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Best Gifts for Comic Book Lovers
By Marshall Honorof 2016-12-02T18:00:00Z
It's never been more difficult to buy presents for a comic book lover, but these gifts will make you a superhero to your friends and family.
Netflix Subscription
For more information visit their website
Between beloved TV shows like Justice League, original series like Daredevil and animated one-offs like Son of Batman, Netflix was already one of the best places to catch up on superhero serials and films. As of September, though, a Disney-Netflix deal will put a beefy selection of Marvel superhero movies on the streaming service, too. It's one of the most efficient ways to stream both Marvel and DC content.
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Comixology Gift Card
Comixology is the premier digital comics service online, and it's got something for everyone. Between Marvel, DC, Image, Dark Horse, IDW, Dynamite and many more publishers, it's easy to buy anything, from superheroes, to romance, to experimental indies, to manga.
Wonder Woman Volume 1: Blood
With a Wonder Woman movie on the way, now is the perfect time to see what the character's been up to in the source material lately. Wonder Woman Volume 1: Blood is where Diana Prince's adventures in DC's New 52 continuity began back in 2012. Wonder Woman sets out to learn the identity of her father, only to find that the information might also be of interest to some of her deadliest enemies.
The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay
In case you've already had your fill of books with pictures, The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay by Michael Chabon can help. Not only will this comic (pun intended) novel give you more information about superhero history than some nonfiction books on the topic, but it also tells a deep and moving story about creativity, World War II, and the Jewish experience in mid-century New York City.
How many superhero movies come from major studios in the course of average year? Four? Five? More? Seeing all those movies can add up, which is where a MoviePass subscription could come in handy. By default, MoviePass allows its recipient tickets to see two movies of their choice in any given month, with more expensive plans allowing more films. Now you can see both blockbusters and bombs without guilt!
Not every comic book has to be about superheroes, as fans of post-apocalyptic zombie drama The Walking Dead know well. Telltale has produced a series of fantastic point-and-click adventure games that take place concurrently with The Walking Dead comics. The Walking Dead: Michonne winds the clock back to tell an origin story for one of the franchise's most beloved and mysterious characters.
The Flash X Mimobot
Why settle for a plain black rectangle when you could have a superhero carry your files for you? Mimoco sells a variety of colorful storage solutions, but nothing goes together quite as well as flash memory and the actual Flash. An 8 GB module will set you back $17, but you could go up to $70 for 64 GB storage. That'll hold approximately 2,100 Flash comics.
Arguably the best superhero movie of 2016, Captain America: Civil War brings the 2006 Marvel event to the big screen in a faithful and action-packed adaptation. When the government proposes a Superhero Registration Act, Captain America opposes it and Iron Man supports it. Each recruits a team of like-minded Avengers to settle things the old-fashioned way: with a massive brawl.
Between Man of Steel and Batman vs. Superman, the Man of Tomorrow has been having a rough go of things on the big screen. However, things are going much better for his cousin, Kara Zor-El, aka Supergirl on TV. In her first season on the small screen, Supergirl has crossed paths with everyone from Jimmy Olsen to the Martian Manhunter. Better yet: the show has been renewed for a second season.
Bruce Wayne is usually the most boring part of a Batman story, but Telltale believes that the Caped Crusader's alter ego has a lot to offer. Part of Telltale's line of breezy point-and-click adventure games, Batman: The Telltale Series winds the clock back a few years for the Dark Knight as he first meets Catwoman, Carmine Falcone and other iconic villains.
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Marvel Legends Dr. Strange Action Figure
DC Comics Phone Cases
Considering you spent hundreds of dollars on your smartphone, a few dozen more to protect it is really not a bad investment. Luckily, DC sells a variety of phone cases for about $35 a pop, and there's a good chance your favorite hero is in there. Whether you want to show off the classic Batman Animated Series, the Suicide Squad film or classic Wonder Woman, there's a case for you.
Fables Encyclopedia
Fables, a comic from DC's more experimental Vertigo lineup, was one of those rare books that seemed too good to ever end. However, in 2015, the series came to a close after 150 glorious issues. For the forlorn Fables fan in your life, there's the Fables encyclopedia. Replete with gorgeous artwork, the Fables Encyclopedia details the characters from fairy tales, myths and folklore who starred in the comic.
Marvel: Ultimate Alliance Bundle
Who hasn't thought, "I wish I could design my own superhero team?" Marvel: Ultimate Alliance and its sequel let you do just that, and they're now available on PS4, Xbox One and PC. You'll choose from up to 30 characters to make a four-man team, and tackle refined action/RPG gameplay. The first game pits you against Dr. Doom; the second retells the events of Civil War.
Marvel Unlimited Subscription
With more than 17,000 comics and counting, you can be pretty sure that the Marvel fan in your life will find something he or she wants to read on Marvel Unlimited. This subscription comics service provides unlimited access to pretty much everything, accounting for material from the 1940s up to the modern day. There's X-Men, Avengers, Spider-Man, and even Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice.
Lenovo Tab 2 A10
Reading digital comics pretty much requires a large tablet, and the Lenovo Tab 2 A10 is one of the better options out there. Featuring a color-rich screen, long battery life and a clean build of Android, the Tab 2 A10 is just about tailor-made to read dozens and dozens of comics. Just install Comixology and/or Marvel Unlimited, hook it up to Wi-Fi, and you're good to go.


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Q: How to programmatically upload and download any file on Google Drive in Android studio I have created an application in Android studio which store users information and other data in sqlite database. I want to give user an option to create the backup of their data(upload the database.db file) on Google Drive and restore (download the database.db file) from Google Drive.

A: here is a perfect example for what you need. Go through the project and you will be able to do backup/restore of your db.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Once again thanks for all your helpful comments. I set out below my response to comments posted.
Mademaski. (i) Thanks for the compliment – there always welcome. (ii) I have been able to find data similar to that for the US for Germany, Japan and the UK, but not so far for France. I set out these out in a Table, which have posted as an image above.
GDCC. It seems clear to me that investment decisions by companies' managements can be affected by a host of factors, which include (i) the cost of capital. (ii) tax (iii) expectations and (iv) management incentives.
At any one time all these are no doubt influencing individual decisions and thus the total invested, whether or not these can be categorised as exogenous factors and root causes. Management incentives have changed dramatically and as the purpose of incentives is to change behaviour we should not be surprised that they have done so. The evidence which I have sought to set out in The Road to Recovery, is that the change in management incentives has had the impacts that we should rationally expect. These have taken the form of higher profit margins, lower investment and more volatile published profits, than would otherwise have been likely. I don't think these changes can reasonably be attributed to a reduction in competition – a point I discuss in The Road to Recovery. This could explain higher profit margins, but neither the fall in investment nor the rise in published profit volatility. I agree that by a failure to resist the change in management incentives Anglophone governments have been lax in fighting rent-gauging and I would like to see this change.
RDD I will pass this on to Martin Wolf as it's about his article not my blog.


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There is always value in keeping an eye on what products are catching fire in the current moment. They may help inspire your own innovation, simply let you know what's exciting to people, or help you plan out how to plan out a launch of your own. Product Hunt shares its 31 best product launches of August 2017.


Early English books, 1641-1700 ; 1009:39.
Church and state > Church of England.
The Charity and loyalty of some of our clergy in a short view of Dr. M's sermon before their Majesties at Hampton-Court, July the 14th, 1689 : where-in he still charges the Protestant dissenters with schism : with some occasional remarks upon a clergy-mans considerations for taking the Oath of allegiance to King William and Queen Mary, and upon the history of passive obedience since the Reformation.
Episcopacy and the royal supremacy in the Church of England in the sixteenth century.
To the Kings Most Excellent Majesty, the humble and grateful acknowledgement of many ministers of the Gospel in ... London to His Royal Majesty for his gracious concessions in His Majesties late declaration concerning ecclesiastical affairs.
By: Kirby, W. J. Torrance.


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The New South Wales XPT (short for eXpress Passenger Train) is a class of diesel-powered passenger trains built by Comeng and ABB Transportation. Based on the British Rail designed Intercity 125 High Speed Train, each XPT set is made up of two XP Power Cars in a push-pull formation coupled to between four and seven carriages. The first sets entered service under the State Rail Authority in 1982 and now operate under NSW TrainLink, running on long-distance regional and interstate North Coast, Main Western and Main Southern lines throughout New South Wales and interstate into Victoria and Queensland.

History

Development
Improving public transport was a major issue in the 1976 State Election in New South Wales and one of the commitments of the incoming Wran Government was to buy new rolling stock for country rail services.

In January 1978, the Public Transport Commission invited tenders for 25 high-speed railcars similar to the Prospector railcars delivered by Comeng to the Western Australian Government Railways in 1971. The tender allowed bidders to suggest alternative types of high-speed train. Comeng submitted a tender for a train based on the British Rail designed High Speed Train which had entered service in the United Kingdom in October 1976. In August 1979, Comeng was announced as the successful bidder and although the tender had called for 100 vehicles, by the time the contract was signed in March 1980, the order was only for 30, 10 power cars and 20 carriages, enough to form four five-carriage trains with two spare power cars.

