text:
CHECC
Papers on NPR
Testing Theory
Students and Academics
Non-market Valuation
Methodology is viewed by some to have the same type of draw as calisthenics. Yet, it must be done! In this section resides some of my work in this area. I have spent time thinking about whether laboratory behavior is a good indicator of behavior in the field, and whether, and to what extent, markets and/or market experience affect the size and extent of behavioral anomalies observed in lab experiments. In some cases, the increase in knowledge due to field experiments has overturned verdicts of yesterday. In others, the findings have reinforced the literature that has drawn inference from either lab or naturally-occurring data.
In Vivo We Trust
List, John A.
Science, (2018), 361(6400), pp. 339
No Abstract Available
To Replicate or Not To Replicate? Exploring Reproducibility in Economics through the Lens of a Model and a Pilot Study
Maniadis, Zacharias; Tufano, Fabio; List, John A.
Economic Journal, (2017) 127(605): F209-F235.
The sciences are in an era of an alleged 'credibility crisis'. In this study, we discuss the reproducibility of empirical results, focusing on economics research. By combining theory and empirical evidence, we discuss the import of replication studies and whether they improve our confidence in novel findings. The theory sheds light on the importance of replications, even when replications are subject to bias. We then present a pilot meta-study of replication in experimental economics, a subfield serving as a positive benchmark for investigating the credibility of economics. Our meta-study highlights certain difficulties when applying meta-research to systematise the economics literature.
Redefine Statistical Significance
Benjamin et al.
Nature and Human Behavior, (2017), 1, 0189, doi:10.1038/s41562
We propose to change the default P-value threshold for statistical significance from 0.05 to 0.005 for claims of new discoveries.
What Can We Learn From Experiments? Understanding the Threats to the Scalability of Experimental Results
Al-Ubaydli, Omar, John A. List, Dana L Suskind
American Economic Review, (P&P), forthcoming
An Economic Approach to Alleviate the Crisis of Confidence in Science: With an Application to the Public Goods Game
Butera, Luigi, John A. List
Novel empirical insights by their very nature tend to be unanticipated, and in some cases at odds with the current state of knowledge on the topic. The mechanics of statistical inference suggest that such initial findings, even when robust and statistically significant within the study, should not appreciably move priors about the phenomenon under investigation. Yet, a few well-conceived independent replications dramatically improve the reliability of novel findings. Nevertheless, the incentives to replicate are seldom in place in the sciences, especially within the social sciences. We propose a simple incentive-compatible mechanism to promote replications, and use experimental economics to highlight our approach. We begin by reporting results from an experiment in which we investigate how cooperation in allocation games is affected by the presence of Knightian uncertainty (ambiguity), a pervasive and yet unexplored characteristic of most public goods. Unexpectedly, we find that adding uncertainty enhances cooperation. This surprising result serves as a test case for our mechanism: instead of sending this paper to a peer-reviewed journal, we make it available online as a working paper, but we commit never to submit it to a journal for publication. We instead offered co-authorship for a second, yet to be written, paper to other scholars willing to independently replicate our study. That second paper will reference this working paper, will include all replications, and will be submitted to a peer- reviewed journal for publication. Our mechanism allows mutually-beneficial gains from trade between the original investigators and other scholars, alleviates the publication bias problem that often surrounds novel experimental results, and accelerates the advancement of economic science by leveraging the mechanics of statistical inference.
Multiple Hypothesis Testing in Experimental Economics
List, John A., Azeem M. Shaikh and Yang Xu
NBER Working Paper No. 21875
Empiricism in the sciences allows us to test theories, formulate optimal policies, and learn how the world works. In this manner, it is critical that our empirical work provides accurate conclusions about underlying data patterns. False positives represent an especially important problem, as vast public and private resources can be misguided if we base decisions on false discovery. This study explores one especially pernicious influence on false positives—multiple hypothesis testing (MHT). While MHT potentially affects all types of empirical work, we consider three common scenarios where MHT influences inference within experimental economics: jointly identifying treatment effects for a set of outcomes, estimating heterogeneous treatment effects through subgroup analysis, and conducting hypothesis testing for multiple treatment conditions. Building upon the work of Romano and Wolf (2010), we present a correction procedure that incorporates the three scenarios, and illustrate the improvement in power by comparing our results with those obtained by the classic studies due to Bonferroni (1935) and Holm (1979). Importantly, under weak assumptions, our testing procedure asymptotically controls the familywise error rate – the probability of one false rejection – and is asymptotically balanced. We showcase our approach by revisiting the data reported in Karlan and List (2007), to deepen our understanding of why people give to charitable causes.
Using Field Experiments in Accounting and Finance
Floyd, Eric and John A. List
Journal of Accounting Research (2016)
The gold standard in the sciences is uncovering causal relationships. A growing literature in economics utilizes field experiments as a methodology to establish causality between variables. Taking lessons from the economics literature, this study provides an "A-to-Z" description of how to conduct field experiments in accounting and finance. We begin by providing a user's guide into what a field experiment is, what behavioral parameters field experiments identify, and how to efficiently generate and analyze experimental data. We then provide a discussion of extant field experiments that touch on important issues in accounting and finance, and we also review areas that have ample opportunities for future field experimental explorations. We conclude that the time is ripe for field experimentation to deepen our understanding of important issues in accounting and finance.
Field Experiments in the Developed World: An Introduction
List, John A., Robert Metcalfe
Oxford Review of Economic Policy (2015) 30(4), 585-596
Field experiments represent a relatively new area in economics to understand the causal links from one variable to another. They have been used by academics to help answer interesting and policy-relevant questions in the developed world relating to educational attainment, tax avoidance, consumer finance, negative externalities, charitable giving, and labour market contracts. In this paper we bring together the key ideas behind the different variants of field experiments, how field experiments have been used to test theory, their limitations, and the new areas currently being opened up by field experiments.
Markets for Replication
Brandon, Alec and John A. List
Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, (2015), 112(50), 15267-15268.
Since 1955, The Journal of Irreproducible Results has offered a satirical view on academic research, publishing pieces such as, "A double blind efficacy trial of placebos, extra strength placebos, and generic placebos" (1). Scientists are now taking a less satirical look at the reproducibility of results, with questions emerging about the robustness of findings in fields as diverse as epidemiology, genetics, neuroscience, and the social sciences (2-4). The aftermath has seen myriad efforts to close the gap in reproducibility.
The Curious Relation Between Theory of Mind and Sharing in Preschool Age Children
Cowell, Jason, Anya Samek, John A. List and Jean Decety
PLoS One. 2015 Feb 6;10(2):e0117947. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0117947. eCollection 2015
Young children have long been known to act selfishly and gradually appear to become more generous across middle childhood. While this apparent change has been well documented, the underlying mechanisms supporting this remain unclear. The current study examined the role of early theory of mind and executive functioning in facilitating sharing in a large sample (N = 98) of preschoolers. Results reveal a curious relation between early false-belief understanding and sharing behavior. Contrary to many commonsense notions and predominant theories, competence in this ability is actually related to less sharing. Thus, the relation between developing theory of mind and sharing may not be as straightforward as it seems in preschool age children. It is precisely the children who can engage in theory of mind that decide to share less with others.
Do Natural Field Experiments Afford Researchers More or Less Control than Laboratory Experiments? A Simple Model
Al-Ubaydli, Omar and John A. List
A commonly held view is that laboratory experiments provide researchers with more "control" than natural field experiments, and that this advantage is to be balanced against the disadvantage that laboratory experiments are less generalizable. This paper presents a simple model that explores circumstances under which natural field experiments provide researchers with more control than laboratory experiments afford. This stems from the covertness of natural field experiments: laboratory experiments provide researchers with a high degree of control in the environment which participants agree to be experimental subjects. When participants systematically opt out of laboratory experiments, the researcher's ability to manipulate certain variables is limited. In contrast, natural field experiments bypass the participation decision altogether and allow for a potentially more diverse participant pool within the market of interest. We show one particular case where such selection is invaluable: when treatment effects interact with participant characteristics.
Estimating Individual Ambiguity Aversion: A Simple Approach
Gneezy, Uri, Alex Imas and John A. List
We introduce a simple, easy to implement instrument for jointly eliciting risk and ambiguity attitudes. Using this instrument, we structurally estimate a two-parameter model of preferences. Our findings indicate that ambiguity aversion is significantly overstated when risk neutrality is assumed. This highlights the interplay between risk and ambiguity attitudes as well as the importance of joint estimation. In addition, over our stakes levels we find no difference in the estimated parameters when incentives are real or hypothetical, raising the possibility that a simple hypothetical question can provide insights into an individuals preferences over ambiguity in such economic environments.
How to Make Experimental Economics Research More Reproducible: Lessons from Other Disciplines and a New Proposal
Maniadis, Zacharias, Fabio Tufano, and John A. List
In: CARY A. DECK, ENRIQUE FATAS and TANYA ROSENBLAT, eds., Replication in Experimental Economics 18. Emerald. 215-230
Efforts in the spirit of this special issue aim at improving the reproducibility of experimental economics, in response to the recent discussions regarding the "research reproducibility crisis." We put this endeavor in perspective by summarizing the main ways (to our knowledge) that have been proposed – by researchers from several disciplines – to alleviate the problem. We discuss the scope for economic theory to contribute to evaluating the proposals. We argue that a potential key impediment to replication is the expectation of negative reactions by the authors of the individual study, and suggest that incentives for having one's work replicated should increase.
Using Field Experiments to Change the Template of How We Teach Economics
List, John A
Journal of Economic Education, (2014), 45(2), pp. 81-89
In this article, the author explains why field experiments can improve what we teach and how we teach economics. Economists no longer operate as passive observers of economic phenomena. Instead, they participate actively in the research process by collecting data from field experiments to investigate the economics of everyday life. This change can be shown to students by presenting them with evidence from field experiments. Field experiments related to factor markets, behavioral economics, and discrimination are presented to explain how this approach works across different economic content. The three questions that are highlighted are the following: (1) Why do women get paid less than men in labor markets? (2) How can we use behavioral economics to motivate teachers? (3) What seven words can end third-degree price discrimination?
One Swallow Does not Make a Summer: New Evidence on Anchoring Effects
American Economic Review, (2014), 104 (1), pp. 277-290
Some researchers have argued that anchoring in economic valuations casts doubt on the assumption of consistent and stable preferences. We present new evidence that explores the strength of certain anchoring results. We then present a theoretical framework that provides insights into why we should be cautious of initial empirical findings in general. The model importantly highlights that the rate of false positives depends not only on the observed significance level, but also on statistical power, research priors, and the number of scholars exploring the question. Importantly, a few independent replications dramatically increase the chances that the original finding is true.
On the Generalizability of Experimental Results in Economics: With A Response To Camerer
In Frechette, G. & Schotter, A., Methods of Modern Experimental Economics, Oxford University Press, 2013
Economists are increasingly turning to the experimental method as a means to estimate causal effects. By using randomization to identify key treatment effects, theories previously viewed as untestable are now scrutinized, efficacy of public policies are now more easily verified, and stakeholders can swiftly add empirical evidence to aid their decision-making. This study provides an overview of experimental methods in economics, with a special focus on developing an economic theory of generalizability. Given that field experiments are in their infancy, our secondary focus pertains to a discussion of the various parameters that they identify, and how they add to scientific knowledge. We conclude that until we conduct more field experiments that build a bridge between the lab and the naturally-occurring settings of interest we cannot begin to make strong conclusions empirically on the crucial question of generalizability from the lab to the field.
Field Experiments in Labor Economics
List, John A. and Imran Rasul
Chapter 2 in Handbook of Labor Economics Volume 4a, O. Ashenfelter and D. Card (editors), Elsevier, 2011, pp104-228
We overview the use of field experiments in labor economics. We showcase studies that highlight the central advantages of this methodology, which include: (i) using economic theory to design the null and alternative hypotheses; (ii) engineering exogenous variation in real world economic environments to establish causal relations and learning about the underlying mechanisms; and (iii) engaging in primary data collection and often working closely with practitioners. To highlight the potential for field experiments to inform issues in labor economics, we organize our discussion around the individual life cycle. We therefore consider field experiments related to the accumulation of human capital, the demand and supply of labor, behavior within firms, and close with a brief discussion of the nascent literature of field experiments related to household decision-making.
Why Economists Should Conduct Field Experiments and 14 Tips for Pulling One Off
John A. List
Journal of Economic Perspectives,(2011), 25(3), pp. 3-16
In this introduction to the symposium, I first offer an overview of the spectrum of experimental methods in economics, from laboratory experiments to the field experiments that are the subject of this symposium. I then offer some thoughts about the potential gains from doing economic research using field experiments and my own mental checklist of 14 steps to improve the chances of carrying out an economics field experiment successfully.
Was There Really a Hawthorne Effect at the Hawthorne Plant? An Analysis of the Original Illumination Experiments
Steven D. Levitt and John A. List
American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 3 (January 2011): 224–238
