Roof racks . . .
I can tell you the exact moment I decided that roof racks on four-wheel-drive vehicles should be, 1) left off if possible, and, 2) loaded as lightly as feasible if not.
I had to ferry a cased, rigid-floor 14-foot Zodiac inflatable and a Yamaha outboard motor to a research station in Mexico from Tucson, using my 1973 FJ40. Neither boat nor motor would fit inside, so I decided to strap them on the roof rack—where, I noted with satisfaction, they looked purposeful and very, very stylish. Thus with almost exactly 500 pounds of equipment—in addition to the 100 pounds of my reinforced Con-Ferr rack—secured seven feet above my 90-inch wheelbase, I headed south. And all went perfectly well—until, on the apex of a blind right-hand curve, I discovered a very slow-moving cow in my lane.
Having successfully circumvented that cow—and with the Land Cruiser back on all four wheels—I decided, Okay, this is dumb.
It's natural when you're just starting out to want your vehicle to look like a proper expedition machine, and to a lot of us that means a roof rack, probably further enhanced with a bank of driving lights, a few NATO jerry cans, those awesome perforated sand tracks, a Hi-Lift jack, a Pelican case or three, and perhaps a roof tent. After all, for our inspiration we have those inspiring images of the Camel Trophy Land Rovers, high-mounted Bosch driving lamps blazing, forging paths through the jungles of Papua New Guinea or the black cotton soil of Tanzania. Those Range Rovers and Defenders and Discoveries remain unsurpassed as the epitome of expedition cool.
Two things are important to remember, however. One, the CT vehicles were navigating remote areas of the planet and overgrown tracks in stunningly bad conditions, and required huge amounts of recovery and survival equipment. Inside the vehicle were always two team members plus at least one journalist, so much kit simply had to go on the roof. And, two, those Land Rovers ended up on their sides very, very frequently in the midst of Special Tasks requiring greater than prudent speeds.
Any weight above the center of gravity of your vehicle tries its best to tip it over in the midst of an emergency maneuver, or at low speed when tilted on a side slope. And good old Newtonian-esque laws of mass, leverage, and velocity are always conspiring to do their worst. Two hundred pounds of driver sitting a few inches above the CG exerts much less force than 200 pounds of gear sitting a foot above the driver's head. Excess weight on the roof affects braking as well. When the brakes are applied sharply, the weight on the roof tries to tip the vehicle over forward, unloading the rear tires. Modern ABS systems will prevent rear brake lockup, but braking distance will still be compromised.
So far we've only discussed handling and safety. But a roof rack and its load hugely affects windage as well. My FJ40 gets exactly one mile per gallon more without a roof rack than with it mounted. That might not sound like a lot, but the difference between 16mpg and 17 adds up—and this on a vehicle with the drag coefficient of a Motel 6. Imagine the effect on a modern, aerodynamic SUV.
All well and good. But what if you simply cannot fit all your gear inside the vehicle, because you, a) have a spouse and two kids, or, b) a very small vehicle, or, c) just too damn much stuff? An obvious solution presents itself for (c), but let's discuss the other situations. If you decide you really need or want a roof rack, it's smart to go with the lightest one possible that retains the rigidity you need. It also makes sense to go for the lowest profile possible, so that when it's not loaded with gear it creates the least amount of windage. Front Runner, among other companies, produces low-profile aluminum models that are lightweight but exceptionally sturdy. Then decide if you really need a full-length rack, or if a half-sized rack would suffice, mounted well behind the air flow coming up the windshield.
As to what to put up there, choose the light but awkward items that take up the most room inside—camp chairs, tables, bedding, for example. How much is too much? It depends on numerous factors, of course, high among them the weight of the vehicle itself. Two hundred pounds on the roof of a Suburban will affect it less than 200 pounds on a RAV4. If you need a rough guide, try to keep the weight of rack and gear to significantly less than five percent of the curb weight of a vehicle with no suspension lift. On a 4,500-pound Jeep Wrangler Unlimited, for example, that would give you enough leeway to mount a Front Runner rack and a two-person roof tent without dangerously affecting the handling—although I guarantee you will feel the difference.
Then, please skip the Pelican cases and jerry cans, okay?
Older PostTrust . . .


