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Q: What's the equivalent of Subversion's "use-commit-times" for Git? I need the timestamps of files on my local system and on my server to be in sync. This is accomplished with Subversion by setting use-commit-times=true in the configuration so that the last modified of each file is when it was committed.
Each time I clone my repository, I want the timestamps of files to reflect when they were last changed in the remote repository, not when I cloned the repository.
Is there a way to do this with Git?

A: If, however you really want to use commit times for timestamps when checking out then try using this script and place it (as executable) in the file $GIT_DIR/.git/hooks/post-checkout:
#!/bin/sh -e

OS=${OS:-`uname`}
old_rev="$1"
new_rev="$2"

get_file_rev() {
    git rev-list -n 1 "$new_rev" "$1"
}

if   [ "$OS" = 'Linux' ]
then
    update_file_timestamp() {
        file_time=`git show --pretty=format:%ai --abbrev-commit "$(get_file_rev "$1")" | head -n 1`
        touch -d "$file_time" "$1"
    }
elif [ "$OS" = 'FreeBSD' ]
then
    update_file_timestamp() {
        file_time=`date -r "$(git show --pretty=format:%at --abbrev-commit "$(get_file_rev "$1")" | head -n 1)" '+%Y%m%d%H%M.%S'`
        touch -h -t "$file_time" "$1"
    }
else
    echo "timestamp changing not implemented" >&2
    exit 1
fi

IFS=`printf '\t\n\t'`

git ls-files | while read -r file
do
    update_file_timestamp "$file"
done

Note however, that this script will cause quite a large delay for checking out large repositories (where large means large amount of files, not large file sizes).

A: We were forced to invent yet another solution, because we needed specifically modification times and not commit times, and the solution also had to be portable (i.e., getting Python working in Windows's Git installations really is not a simple task) and fast. It resembles the David Hardeman's solution, which I decided not to use because of lack of documentation (from the repository I was not able to get idea what exactly his code does).
This solution stores mtimes in a file .mtimes in the Git repository, updates them accordingly on commits (just selectively the mtimes of staged files) and applies them on checkout. It works even with Cygwin/MinGW versions of Git (but you may need to copy some files from standard Cygwin into Git's folder)
The solution consists of three files:

*

*mtimestore - core script providing three options, -a (save all - for initialization in already existing repo (works with git-versed files)), -s (to save staged changes), and -r to restore them. This actually comes in two versions - a Bash one (portable, nice, easy to read/modify), and C version (messy one but fast, because MinGW Bash is horribly slow which makes impossible to use the Bash solution on big projects).

*pre-commit hook

*post-checkout hook

Pre-commit:
#!/bin/bash
mtimestore -s
git add .mtimes

Post-checkout
#!/bin/bash
mtimestore -r

mtimestore - Bash:
#!/bin/bash

function usage
{
  echo "Usage: mtimestore (-a|-s|-r)"
  echo "Option  Meaning"
  echo " -a save-all - saves state of all files in a git repository"
  echo " -s save - saves mtime of all staged files of git repository"
  echo " -r restore - touches all files saved in .mtimes file"
  exit 1
}

function echodate
{
  echo "$(stat -c %Y "$1")|$1" >> .mtimes
}

IFS=$'\n'

while getopts ":sar" optname
do
  case "$optname" in
    "s")
      echo "saving changes of staged files to file .mtimes"
      if [ -f .mtimes ]
      then
        mv .mtimes .mtimes_tmp
        pattern=".mtimes"
        for str in $(git diff --name-only --staged)
        do
          pattern="$pattern\|$str"
        done
        cat .mtimes_tmp | grep -vh "|\($pattern\)\b" >> .mtimes
      else
        echo "warning: file .mtimes does not exist - creating new"
      fi

      for str in $(git diff --name-only --staged)
      do
        echodate "$str"
      done
      rm .mtimes_tmp 2> /dev/null
      ;;
    "a")
      echo "saving mtimes of all files to file .mtimes"
      rm .mtimes 2> /dev/null
      for str in $(git ls-files)
      do
        echodate "$str"
      done
      ;;
    "r")
      echo "restorim dates from .mtimes"
      if [ -f .mtimes ]
      then
        cat .mtimes | while read line
        do
          timestamp=$(date -d "1970-01-01 ${line%|*} sec GMT" +%Y%m%d%H%M.%S)
          touch -t $timestamp "${line##*|}"
        done
      else
        echo "warning: .mtimes not found"
      fi
      ;;
    ":")
      usage
      ;;
    *)
      usage
      ;;
esac

