text:
Resisting Law Enforcement's Siren Song: A Call for Cryptographers to Improve Trust and Security
By Cindy Cohn
Friday, November 30, 2018, 11:19 AM
This is part of a series of essays from the Crypto 2018 Workshop on Encryption and Surveillance.
The world is waking up to something that digital security experts have known for a very long time: Digital security is hard. Really hard. And the larger and more complex the systems, the more difficult it is to plug all the security holes and make them secure and trustworthy. Yet security is also increasingly important in systems ranging from the smartphones in our hands to our power grids. So why isn't everyone—especially the governments of the Five Eyes countries—promoting, supporting, and celebrating important security work? In part, it's because law enforcement in each of these countries wants to take advantage of the same security holes that criminals do—a result that puts us all at risk. Even worse, many of these governments are now pushing companies—both through both law and through nonlegal pressure—to ensure that any future technology that the public relies on continues to have security holes they (and criminals) can use.
The drumbeat of the daily headlines on cybersecurity incidents shows us that the risks of weak digital security are already here. We've heard about phishing attacks by foreign governments aimed at undermining our democracy and ransomware attacks on hospitals. We've seen nation-state level attacks on corporations like Sony and on sensitive government employee databases like the one maintained by the federal Office of Personnel Management. Corporate data breaches like the ones suffered by Equifax and Target have affected tens of millions of users. Countless others have suffered from identity theft, malware, and more recently, spouseware—malware used by domestic abusers. Meanwhile, we've seen more research proving how easy it is to break into many U.S. voting systems. The attacks and undermining strategies are different in each of these, but the underlying problem is the same: Our digital systems are not secure enough, and our current security techniques are not up to the task.
Creating systems of trust and real security for users should be all hands on deck, from government to the private sector. We need to encrypt the web, secure data at rest and in transit, and ensure that homes, cars and anything that can be connected to the internet are safe and trustworthy. The array of options is poor since security architects have to bolt security onto insecure systems. But that's all the more reason to encourage people who understand how computer security works (and how it fails) to help. After all, there are only so many hours in the day, and the more attention we pay to these problems, the faster and better we can address them.
It's not just individuals and private institutions who should be focusing on improving security for users, of course. Governments should be shouldering their responsibility for public safety by leading, incentivizing and, in places, even legally mandating real digital security for their increasingly vulnerable citizens.
But they are not. While the U.S. government has pushed hard to make sure that companies give them information about security problems—in the Department of Homeland Security's Information Sharing and Analysis Centers and in the Cybersecurity Information Sharing Act passed in 2015, for example—there has been very little information or tools coming back to protect the public as technology users. This is even as we're pushed into a world that increasingly relies on the internet for every facet of our daily lives. It's also as the consequences of losing control of our data grow larger and more dire. Digital networks are now increasingly coming into our homes and cars. There are pushes to move to online voting, to the horror of security experts. The vast majority of us carry our phones with us everywhere; with them comes access to a tremendous amount of intimate information about us, our loved ones and our business and personal associations, both stored on the device and accessible through them.
The government should generate, incentivize and support efforts to build a more secure and trustworthy internet, along with the devices and services that rely on it. Instead, law enforcement in the U.S. and elsewhere too often demonize companies and individuals that offer strong security and pressure them to offer worse tools, not better ones.
There's a history here. In the 1990s, the U.S. government nonsensically stuck with the Digital Encryption Standard (DES) long past the time when it was broken. In the 2000s, the NSA secretly placed security weaknesses in software we all rely on through a program called Bullrun. The government's goal has been to the preserve its ability to access any conversation or data of anyone around the world. But each time the government has tried to publicly mandate access, from the Clipper Chip in the 1990s to the more recent Burr-Feinstein "Compliance with Court Orders Act," it has failed. That's because citizens and companies want strong security and recognize the obvious fact: There's no way to weaken encryption for the government's purposes without weakening it in ways that lets bad guys in too.
Recently, we've seen a change in tactics by the governments of the U.S., Australia and the United Kingdom. Rather than the strategy that the FBI used in attacking Apple for offering strong encryption on the iPhone, these governments have shifted to promoting efforts to weaken our security in ways other than by weakening the encryption. One goal seems to be to convince the world's leading cryptographers and security researchers to "fix" the problem of strong security preventing governmental access by creating or using non-encryption security weaknesses. The end result is that the public is still insecure, just through different mechanisms so that the governments can crow about how they support strong encryption while still not supporting strong security. Sadly, some researchers are taking the bait. Several were featured at a workshop on technical and policy aspects of encryption and surveillance at this year's Crypto conference in Santa Barbara.
Why are these governments pushing in the direction of claiming to embrace strong encryption? The reason isn't technical; it's about a policy fight in Congress, in parliaments and in governmental agencies around the world. As hard as they've tried, law enforcement has not been able to overcome the overwhelming consensus of security experts—from academics, industry experts, even former government officials like Michael Chertoff and Michael Hayden—about the importance of strong encryption to digital security. Despite several years of pushing technologists to "nerd harder," there has not been a single serious security expert who thinks that we can build a system at scale that allows the government a way to break the encryption on networks and devices that doesn't leave all of us at risk to bad actors. Government reports and private reports alike agree on this.
