text:
9th Sep 2020 Streams
Menstrual Discourse and its Socio-Cultural dynamics that persist in the Indian Culture
Ankita Gupta
Ankita Gupta is pursuing PhD. as a menstrual researcher working on Menstrual Taboos and the Politics of Language, in the Department of Modern Indian Languages and Literary Studies in the University of Delhi, and is an ICSSR Doctoral Fellow. She completed her MPhil. in Comparative Indian Literature from the same department with the research topic: "Ancient Taboos and Modern Narratives: The Politics of Menstrual Discourse". She has also done B.Ed. in English subject teaching from University of Delhi and has published various papers. She is Editor and sub-editor of two books titled "Breaking the Silence on Muddupalani: Relocating Radhika Santawanam in Contemporary Studies" and "Telugu Writings in English: New Perspectives" respectively. Her areas of interest are gender studies, film studies, cultural and comparative studies.
Video of the article available on our Instagram IGTV.
Click the link below
Why is there a need to talk about menstruation?
It has been noticed that only in the last 2-3 years, menstruation has come as a topic of main events to mainstream media and has started to reach in the conscience of people that menstruation is something that needs to be talked about. In popular culture, it has come through the means of a movie like Padman which starred a commercial hero like Akshay Kumar, and therefore it gained a lot of attention and attraction from the masses. However, it's not true that Padman was the only movie that started talking about menstruation and the issues related to hygiene, health, and poverty of women in the Indian culture. Many movies have attempted to talk about this before but they have mostly gone unnoticed because they were not necessarily made for the masses. So, to begin, How the process of making menstruation a less taboo ridden subject in our society can be done through various measures?
First, we need to talk about what menstruation actually is and how has it become a taboo in our country. So, for those who don't understand the technical term menstruation, the very simple term used in India for menstruation is 'Period' or in many Indian languages, terms like 'Mahawari', 'Mahina', 'Masik Dharm', 'Rajas Dharm' are used in daily conversation in different parts of India.
What is menstruation?
Menstruation is when the body of a woman does not receive a sperm, the egg that has attached itself to the womb lining starts to shed because it has not received the process of zygote formation therefore the entire lining sheds out of the female body in the form of mucus and blood. This is a very basic understanding of what menstruation is and it happens to every woman, every healthy woman and it's not unusual or extraordinary, it's just like a simple process of the biology of the female body just like going to the washroom or any other kind of discharge from the body that is not necessary anymore. So why is there this kind of Taboo ridden behaviour towards only menstruation?
What is a taboo?
Taboo is an act of restricting or prohibiting certain people, events, or things from our culture in the name of them either being sacred or being evil. So, for example why menstruation became a taboo is that in ancient times when this started happening, people did not have a lot of medical knowledge about the inner happenings of an individual's body. The recurrent flow of blood from a female body was a question mark for people in general because they did not understand why it was happening and it was so necessary for the process of reproduction. Later on, they thought that the female body is probably producing blood without injury and that's something that was not comprehensible to the normal human. Being so, they thought for it to be as some form of evil that is coming out of the body and it needs to be shunned or needs to be prohibited. That is how menstruation became a source of taboo and the female body's fecundity or removal of these fluids from her body became a source of fear for the general public because they did not understand why this is happening to her. So the kind of ways in which the taboo or the stigma associated to the menstrual body or the period of the female is propagated in the culture is through many myths and many stereotypes about the female body and these have kept on piling up over years and the kind of things that women are prohibited to do during this time has caused so much taboo or so much stigma around it that people fear talking about it, people fear acknowledging its presence. In many cultures, women's bodies are dealt with as if something to be afraid of, and I'm not necessarily talking about very primitive cultures because this has been coming out very recently in many instances that the kind of stigmatization that female body and say specifically the process of menstruation has been receiving in Indian culture is very much present in large parts of our country.
Last year two news articles shed a lot of light on the fact that menstruation is still being dealt as something that is troublesome and that the woman needs to be kept away from certain things so that it doesn't either impurify the things around her or doesn't cause trouble amongst people.
The first instance was a case from Uttarakhand, where on the way to the school there was a temple in one of the districts in Uttarakhand and the women were restricted to go through that path because if she is on her period and it's a very common belief in not just India and many parts of the world, that God is sacred therefore the impure blood of the female coming in contact with God is very unholy and therefore treated as a taboo.
So a woman passing from the front of the temple should not be allowed to do so when she is on her period therefore a lot of girls used to miss their school on those 3-5 days when she was having a period because the people around her were forcing her to not take it as a natural process of the body. They felt that during this course she is going to pollute the temple area or if she goes in the vicinity of the temple it's going to cost some sort of harm. This is not just one example; another example was the issue of the Sabarimala temple that was very much in focus all over our country and was a part of the news for a very long time where lord Aiyappa's temple was prevented from the entry of menstruating women particularly.
This wasn't talked about explicitly that this is meant specifically for menstruating women but there was an age limit that women from the age of 10 to 50 cannot enter the temple particularly because it is implicit in the fact that these women are reproductively active and Aiyappa is a God who is a celibate god and reproductively active woman is a form of provocation or seduction. So, it was considered controversial for women to enter the temple but this is not true because when initially, the whole process of women not going to temples started to happen it was not because she was impure or something like that,
All these taboos that exist in our society, like the taboos that you shouldn't eat certain things when you are on your period or not touch certain things. All of these have had an ancient rationale behind them. To cite a few examples, in the earlier times you didn't have vehicles so it was very difficult to go to temples because they were situated on hills or higher platforms or a lot of distance away from where people resided so to go to the temple and worship, you were needed to travel hours and hours and that was an exhausting act of moving towards the temple. So, to prevent the women from causing her pain because she is already experiencing cramps due of menstruation, people suggested that she should not go to the temple but over the years it became a norm, that she shall not go to the temple when menstruating because she will make it dirty.
In our culture, this is a paradox because in one of the very prominent examples that you see in the beliefs that we have in our Indian culture is the goddess Tamakhya who's temple is present in Assam. The temple there worships the goddess of sexuality and reproduction and the object of worship is the yoni or the vagina of the goddess. Three days are dedicated to shutting the temple because they believe that in those three days the woman goddess needs rest as she is menstruating but the fact of the matter is that even though the people touch the goddess' yoni and the blood symbolic water dripping out of her yoni that is said to be coloured in the form of a vermilion or something of that sort, whereas that is revered, women in the Assamese community are very taboo ridden when it comes to their actual menstruation.
At the time of their menarche, most of the women have to go through a very big ordeal. They are not allowed to eat things, they are not allowed to be a part of their family or community, they are segregated and put in seclusion, they are supposed to be on fasting and so many other things, and to top it all, in the Kamaikyu temple itself, the priests, if you go and talk to them if a woman is menstruating, she is not allowed to enter the temple which is a paradox because the temple itself is symbolic of a goddess which is revered for her menstruation and her yoni and women during their menstruation cannot enter the temple.
These are just a few examples that I have cited to explain the kind of lack of rationale that exists behind the beliefs that are there in our culture. And it's not just a part of our culture, many cultures believe that, and what I feel is one of the biggest reasons behind this kind of a taboo-ridden identification of a natural process is the role of religion.
Religion plays a very important role in our culture. So, our culture, I cannot say that Indian culture is primarily Hindu culture and I will put the blame on the Hindu culture for propagating menstruation as a taboo, NO. We have literary texts from Hindu culture such as the Jaraksamitha, the Manusmriti, the Rigveda which talks about how menstruation is a punishment on women because INDRA sinned, he killed the Brahmins, and to take the blame, some of his punishment was meted out to women in the form of menstruation. The bleeding and pain, and cramps, all of that they had to bear it because they are considered lesser beings.
You have a similar connotation when you look at the bible. The older versions of the bible and especially the Leviticus section of the bible talks about how harmful it is to touch a woman during menstruation, or even look at her or participate in any sexual activity with a woman during menstruation because touching a menstruating woman is evil, it will cause you harm and it might lead to death.
This is not just true of Christianity. There are instances in the Quran where they talk about how the female body is impure, it's a source of sin during menstruation. And then you have Buddhism which is so to say a more evolved religion in our country and so many other negative aspects of the orthodox Hindu culture that were there were negated by Buddhism and their philosophies. However, when it comes to the female monks or the bhikkhunis who are part of this religion, they are not allowed to sit on furniture when they are menstruating because they feel that the women will impurify it in some form.
This is also found in Jainism. In fact, one of the sects in Jainism that is Digambara, they believe that a woman can never achieve moksha because she can never truly get rid of her clothes. So, the Digambar community believes in giving up everything and not even wearing clothes to cover their modesty.
According to our culture, it would be inappropriate for women to give up their modesty, for one reason that they are women but for also the reason that they menstruate, it would be a dreadful sight for people to see women bleeding on roads and women's bodies in view of the patriarchal eyes.
So, to say that religion alone has worked in order to create these stigmas would be less than true because patriarchy also has a very important role to play in that. Most of these religious texts and most of the early ancient medieval literature was coming from male authors so their misunderstanding of the female body for a long time until science qualified that if somebody menstruates it's a normal thing and if a woman does not menstruate, something is wrong with her body. Menstruation itself is not the wrong thing, the absence of menstruation is something that signifies a disease or disorder in the body. However, what happened is because the representation of the female body and the processes of the female body were happening only through male writers and men who did not have that much personal experience or they never spoke to women in their lives about this experience have misinterpreted this in many forms.
I would like to address how we can move forward and how we can take small measures to make changes in this long process of stigmatization that has been associated with menstruation.
The first thing that we need to personally do is as family members, we need to be more aware. I find it that fathers or brothers are never taught to talk to their daughters or even their wives or their mothers about this process. So from a very young age, if a mother instils this kind of open discussion amongst her children in the family discourse and the parents take the responsibility of talking about this, you know, at the very small level, maybe start from just before adolescence so that there is a better understanding and there is that removal of stigma and fear from the brains or even, misinformation that is there that people gather from, their friends and Internet and different sources, that they're actually getting the same myths, the same stereotypes over and over and over again.
The parents have to play a big role in bringing it in the conscience of their children, that this is something very normal. If you have a woman in your life or a menstruator in your life, it is important that you know and understand this process and if in some time of need, you may be able to help them. So, this is one of the first steps. But how do you go about this in places where the parents themselves are not equipped to talk about these things because they are dealing with so much problems?
If you look at the rural population of India, which is the heart of India, maximum population is older population or in the poverty ridden areas of India, people are still struggling for even food and other basic necessities. How for them can this become a topic of discussion when they cannot even go beyond discussing the next meal and where it will come from? So how we can as individuals help in this process is by approaching "aanganvaadis", by approaching NGOs, by approaching these social workers who work in these communities and they have ties in these communities and help them, or facilitate them to talk about the real facts associated with menstruation, to make them aware that, all the taboos associated with touch, worship, seclusion, the fear that menstruating woman is dirty and all of that needs to be done away with and how we can empower the upcoming younger generation to be able to talk about and understand and, apply it in their own lives. It's very difficult because these women are still the most hard struck by menstrual poverty.
What is menstrual poverty?
Menstrual poverty is basically the lack of knowledge and resources and products that help in bringing about a proper hygienic maintenance of a menstruating body. So the kind of stigma that exists in our country with respect to menstruation itself is so high that either women do not have access to menstrual products and a lot of them are using old rags from their own households and they wash it and then they hide it under other clothes that are drying.
So these clothes never actually receive proper sunlight and they are never properly disinfected, so to say, and they keep reusing the same clothes over and over because they have no resources, they have no awareness, and there is so much stigma that, 'oh, my God, my neighbour should not come to know that I'm menstruating. My neighbour should not know or see that I'm using cloths that I'm washing after menstruating.' So, this sort of, shame that is associated with it needs to be done with it.
How can that come about? Our media is so shy in talking about it. The advertisements that talk about menstruation are so shy to talk about it that they never use a demonstration of period, I mean, until recently we find rarely any advertisements using these terms openly. So, they'll say things like "un dino mein"(in those days), "us samay mein"(at that time), "aurto ki in takleefo k samay mein"(during the troubled times for women), "mahilao k takleefo k samay mein". What are these problems? Why are people not talking about it? So, the taboo is not just on the process, the taboo is also so ingrained in us that we don't even want to utter the words that are associated with the process. So first of all, the media coverage, the representation of menstrual products on television, the symbolic representation of the menstrual blood in the blue colour liquid that they're showing on television is problematic . Not just that, you don't have a lot of news reports which talk about issues of Menstruators, and I use the term menstruators, because earlier we were only considering that the society comprises of two genders, that is the male and the female, depending on the physical anatomy
but over a period of time, we have come to realize that gender is a large spectrum. You have trans women and trans men. So trans women are actually people who are anatomically male but feel like women and trans males are anatomically females but feel like males. So what happens is when a trans woman feels like the female but is not able to menstruate, she feels left out amongst her other female friends whereas a trans male who feels like a male but cannot get rid of the bodily process of menstruation in the body, that also causes a lot of damage to the mental health. So all these things are very, very interrelated.
Now, a new term has come up in the last few decades in other parts of the world and is gaining momentum in India in the Indian context as well, which is known as menstrual activism. So, we talk about social activism. Activism is basically being active, taking agency and bringing about a change. So, our main purpose right now is to not only do away with the stigma or the social and cultural problems that are surrounding menstruation, which are hampering people from thinking outside of those restrictions and prohibitions imposed on them by religion or, years and years of social conditioning.
We also need to look at the fact that a large part of our country is not even getting the basic product or the basic health hygiene needs met because until very recently, menstrual pads were considered a luxury product and they had taxes and people could not afford it. So, people have tried to come up with, you know, more accessible options like cloth pads and silicone cups that last longer, that are biodegradable and things like that but probably these are issues that need to be addressed later on.
The first thing that we need to do is educate, spread awareness and start talking about it, talking about it with parents, talking about it with friends, talking about it in an educational space. There is a big debate in India when it comes to adolescents' educations or sex education. So sex education is not just about the act of sex, it's about reproductive rights and the role of the reproductive organs in our body and the know-how of how to handle and take care of any productive organs.
How do you know what happens if the teachers who are addressing chapters on reproduction in school simply say that, oh, read this on your own and we will move forward. They're so shy they need to have workshops, where teachers are sensitized enough that they themselves break free from the stigma that has been imposed on them and they understand that for the students, a teacher, is a very important part of their lives. She's a very big influence in their life, so are the parents. The first Role Actually comes from the education system and the family system. These two things are very important to break free the religious system or the patriarchal system that has enforced us to believe that menstruation is evil or unholy or impure or all these things.
I would say that it's not always negative as there are some parts of our country where menstruation is actually considered something to be very positive for example in the state of Orissa there is a festival known as Rajaparbha. Raja means menstruation, Rajas basically i.e. the blood flow in Sanskrit and Parbha means day. Rajaparbha is celebrated as the days of menstruation there. Women come together in sisterhood and they play games, they enjoy and rejoice the fact that they have this beautiful natural process happening in the body that eventually leads to new generations, birth of children is caused only because menstruation occurs. The same blood that goes out of the body when a female does not conceive a child is the same blood that nourishes the womb, the zygote, the child in the woman's uterus when actually pregnancy or conception takes place. So how is it that the same blood that nourishes the very child in the womb is so auspicious because it's forming a baby and bringing new life into the world but when the same blood, because it is not being used when the baby is not produced needs to be thought of as something evil or dirty.
So much so, that in Maharashtra we have cases where women workers have been asked to remove their uterus because the sugarcane farm managers believe that the kind of rest a woman needs during her menstruation hampers her productivity and reduces the production of their company and therefore they have forced a large number of women to get their uterus removed so that they do not have recurrent menstruation and they continue with the work without any break. So, I mean, the problems are endless and it's a cycle because we are not talking about it in public, we are not talking about it in the private spheres so where are we talking about it?
Then you come out with these cases and you feel sad that had somebody talked to them about it, it wouldn't have happened like that, or had they had little bit knowledge about it or awareness about this then such things could be prevented but the families are scared to talk about it, parents are scared to talk about it, teachers are scared to talk about it.
It's not even anything that you will ever find on the front page of a newspaper or a Major Media Magazine or even on television as a news. These are small left-over backstories that are rarely covered and I have just given few instances of how ugly our culture has made this process's understanding in the social sphere and how important and urgent it is for us to do something about it. So, I hope that this helps start that conversation in your circles. I have not claimed that this will bring about the necessary change but have simply stated facts or things that are already there and we know that they are there in our society and some of us also acknowledge the fact that they need to be addressed and they need to be changed, but either we are hesitant or we don't have the agency or we don't know where to begin.
So, maybe this is something to think about in the coming times and take a step forward and do something about it.
Published by Streams
View all posts by Streams
2 thoughts on "Menstrual Discourse and its Socio-Cultural dynamics that persist in the Indian Culture"
Shashank Patel says:
Break the Taboo! There is a need of Menstrual Benefit Bill by govt providing benefit to private and public sector. Awareness in schools and sensitisation ij society through public program is much needed. It is important to bring this taboo in discourse among rural India.
Pingback: Series on Menstruation – Streams
Undefined Definition of Beauty
Series on Menstruation