mtimestore - C++
#include <time.h>
#include <utime.h>
#include <sys/stat.h>
#include <iostream>
#include <cstdlib>
#include <fstream>
#include <string>
#include <cerrno>
#include <cstring>
#include <sys/types.h>
#include <ctime>
#include <map>

void changedate(int time, const char* filename)
{
  try
  {
    struct utimbuf new_times;
    struct stat foo;
    stat(filename, &foo);

    new_times.actime = foo.st_atime;
    new_times.modtime = time;
    utime(filename, &new_times);
  }
  catch(...)
  {}
}

bool parsenum(int& num, char*& ptr)
{
  num = 0;
  if(!isdigit(*ptr))
    return false;
  while(isdigit(*ptr))
  {
    num = num*10 + (int)(*ptr) - 48;
    ptr++;
  }
  return true;
}

// Splits the line into a numeral and text part - returns the numeral into 'time' and set 'ptr' to the position where the filename starts
bool parseline(const char* line, int& time, char*& ptr)
{
  if(*line == '\n' || *line == '\r')
    return false;
  time = 0;
  ptr = (char*)line;
  if(parsenum(time, ptr))
  {
    ptr++;
    return true;
  }
  else
    return false;
}

// Replace \r and \n (otherwise is interpreted as part of filename)
void trim(char* string)
{
  char* ptr = string;
  while(*ptr != '\0')
  {
    if(*ptr == '\n' || *ptr == '\r')
      *ptr = '\0';
    ptr++;
  }
}

void help()
{
  std::cout << "version: 1.4" << std::endl;
  std::cout << "usage: mtimestore <switch>" << std::endl;
  std::cout << "options:" << std::endl;
  std::cout << "  -a  saves mtimes of all git-versed files into .mtimes file (meant to be done on intialization of mtime fixes)" << std::endl;
  std::cout << "  -s  saves mtimes of modified staged files into .mtimes file(meant to be put into pre-commit hook)" << std::endl;
  std::cout << "  -r  restores mtimes from .mtimes file (that is meant to be stored in repository server-side and to be called in post-checkout hook)" << std::endl;
  std::cout << "  -h  show this help" << std::endl;
}

void load_file(const char* file, std::map<std::string, int>& mapa)
{

  std::string line;
  std::ifstream myfile (file, std::ifstream::in);

  if(myfile.is_open())
  {
      while (myfile.good())
      {
        getline (myfile, line);
        int time;
        char* ptr;
        if(parseline(line.c_str(), time, ptr))
        {
          if(std::string(ptr) != std::string(".mtimes"))
            mapa[std::string(ptr)] = time;
        }
      }
    myfile.close();
  }

}

void update(std::map<std::string, int>& mapa, bool all)
{
  char path[2048];
  FILE *fp;
  if(all)
    fp = popen("git ls-files", "r");
  else
    fp = popen("git diff --name-only --staged", "r");

  while(fgets(path, 2048, fp) != NULL)
  {
    trim(path);
    struct stat foo;
    int err = stat(path, &foo);
    if(std::string(path) != std::string(".mtimes"))
      mapa[std::string(path)] = foo.st_mtime;
  }
}

void write(const char * file, std::map<std::string, int>& mapa)
{
  std::ofstream outputfile;
  outputfile.open(".mtimes", std::ios::out);
  for(std::map<std::string, int>::iterator itr = mapa.begin(); itr != mapa.end(); ++itr)
  {
    if(*(itr->first.c_str()) != '\0')
    {
      outputfile << itr->second << "|" << itr->first << std::endl;
    }
  }
  outputfile.close();
}

int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
  if(argc >= 2 && argv[1][0] == '-')
  {
    switch(argv[1][1])
    {
      case 'r':
        {
          std::cout << "restoring modification dates" << std::endl;
          std::string line;
          std::ifstream myfile(".mtimes");
          if (myfile.is_open())
          {
            while (myfile.good())
            {
              getline (myfile, line);
              int time, time2;
              char* ptr;
              parseline(line.c_str(), time, ptr);
              changedate(time, ptr);
            }
            myfile.close();
          }
        }
        break;

      case 'a':
      case 's':
        {
          std::cout << "saving modification times" << std::endl;

          std::map<std::string, int> mapa;
          load_file(".mtimes", mapa);
          update(mapa, argv[1][1] == 'a');
          write(".mtimes", mapa);
        }
        break;

      default:
        help();
        return 0;
    }
  }
  else
  {
    help();
    return 0;
  }

  return 0;
}

*

*note that hooks can be placed into template-directory to automatize their placement