So the governments are trying another tack. The push is to convince a few cryptographers and security experts—and they only need a few—to "fix" this problem by finding ways to access information secured by cryptography without actually breaking the cryptography. To date, these efforts all involve some quite clever ways to say "we support strong cryptography" by undermining the very reason that people want it in the first place, for security.
During the Crypto conference, the U.K. government described a basic strategy called a "ghost," although the better term is "stalker." The idea is to insert a secret participant into a conversation or create a secret "approved device" to connect to a targeted account or a device and obtain the sought data. So you as a user think you're just talking to a loved one, but the government is secretly listening to your conversation. Or you think you're just syncing data from your phone to your laptop, but your data is being copied to an unseen government device. The cryptography remains as it was, but the trust in the security of your system—that users know who is listening to their conversations or getting access to their data—is broken. The U.K. government has openly acknowledged that this "stalker" strategy is its preferred approach to eavesdropping on encrypted systems like WhatsApp and iMessage.
In a similar vein, the Crypto conference also included a few high-level technical presentations for "tainted update" systems. These rely on technology companies providing their users with compromised security and other updates. Most are variations on the old, discredited key-escrow ideas, some with hardware pieces along with software. The major shift is that companies rather than governments hold the keys.
None of these ideas—the new "stalker" idea or the old key escrow idea with some new window dressing—has been well-vetted, much less demonstrated on the scale that modern digital markets require. But aside from the technical concerns (and there are many), each of them turns on betraying the trust the public needs to have in the companies that provide us with our tools, including critical security updates. And we can be sure that if one of them is deployed, it will be in secret, with gag orders preventing the companies from informing their users, meaning that the bad guys may find it and begin secretly using it to steal from us without us ever knowing.
So why should security professionals resist the government's siren song? Why should they spend their time and energy answering the broader public need for trustworthy end-user security rather than responding to the government's desire for ensured access?
First, a practical reason. There are only so many hours in a day. Time spent undermining security, even if today's undermining is a little less dangerous than yesterday's, trades off with time spent making the internet safer. We urgently need to make the internet more secure for end users. While the security field is large, and thankfully, growing, the problems are also multiplying while growing more complex. The number of academics and thought leaders in security who tackle these issues broadly is still relatively small. Efforts that make us less secure, or less secure than we would otherwise be, are headed in the wrong direction, even if they aren't quite as bad as earlier ideas.
Second, regardless of how technically clever they are, these approaches cannot solve one of the key nontechnical problems with the law enforcement's wish for ensured access. Even without compromising the cryptography, there is no way to allow access for only the good guys (for instance, law enforcement with a Title III warrant) and not for the bad guys (hostile governments, commercial spies, thieves, harassers, bad cops and more). The NSA has had several incidents in just the past few years where it lost control of its bag of tricks, so the old government idea called NOBUS—that "nobody but us" could use these attacks—isn't grounded in reality. Putting the keys in the hands of technology companies instead of governments just moves the target for hostile actors. And it's unrealistic to expect companies to both protect the keys and get it right each time in their responses to hundreds of thousands of law enforcement and national security requests per year from local, state, federal and foreign jurisdictions. History has shown that it's only a matter of time before bad actors figure out how to co-opt the same mechanisms that good guys use—whether corporate or governmental—and become "stalkers" themselves.
Moreover, even assuming a "government only" strategy, if this access is created for the U.S., U.K. or Australian government, that capability will be demanded by China, Egypt, Turkey, Saudi Arabia and other governments with far less due process and other protections. The truth is that governments around the world have very different standards and practices for when they believe they should have access to private data. Yet a company having built this capability would find itself having to decide which of those standards are good ones and which are not, or else face the fact that they are facilitating human rights abuses and repression. Conceptually, before we can have a global technology infrastructure and global trade in technology that ensures access to communications and data, we need to come to global consensus about the circumstances in which communications privacy should be violated. No amount of technology can protect against this core legal and policy issue.
Third, these "ghost," "stalker" and "tainted update" approaches all undermine the trust that people need to have if we're ever going to get out of our current dismal security hole. Under it, users will rightfully worry that every change in their system might be undermining their security, secretly adding another listener into their conversations, secretly adding another device to their approved keychain or secretly siphoning copies of their data away. But security is a process, not an end state. Everyone using digital tools needs to be able to trust that the companies that create them are not working for one government or another (or many). Users especially need to be able take and apply security updates and other patches without fear. But all of these approaches compromise that trust. They turn our technology providers into secret governmental agents. The Big Brothers of any number of countries around the world won't just be watching us from afar: They will be in our very pockets.