Our goal is to provide precision orthodontic treatment with courtesy and complete integrity in a friendly, relaxed atmosphere. We strive to make treatment affordable by offering reasonable fees and convenient payment plans. Your beautiful smile is our greatest reward. Once a patient, always a friend. For any reason, any time, give us a call.
Your scheduled appointment time has been reserved specifically for you. We request a 24-hour notice if you need to cancel your appointment.
Minimal waiting in our office. We value your time as much as you do.


For other uses, see Monza (disambiguation).
Drivers are on full throttle for most of the lap due to its long straights and fast corners, and is usually the scenario in which the open-wheeled Formula One cars show the raw speed of which they are capable: 372 kilometres per hour (231 mph) during the mid-2000s V10 engine formula, although in 2012 with the 2.4L V8 engines, top speeds in Formula One rarely reached over 340 kilometres per hour (211 mph); the 1.6L turbocharged hybrid V6 engine, reduced-downforce formula of 2014 displayed top speeds of up to 360 kilometres per hour (224 mph). The circuit is generally flat, but has a gradual gradient from the second Lesmos to the Variante Ascari. Due to the low aerodynamic profile needed, with its resulting low downforce, the grip is very low; understeer is a more serious issue than at other circuits; however, the opposite effect, oversteer, is also present in the second sector, requiring the use of a very distinctive opposite lock technique. Since both maximum power and minimal drag are keys for speed on the straights, only competitors with enough power or aerodynamic efficiency at their disposal are able to challenge for the top places.
In addition to Formula One, the circuit previously hosted the 1000 km Monza, and endurance sports car race held as part of the World Sportscar Championship and the Le Mans Series. Monza also featured the unique Race of Two Worlds events, which attempted to run Formula One and USAC National Championship cars against each other. The racetrack also previously held rounds of the Grand Prix motorcycle racing (Italian motorcycle Grand Prix), World Touring Car Championship, TCR International Series, Superbike World Championship, Formula Renault 3.5 Series and Auto GP. Monza currently hosts rounds of the Blancpain GT Series Endurance Cup, International GT Open and Euroformula Open Championship, as well as various local championships such as the TCR Italian Series, Italian GT Championship, Porsche Carrera Cup Italia and Italian F4 Championship.
The Monza circuit has been the site of many fatal accidents, especially in the early years of the Formula One world championship, and has claimed the lives of 52 drivers and 35 spectators. Track modifications have continuously occurred, to improve spectator safety and reduce curve speeds, but it is still criticised by the current drivers for its lack of run-off areas, most notoriously at the chicane that cuts the Variante della Roggia.
The starting grid of the "1st Cup Fiera di Milano" race held in 1925.
A race in 1925 with cars racing across the bridge.
The Pista di Alta Velocità banking, 2003.
The first track was built from May to July 1922 by 3,500 workers, financed by the Milan Automobile Club – which created the Società Incremento Automobilismo e Sport (SIAS) (English: Motoring and Sport Encouragement Company) to run the track. The initial form was a 3.4 square kilometres (1.31 sq mi) site with 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) of macadamised road – comprising a 4.5 kilometres (2.80 mi) loop track, and a 5.5 kilometres (3.42 mi) road track. The track was officially opened on 3 September 1922, with the maiden race the second Italian Grand Prix held on 10 September 1922.
In 1928, the most serious Italian racing accident to date ended in the death of driver Emilio Materassi and 27 spectators at that year's Grand Prix. The accident led to further Grand Prix races confinement to the high-speed loop until 1932. The 1933 race was marked by the deaths of three drivers and the Grand Prix layout was changed, with two chicanes added and the longer straights removed.
There was major rebuilding in 1938–39, constructing new stands and entrances, resurfacing the track, moving portions of the track and adding two new bends. The resulting layout gave a Grand Prix lap of 6.300 kilometres (3.91 mi), in use until 1954. The outbreak of World War II meant racing at the track was suspended until 1948 and parts of the circuit degraded due to the lack of maintenance. Monza was renovated over a period of two months at the beginning of 1948 and a Grand Prix was held on 17 October 1948.
In 1954, work began to entirely revamp the circuit, resulting in a 5.750 kilometres (3.573 mi) course, and a new 4.250 kilometres (2.641 mi) high-speed oval with banked sopraelevata curves. The two circuits could be combined to re-create the former 10 kilometres (6.214 mi) long circuit, with cars running parallel on the main straight. The track infrastructure was also updated and improved to better accommodate the teams and spectators.
The Automobile Club of Italy held 500-mile (805 km) Race of Two Worlds exhibition competitions, intended to pit United States Auto Club IndyCars against European Formula One and sports cars. The races were held on the oval at the end of June in 1957 and 1958, with three 63 lap 267.67 kilometres (166.32 mi) heat races each year, races which colloquially became known as the Monzanapolis series. Concerns were raised among the European drivers that flat-out racing on the banking would be too dangerous, so ultimately only Ecurie Ecosse and Maserati represented European racing at the first running. The American teams had brought special Firestone tyres with them, reinforced to withstand high-speed running on the bumpy Monza surface, but the Maseratis' steering was badly affected by the larger-than-usual tyre size, leading to the Modena-based team withdrawal.
Ecurie Ecosse's three Jaguar D-type sports cars used their Le Mans-specification tyres with no ill-effects, but were completely out paced. Two heats in 1957 were won by Jimmy Bryan in his Kuzma-Offenhauser Dean Van Lines Special, and the last by Troy Ruttman in the Watson-Offenhauser John Zink Special. In 1958, works Jaguar, Ferrari and Maserati teams appeared alongside the Indy roadsters, but once again the American cars dominated the event and Jim Rathmann won the three races in a Watson-Offenhauser car.
Formula One used the 10 kilometres (6.214 mi) high speed track in the 1955, 1956, 1960 and 1961 Grands Prix. Stirling Moss and Phil Hill both won twice in this period, with Hill's win at Monza making him the first American to win a Formula One race. The 1961 race saw the death of Wolfgang von Trips and fifteen spectators when a collision with Jim Clark's Lotus sent von Trips' car airborne and into the barriers on Parabolica.
Although the accident did not occur on the oval section of the track, the high speeds were deemed unsafe and F1 use of the oval was ended; future Grands Prix were held on the shorter road circuit, with the banking appearing one last time in the film Grand Prix. New safety walls, rails and fences were added before the next race and the refuelling area was moved further from the track. Chicanes were added before both bankings in 1966, and another fatality in the 1968 1000 km Monza race led to run-off areas added to the curves, with the track layout changing the next year to incorporate permanent chicanes before the banked curves – extending the track length by 100 metres (328 ft).
The banking held the last race in 1969 with the 1000 km of Monza, the event moving to the road circuit the next year. The banking still exists, albeit in a decayed state in the years since the last race, escaping demolition in the 1990s. It is used once a year for the Monza Rally. The banked oval was used several times for record breaking up till the late 1960s, although the severe bumping was a major suspension and tyre test for the production cars attempting the records, .e.g. Ford Corsair GT 1964 which captured 13 records.
Both car and Grand Prix motorcycle racing were regular attractions at Monza. These races involved drivers constantly slipstreaming competing cars, which produced several close finishes, such as in 1967, 1969, and 1971.
As the speed of the machines increased, two chicanes were added in 1972 to reduce racing speeds — the Variante del Rettifilo at the middle of the start/finish straight, and the Variante Ascari. This resulted in a new circuit length of 5.755 kilometres (3.576 mi). Grand Prix motorcycles continued to use the un-slowed road track until two serious accidents resulted in five deaths, including Renzo Pasolini and Jarno Saarinen, in 1973, and motorcycle racing did not return to Monza until 1981. The 1972 chicanes were soon seen to be ineffective at slowing cars; the Vialone was remade in 1974, the other, Curva Grande in 1976, and a third also added in 1976 before the Lesmo, with extended run-off areas. The Grand Prix lap after these alterations was increased to 5.800 kilometres (3.604 mi) long.
With technology still increasing vehicle speeds the track was modified again in 1979, with added kerbs, extended run-off areas, and tyre-barriers improved, to improve safety for drivers off the track. The infrastructure was also improved, with pits able to accommodate 46 cars, and an upgraded paddock and scrutineering facilities. These changes encouraged world championship motorcycling to return in 1981, but further safety work was undertaken through the 1980s. Also in the 1980s the podium, paddock and pits complex, stands, and camp site were either rebuilt or improved.
In the safety conscious years following the death of Ayrton Senna in 1994 (albeit at a different track), the three main long curves were "squeezed" in order to install larger gravel traps, shortening the lap to 5.770 kilometres (3.585 mi). In 1997 the stands were reworked to expand capacity to 51,000. In 2000, the chicane on the main straight was altered, changing from a double left-right chicane to a single right-left chicane in an attempt to reduce the frequent accidents at the starts due to the conformation of the braking area, although it is still deemed unsafe in terms of motorcycle racing. The second chicane was also re-profiled. In the Formula 1 Grand Prix of the same year, the first to use these new chicanes, a fire marshal, Paolo Gislimberti, was killed by flying debris after a big pileup at the second chicane.
In 2007, the run-off area at the second chicane was changed from gravel to asphalt. The length of the track in its current configuration is 5.793 kilometres (3.600 mi). At the 2010 Monza Superbike World Championship round, Italian rider Max Biaggi set the fastest ever motorcycle lap of Monza when he rode his Aprilia RSV4 1000 F to pole position in a time of 1:42.121. In the Superpole qualification for the 2011 race, he improved on this lap time, for a new lap record of 1:41.745 and his speed was captured at 205+ MPH.
In late 2016, work was planned on a new first bend, which would have bypassed the first chicane and the Curva Grande. Drivers were to go through a fast right hand kink entering the old Pirelli circuit and into a new, faster chicane. Work was planned for to be completed by 2017 in hopes of a renewed contract for Formula 1. Gravel would have also returned to the run-off area at the Parabolica bend. However, plans for the track's change were suspended due to the track being in the historic Monza Park.
Monza consists of very long straights and tight chicanes, putting a premium on good braking stability and traction. The 5.793 kilometres (3.600 mi) circuit is very hard on gearboxes, with many gear changes per lap. Formula 1 engines are at full throttle for nearly 80% of the lap, with engine failures common, notably Fernando Alonso in the 2006 Italian Grand Prix.
Formula One cars are set up with one of the smallest wing angles on the F1 calendar to ensure the lowest level of drag on the straights. There are only 4 proper corners at Monza, the two Lesmos, the Ascari complex and the Parabolica, thus cars are set up for maximum performance on the straights.
Cars approach the first corner at 340 kilometres per hour (210 mph) in seventh gear, and brake at about 120 metres (390 ft) before the first chicane – the Variante del Rettifilo – entering at 86 km/h (53 mph) in first gear, and exiting at 74 kilometres per hour (46 mph) in second gear. This is the scene of many first lap accidents. Higher kerbs were installed at the first two chicanes in 2009 to prevent cutting.
Good traction out of the first corner is imperative for a quick lap. Conservation of speed through the first chicane is made possible by driving the straightest line, as a small mistake here can result in a lot of time being lost through the Curva Grande down to the Variante della Roggia chicane in seventh gear, at 330 kilometres per hour (210 mph). The braking point is just under the bridge. The kerbs are very vicious and it is very easy for a car to become unbalanced and a driver to lose control, as Kimi Räikkönen did in 2005. This chicane is probably the best overtaking chance on the lap, as it is the only one with the "slow corner, long straight, slow corner"; one of the characteristics of modern circuits.
Aerial photo of the Autodromo of Monza, with the village of Villasanta in the upper part. The city of Monza is southwards off to the right of the photo.
The Curve di Lesmo are two corners that are not as fast as they used to be, but are still challenging corners. The first is blind, entered at 264 km/h (164 mph) in fifth gear, dropping to fourth gear at 193 km/h (120 mph), and has a slight banking. The second is a fifth gear entry at 260 km/h (160 mph), apexing in third gear at 178 kilometres per hour (111 mph), and it is very important that all the kerb is used. A mistake at one of these corners will result in a spin into the gravel, while good exits can set you up for an overtaking move into Variante Ascari.
The downhill straight down to Variante Ascari is very bumpy under the bridge. Variante Ascari is a very tricky sequence of corners and is key to the lap time.
The final challenge is the Curva Parabolica: approaching at 335 kilometres per hour (208 mph) in seventh gear, cars quickly dance around the corner, apexing in fourth gear at 215 kilometres per hour (134 mph) and exiting in fifth gear at 285 kilometres per hour (177 mph), accelerating onto the main start/finish straight. A good exit and slipstream off a fellow driver along the main straight can produce an overtaking opportunity under heavy braking into Variante del Rettifilo; however, it is difficult to follow a leading car closely through the Parabolica as the tow will reduce downforce and cornering speed.
Kimi Räikkönen recorded the fastest pole position lap at Monza in 2018, when he lapped in 1:19.119, at an average speed of 263.587 km/h (163.785 mph) – the fastest lap recorded in qualifying for a World Championship event.
^ a b c "Autodromo Nazionale Monza – Company profile". Autodromo Nazionale Monza. MonzaNet.it. 2007. Archived from the original on 25 July 2009. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "Formula 1 Gran Premio Santander D'Italia 2009 (Monza) – interactive circuit map". Formula One Administration Ltd. Formula1.com. 1999–2009. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
^ a b c d "Autodromo Nazionale Monza – Areas & Structures". Autodromo Nazionale Monza. MonzaNet.it. 2007. Archived from the original on 18 June 2008. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
^ "History". Autodromo Nazionale Monza. Archived from the original on 11 October 2016.
^ a b c d e f g h "The hidden history of the Monza banking". Formula One Administration Ltd. Formula1.com. 30 August 2005. Archived from the original on 2 October 2009. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
^ a b c d e f "1922–1928: Construction and first races on the original tracks". Autodromo Nazionale Monza. MonzaNet.it. 2007. Archived from the original on 11 June 2008. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "Fórmula 1: los pilotos tienen miedo por la seguridad en Monza" [Formula 1: the drivers are afraid for safety at Monza] (in Spanish). Clairín.com. 5 September 2006. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "Autodromo Nazionale di Monza – History". The Formula One DataBase. F1db.com. 6 April 2005. Archived from the original on 2 October 2009. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
^ a b c "1929–1939: In consequence of the Materassi's accident, races are run on the alternative tracks". Autodromo Nazionale Monza. MonzaNet.it. 2007. Archived from the original on 15 April 2008. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
^ a b c d e f g h "8W – When? – 1933 Monza GP, "Black Sunday"". Forix.autosport.com. May 2001. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
^ a b c "1940–1954: After the war interruption, the activity starts again in 1948". Autodromo Nazionale Monza. MonzaNet.it. 2007. Archived from the original on 15 April 2008. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k "1955–1971: Construction of the high speed track and other important works". Autodromo Nazionale Monza. MonzaNet.it. 2007. Archived from the original on 15 April 2008. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
^ a b c "Autodromo Nazionale di Monza". ChampCarStats.com. 2009. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
^ "1958 500 Miglia di Monza Heat 1". ChampCarStats.com. 2009. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
^ a b "History of Monza GP". About Milan. Archived from the original on 12 October 2010. Retrieved 8 October 2010.
^ a b c "1957 500 Miglia di Monza Heat 1". ChampCarStats.com. 2009. Archived from the original on 13 October 2009. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
^ "500 Miglia di Monza Heat 2". ChampCarStats.com. Retrieved 23 November 2010.
^ "500 Miglia di Monza Heat 3". ChampCarStats.com. Retrieved 23 November 2010.
^ "1958 500 Miglia di Monza Heat 2". ChampCarStats.com. 2009. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
^ a b "A history of the Italian Grand Prix". Formula1.com. Formula One Administration Ltd. 8 September 2004. Retrieved 23 November 2010.
^ a b c "The hidden history of the Monza banking". Formula1.com. Formula One Administration Ltd. 30 August 2005. Retrieved 23 November 2010.
^ a b c d e f g h i j "1972–1978: Chicane and variants to reduce the high speed". Autodromo Nazionale Monza. MonzaNet.it. 2007. Archived from the original on 11 June 2008. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
^ a b c d "1979–1988: New works to update the circuit". Autodromo Nazionale Monza. MonzaNet.it. 2007. Archived from the original on 15 April 2008. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
^ a b c "1989–1997: New pit complex and the interventions for the security". Autodromo Nazionale Monza. MonzaNet.it. 2007. Archived from the original on 13 April 2008. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
^ "New Monza over a second faster for F1 – and Parabolica gravel will return". F1 Fanatic. 1 June 2016. Retrieved 11 June 2016.