The "Hawthorne effect" draws its name from a landmark set of studies conducted at the Hawthorne plant in the 1920s. The data from the first and most influential of these studies, the "Illumination Experiment," were never formally analyzed and were thought to have been destroyed. Our research has uncovered these data. Existing descriptions of supposedly remarkable data patterns prove to be entirely fictional. We do find more subtle manifestations of possible Hawthorne effects. We also propose a new means of testing for Hawthorne effects based on excess responsiveness to experimenter- induced variations relative to naturally occurring variation.
The Nature of Excess: Using Randomized Treatments to Investigate Price Dynamics
Al-Ubaydli, Omar, Michael K. Price and John A. List
This study explores empirically the price dynamics within two distinct market institutions – a double oral auction, which resembles modern asset markets, and a bilateral exchange market, which represents markets that have existed for centuries. To provide a theoretical basis to our investigation, we test and compare the excess supply model (Walras (1874, 1877, 1889, 1896)) and the excess rent model (Smith (1962, 1965)) in both market institutions. Our approach is unique in that we make use of appropriate demand and supply systems coupled with randomization of the main treatment variable to discriminate between the theories. All previous efforts, including Smith's (1965) seminal experiments, use designs that cannot appropriately parse the models. We report several insights, perhaps most importantly, we consistently reject the Walrasian model in favor of the excess rent model, regardless of market institution. This finding has important implications both positively and normatively.
The IRB Is Key in Field Experiments
Science, (2009), 323(5915), pp. 713-714.
As my letter suggests Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) are a necessary condition and serve an invaluable role; I wrote, 'Local Data sharing. Shared data will only be useful if complete information about the original study design is also available. Research Ethics Committees and Institutional Review Boards in the United States serve an important role in monitoring such activi- ties.' All of my research has IRB approval, and I suspect from W. R. Lovallo's concerns that he and I agree on all aspects of subject approval. In my own research, I have been even more stringent than IRB require- ments—I do not deceive subjects and always ensure that they are better off due to my experiment. These conditions are certainly not a constraint in all, or even many, IRBs that I am aware of.
Introduction to field experiments in economics
Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, (2009), 70(3), pp. 439-442.
The major empirical challenge for economists is going beyond correlational analysis to provide insights on causation. While economics has been served well by using precise models and econometric techniques for answering causal questions using variations in naturally occurring data, an important recent development to provide insights on causation is the expand- ing use of controlled laboratory experimentation. Under this approach, identification of causation is typically achieved via randomization. In this manner, randomization is an instrumental variable that is exogenous by definition.
Homo experimentalis Evolves
Homo economicus Evolves
Levitt, Steven D. and John A. List
The discipline of economics is built on the shoulders of the mythical species Homo economicus. Unlike his uncle, Homo sapiens, H. economicus is unswervingly rational, completely selfish, and can effortlessly solve even the most difficult optimization problems. This rational paradigm has served economics well, providing a coherent framework for modeling human behavior. However, a small but vocal movement in economics has sought to dethrone H. economicus, replacing him with someone who acts "more human." This insurgent branch, commonly referred to as behavioral economics, argues that actual human behavior deviates from the rational model in predictable ways. Incorporating these features into economic models, proponents argue, should improve our ability to explain observed behavior.
So you want to run an experiment, now what? Some Simple Rules of Thumb for Optimal Experimental Design
List, J.A., S. Sadoff, M. Wagner
NBER working paper 15701 (2008)
Experimental economics represents a strong growth industry. In the past several decades the method has expanded beyond intellectual curiousity, now meriting consideration alongside the other more traditional empirical approaches used in economics. Accompanying this growth is an influx of new experimenters who are in need of straightforward direction to make their designs more powerful. This study provides several simple rules of thumb that researchers can apply to improve the efficiency of their experimental designs. We buttress these points by including empirical examples from the literature.
Field Experiments
List, John A. and David Reiley
The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, Steven N. Durlauf and Lawrence E. Blume, eds., Palgrave Macmillan Publishing, (2008).
Field experiments provide a meeting ground between these two broad approaches to empirical economic science. By examining the nature of field experiments, we seek to make it a common ground between researchers.
Naturally Occurring Markets and Exogenous Laboratory Experiments: A Case Study of the Winner's Curse
Harrison, Glenn W. and John A. List
Economic Journal, (2008), 118(528), pp. 822-843.
We examine the relevance of experimental findings from laboratory settings that abstract from the field context of the task that theory purports to explain. Using common value auction theory as our guide, we identify naturally occurring settings in which one can test the theory. Experienced agents bidding in familiar roles do not fall prey to the winner's curse. Yet, experienced agents fall prey to the winner's curse when bidding in an unfamiliar role. We conclude that the theory predicts field behaviour well when one is able to identify naturally occurring field counterparts to the key theoretical conditions.
Introduction to field experiments in economics with applications to the economics of charity
Experimental Economics, (2008), 11(3), pp. 203-212.
This special issue highlights an empirical approach that has increasingly grown in prominence in the last decade—field experiments. While field experiments can be used quite generally in economics—to test theories' predictions, to measure key parameters, and to provide insights into the generalizability of empirical results— this special issue focuses on using field experiments to explore questions within the economics of charity. The issue contains six distinct field experimental studies that investigate various aspects associated with the economics of charitable giving. The issue also includes a fitting tribute to one of the earliest experimenters to depart from traditional lab methods, Peter Bohm, who curiously has not received deep credit or broad acclaim. Hopefully this issue will begin to rectify this oversight.
Informed Consent in Social Science
Science, (2008), 322(5902), p. 672.
As my perspective made clear, there are several types of field experiments. In some, subjects are made aware that they are taking part in an experiment and sign consent forms in the spirit of the guidelines of the Nuremberg code. There are, however, certain cases in which adhering to rigid ethical rules can affect the very issue that is being studied, such that it becomes quite difficult to conduct the research (1, 2). For example, if one were interested in exploring whether, and to what extent, race or gender influences the prices that buy- ers pay for used cars, it would be difficult to measure accurately the degree of discrimination among used car dealers who know that they are taking part in an experiment.
Viewpoint: On the generalizability of lab behaviour to the field
Canadian Journal of Economics, (2007), 40(2), pp. 347-370.
We can think of no question more fundamental to experimental economics than understanding whether, and under what circumstances, laboratory results generalize to naturally occurring environments. In this paper, we extend Levitt and List (2006) to the class of games in which financial payoffs and 'doing the right thing' are not necessarily in conflict. We argue that behaviour is crucially linked to not only the preferences of people, but also the properties of the situation. By doing so, we are able to provide a road map of the psychological and economic properties of people and situations that might interfere with generalizability of laboratory result from a broad class of games.
What do Laboratory Experiments Measuring Social Preferences Reveal About the Real World
Journal of Economic Perspectives, (2007), 21(2), pp. 153-174.
Economists have increasingly turned to the experimental model of the physical sciences as a method to understand human behavior. Peer- reviewed articles using the methodology of experimental economics were almost nonexistent until the mid-1960s and surpassed 50 annually for the first time in 1982; and by 1998, the number of experimental papers published per year exceeded 200 (Holt, 2006). Lab experiments allow the investigator to influence the set of prices, budget sets, information sets, and actions available to actors, and thus measure the impact of these factors on behavior within the context of the labora- tory. The allure of the laboratory experimental method in economics is that, in principle, it provides ceteris paribus observations of individual economic agents, which are otherwise difficult to obtain.
On the Interpretation of Giving in Dictator Games
Journal of Political Economy, (2007), 115(3), pp. 482-494.
The dictator game represents a workhorse within experimental economics, frequently used to test theory and to provide insights into the prevalence of social preferences. This study explores more closely the dictator game and the literature's preferred interpretation of its meaning by collecting data from nearly 200 dictators across treatments that varied the action set and the origin of endowment. The action set variation includes choices in which the dictator can 'take' money from the other player. Empirical results question the received interpretation of dictator game giving: many fewer agents are willing to transfer money when the action set includes taking. Yet, a result that holds regardless of action set composition is that agents do not ubiquitously choose the most selfish outcome. The results have implications for theoretical models of social preferences, highlight that 'institutions' matter a great deal, and point to useful avenues for future research using simple dictator games and relevant manipulations.
Field Experiments: A Bridge between Lab and Naturally Occurring Data
The B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy, (2006), 6(2 – Advances), Article 8.
Laboratory experiments have been used extensively in economics in the past several decades to lend both positive and normative insights into a myriad of important economic issues. This study discusses a related approach that has increasingly grown in prominence of late-field experiments. I argue that field experiments serve as a useful bridge between data generated in the lab and empirical studies using naturally-occurring data. In discussing this relationship, I highlight that field experiments can yield important insights into economic theory and provide useful guidance to policymakers. I also draw attention to an important methodological contribution of field exper- iments: they provide an empirical account of behavioral principles that are shared across different domains. In this regard, at odds with conventional wisdom, I argue that representativeness of the environment, rather than representative of the sampled population, is the most crucial variable in determining generalizability of results for a large class of experimental laboratory games.
Putting Behavioral Economics to Work: Testing for Gift Exchange in Labor Markets Using Field Experiments
Gneezy, Uri and John A. List
Econometrica, (2006), 74(5), pp. 1365- 1384.
Recent discoveries in behavioral economics have led scholars to question the under-pinnings of neoclassical economics. We use insights gained from one of the most influential lines of behavioral research-gift exchange-in an attempt to maximize worker effort in two quite distinct tasks: data entry for a university library and door-to-door fundraising for a research center. In support of the received literature, our field evidence suggests that worker effort in the first few hours on the job is considerably higher in the 'gift' treatment than in the 'nongift' treatment. After the initial few hours, however, no difference in outcomes is observed, and overall the gift treatment yielded inferior aggregate outcomes for the employer: with the same budget we would have logged more data for our library and raised more money for our research center by using the market-clearing wager at her than by trying to induce greater effort with a gift of higher wages.
Experimental approaches to public economics: guest editors' introduction
Andreoni, James, and John A. List
Journal of Public Economics, (2005), 89(8), pp. 1355-1359.
Standard applications of utility theory assume that utility depends solely on outcomes and not on causes. This study uses a field experiment conducted in the Netherlands to determine if alternative causes of an environmental problem affect willingness to pay to ameliorate it. We find evidence supporting the hypothesis that people are willing to pay significantly more to correct problems caused by humans than by nature (the 'outrage effect'), but find no support for the hypothesis that 'moral responsibility' matters. We also find support for the hypothesis that stated willingness to pay values obtained via 'cheap talk' and 'consequential' treatments are lower than without inclusion of these protocols.
Young, Selfish, and Male: Field Evidence of Social Preferences
List, John A.,
This study examines social preferences in three distinct field environments. In the first field setting, I allow consumers of all age and education levels to participate in one-shot and multiple-shot public goods games in a well-functioning marketplace. The second field study, an actual university capital campaign, gathers data from mail solicitations sent to 2,000 Central Florida residents. In the third field experiment, I examine data from an uncontrolled environment, a television game show, which closely resembles the classic prisoner's dilemma game. Several insights emerge; perhaps the most provocative is that age and social preferences appear linked.
The Hidden Costs and Returns of Incentives – Trust and Trustworthiness among CEOs
Fehr, Ernst and List, John A.
Journal of the European Economic Association, (2004), 2(5), pp. 743-771.
We examine experimentally how Chief Executive Officers (CEOs) respond to incentives and how they provide incentives in situations requiring trust and trustworthiness. As a control we compare the behavior of CEOs with the behavior of students. We find that CEOs are considerably more trusting and exhibit more trustworthiness than students thus reaching substantially higher efficiency levels than students. Moreover we find that, for CEOs as well as for students, incentives based on explicit threats to penalize shirking backfire by inducing less trustworthy behavior, giving rise to hidden costs of incentives. However, the availability of penalizing incentives also creates hidden returns: if a principal expresses trust by voluntarily refraining from implementing the punishment threat, the agent exhibits significantly more trustworthiness than if the punishment threat is not available. Thus trust seems to reinforce trustworthy behavior. Overall, trustworthiness is highest if the threat to punish is available but not used, while it is lowest if the threat to punish is used. Paradoxically, however, most CEOs and students use the threat, CEOs use it less.
Do Explicit Warnings Eliminate the Hypothetical Bias in Elicitation Procedures? Evidence from Field Auctions for Sportscards
American Economic Review, (2001), 91(5), pp. 1498-1507.
The goal of environmental policy is to protect the well-being of humans and the ecosystems vital to human existence. Because benefit-cost analyses are now required at the federal level, and increasingly at the state level, much attention has been paid to the development of practical, credible approaches for estimating the benefits and costs of environmental programs. Although policy makers have a good handle on measuring the explicit costs associated with increased environmental protection, at present several disparate approaches are utilized to measure economic values of environmental goods and services. Arguably the most contentious of these approaches is the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM), which allows the researcher to measure the total value of the commodity in question (see Peter A. Diamond and Jerry A. Hausman's [1994] critical review). Chief amongst these concerns is whether hypothetical bias is inherent in CVM responses.
For more information about John List and his research or to reach Professor List, please contact:
dianas@uchicago.edu


