In histories of archaeology, A.H.L.F. Pitt-Rivers and W.M.F. Petrie both have very prominent roles. It has long been known that the two were acquainted, leading many to assume that several key aspects of Petrie's archaeological approaches were adopted directly from Pitt-Rivers. Few histories, however, have critically evaluated Petrie's early archaeological work in the UK prior to his well-known endeavours in Egypt and Palestine. It is argued in this article that on doing so it becomes clear that the influence of Pitt-Rivers on Petrie has been overstated in the past. Moreover, a brief comparison of their approaches to fieldwork, to publication, to engagement with objects, and their views on museums, demonstrates more contrasts than similarities. In order to begin to evaluate Petrie's disciplinary development this article considers some of the intellectual networks of late Victorian England as well as the social and economic contexts in which Petrie practised archaeology, which were to shape his methods independently of Pitt-Rivers.
When Pitt-Rivers happened upon a young Flinders Petrie surveying the Great Pyramid at Giza, one grey, drizzly February morning in 1881 (see Figure 1), he exclaimed, "we seem to be working in the same line". It is a comment that has particular resonance today for both men are, in western archaeological textbooks at least, mythologized as the founding fathers of the discipline. This is primarily on account of their pioneering advocacy of a methodical approach to fieldwork: Pitt-Rivers is credited with instituting extensive excavation and detailed recording of sites (Lucas, 2001: 19-26), while Petrie is exalted for establishing the importance of pottery sequences (seriation) (Petrie, 1899) and for authoring the first guide to archaeological practice (Petrie, 1904). Both emphasized the value of the ordinary and typical find as the basis for wider archaeological inference (Pitt-Rivers, 1892: ix; Petrie, 1893: 164), and promoted systematic excavation (e.g. Lane Fox [Pitt-Rivers], 1876: 286; Petrie, 1893: 156). That they first met in London (Drower, 1985: 25) and then in Egypt (Burleigh and Clutton-Brock, 1982), corresponded for twenty years and socialized (Drower, 1994) would suggest a significant exchange of ideas and practices. Certainly it has long been assumed that Pitt-Rivers was something of an "idol" of Petrie's (Quirke, 2010: 14) and that it was he who introduced Petrie to "new ideas in archaeological techniques and the importance of careful finds recording of stratigraphy" (Knowlden, 2008: 41). But what was the extent of this influence? How big an impact did the General have on the young Petrie, or indeed vice versa?
Fig. 1: Petrie outside the tomb he lived in during his survey of the Great Pyramid, 1881. Courtesy of the Egypt Exploration Society.
Pitt-Rivers (see Figure 2) was twenty-six years Petrie's senior and was a figure that Petrie undoubtedly admired. For example, Petrie cited the General's work as a yardstick for archaeological rigour when berating fellow Egyptologist Edouard Naville's lamentable fieldwork efforts: "if you look at Pitt-Rivers' 'Excavations at Bokerley Dyke' you will know what excavating means" (cited in Drower, 1985: 284). However, on further scrutiny of contemporary archives — as well as Petrie's own fieldwork methodologies, his approach to publication, his engagement with material culture, and his views on museums — a somewhat different conclusion can be reached. What emerges characterizes the influence of Pitt-Rivers on Petrie's endeavours as more indirect, with many similarities probably arising out of a shared intellectual milieu and their differences emerging as a result of the contrasting contexts of their field practice. It is these wider social and economic conditions, as well as the topography of intellectual networks at this time, that require examination in order to situate personal factors and particular circumstances within the contexts of Victorian knowledge production. In doing so it possible to challenge the manner in which we often conceive of the history of archaeology as the cumulative growth of knowledge, with a simple linear continuity from one heroic figure to another.
Fig. 2: Portrait of Pitt-Rivers in the 1880s. Courtesy of the Pitt Rivers Museum (PRM 2012.33.1).
The early development of Lt-Gen. A.H. Lane Fox Pitt-Rivers' approach to field archaeology has already been subject to extensive analysis and is well documented (Chapman, 1989: 23-25; Bowden, 1991). Suffice it to say here that the General is known to have engaged in excavation in Ireland as early as 1862 (Bowden, 1991: 60), although he himself proclaimed that his "very first lessons as an excavator were derived from Canon Greenwell during his well-known and valuable exploration in the Yorkshire Wolds" in 1867 (Pitt-Rivers, 1887: xix). On reviewing Pitt-Rivers' practices, Bowden (1991) observed little in the way of innovative techniques beyond that of his contemporaries. Yet in terms of his influence within Victorian society, what was perhaps more important was Pitt-Rivers' social status, societal connections and dominant personality within the key learned societies of the day (Chapman, 1989). These included the Anthropological Society, the Archaeological Institute, the Society of Antiquaries and the Royal Society, to name but a few. This ensured that Pitt-Rivers was one of the most prominent and vocal individuals in the U.K. actively involved in archaeological fieldwork in the latter part of the nineteenth century.
"I abhor all ceremonies and festivities, and all concourses of people; I want to be doing, instead of being and suffering. I would rather do a week's hard work, than assist in a days 'pleasure'."
Most of Petrie's days were thus solitary ones, completely devoted at this time to the compilation of charts and mathematical tables for his book on metrology (Petrie, 1877a) and on the production of exact plans of British earthworks, monuments, and churches (Petrie, 1880: Figure 3). This daily, some might say obsessive, numerical compilation of angles, elevations, and levels underscores the methodical manner in which Petrie approached field enquiry even at this early date. As a home-schooled individual, it is perhaps also not surprising that Petrie was so self-sufficient and his Plymouth Brethren lifestyle may also go some way to explain his infamous frugality and his single-mindedness (cf. Petrie, 1914). Consequently, it is not necessary to seek a dominant, outside influence on the inception of Petrie's practices, but rather to qualify the social circumstances that were to validate and give a platform to his work. In this, the learned societies of London and their members were crucial.
Fig. 3: Petrie's plan of Castlehill. Courtesy of the Society of Antiquaries of London.
"... plotted Lane Fox's Sussex camp section on tracing paper to compare with own; find no differences beyond those of the variations in the ⊕ works" (Petrie's English Journal, 26 May 1877).
On the day of his presentation, Friday 1 June 1877, the twenty-three-year old Petrie had an audience of sixty members of the Institute (Petrie, 1877b) and amongst their number was Col. Lane Fox [Pitt-Rivers] himself. It was an experience he related in more detail than was usual for his journal (see Figure 4).
Fig. 4: Petrie's journal entry for Friday 1 June 1877. Courtesy of the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology.
The following year the influential anthropologist E.B. Tylor invited Petrie to present a similar paper on metrology to the Anthropological Institute, much to Petrie's surprise (Petrie's English Journal, 12 March 1878). So it was that two months later Petrie again found himself in front of some of the pre-eminent intellectuals of the day, including figures such as John Evans who engaged positively with his ideas, and Petrie summed the meeting up as being "altogether very favourable" (Petrie's English Journal, 9 April 1878). He was so encouraged by the experience that he returned to the Anthropological Institute the following week to hear Pitt-Rivers and George Rolleston speak of their archaeological investigations at Sigwell (Rolleston and Lane Fox [Pitt-Rivers], 1879). Notably, it was not Pitt-Rivers who was to make an impression on this occasion, but Rolleston, who according to Petrie's journal "spoke well".
Despite the considerable skill in surveying Petrie undoubtedly possessed by this time, having deposited some 130 maps in the British Museum's Map Room by 1880, there are only a few indications that he conducted any form of field-excavation prior to his time in Egypt. He was undoubtedly acquainted with developing approaches from his participation in meetings of the Archaeological Institute (see also Petrie, 1878a, 1878b) and through familiarity with current archaeological literature, including Canon Greenwell's "verbose" (Petrie to Spurrell, 9 January 1880) British Barrows (Greenwell, 1877) and local archaeological proceedings such as produced by Somerset Archaeological Society (Petrie to Spurrell, 10 October 1879). Petrie is also known to have visited some active excavations in England, such as at Cissbury, after Lane Fox's colleague, James Park Harrison, invited him in October 1877. This invitation was not sent with encouragement from Pitt-Rivers, however, but rather from Albert Hartshorne who "told him [Harrison] to write" (Petrie's English Journal, 18 October 1878). Unfortunately, as Petrie's journal goes on to record, adverse weather marred this visit and the two did not meet for several months. On another occasion (12 June 1878), during one of his long walking trails, Petrie steered a course to Caesar's Camp (Castlehill) in Folkestone as he had heard from Spurrell that Pitt-Rivers was working there. Spurrell had, however, been mistaken: the General was at "the Folkestone Camp" that day. Undeterred and intent upon engaging with Pitt-Rivers again, Petrie wrote to him that same weekend, enclosing with his letter his own plan of Castlehill, "in case it may save him some trouble" (Petrie to Spurrell, 15 June 1878). How Pitt-Rivers responded (if at all) is unknown, but he did not include any reference to it in his publication of the site a few years later (Pitt-Rivers, 1883).
It was through his close friend Flaxman C.J. Spurrell, not Pitt-Rivers, however, that Petrie was encouraged to actively participate in fieldwork (Caiger, 1971; Scott and Shaw, 2009). Spurrell's own primary interest was the Palaeolithic, although he published relatively little. Nevertheless, reappraisal of his archaeological endeavours has emphasized that the approach he took to investigating the Stone Age was one informed by many progressive concerns, including taphonomy, contextual integrity, technology and ancient cognition (Scott and Shaw, 2009: 62). Petrie often accompanied Spurrell on explorations of the countryside and it was Petrie who Spurrell first asked to act as witness to his discoveries, such as that of flints in situ at Crayford (Petrie's English Journal, 5 March 1881; Spurrell, 1880). Petrie in letter to Spurrell (9 March 1880), however, insisted that Spurrell call upon more expert witnesses to authenticate his discoveries, including Lane Fox, John Evans, Augustus Franks and Edward Tylor, highlighting the important role that these other individuals played in scientifically validating archaeological observations at this time (cf. Gamble and Kruszyinski, 2009: 463).
Spurrell invited Petrie to join the Kent Archaeological Society in April 1878 (Petrie's English Journal, 5 April 1878), one of the many local archaeological societies to emerge between the 1840s and 1880s (Levine, 1986: 51). Although Petrie is known to have been dismissive of his colleagues' leisurely exploration of ancient remains, derisively labelling them "luncheon-hunters", it was with members of this organisation that he participated in what might be his earliest excavations. These were at Hayes Common in the summer of 1879 (Knowlden, 2008), in the company of George Clinch (see also Clinch, 1889). In a letter to Spurrell dated 18 June 1879, Petrie describes his involvement in the cutting of several deep trenches into a barrow and the various colours of strata revealed. Petrie related some measurements and drew very rough diagrams, but provided little in the way of interpretation, and seemed disappointed that "nothing was found, not even a flint flake". Nevertheless, Petrie's enthusiasm for excavation is apparent from several of his other letters. In a missive to Spurrell dated 15 November 1880, for instance, Petrie enquired whether his friend had a small pick, shovel or spade handy in case he was "inclined to make a few holes" and if so Petrie proclaimed that "here's your labourer ready". Even his first season in Egypt did not dampen his enthusiasm for fieldwork back home: "so far from Egypt blunting my taste for British remains, I shall come back ravenous for excavation, and general clearing up" (Petrie to Spurrell, 11 February 1881). It seems likely, therefore, that Petrie was involved in other informal excavations of the type often undertaken at this time by local enthusiasts, but for which we currently have little information.
In summary, although Pitt-Rivers was one of the most prominent figures in Petrie's immersion in the antiquarian world during the 1870s, and clearly someone that Petrie was keen to emulate and seek validation from, there is no evidence that he directly encouraged or formerly mentored Petrie (contra. Knowlden, 2008: 41). Rather it seems that it was through indirect observation of the activities of others, social interaction within both the London societies and local archaeological field-clubs, but most importantly with the active encouragement of Spurrell that Petrie acquired his first archaeological experiences.
Petrie ventured to Egypt for the first time in 1880, at the age of twenty-seven, to undertake his most ambitious survey yet: that of the famous monuments on the Giza plateau (Petrie, 1883). Here Gaston Maspero permitted Petrie to undertake some limited excavation as an "Antiquities Service official" for the museum in order to complete his survey, but it was not until 1883 that he conducted his first excavation for the Egypt Exploration Fund at Tanis (Petrie, 1885). These later foreign endeavours provide better clues as to Petrie's approach to archaeology and these can — together with his approach to publication, engagement with objects and museums — be briefly compared with those of Pitt-Rivers to evaluate any lasting legacy. The following is not intended to be a comprehensive or exhaustive comparison, but merely begins to provide some key points of similarity and contrast as a basis for future scrutiny and deeper contextualization.
In the annals of archaeological history it is Pitt-Rivers' seasons of fieldwork on his own estates at Cranborne Chase, particularly at Bokerley Dyke, that are lauded as the point at which he introduced detailed and systematic excavation and recording techniques. As has been observed by Lucas (2001: 20), however, the practical manner in which Pitt-Rivers dug — by first running a trench across areas such as earthworks — was already a convention of the times and a technique employed by other fieldworkers such as Canon Greenwell, approaches that Petrie was also familiar with. Where Pitt-Rivers' work particularly departed from his contemporaries was in creating whole plans of sites with far greater attention to detail (Barrett, Bradley, Bowden and Mead, 1983: 194).
The concern for the full plan of a site has also been identified as paramount in Petrie's fieldwork philosophy (Lucas, 2001: 26) and this is clear from his 1904 Methods and Aims in Archaeology. Within the pages of this handbook Petrie outlined the method by which large areas could be schematized using a grid of squares demarcated by a number for each column and a letter for each row (Petrie, 1904: 48-54). Yet Petrie's approach to dealing with an archaeological landscape in this totalizing way may owe more to his experience as a methodical and accurate surveyor than to emulation of Pitt-Rivers' practices. Moreover, unlike Pitt-Rivers, Petrie seemed far less concerned with measuring sections, and representations of these are notably lacking from his reports (Wheeler, 1954: 15; Lucas, 2001: 25). In part this contrast is attributable to the different field contexts in which each worked: Pitt-Rivers worked largely on single monuments in the European (primarily British) landscape, whereas the majority of Petrie's most acclaimed investigations took place in sprawling temple and town sites, or in large cemeteries in the Egyptian desert. Indeed, the very monumental nature of Egyptian remains themselves would have made quite different demands in terms of operational decisions and planning that most likely independently shaped Petrie's attitudes to excavation. Moreover, the sheer quantity of artefacts that were unearthed each season probably encouraged Petrie's creation of corpora and type-sequences (see below). In comparison, British excavations yielded more meagre quantities of finds — as Petrie discovered at Hayes Common — and in their absence, Pitt-Rivers' emphasis upon extensive excavation and the creation of detailed field plans is understandable.
These different contexts also constrained the nature of their workforces and thus their working methods and recording practices. Pitt-Rivers' early excavations were relatively small scale, employing only a handful of labourers. For instance, it took seven men two or three days to dig a barrow at Sigwell (Bowden, 1991: 84) and between three and five men to explore hillforts, such as Mount Caburn over the course of two short seasons (Bowden, 1991: 85). For his excavations on his Cranborne Chase estate the General could afford to establish more formal arrangements by employing a series of clerks who oversaw a workforce drawn from his own estates (Bowden, 1991: 104-107). Petrie's teams in Egypt were considerably larger, numbering in the hundreds at some sites, comprised of local Fellahin and Bedouin. Just a year prior to Petrie's first excavations for the Egypt Exploration Fund (EEF) the British had bombarded Alexandria and commenced their occupation of Egypt. Therefore, this was a starkly colonial setting and this framed Petrie's fieldwork philosophy and the nature of the archaeological knowledge that was produced from it (see Quirke, 2010; Schlanger, 2011). More specifically, it can be suggested that it was such colonial access to labour that made it possible to invest in field techniques in a manner that perhaps could not have been realized before and it allowed Petrie to normalize expectations of what constituted proper fieldwork practice, which he outlined in his 1904 manual (see especially "Chapter III: The Labourers"). Therefore, technical methodological decisions related to fieldwork were inextricably linked to the economic and social conditions in which they were practiced. Consequently, their development cannot be narrated as simply ideological or objective advances that were passed from one individual to another.
On a final note regarding fieldwork, it is worth mentioning that in addition to Pitt-Rivers' mastery of early excavation, he has also been regarded as pioneer of surface survey and artefact collection (Bowden, 1991: 94). He keenly advanced such approaches in his publications, and notable examples include his work in Oxfordshire (Lane Fox [Pitt-Rivers], 1869) and around Stonehenge (Lane Fox [Pitt-Rivers], 1870). Yet Petrie never seemed to adopt this method of archaeological data collection, despite his life-long enjoyment of walking.
"... the illustrations are not ancillary, but the main matter of the reports, the text being a comment on the plates, and of course the printed details in the Relic Tables etc." (Piggott, 1965: 174).
This can also characterize Petrie's approach to publishing his sites and he advocated, with reference to writing archaeological reports, that "the arrangement of the plates must precede the writing of the details of the work" (Petrie, 1904: 114). Nevertheless, although the composition of Petrie's published plates is similar to the General's, they were more rudimentary and they were often without accompanying notes as to the context of the objects. Moreover, although Pitt-Rivers employed relic tables from at least 1877 (Bowden, 1991: 85), it would not be until a decade after the General's death that Petrie would begin to include such listings in his own accounts (Petrie, 1913).
"I am aware that I have done it in greater detail than has been customary, but my experience as an excavator has led me to think that investigations of this nature are not generally sufficiently searching and that much valuable evidence is lost by omitting to record them carefully" (Pitt-Rivers, 1887: xvi-xvii).
"To state every fact about everything found would be useless, as no one could wade through the mass of statements" (Petrie, 1904: 49).
"No one will know better than yourself the essential need of trained observers to record the archaeology of Egypt before all the materials for study shall have been removed or destroyed [...] The start of this work is assured by the amount already received; but its utility and results will mainly depend on the support that may yet be given to it."
With the costs of publication also having to be borne out of the same limited funding resources, the brevity of reports can, to some extent, be understood. Pitt-Rivers, on the other hand, as a private and wealthy landowner had considerably more time and resources at his disposal. Therefore, while ideologically both men may have shared similar underlying principles of archaeological presentation, these were enacted within very different economic and physical environments.
"I am much obliged for your suggestion about models; and as I am giving to clear out an entire fort of the XVIIIth Dynasty we might well have a model of that to enlighten the public, somewhat like the model of Pompeii at Naples."
There is, however, no evidence (that the current author is aware of) to indicate that Petrie ever created such a miniature or adopted their use in illustrating his lectures.