^ "McLaren Formula 1 - 2015 Italian Grand Prix Preview". McLaren. Retrieved 12 January 2016.
^ "Bigger kerbs installed for Monza chicanes". formula 1.com. 8 September 2009. Archived from the original on 4 October 2009. Retrieved 21 September 2009.
^ "2018 Italian Grand Prix Race Speed Trap". FIA. 2 September 2018. Retrieved 4 September 2018.
^ Golson, Jordan. "The Ultra-Fast F1 Track Where the Biggest Problem Is Slowing Down". Retrieved 2016-09-04.
^ Emons, Michael (1 September 2018). "Raikkonen takes Italian GP pole with fastest lap in F1 history - radio & text". BBC Sport. BBC. Retrieved 1 September 2018.
^ "Grand Prix death casts doubt over Monza circuit". CNN. 11 September 2000. Archived from the original on 11 September 2007. Retrieved 22 February 2016.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Autodromo Nazionale Monza.
The FIA World Touring Car Championship is an international Touring Car championship sanctioned by the FIA. Citroën Total driver José María López from Argentina is the 2015 WTCC reigning champion, the first World Touring Car Championship, which was open to Group A Touring Cars, was held in 1987 concurrent to the long-running European Touring Car Championship. Additional rounds were held outside Europe at Bathurst and Calder Park Raceway in Australia, Wellington in New Zealand, the Championship was well-supported by the factory European teams of Ford, BMW and Alfa Romeo, but was embroiled in controversy. Unfortunately, the leading BMW Motorsport teams and the Ford Europe backed Eggenberger Motorsport had developed a situation of you dont protest us, we wont protest you. While this worked well in the European races, when the championship landed in Australia the local teams took exception to the Europeans somewhat liberal interpretation of the Group A rules, subsequently the Eggenberger cars were protested against and eventually disqualified from the Bathurst 1000 results.
The championship was awarded to West German Eggenberger Ford Sierra RS500 drivers Klaus Ludwig. The Entrants Championship was won by the Eggenberger Texaco Ford No 7 entry, only one car, based on an Alfa Romeo 164 with a 3.5 litre V10 engine was built before it was abandoned. The 1993 race at Monza was won by New Zealands Paul Radisich, at the wheel of a Ford Mondeo ahead of Nicola Larinis Alfa Romeo 155, the race was run for two more years. A similar event was planned for 1996 at the A1 Ring, Austria and it was never brought back thereafter. In 2001, the European Touring Car Championship was resumed with support from the FIA, in 2001, the Italian Superturismo Championship became the FIA European Super Touring Championship, with an extra class for Super Production cars alongside the main Super Touring class. At the request of interested manufacturers, the ETCC was changed to the current WTCC beginning with the 2005 season, continuing to use Super 2000, in 2008, Frenchman Yvan Muller won the title after Race 1 in Macau in his SEAT León TDI.
This marked the first time an FIA sanctioned world championship, in any category, SEAT León TDI won both championships for a second time in 2009, this time in the hands of Gabriele Tarquini. 2010 marked the start of Chevrolets dominance of the championship with its Cruze model, Frenchman Yvan Muller became World Champion, fending off tough competition from Gabriele Tarquini and Andy Priaulx to win the first world championship for Chevrolet. This gave Chevrolet a clean sweep of both titles, the 2012 championship saw Chevrolet pick up where they left of in 2011, leading to a second year of championship clean sweeps, this time with Rob Huff taking the drivers title. Technical rules were modified in 2011 to allow 1. 6L turbo gasoline engines, in 2014, new car regulations were introduced with the name TC1, with larger wings and more engine power. The old 1. 6L turbo cars were renamed TC2 for a year and were dropped for 2015, the FIA TCN2 class is set to be introduced in 2017. The WTCC uses Super 2000 and Diesel 2000 cars, as cost control is a theme in the technical regulation.
Downforce is a downwards thrust created by the aerodynamic characteristics of a car. The purpose of downforce is to allow a car to travel faster through a corner by increasing the force on the tires. The same principle that allows an airplane to rise off the ground by creating lift from its wings is used in reverse to apply force that presses the race car against the surface of the track. This effect is referred to as aerodynamic grip and is distinguished from mechanical grip, which is a function of the mass, tires. The creation of downforce by passive devices can be achieved only at the cost of increased drag. The aerodynamic setup for a car can vary considerably between race tracks, depending on the length of the straights and the types of corners. Some cars have had rather unstable aerodynamics, such that a change in angle of attack or height of the vehicle can cause large changes in downforce. Two primary components of a car can be used to create downforce when the car is travelling at racing speed, the shape of the body.
Most racing formulae have a ban on aerodynamic devices that can be adjusted during a race, in aerodynamics, it is usual to use the top-view projected area of the wing, instead of its frontal area, as a reference surface to define the lift coefficient. This results in different values for F, although the calculated downforce stays the same, the rounded and tapered shape of the top of the car is designed to slice through the air and minimize wind resistance. Detailed pieces of bodywork on top of the car can be added to allow a flow of air to reach the downforce-creating elements. The overall shape of a street car resembles an airplane wing, almost all street cars have aerodynamic lift as a result of this shape. There are many techniques that are used to counterbalance a street car, using this method, the air flowing under the front bumper will be constricted to a lower cross sectional area, and thus achieve a lower pressure. Volume does not affect the air pressure because it is not an enclosed volume, race cars will exemplify this effect by adding a rear diffuser to accelerate air under the car in front of the diffuser, and raise the air pressure behind it to lessen the cars wake.
A V10 engine is a V engine with 10 cylinders in two banks of five. It is longer than a V8 engine but shorter than an engine or V12 engine. The V10 is essentially the result of mating two even-firing straight-5 engines together, the straight-5 engine shows first and second order rocking motion. Here it should be assumed that the crankshaft with low second-order vibration is used, by mating the straight-5 banks at 90 degrees and using five throws, the balance shafts balance each other and become null. Using an 18° split journal crankshaft the firing order can be even. A 36° degree bank angle and a 108° flying arm crankshaft would allow even firing without a balance shaft and smaller counterweights, but would be impractical. Until recently, the V10 configuration was not a configuration for road cars. For Audi in their Audi R85 and it discontinued in that application after 2003. However,2003 saw the introduction of the Dodge Ram SRT-10, the Viper engine has been tweaked through the years, and for the fifth-generation Viper produces 640 hp in a standard state of tune from its 8.4 liter displacement.
The previous generation engine is used by Bristol, in tuned form, in their two-seat Fighter coupe, ford developed a heavy-duty V10 version of their Triton engine to replace the 460 big block in truck applications. It was introduced in the E-Series/Econoline full-size van, the F-Series Super Duty and Excursion SUV furthered the engines popularity. The Triton 6.8 V10 is still in production today, european marques were slower to adopt the V10 configuration. However, high-revving V10 power-plants were incorporated into supercars from Lamborghini, BMW and Audi unveiled ten-cylinder versions of their mid-range saloons. Audi here profited from their Lamborghini ownership, which allowed them to source the Gallardos V10 for their own cars, Volkswagen developed a turbodiesel V10, their Volkswagen Phaeton was the first production sedan to have a V10. A list of post-war V10-engined production cars, The most widespread use of the V10 has been in Formula One racing, alfa Romeo made the first modern Formula One V10 in 1986, although it was never used in a Formula One car.
The Indianapolis Motor Speedway is an automobile racing circuit located in Speedway, Indiana, in the United States. It is the home of the Indianapolis 500 and the Brickyard 400 and it is located on the corner of 16th Street and Georgetown Road, approximately six miles west of Downtown Indianapolis. Constructed in 1909, it is the original speedway, the first racing facility so named and it has a permanent seating capacity estimated at 235,000 with infield seating raising capacity to an approximate 400,000. It is the highest-capacity sports venue in the world, considered relatively flat by American standards, the track is a 2. 5-mile-long rectangular oval with dimensions that have remained essentially unchanged since its construction. A modern infield road course was completed in 2000, incorporating part of the oval, including the mainstretch, in 2008, and again in 2014, the road course layout was modified to accommodate motorcycle racing, as well as to improve competition. Altogether, the current grounds have expanded from an original 320 acres on which the speedway was first built to cover an area of over 559 acres.
Placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975 and designated a National Historic Landmark in 1987, in addition to the Indianapolis 500, the speedway hosts NASCARs Brickyard 400 and Lilly Diabetes 250. From 2000 to 2007, the hosted the Formula One United States Grand Prix. On the grounds of the speedway is the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Museum, which opened in 1956, the museum moved into its current building located in the infield in 1976. Also on the grounds is the Brickyard Crossing Golf Resort, which opened as the Speedway Golf Course in 1929. The golf course has 14 holes outside of the track, along the backstretch, the speedway served as the venue for the opening ceremonies for the 1987 Pan American Games. Fisher began thinking of a means of testing cars before delivering them to consumers. At the time, racing was just getting started on horse tracks, Fisher noticed how dangerous and ill-suited the makeshift courses were for racing and testing. He argued that spectators did not get their moneys worth, Fisher proposed building a circular track 3 to 5 miles long with smooth 100–150-foot-wide surfaces.
A hybrid electric vehicle is a type of hybrid vehicle and electric vehicle that combines a conventional internal combustion engine propulsion system with an electric propulsion system. The presence of the powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional vehicle or better performance. There are a variety of HEV types, and the degree to which functions as an electric vehicle varies as well. The most common form of HEV is the electric car, although hybrid electric trucks. Many HEVs reduce idle emissions by shutting down the ICE at idle and restarting it when needed, as of January 2017, over 12 million hybrid electric vehicles have been sold worldwide since their inception in 1997.5 million hybrids delivered since 2000. Japan has the worlds highest hybrid market penetration, in 2016 the hybrid market share accounted for 38% of new standard passenger car sales, and 25. 7% of new passenger vehicle sales including kei cars. Norway ranks second with a market share of 6.
9% of new car sales in 2014, followed by the Netherlands with 3. 7%, France and Sweden. As of January 2017, worldwide sales are led by the Toyota Prius liftback. The Prius nameplate had sold more than 6 million hybrids up to January 2017, global Lexus hybrid sales achieved the 1 million unit milestone in March 2016. As of January 2017, the conventional Prius is the all-time bst-selling hybrid car in both Japan and the U. S. with sales of over 1.8 million in Japan and 1.75 million in the United States. The internal combustion engine of many parallel hybrids can act as a generator for supplemental recharging, in series hybrids, only the electric motor drives the drivetrain, and a smaller ICE works as a generator to power the electric motor or to recharge the batteries. They usually have a battery pack than parallel hybrids. Once the batteries are low, the combustion engine can generate power at its optimum settings at all times. Power-split hybrids have the benefits of a combination of series and parallel characteristics, examples of power-split hybrid powertrains include current models of Ford, General Motors, Lexus and Toyota.
Philip Toll Hill, Jr. was an American automobile racer and the only American-born driver to win the Formula One World Drivers Championship. He scored three wins at each of the 24 Hours of Le Mans and 12 Hours of Sebring sports car races, Hill was described as a thoughtful, gentle man and once said, Im in the wrong business. I dont want to beat anybody, I dont want to be the big hero, born in Miami, Hill was raised in Santa Monica, where he lived until his death. He studied business administration at the University of Southern California from 1945 to 1947, Hill left early to pursue auto racing, working as a mechanic on other drivers cars. Hill began racing cars at an age, going to England as a Jaguar trainee in 1949. He made his debut in the French Grand Prix at Reims France in 1958 driving a Maserati. That same year, paired with Belgian teammate Olivier Gendebien, Hill became the first American-born winner of the 24 Hours of Le Mans with Hill driving most of the night in rainy conditions. He and Gendebien would go on to win the endurance race again in 1961 and 1962.
Hill began driving full-time for the Ferrari Formula One team in 1959, in 1960 he won the Italian Grand Prix at Monza, the first Grand Prix win for an American driver in nearly forty years, since Jimmy Murphy won the 1921 French Grand Prix. This turned out to be the last win for a car in Formula 1. The following season, Hill won the Belgian Grand Prix and with two races left trailed only his Ferrari teammate Wolfgang von Trips in the season standings, a crash during the Italian Grand Prix killed von Trips and fifteen spectators. Hill won the race and clinched the championship but the triumph was bittersweet, Ferraris decision not to travel to America for the seasons final round deprived Hill of the opportunity to participate in his home race at Watkins Glen as the newly crowned World Champion. When he returned for the season, his last with Ferrari, Hill said, I no longer have as much need to race. I dont have as much hunger anymore, I am no longer willing to risk killing myself. After leaving Ferrari at the end of 1962, he and fellow driver Giancarlo Baghetti started for the new team ATS created by engineers in the great walkout of 1961.
A V6 engine is a V engine with six cylinders mounted on the crankshaft in two banks of three cylinders, usually set at either a 60 or 90 degree angle to each other. The V6 is one of the most compact engine configurations, usually ranging from 2.0 L to 4.3 L displacement, shorter than the inline 4, because of its short length, the V6 fits well in the widely used transverse engine front-wheel drive layout. The V6 engine has become widely adopted for medium-sized cars, often as an engine where an inline 4 is standard. Modern V6 engines commonly range in displacement from 2.0 to 4.3 L, though larger and smaller examples have been produced, such as the 1991 Mazda MX3, some of the first V6-powered automobiles were built in 1905 by Marmon. This firm became something of a V-engine specialist, beginning with V2 engines, V4s, V6s, V8s, and, in the 1930s, Marmon was one of the few automakers of the world to offer a V16-powered automobile. From 1908 to 1913 the Deutz Gasmotoren Fabrik produced benzene electric train sets used a V6 as generator engine.
Another V6-powered car was designed in 1918 by Leo Goosen for Buick Chief Engineer Walter L. Marr, only one prototype Buick V6 car was built in 1918, it was long used by the Marr family. The first series-production V6 was introduced by Lancia in 1950 with the Lancia Aurelia model, Lancia sought a smoother and more powerful engine that would fit into an existing narrow engine bay. A Lancia engineer, Francesco De Virgilio, began analyzing the vibration of alternative V-angles for a V6 engine in 1943 and he found that a V6 with its cylinders positioned at a 60° V-angle could be made uniquely smooth-running in comparison with other possible V-angles. There was resistance to his conclusion, because the V6 was a virtually unknown engine type in the 1950s and his design featured four main bearings and six crankpins, resulting in evenly spaced firing intervals and low vibrations. Other manufacturers took note and soon other V6 engines were designed, the use of the sweet spot of 60 degrees V-angle maximized power while minimizing vibration and exterior dimensions of the engine.
Late Roman nymphaeum at the House of Decumani.
The Iron Crown of Lombardy.
An aerial photograph of the Autodromo Nazionale Monza.
The trophy awarded to Jimmy Bryan for winning the 1957 running of the Race of Two Worlds.
An example of a Maserati 250F as was used in Formula One. The 250F was unable to handle the Monza banking when equipped with larger Firestone tyres.
An aerial view of the Killarney motorsport race track in Cape Town, South Africa.
Carl Graham Fisher (1874–1938) of Indiana, an American vehicle parts and highway entrepreneur, co-founder and first president of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway. May 1909.
The Lohner-Porsche Mixte Hybrid was the first gasoline-electric hybrid automobile.
The CFRP floor of the Panoz DP01 ChampCar exhibiting complex aerodynamic design.
The underside curves of the Panoz DP01 ChampCar.
The rear wing of a 1998 Formula One car, with three aerodynamic elements (1, 2, 3). The rows of holes for adjustment of the angle of attack (4) and installation of another element (5) are visible on the wing's endplate.
An Audi TT Cup, which was allowed in the first season of the TCR International Series.
An Audi RS3 LMS TCR , in the ADAC TCR Germany Touring Car Championship paddock.
A 2015 spec Honda Civic TCR in the TCR International Series.
A 2017 spec Honda Civic Type-R TCR on the ADAC TCR Germany Touring Car Championship grid.
Factory-backed BMW 320si, Alfa Romeo 156, SEAT León, and Chevrolet Lacetti in the 2006 season.
Race start at the 2012 FIA WTCC Race of Japan.
A NASA wake turbulence study at Wallops Island in 1990. A vortex is created by the passage of an aircraft wing, revealed by smoke. Vortices are one of the many phenomena associated with the study of aerodynamics.
A replica of the Wright brothers' wind tunnel is on display at the Virginia Air and Space Center. Wind tunnels were key in the development and validation of the laws of aerodynamics.
Formula Renault 3.5 Series at Donington Park in 2007.
Robert Kubica with the Epsilon Euskadi team.
An Audi RS3 LMS TCR in the TCR Europe Series.
Michael Schumacher finished second, driving for Ferrari.