text:
Brett Lernout News
Brett Lernout
(Right Defenseman) (RD) |
The Golden Knights signed Brett Lernout to a one-year, two-way contract.
Source: Vegas Golden Knights 07/14/19, 10:06 pm EST
Line Change
Lernout will be a healthy scratch on Saturday.
Source: Stu Cowan 12/30/17, 12:23 pm EST
Call up / Send down
The Canadiens have recalled Brett Lernout from Laval (AHL).
Lernout, 22, has just one goal and four assists (five points) in 30 games with Laval this season. He has never recorded a point in four career NHL games and has been recalled because both Shea Weber and David Schlemko were unable to make the road trip.
Source: Arpon Basu 12/27/17, 4:36 am EST
Lernout is expected to make his NHL debut on Friday.
Source: Stu Cowan 04/7/17, 8:57 am EST

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
1Compatibility issues
2Efficiency
2.1Processing time
3Processing issues
4For communication and storage
5In detail
5.1Eight-bit environments
5.2Seven-bit environments
5.3Compression schemes
5.4Historical: UTF-5 and UTF-6
5.5Not being seriously pursued
Comparison of Unicode encodings
(Redirected from UTF-5)
This article compares Unicode encodings. Two situations are considered: 8-bit-clean environments (which can be assumed), and environments that forbid use of byte values that have the high bit set. Originally such prohibitions were to allow for links that used only seven data bits, but they remain in some standards and so some standard-conforming software must generate messages that comply with the restrictions. Standard Compression Scheme for Unicode and Binary Ordered Compression for Unicode are excluded from the comparison tables because it is difficult to simply quantify their size.
Compatibility issues[edit]
A UTF-8 file that contains only ASCII characters is identical to an ASCII file. Legacy programs can generally handle UTF-8 encoded files, even if they contain non-ASCII characters. For instance, the C printf function can print a UTF-8 string, as it only looks for the ASCII '%' character to define a formatting string, and prints all other bytes unchanged, thus non-ASCII characters will be output unchanged.
UTF-16 and UTF-32 are incompatible with ASCII files, and thus require Unicode-aware programs to display, print and manipulate them, even if the file is known to contain only characters in the ASCII subset. Because they contain many zero bytes, the strings cannot be manipulated by normal null-terminated string handling for even simple operations such as copy.[a]
Therefore, even on most UTF-16 systems such as Windows and Java, UTF-16 text files are not common; older 8-bit encodings such as ASCII or ISO-8859-1 are still used, forgoing Unicode support; or UTF-8 is used for Unicode. One rare counter-example is the "strings" file used by macOS (Mac OS X 10.3 Panther and later) applications for lookup of internationalized versions of messages which defaults to UTF-16, with "files encoded using UTF-8 ... not guaranteed to work."[1]
XML is, by convention, encoded as UTF-8, and all XML processors must at least support UTF-8 (including US-ASCII by definition) and UTF-16.[2]
Efficiency[edit]
UTF-8 requires 8, 16, 24 or 32 bits (one to four bytes) to encode a Unicode character, UTF-16 requires either 16 or 32 bits to encode a character, and UTF-32 always requires 32 bits to encode a character. The first 128 Unicode code points, U+0000 to U+007F, used for the C0 Controls and Basic Latin characters and which correspond one-to-one to their ASCII-code equivalents, are encoded using 8 bits in UTF-8, 16 bits in UTF-16, and 32 bits in UTF-32.
The next 1,920 characters, U+0080 to U+07FF (encompassing the remainder of almost all Latin-script alphabets, and also Greek, Cyrillic, Coptic, Armenian, Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac, Tāna and N'Ko), require 16 bits to encode in both UTF-8 and UTF-16, and 32 bits in UTF-32. For U+0800 to U+FFFF, i.e. the remainder of the characters in the Basic Multilingual Plane (BMP, plane 0, U+0000 to U+FFFF), which encompasses the rest of the characters of most of the world's living languages, UTF-8 needs 24 bits to encode a character, while UTF-16 needs 16 bits and UTF-32 needs 32. Code points U+010000 to U+10FFFF, which represent characters in the supplementary planes (planes 1–16), require 32 bits in UTF-8, UTF-16 and UTF-32.
Therefore a file is shorter in UTF-8 than in UTF-16 if there are more ASCII code points than there are code points in the range U+0800 to U+FFFF. A surprising result is that real-world documents written in languages that use characters only in the high range are still often shorter in UTF-8, due to the extensive use of spaces, digits, punctuation, newlines, html markup, and embedded words and acronyms written with Latin letters.[3] UTF-32 is always longer unless there are no code points less than U+10000.
All printable characters in UTF-EBCDIC use at least as many bytes as in UTF-8, and most use more, due to a decision made to allow encoding the C1 control codes as single bytes. For seven-bit environments, UTF-7 is more space efficient than the combination of other Unicode encodings with quoted-printable or base64 for almost all types of text (see "Seven-bit environments" below).
Processing time[edit]
Text with variable-length encoding such as UTF-8 or UTF-16 is harder to process if there is a need to work with individual code units, as opposed to working with sequences of code units. Searching is unaffected by whether the characters are variable sized, since a search for a sequence of code units does not care about the divisions (it does require that the encoding be self-synchronizing, which both UTF-8 and UTF-16 are). A common misconception is that there is a need to "find the nth character" and that this requires a fixed-length encoding; however, in real use the number n is only derived from examining the n−1 characters, thus sequential access is needed anyway.[citation needed] UTF-16BE and UTF-32BE are big-endian, UTF-16LE and UTF-32LE are little-endian.
When character sequences in one endian order are loaded onto a machine with a different endian order, the characters need to be converted before they can be processed efficiently (or two processors are needed). Byte-based encodings such as UTF-8 do not have this problem.
Processing issues[edit]
For processing, a format should be easy to search, truncate, and generally process safely. All normal Unicode encodings use some form of fixed size code unit. Depending on the format and the code point to be encoded, one or more of these code units will represent a Unicode code point. To allow easy searching and truncation, a sequence must not occur within a longer sequence or across the boundary of two other sequences. UTF-8, UTF-16, UTF-32 and UTF-EBCDIC have these important properties but UTF-7 and GB 18030 do not.
Fixed-size characters can be helpful, but even if there is a fixed byte count per code point (as in UTF-32), there is not a fixed byte count per displayed character due to combining characters. Considering these incompatibilities and other quirks among different encoding schemes, handling unicode data with the same (or compatible) protocol throughout and across the interfaces (e.g. using an API/library, handling unicode characters in client/server model, etc.) can in general simplify the whole pipeline while eliminating a potential source of bugs at the same time.
UTF-16 is popular because many APIs date to the time when Unicode was 16-bit fixed width (referred as UCS-2). However, using UTF-16 makes characters outside the Basic Multilingual Plane a special case which increases the risk of oversights related to their handling. That said, programs that mishandle surrogate pairs probably also have problems with combining sequences, so using UTF-32 is unlikely to solve the more general problem of poor handling of multi-code-unit characters.
If any stored data is in UTF-8 (such as file contents or names), it is very difficult to write a system that uses UTF-16 or UTF-32 as an API. This is due to the oft-overlooked fact that the byte array used by UTF-8 can physically contain invalid sequences. For instance, it is impossible to fix an invalid UTF-8 filename using a UTF-16 API, as no possible UTF-16 string will translate to that invalid filename. The opposite is not true: it is trivial to translate invalid UTF-16 to a unique (though technically invalid) UTF-8 string, so a UTF-8 API can control both UTF-8 and UTF-16 files and names, making UTF-8 preferred in any such mixed environment. An unfortunate but far more common workaround used by UTF-16 systems is to interpret the UTF-8 as some other encoding such as CP-1252 and ignore the mojibake for any non-ASCII data.
For communication and storage[edit]
UTF-16 and UTF-32 do not have endianness defined, so a byte order must be selected when receiving them over a byte-oriented network or reading them from a byte-oriented storage. This may be achieved by using a byte-order mark at the start of the text or assuming big-endian (RFC 2781). UTF-8, UTF-16BE, UTF-32BE, UTF-16LE and UTF-32LE are standardised on a single byte order and do not have this problem.
If the byte stream is subject to corruption then some encodings recover better than others. UTF-8 and UTF-EBCDIC are best in this regard as they can always resynchronize after a corrupt or missing byte at the start of the next code point; GB 18030 is unable to recover until the next ASCII non-number. UTF-16 can handle altered bytes, but not an odd number of missing bytes, which will garble all the following text (though it will produce uncommon and/or unassigned characters).[b] If bits can be lost all of them will garble the following text, though UTF-8 can be resynchronized as incorrect byte boundaries will produce invalid UTF-8 in almost all text longer than a few bytes.
In detail[edit]
The tables below list the number of bytes per code point for different Unicode ranges. Any additional comments needed are included in the table. The figures assume that overheads at the start and end of the block of text are negligible.
N.B. The tables below list numbers of bytes per code point, not per user visible "character" (or "grapheme cluster"). It can take multiple code points to describe a single grapheme cluster, so even in UTF-32, care must be taken when splitting or concatenating strings.
Eight-bit environments[edit]
Code range (hexadecimal)
UTF-EBCDIC
GB 18030
000000 – 00007F 1 2 4 1 1
000080 – 00009F 2 2 for characters inherited from
GB 2312/GBK (e.g. most
Chinese characters) 4 for
0000A0 – 0003FF 2
000400 – 0007FF 3
000800 – 003FFF 3
004000 – 00FFFF 4
010000 – 03FFFF 4 4 4
Seven-bit environments[edit]
This table may not cover every special case and so should be used for estimation and comparison only. To accurately determine the size of text in an encoding, see the actual specifications.
UTF-8 quoted-
UTF-8 base64
UTF-16 q.-p.
UTF-16 base64
GB 18030 q.-p.
GB 18030 base64
graphic characters
(except U+003D "=") 1 for "direct characters" (depends on the encoder setting for some code points), 2 for U+002B "+", otherwise same as for 000080 – 00FFFF 1 1+1⁄3 4 2+2⁄3 1 1+1⁄3
00003D (equals sign) 3 6 3
control characters:
000000 – 00001F
and 00007F 1 or 3 depending on directness 1 or 3 depending on directness
000080 – 0007FF 5 for an isolated case inside a run of single byte characters. For runs 2+2⁄3 per character plus padding to make it a whole number of bytes plus two to start and finish the run 6 2+2⁄3 2–6 depending on if the byte values need to be escaped 4–6 for characters inherited from GB2312/GBK (e.g.
most Chinese characters) 8 for everything else. 2+2⁄3 for characters inherited from GB2312/GBK (e.g.
most Chinese characters) 5+1⁄3 for everything else.
000800 – 00FFFF 9 4
010000 – 10FFFF 8 for isolated case, 5+1⁄3 per character plus padding to integer plus 2 for a run 12 5+1⁄3 8–12 depending on if the low bytes of the surrogates need to be escaped. 5+1⁄3 8 5+1⁄3
Endianness does not affect sizes (UTF-16BE and UTF-32BE have the same size as UTF-16LE and UTF-32LE, respectively). The use of UTF-32 under quoted-printable is highly impractical, but if implemented, will result in 8–12 bytes per code point (about 10 bytes in average), namely for BMP, each code point will occupy exactly 6 bytes more than the same code in quoted-printable/UTF-16. Base64/UTF-32 gets 5+1⁄3 bytes for any code point.
An ASCII control character under quoted-printable or UTF-7 may be represented either directly or encoded (escaped). The need to escape a given control character depends on many circumstances, but newlines in text data are usually coded directly.
Compression schemes[edit]
BOCU-1 and SCSU are two ways to compress Unicode data. Their encoding relies on how frequently the text is used. Most runs of text use the same script; for example, Latin, Cyrillic, Greek and so on. This normal use allows many runs of text to compress down to about 1 byte per code point. These stateful encodings make it more difficult to randomly access text at any position of a string.
These two compression schemes are not as efficient as other compression schemes, like zip or bzip2. Those general-purpose compression schemes can compress longer runs of bytes to just a few bytes. The SCSU and BOCU-1 compression schemes will not compress more than the theoretical 25% of text encoded as UTF-8, UTF-16 or UTF-32. Other general-purpose compression schemes can easily compress to 10% of original text size. The general purpose schemes require more complicated algorithms and longer chunks of text for a good compression ratio.
Unicode Technical Note #14 contains a more detailed comparison of compression schemes.
Historical: UTF-5 and UTF-6[edit]
Proposals have been made for a UTF-5 and UTF-6 for the internationalization of domain names (IDN). The UTF-5 proposal used a base 32 encoding, where Punycode is (among other things, and not exactly) a base 36 encoding. The name UTF-5 for a code unit of 5 bits is explained by the equation 25 = 32.[4] The UTF-6 proposal added a running length encoding to UTF-5, here 6 simply stands for UTF-5 plus 1.[5] The IETF IDN WG later adopted the more efficient Punycode for this purpose.[6]
Not being seriously pursued[edit]
UTF-1 never gained serious acceptance. UTF-8 is much more frequently used.
The nonet encodings UTF-9 and UTF-18 were April Fools' Day RFC joke specifications, although UTF-9 is a functioning nonet Unicode transformation format, and UTF-18 is a functioning nonet encoding for all non-Private-Use code points in Unicode 12 and below, although not for Supplementary Private Use Areas or portions of Unicode 13 and later.
^ ASCII software not using null characters to terminate strings would handle UTF-16 and UTF-32 encoded files correctly (such files, if containing only ASCII-subset characters, would appear as normal ASCII padded with null characters), but such software is not common.
^ An even number of missing bytes in UTF-16, in contrast, will garble at most one character.
^ Apple Developer Connection: Internationalization Programming Topics: Strings Files
^ "Character Encoding in Entities". Extensible Markup Language (XML) 1.0 (Fifth Edition). W3C. 2008.
^ "UTF-8 Everywhere". utf8everywhere.org. Retrieved 28 August 2022.
^ Seng, James, UTF-5, a transformation format of Unicode and ISO 10646, 28 January 2000
^ Welter, Mark; Spolarich, Brian W. (16 November 2000). "UTF-6 - Yet Another ASCII-Compatible Encoding for ID". Internet Engineering Task Force. Archived from the original on 23 May 2016. Retrieved 9 April 2016.
^ Historical IETF IDN WG page
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text:
Home > Schools and Departments > School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences > News and events > Retrain the Brain: life after stroke and injury
Retrain the Brain: life after stroke and injury
There are more than a quarter of a million new cases of brain injury in the U.K. every year, whether as a result of stroke or head trauma. Stroke accounts for over 53,000 deaths a year in the U.K. - the third highest cause of death after heart disease and cancer - and over 450,000 people are severely disabled as a result of strokes. In addition, the effects of ageing will become an increasing concern as the number of elderly people accelerates dramatically over the next few decades.
We are addressing the physical and emotional effects of ageing so that our population can live longer in good health. Our new Centre for Virtual Reality (VR) Learning and Rehabilitation will transform lives by ensuring that once-debilitating injuries and disorders can be overcome, one step at a time.
Dr Michael Grey, Senior Lecturer in Neurorehabilitation "The research we do will help to develop more successful training and rehabilitation methods for disorders of movement and balance, thus improving quality of life more quickly."
When people suffer brain injuries, it can be too traumatic or dangerous to be adequately treated in the real world - a world of moving traffic, uneven surfaces, physical obstacles, and unseen but immense psychological and emotional pressures. The new VR Centre will allow people to be treated in a fully controlled environment and will provide important research that underpins treatment all over the world.
Our Centre for Virtual Reality Learning and Rehabilitation will be the only one of its kind in Europe, and one of only three such facilities in the world. It will include an immersive, multi-sensory dome in which we can study and develop effective rehabilitation methods in safe and entirely controllable, virtual reality environments. Here patients can perform complex motor activities under the supervision and guidance of our neurological experts, safely taking the first steps in their recovery, from virtual to reality.
Find out how you can help support this VR Neurorehabiltation initiative.
We would like to acknowledge Motek Medical, who have allowed us to use their image of the Computer Assisted Rehabilitation Environment (CAREN) system.
Related schools
School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences
Centre for Computational Neuroscience and Cognitive Robotics (CNCR)
Take a virtual tour of one of our research labs
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text:
https://www.heraldandnews.com/news/modoc-apology-bill-passes-senate-on-to-house/article_f788a8a3-c71e-5f10-b8dd-6f3673c46175.html
Modoc apology bill passes Senate, on to House
by LEE JUILLERAT, Herald and News 4/04/19
A resolution commemorating the Modoc War of 1872-73, honoring those who lost their lives in the war and expressing regret for "the expulsion of the Modoc Tribe from their ancestral lands in Oregon" passed the Oregon Senate Tuesday and moves on to the State House.
However, an amendment to the resolution removed wording that had expressed "regret over the 1873 Modoc War execution of Kintpuash" (Captain Jack) and three other Modocs."
Proposed by State Sen. Fred Girod, R-Stayton, the resolution was approved by 24 senators. Four senators were excused from voting, including Sen. Dennis Linthicum, who represents the Southern Oregon region where the Modocs were held as prisoners and where the four were executed.
Girod reportedly sponsored the resolution after viewing "The Modoc War," a documentary produced by Oregon Public Broadcasting. The documentary dealt with Modoc War of 1872-73, one of the most expensive Indian wars in U.S. history and the only one in which a U.S. Army General, E.R.S. Canby, was killed.
"This tragic event in Oregon's history is relatively unknown," Girod said in a statement. "When I learned of the Modoc War and the history of the Modoc tribe in Oregon, I felt that we needed to do something to express regret and remember what happened. While this resolution may be coming nearly 150 years later, I hope that this acknowledgment serves as the catalyst for healing."
Most of the key battles were in California, including what is now Lava Beds National Monument, although Captain Jack and five others were tried and found guilty at Fort Klamath, then an Army post.
Following the hanging of Jack and Schonchin John, Black Jim and Boston Charley, the surviving Modocs were sent as prisoners of war to Indian Lands, which later became Oklahoma. The Modocs were later given permission to return to Oregon, with some doing so and becoming part of the Klamath Tribes. Others remained in Oklahoma, eventually being recognized as the Modoc Tribe of Oklahoma. In recent months, the group has rebranded itself as The Modoc Nation.
Two Modoc descendants who testified during a Senate Committee on Veterans and Emergency Preparedness, Cheewa James and Allen Nelson, expressed their thanks for the Senate's actions.
Cheewa James, an enrolled member of the Modoc Tribe of Oklahoma who lives in Roseville, Calif., and appeared in and consulted on the "Modoc War" documentary, thanks Girod. James termed the resolution "a gracious act, one deserving to those who have lived in the shadow of the Modoc War these many years. We are all humans and all involved in the war are in need of redemption for a terrible thing that happened years ago."
A former National Park Service ranger at Lava Beds National Monument, she has written two books about the Modoc War and people. Her great-grandparents and grandfather, an infant during the war, were among the 150 Modocs exiled to Oklahoma.
Nelson, an enrolled member of the Klamath Tribes, said the resolution recognizes the Modocs "were fighting to protect their families and their homeland just like anyone of us would do under those circumstances."
He termed the resolution "a step forward in the healing process for the spirit of our ancestors, the Modoc families, descendants and to all the people who have suffered and sacrificed their lives during that time ... The spirit of our Modoc ancestors will live on and all that was done was not in vain but for the Modoc people to live on."
Nelson, who lives in Salem and works as a trainer and consultant with tribes on historical trauma and the healing process, is related to Scarfaced Charley.
During the Senate hearing, a letter from Klamath Tribes Chairman Don Gentry was read. In part the letter said, "On behalf of the Klamath Tribes, the Klamath, Modoc and Yahooskin Paiute people, I hereby express our overwhelming support of Senate Concurrent Resolution 12 ... Acknowledging the truth of wrongs done is a critical first step towards healing those affected."
According to a summary of the resolution's "essential features," it outlines Captain Jack's (Kintpuauh or Kientpoos) history and the 1864 treaty between the United States and the Modoc, Klamath and Yahooskin tribes.
The summary notes incidents during the Modoc War of 1872-73, including the battle in what is now known as Captain Jack's Stronghold that was decisively won by the Modocs.
It also notes that "during a truce period on April 11, 1873, a group of Modocs led by Kintpaush killed peace commissioner Rev. Eleazer Thomas and Gen. Edward Canby, the highest-ranking U.S. Army office to be killed during the Indians war."
The summary recounts Captain Jack's capture, the trial in which he and five other Modocs were found guilty of murdering Canby and Thomas and attacking others by a federal military court at Fort Klamath.
The resolution notes Jack, Charley were "the first Indians to be tried and executed by the federal government for war crimes." Before the hanging, the two others convicted, Brancho and Siolux, sentences were commuted to life imprisonment at Alcatraz.
In addition, the summary notes about 150 Modocs were "herded into rail cars and sent as prisoners of war to the Indian Territory (Oklahoma)" and in 1909 offered the opportunity to return to the Klamath Reservation, which was accepted by 29 Modocs.
Page Updated: Thursday April 04, 2019 04:52 PM Pacific