text:
Lakewood Health System recognized by the Minnesota Health Action Group
Lakewood Health System clinics are among 276 Minnesota and border state clinics that were recently recognized by the Minnesota Health Action Group (The Action Group) for delivering optimal care and achieving optimal care measures, or improving specific patient outcomes as part of the 2016 Minnesota...
August birthdays and anniversaries
The monthly birthday/anniversary party for the senior citizens was held August 9, in the Senior Citizen's Room at the Staples Community Center. Members celebrating August birthdays are, front left to right: Richard Allen, Phyllis Paskewitz, Iris Floistad and Marilynn Wilson. The anniversary...
School supplies for area students
CARE Ministry held a 'Back to School' fair for area students in grades kindergarten - seventh grade at Faith Lutheran Church in Staples Aug. 22. Approximately 110 students were each given a back pack, a grocery bag filled with approximately $100 worth of supplies, one new outfit, a pair of shoes;...
Helping with school supplies
Staples Host Lions donated $500 to the Staples-Motley Back to School Fair, which provides backpacks and school supplies for students. Pictured, Tom Honek, Staples Lions presents a check to organizers Joyce Anderson, Jeanne Hajek and Gail Honek. (Staples World photo by Mark Anderson)
Gift of life: Husband receives kidney from wife
Giving and receiving is a part of life and for one couple, their marriage commitment to each other came true in a larger than life way. Married for 18 years, Bruce and Tammy Hopp of rural Hewitt were at Hennepin County Medical Center, Minneapolis on July 14 to undergo kidney transplant surgery from...
Births reported at Lakewood Health System Hospital included: Born to Daryl and Jennifer Smith of Deerwood, a baby boy, Drew Stephen weighing eight pounds, 11 ounces on August 12, 2016. Born to Alyssa Sandhoff and Justin Human of Baxter, a baby girl, Odessa Louise weighing six pounds, five ounces on...
Bemidji State University has announced its Spring 2016 Semester graduate list. Local students named include: o Morgan Cunningham, Motley, Bachelor of Science, Exercise Science o Kelly Metz, Pillager, Bachelor of Science, Nursing o Jaime Vansickle, Bachelor of Science, Nursing o Hallie Olsen,...
Final summer concert
Local country music singer Katie Ziegler (above left) closed out the 'Music in the Park' series in Staples Aug. 14, singing to a crowd of nearly 300 people. Pictured with Katie is her 12-year-old cousin, McKenzie Wilds, who made her singing debut that evening, joining Katie for the last three songs...
Births reported at Lakewood Health System Hospital included: Born to Paul and Sarah Cullen of Breezy Point, a baby boy, Hank Paul weighing seven pounds, seven ounces on August 5, 2016. Born to Brandi Larson and Jason Schultz of Verndale, a baby boy, Camron Daniel weighing five pounds, 14 ounces on...
Jennifer Johnson and Matthew Bartella of Plymouth would like to announce their upcoming wedding. Jennifer is the daughter of Karen Johnson and Lyndon (Linda) Johnson of Motley and the granddaughter of Doreen Scott of Motley and Martha Holsapple of Staples. Matthew is the son of Rick and Shelley...

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


The Newgate Calendar - APPENDIX VII.
WE consider it a part of our duty to give our readers occasionally an account of the various modes of punishment, for the commission of crimes, in distant nations.
No guilt is more frequent than adultery, and none, in its progress, more tending to fatal consequences, involving whole families in ruin, and driving others to seek revenge in the blood of the spoilers of their honour.
That adultery is a crime which has been detested by all wise and good people, as scandalous in its nature, pernicious to society, and destructive of religion, appears by the various severe laws and punishments by which legislators and magistrates have endeavoured to restrain it.
The histories of the ancient heathens tell us that they thought it a crime so very black and abominable, that they have compared it to sacrilege, or to robbing of temples; and their philosophers judged it to be worse than perjury. The old Ethiopians ranked it with treason, as a crime of the like nature and guilt; and the Egyptians had a law that the man guilty of it should have a thousand stripes, and that a woman should lose her nose, as a mark of perpetual infamy.
The ancient Athenians punished all adulterers with death, and even those who were only suspected with some less penalty. It was the custom of the Persians to throw the adulteress down headlong into a deep well; for, as adultery was, at one time, a common crime among the nobility and gentry in the court of ancient Persia, it became the frequent cause of rebellions, murders, and other dreadful calamities, in that empire.
The tragedy of Mejistes and his whole family, occasioned by the adultery of his wife with Xerxes the emperor, is most horrible to relate; and the punishment of Appodines the physician, for debauching Amytis, the widow of Megabyzus, is also most shocking and terrible.
The old lawgivers of Greece punished this crime with death. Among the Lybians it was the custom to treat married women guilty of adultery in the most severe manner, without mercy and without pardon.
In a certain city of Crete, when an adulterer was caught in the fact, and judicially convicted, he was first adjudged to be covered with a crown of wool, in derision of his soft and effeminate nature, signified by that material and the animal from whence it was taken, then publicly to pay a heavy fine, and to be rendered incapable of bearing any office in the government.
The King of the Tenideans made a law that the adulterer should be beheaded with an axe; and commanded his own son, found guilty of this fact, to be put to death in that manner.
The Lepreans made a law that the men should be led round the city for three days together, and then burnt in the face with a brand of indelible infamy; and that the women should stand in the market-place for eleven successive days, clothed only with a thin transparent garment, which should hang loose and untied, in order to expose them more to public shame, contempt, and laughter.
Hippomines, one of the kings of Athens, having caught an adulterer with his daughter Limona, ordered him to be tied to the wheel of a chariot, and her to one of the horses, and to be dragged about the streets till they died; a shameful and horrid spectacle to the whole city, but a public example of the most severe and impartial justice.
Dio the consul, the first King of the Romans, made a law that the faulty wife should be put to death after what manner her husband or relations thought fit; which law was afterwards confirmed, and continued in force for many years. But the rigidly virtuous Cato allowed the husband to dispatch his wife immediately on finding her guilty, without staying for the forms of justice. Many also of the Roman emperors punished this crime with present death; though it must be confessed, indeed, that many others of them, with their empresses and daughters, and ladies of the highest quality, when Rome was declining, were notoriously guilty.
We read of many Julias and Messalinas in the reign of the twelve Caesars, and so downwards, for a great length of time.
This vice soon became very common among them in the days of their conquests, national influence, and prosperity; and yet, such diligence and labour had there been used to bring offenders to condign punishment, that Tacitus says, when he was a chief officer of Rome, he found in the public records the names of three thousand who had been put to death for committing adultery. Even the heathen Romans always punished malefactors convicted of this crime by banishment, and, in cases of the highest degree, with death.
The Hungarians, in those days when virtue was in more esteem than at present, made death the punishment, with dreadful infliction. The father was compelled to conduct and force his own daughter to the place of execution, the husband his wife, and the brother his sister.
In Old Saxony a woman convicted of this crime was punished precisely as the English law punished the murderer of her husband -- strangled, and then burnt to ashes. The adulterer was then hung up over her grave; or else the chaste matrons of the town where the fact was committed had liberty to scourge him with whips and rods, from one village to another, until he died.
The Turks adopted the Levitical law, and stoned such offenders to death; though, before the law of Moses, the adulteress, when condemned, was burnt alive.
In holy writ, the prophet Jeremiah intimates that the King of Babylon was more cruel than any other monarch, for he roasted to death Zedekiah, the son of Maaseiah, and Ahad, the son of Kolaiah, because they had committed adultery with their neighbours' wives.
At this day, in Turkey, adulteries are often punished by drowning the guilty woman, and castrating the man.
The Spaniards and the Italians, by nature jealous and severe, wherever they suspect a man guilty with their wives, wait an opportunity of plunging a dagger secretly in his heart.
In France, five hundred years ago, two gentlemen of Normandy, who were brothers, were flayed alive, and hung upon gibbets, for adultery.
Modern writers have stigmatized this crime with the name it deserves -- a most execrable villainy. Some of the old fathers of the Church have declared their minds with such sharpness and vehemence, as to pronounce it, in many cases, unpardonable.
If we look into the old books of the civil and canon laws we shall find that the several punishments made and ordained by them were either death by the sword or the loss of their noses, or some singular brand of infamy, or some large pecuniary mulct, or banishment; as we find by the old statutes of the Belgians and Hollanders. If a father caught his daughter in the fact, he might kill her and her gallant upon the spot; but a husband was empowered, in the like cases, to put the latter only to death, but the wife was reserved to the judgment of the law.
Adultery, from being more immediately an offence against the Church, has been generally excepted out of the acts of pardon and indemnity, as an evil in itself, or of that nature which kings themselves cannot or will not pardon.
It would be endless to recount the many kingdoms and republics, with all their different laws and customs, where this abominable crime hath been, and still is, chastised and exposed with very signal, infamous, painful, and terrible punishments. In England, we are sorry to say, its commission now too often goes unpunished, whether in the prince or the pickpocket.
Let, however, this short extract from eminent authors, contrasted with its barefaced commission in our own country, give the immoral and incontinent a specimen of the opinion of the wise and sober part of mankind; and let them dread the examples of the downfall of mighty empires from profligacy, lest its general adoption hurl their country into the like fate.