Paris: There was a stark difference in the Indian presence at Eurosatory, the just-concluded biennial defence show here. While the previous edition, held in June 2016, had seen some of the heavyweights of Indian DPSUs, including the Garden Reach Shipyard and the Ordnance Factories Board, as well as the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), the turnout of Indian companies at this years edition could hardly have been more different.
Leading the Indian presence was the Brahmos Aerospace Indo-Russian joint venture that can easily be termed the most successful example of an Indian firm developing an entire range of new products that not only meet the requirements of the Indian defence forces, but also elicit regular enquiries from numerous potential buyers around the world.
Colonel J.P. Uniyal, Director of Business Development and Product Support, at Brahmos said that even though Brahmos had skipped the last edition of Eurosatory, the participation this year has been very successful and highly satisfactory. "We have had numerous meetings with potential buyers who are very interested in our products and especially the recent innovation of the variants that can be launched from an aircraft, as we have proven by testing Brahmos on the Sukhois used by the Indian Air Force," Uniyal told Media India Group.
According to Uniyal the principal enquiries came from countries like South Korea and Brazil. "With some of these countries, we have been having discussions for a while. But it was important to be here and meet with them again as in the weapons' business, like any other business, you need to be seen at key global platforms such as Eurosatory to stay on the top of the mind of your customers. If you are absent frequently, then they tend to find other suppliers," he said.
Brahmos had also perhaps the most appealing display at the event, amongst the Indian participants. MKU, a Kanpur-based defence manufacturer, too had an active presence at the event, with the company displaying several of its products to attract buyers at the event, a strategy that perhaps proved to be highly successful, if the beeline of visitors to MKU stall was any indication.
One highlights of the Indian presence at the Eurosatory was the participation of a number of Small & Medium Enterprises in the domain of defence, ranging from protective gear and clothing to speciality steels and manufacturers of ancillaries for larger defence material like tanks, trucks and guns.Sweta Chaudhry Singh, Director of Frontier Protectivewear, a manufacturer of protective clothing based in Kolkata, said the participation in Eurosatory was good for her firm.
"Basically, it was a good show for us. We had come to develop our market in Europe further as we already have some customers in Germany. We were also looking for new partners and on both the parameters, the show proved to be successful," she said.Though there were only a handful of Indian firms that had their own stall like Frontier Protectivewear at the event, a number of SMEs had also come as part of delegations led by chambers of commerce such as FICCI and ICC, Kolkata.
"These firms were looking for collaboration in terms of boosting their design capabilities as well as to identify those French and global partners who could be interested in transfer of know-how to Indian companies," said Sourav Raichudhuri of the Paris Chamber of Commerce (CCIP), which had organised B2B meetings for the Indian delegation. The Indian companies were also scouting for clients who needed their prowess in software development. Drones and composite materials were high on the wishlist of the Indian firms.