Finally, this is fundamentally an attempt to shoehorn a policy debate into a technical question. Having failed to demonize cryptography, law enforcement wants to say that expert security professionals differ on the question of whether the government can preserve the ability to eavesdrop on every private, digital conversation without touching the cryptography. An initial proposal from Ray Ozzie along these lines, for instance, was greeted with an enthusiastic quote from law enforcement on Wired celebrating: "[T]he fact that someone with [Ozzie's] experience and understanding is presenting it." But the question of how much risk we should create for individuals—not to mention whether we can tolerate undermining the trust necessary for secure systems to function—in order to ensure ubiquitous eavesdropping capability is not fundamentally technical. It's a matter of policy. That's obvious from Ozzie's shrugging response to questions about how companies should handle responses from repressive governments.
People with digital security skills should be working to encrypt the web, secure our data whether at rest or in transit, ensure our homes, cars and anything that can be connected to the internet are safe and trustworthy. They shouldn't use those skills to undermine our security or try to find clever ways of undermining it just a little less.
In freeing up encryption from government regulation in the late 1990s, the Ninth Circuit recognized that our privacy was slipping away: "Whether we are surveilled by our government, by criminals, or by our neighbors, it is fair to say that never has our ability to shield our affairs from prying eyes been at such a low ebb." There's a strong argument to be made. that since then, our ability to protect our privacy has further eroded, taking our basic security along with it.
Security work is more important than ever. I urge our community to spend its time and talents making the digital world safer rather than demolishing what trust and security still remain in our technology, our devices, and our infrastructure.
Encryption,
Going Dark,
Privacy Paradox,
Crypto 2018 Workshop on Encryption and Surveillance
Cindy Cohn is the executive director of the Electronic Frontier Foundation.
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HomeFeatured PostsDholavira: Exploring the Ancient City
Dholavira: Exploring the Ancient City
Featured PostsGuidesIndiaGujaratWorld Heritage Sites
Dholavira is an ancient Indus Valley Civilization site located in the Kutch district of Gujarat, India. It is one of the largest and most well-preserved sites of the Indus Valley Civilization and has been identified as one of the five largest Harappan sites in India.
It was discovered in the 1960s and excavations have been ongoing since then. The site is believed to have been occupied from around 2900 BCE to 1900 BCE, during the mature Harappan period.
One of the unique features of Dholavira is its advanced system of water management. The site has a series of reservoirs, channels, and dams that were used to collect, store, and distribute water for irrigation and domestic use. The water system here was so advanced that it allowed the city to thrive in a desert environment.
Another notable feature of Dholavira is its division into three distinct areas: the citadel, the middle town, and the lower town. The Citadel, which was the highest and most fortified area, was reserved for the elite and possibly served as a ceremonial center. The middle town was the residential and commercial center of the city, while the lower town was likely used for agricultural and industrial purposes.
Dholavira is also known for its elaborate system of weights and measures, as well as its sophisticated system of writing, which is known as the Indus script. The Indus script is still not fully understood, but it is believed to be one of the oldest forms of writing in the world.
In addition to its impressive water management and urban planning, It is also known for its stunning art and architecture. The site contains several well-preserved structures, including a castle, a granary, and a series of gates and walls. The city was also home to a number of temples, which were decorated with intricate carvings and paintings.
Despite its impressive size and significance, it is not as well-known as other ancient civilizations such as the Egyptians or the Mayans. However, the site continues to be excavated and studied, and it is hoped that further research will shed more light on the fascinating culture and society of the Indus Valley Civilization.
History of Dholavira
Dholavira is an ancient Indus Valley Civilization site located in the Kutch district of Gujarat, India. The Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age civilization (3300-1300 BCE) that flourished in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent. It was one of the first civilizations in the world to develop a system of writing and urban planning, and it was known for its advanced technology, including the use of bronze and copper tools.
It was occupied from around 2900 BCE to 1900 BCE, during the mature Harappan period. It is one of the largest and best-preserved Indus Valley Civilization sites and has been identified as one of the five largest Harappan sites in India.
The site was discovered in the 1960s and excavations have been ongoing since then. In 2014, the Archaeological Survey of India declared Dholavira a protected monument and established a museum on site to showcase the artifacts and structures discovered during the excavations.
Despite its size and significance, It is not as well-known as other ancient civilizations such as the Egyptians or the Mayans. However, the site continues to be excavated and studied, and it is hoped that further research will shed more light on the fascinating culture and society of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Read More – Kutch – The White Desert of India
Things to do in Dholavira
There are several things to do in Dholavira for visitors interested in ancient history and archaeology. Some suggestions include:
Visit the museum: The Archaeological Survey of India has established a museum on site to showcase the artifacts and structures discovered during the excavations at Dholavira. The museum contains a collection of pots, jewelry, tools, and other objects that give insight into the daily life of the people who lived at Dholavira.
Explore the ruins: Dholavira is home to several well-preserved structures, including a castle, a granary, and a series of gates and walls. Visitors can explore these ruins and get a sense of the city's layout and design.