More information may be found on kareltucek /
git-mtime-extension
//edit - C++ version updated:

*

*Now the C++ version maintains alphabetical ordering → fewer merge conflicts.

*Got rid of the ugly system() calls.

*Deleted $git update-index --refresh$ from post-checkout hook. It causes some problems with revert under TortoiseGit, and does not seem to be much important anyway.

*Our Windows (by now ages old and probably nonfunctional) package can be downloaded at http://ktweb.cz/blog/download/git-mtimestore-1.4.rar
//edit see GitHub for an up-to-date version

A: I am not sure this would be appropriate for a DVCS (as in "Distributed" VCS)
The huge discussion had already took place in 2007 (see this thread)
And some of Linus's answer were not too keen on the idea. Here is one sample:

I'm sorry. If you don't see how it's WRONG to set a datestamp back to something that will make a simple "make" miscompile your source tree, I don't know what defintiion of "wrong" you are talking about.
It's WRONG.
It's STUPID.
And it's totally INFEASIBLE to implement.

(Note: small improvement: after a checkout, timestamps of up-to-date files are no longer modified (Git 2.2.2+, January 2015): "git checkout - how can I maintain timestamps when switching branches?".)

The long answer was:

I think you're much better off just using multiple repositories instead, if this is something common.
Messing with timestamps is not going to work in general. It's just going to guarantee you that "make" gets confused in a really bad way, and does not recompile enough instead of recompiling too much.
Git does make it possible to do your "check the other branch out" thing very easily, in many different ways.
You could create some trivial script that does any of the following (ranging from the trivial to the more exotic):

*

*just create a new repo:
  git clone old new
  cd new
  git checkout origin/<branch>

and there you are. The old timestamps are fine in your old repo, and you can work (and compile) in the new one, without affecting the old one at all.
Use the flags "-n -l -s" to "git clone" to basically make this instantaneous. For lots of files (eg big repos like the kernel), it's not going to be as fast as just switching branches, but having a second copy of the working tree can be quite powerful.

*

*do the same thing with just a tar-ball instead, if you want to
  git archive --format=tar --prefix=new-tree/ <branchname> |
          (cd .. ; tar xvf -)

which is really quite fast, if you just want a snapshot.

*

*get used to "git show", and just look at individual files.
This is actually really useful at times. You just do
  git show otherbranch:filename

in one xterm window, and look at the same file in your current branch in another window.
In particular, this should be trivial to do with scriptable editors (ie GNU emacs), where it should be possible to basically have a whole "dired mode" for other branches within the editor, using this.
For all I know, the emacs git mode already offers something like this (I'm not an emacs user)

*

*and in the extreme example of that "virtual directory" thing, there was at least somebody working on a git plugin for FUSE, ie you could literally just have virtual directories showing all your branches.

and I'm sure any of the above are better alternatives than playing games with file timestamps.
Linus

A: The following script incorporates the -n 1 and HEAD suggestions, works in most non-Linux environments (like Cygwin), and can be run on a checkout after the fact:
#!/bin/bash -e

OS=${OS:-`uname`}

get_file_rev() {
    git rev-list -n 1 HEAD "$1"
}

if [ "$OS" = 'FreeBSD' ]
then
    update_file_timestamp() {
        file_time=`date -r "$(git show --pretty=format:%at --abbrev-commit "$(get_file_rev "$1")" | head -n 1)" '+%Y%m%d%H%M.%S'`
        touch -h -t "$file_time" "$1"
    }
else
    update_file_timestamp() {
        file_time=`git show --pretty=format:%ai --abbrev-commit "$(get_file_rev "$1")" | head -n 1`
        touch -d "$file_time" "$1"
    }
fi