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Entrants touting names like "Big Daddy," "Congo" and "Air Jordan" from Monkton to Glen Burnie rallied at Broadway Market Square in Fells Point yesterday for the 25th annual Maryland Preakness Celebration Frog Hop.
But it was an amphibian named "Ernie" that leaped to first place among a field of 39 frogs.
The prized possession of 15-year-old Tim Thate of Parkville, Ernie jumped 9 feet, 1 inch, outdistancing his nearest contender by only two inches. As the Frog Hop winner, Ernie will fly on to Calaveras County, Calif., tonight -- by jet and without his owner -- for the national frog-jumping jubilee there this weekend.
"I'm really surprised," said the slightly stunned Tim as he posed for photos and accepted a trophy. "I just found him two days ago" in a pond near the Susquehanna River, "and now I'm saying goodbye," he said.
The frog leap was one of several Preakness Week contests designed to get folks into the competitive spirit by this weekend, when the horse race all this fuss was created for gets under way at Pimlico. Earlier in the day about 100 preschoolers mounted hobbyhorses in the Pee-Wee Preakness at Rash Field, and yesterday afternoon it was the adults' turn to compete as three topsail ships cast off from the Inner Harbor in the AT&T; Great Schooner Race.
There were several winners in the hobbyhorse stakes, since the race had to be held about a dozen times to accommodate all the entrants. The young riders, who ranged in age from 3 to 5 and represented area day care and recreation centers, were vying for coloring books and posters.
As they galloped from one end of Rash Field to the other, the children were cheered on by spectators, and Dave Rodman, official track announcer at Pimlico, called the Pee-Wee stakes just as he would any horse race.
Not all the Preakness-happy preschoolers were on hobbyhorses. There were a few at the frog race, encouraging their entrants with everything from foot stomping to clapping.
Young Kyle Hoge, 3 1/2 , tried batting about a balloon to inspire his frog to jump -- but it was no go.
It wasn't until the whole audience yelled "Froggy" in unison that the frog leaped 4 feet, 7 inches -- a respectable showing, but not enough to place.
Frog jumping rules say you can do anything to encourage your amphibian but touch it. Some frog jockeys found blowing on their entrants worked. Others tried whistling. Still others dipped the frogs in water and watched them practically jump from their hands.
If one thing proved true it was that the biggest wasn't necessarily the best jumper. And names don't mean much, either: Sir Tiny jumped almost 8 feet, but big bad Ralph wouldn't budge. Air Jordan only went 4 feet.
After the frog hop ended, the festivities continued at the Inner Harbor where the Clipper City, Lady Maryland and Pride of Baltimore set sail in a race to Fort McHenry and back.
To no one's surprise, the Pride won, just nosing out the Lady Maryland.
That didn't bother the Clipper City, which had the most revelers on board. "We always win the party," said Barbara Shaw, the passenger ship's marketing manager.
"After all, the party is the most important thing for a party ship," she said of the schooner that offers entertainment tours to up to 150 passengers.
"We won once or twice in the past," she said of the race that for six years has been a Preakness tradition. "In fact, we've been cheating back and forth with the Pride for years: They tied our sails up this year.
"But someone probably found a bucket of rocks tied to their ship, too. This is really a spirited race."