The High Speed Train design was significantly modified, with the power cars being  shorter, the Paxman Valenta engine downrated from , gearing lowered for a top operating speed of , suspension modified to operate on inferior track, and air filters and the cooling system modified to cater for hotter and dustier Australian conditions. However, the XPT is theoretically capable of reaching speeds of . A different light cluster was fitted along with three high-beam spotlights mounted to the roof. The passenger trailer cars were based on a Budd design, with the British Rail Mark 3 trailers considered unsuitable.

In service

The first power car and trailer commenced testing with a stainless steel luggage van in August 1981. The initial XPT livery was red, black and orange with InterCity XPT signwriting on the power cars. It was also known as the "Supertrain". On a demonstration run to Albury on 6 September 1981 the XPT set a new Australian rail speed record of 183 km/h between Table Top and Gerogery in southern NSW, breaking that set by the Western Australian Government Railways' Prospector railcar in 1971. On a test run to Albury on 18 September 1992 the XPT reached 193 km/h between Table Top and Yerong Creek. 200 km/h was the target speed. This record was broken by Queensland Rail's Electric Tilt Train in May 1999.

The first full test XPT set ran in January 1982. The four sets entered service on the Central West XPT to Dubbo in April 1982, the Mid North Coast XPT to Kempsey in May 1982 and the Riverina XPT to Albury in August 1982.

In 1983, a further five power cars and 15 trailers were ordered. These allowed the Canberra XPT to commence in August 1983 followed by the Northern Tablelands XPT to Glen Innes and Tenterfield (2 times per week only) in June 1984. The XPT cut 50 minutes off the trip between Sydney and Canberra. By tightening up the diagrams, an overnight South XPT to Albury was introduced, but cancelled in June 1985 due to low patronage. In 1985 an additional 12 trailer carriages were ordered to allow six sets of 7 carriages to be formed. From October 1985, the Mid North Coast XPT to Kempsey ceased, being replaced by the Holiday Coast XPT to Grafton. The Northern Tablelands XPT also was cut back to Armidale and only ran on alternate days with a HUB/RUB set operating on the other days.

Initially the XPT carried a fare surcharge compared to parallel locomotive hauled services; however this was abolished from May 1985.

It was proposed to extend operations to Melbourne with costs to be shared with V/Line. A five-carriage promotional train ran to Melbourne on Sunday 17 February 1985, running four free return shuttles to Tullamarine Loop. Crew training commenced on the North East line between Albury and Benalla in July 1985 with services scheduled to commence on 3 August, however agreement could not be reached with the Australian Federated Union of Locomotive Employees over crewing and the plan was shelved. Another promotional train ran to Melbourne in November 1990, with the consist XP2012–XDH2111–XDR2156–XD2219–XD2215–XFH2105–XP2008.

Following the election of the Greiner Government in March 1988, consultants Booz Allen Hamilton were commissioned to prepare a report into NSW rail services. On purely economic grounds, the report recommended closing all country passenger services as they were judged unviable; however this was not politically acceptable. If services were to be maintained, the report recommended operating a reduced rail service, all with XPTs.

In February 1990, the Brisbane Limited and Pacific Coast Motorail were withdrawn and replaced by XPT services to Brisbane and Murwillumbah. To provide rolling stock for these, the Canberra XPT was withdrawn and replaced by a locomotive hauled train and the Northern Tablelands Express was truncated to become a day return service to Tamworth.

In June 1990, the government announced that it would purchase a fleet of Xplorers to reintroduce services to Armidale and Moree. When these were introduced in October 1993 the Northern Tablelands XPT ceased and the stock replaced a locomotive hauled set on a service to Grafton.In October 1990, the government announced that eight sleeper carriages would be ordered for use on overnight services to Brisbane, Murwillumbah and Melbourne. These were included in an order placed with ABB Transportation, Dandenong in 1991 for four power cars and 13 trailers that was jointly funded by the New South Wales and Victorian governments. At the same time the earlier stock was repainted in CountryLink livery.

In November 1993, XPTs replaced locomotive hauled stock on the overnight Sydney/Melbourne Express. In December 1994 an XPT daylight service to Melbourne was introduced by extending the Riverina XPT from Albury.

In 1995, CountryLink trialled three Swedish Railways X2000 tilting train carriages. After conducting a statewide tour in March, they were used on Canberra services from 23 April until 18 June 1995 with modified XPT power cars XP2000 and XP2009.

Since 2003, an XPT has operated a service each January to Parkes for the Parkes Elvis Festival. With the closure of the Murwillumbah line, the XPT service was cut back to Casino from May 2004. In October 2013, with a set isolated west of Lithgow by bushfires, it was deployed on the Outback Xplorer service to Broken Hill.

Fleet (XP power cars)
A total of 19 XP power cars were built. These locomotives were originally powered by a Paxman Valenta 12RP200L engine with a single turbocharger. These were replaced from June 2000 by Paxman VP185 12-cylinder, diesel engines with four low-pressure turbochargers and two high-pressure turbochargers boasting  that had been successfully used by some British Rail High Speed Trains since 1994. Traction equipment was manufactured in England by Brush Traction of Loughborough.

Power cars comprise five main compartments at the platform level. At the front is the drivers' cab, followed by the clean air compartment, engine room, cooling group, and compressor room at the rear of the locomotive.

The State Rail Authority named the XP power cars after destinations that the XPT served; these were shown in cursive script or with the logo of the relevant area on the cab sides. Names were occasionally altered; the table below shows the final names (removed circa 2000-2005), with earlier names in brackets.

These were:

XP2000–XP2014 were built by Comeng, Granville with XP2015–XP2018 built by ABB Transportation, Dandenong.

Accidents and incidents
On 3 May 1991, an XPT locomotive derailed at Henty near the New South Wales-Victorian border, injuring the driver and six passengers.

On 27 January 2001, an XPT collided with a car on a level crossing in the Gerogery level crossing accident. Five people in the car were killed, and the train was derailed.

On 20 February 2020, a Sydney to Melbourne bound XPT derailed at around 7:45 pm in the Wallan derailment, killing the train's driver and pilot and injuring twelve.

Replacement
In October 2016, the NSW government announced the XPTs would be replaced as part of the NSW TrainLink Regional Train Project. A contract with CAF was signed February in 2019, with the XPTs to be replaced with bi-mode Civity trains in 2023.

Services
The XPT fleet is currently used on services from Sydney to Grafton, Casino, Brisbane, Dubbo and Melbourne.

Operating cycle
The Dubbo set is captive and operates a daily return service. The other seven sets rotate on a seven-day repeating cycle as follows:
Day 1: 07:42 Sydney to Melbourne arrives 18:30, forms 19:50 Melbourne to Sydney
Day 2: arrives Sydney 06:58, forms 11:41 Sydney to Grafton arrives 22:15
Day 3: 05:15 Grafton to Sydney arrives 15:45, forms 20:42 to Melbourne
Day 4: arrives in Melbourne 07:30, forms 08:30 to Sydney arrives 19:59
Day 5: 07:08 Sydney to Casino arrives 18:41, forms 19:30 Casino to Sydney
Day 6: arrives Sydney 07:01, forms 14:41 Sydney to Brisbane
Day 7: arrives Brisbane 04:53, forms 05:55 Brisbane to Sydney arrives 20:10

Between each duty in Sydney, trains are serviced at the XPT Service Centre south of Sydenham station. This pattern has led to the XPT being one of the most utilised train fleets worldwide with only three significant periods of downtime in the cycle. This includes one overnight stabling in Grafton, between days 2 and 3, and two overnight stablings in Sydney, between days 4 and 5, and days 7 and 1.

New South Wales XPT carriage stock

The original XPT carriages were refurbished in 1992/93 including a repaint in CountryLink livery. All were refurbished again between 2005 and 2008.

Fleet

8 XAM Sleeping cars
10 XL First class saloon cars
9 XBR First class saloon/buffet cars
25 XF Economy class saloon cars
9 XFH Economy class saloon/luggage cars

Formations
Initially, all services operated with five carriage sets. Following the purchase of extra carriages, this was increased to seven. In 1998, each set was reduced to six carriages. In 2001, all were reduced to five carriages outside of school holiday periods. Today, XPTs operate with four carriages to Dubbo (formed from the country end as XL, XBR, XF and XFH), and five (formed from the country end as XAM, XL, XBR, XF and XFH) on the North Coast and Melbourne services, with six during peak times when an extra XF is added (formed from the country end as XAM, XL, XBR, XF, XF and XFH) The Dubbo set can operate with one power car if required, with the power car turned at its destination.

Carriage coding, features and numbers are as follows:

The XPT fleet is maintained at the XPT Service Centre, a purpose built depot south of Sydenham station within the confines of the Meeks Road Triangle. All work is performed here except for wheel reprofiling which is performed on a wheel lathe at Flemington Maintenance Depot.

Potential export sale
In 1986, agreement was reached to build a fleet of XPTs for the State Railway of Thailand. To allow it to be built to the narrower  and retain the same fuel capacity, it was proposed to extend the power cars by  and mount them on Bo′Bo′Bo′ bogies. The negotiations were sufficiently advanced for the Prime Minister of Thailand to announce it on television, however the Australian Department of Trade withdrew its support at the last moment and the deal fell through.