OLD_IFS=$IFS
IFS=$'\n'

for file in `git ls-files`
do
    update_file_timestamp "$file"
done

IFS=$OLD_IFS

git update-index --refresh

Assuming you named the above script /path/to/templates/hooks/post-checkout and/or /path/to/templates/hooks/post-update, you can run it on an existing repository via:
git clone git://path/to/repository.git
cd repository
/path/to/templates/hooks/post-checkout

A: This solution should run pretty quickly. It sets atimes to committer times and mtimes to author times. It uses no modules so should be reasonably portable.
#!/usr/bin/perl

# git-utimes: update file times to last commit on them
# Tom Christiansen <tchrist@perl.com>

use v5.10;      # for pipe open on a list
use strict;
use warnings;
use constant DEBUG => !!$ENV{DEBUG};

my @gitlog = (
    qw[git log --name-only],
    qq[--format=format:"%s" %ct %at],
    @ARGV,
);

open(GITLOG, "-|", @gitlog)             || die "$0: Cannot open pipe from `@gitlog`: $!\n";

our $Oops = 0;
our %Seen;
$/ = "";

while (<GITLOG>) {
    next if /^"Merge branch/;

    s/^"(.*)" //                        || die;
    my $msg = $1;

    s/^(\d+) (\d+)\n//gm                || die;
    my @times = ($1, $2);               # last one, others are merges

    for my $file (split /\R/) {         # I'll kill you if you put vertical whitespace in our paths
        next if $Seen{$file}++;
        next if !-f $file;              # no longer here

        printf "atime=%s mtime=%s %s -- %s\n",
                (map { scalar localtime $_ } @times),
                $file, $msg,
                                        if DEBUG;

        unless (utime @times, $file) {
            print STDERR "$0: Couldn't reset utimes on $file: $!\n";
            $Oops++;
        }
    }

}
exit $Oops;

A: I saw some requests for a Windows version, so here it is.
Create the following two files:
C:\Program Files\Git\mingw64\share\git-core\templates\hooks\post-checkout
#!C:/Program\ Files/Git/usr/bin/sh.exe
exec powershell.exe -NoProfile -ExecutionPolicy Bypass -File "./$0.ps1"

C:\Program Files\Git\mingw64\share\git-core\templates\hooks\post-checkout.ps1
[string[]]$changes = &git whatchanged --pretty=%at
$mtime = [DateTime]::Now;
[string]$change = $null;
foreach($change in $changes)
{
    if($change.Length -eq 0) { continue; }
    if($change[0] -eq ":")
    {
        $parts = $change.Split("`t");
        $file = $parts[$parts.Length - 1];
        if([System.IO.File]::Exists($file))
        {
            [System.IO.File]::SetLastWriteTimeUtc($file, $mtime);
        }
    }
    else
    {
        #get timestamp
        $mtime = [DateTimeOffset]::FromUnixTimeSeconds([Int64]::Parse($change)).DateTime;
    }
}

This utilizes git whatchanged, so it runs through all the files in one pass instead of calling git for each file.

A: I took Giel's answer and instead of using a post-commit hook script, worked it into my custom deployment script.
Update: I've also removed one | head -n following @eregon's suggestion, and added support for files with spaces in them:
# Adapted to use HEAD rather than the new commit ref
get_file_rev() {
    git rev-list -n 1 HEAD "$1"
}

# Same as Giel's answer above
update_file_timestamp() {
    file_time=`git show --pretty=format:%ai --abbrev-commit "$(get_file_rev "$1")" | head -n 1`
    sudo touch -d "$file_time" "$1"
}

# Loop through and fix timestamps on all files in our CDN directory
old_ifs=$IFS
IFS=$'\n' # Support files with spaces in them
for file in $(git ls-files | grep "$cdn_dir")
do
    update_file_timestamp "${file}"
done
IFS=$old_ifs

A: UPDATE: My solution is now packaged into Debian, Ubuntu, Linux Mint, Fedora, Gentoo Linux, and possibly other distributions:
https://github.com/MestreLion/git-tools#install
sudo apt install git-restore-mtime  # Debian, Ubuntu, and Linux Mint
yum install git-tools               # Fedora, Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL), and CentOS
emerge dev-vcs/git-tools            # Gentoo Linux

IMHO, not storing timestamps (and other metadata like permissions and ownership) is a big limitation of Git.
Linus' rationale of timestamps being harmful just because it "confuses make" is lame:

*

*make clean is enough to fix any problems.