text:
layout: post
title: "Let the Types Flow"
subtitle: "Thinking in Types"
section: app-building
comments: true
---

### Why types are a good thing

In coding, it's important to have a good understanding of the types of values that are flowing through the program. Functions only ever work on specific types, so if you lose track of the types of inputs that you're giving to functions you'll run into errors. Elm is pretty good about telling you if you're doing something that doesn't make sense, like using an Integer function on a String. Other languages, like Javascript, are more than happy to do whatever you tell it to, happily giving you back meaningless results without a word of warning.

Elm is a **typed** language. That means it will tell us when we use a function that only works on one type of value on an input of the wrong type. **Untyped** languages don't have this restriction. The result in untyped languages is usually that you code something that you think makes sense, only to find a bug in your program that takes hours to track down and fix.

Let's take advantage of Elm's helpful **type declarations** to develop an intuition for how types of values flow through our programs. Learning how to visualize types will help dramatically when you go to untyped languages like Javascript that don't enforce type restrictions. They allow us to visualize functions as *pipes* between inputs and outputs.

### Type declarations

Let's see what type declarations look like with an example. Say we wanted to make a function that added two numbers.

{% highlight elm %}
add first second = first + second
{% endhighlight %}

In Elm, `+` only works on numbers - that is, an Int type (whole number) or a Float type (decimal). If we wanted to restrict our function to only work on whole numbers, we could do this:

{% highlight elm %}
add : Int -> Int -> Int
add first second = first + second
{% endhighlight %}

The first line is a type declaration. Type declarations are a way of telling the Elm compiler what types the functions we're creating are expecting to take in and return. Here's what the type declaration says in English:

`add` is a function that takes two Ints as inputs and gives back an Int as output.
{: .quote}

The `:` symbol is usually read as "has type", and doesn't actually change the function of our code. It's used to tell the compiler (and human readers) how the function is expected to be used. If we use the function in a way that violates the type declaration, Elm will throw an error and tell us we're doing something weird.

In our `add` function, we take in a two numbers, and give back a third number. The skinny arrow symbol (`->`) is used to show the flow of values through the function.

So why are the inputs not separated from the output?

Remember that in Elm, every variable is a function, and every variable's value has a type. We haven't talked about this yet, but technically, every function is only able to accept either *zero* or *one* input. In practice, it looks like our `add` function takes two inputs, but under the hood, what's happening is that it's taking in inputs one by one and returning a new function that accepts the next input.

Our `add` function is really a chain of functions. It's a function that accepts an Int input, and returns a new function of type `Int -> Int`.

This process of only allowing one input to be processed at a time is extremely powerful, and something a lot of mainstream languages miss out on. The actual word for it is called *currying*, because we're mixing in "ingredients" one at a time to create something more complex.

![currying](https://img.vimbly.com/images/full_photos/indian-cooking-6.jpg)

### Currying

Currying, or **partial application** as it's more formally known, is a powerful functional programming concept that allows us to save programming time by reusing code. Let's see how our `add` function would work by walking through each of the currying steps.

{% highlight elm %}
add one two = one + two

-- We can make a function that always adds 2 like this:
addTwo = add 2

addTwo 7  -- produces 9
addTwo 15 -- produces 17

-- So when we call `add` like this...
-- add 1 2
-- What we're really doing is this:

add : Int -> Int -> Int
add 1 2
-- we produce a temporary function with the 1 applied
addOne : Int -> Int

-- Then we call our temporary function with the second input
addOne 2 -- produces our final value, an Int of 3
{% endhighlight %}

Let's see one more example.

{% highlight elm %}
multiply x y = x * y

-- multiply 3 7 is the same as...

multiplyByThree = multiply 3

multiplyByThree 7 -- produces 21
{% endhighlight %}

In each of these cases, we're supplying a single input to a function and receiving back another function that takes a second input.

### Type variables

When we created our `add` function, we said that it could only work on Int values.

{% highlight elm %}
add : Int -> Int -> Int
add one two = one + two
{% endhighlight %}

We also want our function to work on decimals, not just whole numbers. So how can we say that we want it to work on *two* different types?

The answer is to use a **type variable** in our type declaration. Just like normal variables can have multiple values, type variables can be used to represent multiple types. Type variables are lower-cased like normal variables. Elm has a few type variables built-in:

  * number
    * for Int and Float
  * comparable
    * for Int, Float, Char, String, List, and Tuple
  * appendable
    * for String and List

Here's what using one of these type variables for our `add` function would look like.