Objects had a prominent position in Victorian archaeological discourse (see for e.g. Gosden and Larson, 2009: 121-146). They were the focus of evolutionary types, series and sequences, and Pitt-Rivers was arguably the scholar that was most explicit in his promotion of these (Chapman, 1985). In formulating sequence dates for prehistoric Egyptian pottery, Petrie (1899) drew from the same general concepts of artefact sequencing that Pitt-Rivers subscribed to (e.g. Lane Fox [Pitt-Rivers], 1875: 308; Pitt-Rivers, 1891) and he undoubtedly would have concurred with the General's insistence on the value of such ceramics, even when fragmentary (cf. Pitt-Rivers, 1892: x). Specifically, both drew on the notion of "degeneration of form" (e.g. Lane Fox [Pitt-Rivers], 1875), which Pitt-Rivers adopted directly from John Evans' numismatic lineages (see Schlanger, 2010: 358). The General's own view of cultural evolution owed more to Herbert Spencer than to Darwin (cf. Lane Fox [Pitt-Rivers], 1875: 298), the foundation of which was a keenly-held conservative belief in evolutionary gradualism (Chapman, 1985). Such conservatism also characterized Petrie's worldview (Petrie, 1907, 1911; Drower, 1985: 342-343; Quirke, 2010: 14), which ultimately became entangled with his involvement in eugenics (Sheppard, 2010).
Petrie never directly referenced Pitt-Rivers in his discussions concerning sequence dating and any influence can only be inferred. It needs to be remembered, however, that the platform for Pitt-Rivers' own views was one that he shared with John Evans and Herbert Spencer in the London societies of which Petrie was also eventually a member. There was thus a common archaeological vernacular that Petrie was immersed within and it is not just Pitt-Rivers that echoes in his writing, but also the language of Evans, Spencer and Tylor. More broadly, typology and chronology were prominent within wider European archaeological discourses, and Petrie's chronological work in the 1890s was contemporary with that of Oscar Montelius, which he is very likely to have been familiar with.
Cultural evolutionism also carried with it questions concerning race, building upon an already existing and widespread Victorian preoccupation with the collection and study of human crania (Nowak-Kemp and Galanakis, 2012: 89-90). Correspondingly, it is unsurprising that amongst the plates that accompanied many of Petrie and Pitt-Rivers' publications were profiles of skulls, together with tables of craniological measurements. Petrie in particular undertook quite detailed and focussed racial studies (e.g. Petrie, 1887) and Pitt-Rivers displayed a series of human skulls as part of his Bethnal Green Museum exhibits in Kensington in the 1870s. For both men, however, their interest in this subject was influenced quite separately by work being undertaken by their close colleagues. In Petrie's case this was Francis Galton and Karl Pearson (Sheppard, 2010), while for Pitt-Rivers it was primarily his friend and excavation partner, George Rolleston (Nowak-Kemp and Galanakis, 2012).
An area in which Pitt-Rivers and Petrie certainly departed was in their use of experimental techniques as a methodology for gaining insight into ancient production. Pitt-Rivers' practical experiments, in particular, have been ranked amongst his greatest achievements (Coles, 1979: 17-19; Bowden, 1991: 94, 158). Petrie was also sympathetic to experimental engagement with material and an early paper he gave to the Anthropological Institute (Petrie, 1884) is noted as one of the first attempts to understand hard stone quarrying "in a rational and objective manner" (Coles, 1979: 19). Yet it was not an approach Petrie rigorously or regularly employed: his 1917 volume on Tools and Weapons, for instance, remained largely descriptive, with functional inferences based on visual examination only.
Both Pitt-Rivers and Petrie have university museums in the U.K. that bear their names and collections: the Pitt Rivers Museum at the University of Oxford, and the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, at University College London (UCL). Both have retained a style of exhibit that evokes a Victorian aesthetic sensibility, despite decades of adjustment that have in many cases erased (although never completely) the strong principles of display that each were founded upon. Petrie certainly visited Pitt-Rivers' Kensington displays on at least one occasion (Petrie's English Journal, 14 September 1883) and his later museum at Farnham (Drower, 1994), but did not record what his impressions of these exhibits were.
"Our Museums are ghastly charnel-houses of murdered evidence; the dry bones of objects are there, bare of all the facts of grouping locality, and dating which would give them historical life and value" (Petrie, 1904: 48).
Pitt-Rivers, in contrast, can be characterized as a staunchly empirical anthropologist, more interested in the relationships of objects to each other than their original context (van Keuren, 1984).
Neither institution, however, embodies the much grander aspirations Pitt-Rivers and Petrie separately held for future British museums and they each advocated investment in new museum structures, although the rationale behind their ideas differed. For Pitt-Rivers, a museum should founded on the principle that "knowledge can be taught by museums, provided they are arranged in such a manner that those who run may read" (Pitt-Rivers, 1891: 115-116). Thus for him the primary reason for providing access to his collections in Oxford was for display and education (Bowden, 1991: 141). He hoped to achieve this in the form of a "rotunda" in which "the position of each phase of art development shows itself at once by its distance from the centre of the space, and the collateral branches would be arranged to merge into each other according to their geographical positions" (Pitt-Rivers, 1888). Petrie, on the other hand, placed greater emphasis on the role of museums in the sustainable preservation of material culture, in the form of a warehouse (Petrie, 1900). Pitt-Rivers' and Petrie's plans have never been realised.
The encounter between Petrie and Pitt-Rivers in the shadow of the Great Pyramid one hundred and thirty years ago was fortuitous. Such a chance meeting makes a considerable impression on the modern reader, but like the pyramid itself we miss the wood for the trees if we focus only on monumental icons.
The relationship between Petrie and Pitt-Rivers has undoubtedly been overstated in the past, in a large measure through the repetition of standard narratives of archaeological histories. Though the biographies of these two "great men" intersect, it clear that gaps remain in the narrative. This is particularly the case for Petrie's early activities in which there existed a far larger cast of individuals who helped further his own ideals and provided him with his first opportunities to share them. By the time they first met in June 1877 Pitt-Rivers was a well-established and prominent figure in a wider circle of Victorian intellectuals who had begun to shape archaeological and anthropological practice in Britain. Petrie's regard for the General's work, such as his praise for the Bokerley Dyke methodology, might therefore simply be of a more generic sort with General a respected figure who held similar principles and had set a precedent that Petrie could appeal to. Petrie was also a member of the London institutions in which such men convened (Chapman, 1989) and this setting provided a disciplinary structure and a network of like-minded individuals in which Petrie's work was socialized. In the field, however, it was the less-well known local antiquarians with whom he experienced excavation. The most important of these was undoubtedly F.C.J. Spurrell, who he in fact met at that very same meeting of the Archaeological Institute in June 1877 where he first met Pitt-Rivers. Of the two men, it was "the quiet man of Kent", not the commanding figure of the General, who seems to have been the more important mentor, supporter, and friend of the then young and relatively unknown Petrie.
As Petrie's career developed, he came to practise archaeology in very different social, economic and environmental contexts from Pitt-Rivers. Thus although Petrie was clearly familiar with Pitt-Rivers' excavation methodologies and sites, the contexts Petrie encountered in Egypt and Palestine — sprawling towns, tumbled temple ruins, imposing tells, but more often than not, large pockmarked cemetery landscapes — were of a very different character to those Pitt-Rivers explored. For these Petrie implemented his own approach, shaped as much by trial and error within a colonial setting as by the exacting ideals of the surveyor. These contexts independently affected their methods and helped shaped their perceptions of how to access, construct and present the past, as evidenced by their contrasting attitudes to fieldwork, publication, material engagement, and museum display.
Pitt-Rivers died on 4 May 1900. Although Petrie was to live for another forty-two years, and was active in the field for several more decades, it is perhaps notable that his greatest intellectual contributions were also largely achieved by the turn of the century (Gertzen, 2008). Thus both men were integrally a part of the intellectual currents of the Victorian era and it is this wider canvas that deserves further qualification in future studies.
I am grateful to Jeremy Coote and Alison Petch for inviting me to contribute to "The Many Faces of General Pitt-Rivers" workshop held at the Pitt Rivers Museum in March 2011, at which the question of the General's impact on Petrie's work was raised and which motivated me to write this article. Thanks are also due to Stephen Quirke, Tracy Golding, and Debbie Challis for their assistance in accessing Petrie's journals. I have also benefitted from discussions with Rachel Mairs and Thomas Gertzen about Petrie's early life. I am further indebted to Alison Petch and Alison Roberts for reading and providing very helpful comments on an earlier draft of this paper.
1 Griffith Institute, University of Oxford, "Petrie's Diary", in Griffith Archive <http://www.griffith.ox.ac.uk/gri/gif-files/Petrie_1880to1_161and164.jpg> and <http://www.griffith.ox.ac.uk/gri/gif-files/Petrie_ 1880to1_165and168.jpg> [accessed 27 April 2012]. For an account of the encounter see also Burleigh and Clutton-Brock, 1982 and Bowden, 1991: 93. For an overview of Pitt-Rivers' trip to Egypt in 1881 see Stevenson, 2011.
2 In the Salisbury and South Wiltshire Museum's Pitt-Rivers correspondence archive are seven short letters (L524, L971, L1095, L1124, L1331, L1377, L1677) written to Pitt-Rivers from Petrie, dating between July 1888 and October 1896. The brevity and formality of communications in itself underscores the nature of the relationship between these two men, with Petrie clearly respecting the General as an intellectual colleague rather than close acquaintance. For a list of the letters held within the Pitt-Rivers archive at the Salisbury and South Wiltshire Museum see Thompson, M.W. 1976 Catalogue of the correspondence and papers of Augustus Henry Lane Fox Pitt-Rivers (1827-1900), Royal Commission on Historical MSS List 76/75.
3 Pitt-Rivers was born Augustus Henry Lane Fox on 14 April 1827; Petrie was born William Matthew Flinders Petrie on 3 June 1853. Lane Fox adopted the Pitt-Rivers surname on inheriting the Rushmore Estate in 1880.
4 For a full list see <http://web.prm.ox.ac.uk/rpr/index.php/pitt-rivers-life/123-clubs-a-societies> [accessed 27 April 2012].
6 Letter from Petrie to Spurrell, 7 July 1879. A copy of the letter is now in the Petrie Museum, but the original is held in Norwich Castle Museum. All further references in this paper to correspondence between Flaxman and Petrie come from the archives of the Petrie Museum, although those from Petrie to Spurrell are all copies of the originals held in Norwich.
7 There is a letter from E.B. Tylor to John Evans dated 14 March 1878, in the John Evans archive, Ashmolean Museum [JE/B/1/17 1878], that advises that Petrie was interested in giving such a presentation.
8 According to The Archaeological Journal vol. XXXVII: 426. These were later transferred to the British Library, where they are currently accessioned into the manuscript collections. MS ADD. 31.333 (scale 1:500). The Library of the Society of Antiquaries of London also holds some of Petrie's draft manuscript plans with the field measurements noted on them (see Knowlden, 2008).
9 Harrison had assisted Pitt-Rivers' first exploration of Cissbury in 1875 (Bowden, 1991: 77-81) and it seems that although Pitt-Rivers' was not present during Harrison's 1877 investigations at Cissbury, he was still viewed as the lead excavator. See <http://england.prm.ox.ac.uk/englishness-Pitt-Rivers-Cissbury-Sussex.html> [accessed 25 April 2012].
10 He is probably referring to Ranscombe Camp (see Pitt-Rivers, 1881).
11 The whereabouts of this letter are unknown, and it is not amongst Pitt-Rivers' papers in the Salisbury and Wiltshire Museum, as these all largely post-date 1880.
12 Petrie to Pitt-Rivers, 8 December 1894. Letter L1124 Salisbury and Wiltshire Museum.
13 Petrie to Pitt-Rivers, 3 November 1894. Letter L1095, Salisbury and Wiltshire Museum.
14 There is no archival evidence, that I am aware of, attesting to direct correspondence between Petrie and Montelius. At around the same time Petrie was formulating his sequence dates in 1899, however, Montelius was preparing for lectures on "prehistoric chronology" to be held at University College London the following year, which Petrie certainly attended and the two interacted directly on this occasion (Montelius, 1899).
15 See <http://web.prm.ox.ac.uk/rpr/index.php/article-index/12-articles/361-human-skull-series> [accessed 12 June 2012].
16 A detailed examination of Petrie and Pitt-Rivers' approaches to racial theory have not been considered here, partly due to constraints of the scope and length of this paper, but also because far more thorough scholarship on the topic is currently being undertaken by colleagues (e.g. Debbie Challis on Petrie, (pers. comm.) and Malgosia Nowak-Kemp on Pitt-Rivers and Rolleston, (pers. comm.)).
17 This was part of the Leverhulme funded project Rethinking Pitt-Rivers: Analyzing the activities of a nineteenth-century collector. See <http://web.prm.ox.ac.uk/rpr/> [accessed 27 April 2012].
Barrett, J, R Bradley, M Bowden and B Mead 1983 South Lodge after Pitt Rivers. Antiquity 57: 193-204, <http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/057/Ant0570193.htm>.
Bowden, M 1991 Pitt Rivers: The Life and Archaeological Work of Lieutenant-General Augustus Henry Lane Fox Pitt Rivers, DCL, FRS, FSA. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Burleigh, R and J Clutton-Brock 1982 Pitt Rivers and Petrie in Egypt. Antiquity 56: 208-209, <http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/056/Ant0560203.htm>.
Caiger, N D 1971 F.C.J. Spurrell, Kentish Antiquary and Archaeologist. Bexley: Bexley Antiquarian Society.
Carver, M 1990 Digging for Data: Archaeological Approaches to Data Definition, Acquisition and Analysis. In Francovich, R. and D. Manacorda (eds.) Lo scavo archeologico: dalla diagnosi all' edizione, pp. 45-102. Firenze: All'Insegna del Giglio S.A.S.
Chapman, W 1985 Arranging Ethnology. A.H.L.F. Pitt Rivers and the Typological Tradition. In Stocking, G.W. (ed.) Objects and Others: Essays on Museums and Material Culture, pp. 15-48. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press.
Chapman, W 1989 The Organizational Context in the History of Archaeology: Pitt Rivers and Other British Archaeologists in the 1860s. Antiquaries Journal 69: 23-42, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0003581500043390.
Clinch, G 1889 Antiquarian Jottings Relating to Bromley, Hayes, Keston, and West Wickham, in Kent. Edinburgh: Turnbull and Spears.
Coles, J 1979 Experimental Archaeology. London: Academic Press.
Drower, M S 1985 Flinders Petrie: A Life in Archaeology. London: Victor Gollancz.
Drower, M S 1994 A Visit to General Pitt-Rivers. Antiquity 68: 627-630, <http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/068/Ant0680627.htm>.
Evans, C 2004 Modelling Monuments and Excavations. In Chadarevian, S. de and N. Hopwood (eds.) Models: The Third Dimension of Science, pp. 109-137. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Gamble, C and R Kruszyinski 2009 John Evans, Joseph Prestwich and the Stone that Shattered the Time Barrier. Antiquity 83: 461-475, <http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/083/ant0830461.htm>.
Gertzen, T 2008 Methodik und wissenschaftsgeschichtlicher Hintergrund der Arbeiten von Sir W. M. Flinders Petrie (Unpublished M.A. thesis: Freien Universität Berlin).
Gosden, C and F Larson 2009 Knowing Things: Exploring the Collections at the Pitt Rivers Museum 1884-1946. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Greenwell, W with G Rolleston 1877 British Barrows: A Record of the Examination of Sepulchral Mounds in Various Parts of England. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Knowlden, P 2008 William Matthew Flinders Petrie: The Kentish Years. Archaeologia Cantiana 128: 35-58.
Lane Fox [Pitt-Rivers], A H 1869 On Some Flint Implements Found Associated with Roman Remains in Oxfordshire and the Isle of Thanet. Journal of the Ethnological Society of London 1 (1): 1-12, <http://www.jstor.org/stable/3014386>.
Lane Fox [Pitt-Rivers], A H 1870 On the Proposed Exploration of Stonehenge by a Committee of the British Association. Journal of the Ethnological Society of London 2 (1): 1-5, <http://www.jstor.org/stable/3014431>.
Lane Fox [Pitt-Rivers], A H 1875 On the Principles of Classification Adopted in the Arrangement of His Anthropological Collection, Now Exhibited in the Bethnal Green Museum. Journal of Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 4: 293-308, <http://www.jstor.org/stable/2841234>.
Lane Fox [Pitt-Rivers], A H 1876 Opening of the Dyke Road, or Black Burgh Tumulus, Near Brighton. Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 6: 280-287, <http://www.jstor.org/stable/2841416>.
Levine, P 1984 The Amateur and the Professional: Antiquarians, Historians and Archaeologists in Victorian England 1838-1886. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lucas, G 2001 Critical Approaches to Fieldwork: Contemporary and Historical Archaeological Practice. London: Routledge.
Montelius, O 1899 Prehistoric Chronology. Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 3/4: 308-310, <http://www.jstor.org/stable/2843018>.
Petrie, W M F 1874 Recent Objections to the Origination of Gentile Measures by the Great Pyramid. Privately published.
Petrie, W M F 1877a Inductive Metrology: Or the Recovery of Ancient Measures from the Monuments. London: H Saunders.
Petrie, W M F 1877b Remarks on Plans of Earthworks. The Archaeological Journal 34: 448-450.
Petrie, W M F 1878a Notes on Ancient Roads. The Archaeological Journal 35: 169-174.
Petrie, W M F 1878b Account of a Remarkable Shaft and Subterranean Chamber Lately Discovered in Eltham Park. The Archaeological Journal 35: 179-182.
Petrie, W M F 1880 Notes on Kentish Earthworks. Archaeologia Cantiana 13: 8-16.
Petrie, W M F 1883 The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh. London: Field and Taer.
Petrie, W M F 1885 Tanis Part I. 1883-1884. London: Egypt Exploration Fund.
Petrie, W M F 1887 Racial Photographs from the Egyptian Monuments. London: British Association.
Petrie, W M F 1893 Ten Years Digging in Egypt 1881-1891. London: The Religious Tract Society.
Petrie, W M F 1899 Sequences in Prehistoric Remains. Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain Ireland 29: 295-301, <http://www.jstor.org/stable/2843012>.
Petrie, W M F 1900 A National Repository for Science and Art. Journal of the Society of Arts May 18, 1900, pp. 525-535.
Petrie, W M F 1904 Methods and Aims in Archaeology. London: MacMillan and Co.
Petrie, W M F 1913 Tarkhan I and Memphis V. London: British School of Archaeology in Egypt.
Petrie, W M F 1914 Untitled paper. In Scott R. and G.W. Gilmore (eds.) The Church, the People, and the Age, pp. 309-312. New York and London: Funk and Wagnallis Company.
Petrie, W M F 1917 Tools and Weapons. London: British School of Archaeology in Egypt.
Petrie, W M F 1931 Seventy Years in Archaeology. London: Sampson Low, Marston and Co.
Piazzi-Smyth, C 1864 Our Inheritance in the Great Pyramid. London.
Piggott, S 1965 Archaeological Draughtsmanship: Principles and Practice. Part I: Principles and Retrospect. Antiquity 39: 165-176, <http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/039/Ant0390165.htm>.
Pitt-Rivers, A H L F 1881 Excavations at Mount Caburn Camp, Near Lewes, Conducted in 1877 and 1878. Archaeologia 46: 423-495.
Pitt-Rivers, A H L F 1883 Excavations at Caesar's Camp, Near Folkestone, Conducted in 1878. Archaeologica 47: 429-465.
Pitt-Rivers, A H L F 1887 Excavations in Cranborne Chase, Near Rushmore, on the Borders of Dorset and Wilts. Volume I. Privately published.
Pitt-Rivers, A H L F 1888 Address as President of the Anthropological Section of the British Association, Bath, September 6, 1888. Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science 1888: 825-835.
Pitt-Rivers, A H L F 1891 Typological Museums. Journal of the Society of Arts 40: 115-122.
Pitt-Rivers, A H L F 1892 Excavations in Cranborne Chase Volume III: Excavations in Bokerley Dyke and Wansdyke Dorset and Wilts 1888-1891. Privately published.
Quirke, S 2010 Hidden Hands: Egyptian Workforces in Petrie Excavation Archives, 1880-1924. London: Duckworth.
Rolleston, G and A H Lane Fox [Pitt-Rivers] 1879 Report of Excavation of a Twin-Barrow, and a Single Round Barrow at Sigwell (Six Wells), Parish of Compton, Somerset. Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 8: 185-191, <http://www.jstor.org/stable/2841025>.
Schlanger, N 2010 Series in Progress: Antiquities of Nature, Numismatics and Stone Implements in the Emergence of Prehistoric Archaeology. History of Science 48 (3/4): 343-369.
Schlanger, N 2011 Review of "Hidden Hands: Egyptian Workforces in Petrie Excavation Archives, 1880-1924". Antiquity 85: 302-303.
Scott, B and A Swan 2009 The Quiet Man of Kent: The Contribution of F.C.J. Spurrell to the Early Years of Palaeolithic Archaeology. Lithics 30: 53-64.
Sheppard, K 2010 Flinders Petrie and Eugenics. Bulletin of the History of Archaeology 20 (1): 16-29, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5334/bha.20103.
Spurrell, F C J 1880 On the Discovery of the Place Where Palaeolithic Implements Were Made at Crayford. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society 36: 544.
Stevenson, A 2011 Pitt-Rivers and Egypt. Rethinking Pitt-Rivers [online] Available at: <http://web.prm.ox.ac.uk/rpr/index.php/article-index/12-articles/495-pitt-rivers-and-egypt> [accessed 23 April 2012].
Van Keuren, D 1984 Museums and Ideology: Augustus Pitt-Rivers, Anthropological Museums and Social Change in Later Victorian Britain. Victorian Studies 28 (1): 171-189, <http://www.jstor.org/stable/3826763>.
Wheeler, M 1954 Archaeology from the Earth. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Woolley, L 1953 Spadework in Archaeology. London: Lutterworth Press.