*Applies only to projects that use make, mostly C/C++. It is completely moot for scripts like Python, Perl, or documentation in general.

*There is only harm if you apply the timestamps. There would be no harm in storing them in repo. Applying them could be a simple --with-timestamps option for git checkout and friends (clone, pull, etc.), at the user's discretion.
Both Bazaar and Mercurial stores metadata. Users can apply them or not when checking out. But in Git, since original timestamps are not even available in the repository, there is no such option.
So, for a very small gain (not having to re-compile everything) that is specific to a subset of projects, Git as a general DVCS was crippled, some information from about files is lost, and, as Linus said, it's infeasible to do it now. Sad.
That said, may I offer two approaches?
1 - http://repo.or.cz/w/metastore.git , by David Härdeman. It tries to do what Git should have done in the first place: stores metadata (not only timestamps) in the repository when committing (via a pre-commit hook), and reapplies them when pulling (also via hooks).
2 - My humble version of a script I used before for generating release tarballs. As mentioned in other answers, the approach is a little different: to apply for each file the timestamp of the most recent commit where the file was modified.

*

*git-restore-mtime, with lots of options, supports any repository layout, and runs on Python 3.

Below is a really bare-bones version of the script, as a proof-of-concept, on Python 2.7. For actual usage I strongly recommend the full version above:
#!/usr/bin/env python
# Bare-bones version. Current directory must be top-level of work tree.
# Usage: git-restore-mtime-bare [pathspecs...]
# By default update all files
# Example: to only update only the README and files in ./doc:
# git-restore-mtime-bare README doc

import subprocess, shlex
import sys, os.path

filelist = set()
for path in (sys.argv[1:] or [os.path.curdir]):
    if os.path.isfile(path) or os.path.islink(path):
        filelist.add(os.path.relpath(path))
    elif os.path.isdir(path):
        for root, subdirs, files in os.walk(path):
            if '.git' in subdirs:
                subdirs.remove('.git')
            for file in files:
                filelist.add(os.path.relpath(os.path.join(root, file)))

mtime = 0
gitobj = subprocess.Popen(shlex.split('git whatchanged --pretty=%at'),
                          stdout=subprocess.PIPE)
for line in gitobj.stdout:
    line = line.strip()
    if not line: continue

    if line.startswith(':'):
        file = line.split('\t')[-1]
        if file in filelist:
            filelist.remove(file)
            #print mtime, file
            os.utime(file, (mtime, mtime))
    else:
        mtime = long(line)

    # All files done?
    if not filelist:
        break

Performance is pretty impressive, even for monster projects wine, git or even the Linux kernel:
Bash
# 0.27 seconds
# 5,750 log lines processed
# 62 commits evaluated
# 1,155 updated files

Git
# 3.71 seconds
# 96,702 log lines processed
# 24,217 commits evaluated
# 2,495 updated files

Wine
# 13.53 seconds
# 443,979 log lines processed
# 91,703 commits evaluated
# 6,005 updated files

Linux kernel
# 59.11 seconds
# 1,484,567 log lines processed
# 313,164 commits evaluated
# 40,902 updated files

A: Here is a Go program:
import "bufio"
import "log"
import "os/exec"

func check(e error) {
   if e != nil {
      log.Fatal(e)
   }
}

func popen(name string, arg ...string) (*bufio.Scanner, error) {
   cmd := exec.Command(name, arg...)
   pipe, e := cmd.StdoutPipe()
   if e != nil {
      return nil, e
   }
   return bufio.NewScanner(pipe), cmd.Start()
}

import "os"
import "strconv"
import "time"

func main() {
   gitLs, e := popen("git", "ls-files")
   check(e)
   files := map[string]bool{}
   for gitLs.Scan() {
      files[gitLs.Text()] = true
   }
   gitLog, e := popen(
      "git", "log", "-m",
      "--name-only", "--relative", "--pretty=format:%ct", ".",
   )
   check(e)
   for len(files) > 0 {
      gitLog.Scan()
      sec, e := strconv.ParseInt(gitLog.Text(), 10, 64)
      check(e)
      unix := time.Unix(sec, 0)
      for gitLog.Scan() {
         name := gitLog.Text()
         if name == "" {
            break
         }
         if ! files[name] {
            continue
         }
         os.Chtimes(name, unix, unix)
         delete(files, name)
      }
   }
}