References

External links

 Specifications and technical diagrams
 Carriage information

External links

Commonwealth Engineering locomotives
CountryLink
Interstate rail in Australia
Night trains of Australia
NSW TrainLink
Railway locomotives introduced in 1981
Rolling stock of New South Wales
Diesel multiple units with locomotive-like power cars

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Dissolve soda in buttermilk; add to creamed mixture alternately with flour, beginning and ending with flour. Stir in mashed bananas and pecans.
Beat egg whites (at room temperature) until stiff peaks form: fold into batter.
Pour batter into 2 greased and floured 8-inch round cake pans. Bake at 350° for 30 minutes or until a wooden pick inserted in center comes out clean. Cool cake in pans 10 minutes; remove layers from pans, and let cool completely.
Spread Caramel Frosting between layers and on top and sides of cooled cake.


The new ROTAVISC series determines the viscosity of liquids in all areas of application ranging from the laboratory to quality control. The four devices measure in different viscosity ranges. Regardless of a simple or demanding viscosity measurement - the ROTAVISC delivers rapid and accurate results. The scope of delivery includes a standard spindle set ( SP7- SP12), a protective bracket, temperature sensor, quick connector, hook connector and ROTASTAND stand.


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import main = require("../../src/main");

describe('my-manager Integration Test cases', () => {

    describe("sayHello",()=>{

        it("should resolve with hello and hi",function(done){

            main.sayHelloAndHi().then((result)=>{

                expect(result).to.equal("hello and hi");
                done();
            })

        });

    });
});

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


A famous Scottish son of Doncaster: Louis Tomlinson of One Direction.
Doncaster is an exclave in the North of England. It holds the unique position of being the only Scottish settlement whose inhabitants will not get to vote in Alex Salmond's Doon-wi'-th'-sassenach poll in 2014.
Situated on a Roman road, the area was a convenient place for the barbarians to settle once the Romans got bored and left the island. Naturally, the road attracted an ample supply of poultry, and the people could always follow it someplace else if their new home proved to be a dump.
Or so they thought. The Scots invaded without warning in the 1130's, but for unknown reasons decided to let the English administer things once again twenty years later, without ever officially giving the town up. Despite the uncharacteristically peaceful nature of the Scots' departure, the English built a wall around the place — just to be safe — and control all entry and exit points with gates. The inhabitants pondered their confinement and abandonment by their countrymen for centuries, and built up an immunity to Bubonic Plague due to frequent outbreaks. Despite these constraints, Doncaster flourished, growing exponentially from a hamlet of pretty much nobody to a village of several dozen more.
Due to the gates, seventeenth century Doncastrians found themselves unable to resettle away from the town unless they paid to leave, a practise that the English Parliament determined in 1628 to be cruel and unusual punishment. By comparison, the English did not outlaw hanging, drawing and quartering until the mid-1800s. Doncastrians prompty expressed their eternal gratitude to Parliament by siding with Charles I against Parliament in the English Civil War. Natives continue to defend this seemingly trecherous act on the basis that his dad was Scottish.
Life for those from Doncaster improved significantly following the Royalists' victory. The dawn of the Industrial Revolution, and in particular the town's rich coal reserves, offered employment opportunities to all those who had yet to master the art of living off of the English. By the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the proportion of families who properly clothed and fed their kids skyrocketed. Doncaster's roads, trains and waterways offered more opportunities for its inhabitants to up sticks for England than ever before. The unbearable smog from the mines, factories and trains cleared large swaths of land in whatever direction the wind blew. This land, combined with Doncaster's proximity to England, gave the locals the distinction of being the first ever Scottish people to practise cricket. This pastime was discontinued in the mid-20th century for unknown reasons. At a similar point in time, Doncaster made arguably its greatest contribution to the English language by inventing the word boycott.
The realisation in the 1980s that coal could kill polar bears and turn the Celtic parts of Britain into tropical paradises prompted English people to demand that the Welsh and Scottish stop burning it. Milk Snatcher's successful realisation of that goal forced Doncaster to once again rely on its reputation as an easy place to get out of in order to attract passing custom. It has recently forged productive trade routes with explorers from the Amazon rainforest, but the job market remains fragile – one of the town's main employers is the ominously named Next.
Despite the improvements to quality of life that the Industrial Revolution brought to the area, Doncaster's wee ones have a lot of things going against them. First and foremost, the Scottish government does not spend a penny on educating the children of Doncaster. Notwithstanding that, constant exposure to meaningless strings of letters, numbers and symbols such as B&Q, DFS, KFC and A1(M) is hardly ideal for kids trying to learn the alphabet, while their natural inclination towards Scottish mannerisms is a further obstacle to their ability to learn the English language. The town's Scottishness is less of a disadvantage in terms of numeracy, but when the first number the nippers hear each morning is 18,100 unemployed, they understandably lose heart at not being able to count that high. One teacher in Doncaster realised that this was holding his students back, and to help them he invented a system of mathematics which only requires the user to be able to count to one.
Doncaster's best claim to sporting fame is its women's football team, Doncaster Belles. Founded by the organisers of a raffle at a men's game, the Belles won the top flight twice in the '90s, despite the adversity of having to stop playing when the boys turned up, their stadium being burned down, and finally being demoted to the Second Division simply for having the temerity to come from Doncaster.
Generally considered as Labour heartland, (primarily because it is the only place in Scotland that the SNP doesn't field candidates in), Doncaster is distinguished from its English equivalent of Hartlepool by the fact that it did not elect a monkey in three consecutive mayoral elections. The shiny faced chap in a red tie above is one of the town's MP's. His main political role is to argue with another shiny faced chap in a blue tie about who is more in touch with ordinary working people. The pair used to argue with a shiny faced chap in a yellow tie, but he was invited for tea and biscuits by toffs in mid-2010, and has seldom been seen since.
Those tricked into visiting the town (perhaps mistaking it for somewhere nice) have a surprisingly modern choice of how to make a swift departure, with affordable options over land, sea or air. Various child-friendly forms of public transportation are also available. Doncaster's home-grown Minister for Transportation uses English people's money to research further improvements to the town's world-class infrastructure.
New employment opportunities are scarce. Given that no sane person would leave employment in the area without already having a signed, sealed and delivered contract elsewhere, the concept of references is an alien one.
This page was last edited on 19 December 2013, at 04:21.


