographer Raymond C. Kelly, the earliest hunter-gatherer societies of Homo erectus population density was low enough to avoid armed conflict.
The development of the throwing-spear, together with ambush hunting techniques, made potential violence between hunting parties costly, dictating cooperation and maintenance of low population densities to prevent competition for resources. This behavior may have accelerated the migration out of Africa of H. erectus some 1.8 million years ago as a natural consequence of conflict avoidance. Some scholars believe that this period of "Paleolithic warlessness" persisted until well after the appearance of Homo sapiens some 315,000 years ago, ending only at the occurrence of economic and social shifts associated with sedentism, when new conditions incentivized organized raiding of settlements. Of the many cave paintings of the Upper Paleolithic, none depicts people attacking other people explicitly, but there are depictions of human beings pierced with arrows both of the Aurignacian-Périgordian and the early Magdalenian representing "spontaneous confrontations over game resources" in which hostile trespassers were killed.
Skeletal and artifactual evidence of intergroup violence between Paleolithic nomadic foragers is absent as well. The most ancient archaeological record of what could have been a prehistoric massacre is at the site of Jebel Sahaba, committed by the Natufians against a population associated with the Qadan culture of far northern Sudan; the cemetery contains a large number of skeletons that are 13,000 to 14,000 years old half of them with arrowheads embedded in their skeletons, which indicates that they may have been the casualties of warfare. It has been noted that the violence, if dated likely occurred in the wake of a local ecological crisis. At the site of Nataruk in Turkana, numerous 10,000-year-old human remains were found with possible evidence of major traumatic injuries, including obsidian bladelets embedded in the skeletons, that should have been lethal. According to the original study, published in January 2016, the region was a "fertile lakeshore landscape sustaining a substantial population of hunter-gatherers" where pottery had been found, suggesting storage of food and sedentism.
The initial report concluded that the bodies at Nataruk were not interred, but were preserved in the positions the individuals had died at the edge of a lagoon. However, evidence of blunt-force cranial trauma and lack of interment have been called into question, casting doubt upon the assertion that the site represents early intragroup violence; the oldest rock art depicting acts of violence between hunter-gatherers in Northern Australia has been tentatively dated to 10,000 years ago. The earliest, limited evidence for war in Mesolithic Europe dates to ca. 10,000 years ago, episodes of warfare appear to remain "localized and temporarily restricted" during the Late Mesolithic to Early Neolithic period in Europe. Iberian cave art of the Mesolithic shows explicit scenes of battle scenes between groups of archers. A group of three archers encircled by a group of four is found in Cova del Roure, Morella la Vella, Castellón, Valencia. A depiction of a larger battle, in which eleven archers are attacked by seventeen running archers, is found in Les Dogue, Ares del Maestrat, Castellón, Valencia.
At Val del Charco del Agua Amarga, Alcañiz, seven archers with plumes on their heads are fleeing a group of eight archers running in pursuit. Early war was influenced by the development of bows and slings; the bow seems to have been the most important weapon in early warfare, in that it enabled attacks to be launched with far less risk to the attacker when compared to the risk involved in mêlée combat. While there are no cave paintings of battles between men armed with clubs, the development of the bow is concurrent with the first known depictions of organized warfare consisting of clear illustrations of two or more groups of men attacking each other; these figures are arrayed in columns with a distinctly garbed leader at the front. Some paintings portray still-recognizable tactics like flankings and envelopments. Systemic warfare appears to have been a direct consequence of the sedentism as it developed in the wake of the Neolithic Revolution. An important example is the massacre of Talheim Death Pit, dated right on the cusp of the beginning European Neolithic, at 5500 BC.
More a similar site was discovered at Schöneck-Kilianstädten, with the remains of the victims showing "a pattern of intentional mutilation". While the presence of such massacre sites in the context
Cold-weather warfare [videos]
Cold-weather warfare, also known as Arctic warfare or winter warfare, encompasses military operations affected by snow, ice, thawing conditions or cold, both on land and at sea. Cold-weather conditions occur year-round at high elevation or at high latitudes, and elsewhere materialise seasonally …
The March Across the Belts in the Second Northern War.
The Night Bivouac of Napoleon's Army during retreat from Russia in 1812.
Finnish ski troops during the Winter War.
US Army Sherman tank and infantrymen of the 82nd Airborne Division during the Battle of the Bulge.
Jungle warfare [videos]
Jungle warfare is a term used to cover the special techniques needed for military units to survive and fight in jungle terrain. — It has been the topic of extensive study by military strategists, and was an important part of the planning for both sides in many conflicts, including World War II and …
Australian anti-tank gunners firing on Japanese tanks at the Muar-Parit Sulong Road.
British troops in Burma, 1944
U.S. Marine Raiders gathered in front of a Japanese dugout on Cape Totkina on Bougainville, Solomon Islands.
Portuguese Army special caçadores advancing in the African jungle in the early 1960s, during the Angola War of Independence.
Mountain warfare [videos]
Mountain warfare refers to warfare in the mountains or similarly rough terrain. This type of warfare is also called Alpine warfare, after the Alps mountains. Mountain warfare is one of the most dangerous types of combat as it involves surviving not only combat with the enemy but also the extreme …
Italian Front in 1915–1917: eleven Battles of the Isonzo and Asiago offensive. In blue, initial Italian conquests.
Landscape of South Georgia
Afghanistan topography
Australians patrolling in the mountains of Oruzgan Province
Urban warfare [videos]
Urban warfare is combat conducted in urban areas such as towns and cities. Urban combat is very different from combat in the open at both the operational and tactical level. Complicating factors in urban warfare include the presence of civilians and the complexity of the urban terrain. Urban combat …
A US Army M113 in Panama in 1989
JGSDF soldiers practice MOUT tactics in the Ojojibara Maneuver Area of Sendai, Japan during an exercise in 2004.
Japanese troops in the ruins of Shanghai during Second Sino-Japanese War
Manila, the capital of the Philippines, devastated during the Battle of Manila in 1945.