Learn about the water system: One of the unique features of Dholavira is its advanced system of water management. The site has a series of reservoirs, channels, and dams that were used to collect, store, and distribute water for irrigation and domestic use. Visitors can learn about this system and how it helped the city thrive in a desert environment.
See the Indus script: It is known for its sophisticated system of writing, known as the Indus script. The Indus script is one of the oldest forms of writing in the world, but it is still not fully understood. Visitors can see examples of the Indus script at the museum and learn more about the efforts to decipher it.
Take a guided tour: Visitors can take a guided tour led by an archaeologist or historian who can provide more information about the site and its history.
Visit the nearby village: Dholavira is located in the Kutch district of Gujarat, which is home to a number of small villages. Visitors can take a trip to one of these villages to learn more about the local culture and way of life.
Things to know about Dholavira
Here are a few things to know about Dholavira:
Dholavira is an ancient Indus Valley Civilization site located in the Kutch district of Gujarat, India.
It is one of the largest and best-preserved Indus Valley Civilization sites and has been identified as one of the five largest Harappan sites in India.
It was occupied from around 2900 BCE to 1900 BCE, during the mature Harappan period.
One of the unique features of Dholavira is its advanced system of water management, which included a series of reservoirs, channels, and dams.
The site is divided into three distinct areas: the citadel, the middle town, and the lower town. The citadel was the highest and most fortified area and was likely reserved for the elite and used as a ceremonial center. The middle town was the residential and commercial center of the city, while the lower town was likely used for agricultural and industrial purposes.
Dholavira is known for its sophisticated system of writing, known as the Indus script, which is one of the oldest forms of writing in the world.
The site contains several well-preserved structures, including a castle, a granary, and a series of gates and walls. It was also home to a number of temples, which were decorated with intricate carvings and paintings.
Dholavira is a protected monument and is home to a museum showcasing artifacts and structures discovered during the excavations.
The site continues to be excavated and studied, and it is hoped that further research will shed more light on the fascinating culture and society of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Read more – Rann of Kutch: How to Visit & Essential Travel Guide
Dholavira Architecture
The architecture of Dholavira, an ancient Indus Valley Civilization site located in the Kutch district of Gujarat, India, is notable for its advanced planning and design. The site is divided into three distinct areas: the citadel, the middle town, and the lower town.
The Citadel, which was the highest and most fortified area of Dholavira, was reserved for the elite and possibly served as a ceremonial center. It contains several well-preserved structures, including a castle, which was likely used for defense and as a symbol of power. The castle is surrounded by a series of walls and gates, which were likely used to control access to the citadel.
The middle town was the residential and commercial center of Dholavira. It was laid out in a grid pattern, with streets running parallel and perpendicular to each other. The houses in the middle town were typically made of mud bricks and had a central courtyard. Many of the houses had wells, which were used for domestic purposes such as washing and cooking.
The lower town was likely used for agricultural and industrial purposes. It contains several well-preserved structures, including a granary, which was used to store grains. The lower town also had a number of workshops, where craftsmen would have produced items such as pots, jewelry, and tools.
Overall, the architecture reflects the advanced planning and design of the Indus Valley Civilization. The site's advanced system of water management, sophisticated system of writing (the Indus script), and elaborate system of weights and measures all attest to the civilization's technological and cultural achievements.
Places to stay in Dholavira
There are several places to stay here for visitors interested in exploring the ancient Indus Valley Civilization site. Here are a few options:
Dholavira Tourist Complex: This complex is located near the Dholavira site and offers a range of accommodation options, including tents, huts, and rooms. The complex also has a restaurant, a swimming pool, and a children's play area.
Hotel Dholavira Palace: This hotel is located in the nearby town of Dholavira and offers comfortable rooms with modern amenities. The hotel has a restaurant, a bar, and a garden.
Dholavira Guest House: This guest house is located in the town of Dholavira and offers simple, budget-friendly accommodation. The guest house has a restaurant and a garden.
Camping in Dholavira: For a more unique experience, visitors can opt to camp in Dholavira. There are several camping sites in the area that offer tents and other camping equipment for rent.
Hotels in nearby towns: There are also several hotels in nearby towns such as Bhuj and Gandhidham that offer accommodation for visitors. These hotels tend to have more amenities and may be more comfortable, but they may be further from the Dholavira site.
Tips to visit Dholavira
Here are a few tips for visiting Dholavira:
Plan your visit in advance: Dholavira is located in a remote area, so it is important to plan your visit in advance. This includes booking accommodation and transportation, as well as considering the weather and the time of year you will be visiting.
Wear comfortable clothing and shoes: Dholavira is a large site with uneven terrain, so it is important to wear comfortable clothing and shoes that are suitable for walking. It is also a good idea to bring a hat, sunglasses, and sunscreen to protect yourself from the sun.
Stay hydrated: Dholavira is located in a desert environment, so it is important to stay hydrated. Be sure to bring plenty of water with you and take breaks in the shade to avoid heat exhaustion.
Take a guided tour: A guided tour of Dholavira led by an archaeologist or historian can provide a more in-depth and meaningful experience of the site.
Respect the site: It is an important historical and cultural site, so it is important to respect the site and its artifacts. Do not touch or remove any artifacts, and follow the guidelines set by the Archaeological Survey of India.