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WALLSTOCKWATCH
Business News | Market News
NBA Commissioner Adam Silver supports new league that pays high schoolers $100,000
March 7, 2021 admin	0 Comments Business news
National Basketball Association commissioner Adam Silver is supportive of the new high school league that pays young players at least $100,000.
Silver spoke to media this weekend to provide his annual update on the NBA, a day before it hosts the 2021 All-Star game in Atlanta. The NBA boss discussed media company Overtime's new basketball league (Overtime Elite) for 16-18-year-olds.
"I think it's generally good for the community to have optionality, especially when very solid people, which appears to be the case in [OTE], are backing it and behind it," Silver said. "That's one thing we will pay a lot of attention to because those players are potentially the future of our league."
On Thursday, OTE announced it would be starting in September and pay up to 30 players at least $100,000 if they decide to join. The league is backed by Overtime investors including NBA stars Kevin Durant and Carmelo Anthony, and venture capital firm Andreessen Horowitz.
Silver said he has "no opposition to paying young people" on a different path to becoming pro and skipping the NCAA.
An Overtime logo on a basketball court
Source: Overtime
"We created team Ignite in the G League as an opportunity for players who choose not to go to college and want to become professionals," Silver said. "They can go directly into the G League and be well compensated."
The NBA requires a player to be age 19 before entering the league. The Ignite program was created for individuals who decide to skip college but are not yet eligible. Ignite players are paid roughly $200,000 to $500,000 while they await eligibility. Silver said the NBA could change its rule around eligibility in the next collective bargaining agreement, but for now, the NBA will monitor OTE.
"It's good for the game," Silver said. "It's more focus on the game, especially with all that's happening right now in digital media; social media, new streaming services. There's definitely interest in this content, so we're paying attention to that."
Back to regular business in the fall
On the call, Silver also mentioned the NBA anticipates a return to its regular schedule for the 2021-22 season with full arenas. The NBA reduced its schedule to 72 games this season due to Covid-19 impacts but wants to return to an 82-game season.
"The plan remains to try to resume our season as close to normal as possible next year," Silver said, adding he's "fairly optimistic" the league will start in October. "If vaccines continue on the pace they are and continue to be as effective as they have been against the virus and its variants, we're hopeful that we'll have relatively full arenas next season as well."
NBA Commissioner Adam Silver
Stacy Revere | Getty Images
Asked by CNBC to provide a financial update on the NBA, which nearly a year ago suspended games due to the pandemic, Silver was optimistic. He said the league is "fortunate to be working under these circumstances" though its missing 40% of its revenue with fans still limited.
"The long-term health of the league is very solid," Silver said. "Between last year and this year, we're looking at considerable losses. I generally don't talk about that publicly because teams are largely privately held, and we're not suggesting that's anybody else's issue but ours.
"But last season and this season has required a significant investment on the part of the team owners – they accept that," Silver continued. "Players will end up taking a reduction in salary this season because they are partners with teams and the league on revenue."
The NBA missed revenue projections by $1.5 billion due to Covid-19, according to the Associated Press. But by resuming its games last July and concluding its 2020-21 campaign, it fought off massive losses. Should it resume normal operations for 2021-22, Silver said all NBA players would not require vaccinations.
"I don't see every player needing to get vaccinated as an impediment to fans returning to the arena," Silver said. "No more do I think the fact that every fan won't be vaccinated is an impediment to fans coming back in the arena."
Men walk past a poster at an NBA exhibition in Beijing, China October 8, 2019.
Jason Lee | Reuters
NBA-China business update
Asked about the NBA's affairs in China, Silver suggested its business as usual.
"Our business has continued there," Silver said. "We have hundreds of millions of fans in China, and we see it as our business to serve those fans."
NBA team executive Daryl Morey's 2019 Twitter comments supporting Hong Kong protesters started the rift with China. Morey's action led to China suspending NBA games on CCTV, and streaming platform Tencent also restricted NBA content. The media companies returned NBA games during the Finals.
During the 2020 All-Star game, Silver initially suggested the feud could result in a $400 million loss. The NBA valued its business in China at over $5 billion following a $1.5 billion media rights agreement with Tencent in 2019.
"Our values remain the same, and our business continues," Silver said. "And it's largely the business of exporting American basketball and the culture that comes with it to China."
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Elgin Pocketwatch Serial Number Online Database
Elgin serial number 12727001 is a grade 345, 12 size, 17 jewels, made about 1907. Open faced movement (this applies to the movement, not the case the watch happens to be in). Three-quarter plate design. Pendent wind and set.
Production history for open-face case, 12 size Elgin watches
Grade 345 at the Elgintime Watch Blog, 4, Catholic Dial
Grade 345 at the Elgintime Watch Blog, 5, Greased
Grade 345 at the Elgintime Watch Blog, 6, Broken Mainspring
Grade 345 at the Elgintime Watch Blog, 8, Rusty
Grade 345 at the Elgintime Watch Blog, 10, Unusual Dial
Grade 345 at the Elgintime Watch Blog, 11, Unusual Case
Do you need service for an antique Elgin pocketwatch? Click here for complete information!
Grade 345 Elgin Watches Serviced by J. Sexton: 27359171 (1/2010), 27359171 (3/2010), 27861355 (11/2010), 20264477 (6/2011), 28788215 (9/2011), 25638733 (9/2011), 31353261 (2/2012), 18656912 (10/2012), 29642264 (7/2013), 27660578 (8/2013), 22862220 (11/2013), 23619436 (3/2014), 26776123 (11/2014), 27059135 (1/2015), 23274609 (4/2015), 26309124 (9/2015), 26585541 (4/2016)
240652, less than one minute ago
9567, less than one minute ago
Electric Clock-Motors - Caution
Counting the Train
What are watch jewels?