It is similar to this answer. It builds up a file list like that answer, but it builds from git ls-files instead of just looking in the working directory. This solves the problem of excluding .git, and it also solves the problem of untracked files. Also, that answer fails if the last commit of a file was a merge commit, which I solved with git log -m. Like the other answer, will stop once all files are found, so it doesn't have to read all the commits.
For example with git/git, as of this posting it only had to read
182 commits. Also it ignores old files from the history as needed, and it won't touch a file that has already been touched. Finally, it is faster than the other solution. Results with git/git repo:
PS C:\git> Measure-Command { ..\git-touch }
Milliseconds      : 470

A: I have found git utimes in git-extras.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


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Héctor Enrique Herrera Cajas (Pelequén, 13 de septiembre de 1930–Viña del Mar, 6 de octubre de 1997) fue un historiador chileno, especialista en la Bizantinística. Recordado por ser políglota, en su área del conocimiento también destaca por haber sido el formador de dos Premios Nacionales de Historia en su país: Gabriel Salazar y Eduardo Cavieres, ambos investigadores dedicados a la Historia Económica y Social.

Discípulo del historiador griego Fotios Malleros, es considerado por los expertos como el primer bizantinista latinoamericano. Sus trabajos en Historia de Bizancio específicamente cubren dos áreas: Historia de las Relaciones Internacionales e Historia del arte bizantino. En la Universidad de Chile, su alma mater, dictó cursos regulares y fue cofundador del Centro de Estudios Bizantinos y Neohelénicos, única institución de su tipo en Latinoamérica. Posteriormente, desde 1954 fue profesor tanto de la Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso como de la Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile. En la primera casa de estudios fue cofundador y director de su Instituto de Historia.

Entre los múltiples trabajos publicados por Herrera Cajas, dentro de sus más importantes destacan «La Germania de Tácito. El problema del significado del escudo» (1957) y «Res privata-Res publica-Imperium» (1977). El primer artículo citado es considerado por los expertos como un estudio pionero de la historia de las mentalidades dentro de la historiografía en Chile. Allí, examina minuciosamente la obra de Tácito con el motivo de analizar qué simbolizaba para los germanos primitivos el escudo para así proyectar sus costumbres hacia el mundo medieval. En palabras de su discípulo José Marín, «él hace hablar a la fuente de una manera realmente notable, por cuanto el propio Tácito poco dice del tema en cuestión». Mientras tanto, el segundo artículo mencionado examina de manera conceptual la trayectoria de las instituciones romanas desde su fundación el año 753 a.C. hasta la caída de su parte occidental. En el desarrollo de la obra, aborda las particularidades del mundo privado y su relación con las instituciones públicas que, a fines del Imperio, perecerían para volver a re-privatizarse socialmente. Esta re-privatización, exponía Herrera, ocurría debido a la influencia que entonces ejercían los pueblos germanos con sus instituciones privadas y descarta de plano las teorías de la ruptura o la continuidad entre un mundo y otro.

Desde 1958, profundizó en tópicos del Imperio Bizantino como los fundamentos de su ideología, sus relaciones con la Iglesia, el arte como uno de sus elementos centrales, sus símbolos del poder imperial, el ceremonial palatino o las dinámicas de sus relaciones internacionales principalmente con el Reino Franco y el Califato abasí. Entre sus obras más destacables se encuentran «Simbología del poder imperial en Bizancio: los pendientes de las coronas» (1993-1996) o «Las estepas Euroasiáticas: un peculiar espacio histórico» (1982), obra que tiene como hija putativa a «Los pueblos de las estepas y la formación del arte bizantino: de la tienda a la iglesia cristiana» (1990).

Fue rector de la Universidad Metropolitana de Ciencias de la Educación (UMCE) hacia el período 1986-1989, época en que fundó el Centro de Estudios Clásicos (1986) y fue aceptado como miembro pleno de la Academia Chilena de la Historia (1989). Días luego de su muerte, la Universidad Finis Terrae inauguró la celebración de las Jornadas de Historia Héctor Herrera Cajas. Asimismo, desde noviembre de 1997, una de las salas principales del Instituto de Historia de la Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso lleva su nombre.