Visit the nearby village: It is located in the Kutch district of Gujarat, which is home to a number of small villages. Visiting one of these villages can provide a more immersive and authentic experience of the local culture and way of life.
Similar read – Rann Utsav: White Desert of Kutch, Gujarat
How to reach Dholavira
Dholavira is located in the Kutch district of Gujarat, India. Here are a few ways to reach the site:
By air: The nearest airport to Dholavira is the Bhuj Airport, which is located about 90 kilometers from the site. From the airport, you can hire a taxi or catch a bus to Dholavira.
By train: The nearest railway station to Dholavira is the Bhuj Railway Station, which is located about 90 kilometers from the site. From the railway station, you can hire a taxi or catch a bus to Dholavira.
By bus: There are several bus services that operate between major cities and Dholavira. The Gujarat State Road Transport Corporation operates regular buses between Dholavira and cities such as Ahmedabad, Bhuj, and Gandhidham.
By car: It is located about 330 kilometers from Ahmedabad, the capital of Gujarat. You can hire a taxi or drive your own car to reach Dholavira. The drive from Ahmedabad takes about 6-7 hours.
It is recommended to arrange for transportation in advance, as Dholavira is a remote location and public transportation may not be reliable. It is also a good idea to bring a map or GPS device to help navigate the area.
Good Read – Mohenjodaro & Harappa – Archaeological Ruins
Best time to visit Dholavira
The best time to visit Dholavira depends on your preferences and the type of experience you are looking for. Here are a few considerations:
Weather: It is located in the Kutch district of Gujarat, which has a desert climate. The weather is hot and dry for most of the year, with temperatures ranging from 25-45°C. The summer months (April-June) are the hottest and driest, with temperatures reaching up to 45°C. The monsoon season (July-September) brings some relief from the heat, but the area can also be prone to flooding. The winter months (October-March) are the most pleasant, with temperatures ranging from 25-30°C.
Crowds: Dholavira is not a major tourist destination, so it is not usually crowded. However, the site may see more visitors during the winter months, when the weather is more pleasant.
Festivals: The Kutch district is home to a number of festivals, including the Rann Utsav, which is a celebration of the region's culture and traditions. The festival takes place in the winter months and attracts visitors from all over the world. If you are interested in experiencing the local culture and traditions, visiting the Rann Utsav may be a good option.
Overall, the best time to visit Dholavira depends on your personal preferences and the type of experience you are looking for. If you prefer milder weather and fewer crowds, the winter months may be the best time to visit. If you are interested in experiencing the local festivals, the winter months may also be a good option. If you don't mind the heat and want to avoid the crowds, you may prefer to visit during the summer or monsoon season.
Frequently asked questions about Dholavira
Q. What is Dholavira?
A – It is an archaeological site located in the Kutch District of Gujarat, India. It is one of the largest and most important cities of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization.
Q. When was Dholavira inhabited?
A – Dholavira was inhabited from roughly 2900 BCE to 1900 BCE.
Q. Who lived in Dholavira?
A – Dholavira was inhabited by the Indus Valley Civilization, which was a sophisticated and technologically advanced culture that flourished in the region from 2500 BCE to 1900 BCE.
Q. What was the layout of Dholavira?
A – Dholavira was divided into three parts: the Citadel, the Middle Town, and the Lower Town. The Citadel was the fortified area where the ruling elite lived, while the Middle Town and Lower Town were more residential in nature.
Q. What was the main industry in Dholavira?
A – The main industry in Dholavira was agriculture, as the region was well-suited for farming and irrigation. However, the city also had a thriving trade economy and was an important hub for the exchange of goods and ideas.
Q. What was the system of governance in Dholavira?
A – It is not known exactly what system of governance was in place in Dholavira, but it is believed that the city was ruled by a powerful elite class.
Q. What was the religion of the people of Dholavira?
A – The religion of the people of Dholavira is not well understood, but it is believed that they worshipped a variety of deities, including a mother goddess and a fertility goddess.
Q. What was the language spoken in Dholavira?
A – The language spoken in Dholavira is not known, as no written records have been found. However, it is thought that the Indus Valley Civilization had its own script, which has not yet been fully deciphered.
Q. What was the architecture like in Dholavira?
A – The architecture of Dholavira was quite advanced for the time, with buildings constructed from brick and stone and featuring complex drainage systems. The city also had a sophisticated water management system, with reservoirs, wells, and baths.
Q. What is the current state of the site?
A – The site of Dholavira is now a protected monument, and much of the city has been excavated and studied by archaeologists. However, some parts of the city remain unexcavated, and there is still much to be learned about this ancient civilization.
Q. How was Dholavira discovered?
A – Dholavira was discovered in 1967 by Indian archaeologist Jagat Pati Joshi.
Q. How has Dholavira been preserved?
A – Dholavira has been preserved through a combination of excavation, restoration, and conservation efforts. The site is now protected by the Archaeological Survey of India, and measures have been taken to prevent further deterioration of the city's remains.
Q. How can I visit Dholavira?
A – Dholavira is open to visitors and can be accessed by car or by bus from the nearest town of Bhachau. Visitors can explore the site on their own, or they can hire a guide to provide more information about the city's history and significance.
Salalah: Beauty and Culture
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
/*
 * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
 * You may obtain a copy of the License at
 *
 * http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
 *
 * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
 * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
 * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
 * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 * limitations under the License.
 */
package org.apache.hadoop.hive.ql.io.parquet.convert;