Space warfare [videos]
Space warfare is combat that takes place in outer space. The scope of space warfare therefore includes ground-to-space warfare, such as attacking satellites from the Earth, as well as space-to-space warfare, such as satellites attacking satellites. — As of 2019 no actual warfare has ever taken place …
A USAF F-15 Eagle launching an ASM-135 ASAT (anti-satellite) missile in 1985.
A SM-3 missile is launched from a U.S. ship to intercept a failing spy satellite
A Trident missile launched from a Royal Navy Vanguard class ballistic missile submarine.
Ronald Reagan revealing his idea for the Strategic Defense Initiative on March 23, 1983.
Weapon [videos]
A weapon, arm or armament is any device that can be used with intent to inflict damage or harm. Weapons are used to increase the efficacy and efficiency of activities such as hunting, crime, law enforcement, self-defense, and warfare. In broader context, weapons may be construed to include anything …
An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools.
Medieval Indian weapons
Ancient Chinese cannon displayed in the Tower of London.
The Vickers was the successor to the Maxim gun and remained in British military service for 79 consecutive years.
Armoured warfare [videos]
Armoured warfare, mechanised warfare or tank warfare is the use of armoured fighting vehicles in modern warfare. It is a major component of modern methods of war. — The premise of armoured warfare rests on the ability of troops to penetrate conventional defensive lines through use of manoeuvre by …
A shoot-off between Leopard 2A6 tanks during the Strong Europe Tank Challenge, 2018.
British heavy tank of World War I
J.F.C. Fuller
Mikhail Tukhachevsky
Artillery [videos]
Artillery is a class of heavy military weapons built to fire munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry's small arms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls, and fortifications during sieges, and led to heavy, fairly immobile siege engines. As …
French naval piece of the late 19th century
First Battle of Panipat
Bullocks dragging siege-guns up hill during Akbar's Siege of Ranthambore
The Austrian Pumhart von Steyr, the earliest extant supergun.
Cavalry [videos]
Cavalry or horsemen are soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback. Cavalry were historically the most mobile of the combat arms. An individual soldier in the cavalry is known by a number of designations such as cavalryman, horseman, dragoon …
A trumpeter of the Representative Squadron of Cavalry of the Polish Army.
French 4th Hussars at the Battle of Friedland, 1807
African horseman of Baguirmi in full padded armour suit
Assyrian cavalry
Infantry [videos]
Infantry is the branch of an army that engages in military combat on foot, distinguished from cavalry, artillery, and tank forces. Also known as foot soldiers, infantry traditionally relies on moving by foot between combats as well, but may also use mounts, military vehicles, or other transport …
Infantrymen of the US 6th Marine Division search the ruins of Naha, Okinawa for Japanese snipers, Spring 1945
Infantry of the Royal Irish Rifles at the Battle of the Somme (July–November 1916) during the First World War
Various infantry of the 17th through 18th century (halberdier, arquebusier, pikeman, and mix of musketeers and grenadiers) of Duchy of Württemberg
Infantry of the US 3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment enter their M2 Bradley IFV during a combat patrol, Tall Afar, Iraq, 2006
Nuclear warfare [videos]
Nuclear warfare is a military conflict or political strategy in which nuclear weaponry is used to inflict damage on the enemy. Nuclear weapons are weapons of mass destruction; in contrast to conventional warfare, nuclear warfare can produce …
The Titan II Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) carried a 9 Mt W53 warhead, one of the most powerful nuclear weapons fielded by the United States during the Cold War.
Convair B-36 bomber
The U.S. and USSR conducted hundreds of nuclear tests, including the Desert Rock exercises at the Nevada Test Site, USA, pictured above during the Korean War to familiarize their soldiers with conducting operations and counter-measures around nuclear detonations, as the Korean War threatened to expand.
RF-101 Voodoo reconnaissance photograph of the MRBM launch site in San Cristóbal, Cuba (1962)
Psychological warfare [videos]
Psychological warfare, or the basic aspects of modern psychological operations, have been known by many other names or terms, including MISO, Psy Ops, political warfare, "Hearts and Minds", and propaganda. The term is used "to denote any action which is practiced mainly by …
Mosaic of Alexander the Great on his campaign against the Persian Empire.
Lord Bryce led the commission of 1915 to document German atrocities committed against Belgian civilians.
A dummy Sherman tank, used to deceive the Germans.
An American PSYOP leaflet disseminated during the Iraq War. It shows a caricature of Al-Qaeda in Iraq leader Abu Musab al-Zarqawi caught in a rat trap. The caption reads "This is your future, Zarqawi".
Battle [videos]
A battle is a combat in warfare between two or more armed forces. A war usually consists of multiple battles. Battles generally are well defined in duration, area, and force commitment. A battle with only limited engagement between the forces and without decisive results is sometimes called a …
The Battle of Poltava between Russia and Sweden, by Denis Martens the Younger
Battle Scene-Detail from Deccan miniature painting. c. 19th century.
The Battle of Scheveningen of 1653: episode from the First Anglo-Dutch War.
Battle of Gibraltar of 1607 by Hendrick Cornelisz Vroom.
Cavalry tactics [videos]
For much of history, humans have used some form of cavalry for war and, as a result, cavalry tactics have evolved over time. Tactically, the main advantages of cavalry over infantry troops were greater mobility, a larger impact, and a higher position. — Predecessors — Chariot tactics had been the …
A 13th-century Mongol saddle cover
Battle of La Higueruela (1431) between John II of Castile and Muhammed IX, Nasrid Sultan of Granada
Polish hussar formation at the Battle of Klushino 1610 - painting by Szymon Boguszowicz 1620
The death of King Gustavus II Adolphus on 16 November 1632, at the Battle of Lützen
Charge (warfare) [videos]
A charge is a maneuver in battle in which combatants advance towards their enemy at their best speed in an attempt to engage in close combat. The charge is the dominant shock attack and has been the key tactic and decisive moment of many battles throughout history. Modern charges usually involve …
Greek infantry charge with the bayonet during the Greco-Turkish War of 1897
Depiction from the Bayeux Tapestry of Norman cavalry attacking Anglo-Saxons who are fighting on foot in a shield wall.