text:
Suede's Brett Anderson to publish memoir, inspired by Justine Frischmann dumping him for Damon Albarn
It's expected in spring 2018
By Luke Morgan Britton
Suede frontman Brett Anderson has signed a deal to publish his memoir.
The Britpop singer has sold his autobiography to publishers Little, Brown – who have described the writing as "as sharp as [Anderson's] cheekbones".
The Guardian reports that the book will be called Cold Black Mornings, while differing reports suggest that the title is in fact Coal Black Mornings. NME has asked Suede's PR for clarification on the actual title. Either way, the title is said to refer to the death of Anderson's mother as well as the loss of his lover, Elastica's Justine Frischmann, to Britpop rival Damon Albarn.
The book is set to look at Anderson's upbringing, his "eccentric father" and the "choked Britain" of the early 1990s. It's expected in spring 2018.
"This is a memoir which is so very good we would have wanted to publish it, whoever the author," says publisher Richard Beswick.
"The fact that it is by the founder of an internationally successful band of course adds to the attraction. But fundamentally it is a classic memoir, which can stand alongside books like This Boy's Life and Alan Johnson's memoirs, as well as music books such as those by Mark Oliver Everett and Tracey Thorn."
Meanwhile, Anderson recently unveiled the previously unreleased solo track 'Forest Lullaby' from the upcoming compilation 'Collected Solo Work'.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Q: combobox returning null value in c# Here I created a for loop to list a range of numbers from 1 to 30 in the comboBox, but when I try to display the selected item from the combobox into a MessageBox it returns a null value. How can I get it to return the number selected from the comboBox? Here is my code:
    string selectedNumber;