text:
News Directory World News Headlines
Afterlife location in which souls are subjected to punitive suffering, often torture
This article is about the abode of the dead in various cultures and religious traditions around the world. For other uses, see Hell (disambiguation).
Hell – detail from a fresco in the medieval church of St Nicholas in Raduil, Bulgaria
In religion and folklore, Hell is an afterlife location in which evil souls are subjected to punitive suffering, often torture, as eternal punishment after death. Religions with a linear divine history often depict hells as eternal destinations, the biggest examples of which are Christianity and Islam, whereas religions with reincarnation usually depict a hell as an intermediary period between incarnations, as is the case in the dharmic religions. Religions typically locate hell in another dimension or under Earth's surface. Other afterlife destinations include Heaven, Paradise, Purgatory, Limbo, and the underworld.
Other religions, which do not conceive of the afterlife as a place of punishment or reward, merely describe an abode of the dead, the grave, a neutral place that is located under the surface of Earth (for example, see Kur, Hades, and Sheol). Such places are sometimes equated with the English word hell, though a more correct translation would be "underworld" or "world of the dead". The ancient Mesopotamian, Greek, Roman, and Finnic religions include entrances to the underworld from the land of the living.
The modern English word hell is derived from Old English hel, helle (first attested around 725 AD to refer to a nether world of the dead) reaching into the Anglo-Saxon pagan period.[1] The word has cognates in all branches of the Germanic languages, including Old Norse hel (which refers to both a location and goddess-like being in Norse mythology), Old Frisian helle, Old Saxon hellia, Old High German hella, and Gothic halja. All forms ultimately derive from the reconstructed Proto-Germanic feminine noun *xaljō or *haljō ('concealed place, the underworld'). In turn, the Proto-Germanic form derives from the o-grade form of the Proto-Indo-European root *kel-, *kol-: 'to cover, conceal, save'.[2] Indo-European cognates include Latin cēlāre ("to hide", related to the English word cellar) and early Irish ceilid ("hides"). Upon the Christianization of the Germanic peoples, extension of Proto-Germanic *xaljō were reinterpreted to denote the underworld in Christian mythology,[1][3] for which see Gehenna.
Related early Germanic terms and concepts include Proto-Germanic *xalja-rūnō(n), a feminine compound noun, and *xalja-wītjan, a neutral compound noun. This form is reconstructed from the Latinized Gothic plural noun *haliurunnae (attested by Jordanes; according to philologist Vladimir Orel, meaning 'witches'), Old English helle-rúne ('sorceress, necromancer', according to Orel), and Old High German helli-rūna 'magic'. The compound is composed of two elements: *xaljō (*haljō) and *rūnō, the Proto-Germanic precursor to Modern English rune.[4] The second element in the Gothic haliurunnae may however instead be an agent noun from the verb rinnan ("to run, go"), which would make its literal meaning "one who travels to the netherworld".[5][6]
Proto-Germanic *xalja-wītjan (or *halja-wītjan) is reconstructed from Old Norse hel-víti 'hell', Old English helle-wíte 'hell-torment, hell', Old Saxon helli-wīti 'hell', and the Middle High German feminine noun helle-wīze. The compound is a compound of *xaljō (discussed above) and *wītjan (reconstructed from forms such as Old English witt 'right mind, wits', Old Saxon gewit 'understanding', and Gothic un-witi 'foolishness, understanding').[7]
Hell appears in several mythologies and religions. It is commonly inhabited by demons and the souls of dead people. A fable about Hell which recurs in folklore across several cultures is the allegory of the long spoons. Hell is often depicted in art and literature, perhaps most famously in Dante's early-14th century narrative poem Divine Comedy.
Punishment in Hell typically corresponds to sins committed during life. Sometimes these distinctions are specific, with damned souls suffering for each sin committed (see for example Plato's myth of Er or Dante's The Divine Comedy), but sometimes they are general, with condemned sinners relegated to one or more chamber of Hell or to a level of suffering.
In many religious cultures, including Christianity and Islam, Hell is often depicted as fiery, painful, and harsh, inflicting suffering on the guilty. Despite these common depictions of Hell as a place of fire, some other traditions portray Hell as cold. Buddhist – and particularly Tibetan Buddhist – descriptions of Hell feature an equal number of hot and cold Hells. Among Christian descriptions Dante's Inferno portrays the innermost (9th) circle of Hell as a frozen lake of blood and guilt.[11] But cold also played a part in earlier Christian depictions of Hell, beginning with the Apocalypse of Paul, originally from the early third century;[12] the "Vision of Dryhthelm" by the Venerable Bede from the seventh century;[13] "St Patrick's Purgatory", "The Vision of Tundale" or "Visio Tnugdali", and the "Vision of the Monk of Eynsham", all from the twelfth century;[14] and the "Vision of Thurkill" from the early thirteenth century.[15]
The Hell of Swahili mythology is called kuzimu, and belief in it developed in the 7th and 8th century under the influence of Muslim merchants at the east African coast.[16] It is imagined as a very cold place.[16] Serer religion rejects the general notion of heaven and hell.[17] In Serer religion, acceptance by the ancestors who have long departed is as close to any heaven as one can get. Rejection and becoming a wandering soul is a sort of hell for one passing over. The souls of the dead must make their way to Jaaniw (the sacred dwelling place of the soul). Only those who have lived their lives on earth in accordance with Serer doctrines will be able to make this necessary journey and thus be accepted by the ancestors. Those who can't make the journey become lost and wandering souls, but they do not burn in "hell fire".[17][18]
According to the Yoruba mythology, there is no hellfire. Wicked people (guilty of e.g. theft, witchcraft, murder, or cruelty[19]) are confined to Orun Apaadi (heaven of potsherds), while the good people continue to live in the ancestral realm, Orun Baba Eni (heaven of our fathers).[20]
With the rise of the cult of Osiris during the Middle Kingdom the "democratization of religion" offered to even his humblest followers the prospect of eternal life, with moral fitness becoming the dominant factor in determining a person's suitability. At death a person faced judgment by a tribunal of forty-two divine judges. If they had led a life in conformance with the precepts of the goddess Maat, who represented truth and right living, the person was welcomed into the heavenly reed fields. If found guilty the person was thrown to Ammit, the "devourer of the dead" and would be condemned to the lake of fire.[22] The person taken by the devourer is subject first to terrifying punishment and then annihilated. These depictions of punishment may have influenced medieval perceptions of the inferno in hell via early Christian and Coptic texts.[23] Purification for those considered justified appears in the descriptions of "Flame Island", where humans experience the triumph over evil and rebirth. For the damned complete destruction into a state of non-being awaits but there is no suggestion of eternal torture; the weighing of the heart in Egyptian mythology can lead to annihilation.[24][25] The Tale of Khaemwese describes the torment of a rich man, who lacked charity, when he dies and compares it to the blessed state of a poor man who has also died.[26] Divine pardon at judgement always remained a central concern for the ancient Egyptians.[27]
Modern understanding of Egyptian notions of hell relies on six ancient texts:[28]
The hells of Asia include the Bagobo "Gimokodan" (which is believed to be more of an otherworld, where the Red Region is reserved who those who died in battle, while ordinary people go to the White Region)[29] and in Dharmic religions, "Kalichi" or "Naraka".
According to a few sources, hell is below ground, and described as an uninviting wet[30] or fiery place reserved for sinful people in the Ainu religion, as stated by missionary John Batchelor.[31] However, belief in hell does not appear in oral tradition of the Ainu.[32] Instead, there is belief within the Ainu religion that the soul of the deceased (ramat) would become a kamuy after death.[32] There is also belief that the soul of someone who has been wicked during lifetime, committed suicide, got murdered or died in great agony would become a ghost (tukap) who would haunt the living,[32] to come to fulfillment from which it was excluded during life.[33]
In Tengrism, it was believed that the wicked would get punished in Tamag before they would be brought to the third floor of the sky.[34]
The Sumerian afterlife was a dark, dreary cavern located deep below the ground,[35] where inhabitants were believed to continue "a shadowy version of life on earth".[35] This bleak domain was known as Kur,[36]:114 and was believed to be ruled by the goddess Ereshkigal.[35][37]:184 All souls went to the same afterlife,[35] and a person's actions during life had no effect on how the person would be treated in the world to come.[35]
The souls in Kur were believed to eat nothing but dry dust[36]:58 and family members of the deceased would ritually pour libations into the dead person's grave through a clay pipe, thereby allowing the dead to drink.[36]:58 Nonetheless, funerary evidence indicates that some people believed that the goddess Inanna, Ereshkigal's younger sister, had the power to award her devotees with special favors in the afterlife.[35][38] During the Third Dynasty of Ur, it was believed that a person's treatment in the afterlife depended on how he or she was buried;[36]:58 those that had been given sumptuous burials would be treated well,[36]:58 but those who had been given poor burials would fare poorly.[36]:58
The entrance to Kur was believed to be located in the Zagros mountains in the far east.[36]:114 It had seven gates, through which a soul needed to pass.[35] The god Neti was the gatekeeper.[37]:184[36]:86 Ereshkigal's sukkal, or messenger, was the god Namtar.[36]:134[37]:184 Galla were a class of demons that were believed to reside in the underworld;[36]:85 their primary purpose appears to have been to drag unfortunate mortals back to Kur.[36]:85 They are frequently referenced in magical texts,[36]:85–86 and some texts describe them as being seven in number.[36]:85–86 Several extant poems describe the galla dragging the god Dumuzid into the underworld.[36]:86 The later Mesopotamians knew this underworld by its East Semitic name: Irkalla. During the Akkadian Period, Ereshkigal's role as the ruler of the underworld was assigned to Nergal, the god of death.[35][37]:184 The Akkadians attempted to harmonize this dual rulership of the underworld by making Nergal Ereshkigal's husband.[35]
The hells of Europe include Breton mythology's "Anaon", Celtic mythology's "Uffern", Slavic mythology's "Peklo", Norse mythology's Náströnd, the hell of Sami mythology and Finnish "Tuonela" ("manala").
In classic Greek mythology, below Heaven, Earth, and Pontus is Tartarus, or Tartaros (Greek Τάρταρος, deep place). It is either a deep, gloomy place, a pit or abyss used as a dungeon of torment and suffering that resides within Hades (the entire underworld) with Tartarus being the hellish component. In the Gorgias, Plato (c. 400 BC) wrote that souls of the deceased were judged after they payed for crossing the river of the dead and those who received punishment were sent to Tartarus.[39] As a place of punishment, it can be considered a hell. The classic Hades, on the other hand, is more similar to Old Testament Sheol. The Romans later adopted these views.
The hells of the Native Americans include the Aztec religion's Mictlan, Inuit religion's Adlivun, and the Yanomami religion's Shobari Waka. In Mayan religion, Xibalba (or Metnal) is the dangerous underworld of nine levels. The road into and out of it is said to be steep, thorny and very forbidding. Ritual healers would intone healing prayers banishing diseases to Xibalba. Much of the Popol Vuh describes the adventures of the Maya Hero Twins in their cunning struggle with the evil lords of Xibalba.
The Aztecs believed that the dead traveled to Mictlan, a neutral place found far to the north. There was also a legend of a place of white flowers, which was always dark, and was home to the gods of death, particularly Mictlantecutli and his spouse Mictlantecihuatl, which means literally "lords of Mictlan". The journey to Mictlan took four years, and the travelers had to overcome difficult tests, such as passing a mountain range where the mountains crashed into each other, a field where the wind carried flesh-scraping knives, and a river of blood with fearsome jaguars.
In pre-Christian Fijian mythology there was belief in an underworld called Murimuria.
Hell is conceived of in most Abrahamic religions as a place of, or a form of, punishment.[40]
Early Judaism had no concept of Hell, although the concept of an afterlife was introduced during the Hellenistic period, apparently from neighboring Hellenistic religions. It occurs for example in the Book of Daniel. Daniel 12:2 proclaims "And many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, Some to everlasting life, Some to shame and everlasting contempt."
Judaism does not have a specific doctrine about the afterlife, but it does have a mystical/Orthodox tradition of describing Gehinnom. Gehinnom is not Hell, but originally a grave and in later times a sort of Purgatory where one is judged based on one's life's deeds, or rather, where one becomes fully aware of one's own shortcomings and negative actions during one's life. The Kabbalah explains it as a "waiting room" (commonly translated as an "entry way") for all souls (not just the wicked). The overwhelming majority of rabbinic thought maintains that people are not in Gehinnom forever; the longest that one can be there is said to be 12 months, however there has been the occasional noted exception. Some consider it a spiritual forge where the soul is purified for its eventual ascent to Olam Habah (heb. עולם הבא; lit. "The world to come", often viewed as analogous to heaven). This is also mentioned in the Kabbalah, where the soul is described as breaking, like the flame of a candle lighting another: the part of the soul that ascends being pure and the "unfinished" piece being reborn.