The Battle of Nagashino saw the use of firearms to defeat Takeda Katsuyori's cavalry tactics.
During the Battle of Somosierra, Spanish positions were overwhelmed in a combined arms attack, sending Polish uhlans at the Spanish guns, while French infantry advanced up the slopes..
Counter-insurgency [videos]
A counter-insurgency or counterinsurgency is defined by the United States Department of State as "comprehensive civilian and military efforts taken to simultaneously defeat and contain insurgency and address its root causes". An insurgency is a rebellion against a constituted authority when …
Police question a civilian during the Malayan Emergency. Counter-insurgency involves action from both military and police authorities.
U.S. Marines and ANA soldiers on patrol during counter-insurgency operations in Marjah, Afghanistan, February 2010
A strategic hamlet in South Vietnam c.1964
A 7th SFG Special Forces medic gives a young boy a coloring book during a meeting with village religious leaders to gain their support and obtain information, Afghanistan 2008
Defensive fighting position [videos]
A defensive fighting position is a type of earthwork constructed in a military context, generally large enough to accommodate anything from one soldier to a fire team. — Terminology — Tobruk type positions are named after the system of defensive positions …
U.S. Marine in a fighting hole, July 1958, in Lebanon
An Indian Wehrmacht volunteer in a Tobruk DFP along the Atlantic Wall, 1944
Image: 3rd Battalion 4th Marines dig in near Iraqi border 2003 03 20
Image: US Navy 030209 N 5319A 005 Seabees of Naval Mobile Construction Battalion Seventy Four (NMCB 74) have only ten minutes to dig
Guerrilla warfare [videos]
Guerrilla warfare is a form of irregular warfare in which a small group of combatants, such as paramilitary personnel, armed civilians, or irregulars; use military tactics including ambushes, sabotage, raids, petty warfare, hit-and-run tactics, and mobility to fight a larger and less-mobile …
Spanish guerrilla resistance to the Napoleonic French invasion of Spain in 1808, where the term "guerrilla" was first used in warfare.
Boer guerrillas during the Second Boer War in South Africa
Soviet partisans operating under Sydir Kovpak in German-occupied Ukraine
Zhu De wrote the book "Guerrilla War" in November 1938
Siege [videos]
Trench warfare [videos]
Trench warfare is a type of land warfare using occupied fighting lines consisting largely of military trenches, in which troops are well-protected from the enemy's small arms fire and are substantially sheltered from artillery. The most famous use of trench warfare is the Western Front in World War …
German soldiers of the 11th Reserve Hussar Regiment fighting from a trench, on the Western Front, 1916
Lines of Torres Vedras
Trenches at the Siege of Vicksburg 1863
The Boer trench at the Battle of Magersfontein contributed to the surprise defeat of the Highland Brigade on 11 December 1899 during the Second Boer War
Blitzkrieg [videos]
Blitzkrieg is a method of warfare whereby an attacking force, spearheaded by a dense concentration of armoured and motorised or mechanised infantry formations with close air support, breaks through the opponent's line of defence by short, fast, powerful attacks and …
The classic characteristic of what is commonly known as "blitzkrieg" is a highly mobile form of infantry and armour, working in combined arms. (German armed forces, June 1942)
Ju 87 Bs over Poland, September–October 1939
British armoured car and motorcycle at the Battle of Megiddo (1918).
Heinz Guderian
Naval warfare [videos]
Naval warfare is combat in and on the sea, the ocean, or any other battlespace involving a major body of water such as a large lake or wide river. — History — Mankind has fought battles on the sea for more than 3,000 years. Even in the interior of large landmasses, transportation before the …
Scene from an Egyptian temple wall shows Ramesses' combined land and sea victory in the Battle of the Delta.
The naval battle of Sluys, 1340, from Jean Froissart's Chronicles
A Song dynasty naval river ship with a Xuanfeng traction-trebuchet catapult on its top deck, from an illustration of the Wujing Zongyao (1044)
Biological warfare [videos]
Biological warfare —also known as germ warfare—is the use of biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi with the intent to kill or incapacitate humans, animals or plants as an act of war. Biological weapons (often termed "bio-weapons", "biological threat …
Shiro Ishii, commander of Unit 731, which performed live human vivisections and other biological experimentation.
Researchers working in Class III cabinets at the U.S. Army Biological Warfare Laboratories, Camp Detrick, Maryland (1940s).
U.S. authorities granted Unit 731 officials immunity from prosecution in return for access to their research.
Area denial weapon [videos]
An area denial weapon or Anti Access/Area Denial weapon system is a device or a strategy used to prevent an adversary from occupying or traversing an area of land, sea or air. The specific method used does not have to be totally effective in preventing passage as long …
Caltrop used in Vietnam.
Anti-personnel landmines.
Military tactics [videos]
Military tactics encompasses the art of organising and employing fighting forces on or near the battlefield. They involve the application of four battlefield functions which are closely related – kinetic or firepower, mobility, protection or security, and shock action. Tactics are a separate …
The Syrian Arab Army seeking to encircle rebels in Aleppo (30 August) to cut supply lines.
German World War I observation post disguised as a tree.
Air combat manoeuvring [videos]
Air combat manoeuvring is the tactical art of moving, turning and/or situating one's fighter aircraft in order to attain a position from which an attack can be made on another aircraft. Air combat manoeuvres rely on offensive and defensive basic fighter …
Indian Air Force's Sukhoi Su-30MKIs during a Thach Weave manoeuvre.
A flight envelope diagram showing VS (stall speed at 1G), VC (corner speed) and VD (dive speed)
Deep operation [videos]
Deep operation, also known as Soviet Deep Battle, was a military theory developed by the Soviet Union for its armed forces during the 1920s and 1930s. It was a tenet that emphasized destroying, suppressing or disorganizing enemy forces not only at …
Vladimir Triandafillov
Military deception [videos]
Military deception refers to attempts to mislead enemy forces during warfare. This is usually achieved by creating or amplifying an artificial fog of war via psychological operations, information warfare, visual deception and other methods. As a form of strategic use of information …
Dummy airbase and mock aircraft
Dummy Long Tom artillery position deployed during the Second Boer War
Cyberwarfare [videos]
Cyberwarfare is the use or targeting in a battlespace or warfare context of computers, online control systems and networks. It involves both offensive and defensive operations pertaining to the threat of cyberattacks, espionage and sabotage. There has been controversy over whether such operations …


Pena is wanted by state parole agents for violating the conditions of his parole. Pena has a criminal history of robbery, attempt homicide, possession of a dangerous weapon, auto theft, possession of stolen property, and narcotic related offenses. Pena is known to frequent the Mid-City area of San Diego.