I used to teach a lesson to the kids in Awana about our value before God. I would tell them to hold their heads high, to look people in the eye, and to accept their infinite value and worth. After all, I would tell them - if you think about it, we are ROYALTY! Our Father is a King. Once, a girl said, "Then that means I am a princess!" She was so excited and beautiful and precious. And I said, "Yes, you are." When I was in line at Kroger the other day, I flipped through a magazine to see pictures of the new Prince of Cambridge, George, son of William and Kate. And once again it struck me that the men in the royal line are a rather homely bunch of fellows, but they land some gorgeous wives. Nothing wrong with being unattractive, but being a prince sure helps sweeten life for them.
When you look at England's princes, you don't seem them self-consciously looking at the ground, trying to hide from public view. They don't appear to feel awkward about or even aware of their homeliness. Instead, they walk with their heads held high. They look the world in the eye. Their royal position overshadows their physical imperfections, and they know it. So that leads me to think about me and all other Christian believers. England's royal family is something of a placeholder at this point in history, with no real function, just position. But the King Who is our Father is the King over all Kings. God is in no way a placeholder. He created this world and He is working and moving in it in myriad supernatural ways even today. And WE are His children. WE are His princes and princesses. When a person believes Jesus died for his/her sins and asks God to be in his/her life - that individual is instantly born into spiritual royalty! And that is far better than anything a worldly king might have because it cannot be taken away.
If I realize that, my head should be held high. I should approach the world with the serene acceptance and knowledge of my royal position. It doesn't matter what I look like or have accomplished. And it's not because I am better than any other single individual out there. In reality, Prince William's role has nothing to do with anything he has done or accomplished, it's just a matter of being born into the royal family, and my role is not about me. It's a matter of being born into God's family. My place, and yours, my brothers and sisters, is in this world, yet not of this world. We are spiritual royalty and I think we should acknowledge and embrace that Truth. God promises us blessing and care and riches that can't be counted with money.
So, put your shoulders back. Hold your chin high. Meet the world with dignity and peace and calm assurance of your place in the royal family.