According to Jewish teachings, hell is not entirely physical; rather, it can be compared to a very intense feeling of shame. People are ashamed of their misdeeds and this constitutes suffering which makes up for the bad deeds. When one has so deviated from the will of God, one is said to be in Gehinnom. This is not meant to refer to some point in the future, but to the very present moment. The gates of teshuva (return) are said to be always open, and so one can align his will with that of God at any moment. Being out of alignment with God's will is itself a punishment according to the Torah.
Many scholars of Jewish mysticism, particularly of the Kabbalah, describe seven "compartments" or "habitations" of Hell, just as they describe seven divisions of Heaven. These divisions go by many different names, and the most frequently mentioned are as follows:[41]
Besides those mentioned above, there also exist additional terms that have been often used to either refer to Hell in general or to some region of the underworld:
Maimonides declares in his 13 principles of faith that the hells of the rabbinic literature were pedagocically motivated inventions to encourage respect of the Torah commandements by mankind, which had been regarded as immature.[51] Instead of being sent to hell, the souls of the wicked would actually get annihilated.[52]
The Christian doctrine of hell derives from passages in the New Testament. The word hell does not appear in the Greek New Testament; instead one of three words is used: the Greek words Tartarus or Hades, or the Hebrew word Gehinnom.
In the Septuagint and New Testament the authors used the Greek term Hades for the Hebrew Sheol, but often with Jewish rather than Greek concepts in mind. In the Jewish concept of Sheol, such as expressed in Ecclesiastes,[53] Sheol or Hades is a place where there is no activity. However, since Augustine, some[which?] Christians have believed that the souls of those who die either rest peacefully, in the case of Christians, or are afflicted, in the case of the damned, after death until the resurrection.[54]
While these three terms are translated in the KJV as "hell" these three terms have three very different meanings.
The Roman Catholic Church defines Hell as "a state of definitive self-exclusion from communion with God and the blessed." One finds oneself in Hell as the result of dying in mortal sin without repenting and accepting God's merciful love, becoming eternally separated from him by one's own free choice[68] immediately after death.[69] In the Roman Catholic Church, many other Christian churches, such as the Baptists and Episcopalians, and some Greek Orthodox churches,[70] Hell is taught as the final destiny of those who have not been found worthy after the general resurrection and last judgment,[71][72][73] where they will be eternally punished for sin and permanently separated from God. The nature of this judgment is inconsistent with many Protestant churches teaching the saving comes from accepting Jesus Christ as their savior, while the Greek Orthodox and Catholic Churches teach that the judgment hinges on both faith and works. However, many Liberal Christians throughout Liberal Protestant and Anglican churches believe in universal reconciliation (see below), even though it contradicts the traditional doctrines that are usually held by the evangelicals within their denominations.[74] Regarding the belief in Hell, the interpretation of Extra Ecclesiam nulla salus is also relevant.[75]
Some modern Christian theologians subscribe to the doctrines of conditional immortality. Conditional immortality is the belief that the soul dies with the body and does not live again until the resurrection. As with other Jewish writings of the Second Temple period, the New Testament text distinguishes two words, both translated "Hell" in older English Bibles: Hades, "the grave", and Gehenna where God "can destroy both body and soul".[76] A minority of Christians read this to mean that neither Hades nor Gehenna are eternal but refer to the ultimate destruction of the wicked in the Lake of Fire in a consuming fire after resurrection. However, because of the Greek words used in translating from the Hebrew text, the Hebrew ideas have become confused with Greek myths and ideas. In the Hebrew text when people died they went to Sheol, the grave[77] and the wicked ultimately went to Gehenna and were consumed by fire. The Hebrew words for "the grave" or "death" or "eventual destruction of the wicked", were translated using Greek words and later texts became a mix of mistranslation, pagan influence, and Greek myth.[78]
Christian mortalism is the doctrine that all men and women, including Christians, must die, and do not continue and are not conscious after death. Therefore, annihilationism includes the doctrine that "the wicked" are also destroyed rather than tormented forever in traditional "Hell" or the lake of fire. Christian mortalism and annihilationism are directly related to the doctrine of conditional immortality, the idea that a human soul is not immortal unless it is given eternal life at the second coming of Christ and resurrection of the dead.
Biblical scholars looking at the issue through the Hebrew text have denied the teaching of innate immortality.[79][80] Rejection of the immortality of the soul, and advocacy of Christian mortalism, was a feature of Protestantism since the early days of the Reformation with Martin Luther himself rejecting the traditional idea, though his mortalism did not carry into orthodox Lutheranism. One of the most notable English opponents of the immortality of the soul was Thomas Hobbes who describes the idea as a Greek "contagion" in Christian doctrine.[81] Modern proponents of conditional immortality include some in the Anglican church such as N.T. Wright[82] and as denominations the Seventh-day Adventists, Bible Students, Jehovah's Witnesses, Christadelphians, Living Church of God, The Church of God International, and some other Protestant Christians, as well as recent Roman Catholic teaching. It is not Roman Catholic dogma that anyone is in Hell,[83] though many individual Catholics do not share this view. The 1993 Catechism of the Catholic Church states:[84] "This state of definitive self-exclusion from communion with God and the blessed is called 'hell'" and[85] "... they suffer the punishments of hell, "eternal fire." The chief punishment of hell is eternal separation from God" (CCC 1035). During an Audience in 1999, Pope John Paul II commented: "images of hell that Sacred Scripture presents to us must be correctly interpreted. They show the complete frustration and emptiness of life without God. Rather than a place, hell indicates the state of those who freely and definitively separate themselves from God, the source of all life and joy."[86]
The Seventh-day Adventist Church's official beliefs support annihilationism.[87][88] They deny the Catholic purgatory and teach that the dead lie in the grave until they are raised for a last judgment, both the righteous and wicked await the resurrection at the Second Coming. Seventh-day Adventists believe that death is a state of unconscious sleep until the resurrection. They base this belief on biblical texts such as which states "the dead know nothing", and which contains a description of the dead being raised from the grave at the second coming. These verses, it is argued, indicate that death is only a period or form of slumber.
Adventists teach that the resurrection of the righteous will take place shortly after the second coming of Jesus, as described in Revelation 20:4–6 that follows Revelation 19:11–16, whereas the resurrection of the wicked will occur after the millennium, as described in Revelation 20:5 and 20:12–13 that follow Revelation 20:4 and 6–7, though Revelation 20:12–13 and 15 actually describe a mixture of saved and condemned people being raised from the dead and judged. Adventists reject the traditional doctrine of hell as a state of everlasting conscious torment, believing instead that the wicked will be permanently destroyed after the millennium by the lake of fire, which is called 'the second death' in Revelation 20:14.
Those Adventist doctrines about death and hell reflect an underlying belief in: (a) conditional immortality (or conditionalism), as opposed to the immortality of the soul; and (b) the monistic nature of human beings, in which the soul is not separable from the body, as opposed to bipartite or tripartite conceptions, in which the soul is separable.
Jehovah's Witnesses hold that the soul ceases to exist when the person dies[89] and therefore that Hell (Sheol or Hades) is a state of non-existence.[89] In their theology, Gehenna differs from Sheol or Hades in that it holds no hope of a resurrection.[89] Tartarus is held to be the metaphorical state of debasement of the fallen angels between the time of their moral fall (Genesis chapter 6) until their post-millennial destruction along with Satan (Revelation chapter 20).[90]
Christian Universalists believe in universal reconciliation, the belief that all human souls will be eventually reconciled with God and admitted to Heaven.[91] This belief is held by some Unitarian-Universalists.[92][93][94]
According to Emanuel Swedenborg's Second Coming Christian revelation, hell exists because evil people want it.[95] They, not God, introduced evil to the human race.[96] In Swedenborgianism, every soul joins the like-minded group after death in which it feels the most comfortable. Hell is therefore believed to be a place of happiness for the souls which delight in evilness.[97]
Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) teach that hell is a state between death and resurrection, in which those spirits who did not repent while on earth must suffer for their own sins (Doctrine and Covenants 19:15–17[98]). After that, only the Sons of perdition, who committed the Eternal sin, would be cast into Outer darkness. However, according to Mormon faith, committing the Eternal sin requires so much knowledge that most persons cannot do this.[99] Satan and Cain are counted as examples of Sons of perdition.
In Islam, jahannam (in Arabic: جهنم) (related to the Hebrew word gehinnom) is the counterpart to heaven and likewise divided into seven layers, both co-existing with the temporal world,[100] filled with blazing fire, boiling water, and a variety of other torments for those who have been condemned to it in the hereafter. In the Quran, God declares that the fire of Jahannam is prepared for both mankind and jinn.[101][102] After the Day of Judgement, it is to be occupied by those who do not believe in God, those who have disobeyed his laws, or rejected his messengers.[103] "Enemies of Islam" are sent to Hell immediately upon their deaths.[104] Muslim modernists downplay the vivid descriptions of hell common during Classical period, on one hand reaffirming that the afterlife must not be denied, but simultaneously asserting its exact nature remains unknown. Other modern Muslims continue the line of Sufism as an interiorized hell, combining the eschatological thoughts of Ibn Arabi and Rumi with Western philosophy.[105] Although disputed by some scholars, most scholars consider jahannam to be eternal.[106][107] There is belief that the fire which represents the own bad deeds can already be seen during the Punishment of the Grave, and that the spiritual pain caused by this can lead to purification of the soul.[108]
Medieval sources usually identified hell with the seven layers of the earth mentioned in Quran 65:12, inhabited by devils, harsh angels, scorpions and serpents, who torment the sinners. They described thorny shrubs, seas filled with blood and fire and darkness only illuminated by the flames of hell.[109] However, some sources also mention a place of extreme cold at the bottom of hell, called Zamhareer, characterized in as being unbearably cold, with blizzards, ice, and snow.[110] Maalik is thought of as the keeper of the gates of hell, namely appears in Ibn Abbas' Isra and Mi'raj.[111] Over hell, a narrow bridge called As-Sirāt is spanned. On Judgement Day one must pass over it to reach paradise, but those destined for hell will find too narrow and fall from into their new abode.[112] Iblis, the temporary ruler of hell,[113] is thought of residing in the bottom of hell, from where he commands his hosts of infernal demons.[114][115] But contrary to Christian traditions, Iblis and his infernal hosts do not wage war against God,[116] his enmity applies against humanity only. Further, his dominion in hell is also his punishment. According to the Muwatta Hadith, the Bukhari Hadith, the Tirmidhi Hadith, and the Kabir Hadith, Muhammad claimed that the fire of Jahannam is not red, but pitch-black, and is 70 times hotter than ordinary fire, and is much more painful than ordinary fire.[citation needed]
Polytheism (shirk) is regarded as a particularly grievous sin; therefore entering Paradise is forbidden to a polytheist (musyrik) because his place is Hell;[117] and the lowest pit of Hell (hawiyah), is intended for hypocrites who claimed aloud to believe in God and his messenger but in their hearts did not.[118] Not all Muslims and scholars agree whether hell is an eternal destination or whether some or all of the condemned will eventually be forgiven and allowed to enter paradise.[104][116][119][120]
In the Bahá'í Faith, the conventional descriptions of Hell and Heaven are considered to be symbolic representations of spiritual conditions. The Bahá'í writings describe closeness to God to be Heaven, and conversely, remoteness from God as Hell.[121] The Bahá'í writings state that the soul is immortal and after death it will continue to progress until it finally attains God's presence.[122]
In "Devaduta Sutta", the 130th discourse of the Majjhima Nikaya, Buddha teaches about hell in vivid detail. Buddhism teaches that there are five[citation needed] (sometimes six[citation needed]) realms of rebirth, which can then be further subdivided into degrees of agony or pleasure. Of these realms, the hell realms, or Naraka, is the lowest realm of rebirth. Of the hell realms, the worst is Avīci (Sanskrit and Pali for "without waves"). The Buddha's disciple, Devadatta, who tried to kill the Buddha on three occasions, as well as create a schism in the monastic order, is said[by whom?] to have been reborn in the Avici Hell.