Pena is a Hispanic male, 5'9" tall, 220 lbs, brown hair and brown eyes.


What is the cheapest way to get from Moscow to Białystok?
The cheapest way to get from Moscow to Białystok is to night train and train which costs RUB 1200 - RUB 2400 and takes 20h 49m.
What is the fastest way to get from Moscow to Białystok?
The quickest way to get from Moscow to Białystok is to fly and train which costs RUB 6000 - RUB 37000 and takes 8h 1m.
Is there a direct train between Moscow and Białystok?
No, there is no direct train from Moscow to Białystok. However, there are services departing from Moskva Belorusskaja and arriving at Bialystok via Molodechno, Grodno and Kuznica Bialostocka. The journey, including transfers, takes approximately 19h 8m.
How far is it from Moscow to Białystok?
The distance between Moscow and Białystok is 977 km. The road distance is 1055.2 km.
How do I travel from Moscow to Białystok without a car?
The best way to get from Moscow to Białystok without a car is to bus via Novoyasenevskaya which takes 18h 26m and costs RUB 1900 - RUB 3700.
How long does it take to get from Moscow to Białystok?
It takes approximately 8h 1m to get from Moscow to Białystok, including transfers.
Where do I catch the Moscow to Białystok train from?
Moscow to Białystok train services, operated by Russian Railways (RZhD), depart from Moskva Belorusskaja station.
Train or bus from Moscow to Białystok?
The best way to get from Moscow to Białystok is to bus via Novoyasenevskaya which takes 18h 26m and costs RUB 1900 - RUB 3700. Alternatively, you can train, which costs RUB 1500 - RUB 2700 and takes 19h 8m.
How long is the flight from Moscow to Białystok?
The quickest flight from Moscow Sheremetyevo Airport to Warsaw Chopin Airport is the direct flight which takes 2h 5m.
What is the time difference between Moscow and Białystok?
Białystok is 1h behind Moscow. It is currently 1:54 AM in Moscow and 12:54 AM in Białystok.
What companies run services between Moscow, Russia and Białystok, Poland?
You can take a bus from Moscow to Białystok via Novoyasenevskaya, Moscow Novoyasenevskaya, and Grodno in around 18h 26m. Alternatively, you can take a train from Moscow to Białystok via Molodechno, Grodno, and Kuznica Bialostocka in around 19h 8m.
Rome2rio's Travel Guide series provide vital information for the global traveller. Read our range of informative guides on popular transport routes and companies - including Train travel in France: A guide to SNCF, How to get from Heathrow Airport into central London and Bali: What to do if Mount Agung erupts - to help you get the most out of your next trip.
Where does the Moscow to Białystok train arrive?
Moscow to Białystok train services, operated by Polish Railways (PKP), arrive at Bialystok station.
Can I drive from Moscow to Białystok?
Yes, the driving distance between Moscow to Białystok is 1055 km. It takes approximately 12h 28m to drive from Moscow to Białystok.
Which airlines fly from Moscow Sheremetyevo Airport to Warsaw Chopin Airport?
LOT, Finnair, Aeroflot Russian Airlines and Air Baltic offer flights from Moscow Sheremetyevo Airport to Warsaw Chopin Airport.
Where can I stay near Białystok?
There are 356+ hotels available in Białystok. Prices start at 104 zł per night.
Branicki Palace (Polish: Pałac Branickich) is a historical edifice in Białystok, Poland. It was developed on the site of an earlier building in the first half of the 18th century by Jan Klemens Branicki, a wealthy Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth hetman, into a residence suitable for a man whose ambition was to become king of Poland. The palace complex with gardens, pavilions, sculptures, outbuildings and other structures and the city with churches, city hall and monastery, all built almost at the same time according to French models was the reason why the city was known in the 18th century as Versailles de la Pologne (Versailles of Poland) and subsequently Versailles de la Podlachie (Versailles of Podlasie).
Monument to World War II Orthodox victims in Białystok is a privately funded memorial commemorating the memory of 5,000 Orthodox Christians from the Białystok region who perished in World War II as well as, during the postwar repressions in Stalinist Poland.
Rome2rio makes travelling from Moscow to Białystok easy.
Rome2rio is a door-to-door travel information and booking engine, helping you get to and from any location in the world. Find all the transport options for your trip from Moscow to Białystok right here. Rome2rio displays up to date schedules, route maps, journey times and estimated fares from relevant transport operators, ensuring you can make an informed decision about which option will suit you best. Rome2rio also offers online bookings for selected operators, making reservations easy and straightforward.


text:
Lou Gaglia
The Museum Test
…..Pavarotti sang "O Holy Night" in his head on his first date with Lucia to the Metropolitan Museum of Art. They sauntered through many rooms, and he wondered at the strangeness of her being there with him, after only having sat behind her in Russian Lit class for three weeks. He'd made some joke about Gogol's "The Nose" and she'd told him that it was the funniest thing she'd ever heard.
…..In the 20th century wing they stood before several Modigliani paintings, and since he'd made her laugh with his Gogol comment, and since he'd made her laugh with a joke about the ticket man's ears, he whispered to her, "Wow, all this guy ever painted were skinny women."
….."What are you trying to say?"
….."Nothing. His paintings—they're all…skinny."
….."The women."
….."Yeah, they're all women. And they're…skinny."
…..Lucia huffed, and soon they were sitting on a bench in the huge upper hallway. She complained of a headache, and Pavarotti stopped singing in his head. He nodded to the marble staircase in front of him and to some armored figures in a room nearby, until she announced that she had to go. Her head was killing her, and she had a friend downtown that she needed to meet.