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At ACA we realize the importance of keeping up with the rising tides of the technological generation. Technology is so intertwined into our daily life, it is sometimes hard to complete day to day tasks without utilizing it. With this in mind, we here at Arkansas Christian continue to grow and expand our IT course offerings. We have included in the past, and plan to offer in the future, such couses as: Intro to Information Technology, Computer Application, CAD, Video Production and Broadcasting, Keyboarding, Computer Programming, and more.
While understanding the use of technology in today's world is crucial, perhaps something of even greater importance is internet safety. While students sometimes are left to fend for themselves in the online world, at ACA we stress the importance of maintaining a safe online presence to our students. We stress to teens the importance of what to do, things to avoid, why it's important to be aware of dangers, and how to avoid predators and pitfalls online. Our student's are held to the highest standard when it comes to their online presence and we expect them to hold themselves to the same standard.
The ultimate goal of the IT program at Arkansas Christian Academy is to prepare students in today's generation to be fully capable of performing required tasks at the collegiate level, as well as be competitive in the workplace.


I haven't figured out why Flickr bothers me. It doesn't bother me a lot, but enough I don't think about using it, or rather, when I do think about using it I don't.
So the default here, which is the somewhat lossy transfer of images into the great archival womb of Google.
The histogram function and once in a while the rotate-image function, almost always in Photofiltre. The majority of manipulation is cropping and that gets done in Xnview.
These are photos I took yesterday.
I take a lot of photos. Except for the flag and pyramid ones that show up at Informant38 I don't do anything with them. Which has created a carbuncle of hermetic guilt this is an attempt to relieve.
These four images are religious because I took three of them at the Spanish-Californiano mission here, and one on the way into downtown, where the mission is, at an other much-photographed church.
I was an altar boy at the mission when I was very young. It's changed dramatically and subtly in a lot of ways, though the basic architecture hasn't. Certainly the liturgy from what I know of it has been altered past immediate recognition.
If I had gone to the local university instead and spent an hour taking pictures there the images would have reflected that, being of books in the library stacks and the students, almost all of them children of Los Angeles, probably.