Like all realms of rebirth in Buddhism, rebirth in the Hell realms is not permanent, though suffering can persist for eons before being reborn again.[citation needed] In the Lotus Sutra, the Buddha teaches that eventually even Devadatta will become a Pratyekabuddha himself, emphasizing the temporary nature of the Hell realms. Thus, Buddhism teaches to escape the endless migration of rebirths (both positive and negative) through the attainment of Nirvana.
The Bodhisattva Ksitigarbha, according to the Ksitigarbha Sutra, made a great vow as a young girl to not reach Nirvana until all beings were liberated from the Hell Realms or other unwholesome rebirths. In popular literature, Ksitigarbha travels to the Hell realms to teach and relieve beings of their suffering.
Early Vedic religion does not have a concept of Hell. The Rigveda mentions three realms, bhūr (the earth), svar (the sky) and bhuvas or antarikṣa (the middle area, i.e. air or atmosphere). In later Hindu literature, especially the law books and Puranas, more realms are mentioned, including a realm similar to Hell, called naraka (in Devanāgarī: नरक). Yama as the first born human (together with his twin sister Yamī), by virtue of precedence, becomes ruler of men and a judge on their departure. Originally he resides in Heaven, but later, especially medieval, traditions mention his court in naraka.[citation needed]
In the law-books (smṛtis and dharma-sūtras, like the Manu-smṛti), naraka is a place of punishment for sins. It is a lower spiritual plane (called naraka-loka) where the spirit is judged and the partial fruits of karma affect the next life. In the Mahabharata there is a mention of the Pandavas and the Kauravas both going to Heaven. At first Yudhisthir goes to heaven where he sees Duryodhana enjoying heaven; Indra tells him that Duryodhana is in heaven as he did his Kshatriya duties. Then he shows Yudhisthir hell where it appears his brothers are. Later it is revealed that this was a test for Yudhisthir and that his brothers and the Kauravas are all in heaven and live happily in the divine abode of gods. Hells are also described in various Puranas and other scriptures. The Garuda Purana gives a detailed account of Hell and its features; it lists the amount of punishment for most crimes, much like a modern-day penal code.
It is believed[by whom?] that people who commit sins go to Hell and have to go through punishments in accordance with the sins they committed. The god Yama, who is also the god of death, presides over Hell. Detailed accounts of all the sins committed by an individual are kept by Chitragupta, who is the record keeper in Yama's court. Chitragupta reads out the sins committed and Yama orders appropriate punishments to be given to individuals. These punishments include dipping in boiling oil, burning in fire, torture using various weapons, etc. in various Hells. Individuals who finish their quota of the punishments are reborn in accordance with their balance of karma. All created beings are imperfect and thus have at least one sin to their record; but if one has generally led a pious life, one ascends to svarga, a temporary realm of enjoyment similar to Paradise, after a brief period of expiation in Hell and before the next reincarnation, according to the law of karma.[citation needed] With the exception of Hindu philosopher Madhva, time in Hell is not regarded as eternal damnation within Hinduism.[123]
According to Brahma Kumaris, the iron age (Kali Yuga) is regarded as hell.
17th-century cloth painting depicting seven levels of Jain Hell and various tortures suffered in them. Left panel depicts the demi-god and his animal vehicle presiding over each Hell.
In Jain cosmology, Naraka (translated as Hell) is the name given to realm of existence having great suffering. However, a Naraka differs from the hells of Abrahamic religions as souls are not sent to Naraka as the result of a divine judgment and punishment. Furthermore, length of a being's stay in a Naraka is not eternal, though it is usually very long and measured in billions of years. A soul is born into a Naraka as a direct result of his or her previous karma (actions of body, speech and mind), and resides there for a finite length of time until his karma has achieved its full result. After his karma is used up, he may be reborn in one of the higher worlds as the result of an earlier karma that had not yet ripened.
The Hells are situated in the seven grounds at the lower part of the universe. The seven grounds are:
The hellish beings are a type of souls which are residing in these various hells. They are born in hells by sudden manifestation.[124] The hellish beings possess vaikriya body (protean body which can transform itself and take various forms). They have a fixed life span (ranging from ten thousand to billions of years) in the respective hells where they reside. According to Jain scripture, Tattvarthasutra, following are the causes for birth in hell:[125]
According to Meivazhi, the purpose of all religions is to guide people to Heaven.[127] However, those who do not approach God and are not blessed by Him are believed to be condemned to Hell.[128]
In Sikh thought, Heaven and Hell are not places for living hereafter, they are part of spiritual topography of man and do not exist otherwise. They refer to good and evil stages of life respectively and can be lived now and here during our earthly existence.[129] For example, Guru Arjan explains that people who are entangled in emotional attachment and doubt are living in hell on this Earth i.e. their life is hellish.
So many are being drowned in emotional attachment and doubt; they dwell in the most horrible hell.
Ancient Taoism had no concept of Hell, as morality was seen to be a man-made distinction and there was no concept of an immaterial soul. In its home country China, where Taoism adopted tenets of other religions, popular belief endows Taoist Hell with many deities and spirits who punish sin in a variety of horrible ways.
A Chinese glazed earthenware sculpture of "Hell's torturer", 16th century, Ming Dynasty
Diyu is the realm of the dead in Chinese mythology. It is very loosely based upon the Buddhist concept of Naraka combined with traditional Chinese afterlife beliefs and a variety of popular expansions and re-interpretations of these two traditions. Ruled by Yanluo Wang, the King of Hell, Diyu is a maze of underground levels and chambers where souls are taken to atone for their earthly sins.
Incorporating ideas from Taoism and Buddhism as well as traditional Chinese folk religion, Diyu is a kind of purgatory place which serves not only to punish but also to renew spirits ready for their next incarnation. There are many deities associated with the place, whose names and purposes are the subject of much conflicting information.
The exact number of levels in Chinese Hell – and their associated deities – differs according to the Buddhist or Taoist perception. Some speak of three to four 'Courts', other as many as ten. The ten judges are also known as the 10 Kings of Yama. Each Court deals with a different aspect of atonement. For example, murder is punished in one Court, adultery in another. According to some Chinese legends, there are eighteen levels in Hell. Punishment also varies according to belief, but most legends speak of highly imaginative chambers where wrong-doers are sawn in half, beheaded, thrown into pits of filth or forced to climb trees adorned with sharp blades.
However, most legends agree that once a soul (usually referred to as a 'ghost') has atoned for their deeds and repented, he or she is given the Drink of Forgetfulness by Meng Po and sent back into the world to be reborn, possibly as an animal or a poor or sick person, for further punishment.
Zoroastrianism has historically suggested several possible fates for the wicked, including annihilation, purgation in molten metal, and eternal punishment, all of which have standing in Zoroaster's writings. Zoroastrian eschatology includes the belief that wicked souls will remain in Duzakh until, following the arrival of three saviors at thousand-year intervals, Ahura Mazda reconciles the world, destroying evil and resurrecting tormented souls to perfection.[131]
The sacred Gathas mention a "House of the Lie″ for those "that are of an evil dominion, of evil deeds, evil words, evil Self, and evil thought, Liars."[132] However, the best-known Zoroastrian text to describe hell in detail is the Book of Arda Viraf.[133] It depicts particular punishments for particular sins—for instance, being trampled by cattle as punishment for neglecting the needs of work animals.[134] Other descriptions can be found in the and the Book of the Judgments of the Spirit of Wisdom (Mainyo-I-Khard).[135]
Book of Scriptures (Hadhokht Nask), Religious Judgments (Dadestan-i Denig)
The Mandaeans believe in purification of souls inside of Leviathan,[136] whom they also call Ur.[137] Within detention houses, so called Mattarathas,[138] the detained souls would receive so much punishment that they would wish to die a Second death, which would, however, not (yet) befall their spirit.[139] At the end of days, the souls of the Mandaeans which could be purified, would be liberated out of Ur's mouth.[140] After this, Ur would get destroyed along with the souls remaining inside him,[141] so they die the second death.[142]
The Gardnerian Wicca and Alexandrian Wicca sects of Wicca include "wiccan laws" that Gerald Gardner wrote, which state that wiccan souls are privileged with reincarnation, but that the souls of wiccans who break the wiccan laws, "even under torture", would be cursed by the goddess, never be reborn on earth, and "remain where they belong, in the Hell of the Christians."[143][144] Other recognized wiccan sects do not include Gerald Gardner's "wiccan laws". The influential wiccan author Raymond Buckland wrote that the wiccan laws are unimportant. Solitary wiccans, not involved in organized sects, do not include the wiccan laws in their doctrine.
In his Divina commedia (Divine Comedy), set in the year 1300), Dante Alighieri employed the concept of taking Virgil as his guide through Inferno (and then, in the second canticle, up the mountain of Purgatorio). Virgil himself is not condemned to Hell proper in Dante's poem but is rather, as a virtuous pagan, confined to Limbo just at the edge of Hell. The geography of Hell is very elaborately laid out in this work, with nine concentric rings leading deeper into Earth, and deeper into the various punishments of Hell, until, at the center of the world, Dante finds Satan himself trapped in the frozen lake of Cocytus. A small tunnel leads past Satan and out to the other side of the world, at the base of the Mount of Purgatory.
John Milton's Paradise Lost (1667) opens with the fallen angels, including their leader Satan, waking up in Hell after having been defeated in the war in Heaven and the action returns there at several points throughout the poem. Milton portrays Hell as the abode of the demons, and the passive prison from which they plot their revenge upon Heaven through the corruption of the human race. 19th-century French poet Arthur Rimbaud alluded to the concept as well in the title and themes of one of his major works, A Season in Hell (1873). Rimbaud's poetry portrays his own suffering in a poetic form as well as other themes.
Many of the great epics of European literature include episodes that occur in Hell. In the Roman poet Virgil's Latin epic, the Aeneid, Aeneas descends into Dis (the underworld) to visit his father's spirit. The underworld is only vaguely described, with one unexplored path leading to the punishments of Tartarus, while the other leads through Erebus and the Elysian Fields.
The idea of Hell was highly influential to writers such as Jean-Paul Sartre who authored the 1944 play No Exit about the idea that "Hell is other people". Although not a religious man, Sartre was fascinated by his interpretation of a Hellish state of suffering. C.S. Lewis's The Great Divorce (1945) borrows its title from William Blake's Marriage of Heaven and Hell (1793) and its inspiration from the Divine Comedy as the narrator is likewise guided through Hell and Heaven. Hell is portrayed here as an endless, desolate twilight city upon which night is imperceptibly sinking. The night is actually the Apocalypse, and it heralds the arrival of the demons after their judgment. Before the night comes, anyone can escape Hell if they leave behind their former selves and accept Heaven's offer, and a journey to Heaven reveals that Hell is infinitely small; it is nothing more or less than what happens to a soul that turns away from God and into itself.
Piers Anthony in his series Incarnations of Immortality portrays examples of Heaven and Hell via Death, Fate, Underworld, Nature, War, Time, Good-God, and Evil-Devil. Robert A. Heinlein offers a yin-yang version of Hell where there is still some good within; most evident in his 1984 book Job: A Comedy of Justice. Lois McMaster Bujold uses her five Gods 'Father, Mother, Son, Daughter and Bastard' in The Curse of Chalion with an example of Hell as formless chaos. Michael Moorcock is one of many who offer Chaos-Evil-(Hell) and Uniformity-Good-(Heaven) as equally unacceptable extremes which must be held in balance; in particular in the Elric and Eternal Champion series. Fredric Brown wrote a number of fantasy short stories about Satan's activities in Hell. Cartoonist Jimmy Hatlo created a series of cartoons about life in Hell called The Hatlo Inferno, which ran from 1953 to 1958.[145]
Rockefeller Plaza, San Francisco, S.F.
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Iowa. Photographs and brief introduction by Nancy Rexroth. Essay by Mark Power. Violet Press, 1977. Unpaged. SIGNED on half-title page. Square quarto. Stiff wrappers. Numerous black-and-white reproductions.
Rexroth used a "Diana" camera (a plastic toy camera) for this six-year long project. These selenium and gold toned prints are vignettes that unlock the Midwestern atmospheres of her childhood. Rexroth discovered the Iowa of the past in the Ohio of the present where she currently resides. Her photographs are subjective and autobiographical, finding children in the act of flying, old white houses that wave and shutter, and her mother.
Fine-; moderate edge wear; typically faded to spine.