…..He was silent, mad now too as he watched her go, and later he went back to look at the Modigliani paintings, pouring over the write-up for each and unable to find anything about the artist's tendency to paint thin, long-necked women.
…..He often wandered through campus between his classes, usually ending up in the library where sometimes he went to the music wing and checked out jazz albums. He'd sit in a cubicle and plug in headphones and lay his head down. Lately he'd asked for Pavarotti in La Bohéme and copied the words to "O Mimi Tu Piu Non Torni." That song sometimes made him tear up, as though he had lost some great love in Italy in some other life. It was the only explanation, he reasoned, as he sat with eyes closed in his cubicle, his mouth quivering at the final long note sung by Luciano himself—and whoever the baritone was.
…..He loved his art history class because Professor Rubins only lectured and didn't put anyone on the spot, and he analyzed great paintings by Delacroix and Turner and Renoir. Rubins even made a joke about Modigliani's long-necked women, but as everyone else laughed, he fumed about Lucia all over again. In Russian Lit class, she now sat sullenly across the room from him, and after the first day of it he made a game of not even looking her way.
…..The following semester he took another art history class with Professor Rubins. Elaine Something sat next to him and asked if he painted at all.
….."No, I stink."
….."Do you draw then? Do you draw?" She said draw, like "drah."
….."No. I love art and music, but I can't do a thing with either."
…..After two lunches in the cafeteria, they took the train to the city for a Saturday visit to the Met to help each other with projects on an artist of their choice. Elaine wasn't the touchy snot that Lucia had been. He marveled over the way she eased past paintings with a calm bemused smile. When they stopped in front of the same set of Modigliani's, she lingered for a while.
….."Pretty nice paintings," he said at last.
….."His women are incredible," said Elaine.
….."Yeah. Wow," he said, and breathed easier when she didn't throw a fit.
…..When they reached a section with abstract art, she tilted her head over a Jackson Pollock creation and smirked a little. He smirked too.
….."You know, I was thinking of stepping in some paint and running all over a canvas. Maybe make a million dollars."
Elaine smiled a little wanly. "There's more to it than that," she said.
….."Oh…probably."
….."Definitely."
…..They were quiet after that, and even in the Impressionism wing she didn't say much to him, and he didn't even linger over his favorite Van Gogh's and Cezanne's.
….."Are you hungry?" he finally asked.
….."Not really."
…..And after a long silent ride back to campus, during which she read The New Yorker and he looked out the window, he decided that Modigliani and Pollock were his least favorite artists, and that they and Lucia and Elaine could all take their canvas-splattering, skinny-women-painting, touchy selves on a long hike into some ocean.
…..During the summer he joined a small writing group on campus, but after listening to the members' poems and stories he decided that he could never write anything worth reading aloud. Often during writing sessions he took out his favorites, Chekhov or Faulkner, and read one of their stories instead. Betty was a good writer, though. She read her story to the class one afternoon. He didn't understand it, but her sentences were long and lilting. She used words like "pale" and "discontinuous," and when she read the word "ephemeral," La Bohéme's "O Soave Fanciulla" ran through his head and he got a little misty. He tuned out the rest of Betty's story, but her voice had a musical note to it and he felt a pang. Maybe she'd been the one he'd known in Italy in a past life. She was smart and pretty, and she had a voice that made him feel like goop inside, and after the reading she seemed embarrassed at the group members' raves. She was not like huffy Lucia or snooty Elaine.
…..Outside, he fell into stride with her on the sidewalk and asked if he could read her story.
….."I do much better reading than listening," he explained.
….."Really? And I'm a much better listener."
….."What?" he said, and she got the joke almost immediately.
…..In the music library he cringed over his weak joke. He drew a thin-necked Lucia with a twisted mouth and a caption bubble that read, What are you trying to say? Soon La Bohéme's "O Mimi Tu Piu Non Torni" sounded through his head phones, and he dropped his plans to draw Elaine as a jackass reading The New Yorker. He yearned for Betty, whom he was certain he'd known in Italy, maybe in the 1800s or something. They'd been married, or maybe he'd lost her before marriage when she caught a cold that quickly turned into a death. But it had to be that he had lost her, not the other way around, because otherwise his eyes wouldn't have welled up every time he heard that song. If she'd been the one to lose him back in the day, then he would have been too dead to feel the loss. Betty was the one for him, he was sure of it, and he wondered how he could ever have wanted Lucia the snip or Elaine the snob. He imagined down-to-earth Betty laughing at his Modigliani comment and agreeing about Jackson Pollock, or at least shrugging over their different tastes. Betty was like that, and had probably been like that in Italy one hundred years ago—before tragedy separated them, whatever it was.
…..Along with some baritone, Pavarotti held the last beautiful note of "O Mimi Tu Piu Non Torni" and his eyes filled.
…..In his favorite film The Bronx Tale, Sonny told Calogero about the door test, and so he decided—after reading Betty's story and not understanding it but telling her he loved it anyway—to invite her to the Met and maybe have lunch. If she did care about whatever he said about Modigliani or Pollock, then maybe he would take Sonny-like advice and dump her.
…..Are you sure? he pressed Sonny in his mind. Dump her?
…..Dump her, Sonny answered. Because if this broad—
…..Betty—
…..If this broad Betty cares what you say about those stupid paintings, then she's a selfish broad and it's just the tip of the ice-boig.
…..He imagined himself married to Betty. Maybe she'd paint the kitchen a muddy yellow and he'd tell her it looked too much like puke, and she'd stomp around the living room.
…..Dump her if she does that too, Sonny said, eavesdropping on his further thoughts.
…..He and Betty had lunch in the museum restaurant that Saturday. They went through the Asian Art wing first, then passed quickly through the Renaissance. He had nothing to say about any painting, and soon they were walking shoulder to shoulder into the 20th Century wing. They faced the Modigliani's.
….."Oh my God, they're all the same woman," Betty said.
….."Yeah," he said after pause. "Lots of long necks." He watched her face. She chuckled and nudged him along.
…..When they reached the Pollock's, he suggested that he and Betty run. "I think we just walked into some little kid's play room."