{% highlight elm %}
add : number -> number -> number
add one two = one + two
{% endhighlight %}

Now we won't get an error when we use our function with decimals.

### Adding type declarations for our program

Let's add a type declaration for our `update` function. Remember that `update` is a function that takes a Message and a Model, and gives back a new Model.

{% highlight elm %}
update : Message -> Model -> Model
update message model =
  case message of
    AskedForCats     -> { title = "cats",
                          picture = catPicture }

    AskedForDogs     -> { title = "dogs",
                          picture = dogPicture }

    AskedForIceCream -> { title = "ice cream",
                          picture = iceCreamPicture }
{% endhighlight %}

### More type declarations

Let's go through and add type declarations to some of the other functions in our program. Adding type declarations is always optional, but it's usually a good idea because it acts as good documentation (showing how a function should be used) and makes it more difficult to misuse a function.

We already know the type declaration for the `update` function:

{% highlight elm %}
update : Message -> Model -> Model
{% endhighlight %}

But if you run this, it won't work. That's because Model isn't a default type that is built into Elm. We created a Message type when we wrote this line:

{% highlight elm %}
type Message = AskedForCats | AskedForDogs | AskedForIceCream
{% endhighlight %}

So now we just have to do something similar for the Model.

{% highlight elm %}
model = { title = "cats",
          picture = "https://media.giphy.com/media/ND6xkVPaj8tHO/giphy.gif" }
{% endhighlight %}

There's just a slight difference here. Our `model` isn't really a *new* type, it's just a specific type of Record - one with a "title" and a "picture" field. So what we're actually going to do is make a nickname for that specific type of record so that we can refer to it as a Model type from now on.

### Type aliases

We make nicknames for types like this:

{% highlight elm %}
type alias Model = { title : String, picture : String }
{% endhighlight %}

"Alias" is just another word for nickname. This line, then, is saying,

Model is a nickname for a Record with two fields: "title", which has type String, and "picture", which also has type String.
{: .quote}

Now we can use our new Model "type alias" in our code to refer to that specific form of record.

{% highlight elm %}
type alias Model = { title : String, picture : String }
model : Model
model = { title = "cats",
          picture = "https://media.giphy.com/media/ND6xkVPaj8tHO/giphy.gif" }
{% endhighlight %}

But there's one more thing we can do to make our code a little more idiomatic and similar to how you'll see most other Elm code out there. Whenever we create a type alias, Elm makes a new type constructor for us for free. Remember that type constructors are used to create values of a specific type, and this type needs a "title" and a "picture". So we can use our new type constructor to create a model like this:

{% highlight elm %}
-- make the Model type constructor
type alias Model = { title : String, picture : String }

-- now we can use Model in our type declaration
model : Model
-- ...and also in our code to make new Models
model = Model "cats" "https://media.giphy.com/media/ND6xkVPaj8tHO/giphy.gif"
-- the last line creates a variable of type Model with the title and picture fields set
{% endhighlight %}

### Type parameters

Just like normal functions can accept inputs (also called arguments or parameters), types can accept inputs as well. The formal word for this is called **parameterized types**. It's an intimidating term, but a parameterized type is just a type that can have another type inside of it. Lists are parameterized types, because they can hold other types inside of them. So when we write type declarations for Lists, it usually looks something like this:

{% highlight elm %}
-- function for the length of a list
length : List things -> Int

List.length [1, 2, 3]  -- produces 3
List.length ['a', 'b'] -- produces 2
{% endhighlight %}

What we're saying is that the length function takes a List of *things*, whether they're Ints, or Strings, or whatever. In this case, the word `things` is a **type variable** because it's a lowercased, generic word for multiple types. We can use this function no matter what type the elements of our List are.

`things` is also a type parameter, because it's used as an input to the List type in our type declaration.

We need to use type parameters when we write the type declaration for our `view` function.

### Type declaration for the view

Let's add a type declaration for our `view` function.

{% highlight elm %}
view : Model -> Html Message
view model = div
  [ pageStyling ]
  [
    h1 [ headingStyling ] [ text model.title ],
    br [] [],
    br [] [],
    button [ buttonStyling, onClick AskedForCats ] [ text "cats" ],
    button [ buttonStyling, onClick AskedForDogs ] [ text "dogs" ],
    button [ buttonStyling, onClick AskedForIceCream ] [ text "ice cream" ],
    br [] [],
    br [] [],
    img [ imageStyling, src model.picture ] []
  ]
{% endhighlight %}

`view` is a function that takes a Model and gives back an Html value that is capable of producing Messages. Message is a type parameter for the Html type. It essentially tells us that Html and Message are linked. If we named our Message type something else, we would use that name instead of Message. We could also use a generic type variable to show this.

{% highlight elm %}
-- These are all essentially equivalent:
view : Model -> Html Message -- Html produces ONLY our specific Message type we created
view : Model -> Html message -- Html can produce messages of any type
view : Model -> Html a       -- type variables can be named anything
{% endhighlight %}

That should be about good for type declarations. We can add declarations for the functions that don't accept any inputs, but I'm not sure it would do much good.

Since we went through a lot of examples and it was probably hard to tell what code you needed to write and what you didn't, here's the final code for our program so far.