text:
Racial Disparities in Florida Threaten Infant Health
Joshua Ceballos
| Health |
Joshua Ceballos | December 2, 2020 | 8:00am
Florida has a far higher rate of uninsured women at childbearing age than much of the U.S.
Photo by Michael Anfang/Unsplash
Florida's high rate of premature births is alarming experts who warn of an infant health crisis in the state and the U.S. as a whole.
In its latest infant health report card, the March of Dimes found that Florida's preterm birth rate was 10.6 percent of all live births in 2019 — meaning more than one in ten babies in Florida was born prematurely. In Miami-Dade County, the preterm birth rate was 9.7 percent; the national rate was 10.2 percent.
Preterm births are one of the top causes of infant deaths, which is one reason the March of Dimes gave Florida a D+ on its report card.
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"The report card found that in Florida, 1,339 babies died before their first birthday. This is unacceptable," the nonprofit said in a press release.
March of Dimes CEO Stacey D. Stewart tells New Times that high preterm birth rates in Florida are driven by a number of factors affecting the health of mothers, including the large number of women who are uninsured, the lack of Medicaid coverage for maternity care, and the number of Florida counties that lack birthing-care centers.
The situation is even worse for women of color, according to the March of Dimes report. From 2016 to 2018, 13.9 percent of Black babies in Florida were born premature, compared to 9.1 percent of white babies and 9.1 percent of Hispanic babies.
Stewart says wealth disparity and systemic racism make Black mothers more vulnerable to health issues.
"A lot of women in poverty are at higher risk — they face more social determinants that don't help them to be healthy," Stewart says. "When we look at racial disparities, systemic racism has exacerbated these inequities."
According to the National Partnership for Women & Families, Black women in Florida working full-time are on average paid $20,862 less than white, non-Hispanic men; Hispanic women are paid $21,200 less. (White women are paid $9,691 less than their white male counterparts, on average.)
Stewart says because women generally earn less than men (and women of color in particular), they often can't afford medical insurance and avoid seeing doctors altogether. Florida has a far higher rate of uninsured women at childbearing age than much of the U.S., with 18.8 percent of women between the ages of 15 and 44 in Florida living without insurance, compared to an average of 11.9 percent of women in the U.S.
"For some women, when they find out they're pregnant might be first time they see a doctor at all," Stewart says.
If Florida wants to improve the lives of mothers and babies and ensure the health of newborns, Stewart adds, it will take institutional change — which the March of Dimes is pushing for.
"The biggest thing we can do is push for policy change. Millions of women are uninsured, and we stand out as a country that leaves people to fend for themselves," Stewart says. "We need to expand Medicaid, offer high-quality healthcare irrespective of how much you make, and not just cut women off once they give birth."
Other changes, she says, should be aimed at tackling systemic racism in healthcare to address the disparity with women of color having more preterm births.
"We've heard from women of color that they feel unheard and disrespected by healthcare providers. Any healthcare provider with implicit bias should not have that bias interfere with their ability to deliver healthcare," Stewart argues.
Joshua Ceballos is staff writer for Miami New Times. He is a Florida International University alum and a born-and-bred Miami boy.
Twitter: @JoshCeb
Instagram: joshceb