    public Form1()
    {
        InitializeComponent();

        for (int i = 1; i <= 30; i++)
        {
            string[] numbers= { i.ToString() };
            comboBox1.Items.AddRange(numbers);
        }

        selectedNumber = comboBox1.SelectedText;

    }

    private void button1_Click(object sender, EventArgs e)
    {
        MessageBox.Show(selectedNumber);
    }
}

A: Reason is clear that you have no text selected
You've to select any item in combobox first. To do so try any of the following

*

*Set SelectedIndex to some valid index

*Set SelectedItem to a valid item in combobox through code

*Select an item in combobox by clicking it

Then use following code
MessageBox.Show(comboBox1.SelectedText); or

if(comboBox1.SelectedItem != null)//check for null since `SelectedItem` can be null when nothing selected
    MessageBox.Show(comboBox1.SelectedItem.ToString());

Note: As @tim pointed in comments SelectedText  approach won't work when DropDownStyle set to DropDownList. In that case you've to use SelectedItem approach

A: As several have pointed out, there is nothing selected in the ComboBox when you assign SelectedText to selectedNumber.  I would try two things:
First, don't call AddRange every time through the loop - build the array in the loop and then once the loop exits you can use AddRange.  I would also use a List<string>:
List<string> numbers = new List<string>();

for (int i = 1; i <= 30; i++)
{

    numbers.Add(i.ToString());
}

comboBox1.AddRange(numbers);

Secondly, in your button click event, show the selected text:
MessageBox.Show(comboBox1.SelectedText);

If comBox1's DropDownStyle is set to DropDownList, SelectedText will give an empty string.  In that case, something like this might help:
MessageBox.Show(comboBox1.SelectedItem.ToString());

In reality, you'd probably want to handle the corresponding selection changed event for ComboBox as you'd probably want to do something with it in your program, but it looks like you're just trying some things out right now.
Edited To Add
Note that as Sriram said, SelectedItem can be null, so you'll want to check for that condition with either Sriram's or Przemyslaw's code if you're using SelectedItem instead of SelectedText.

A: Here, with null check:
private void button1_Click(object sender, EventArgs e)
{
    var selectedItem = comboBox1.SelectedItem ?? "";

    MessageBox.Show(selectedItem.ToString());
}

A: Or, you can try this
                for (int x = 0; x <= 30; x++)
                  comboBox1.Items.Add(x.ToString());

I find it a lot simpler

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


BMKP Law is a boutique firm with a wealth of knowledge and experience advising both public sector and private sector employers on all facets of pension, benefits and executive compensation law. BMKP advise clients exclusively in areas regarding pension, benefits and executive compensation law. Clutch Marketing worked with BMKP LLP to create a new website that showcases the dedication of these lawyers to all facets of pension, benefits and executive compensation law. All the lawyers of this firm have dedicated their lives to this field of law, so it was only fitting that Clutch Marketing create a website that would demonstrate this commitment. Clutch also worked with the BMKP to create the firm's brand.
Brauti Thorning LLP ("BT Legal") is a full service litigation and corporate law boutique. The firm has a reputation for creatively achieving successful results for their clients. BT Legal provides a professional, innovative and dedicated approach in handling litigation and corporate issues. Clutch Marketing worked with BT Legal to create a new website that showcases their expertise in Civil Litigation, Corporate/Commercial, Criminal Defence, Intellectual Property, Family Law, Personal Injury and Regulatory Compliance and Defence.