{% highlight elm %}
import Html exposing (..)
import Html.Attributes exposing (..)
import Html.Events exposing (..)

main = Html.beginnerProgram { model = model,
                              view = view,
                              update = update }

type Message = AskedForCats | AskedForDogs | AskedForIceCream

catPicture = "https://media.giphy.com/media/ND6xkVPaj8tHO/giphy.gif"
dogPicture = "https://media.giphy.com/media/oJWx7MtpR2qdi/giphy.gif"
iceCreamPicture = "https://media.giphy.com/media/QjagU0ONoQwCc/giphy.gif"

type alias Model = { title : String, picture : String }
model : Model
model = Model "cats" "https://media.giphy.com/media/ND6xkVPaj8tHO/giphy.gif"

view : Model -> Html Message
view model = div
  [ pageStyling ]
  [
    h1 [ headingStyling ] [ text model.title ],
    br [] [],
    br [] [],
    button [ buttonStyling, onClick AskedForCats ] [ text "cats" ],
    button [ buttonStyling, onClick AskedForDogs ] [ text "dogs" ],
    button [ buttonStyling, onClick AskedForIceCream ] [ text "ice cream" ],
    br [] [],
    br [] [],
    img [ imageStyling, src model.picture ] []
  ]

update : Message -> Model -> Model
update message model =
  case message of
    AskedForCats     -> { title = "cats",
                          picture = catPicture }

    AskedForDogs     -> { title = "dogs",
                          picture = dogPicture }

    AskedForIceCream -> { title = "ice cream",
                          picture = iceCreamPicture }

pageStyling =
    style [ ( "text-align", "center" ) ]

headingStyling =
    style [
            ( "font-size", "2em" ),
            ( "color", "#333" )
          ]

buttonStyling =
    style
        [
          ( "padding", "10px" ),
          ( "background-color", "#99ddff" ),
          ( "border-radius", "2px" ),
          ( "border", "1px solid #99ddff" ),
          ( "color", "white" ),
          ( "font-size", "1.5em" ),
          ( "cursor", "pointer" ),
          ( "margin", "5px")
        ]

imageStyling =
    style
        [
          ( "border-radius", "2px" ),
          ( "box-shadow", "0 2px 4px rgba(0,0,0,0.12), 0 2px 3px rgba(0,0,0,0.24)")
        ]
{% endhighlight %}

Don't sweat the formatting - again, there are plugins for doing it for you.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


Just 35 minutes from our Gower B&B, Llanelli WWT (Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust) was the perfect day trip on a sunny spring morning. I say spring – it was 15th February but the mild weather and abundance of daffodils made it feel more like late March… quite welcome after the months of drizzle!
Although we love our home – especially after the huge refurbishment that transformed our seaside B&B into something akin to a mini boutique hotel – we have been housebound for far too long this winter. As soon as a little row of sunny icons beamed across the weather app on an idle Monday, we were off, racing into the glorious sunshine, free from those cumbersome layers of Goretex. It was literally dazzling as we zoomed around the north Gower coast, skirting the salt marshes of the Burry Estuary to arrive at the WWT Llanelli Wetland Centre in time for coffee and cake.
The Visitor Centre is full of information and friendly advice on how to make the most of your time. There is a shop, child-friendly cafe, maps and guides, binocular hire and viewing tower. It's also the place to check the What's On board for the day's programme of family-friendly activities: we couldn't resist the Puddle Jumping Championships which were in full swing for February half term.
Weekend and Holiday activities vary seasonally but include pond dipping, mini-beast hunting, den building, crafts, downy duckling days, canoe safaris and bike trails.


The Aeon CLR® is an EDGE FREE CLR® fixed frame screen that uses Elite's innovative Star Bright ceiling light rejecting material. Its optical surface lens micro structure negates the washout effect of ambient light especially from overhead sources. This also enables the material to provide contrast levels that are 100 times greater than that of standard matte white projection screens.
Star Bright is specifically designed for ultra-short-throw projectors to provide a large-screen performance in the close quarters of most residential or even training environments. Aeon with Star Bright offers a wide viewing angle, neutral color temperature, and enhanced picture contrast in a theater-grade image.
Edge Free means there is an internal framework with wraparound material bordered with an ultra-thin bezel. The screen uses a Ceiling Light Rejection technology. An LED back-lighting Kit is included for added aesthetics.
View Size: 49.2" H x 87.3" W.
Overall Size: 50.0" H x 88.0" W x 1.0" D.
Main Answer: Ambient Light Rejecting projector screens are specially formatted to reject the majority of off-axis lighting from the top, bottom, and side angles.
However if a strong light source is hitting the material at roughly the same angle as the projector does, it will wash out the image.
There is an easy solution. I strongly recommend light blocking curtains or blackout shades to shield your room and to rely on the interior lighting that ambient light rejecting screens work with.
Q: Why can't we use ambient light or ceiling light rejecting screens with ultra-short throw/short throw projectors?
A: Ambient light rejecting is a generic term for a variety of materials that prevents projected content from being washed out by incident room lighting from either natural or man made sources. Each of these materials incorporate some sort of reflective micro structures that allows for projected light to create a superb image while off-axis light is either absorbed or reflected away from the viewers field of vision.
Materials like our star bright are specifically designed for UST projectors. Their reflective micro structures are aligned to reflect the upward spread light signal from UST projectors into a viewer's field of vision. At the same time, the ceiling light rejecting rejects other forms of off-axis light such as regular room lighting, window light, ceiling light or even the direct signal from a standard throw projector.
Q: How about using any "ALR" (Cinegrey®3D/5D or Star bright etc.) by Elite with a ceiling-installed UST/ST projector?
A: Ceiling mounted UST projectors will not even work with a star bright material because the material is specifically orientated to reject "ceiling light" or any type of lighting from above. This means that the screen will reject any overhead light, even from a compatible projector. Theoretically, you could invert the star bright CLR® material to match with an inverted UST projector but the alignment will still not likely align properly with the human eye to deliver the ideal "sweet-spot" picture performance.