import org.apache.hadoop.hive.serde2.typeinfo.TypeInfo;
import org.apache.hadoop.io.Writable;
import org.apache.parquet.io.api.Converter;
import org.apache.parquet.io.api.GroupConverter;
import org.apache.parquet.io.api.PrimitiveConverter;
import org.apache.parquet.schema.GroupType;
import org.apache.parquet.schema.LogicalTypeAnnotation.ListLogicalTypeAnnotation;
import org.apache.parquet.schema.LogicalTypeAnnotation.LogicalTypeAnnotationVisitor;
import org.apache.parquet.schema.LogicalTypeAnnotation.MapKeyValueTypeAnnotation;
import org.apache.parquet.schema.LogicalTypeAnnotation.MapLogicalTypeAnnotation;
import org.apache.parquet.schema.PrimitiveType;
import org.apache.parquet.schema.Type;

import java.util.Map;
import java.util.Optional;

public abstract class HiveGroupConverter extends GroupConverter implements ConverterParent {

  private Map<String, String> metadata;

  public void setMetadata(Map<String, String> metadata) {
    this.metadata = metadata;
  }

  public Map<String, String> getMetadata() {
    return metadata;
  }

  protected static PrimitiveConverter getConverterFromDescription(PrimitiveType type, int index, ConverterParent
      parent, TypeInfo hiveTypeInfo) {
    if (type == null) {
      return null;
    }