text:
Dante Aeronautical reveals roadmap for electric Cessna alongside Air Nostrum and Volotea
Spanish electric aircraft developer Dante Aeronautical intends to fly its first prototype within three years – a Cessna Grand Caravan converted to use both hydrogen fuel cells and battery power – in a project also involving regional carriers Air Nostrum and Volotea.
Under its plans, the aircraft will use the fuel cell system during the cruise, complemented by batteries for the take-off and climb phases.
Source: Dante Aeronautical
Project envisions building range of electric-powered aircraft
Dante believes that it can secure supplemental type certification for the modification to allow service entry in 2024 or 2025.
While the identity of the battery and fuel cell suppliers have not been disclosed, the programme builds on work the company is carrying out for Australian operator Sydney Seaplanes, which sees the installation of batteries and a Magnix Magni650 electric motor on a Caravan amphibian.
"As we are using a common platform with the same electric motor both developments should share multiple common elements, therefore benefiting from each other," says Dante.
Projections suggest missions above 107nm (200km) with nine passengers on board will be achievable, the company says, although initial services may begin with less range or payload.
Air Nostrum, via its engineering and maintenance unit, will perform the conversion work on the prototype, while Volotea will provide the aircraft and support flight tests.
Initial effort will focus on electrification of Cessna Grand Caravan
Dante has applied to Spain's CDTI agency for research and development funding for the initiative.
Also involved in the project are other Spanish entities such as artificial intelligence specialist Databeacon, consultancy CT Engineering and national research bodies CIDAUT (transport and energy) and CIDETEC (energy storage).
"We started our collaboration with Dante Aeronautical back in 2019 and are very proud to see how the project has grown and gained momentum with the support of new partners, including several Spanish technology companies," says Carlos Munoz, Volotea founder and chief executive.
"The development of an electric aircraft using hydrogen battery technology will reduce carbon emissions. It makes complete sense for Volotea to support this project since it's completely in line with our goal of connecting underserviced cities and doing so in ways that are more sustainable."
Carlos Bertomeu, chief executive of Air Nostrum, adds: "As a leading regional airline, Air Nostrum clearly had much to contribute to this exciting project, especially in regards to sustainability, which is something that we have been working on for many years."
Dante also has plans for an all-electric 19-seater conversion, "with two or three options" under consideration. But ultimately it plans to develop a clean-sheet aircraft called the DAX-19, which will arrive by the end of the decade.
Aircraft programmes
Airbus hunts for talent in recruitment drive to support sustainability strategy
Airbus is looking to recruit around 6,000 new personnel across the aerospace group to support its strategic direction during the recovery. The company had slashed its workforce as the pandemic disrupted its aircraft production but it is preparing to accelerate output over the next 18 months. Airbus is also implementing ...