In it, RiRi's assassin alter ego goes after a man who dared to wrong her. She wears a stunning sheer robe and looks out at the ocean, which belongs to her, as all things do.
The video is directed by Harmony Korine of Kids, Gunmo and Spring Breakers notoriety.


Keep in touch! Write or email! We love to hear from you.
We want to know what you think about our web site, our projects, and our offerings. Please let us know if you have any questions or comments by clicking on the e-mail address below.


An ensemble gathered from the musicians at Pulse will be accompanying a Sci-Fi movie from 1918 called Himmelskibet - A Trip to Mars.
Pulse - The Finnish Tribute to Pink Floyd was founded in 2005 and has turned to be one of the most successful tribute bands in Finland ever.
Pink Floydin musiikkiin erikoistunut tribuuttiorkesteri Pulse perustettiin vuonna 2005 ja siitä on tullut yksi Suomen menestyneimmistä tribuuttiorkestereista.


Got a question about your ALPINA ask it here !
You've got the car now you need to know something, techincal advice, specific questions etc.
Discuss all aspects of Car Care / Detailling etc.
A place for us to discuss the cars we are currently testing before the road test comes out !
Talk about gaming stuff - PS3, Xbox etc.


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Last week we got to spend an awesome evening with DJ Pauly D™ at Bartini's! Best of all, we got some signed bottles of Devoted Creations® and signed Sun Spot t-shirts you can win!
In the long-past, having pale skin was a sign of wealth. In the last century, however, that view has changed significantly.
We may not have palm trees in Indiana, but you can still look good and feel good after stopping in at Sun Spot, our corner of Midwest paradise.
We've all seen it. We all know someone who fell prey to it. Some of us have even experienced it ourselves. The Cheap Spray Tan.


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The University of Georgia Press. Founded 1938.
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Chelsea Dingman
Trim size: 5.500in x 8.500in
ISBN: 9-780-8203-5131-5
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POETRY / American / General
• Visit Chelsea Dingman's website
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Thaw delves into the issues at the core of a resilient family: kinship, poverty, violence, death, abuse, and grief. The poems follow the speaker, as both mother and daughter, as she travels through harsh and beautiful landscapes in Canada, Sweden, and the United States. Moving through these places, she examines how her surroundings affect her inner landscape; the natural world becomes both a place of refuge and a threat. As these themes unfold, the histories and cold truths of her family and country intertwine and impinge on her, even as she tries to outrun them.
Unflinching and raw, Chelsea Dingman's poems meander between childhood and adulthood, the experiences of being a mother and a child paralleling one another. Her investigation becomes one of body, self, woman, mother, daughter, sister, and citizen, and of what those roles mean in the contexts of family and country.
Thaw announces the beginning of a poetic career readers of poetry will be following for the ages, because Dingman is a poet for the ages. The sheer beauty of her poems, with their tremendous lyric power, will make a believer out of you. Her work takes those difficult moments we experience in silence and in grief and gives them imagistic force so sharp and detailed that we, as readers, are tempted to look away. But we don't, because this poet's siren song is one we can't help but listen to, despite the hard truths on display.
—Allison Joseph, author of My Father's Kites: Poems
In her debut collection, Dingman deftly parallels intimate sorrow with the brutal realities of rural poverty and violence. Dingman sets her scenes well, with the tough rhythms of life coming through, and her excellent work will be appreciated by a range of readers.
—Barbara Hoffert, Library Journal
Snow blankets everything in Chelsea Dingman's debut, a tenderhearted collection about family and grief, pregnancy and loss. In these poignant, finely crafted poems, the past is hard to forget.
—Ben Purkert, Guernica Magazine
Anyone seeking the gossipy shadows traumas can cast will be disappointed in Thaw; these poems, like the sky, are choosy about what they'll let fall from their mysterious hands.
—Amie Whittemore, Southern Indiana Review
About the Author/Editor
CHELSEA DINGMAN's first book, Thaw (Georgia), was chosen by Allison Joseph to win the National Poetry Series. Dingman is also the author of the chapbook What Bodies Have I Moved and has won the Southeast Review's Gearhart Poetry Prize, the Sycamore Review's Wabash Prize, the Water-stone Review's Jane Kenyon Poetry Prize, and the South Atlantic Modern Language Association's Creative Writing Award for Poetry. Visit her website: chelseadingman.com.
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What's your favorite weapon type?
Which consumable is your favorite?
How do you want to experience The Division?
Which attribute will you focus on when building your character?
How important are cosmetic items to you?
How will you interact with other agents in the Dark Zone?
If you reached Rogue Level 5, what was the outcome?
How much time do you think you'll spend in the Dark Zone?


The GB&I Walker Cup team practiced at Royal Lytham & St Annes for the first time today as preparations ramped up ahead of this weekend's match against the USA.
The ten-man squad, who were each presented with their own bag upon meeting up yesterday, took to the famed links for the first of two days' practice at the course before they head down the road for a round at Hoylake on Wednesday.
And with only five days to go until the action gets underway, GB&I captain Nigel Edwards and his players have been suitably impressed with what they've seen from the Open circuit venue so far.
While Gary Hurley, one of five Irish lads in the team, said: "Class day out on the links today! Course is in great shape looking forward to a good week! #WalkerCup #RoyalLytham&StAnnes.
The course has an impressive pedigree, hosting 11 Open Championships, four Women's British Opens, two Ryder Cups, the Curtis Cup, four Amateur Championships and three Ladies British Open Amateur Championship in its 129-year history.
And in welcoming the Walker Cup to Royal Lytham & St Annes for the very first time, club secretary Charles Grimley is confident the venue will play host to an excellent match.
"The course is in really fine fettle at the moment and I'm sure the players are going to enjoy it," said Grimley. "It has proven in the past, particularly with the two Ryder Cups it has staged, that it stands up well as a matchplay course, with the last few holes particularly challenging in that regard, so I've no doubts it will provide a great stage for this year's Walker Cup.
The Walker Cup :: Who will win?
Can GB&I take back the Walker Cup at Royal Lytham & St Annes this week? Leave your thoughts in the 'Comments' section below.


text:
Q: Play audio on image click - mobile/tablet I can't get my code to play audio files on the click of an image.
I've tried different file types but it doesn't change anything.
This is the code I'm using:
http://jsfiddle.net/adamsears/kZF9T/

    var sounds = [

"http://adambencreative.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/test.mp3",
"http://adambencreative.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/test2.mp3",

          ],
oldSounds = [];

var playSounds = function () {
var index = Math.floor(Math.random() * (sounds.length)),
    thisSound = sounds[index];

    oldSounds.push(thisSound);
    sounds.splice(index, 1);

    if (sounds.length < 1) {
        sounds = oldSounds.splice(0, oldSounds.length);
    }

 $("#element").html("<audio autoplay><source src=\"" + thisSound + "\" type=\"audio\/mp3\"><\/audio>");
 }

Does anyone know how I can get it to work on mobile/tablet too?

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
Le serveur de communications unifiées IceWarp (anciennement connu sous le nom Merak Mail Server) est un serveur de messagerie électronique et une solution de Groupware propriétaire.

IceWarp comporte les composants nécessaires pour toute forme de communication électronique (e-mail, chat, Voix sur IP, SMS, échange de fichiers, réunions en ligne avec partage d'écran). Entièrement conforme à toutes les normes internationales, IceWarp permet à chaque utilisateur d'accéder à ses données depuis un ordinateur fixe, depuis un ordinateur portable, depuis une tablette ou un smartphone avec une connexion 3G ou Wi-Fi.

IceWarp est conforme au règlement général sur la protection des données (RGPD) qui est entré en vigueur le .