In the last week and a half I've installed a new Kenwood stereo, 4 new speakers, new speaker wire, new power amp with it's mass of wire, repaired the faded digital dash, replaced the fuel filter, power steering pump bracket, all 3 radiator hoses, idler pulley, 4 new Bilstein shock absorbers, finally got the driver side headlight working after 8 months, removed the seats and cleaned some 50 lbs of sand, grime, old grease, dirt, spilled who knows what, 20 year old french fries and $3.19 in change. You have no idea how elated I was when I turned the key and saw my digital dash display for the first time. I should be in bowling Green by meeting time, I'll think about ya'll.
I returned Sunday afternoon from the Mountain Run 3 and annual C4 gathering at the Museum. The entire trip added 1565 miles to my odometer and the old girl made the whole trip without a hiccup, and averaged exactly 19mpg. Considering some of the "spirited" mountain driving we did I expected a lot worse.
The MR3 consisted of 3 days of running curvy mountain roads through Georgia, North Carolina and Tennessee with a string of about 15 or so Corvettes, mine being the oldest there. I had intended to only do the last two days so I left Monday morning to meet up with the group at the hotel in Fontana, NC that afternoon. As luck would usually not have it a few missed exits in Atlanta put me a little behind schedule. I stopped for fuel at a rinky dink station on Georgia 5 well north of Atlanta when suddenly the station was swarmed with Corvettes, just happened to run into the group doing the first day run so I joined in with them and ran the last half of Monday's drive and then back to the hotel.
The Tuesday run went across the Smokey Mountain NP road from Cherokee to Gatlinburg where we had lunch and prepared for the second half of the run, across the Tail of the Dragon. We did the Dragon run in 19 minutes first time. I don't know if that's considered fast but from where I was sitting we were blazing!! When we finally got to Deal's Gap at the end we all got out sweaty and exhausted, and a little bit of motion sickness for me and a few others. I received a lot of complements from the old timers for keeping up on my first time across. It was truly a run Corvettes are made for.
Wednesday we caravanned from Alcoa TN to Bowling Green via about every two lane, moonshine running mountain road between the two. That too was very enjoyable and we went through some beautiful country, and went through some back country towns that I'm sure have never seen that many Corvettes at once.
The Gathering: My biggest regret is not signing up for the "parade laps" on the Museum's autocross track on Thursday. I and several others didn't sign up because the description sounded just like that, a parade that cost you $45 to join. Oh how wrong I was. The parade laps turned out to be 4 laps following a professional driver and really tested the participants driving skills, a couple of cars even spun out w/no damage. Once they ran their 4 they all got back in line and went again and again, all morning. I won't miss that next year even though I'd probably be in the way with my measly 240hp.
The C4 event should have been called a ZR-1 gathering. Out of about 50 C4s there were about 6 Grand Sports, 3 40ths, 2 base models and the rest were ZR-1s. There were probably 75 or so newer models in attendance. Every seminar was ZR related also. It's the car's 25th anniversary so I guess that's why. The plant tour was fantastic except I kept drooling all over the floors. Corvettes are even beautiful in pieces.
All in all I really enjoyed the gathering despite the shunning of base model cars. I met some great folks and had some pretty good chow at the banquet and BBQ. But to be honest the mountain runs were way more enjoyable for me. I finally got to put the car on some roads it was designed to handle, and it continued to impress me on how well it did, and it's a 26 year old specimen.
I'm already looking forward to next year's MR4 and the track day at the museum. I haven't had that much fun in a car since I was 18.


text:
Blog, Headlines News, In The News, Latest News, Press Release
ABMDR youth group shines at ACYOA Weekend in New York
Many eagerly join ranks of ABMDR as potential bone marrow donors
Los Angeles, May 30, 2018 — The Armenian Bone Marrow Donor Registry's (ABMDR) New England youth group participated in the ACYOA General Assembly and Sports Weekend, which was held in New York from May 25 through 28.
The highly-anticipated weekend, which celebrated youth leadership and athletic excellence, drew delegates and members of the Armenian Church Youth Organization of America from throughout the East Coast.
During the various events of the weekend, members of the ABMDR New England youth group educated their peers about the life-saving mission of ABMDR, stressing the vital importance of joining the registry's ranks for a chance "to become an angel and help save someone's life." Thanks to the energetic efforts of the ABMDR New England youth group, 20 eager young men and women registered as potential bone marrow stem cell donors.
"It's so wonderful to see members of our youth group embrace social responsibility and activism; and to see them encourage fellow Armenians to support a cause they deeply believe in," said Maral Der Torossian, who heads ABMDR's New England outreach program.
The ACYOA General Assembly and Sports Weekend's athletic events, during which ABMDR youth-group members introduced their peers to the registry's work and recruited donors, were held at the CUNY John Jay gymnasium. The youth group had also recruited donors on May 19, during the banquet of the Armenian-American Pharmacists' Association (AAPA), in Watertown, Massachusetts. The AAPA is a sponsor of ABMDR's annual walkathon in Watertown.
"Kudos to our young men and women in New England for a fantastic job!" said Dr. Frieda Jordan, president of ABMDR, and added, "We commend our young volunteers' heartfelt enthusiasm, their truly inspiring dedication to advancing our organization's life-saving mission across the East Coast."


At Dumpster Ratings, we strive to bring you the best service at the best price available. We have a wide selection of dumpster sizes in stock in Port Orford, OR, with flexible & timley pickup and delivery. Give us a call today for all your dumpster rental and roll off needs.
Now a cheap doors and baseboards can just be thrown into the dumpster. The construction crew can certainly lay a new beautiful floor covering. Once the floor covering is all put in, the construction folks can placed the new doors you picked onto his or her hinges. Everything is coming together nicely and no chaos is around because of the rented dumpster.
Promoting a strong functioning relationship with a Rent a 10 Yard Dumpster in Port Orford, OR company is important to contractors. Having home constructing and remodeling, there is always trash to be discarded, and when you do have a good functioning relationship with a dumpster company, you can depend on that the only waste with your project will be debris, not really your time and funds.
Appliances which might be in very good shape rather than beat up and ugly or perhaps very dirty, can be provided, as some cabinets can certainly. Straight available trash has to go to the garbage dump, and eco friendly materials like copper and aluminum may either be classified at the building site or maybe taken to the correct recycle heart. You can save cash by working it yourself. Some dumpster rentals enable working at your site because they arrive divided into pieces. Parts of some recycled resources will get you back again a few bucks this also can offset the price of your Rent a 10 Yard Dumpster in Port Orford, OR, sometimes by a lot.
Book Duration: The time do you need your dumpster for? Dumpsters may be rented through the month or perhaps on a permanent basis (typically with a 12-month deal). Keep in mind that if you keep a momentary roll-off longer than your previously decided lease timeframe, there can be added charges of the average $15-$50 every day.
Household, office or bash trash, now get it planning an eco-friendly way without dangers. Just take it easy, sit back and find out the trash going away devoid of bothering yourself much.
Perhaps you have looked at your garage or perhaps basement recently? Most of us start using thise places because indefinite home storage for things we expect we might eventually use. Nevertheless there are always much more things we could possibly need in the future, and the spaces fill quickly, typically to the point where most of us couldn't come across any of the issues we actually need amongst the mess.
When you prepare a dumpster for rent, you choose your day and period that you would like to obtain it dropped off over and above your home. Make certain you have a obvious area to use it as well as a obvious area around the idea. You want to be sure that you can get for it easily. Decide to have it there before you begin to ensure that you chose the suitable size, you have room for it, and you can get rolling.
Another option would be to collect the bulk waste and cart it well in your automobile to your nearby disposal ability, one fill at a time. Several municipalities might accept this particular waste among others may not. Some might charge a fee for disposal. In the mean time, you never realize how much throw away you have and soon you try to fit it all as part of your car.
Look for speedy services when you are trying to rent a dumpster. You could find dumpsters that can be shipped the following day to your home or occupation site. Which is tip top customer service if you need to find the job likely and finished quickly. All your family members, friends or even the people a person hire may be in and out of your house in no time. You really should put your Alexandria, Virginia, home available for sale since you are moving to a condo or another region. The faster you get your house up for sale, your quicker you can find your money and move onto your next chapter in your daily life.
First off, dumpster leases are a effortless to find item and will generally be seen in your local area should you search online for trash companies. Most rental firms have websites that you can look at to uncover what services are being offered. When you can still help to make inquiries over the phone, looking at the personal websites of companies you are looking at will let you do a price comparison and companies at your leisure, without having feeling pressured to commit to anything at all. For most of such rentals, you should use the internet to come up with a booking.
Men and women often result in generating large tons of rubbish on completing their projects. Piling up rubbish for longer time period not only brings you with worries and also makes you a resource of pollution generation. You may have to take an instantaneous action to erase off the rubbish and recycle it a green friendly manner. How will you do that? A dumpster employ from a professional rental service provider can certainly make your task of recycling the trash pretty effortless.
The old rug can be wasted into the hired dumpster. The rug may have acquired to of already been cut to understand off of the floor. You know what a multitude this can trigger. Renting a new dumpster can make your lifetime as well as the development crew's life less complicated by simply having the capability to toss the idea into the dumpster.
Looking for a Reliable Atl Roll away from Dumpster Company It's often very simple to find a company which deals in Roll away from dumpsters in Atl. You can simply look for them on the web especially in the Atl directory. It is possible to equally have them through marketing advertisements. Many organizations dealing in dumpsters usually offer prompt distribution and pick up services to their clientele. They are also offered 24 hours on the web. You can always ask for their support in emergency situations. As it pertains to rates, a lot of companies involved in the Move off Dumpster materials usually supply reasonable prices. Frequently, the charges add the delivery, pick-up and also disposal with all the different waste materials accumulated in the storage containers. Reliable firms don't cost separate expenses for the techniques involved. It's possible to locate them on the web. In order to possess a better offer, it's always better to call the corporation you want to take care of early enough. This kind of ensures that there is an right rotate off container that can serve the purpose you have in mind.
Selecting the right sizing dumpster is the first step. All reject items or perhaps materials ought to be placed correctly and absolutely inside the dumpster where there should be nothing sticking out. Seeking the correct dumpster for your needs and trucking away your trash can be determined based on the project. Smaller sized projects utilizing involve cleaning out basements or perhaps garages though larger projects include renovations and cooking area makeovers. Small dumpsters are available that may be wheeled concerning the property and also medium and larger dumpsters are available for projects that involve development and reconstruction materials.
If you want to accurately measure the true tariff of a Rent a 10 Yard Dumpster in Port Orford, folks must look at their dump's expenses, the cost of petrol to drive right now there and back as well as the time individuals trips would likely take. In many situations when renting a new dumpster is needed, individuals are taking on a sizable project. They are often cleaning out a home, moving, remodeling or gardening. No matter what the actual project is actually, it will need to have a lot of time. As a result the time a new dumpster can save folks especially useful. The money and also time a new dumpster saves folks often helps it be economically workable.
Dumpsters come in different sizes in accordance to your designed requirements. Once you let the dumpster employ companies be aware of your specific needs, a right sort of dumpster will be supplied to your job location. Knowing the pricing methodology with the company prior to placing an order will let you in making your Rent a 10 Yard Dumpster in Port Orford, OR more affordable. Dumpsters are generally priced based on the size and period of your Rent a 10 Yard Dumpster in Port Orford, OR. So before you place an order with regard to Rent a 10 Yard Dumpster in Port Orford, OR have a transparent picture regarding the size of your dumpster and amount of the Rent a 10 Yard Dumpster in Port Orford, OR. Without having an idea, you can also get assistance from the Rent a 10 Yard Dumpster in Port Orford, OR firms to hit the best offer. Enquire about the fees levied for your extra disposal above the tonnage reduce to make the Rent a 10 Yard Dumpster in Port Orford, OR more cost-effective.
Weight Restriction: Every dumpster comes with a weight reduce which means you can put your throwaways to an established limit only. The body weight limit involving dumpsters can range among 2 to 12 tons. The particular dumpsters are calculated and if weight is found on top of the permitted reduce than you might have to pay extra income. So it is extremely necessary to receive information about your dumpster weight reduce.
One of the critical sides of owning a commercial business is waste managing. It is important to possess a place which you could dispose of waste and have the item transported out. Many companies learn that Rent a 10 Yard Dumpster in Port Orford, ORs and other solid waste services are very important to the everyday function of their business. In this case, Rent a 10 Yard Dumpster in Port Orford, ORs is a superb option that could solve your waste managing problems. Although these rental fees be important with regard to businesses, nevertheless Rent a 10 Yard Dumpster in Port Orford, ORs is often an excellent alternative for residents as well who might require some extra junk services. Of course, whether you are hiring dumpsters for residential or commercial use, there are a few important details you must take into account.
Guam is unincorporated territory of US; it really is one of the several US territories. Their state builds its economy totally on tourism Industry, Department involving Defense installments, and in the area owned companies. Guam is the southernmost and major island within the Mariana island sequence and is also the largest island in Micronesia.
Defining Height and width of Dumpster: Normally dumpster will come in five dimensions viz 10 cubic yard, Fifteen cubic yard, Twenty cubic yard, Thirty cubic yard and 40 cubic backyard. It is been observed which unlike 10, Twenty, 30, Forty five cubic yard dumpster, Fifteen cubic yard dumpster are difficult to find.
Once the Rent a 10 Yard Dumpster in Port Orford, OR provider is hooked using your project, you are going to enjoy the correct to decide your timings of dumpster arrival and pick up. A professional Rent a 10 Yard Dumpster in Port Orford, OR company will take whole responsibility involving clearing your trash by tip to toe of the feet with a first class service. Once the dumpster is placed at the location, you can immediately start off tossing the trash into the dumpster as well as the Rent a 10 Yard Dumpster in Port Orford, OR provider may clear the junk and recycling it in eco- friendly way causing virtually no harm to the earth. Certain things that this customer offers to be transparent about before getting associated with Rent a 10 Yard Dumpster in Port Orford, OR company is quantity of the trash that has to have clearing, time frame for which your dumpster is rental and type of the junk that is left into the junk dumpster. This information serves as synopsis to your Rent a 10 Yard Dumpster in Port Orford, OR provider in assisting the customer to correct sized dumpster on the best cost.