text:
What makes an orchestra great?
By Thor Eckert Jr.
The New York Philharmonic is always included in the ''top five'' lists of important American orchestras, along with Boston, Philadelphia, Cleveland, and Chicago.
Nowadays, many are wont to put Los Angeles in the same class. Partisans of one or another orchestra will also compare that one to the Berlin or the Vienna Phiharmonics, and with good cause. However, the New York Philharmonic is not an orchestra that does this great city proud.
This is not to say that the New Yorkers never play like a front-rank symphonic ensemble but rather that on a day-to-day basis, there is no dedication , no spirit, no real sense that music is important to them instead of just something to do.
I have a chance to hear most of the orchestras several times in the course of a musical season here. Usually they bring blockbuster programs to the city, so one might cite a lack of fairness by comparing those programs with an average night at the Philharmonic. But at one point or another, New Yorkers have heard the Philharmonic tour programs - either just prior to departure or, more tellingly, just after a return.
As to other day-to-day encounters with other orchestras, I have observed the Boston Symphony week after week for eight years, until last winter. The consistency of that group is cause for celebration. Concert after concert, the playing was of a high order, with caring in the ranks. It was that visible commitment to the task at hand that is so distressingly absent at the Philharmonic.
In Boston, if a conductor was not up to the task, the orchestra helped him through. In New York even revered maestros are given the sort of indifference that leads to shocking lapses in performances. Last season, Rafael Kubelik began his stay with the orchestra with Mahler's long, complex Seventh Symphony. It was a shambles from beginning to end. The same work, just about as familiar (or unfamiliar) to the BSO, was executed with hair-raising elan two seasons back. A year ago last fall, Eugene Ormandy led the BSO in a stunning concert featuring ''Mathis der Mahler,'' Roy Harris's Third Symphony, and the Ravel orchestration of Mussorgsky's ''Pictures at an Exhibition.'' It proved to be one of the great concerts, led by a great master. The BSO outdid itself in tonal sheen, depth of sound, and sheer abandon.
Ormandy's opening concert of the Philadelphia's New York season was not a marvel of programming - Richard Strauss's ''Also Sprach Zarathustra,'' and flute concertos by Neilsen and Mozart (which James Galway dispatched with his usual froth and charm). But he elicited from them a sound quality no one else seems able to tap. With the New York Philharmonic, he also conjured sounds that no one else seems to know are there.
It occurred, however, only when the players deigned to watch him. At other times, as in the opening Sibelius Seventh Symphony, the strings simply fell apart for lack of concentration. Yes, Ormandy's beat is not as precise as it once was, but the pulse is always clear, and there is simply no excuse for the sort of sloppy intonation and ensemble that is becoming a glaring trademark of Philharmonic concerts at Avery Fisher Hall.
Do they play any more attentively for their music director Zubin Mehta? Perhaps a bit. A ''Sacre du Printemps'' was marvelously pagan early on in the season. An Ives First Symphony had moments of allure; a Mahler Second Symphony offered sections of thrilling impact; a Mozart ''Jupiter'' Symphony was merely dutiful in execution; a Hindemith ''Concert Music for Strings and Brass'' all but peeled the gold leaf off the balcony-facings.
Why is it that the Philharmonic strings never seem to pay much attention to the conductor? Why is it that the brass section seems to find ''raucously loud'' the only dynamic with which it is comfortable? (I will never forget a Brahms First under James Levine where the haunting horn solo of the last movement emerged like a klaxon of Armageddon.)
Basic blocks of phrases in Bruckner's Third Symphony (under Kubelik) found the strings refusing to admit that there was a pulse to be found. They all went their merry, disheveled (and separate) ways with blithe disregard of the conductor. One can certainly argue that Kubelik's downbeats are vague and eccentric, but the subsequent pulse is quite clear.
In a far less accomplished orchestra, the Dallas Symphony, there is much more commitment, more alertness, more caring. Granted, the ''Daphnis and Chloe'' ballet chosen by music director Eduardo Mata as a showcase was not the right choice, given their general problems of execution, and his fuzzy, genial account of a vivid, often fiery score. And granted, the opening Beethoven ''Triple Concerto'' could be counted as one of the worst performances of a concerto heard in New York in quite some time (Eliot Chapo was the violinist - out of tune - Nathaniel Rosen the wiry-toned cellist, and Yefim Bronfman the percussive pianist). But still, the intention, the resolve, to do the very best was always evident.
Of course the Philadelphia is no stranger to New York. At times, the players can be out of sorts. Under Mata (as guest conductor), they were not up to their usual impeccable selves, but the momentary problems were few and far between. And in something as insistent as Revueltas's ''Sensemaya,'' the orchestra outdid itself, responding to Mata's emphatic command with hair-trigger quickness. Under Klaus Tennstedt, the Philadelphia becomes a pack of inspired demons, taking chances that only so spontaneous, electrifying a conductor can encourage. Last season, Tennstedt offered a white-hot, cataclysmic Mahler First, and this season , he led the players in an epochal Beethoven ''Eroica.''Tennstedt's risk-taking does not always pay off. At times, orchestras plunge over the precipice into disaster when he goes just a bit too far, or chooses to be eccentric rather than inspired. But this ''Eroica'' was definitely inspirational and fresh - a young performance, full of froth, even whimsy, but never stinting on power, passion, and drama, whenever it was called for.
The Boston's most recent visit, under Seiji Ozawa's baton, offered a hectic ''Heldenleben'' that proclaimed a radical (and disturbing) change in the sound of the brass: The new principal trumpet has a searing, penetrating tone - the aural version of a laser beam, quite out of place with the BSO's mellow brass. (Is blasting brass a new trend in orchestral playing today?) But even with that quibble, the BSO is a superior orchestra, and they all play with dedication.
It is hard to decide what should be done about the New York situation, since even 40 years ago Virgil Thompson was observing the same problems and lamenting that there were no conductors available to do anything about it. The Philharmonic is highly paid but overworked. It is, at the base, a morale problem that has become an intergral part of the band. Any hopes that Mehta might have been able to break the pattern have dissolved in the reality that no one short of an old-fashioned (George Szell, Fritz Reiner) tyrant will ever be able to do anything about it.
Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra: Here's the next chief conductor
Women conductors shine
A forward-looking maestro, with respect for a legacy