Modules
Les modules suivants sont disponibles:

 Serveur de messagerie - MTA, SMTP, POP3 et IMAP
 Webmail - interface riche AJAX, interface basique en Java, interface spécifique aux smartphones
 Anti-Spam - moteur anti-spam combinant plus de 20 techniques, dont Spamassassin, Filtres Bayes, DNSBL et SPF
 Anti-Spam Live - détection en temps réel des menaces du moment basé sur la technologie RPD de Cyren
 Anti-Virus - Moteur Sophosintégré au produit et également détection avec Cyren
 Serveur FTP - serveur FTP supportant les modes actif et passif
 GroupWare - la diffusion des données PIM à d'autres utilisateurs (partage des calendriers, des carnets d'adresses, des e-mails...)
 Serveur SMS - permet d'envoyer des SMS à partir des clients de messagerie
 Serveur de messagerie instantanée - serveur basé sur le protocole Jabber (XMPP) avec passerelles vers MSN, Yahoo, AOL, ICQ, Facebook, Skype
 Serveur SIP - solution de téléphonie VoIP
 Outlook Sync - plugin pour accéder aux emails, calendriers, carnets d'adresses dans Outlook
 Serveur ActiveSync - basé sur la technologie ActiveSync, amène les e-mails, calendriers et contacts sur les smartphones en mode PUSH
 Serveur SyncML - basé sur la norme SyncML, permet la synchronisation des calendriers, contacts avec des clients compatibles (Funambol, SyncJe...)
 Client Desktop - un client de messagerie propriétaire avec traitement des e-mails, calendriers, contacts sans plug-in additionnel; disponible sous Windows et MacOS
 Serveur CalDAV - implémentation du protocole CalDAV permettant d'accéder aux données du calendrier et tâches à partir des clients compatibles (Mozilla Sunbird, Apple iCal...)
 Conférence - conférences en ligne avec des participants externes, planification, protection, enregistrement
 Documents - édition des documents en-ligne et à plusieurs sans besoin d'installer une suite Office sur le poste de travail
 TeamChat - outil de collaboration pour des équipes et des projets offrant le partage de fichiers, l'organisation des réunions, les salles de discussion avec leurs fils de discussion; existe également en version app iOS et Android et en version Desktop sous Windows et MacOS
 IceChat - App IceWarp de Messagerie Instantanée pour iOS et Andoid
 IceWarp Desktop Suite - comprend le client lourd Desktop et une suite complète bureautique à utiliser en ligne ou hors connexion.
IceWarp Authenticator - App IceWarp (iOS et Android) pour renforcer la sécurité avec 2FA

Caractéristiques

 Relève des e-mails via POP3/IMAP
 Groupware peut être utilisé dans Webmail, Outlook, Thunderbird, Smartphones, iCal et d'autres clients
 Collaboration entre équipes constituées des utilisateurs IceWarp et/ou des utilisateurs externes (invités) - partage des documents, organisation des réunions, communication messagerie instantanée
 Interface Webmail spécifique pour les smartphones
 Édition des documents directement dans le WebClient
 Certificats Let's Encrypt intégrés
 Support OpenLDAP, connexion avec Active Directory
 SpamAssassin
 Push mail
 VoIP
 Serveur de messagerie instantanée et une app cliente pour iOS
 Stockage dans une base de données (SQlite, MSSQL, MySQL, Oracle)
 Server ETRN
 Les routes statiques
 API pour les développeurs
 Fonctionne dans un environnement VMware
 Authentification unique (Single Sign-On ou SSO en anglais) avec Kerberos

Protocoles supportés

 SMTP (s) / ESMTP
 IMAP (s), y compris IMAPv4 PUSH via la commande IDLE
 POP3 (s)
 APOP
 HTTP (s)
 FTP (s)
 LDAP (s)
 SIP
 Jabber / XMPP
 Proxy HTTP
 TLS / SSL 128-bit pour tous les services
 IPv4 et IPv6
 SNMP
 WebDAV et CalDAV
 SyncML
 VCal, vCard, vNote et VFREEBUSY
 Quoted printable/base64
 Unicode (UTF-8)
 Méthodes de chiffrement : RSA/SHA1/MD5/DigestMD5

Logiciels Concurrents

Propriétaires

 IBM Lotus Domino + Notes
 Kerio
 MDaemon
 Microsoft Exchange Server + Outlook

Open Source
 Blue Mind
 Postfix
 Zarafa
 Zimbra
 SOGo
 OBM
 KOLAB

Voir aussi

Articles connexes

Liens externes
 IceWarp lance IceWarp Server 10.2
 IceWarp lance enfin le logiciel client tant attendu
 L'alliance entre IceWarp et Kaspersky Lab
 (en) The IceWarp and Kaspersky Lab Alliance
 IceWarp dévoile la version 10.1
 Nouvelle version de la suite IceWarp Serveur de Messagerie est disponible
 Site de l'éditeur (en anglais)
 Le site officiel du partenaire pour les pays francophones

Bibliographie

Logiciel de courrier électronique
Serveur informatique

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


We currently offer FREE domestic expedited shipping on orders within Canada over $69 ($99 if you are located in Newfoundland & Labrador, PEI and Nunavut) before tax. Orders under $69/$99 before tax will be subject to a shipping charge.
To comply with Canadian laws we will utilize Canada Post's Proof of Age(18+, 19+) option on all shipments. You will be required to sign and show proof of age upon delivery. If Proof of Age cannot be provided, you WILL NOT be eligible for a refund and the items will be returned to us. If you are underage, DO NOT PLACE AN ORDER. You will not be eligible for a refund of any kind.
Due to the nature of our product (consumables), all sales are FINAL. We can not accept any returns or exchanges once it has left our facility.
If you have received a wrong item (nicotine strength or flavor) please contact us right away at ejuiceblowout@gmail.com or throughout contact form in the Contact Us section. We will work as efficiently as possible to rectify the error.
Orders cannot be changed once submitted and payment has been accepted. Once your order has been processed there is no way we can refund or cancel your order. We ship the same or next business day, so please be sure of your order when you place it. We can process last-minute orders before the same day shipping cut off very quickly and canceling an order may not be possible as the order has already been processed. Once an order has been submitted there is no guarantee we can cancel and refund your order due to processing speed. We try to be as efficient as possible.
We reserve the right to cancel any order at any time for any reason. If we do so you will receive a full refund, unless you are deemed underage. If you are underage, DO NOT PLACE AN ORDER. You will not be eligible for a refund of any kind.
In most cases, orders will be processed and shipped from our facility within 1 business day of placing your order. If you place your order over the weekend (Friday through Sunday), please allow extra time to process your order. This estimate does not include the actual shipping times, which are listed when you make your shipping option selection at checkout.
We do our very best to ship out orders as quickly as possible. Our shipping schedule may vary slightly during extremely busy times such as sales events and during the holiday season.
Unfortunately, due to different laws in each country, we do not currently offer shipping to any destination outside of Canada.