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text:
SBU News > Stony Brook Matters > Athletics > Eight alumni inducted into Stony Brook Athletics Hall of Fame
AthleticsStony Brook Matters
Eight alumni inducted into Stony Brook Athletics Hall of Fame
Nick Tropeano, above, will join the major league roster for the Houston Astros for the rest of the 2014 season. PHOTO COURTESY OF AMERICA EAST
Stony Brook Athletics inducted eight new members into the Rita & Kurt Eppenstein Athletics Hall of Fame on Friday.
The 17th class is the largest to be inducted in the university's history. The ceremony is the third since its hiatus in 2006 and was held in the Island Federal Credit Union Arena Atrium in front of family, friends and former teammates.
This year's class includes Baseball alumni and current Los Angeles Angels teammates Nick Tropeano and Tyler Johnson, Men's Lacrosse alumnus Jordan McBride, Women's Basketball alumna Jessica Smith, Men's Basketball alumnus Mel Walker, Volleyball alumna Sarah Boeckel, Football alumnus David Bamiro and legendary Football coach Sam Kornhauser.
Tropeano had a tenacity on the field like few other freshmen did in 2009. He made effective use of his 14 appearances by recording 50 strikeouts in 58 innings.
"Coming in as a freshman I was looking for an opportunity to play," Tropeano said. "It was one of my main things and for [head coach Matt Senk], his philosophy was 'the best guys will play.' And that drove me over to coming here."
The following season, he led the conference with 106 strikeouts and ranked 22nd in the country with a total earned run average of 2.44, numbers that resulted in him being named the America East Co-Pitcher of the Year. Tropeano had a formidable 2011 campaign by setting team and conference records with 12 victories and a 1.84 ERA, and became the first player to earn two conference Pitcher of the Year awards. He was also named to the Louisville Slugger second team All-American and one of 25 finalists for the College Baseball Hall of Fame Pitcher of the Year.
Tropeano elected to skip his senior year and was drafted by the Houston Astros in the fifth round of the 2011 MLB Draft. He made his major league debut on Sept. 10, 2014 and struck out five batters while giving up two runs in five innings en route to a 5-2 victory over the Seattle Mariners. Tropeano was traded to the Angels during the offseason and remains with the team today.
"It was a little bit of a surprise at first," Tropeano said. "I never got traded before and I got a cup of coffee in the big leagues and didn't know how to take it. When it was all said and done, I was happy [the Angels] traded for me and wanted me."
Tropeano was inducted alongside his teammate for three years and Stony Brook's all-time leader in victories, Tyler Johnson. Johnson played an essential role on the mound in the team's 2012 "Shock the World" NCAA Tournament run by holding the No.1-ranked LSU Tigers to one unearned run off three hits in a 3-1 victory. The senior finished with 12 conference victories, tying Tropeano for the school single-season record, and was selected by the Oakland Athletics in the 33rd round of the MLB draft.
Jessica Smith proved to be a dominant figure on both sides of the hardwood as the star forward/center for the women's basketball team. Smith ranked near the top of conference rankings in several categories and led the 2004-05 season with a field goal percentage of 54.5. She finished her career with 920 rebounds, 1,710 points and shot nearly 49 percent from the field.
Mel Walker served as one of the pioneers for the growth and success that the men's basketball team has earned throughout the years. Walker led the then-Division III Stony Brook Patriots to two straight Knickerbocker Conference championships in 1977 and 1978. He concluded his career with 1,226 points and holds the distinction of being the university's only men's basketball player to advance to the NCAA Tournament in every year he played.
Jordan McBride wasted no time showcasing his attacking prowess against opposing teams by leading the men's lacrosse team with 44 goals and 55 points in his 2008 rookie season. McBride was the first player to record 40 goals in three consecutive seasons and earned All-America East first team honors each season along with the Player of the Year honors in 2011. He was selected by the Colorado Mammoth as the 13th pick in the 2011 NLL draft.
Sarah Boeckel's ability to set up her teammates to score was second to none. Boeckel was the setter for the volleyball team as it converted to Division I play and was a catalyst for the team's early success, helping lead her teammates to two ECAC championships. She holds the school record for assists with 4,949.
David Bamiro proved he was a one-man wrecking crew from his very first collegiate game in 2001, injuring two different St. John's Red Storm quarterbacks with vicious sacks. Bamiro's intensity on the gridiron earned him 29 career sacks, which was a Stony Brook record that lasted for 11 years.
Bamiro credited much of his success to his coach and the final inductee of the ceremony, Sam Kornhauser. Kornhauser was the first Football head coach in the university's history and led it from Division III to Division I. He finished with 105 career victories and guided the Seawolves to their first-ever Northeast Conference title in 2005.
"When I first came to Stony Brook in 1984, I had felt that I had landed the best job in the country," Kornhauser said. "A job with meaning and purpose. How cool is it to be responsible for starting a Division III football program?"
— Kenneth Fermin
View original article on Stony Brook Statesman.
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Q: Correct way to pass the argument for the main method in this class in command line java Can arguments for a class be passed the following way?
java cs123.Learn -mode train -algorithm even_odd -model_file speech.even_odd.model -data speech.train -task classification