…..She titled her head, and he winced.
….."I never saw the attraction," she said. "I'm sure he's very talented…"
….."Oh, of course. Look at that colorful…splatter. Takes a steady hand."
….."So randomly precise," she chimed in, and he breathed easier.
…..Good, good, Sonny said in his mind. You're doing good, kid. She's all right, this broad.
….."Wow, Chagall," she said when they wandered into another room. They stood in front of one painting. Another couple stopped behind them to look too.
….."I like him," he said to Betty. "He's always painting flying people and…horses flying around."
…..The couple behind them laughed to each other. "Horses flying around," the man snickered, and they laughed again. He turned to glare at them but they'd already moved on. His face burned and he felt Betty watching him.
…..He frowned his way through the other rooms, both of them quiet until she slipped her arm through his while they were looking at a Cezanne.
….."He's my favorite," she said quietly, but he only nodded. "Do you like him?"
….."Yeah…I like him."
….."Do you know," she went on, "his paintings were criticized brutally, but that never stopped him."
…..Her "brutally" sent a pang through him. He loved her voice. It reached into his belly, and he thought of asking her to say "brutally" again, but he only stared at the Cezanne.
Outside they bought pretzels and water and went into Central Park and sat under a tree.
….."Nice day," he said with an effort, and she nodded appreciatively at the grass and the trees and the sky.
…..Look, stupid, she already passed the museum test, Sonny said to him. But you failed it, with your flying horses. All you had to do was keep your mouth shut about Chagall. Even if you did know this broad in Italy way back in the dark ages, it don't make no difference now. You blew it.
….."Wow, look at that man with the blue face," Betty said. "But wait, let him pass first."
…..A man with a face painted blue walked by them.
….."Picasso must have got to him," he said miserably after the man passed.
….."He'll suffocate in his own skin that way." Then she laughed. "Maybe he stepped right out of a Chagall painting. Blue faces and flying people and—" she leaned into him and giggled, "…and horses flying around…"
…..Her face was bright, and she bit at her bottom lip.
…..Later they walked along Fifth Avenue all the way to 59th Street. Sonny had gone back to his club for an anisette, and Luciano was drowned out by traffic noise and the rattle of strollers on cobblestone and the ching-ching of bicycle bells and the laughter of women walking together. And there was Betty's voice too, giggling with him over Chagall and the blue-faced man and any other old silly comment they could think of making.
© Lou Gaglia
Lou Gaglia's short story collection, Poor Advice, received the 2015 New Apple Literary Award for Short Story Fiction. His stories have appeared in Halfway Down the Stairs, Menda City Review, Serving House Journal, Thrice Fiction, and elsewhere. He lives and teaches in upstate New York and is a long-time teacher and T'ai Chi Ch'uan practitioner. Visit him at lougaglia.com.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Quality, affordable education is within your reach.
Getting your degree at a first-rate college should be an investment in your future—but not one that will break the bank. Because we understand your needs and responsibilities as a working adult, students in the Adult Degree Program at Goshen College pay a discounted tuition rate. We have created an affordable, accelerated, and high-quality program just for you.
Federal Loans: Students who have unmet need (after grants have been awarded) are usually eligible for Federal Direct Student Loans. Federal loans have lower interest rates and better repayment options than private loans. Independent students with a junior or senior school level (60 credits) may be eligible for up to $12,500 in student loans per academic year. To apply for federal student aid, you must fill out a FAFSA.
State Aid: The State Student Assistance Commission of Indiana has developed several programs to help Indiana residents with their educational expenses. To apply for state aid, you must fill out a FAFSA.
Pell Grant: This need-based federal grant is available only to students pursuing their first bachelor's degree. Funds may be used for tuition, fees, books, room, board or other educational expenses. The maximum Federal Pell Grant for 2018-19 (July 1, 2018, through June 30, 2019) will be $6,095.
Outside Scholarships: Outside scholarships do not come from Goshen College. Instead, they are sponsored by private organizations. The financial aid office encourages students to apply for as many outside scholarships for which they are eligible.
Private Loans: Alternate loans for students (also called private loans) may help fill the gap between the cost of education and financial aid available. (Interest rates are variable; the best rates may require a co-signer) For a list of several alternate loans, including facts and contact information, click here or contact the financial aid office.
Military and Veterans Benefits: Goshen College participates in the Post 9-11, GI Bill program and the Yellow Ribbon Program. If you are eligible to receive these benefits, please contact us and we will connect you to Goshen's certifying official who will process your benefits. For more information on these programs, visit the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs website.
Goshen College Individual Development Education Accounts (IDEA): Save $500 for college in a matched savings account and receive $4,000 to pay for tuition, books and other college-related expenses! The program is available for incoming low-to-moderate income students for any Goshen College degree program. Learn more.
Most students who need help paying for college fill out a Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) to become eligible for financial assistance from the federal and state government. Remember, financial aid applications can be overwhelming, but it's simpler than it seems. And you don't have to do this alone—our financial aid office is here to help if you have any questions.
Apply for admission to Goshen College. You can fill out the FAFSA at the same time, but you won't hear back about how much aid you can receive until you've been admitted to the program.
Complete and submit your FAFSA. Students should specify 001799 as the code number for Goshen College.
Once you have your FAFSA results, and after you've been accepted for admission, Goshen College will send you a Financial Aid Award letter describing the aid you are eligible to receive. Review, sign and return one copy of your Financial Aid Award notice to the Goshen College financial aid office.
The deadline for state grants is April 15.
Unlike many other institutions, Goshen College's Adult Degree Programs have no hidden fees or expenses. Some schools may appear to have a low tuition rate, but then charge extra for little details that can add up quickly—registration fees, parking permits, technology fees and special materials.
It's true—paying for a top-rate education costs money. Once you have completed your degree, you'll have more potential for a higher salary, promotions and other career advances that will help you earn more money in the long term. Plus, paying for college is affordable with the financial aid packages many of our students receive.
Costs are listed on individual program pages.
We have several payment plans for you to choose from so you can find the best fit.