    return ETypeConverter.getNewConverter(type, index, parent, hiveTypeInfo);
  }

  protected static HiveGroupConverter getConverterFromDescription(final GroupType type,
      final int index, final ConverterParent parent, final TypeInfo hiveTypeInfo) {
    if (type == null) {
      return null;
    }

    if (type.getLogicalTypeAnnotation() != null) {
      Optional<HiveGroupConverter> converter =
          type.getLogicalTypeAnnotation().accept(new LogicalTypeAnnotationVisitor<HiveGroupConverter>(){
            @Override
            public Optional<HiveGroupConverter> visit(ListLogicalTypeAnnotation logicalTypeAnnotation) {
              return Optional.of(HiveCollectionConverter.forList(type, parent, index, hiveTypeInfo));
            }

            @Override
            public Optional<HiveGroupConverter> visit(MapLogicalTypeAnnotation logicalTypeAnnotation) {
              return Optional.of(HiveCollectionConverter.forMap(type, parent, index, hiveTypeInfo));
            }

            @Override
            public Optional<HiveGroupConverter> visit(MapKeyValueTypeAnnotation logicalTypeAnnotation) {
              return Optional.of(HiveCollectionConverter.forMap(type, parent, index, hiveTypeInfo));
            }
          });

      if (converter.isPresent()) {
        return converter.get();
      }
    }

    return new HiveStructConverter(type, parent, index, hiveTypeInfo);
  }

  protected static Converter getConverterFromDescription(Type type, int index, ConverterParent parent, TypeInfo hiveTypeInfo) {
    if (type == null) {
      return null;
    }

    if (type.isPrimitive()) {
      return getConverterFromDescription(type.asPrimitiveType(), index, parent, hiveTypeInfo);
    }

    return getConverterFromDescription(type.asGroupType(), index, parent, hiveTypeInfo);
  }

  public abstract void set(int index, Writable value);