Here, cs123 is the package within which the different java files and their compiled versions are located. I have already compiled the .java files using the following command
javac -cp commons-cli-1.2.jar cs123\*.java

To make things clear, the structure of the .java and .jar files are
lib
|--cs362
|    |--all the java files including Learn.java
|--commons-cli-1.2.jar

I am running the command prompt from the lib folder. What worries me is that from java documentation and other sources the format for passing arguments is simply an array of strings and for options it can be seen from java documentation too. Using the above run time java execution, I get the
java.lang.ClassNotFoundException: org.apache.commons.cli.OptionBuilder

but if I execute,
java -cp commons-cli-1.2.jar cs123.Learn -mode train -algorithm even_odd -model_file speech.even_odd.model -data speech.train -task classification

I get the following error
Unrecognized option: -mode
Error: Could not create the Java Virtual Machine
Error: A fatal exception has occured. Program will exit.

I understand that java tries to associate anything with a - associated with it as a predefined option, -mode not being the one it recognizes. but at the same time the .jar file is there to do it's job. For research purposes, the commons-cli-1.2.jar file is associated with several methods, two of them being commons/cli/Option and commons/cli/OptionBuilder.
I am having to do this because the instruction is to run the program using
java cs123.Learn -mode train -algorithm even_odd -model_file speech.even_odd.model -data speech.train -task classification

A: I have made a test with commons-cli with the -mode in option. It compile and run as expected. So I can make sure with you that you can using that option.

I am standing in java folder to run the command, my folder structure:
java
|--upwork
|    |--Main.java
|--commos-cli-1.2.jar

For your problem: I see that your command only point classpath to commons-cli lib and not point to the location of your package. Refer to this answer your command should start with: java -cp .;commons-cli-1.2.jar ...
If this does not help, please upload your code to get help or you can create a simple test like mine to check this out.

A:
Can arguments for a class be passed the following way?

I don't think so for the good reason that what you're trying to pass with your "-naming" are program arguments. Program arguments are retrieved in your app with the String[] args of your main and in Java you don't have String index in arrays.
If you want to achieve what you want, you could still do it but you would have to implement the logic in your program. Firstly, you would need to get all the args in your program and then implement the logic by building a map for example and process this map.
As an example, you could say that if any argument (i.e args[0]) starts by "-" it means that it's a key for your map and that the following argument (i.e. args[1]) is the associated value.
Edit: I haven't used commons-cli and I may be completely wrong but from a quick research online, I think the library is offering you the logic to build commands to execute in command line once your application is running.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


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Q: swap problem in ubuntu 12.04 Having problem with swap. Actually, in the system monitor it shows swap is not available, and then I installed GParted partition editor.
There is a partition named /dev/sda7 and file system is linux-swap. I turned on swap from there and now everything becomes correct but when I reboot it is unable to persist the change. Again it is showing no swap in the system monitor.

A: Most likely the installation didn't added the swap partition to the fstab. This is easy to solve:

*

*Open a terminal and type sudo blkid:
sudo blkid
/dev/sda1: UUID="bf554a2f-a035-4c22-bca8-162def35a03c" TYPE="ext4"
/dev/sda2: UUID="3962db06-3776-4f38-8ab9-eab6feeccc1d" TYPE="ext4"
/dev/sdb1: UUID="AA64B45A64B42AC9" TYPE="ntfs"
/dev/sdb2: UUID="F66E431C6E42D551" TYPE="ntfs"
/dev/sdb3: UUID="75a0854b-8b6b-453f-8aec-2a081a1f19e3" TYPE="swap"
I've marked the swap partition. Save the UUID value.

*Edit the /etc/fstab file with whatever editor you like, but for efficiency sake I would tell you two methods:

*

*Open the file with an editor using sudo gedit or sudo vim or sudo nano, whichever you like/feel better, then type this lines at the end (be aware the I will be typing my owns since this is an example, you must change the UUID value)
UUID=75a0854b-8b6b-453f-8aec-2a081a1f19e3 none            swap    sw              0       0

*Using a one liner. Type the following in a terminal:
UUID="75a0854b-8b6b-453f-8aec-2a081a1f19e3"
sudo sh -c "echo $UUID 'none swap sw 0 0' >> /etc/fstab

*Now reboot your system, then type free:
             total       used       free     shared    buffers     cached
Mem:       1533744    1455700      78044          0      89548     690756
-/+ buffers/cache:     675396     858348
Swap:      1546232          0    1546232
As you can see, the total swap is not 0. Same should happen with the system monitor