Quince, or Membrillo, is a firm autumn/winter fruit that needs to be cooked before using. It is very astringent and has an aromatic-tart flavor that gets sweeter once it is cooked. Use for chutney and compote, jams and preserves, baked goods, and to make Quince Paste.


These clear pedestal bowls are perfect for your candy buffet or DIY wedding centerpieces! Guests will see the contents in snap and the clear look will pair perfectly with any theme. Plastic. (3 pcs. per unit) 4 1/2" x 6" diam.


The Story of a Face: National Geographic's September cover story explores a journey that started with tragedy -- but turns the page with a second chance. The author of that powerful story joins us to describe spending two years with the young woman who would become the youngest face transplant recipient in american history.
Visit the Rock Hall: loud music. Catch a Cavs game: nonstop lights, sound and action. Now, many Northeast Ohio attractions aim to be "sensory inclusive". We'll find out what that means -- and discover what we can all learn from being open to those with special needs.


The clamping force hurts my head, but they sound so good that I don't care. The earpads seem to be lower quality as well. I really like the 1/4 inch adapter that came with it. People that say there isn't bass are very wrong. The bass is easily the best on these out of all my cans. The darkvoice is quite the pleasure with these. I have that and the Schtack, but the DV is amazeballs with these.
+1 for DV-> 6xx combo.