Financial Aid: If you are receiving loans or grants from the state or federal government, you will declare Goshen College as the recipient and the funding will go directly to the financial aid office. Students using financial aid must apply at least twice during the program, and have the paperwork completed before registration. Read more about applying for loans here.
Payment in Full: If you have the finances to pay directly for your degree, you can opt to pay in full at the beginning of each term by check, cash, or credit card. Charges unpaid within 30 days will be subject to a 1% (12% annual) interest charge.
Monthly Payments: Contracts may be arranged with our outside agency for a low-cost monthly payment to extend throughout each term. The cost per term is $25. For additional information, please contact the accounting office.
Read up on our financial aid refund policies.


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by News and Events | Dec 1, 2021 | Featured, Features, News | 0 comments
Ms. Kanan Kappelman
communications@iowaeda.com
November 19, 2021 (DES MOINES, IA) – Today, the Iowa Economic Development Authority (IEDA) Board approved awards for one established company in Sergeant Bluff, which will assist in the creation of two jobs and result in $71.1 million in new capital investment for the state. The board also approved innovation funding in support of four startups located in Ames and West Des Moines.
Ag Processing Inc to expand in Sergeant Bluff
Ag Processing Inc a cooperative (AGP) has six Iowa locations and engages in the procurement, processing, marketing and transportation of grains and agricultural products. With soybean processing as AGP's primary function, the Sergeant Bluff facility also further refines crude soybean oil to vegetable oil. The company plans to upgrade the facility to increase the sustainable crush rate, allowing members to sell products locally where demand is higher. The project represents a capital investment of $71.1 million and is expected to create two jobs at a qualifying wage of $20.56 per hour. The board awarded tax benefits through the High Quality Jobs program.
Awards made to four startups
Ames-based Mazen Animal Health, Inc. develops oral animal vaccines for animal disease prevention. The edible vaccines can be dosed with feed, offering a cost-effective, safer delivery, efficacious, room-temperature option for animal vaccines. With the opportunity to treat a variety of animals and animal diseases, Mazen plans to focus on commercialization of swine vaccines. The company was awarded a $125,000 Demonstration Fund loan for IP development and evaluation, marketing planning and entry activities, key personnel, and regulatory requirements.
Formed in the Iowa State University Startup Factory in Ames, NanoSpy, Inc. produces a biosensor for the rapid detection of Salmonella in food processing facilities to reduce the economic impact of foodborne illness. The technology overcomes the burdens of current methods that require a two-day period before receiving lab results with a quantitative rapid test that allows for near real-time decisions that mitigate the risk of a pathogen contamination in the consumer market. The company was awarded a $25,000 Proof of Commercial Relevance (POCR) loan for IP development and evaluation, proof of concept work, and market planning and entry activities.
Townhall LLC, an educational technology (EdTech) software development company in Ames, is creating a desktop-based app to improve the video conferencing experience. The app increases engagement for large remote meetings on any platform through gamification and instant feedback. The company was awarded a $25,000 POCR loan for IP development and evaluation, product refinement, market planning and entry activities, and key personnel.
Headquartered in West Des Moines, Lola's Fine Sauces, Inc. holds a family's secret hot sauce recipe with a mission to provide a unique sauce for everyone to enjoy. The product line has expanded to seven sauces, five salsas, a seasoning mix and a Bloody Mary mix and is sold in more than 10,000 stores nationwide. The company was awarded a $100,000 Demonstration Fund loan for market analysis, proof of concept work, product refinement, market planning and entry activities, key personnel, and equipment.
Award recommendations for these funds are made by the Technology Commercialization Committee to the IEDA Board for approval.


text:
Borrowed buyoff | Tech job cuts hit home | Why austerity is back
THIS WASHINGTON
► From Reuters — Washington court paves way for Albertsons' $4 billion dividend, declines to review case — Washington state's highest court will allow Albertsons Companies Inc. to pay a $4 billion dividend ahead of its proposed deal with Kroger by declining on Tuesday to take up a claim that the payout would be uncompetitive. The Washington Supreme Court made the decision after a lower court judge refused last month to issue a preliminary injunction against the dividend. The Washington attorney general's office in November sued to block the dividend, arguing that it would weaken Albertsons before Kroger's $25 billion purchase.
EDITOR'S NOTE — According to SEC filings, Albertsons plans to pay shareholders more cash than the company has, so it will spend all of its $2.5 billion in cash on hand and borrow the rest. Whether or not the merger is allowed by federal authorities under anti-trust laws, this extraordinary dividend is a recipe for grocery store closures.
The Stand (Oct. 14, 2021) — Grocery unions decry proposed Kroger-Albertsons merger — Local unions representing grocery store workers in Washington, California and Colorado say the proposed merger would be "devastating for workers and consumers," and call on anti-trust regulators to block it.
► From Crosscut — WA has 530 bridges in 'poor' condition — and limited repair money — Public inspection data shows about 530 of the state's bridges are classified in "poor" condition, the agency's lowest assessment. In Grays Harbor County, where the Heron Street Bridge crosses the Wishkah River, records show even greater deterioration: Nearly one out of 10 bridges are listed in poor condition, including several highly trafficked spans near downtown Aberdeen and Hoquiam.
► From KUOW — WA lawmakers consider minimum wage requirement for incarcerated workers — There are 2,200 incarcerated people across Washington who have jobs. They're employed in prison facilities. They might be welders, food service workers, carpenters, or janitors. Altogether, Washington's Department of Corrections generated $68.8 million in revenue last year. But only a small portion of that money makes it into the incarcerated workers' wages. At most, inmates can make $2.70 an hour. A new proposal by State Rep. Tarra Simmons (D-Bremerton) would raise that minimum wage to match Washington's at $15.74 an hour.
► From Crosscut — WA Democrats hid messages on Chinese American History Month bill — Records obtained by Crosscut show that House lawmakers used "legislative privilege" to shield emails, memos and text messages from public view.
► From the Seattle Times — Job cuts in tech sector spread, Microsoft lays off 10,000 — Microsoft is cutting 10,000 workers, almost 5% of its workforce, joining other tech companies that have scaled back their pandemic-era expansions. Microsoft is cutting far fewer jobs than it had added during the COVID-19 pandemic as it responded to a boom in demand for its workplace software and cloud computing services with so many people working and studying from home.