Baroness Buscombe: I thank the Minister for his response. I am smiling to myself because I believe that we are about to discuss amendments which concern the concept of unsuitable versus suitable. I am disappointed that the Minister says that the Government accept the principle behind Amendment No. 258 but clearly it is unsuitable in its current form. However, I am grateful that the Minister assured me that the Government will table a suitable amendment at Report stage that we shall, I hope, be able to support.
I shall not detain the Committee at this late hour. I am clearly disappointed in relation to the Minister's response with regard to Part 3. As I say that, I look firmly towards the right reverend Prelate the Bishop of Manchester and the noble Baroness, Lady Howe. I thank them for their support for what I considered was a reasonable suggestion; namely, that, as stated in the White Paper, an appropriate review procedure within the regulator would look after the interests of those aggrieved by the provisions of Part 3. I urge the Government—I cannot put that strongly enough—to take that point away and reconsider what Members of the Committee including myself have said on that matter.
I depart most strongly from what the noble Lord, Lord Razzall, said with regard to judicial review in that instance. There are instances where judicial review is entirely appropriate but I believe that in the instance we are discussing it is not appropriate.
I thank the Minister for his extensive reply. There are a number of issues that I shall want to read with care in Hansard. I hope that the Government will bring forward an amendment that we can support. I am pleased that there are a number of principles in relation to other amendments where the Minister feels that there is some consensus. On that basis, I beg leave to withdraw the amendment.
Page 275, line 37, leave out "unsuitable" and insert "misleading, harmful or offensive"
The noble Lord said: I rise with some hesitation to speak to this amendment in the presence of the current chairman of the Advertising Standards Authority and in the presence of a former distinguished chairman of the same body.
Clause 312 gives objectives for Ofcom to set in its codes for programmes and advertising. My amendment seeks to replace the word "unsuitable", which appears to be a lovely portmanteau word which has been very popular today, with the terms "misleading, harmful or offensive". The merit that I claim for the words in my amendment is that they have the advantage of being concepts that already form the basis of the current ITC and Radio Authority codes of advertising standards and practice. Continuity and clarity will be very important.
Advertising is fairly well regulated in this country. It is done by a system of pre-clearance in broadcasting, because clearly advertisers do not want to go to the sometimes considerable expense of making an advert only to find that the basic concept will fall foul of the regulator. In television, we have the Broadcasting Advertising Clearance Centre, and in radio, we have the Radio Advertising Clearance Centre. Advertisers can come forward with an idea, clear it informally with the regulator, and go ahead and make the advert. In the case of television, that can be very expensive. In the case of radio, a commercial can be considerably less expensive.
Clearly it is very important that people know what they are taking about. "Misleading, harmful or offensive" are words that they have grown up with over the past 20 years. "Unsuitable" is a portmanteau word that is much wider than that, and will make for a lack of clarity, legal actions right, left and centre, and uncertainty. It is a bad idea, and we would be much better including the words in the amendment. I repeat that, if they were in the Bill, they would give Ofcom exactly the same powers as the ITC has at the moment. I beg to move.
Lord Borrie: I added my name to the amendment because I strongly feel that when Ofcom, under its duties in the Bill, is setting out standards and objectives under Clause 312, those objectives need to be more precisely stated in relation to advertising than the prevention of "unsuitable" advertising under subsection (2)(g).
"unsuitable" is capable of very wide interpretation and, if I may suggest it, misinterpretation. "Misleading, harmful or offensive" are more appropriate and precise words. Indeed, as my noble friend Lord Gordon of Strathblane said, they are concepts that are already in the ITC and Radio Authority codes.
I have a special interest as chairman of the Advertising Standards Authority, which is the self-regulatory body responsible for non-broadcast advertising. The code of advertising practice that we operate, like the codes of the Independent Television Commission and the Radio Authority, has precise criteria that give the much greater certainty appropriate for a creative business such as advertising than that of "unsuitable".
Furthermore, I should be most concerned if the broadcasting codes incorporated such a catch-all word. Surely we all understand that many advertising campaigns are increasingly run across several different platforms simultaneously. There would be extreme incoherence between broadcast and non-broadcast codes if "unsuitable" were used instead of something more precise, as the excellent amendment suggests.
Lord Thomson of Monifieth: I strongly support the amendment. I endorse the fact that "unsuitable" is very seriously unsuitable as a tool of advertising regulation. As the noble Lord, Lord Gordon, was kind enough to say, I speak from the experience of twice being an advertising regulator, once with the Advertising Standards Authority and once with the IBA. Although the backgrounds were a little different, the job of regulation of advertising was very much the same. I learnt in both roles that self-regulation was a great deal better than statutory regulation, provided that certain conditions can be fulfilled. Those are not necessarily always easy conditions. They were admirably set out by the noble Lord, Lord Currie, the chairman of Ofcom, in a speech to the Advertising Association's annual lunch. One critical condition for any self-regulatory system is that a sanction as fair and effective as possible should be attached to the regulation. In the old days, the ASA and the IBA had that. For that, as the noble Lord, Lord Borrie, has said, one needs clear, credible and precise language. The words "misleading", "harmful" and "offensive" are part of the dictionary of advertising regulation and are well held and well understood by those who have to operate them. They have a long history of use. "Unsuitable" is a very vague and inappropriate term to apply to advertising. It is not a good regulatory tool and it is so imprecise that is certainly susceptible to an immense amount of misinterpretation, leading to a great deal of confusion among the various interest groups concerned.
wording before us. It is clear, unambiguous, effective and easy to administer, so I hope that the Government will accept the amendment.
Baroness Howe of Idlicote: I rise briefly to support the amendment. "Unsuitable" is a very vague word. "Misleading, harmful or offensive" can be interpreted in a number of different ways, but they are a little sharper than the vague "unsuitable". "Misleading" is fairly clear. The timing of the broadcast and its audience are the criteria we took into account when I was at the Broadcasting Standards Commission and when we were considering any of the adverts which caused complaints—and there were quite a number of them. If they appeared during children's programmes and might have been perfectly acceptable for a slightly older audience, that was regarded as unacceptable. I am sure that the amendment is an improvement and I willingly support it.
Lord Puttnam: I rise briefly to support the amendment. It is correct. In order to be entirely even-handed, having attacked the use of the word "suitable" in Amendment No. 207, it seems entirely fair that I also attack the use of the word "unsuitable".
Baroness Buscombe: I rise more briefly than I had proposed to speak to the amendment but only because it has been so eloquently spoken to and supported by a number of noble Lords. My name and that of my noble friend Lord Saatchi have been added to it. We feel very strongly about the amendment. At the risk of some repetition, it may appear a small and inconsequential amendment, but it is regarded by the advertising industry as extremely important. It is surely significant that broadcasters and staff at the existing advertising regulators, the ITC and Radio Authority, also support the amendment.
The Government have not so far supported it. While the issue was briefly debated in Committee in another place and again at Second Reading in your Lordships' House, the reasons given for opposing the amendment have been questioned by the advertising industry again and again. I know that it has remained in touch with the Department for Culture, Media and Sport to try and make a difference. The argument that "unsuitable" is needed to give Ofcom the same wide-ranging powers that the ITC had under the 1990 Act is highly spurious. A comparison of the 1990 Act and the 2003 Bill demonstrates that Sections 8 and 9 of the 1990 Act are already separately and individually replicated in various clauses of the Bill—I refer to Clauses 312, 314 and 315. In other words, with or without the word "unsuitable", the Bill already gives Ofcom exactly the same powers as the ITC was given by the 1990 Act.
"misleading, harmful or offensive" have the advantage of being concepts that already form the basis of the current ITC and radio authority codes.
I have an interest in this regard. It is a very outdated interest but I was involved in the advertising industry back in the 1980s. The words "misleading, harmful and offensive" were well known and understood by everyone then, so why change it? It "ain't broke", so why try and fix it? I have been waiting a long time to declare a vested interest, albeit an outdated one, to join so many other noble Lords who have already done so. We urge the Government to support the amendment. It is important to the industry. If we do not receive a satisfactory reply this evening, we will return to the issue on Report, divide on it and win.


text:
In A Negotiation, Don't Just Say What They Want To Hear
Alexandra Dickinson Former Contributor
I write about how to use a negotiation mindset to achieve your goals.
Saying what they want to hear and hoping they buy it is not the only way.
Thinking about "me vs. them" is where you'll miss opportunities to create value.
If you've been in a negotiation and felt like saying what you really thought would automatically disqualify you from the opportunity you're discussing, you're not alone. Saying what they want to hear and hoping they buy it is not the only way.
I've been there, and many women I know have, too. I recently worked with a client who had just resigned from a full time position in order to start her own content business. Around the same time, she'd been aggressively recruited for a full time editorial role at a major retailer. The job would provide not only a competitive salary, but also the kind of resources and creative freedom that she'd long wished for at previous companies. And it would require her to relocate, though she was hoping to avoid moving.
They'd already signaled that they were open to compromising on location, and now she was going to ask to come on as a contractor rather than full time. She was afraid to ask for too much.
Her concern was that no matter how she spun it, all she really wanted to do was start her own business, and this job would only get in her way. On the other hand, it seemed like too good to pass on without at least trying to make it work.
"I don't want them to feel like I'm pulling a fast one on them," she said.
As women, we are socialized to wait for permission. Men apply for jobs when they meet 60% of the stated criteria, women apply for jobs when they meet 100%. Women are more likely to negotiate when the job description says "negotiable," whereas men will generally negotiate no matter what. We listen to the nagging voice in our heads that doubts our judgement and worries whether what we're asking for is too much. This is where cultivating a negotiation mindset can help.
I challenged my client to approach the situation from a creative problem solving standpoint. Could she look at her situation from another, more positive, angle? It sounded to me like she was moving along with her plans to start her own business when this opportunity came up, and it was so compelling that it gave her pause and made her reconsider her next move. They clearly thought she could add value to their team — they had recruited her and were willing to let her work remotely — so they might prefer to bring her on board as a contractor rather than go through a whole new search.
It's natural to think first about your own priorities and position. But part of the negotiation mindset is thinking earnestly about the issues from your counterpart's point of view. What are their top priorities and challenges, and how can you work together to find a solution that works for both of you? Thinking about "me vs. them" is where you'll miss opportunities to create value. If you don't know what their perspective is, it's as simple as asking questions until you understand where they're coming from. They'll appreciate your willingness to listen, and you'll likely get a better deal as a result of the conversation.
Follow me on Twitter or LinkedIn. Check out my website.
Alexandra Dickinson
Alexandra Dickinson is an entrepreneur who teaches people to negotiate. She's the founder and CEO of the boutique consulting company Ask For It. Ask For It was her side ...


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