}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


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Home / Lawnmowers / Petrol Lawnmowers / Petrol Rotary Mowers / Mulching Mowers / 4 in 1 Mulching Mowers / Atco Quattro 22S 4 in 1 53cm Self-propelled Petrol Lawnmower
Atco Quattro 22S 4 in 1 53cm Self-propelled Petrol Lawnmower
Estimated Dispatch: 1 - 2 working days
Manufacturer: Atco
Delivery Charge: from £7.95 calculated at Checkout
The self-propelled Quattro 22S has a 53cm cutting width and is powered by a Briggs & Stratton engine. Features include mulching plug, large capacity grass collector with bag full indicator and 6 cutting height positions. Suitable for lawns up to 40m x 40m.
SKU: MT-AOMWQUATTRO22S
Free with this product:
B&S SAE 30 Oil – 600ml
According to one story, Atco's move into lawnmower design (over ninety years ago) was prompted by the death of a horse. The horse in question had previously maintained the grounds at the Atlas Chain Company – later shortened to Atco – using a horse-drawn lawnmower. This poor beleaguered pony eventually died of overwork though, so someone at Atco had the clever idea of using a petrol engine to power a lawnmower. As well as preventing future equine fatalities this set the company on a whole new road, with Atco's 1921 "Standard" the first successfully mass-produced lawnmower and the company's name now synonymous with beautifully manicured lawns.
Whether or not this story is true, it provides a nice jumping off point for examining Atco's Quattro 22S 4-in-1. This thoroughly modern mower shares in the high build quality upon which Atco's reputation was built, but also does far more than any previous Atco mower (or horse) to ensure that routine lawn maintenance is an effortless and enjoyable experience. This begins with the Quattro 22S's clever four-in-one cutting system, which features four distinct mowing modes; traditional cut and collection, side discharge, rear discharge and mulching.
The Quattro 22S's cut and collection performance speaks for itself, the inclusion of a hard-topped 70 litre canvas grass collector ensuring a pristine surface while keeping stops to dispose of clippings to a minimum. The rear and side discharge modes, meanwhile, enable quick cutting of longer, rougher areas of grass (and a choice of from whence clippings are ejected). The Quattro 22S's pièce de résistance, however, is its mulching mode. Activated with the simple insertion of the mulching plug into the rear chute, mulching holds grass clippings in the cutting chamber for longer so that they are reduced to tiny fragments, which are then ejected onto your lawn where they break down to release valuable moisture and nutrients. This is perfect for routine mowing as it saves time spent on disposing of clippings, produces a tidy finish and fertilises your lawn in one go!
Another advantage of this four-in-one cutting system is that it allows you to work in different areas equally effectively. Thus if you have a larger garden the Quattro 22S 4-in-1 will be just as handy throughout regardless of the grass conditions at hand, whether trimming a fine ornamental lawn or taming longer grass. All cutting modes also benefit from the inclusion of a front skid plate to prevent scalping, along with a six-position cutting height adjustment system (featuring setting from 26mm to 87mm) to ensure precision and a high quality finish. The Quattro 22S 4-in-1 is therefore versatile enough to handle even the most varied and challenging domestic lawns around.
Equally important for those with expansive lawns is the Quattro 22S 4-in-1's potent 190cc Briggs & Stratton 675 EX Series four-stroke engine and self-propulsion system. This provides a steady forward speed of 3.8km/h to help ensure an even finish, but also takes much of the hard work out of maintaining sizeable areas. In conjunction with the Quattro 22S's smooth-running wheels and ergonomic handlebar, this means that you will even be able to work in comfort on undulating lawns up to 2500m2 in size. Combined with the option of collection-free mowing, this hardworking mower is therefore perfect for hassle-free maintenance of larger domestic lawns.
There are also a few additional features on the Quattro 22S 4-in-1 designed to make life (or mowing) even easier, such as the hose connection for quick cleaning of the cutter deck and the bumper-mounted carry handle. And on top of everything else this mower features a durable steel cutting deck and comes with a five year manufacturer's warranty as standard, so you can rely on the Quattro 22S 4-in-1 to deliver years of dependable performance. Of course, only time will tell if the Quattro 22S follows in the footsteps of the Atco "Standard" in being considered a design classic a century down the line. But if all you want for now is something to take the stress out of challenging routine lawn maintenance, Atco's Quattro 22S 4-in-1 is definitely the machine for you.
Engine/motor: Briggs & Stratton 675 Ex Series RS
Power source: Unleaded petrol
Starting method: Recoil
Cutting system: Rotary blade
Cutting height: 26mm - 87mm
Blade-brake clutch: N/a
Collection bag: 70-litres
Mulching function: Yes
Rear roller: N/a
Drive system: Self-propelled
About Atco
In 1921 the first 900 petrol-powered Atco lawnmowers rolled off the production line at the Atco mowers factory in Birmingham and were delivered, believe it or not, by a man on a motorcycle with a specially developed side-car for transportation of these heavy machines. Things have moved on a little since then for Atco mowers, but one thing remains the same — the quality of the Atco mowers and products is as good as it ever was, and even though they expanded into different areas of the garden machinery market, it is their cylinder mowers that they are best know for. The Atco name is synonymous with the British gardening scene and the company has been awarded two Royal Warrants, the first in 1955 from Queen Elizabeth II and again in 1986, this time from HRH The Prince Of Wales.
Robert Bosch GmbH acquired Atco-Qualcast Ltd in 1995 and this brought a modern approach to the manufacturing process with the cylinder mowers that the company is famous for changing tremendously, becoming more light-weight with a marked increase in usability and performance; the introduction of the now famous QX Quick Exchange Cassette System, for instance, allows gardeners to change their lawn application needs without changing machine. Not happy with manufacturing the highest quality products, Atco leads the way in environmental compliance, being the first garden machinery manufacturer to be awarded the environmental management standard BS EN ISO 14001.
So why buy from Lawnmowers Direct?
Well firstly, we're pretty good at what we do. In fact, we'd class ourselves as experts. With more than 60 years experience supplying lawnmowers to both home users and professionals, we know what we're talking about. We pride ourselves on our high levels of customer service and we're happy to provide help and support throughout the process, from your initial decision making to after sales, servicing, repairs and spare parts. The service we're offering is a complete one, and unlike some other companies, we are specialists.
We know that not all our customers are looking for the same products, and that they come to us with different knowledge levels. We've built a Free Advice section to help you if you're not sure where to start looking, or you can use our search facility if you've more of an idea what you're looking for. If there's anything you can't find or you just need a little bit more help, feel free to Contact Us.
All petrol machinery is checked before dispatch by our team of trained mechanics. While this means we can't always offer same day dispatch, it does mean you'll be getting a bit of kit which will definitely work. We know sometimes things go wrong, but we do our best to make sure they don't, and if you have any problems just get in touch with our customer service team who will be able to help fix it.
If you're not convinced, have a little look at our reviews.
Allett Kensington 17K Cylinder Lawnmower
Husqvarna LC348V Petrol Lawnmower
Efco MR55-TBI Self-Propelled Petrol Lawnmower
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