► From Q13 — Amazon begins cutting 18,000 workers in its biggest layoffs ever — Amazon's workforce reduction layoffs, the largest in its history, will begin Wednesday. Earlier this month, Amazon CEO Andy Jassy told employees in a blog post that the company was laying off about 18,000 people as it seeks to cut costs and would begin contacting impacted employees on Jan. 18.
► From the Seattle Times — Amazon slashed HR teams built to help warehouse workers — For Amazon warehouse workers, the COVID-19 pandemic — and the unprecedented number of questions about sick time and corporate polices — exposed flaws in the system that left some workers confused about how or why they were fired, and unable to reach anyone who could fix mistakes. In August, Amazon rolled out a new system to help its warehouse workers connect with a human — rather than a chatbot — when they had questions about such things. Less than six months after launching the new system, Amazon trimmed the workforce in charge of responding to those questions.
EDITOR'S NOTE — Sick of broken promises? Get it in writing… in a union contract! Get more information about how you can join together with co-workers and negotiate for better wages and working conditions, and a voice on the job. Or go ahead and contact a union organizer today!
THAT WASHINGTON
► From Politico — Biden, House GOP refuse to budge as key debt ceiling deadline looms — The Biden administration and House Republicans are heading toward an initial Thursday debt ceiling deadline without even a hint of an endgame, ensuring a months-long standoff that's poised to rattle financial markets amid worries about a recession this year.
► From the Chicago Sun-Times — University of Illinois Chicago faculty union goes on strike — Hundreds of faculty at the UIC hit picket lines across their Near West Side campus Tuesday on the first day of an indefinite strike after nine months of contract negotiations. The UIC Faculty United union announced late Monday that it would proceed with its walkout after a 12-hour bargaining session still didn't yield enough movement to land a deal.
► From City Beat — REI's Cleveland workers file to unionize, following California and New York colleagues — The move comes among complaints of "irregular scheduling" and unfair wages during what workers say is REI's largest profit margin in its 84-year history. According to a press release from the RWDSU, a "majority" of REI Cleveland's 55 workers leaned towards filing with the union, which represents 100,000 workers across the U.S.
EDITOR'S NOTE — Ready for a voice at work? Get more information about how you can join together with co-workers and negotiate a fair return for your hard work. Or go ahead and contact a union organizer today!
► From the People's World — AFL-CIO's Redmond: Disenfranchising workers boosts 'fascist ideology' — Disrespect, disenfranchisement and disinheritance of workers—of whatever race, color or creed—produces "a fertile environment" for hate and "fascist ideology." So said Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. in a speech to the AFL-CIO convention in 1961, and that's still true today, says AFL-CIO Secretary-Treasurer Fred Redmond.
► From CNBC — Economic data is often misunderstood, hurting Black workers: AFL-CIO chief economist William Spriggs — When there's an economic slowdown, the racial employment gap grows. But mainstream economic data doesn't always reflect the struggle, according to William Spriggs, Howard University economics professor and chief economist for the AFL-CIO.
► From CNBC — The richest 1% of people amassed almost two-thirds of new wealth created in the last two years, Oxfam says — A total of $42 trillion in new wealth has been created since 2020, with $26 trillion, or 63%, of that being amassed by the top 1% of the ultra-rich, according to the report. The remaining 99% of the global population collected just $16 trillion of new wealth, the global poverty charity says.
► From The Hill — Corporate tax rates fall globally as governments consider austerity measures — Falling corporate tax rates in the U.S. are part of a global trend that has governments charging big business less in tax while looking to make spending cuts across a wide range of social programs. Reports from nonprofit Oxfam, the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) and other organizations are showing that as governments weigh austerity measures in the wake of the pandemic, corporations with surging profits are being asked to foot less of the bill.
EDITOR'S NOTE — And these related stories…
► From the AP — UK nurses stage new walkout as strike wave intensifies — Thousands of nurses in Britain walked out Wednesday in a new protest over pay, with no end in sight to a wave of strikes that has piled pressure on the U.K.'s overburdened public health system.
► From Reuters — French union threatens to cut electricity to MPs, billionaires amid nationwide strike
The Stand posts links to Washington state and national news of interest every weekday morning by 10 a.m.
Posted by admin on Jan 18 2023. Filed under DAILY LINKS. You can follow any responses to this entry through the RSS 2.0. Both comments and pings are currently closed.


In any project based on the CoreMedia CMS where sites have to be created from scratch, at one point we ran into the need of the minimal content set for that site. That content area should be unrelated and unconnected to any other data and content in the system - so be really self-contained. It should make clear, which elements and settings are really needed from the wealth of options for that very project or site within the instance of the software.
For really some time now, CoreMedia provides a load of demo-site contents for different scenarios of the usage of their products. It is quite easy to set up a system that really shows something.
From my point of view, taking one of these demo sites and ripping out the unnecessary parts was not helpful, since you might end up - especially for new releases - with too much data that might be needed. At least a feeling of unknown dependencies sometimes remained.
URL found through Google search for "coremedia chef corp"
A small content snippet with as few elements as ever possible still seemed to be missing. And this still holds true for the latest release CoreMedia CMS-9 (and LiveContext 3 as well) as shown from a small personal survey.
Again involved in a project based on CoreMedia products, I am now using the latest - and greatest - version of the CMS product - CoreMedia CMS 9, and asked some old friends to help me.
After showing the system and demos one of the first questions: "Ok, nice, where is the minimal Hello World site?".
From that feedback without any prior CoreMedia-related background, I assume that developers expect that part of a software - any software - to be there.
It could be imported into the repository and instantly be used as a Hello World site, - and with its static content only as a Hello World site.
and the like. So there still is some work to do. But this kind of work is even more schematic and boring than the setup of the minimally needed elements.
This ended in a rewrite script and a content workspace which I now would like to make available to any interested developer in the CoreMedia-sphere.
Find the resulting code at Bitbucket, GitLab, and Github.