gigtxt writes"GigTxt has launched a "Meetup" where Artists and Managers from Music and Arts businesses can come together once a month and "do" something. www.meetup.com/Melb-Music-Business-Discussion/ The first meeting was on Feb 16, after the Music Victoria Launch at the East Brunswick Club. The focus of the first month was on fans (customers) and creating a relationship with them in this modern era, looking at Social Networking, Email Lists and how to use them effectively. The outcomes of the session will be made available on the new GigTxt blog http://blog.gigtxt.com.au The idea was to come out of the session with: - A "fan" profile Therefore a better understanding of whom your fans are, why they listen to You, over someone else, and how best they like to be "told" about upcoming Gigs. Why? So your energy is best spent on tasks and money is spent on advertising in the "right" places, targeting the "right" people. Ideas for topics to cover, and "tasks" to "get done" will be open to attendees, and discussion is available on the Meetup Site (www.meetup.com/Melb-Music-Business-Discussion/), the GigTxt Facebook (www.facebook.com/gigtxt) or Myspace sites (www.myspace.com/gigtxt) and in the GigTxt online forum (www.gigtxt.com.au). Next meeting is March 9 at the GigTxt office, at the Auspicious Arts Incubator 166 Sturt St, Southbank. 6pm This month we will look at creating a timeline for your career, working out where you are on it, and where you want to get to. The idea behind this meet up; is to do, not to talk about doing.
- A better understanding of where you want to go in your artist/manager career To RSVP join the "Meetup" group, a small administrative fee is all you pay, the program is sponsored by GigTxt and supported by the Auspicious Arts Incubator."
nicolas writes"www.80gigsin80days.comfor band bookings contact us onbookings@80gigsin80days.com"Melbourne has one of the most highly regarded live music scenes in the world. In terms of the quality and number of venues, arguably, it is comparable with cities such as Austin, Texas…"Brothers Nicolas & Ricardo Jorquera of Melbourne band "I Heart Cusack" are promoting Melbourne & regional Victoria's live music scene by organising a massive marathon of successive shows around all of Victoria.The marathon of gigs is being filmed as a docUmentary and the intention is to highlight all the great live music venues Victoria has to offer, and all the great bands that occupy them.Recently some iconic venues are coming under pressure and are having to close down as the running of live music venues is becoming costly under new laws and taxes.This project attempts to highlight to the world that live music is a huge part of this State's culture and has a lot to offer the citizens and tourists of Australia.So come celebrate live music and come along to a show featuring all of Victoria's great bands and witness Nicolas Jorquera make History as he attempts to play THE MOST LIVE SHOWS EVER PLAYED IN A ROW IN THE STATE OF VICTORIA."
We're currently in the throes of writing an album, 75 - 80% done. We require a percussionist to finish off the tracks and aid in the writing process, (if willing).
We have a particular sound we are seeking when it comes to the skin work, but we are open minded if you have something you would like to bring to the table.
(There are some rough drums on a few of the samples for your perusal. They are of course subject to change if you have better ideas).
We are 100% dedicated to this project and we all have an average of 7-8 years experience on our respective instruments and take them very seriously. We try to jam 5-6 days a week and in most respects, acheive that. We mostly jam our own material and improv, as most of our time on the instruments is spent writing, so we definitely need a percussionist who is willing to explore ideas with us as well as follow the material.
If what you hear takes your fancy, hit me back.
We are located in the Ballarat area.
Btw, we have much more material written than what we have posted on our site.
rushi writes""SONIC ATTACK" Australia's premier prog rock "HAWKWIND" tribute band are back in Melbourne and playing at the Brunswick Hotel, Sat April 10th, 9.30pm. It's gonna be a psychodelic, space rock extravaganza... lights, smoke, strobe and pheremin madness. + great support band Scar Tissue.
Also playing Ruby's lounge, Belgrave 25th Feb. With Flat earth syndrome and signal x. Don't miss this one !! Show starts 8.30pm, Sonic Attack on stage 11pm."


text:
Word of Mouth är ett musikalbum av The Kinks som gavs ut 1984 av skivbolaget Arista Records. Detta var gruppens tjugonde studioalbum och det sista de gjorde för Arista. Det blev inte lika populärt som det föregående albumet State of Confusion. Låten "Do It Again" var albumets huvudsingel och blev en mindre framgång, men även "Good Day" och "Summer's Gone" släpptes som singlar i utvalda länder.

Låtlista
(låtar utan agiven upphovsman skrivna av Ray Davies)
"Do It Again" - 4:14
"Word of Mouth" - 3:51
"Good Day" - 4:35
"Living on a Thin Line" (Dave Davies) - 4:16
"Sold Me Out" - 3:44
"Massive Reductions" - 3:15
"Guilty" (Dave Davies)	4:12
"Too Hot" - 4:08
"Missing Persons" - 2:53
"Summer's Gone" - 3:52
"Going Solo" - 3:58

Listplaceringar
Billboard 200, USA: #57
Sverigetopplistan, Sverige: #50

Källor
Albumet på Allmusic
Fotnoter:

musikalbum 1984
Album av The Kinks