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Our private transfers are ideal for individuals, groups, and business executives wishing to travel to and from the Niagara, Buffalo, and Toronto regions.
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Looking For Airport Transportation? We'd be happy to help!
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text:
Palawan Board
Summary Writing Examples
Climate has been around for quite a while
Climate has been around for quite a while. It is describe as a weather pattern on a long-term in a particular area or in a composite area or for the most of region's weather conditions, such as air pressure, cloudiness, temperature, sunshine, wind, humidity, and precipitation, consistently over the span of years. In short, the climate is "median weather". The climate can also be estimated quantitatively by computing the long-term averages of various climate components, for example, rainfall and temperature. The climate of a particular region can also be explained by the extremes in the weather.
Climate can be studied on a range of land scales. At the smallest scale, local climates influence areas only on a few miles or tens of miles across. Examples of local climatic phenomena include ocean breezes and urban warming. At bigger scales, regional climates gives an image of specific patterns of weather within individual countries, or within climate zones that exist at various latitudes on the Earth. Climate zones include tropical, subtropical, desert, Savannah, temperate and polar climates. Different climate zones reveal variable examples of temperature and rainfall.
There are numerous influences on the climate of a specific place, the most critical of which is latitude. Places nearer the equator gets more sunlight and are much warmer than places nearer poles. This temperature contrast between low and high latitudes drives the general circulation of the atmosphere, transferring heat away from the equator towards the poles. The general circulation is split into a number of circulation cells which define separate pressure zones and belts of wind that are called the prevailing winds. They blow more east-west than north-south because they are deflected by the Coriolis force due to the Earth's rotation. The wind belts shift with the seasons and also with the climate zones.
Other influences on climate include the oceans, land-sea distribution and mountain ranges. A significant effect can also be seen on regional and even global climate by ocean currents. Mild and humid maritime climates are experienced at coastal areas, whilst the interiors of large land masses have more continental climates, with warmer summers and colder winters. ?
2.0 Identify and discuss the factors that shape the climate at a place
2.1	Distance from the equator (latitude)
Picture 1.1 shows the effect of sunlight radiation from different latitude
The distance from the equator influences the climate of a place. Energy from the sun reaches the Earth's surface at lower angles and passes through a thicker layer of atmosphere at the poles than at the equator. This implies that the further from equator climate is cooler. The summer and winter day lengths at the poles are different: in summer there is a period when the sun does not set at the poles; conversely, the poles also experience a period of total darkness during winter. In contrast, day length varies little at the equator. Places located at low latitudes (close to the equator) receive more sunlight than places at high latitudes (far from the equator). The types of plants and animals that can live in a place are affected by the amount of sunlight and the amount of precipitation received.
The collection of all the living things in a place, as well as the non-living resources, is called an ecosystem or biome. The most sunlight is received at the equator of our planet, making this area very warm. The biome that exists here is the savanna, deserts, and rainforests. The area between the warm tropics and the chilly poles is called the mid-latitudes. The biomes that exist here are shrub land, grasslands, and temperate forests. High latitudes receive the least sunlight, creating cold climates. The biomes that exist here are taiga and tundra.
2.2 Shape of the land (known as 'relief' or 'topography')
Picture 1.2 shows the temperature of land decrease with increasing altitude
The higher the place is above ocean level, the colder it will be. This happens because as altitude increases, air becomes thinner and is able to absorb less and retain heat. That is why you may see snow on the top of mountains throughout the entire year.
The physical face of the Earth and the lower atmosphere interact in many complex ways. Just as climate can impact topography, with ice sheets created during an ice age, for instance, eroding vast swaths of terrain, so too can topography engage with weather patterns. This is especially simple to recognize in mountainous tracts, where prevailing climate frameworks must deal with vertical swells.
Air pressure and air temperature decrease with altitude. The closer particles are packed together, the more likely they are to collide. Collisions between particles emits heat, which warms the air. At higher altitudes, the air is less dense and air particles are more spread out and less likely to collide. An area in the mountains has lower average temperatures than one at the base of the mountains.
2.3 Distance from the sea
The sea influences the climate of a place. The coastal areas are cooler and wetter than inland areas. Clouds form when warm air from inland areas meets cool air from the sea. The centre of landmasses are subject to a large range of temperatures. In the summer, temperatures can be extremely hot and dry as moisture from the sea evaporates before it reaches the centre of the land mass.
Landmasses heat up more rapidly than water bodies as it gets solar radiation from the sun, but also loses heat more rapidly than water. In this way, during the hot seasons, most particularly at daytime, the sea or ocean remains cooler than the landmass and therefore reduces the temperatures of adjacent lands . We can therefore say that the sea moderates the climate of the coastline regions by keeping the temperatures not too high and not too low, but instead on a medium temperature.
Picture 1.3 shows the sea breeze and land breeze phenomenon
On the other hand, the continental interiors are really hot during the hot season and during the day, but very cold during the cold season during the evening. We say that the temperatures there are at boundaries or the interior lands experience continentally. Additionally, places close to the sea experience land and sea breezes.
2.4 Ocean currents
Picture 1.4 shows the ocean current throughout the world
The world's ocean is significant to warming the planet. Ocean currents can increase or reduce temperatures. While land regions and the atmosphere absorb some sunlight, most of the sun's radiation is absorbed by the ocean. Especially in the tropical waters around the equator, the ocean acts as an enormous, heat-retaining solar panel. Earth's atmosphere additionally has an impact in this process, helping to retain heat that would otherwise quickly radiate into space after dusk. The ocean doesn't simply just store solar radiation; it also helps to disperses heat around the globe. When water particles are heated, they trade freely with the air in a process called evaporation. Ocean water is continually evaporating, increasing the temperature and humidity of the surrounding air to form rain and storms that are then carried by trade winds, often immense distances.
Outside of Earth tropical zones, climate designs are driven largely by ocean currents. Ocean currents act much like a conveyer belt, transporting warm water and precipitation from the equator toward the poles and cold water from the poles back to the tropics. Therefore, currents regulate global climate, neutralizing the uneven distribution of solar radiation reaching Earth's surface. Without currents, regional temperatures would be more extreme, which is super-hot at the equator and super cold toward the poles, that would mean Earth's land much less to be habitable.?
2.5	Direction of prevailing winds
Picture 1.5 shows the direction of prevailing winds
Prevailing winds are winds that blow consistently in a provided direction over a specific areas on Earth. Due to variable factors such as uneven heating from the Sun and the Earth's rotation, these winds shift at various latitudes on Earth. Prevailing winds are essential for determining areas of wind farms in order to generate electricity. The amount of precipitation that distinctive regions receive can also be measured by prevailing winds. In Southeastern Asia, these breezes result in the formation of storms and deserts. The West coast of South and North America receives abundant rain during the winter because to these breezes as well.
The prevailing winds is known for their three different cell which is the Hadley cell . Low latitude air flow toward the equator that when heated, ascends vertically, with poleward movement in the upper atmosphere. This forms a convection cell that dominates tropical and sub-tropical climates. Next is the Ferrel cell, a mid-latitude mean atmospheric circulation cell for weather named by Ferrel in the nineteenth century. In this cell the wind move poleward and eastbound close to the surface and equatorward and westward at higher amounts. Lastly, the Polar cell where Air rises, separates, and goes toward the poles. Once over the poles, the air sinks, forming the polar highs. At the surface air diverges outward from the polar highs. Surface winds in the polar cell are easterly (polar easterlies).
3.0 Explain greenhouse effect and how the increase in the greenhouse gases concentration impacts on climate.
3.1 Greenhouse effect
Picture 1.6 shows the process of greenhouse effect
The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth's surface. When the Sun's energy reaches the Earth's atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to space and the rest is retained and re-radiated by greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases include methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, some artificial chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), water vapour and carbon dioxide.
The 'greenhouse effect' is the warming of climate that results when the atmosphere traps heat transmitting from Earth toward space. Certain gases in the atmosphere resemble glass in a greenhouse, enabling sunlight to pass into the 'greenhouse,' but blocking Earth's warmth from getting away into space. The gases that added to the greenhouse effect include methane, water vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrous oxides. The absorbed energy warms the atmosphere and the surface of the Earth. This process keeps the Earth's temperature at around 33 degrees Celsius hotter than it would somehow be, enabling life on Earth to exist
3.2 How the increase in the greenhouse gases concentration impacts on climate
On Earth, human activities are changing the natural greenhouse. Over the last century the burning of fossil fuels like coal and oil has increased the concentration of atmospheric CO2. This happens because the coal or oil burning process combines carbon (C) with oxygen (O2) in the air to make CO2. To a lesser extent, the clearing of land for farming, industry, and additional human activities have expanded the greenhouse gases concentrations like methane (CH4), and further increased (CO2).The outcomes of changing the common atmospheric greenhouse are hard to foresee, however certain impacts seem likely:
On average, Earth will end up hotter. Some areas may receive warmer temperatures, yet others may not. Hotter conditions will presumably prompt to more evaporation and precipitation overall, however individual regions will differ, some getting wetter and others drier. A stronger greenhouse effect will probably warm the seas and partially melt glaciers and other ice, increasing sea level. Ocean water also will expand if it warms, contributing to further sea level rise.
In the meantime, a few yields and other plants may react positively to increased atmospheric CO2, developing more vigorously and utilizing water more proficiently. Meanwhile, higher temperatures and shifting climate patterns may change the regions where crops grow best and influence the cosmetics of natural plant communities.
Even slight increases in average worldwide temperatures can have enormous effects. Perhaps the largest, most obvious effect is that glaciers and ice sheets melt quicker than usual. The meltwater channels into the oceans, causing ocean levels to rise. Glaciers and ice sheets cover about 10 percent of the world's landmasses. They hold around 75 percent of the world's freshwater. If majority of this ice melted, sea levels would rise by about 70 meters (230 feet). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change expresses that the global sea level rose about 1.8 millimeters for every year from 1961 to 1993, and 3.1 millimeters per year since 1993.
Rising sea levels could surge coastal cities, displacing millions of people in low-lying areas such as Bangladesh, the U.S. state of Florida, and the Netherlands. Millions more individuals in nations like Bolivia, Peru, and India depend on glacial meltwater for drinking, irrigation, and hydroelectric power. Quick loss of these glaciers would obliterate those countries.
Greenhouse gas emissions influence more than just temperature. Another impact involves changes in precipitation, such as snow and rain. Over the span of the twentieth century, precipitation increased in eastern parts of North and South America, northern Europe, and northern and central Asia. However, however it has decreased in parts of Africa, the Mediterranean, and southern Asia.
As climates change, so do the habitats for living things. Animals that are adjusted to a particular climate may become threatened. Numerous human societies depend on specific harvest for food, clothing, and trade. If the climate of an area changes, the people who live there may never again have the capacity to grow the crops they depend on for survival. A few researchers also worry that tropical diseases will extend their reaches into more temperate regions if the temperatures of those areas increase.
Most climate researchers agree that we should lessen the amount of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere. There are bunches of approaches to do this, including:
•	Drive less. Utilize public transportation, carpool, walk, or ride a bicycle.
•	Travel by air less. Planes produce huge amounts of greenhouse gas emissions.
•	Reduce, reuse, and recycle.
•	Plant a tree. Trees absorb carbon dioxide, keeping it out of the atmosphere.
•	Use less electricity.
•	Eat less meat. Dairy animals are one of the biggest methane producers.
•	Support alternative energy sources that consume renewable energy sources.
Climate is a phenomenon that occurs yearly for a specific long period of time. It affects the region of a place on several terms. There are many factors that shape the climate such as the latitude and the altitude, the sea currents, the distance from the sea and the shape of the land. These factors changes depending on the region of the places. The climate also shapes the ecosystem of the place which let different types of living things to live in different areas. Therefore, the climate is very important for living things to survive and live on earth.
The climate has also undergone rapid change because the greenhouse effect concentration has increased due to human activities. This is caused by the rapid population growth which makes the use of available resources to increase. Human activities such as using transportation, using air-conditioner and industrial activities have affected the greenhouse gases concentrations to increase every single day. The effect of these can be seen as glaciers at the pole are starting slowly to melt one by one.
Although natural processes often changed climate during Earth's history, they cannot explain the present changes. The present change is caused primarily by an ever-increasing fossil fuel consumption and deforestation during the Industrial Era, which enhanced the greenhouse gases concentration in the atmosphere. Subsequently, the climate will be affected every day but humans can also take their responsibility to reduce their consumption. These will slowly but surely leave an impact to reduce the greenhouse gases concentration and maintaining a normal and suitable climate for living things to live.
A PROJECT REPORT Submitted by CHAUHAN MEHUL G
Morden Agriculture Topic One 1
A Critical Review of Nanoparticles as Potential Agents for Enhancing Oil Recovery Farad Sagala
Eldin Kandic CHM1004 Professor Olga Lavinda 4/12/18 The Problem of Ocean Acidification There was once a time where human activity was not such a widespread issue as it is today
First Draft Ph
Earth is the only known planet in this universe where life is possible only because of the availability of water and oxygen
center23002311409410012100center818008227695Name [Email address]941009200Name [Email address]center7000070408809410010000center300003017520Heat exchanger Design 9410036300Heat exchanger Design Contents TOC o "1-3" h z u Introduction PAGEREF _Toc530514343 h 2SWOT Analysis PAGEREF _Toc530514344 h 2Classification of Heat Exchanger by Construction Type PAGEREF _Toc530514345 h 7Methodology / Deign Steps PAGEREF _Toc530514346 h 10Assumptions PAGEREF _Toc530514347 h 11Equations and Calculations PAGEREF _Toc530514348 h 12Result and Discussion PAGEREF _Toc530514349 h 16Takeaways and Learning PAGEREF _Toc530514350 h 17Nomenclature PAGEREF _Toc530514351 h 18Reference PAGEREF _Toc530514352 h 20 Introduction Thermodynamic theory is at the core of heat exchanger design
Posted on May 18, 2019 / 0	Categories	Summary
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