text:
The power of e-will
Zara Khan
What happens to your online assets after you are gone? A look at the concept of digital inheritance.
Nethra* was a school friend. When I shook the small-town dust off my Batas and went away to a big-city college, we naturally lost touch. Five years later, a mutual friend called. "Did you hear? She passed away." Within a few hours, my Facebook timeline was flooded with posts from her wall. Friends and cousins grieving; wishing she would come back; writing about how they missed her and were devastated… It's been four years and her Facebook wall is still active. Only, now it is something of a digital shrine — friends and cousins posting about their achievements, admissions, new jobs, life events, writing birthday wishes, posting "remember when..." and "gone, but not forgotten" messages, and pictures — lots and lots of pictures.
"I feel connected to her when I post something on her wall. It's a way to hold on to her; it's like she may not be physically there, but I can still talk to her," said a friend.
I see the same thing on Twitter; when a celebrity or someone known passes away, his/her handle is tagged in every tweet, as if each tweet were a personal shrine.
According to www.ifidie1st.com, the Facebook death count since August, 2012, is 82,72,258. Besieged no doubt with account activity similar to Nethra's, the social media giant has come up with a new feature — Legacy Contact — in addition to its account memorialisation process, through which you can appoint a close friend and/or next of kin who will handle your account once it is "memorialised" after you pass away. The account will then become "Remembering *insert name*". Then there's If I Die, a Facebook app you can use to create a video or text message that will only be published after you die.
Twitter, on the other hand, promises to deactivate a person's account once notified by his/her appointed authority along with the requisite proof of death. The company is adamant about not providing "account access to anyone regardless of his or her relationship to the deceased". Policies differ across sites in case of a user's death. So while Google has an Inactive Account Manager that lets users choose what to do with their personal data in case they die, Yahoo does not let any personal data pass into the hands of any heir, legal or otherwise.
Dying — in the digital age — is fraught with complications. We live so much of our lives online that, sometimes, our most important assets are digital, rather than physical. Therein comes the problem of digital inheritance, the handing over of your digital assets to your heirs. The simplest way of seeing an act of digital inheritance come to pass, then, seems to be through a digital will. "Speaking from a legal perspective, a digital will is nothing but a digital electronic report or document. It is legalised in India by virtue of Section 4 of the IT Act (2000)," says Pavan Duggal, a senior lawyer and cyber law expert.
These electronic documents can include the handing over of e-mails, audio, video, photos, logos, illustrations, spreadsheets, presentations, animation, text files — basically all kinds of digital content and metadata — stored on any electronic device, telecommunication device or any other kind of storage (including, but not limited to, cloud storage). And that means all your online accounts, from Gmail to Facebook to Flickr to WordPress to iTunes and Kindle are included, not just the stuff on your laptop or external hard drive. If you have made a digital will, your digital assets — including the data you own outright — can be passed on to your legal heirs with minimum fuss. However, your iTunes or Kindle library that you so painstakingly built, your Facebook/Instagram album containing some very precious photos, your Gmail account containing important correspondence are a different kettle of fish. The terms of usage of these sites state that all the data contained therein cannot be inherited. "You may give the passwords or the devices to your heir," says Safiya Said, a senior associate lawyer, "but they will not be able to own any of the content outright." That, however, she adds, could technically be a violation of Terms of Service. Very unlike deciding to pass on a physical library or record collection, as utmost caution has to be exerted in not letting the inheritance be used for public consumption(i.e., making pirated copies of a book or broadcasting the record at the neighbourhood sammelan).
On the off-chance that one dies without making provisions for any kind of digital inheritance, what is to be done? Take the infamous case of 21-year-old Benjamin Stassen, who committed suicide in 2010 without leaving a note. His parents, as representatives of his estate, approached Google and Facebook for access to his accounts to try and understand why their ostensibly well-adjusted and happy son ended his life. While Google, after many months of petitioning, complied; it took a lengthy legal battle before Facebook so much as considered allowing Benjamin's parents access. And even then, it was made clear that the case was an exception, not the rule. Since then Facebook has stood steadfastly by its policy of not allowing unauthorised access, on the basis of client privacy.
What if such a case were to occur in India, where the IT Act is 15 years old (nearly a century in tech-years)? "If someone were to die without specifying a will, his digital assets would become movable property. And any service provider would be well within its rights to ask you to obtain a succession certificate," says Duggal, adding that the procurement of this certificate could take anywhere from a few months to a couple of years.
The privacy conundrum is rather intriguing. On the one hand, all of us have our little secrets, and to paraphrase a very popular joke, when most people die, the first of their last wishes is to have their online history deleted or, at least, not have it fall into the wrong hands. A policy scrupulously followed by the likes of Facebook. On the other hand, "there is nothing known as privacy after death," says Duggal. Now what if a person were to die unexpectedly and the legal heirs were forced to resort to whatever means to get their hands on his digital data? Including having to hire a hacker?
"I've never been asked to do something like breaking into a dead person's data bank, but may consider such a proposition if it sounds sufficiently interesting," says a hacker on condition of anonymity.
"Hacking — the word itself has such negative connotations," winces Said. But surely not if we're talking White Hat hacking? A rose by any other name, says Duggal adding "Section 66 of the IT Act (2000) clearly defines hacking as a crime punishable by law." However, he says, if all legal heirs agree to hire an external party to gain access to their benefactor's data, it may pass legal muster as an authorised activity. The problem, clearly, is the distinct lack of laws that need to keep pace with the fast-changing IT scenario. What if the heirs require the digital data ASAP? They can apply for the succession certificate but what if it takes ages and by then the data is deleted due to account inactivity? The current legal system does not have a solution for that. "It's time to review and reform our legal processes," says Duggal. "Digital matters need to be decided by digital courts; a time limit needs to be put in place so that resolution of digital matters doesn't take years and the hopes and aspirations of people are not dashed to the ground."
Laws concerning digital legacy have taken a while to take shape, even in the U.S. Delaware was the first state to come up with a Fiduciary Access to Digital Assets and Digital Accounts Act, which allows families to inherit digital assets just like they would physical ones. And the other 49 states are yet to fully catch up.
Surprisingly, despite the rapid spread of online usage, few people have even thought about their digital assets. "I never really considered the question of digital legacy as such," says Ashvita Ravi*, a 43-year-old social media-savvy doctor and single mom. "But, by the time my kids grow up, I think I will have more things I need to pass on to them in digital form rather than actual, physical stuff. Plus I'm quite sure paper may become completely obsolete by then. So yes, I will be contacting my lawyer for a digital will soon."
Apart from making a digital will to ensure your tech heirlooms go to the heirs intended, there is the option of using an external service — Cirrus, ChronicleofLife, Entrustet.com, Legacy Locker, DataInherit — to store all your passwords, digital assets and 'electronic documents'. In such cases, an heir would need to provide identification and then simply take control of his/her portion of the legacy. Most of these services require the nomination of a digital executor and a fee to store data. However, it is wiser to go the digital will route, and not have the will registered to ensure it remains private (since it contains sensitive data like passwords). Also, making the will rather than using these services ensures you are less vulnerable to hackers, who could easily have a ball at your expense if they found all your eggs in one basket, so to speak.
Identity theft is nothing to sneeze at. Catfishing is a menace while one is alive — take the case of Leah Palmer for instance (www.buzzfeed.com/patricksmith/the-mystery-of-leah-palmer) — but imagine the confusion and hurt if it happened after one's death. Of course, a spouse or sibling might choose to keep your digital presence alive and thriving by using the services of sites such as liveson.org (that lets you 'tweet from the afterlife' by studying the pattern of your tweets and composing similar ones) or, like in the television series Black Mirror, using other dubious services to recreate your entire personality (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ld9m8Xrpko0) based on your online history (which is a rather disturbing notion).
In 2009, Michael Massimi and Andrea Charise introduced the concept of thanatosensitivity (Thanatos is a mythical Greek figure representing death and mortality). Along with a major overhaul of IT laws, a thanatosensitive design seems to be the need of the hour to address not just digital content, but also the unique digital thumbprint of a user, so that current technology can be restructured to "effectively acknowledge or engage with the inevitable death of the user". However, nearly seven years later, there is still woefully little in the name of any kind of change pertaining to digital inheritance
*names changed to protect privacy.
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Printable version | Jan 20, 2021 10:44:09 PM | https://www.thehindu.com/features/magazine/a-look-at-the-concept-of-digital-inheritance-the-power-of-ewill/article7309176.ece
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