How Gorgeous Does Kareena Look In This Photoshoot?!
If there's anyone who should be comfortable with the limelight, it's Kareena Kapoor. She made headlines every time she took up an offbeat role, she had everyone talking when she flaunted a size zero figure and attributed Yoga for it (thus making Yoga the new 'it' thing!), and she currently has the country wrapped around her pinky as she makes one successful appearance after another with her baby bump on display. Currently, we're obsessing over this shoot Kareena did for AND, a fashion brand known for its contemporary-yet-stylish designs. If this doesn't make you fall head-over-heels in love with her, we don't know what will.
No one does checks quite like Kareena. She makes this blue and black checked dress look completely effortless. What we love is that you can take this classy number from day to night without batting an eyelid. Copy her side ponytail and pair this dress with black stilettos for work or let your hair loose for an evening date.
To those people who think formals are boring, this one's for you! Kareena makes these culottes and white shirt set look fabulous. But you don't have to be a corporate slave to rock this look (you don't have to be Kareena either ;)). Keep it simple with black heels, a leather-strap watch or a dainty bracelet. This look is great for tall girls.
3. Rocking pencil fits like a BOSS!
Give the illusion of a slimmer waistline in this grey and white dress. Kareena looks stunning in this modern look meant for women who are petite. Not only do pencil-fit dresses make you look taller, throwing a jacket on gives the illusion of broader shoulders, thus making petit girls look fuller. Pair with wedges or pencil heels and your favourite earrings.
If you're going to slay, slay in red! This look reminds us of Kareena's "You Are My Soniya" look, where she pairs fitted red pants and a crop top. Remember that? Of course you do! Giving us major date night inspiration in this red maxi, Kareena looks almost ethereal. This versatile red gown is so simple yet such a classic pick for a night out. Throw on a pair of pretty earrings and heels and you are ready to make heads turn. *This is a sponsored post for AND.


Hi, this lecture is all about true and false values.
Also known as Boolean values.
bool and operators that we can apply to Boolean values.
And now we're going to use some of Python's comparison operators.
For example, let's compare values three and four using the less than operator.
get our true value or false value back.
The type of value that we get is type bool.
That's a good pair of three with eight. Asking you if three is greater then eight.
And it's not so the value that this expression evaluates to is false.
When you evaluate eight greater then three, we get true.
five greater then or equal to three point four.
Let's compare two ints, seven, seven.
Notice that the operation that we're performing now is the equality operation.
And, we need to use two equal signs, not one to signify equality.
That's because the single equals sign is already used for the assignment operation.
Seven is equal to seven. How about seven and seven point zero.
A type int operand with a type float operand.
This is also true. Let's assign a couple of variable values.
can apply the same equality operator to two variable operands.
and Y refers to eight, and then seven is compared with eight.
Another operator's the inequality operator.
You can check whether three is not equal to four, and that's True.
that are applied to Boolean values, and yield Boolean results.
we'll begin by creating a variable grade, and assigning it the value 80.
So grade refers to 80.
see whether the grade is a passing grade.
than 50? And that's true.
check to see whether grade is not greater than or equal to 50.
evaluated first, and that gives the value of true.
And then the not operator is applied to True.
Something that is not True is False, and that's the result that we get back.
And you can apply this not operator two times in a row.
is equivalent to just saying, is grade greater than or equal to 50.
Next let's use the and operator.
First, we'll make another variable named grade2 that refers to the value 70.
And, now we'll write an expression involving both variables grade and grade2.
This expression will check to see whether both of these are passing grades.
and is grade2 also greater than or equal to 50.
And evaluates to true if both operands are true.
So first, this expression is evaluated, and it is true.
also true, making this entire result a true result.
and, and check to see what we get.
Because this first operand is false, the Boolean expression is false.
And we don't even go on to check the second operands value.
Now let's set grade back to 80, and this time change grade2 to be a failing grade.
When this expression is evaluated, first this part of the expression is evaluated.
evaluate this part of the expression, which is false.
And so the expression evaluates to false.
To summarize, and again, only evaluates true if both of its operands are true.
Otherwise it evaluates to false.
Finally, let's use the logical operator four which also applies to do operands.
We'll start by assigning to the grade in grade2, two passing grades.
And now we'll write the same expression as before, replacing the and with an or.
This expression will evaluate to true if at least one of the operands in true.
Now let's assign to grade a failing grade and reevaluate the expression.
of this expression and determine that it is false.
expression which is true and because at least one operand is true.
The expression evaluates to true.
when the expression is evaluated it works as follows.
this point, without even having to go on to look at the second operand.
least one of its operands is true and it evaluates to false otherwise.
Now let's combine the operators into single expressions.
I've assigned grade and grade2 passing grades of 80 and 90.
And I'd like to evaluate this expression.
to 50, or grade2 greater than or equal to 50.
we can interpret this expression, depending on order of presidence.
First and I'll use parentheses to signal that, followed by the not operator.
part of the expression and then the or operator apply second.
So not first, followed by or, or first followed by not.
Let's evaluate the expression, and see what happens.
The value that the expression evaluates to is true.
Let's use the parentheses to see which of the two operators applied first.
We'll begin by putting the parentheses around the or part of the expression.
Ensuring that or applies before not. And when we do that the result is false.
not the order of precedence.
Instead the order of precedence is that not is applied first as I can show here.
The order of presence for logical operators is not and and then or.
apply in the order we'd like.
Without having to worry about what the order of precedence is.
operations occur in the order that you want.
Sometimes we'll use parentheses to make an expression more readable.
higher precedence than the Boolean operators, or logical operators.
So these parentheses are unnecessary.
Instead we could have left off the parentheses and had the following.
But some might find a little harder to read and understand.


If you haven't already tried kale salad then your definitely missing out. Originally I thought it sounded horrible. However, I noticed that my bother could eat a whole pint from Gelson's market and he seemed to be enjoying every bite! At the time he wasn't really a health nut so I figured if he could eat it then so could I. I fell in love with it and buy it often when I am in his area.
After talking to fellow writer Amanda, she shared her version of this popular kale salad recipe. Keep in mind that it's low in calories, high in fiber, virtually carb free and VERY filling! You can't go wrong and it's also CHEAP!
1/2 garlic clove, finely chopped.
1. Trim bottom 2 inches off kale stems and discard. Slice kale, including ribs, into 3/4-inch-wide ribbons. You should have 4 to 5 cups. Place kale in a large bowl.
2. If using bread, toast it until golden on both sides. Tear it into small pieces and grind in a food processor until mixture forms coarse crumbs.
3. Using a mortar and pestle, or with the back of a knife, pound garlic into a paste. Transfer garlic to a small bowl. Add 1/4 cup cheese (optional), 3 tablespoons oil, lemon juice, salt, pepper flakes, and black pepper, and whisk to combine. Pour dressing over kale and toss very well to thoroughly combine (dressing will be thick and need lots of tossing to coat leaves). Add cranberries, sunflower seeds and carrot slices (optional). Toss again.
4. Let salad sit for 10 minutes, then serve topped with bread crumbs, additional cheese and a drizzle of oil (source).
Trainer Tips: I like to add in the sunflower seeds and carrots for extra crunch! You could try using less oil and see how it tastes. I would recommend 2 tablespoons. Let it sit a tad longer, several hours in the fridge, then take it out for 20 minutes so the oil gets warm and toss again. The longer you wait to eat it the more time it has for the flavors to combine and gel.
Double the batch if you think you'll like it! This stuff GOES FAST. So make enough for a couple days! Share this kale salad recipe with you're friends!