Dentro de sus influenciados, Salazar lo destaca «por su calidad humana y la calidad en su forma de hacer las clases». No obstante, esta apreciación no estuvo exenta del antagónico pensamiento político entre ambos, pues Salazar militaba en el MIR, movimiento de ultraizquierda, mientras que Herrera Cajas era acérrimo opositor a los movimientos rebeldes de la década de 1960. Igualmente, una vez acaecida la dictadura militar (1973-1990) del general Augusto Pinochet, durante su transcurso fue afín a la línea doctrinaria del Ministerio de Educación de Chile.

Biografía y carrera académica

Juventud e inicios: 1930–1953

Nacido en Pelequén, pueblo ubicado al sur de la capital Santiago, realizó sus primeros estudios en la escuela Hermanos Maristas de San Fernando, provincia de Colchagua. Allí, destacó como estudiante sobresaliente con habilidades de dibujo según su informe de calificaciones. Siendo muy joven, su vocación docente ya se manifestó, por lo que durante sus últimos años en la escuela se desempeñó como profesor de matemáticas en un liceo nocturno.

Se mudó a Santiago una vez que terminó su educación secundaria y en 1948 se unió a la Universidad de Chile, donde en 1953 se graudó como Profesor de Historia, Geografía y Ciencias Sociales. Además de dictar cursos regulares y obligatorios, dedicó interés, tiempo y entusiasmo al estudio de idiomas, específicamente el latín, el griego, el alemán e incluso el sánscrito, llegando a ser un hablante fluido de inglés, francés e italiano. También estuvo interesado en el chino, el árabe y el ruso, pero no llegó a dominarlos.

Sus estudios de filología fueron decisivos en su formación intelectual. En torno a sus clases, Marín, estrecho amigo además de su discípulo, esgrimió que la etimología de las palabras solía ser clave en su narración de la historia. Durante su período de pregrado, Herrera fue notablemente influenciado por maestros como Eugenio Pereira, Mario Góngora, el político y académico Juan Gómez Millas o el historiador greco-chileno Fotios Malleros.

Llegada a la PUCV y ascenso: 1953–1973
En 1953, a los 23 años de edad, la Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso (PUCV) lo contrató con el objetivo de organizar su entonces naciente Instituto de Historia. Al ser contratado por la PUCV, aparte de su labor docente, se esforzó por conformar una completa Biblioteca Central. Su principal objetivo era formar una biblioteca especializada de Historia, para lo cual recurrió a académicos de dicha disciplina para que se interesaran y ayudaran en la adquisición de libros, así como conseguir algunas remesas desde Santiago. Por esta vía se formó una importante biblioteca cuando la Universidad carecía de medios para hacer grandes adquisiciones.

Entre 1957 y 1958, cursó estudios en Alemania, donde visitó varias universidades. En 1960, se convirtió en Decano de la Facultad de Filosofía y Educación de la PUCV. Por defecto, también se transformó en el Rector del Colegio Rubén Castro debido a la dependencia que esa institución tenía en torno a la Facultad ya mencionada.

En 1964, se casó con Ivonne Lavanchy, quien fue miembro de la Comisión Fulbright. Tal organismo radicado en Washington DC sería la entidad que permitiría a Herrera dedicarse en 1968 a la investigación de asuntos bizantinos durante siete meses en Dumbarton Oaks, centro de estudios sobre bizantinísca más importante del mundo. Un año antes, acompañado de su familia, viajó a Francia gracias a una beca obtenida luego de exitosas gestiones con el Agregado Cultural de la Embajada de Francia en Chile: M. Pommier. En dicho país obtuvo su doctorado por la Universidad de Burdeos a fines de los 60 tras ser aprobada su tesis «Las Relaciones Internacionales del Imperio Bizantino durante la época de las grandes invasiones».

Según el propio Herrera, dentro de los «factores favorables» que le permitieron presentar su proyecto de tesis a esa universidad se encuentran, por ejemplo, la «amistad fraternal» con el profesor Rómulo Santana, quien lo animó a emprender tal tarea para luego ayudarlo a «resolver las dificultades que pudiesen surgir, prodigándonos con sus consejos entusiastas». Su vinculación con la Universidad de Burdeos le permitió conseguir la «invitación del Servicio Alemán de Intercambio Académico (DAAD) para visitar Alemania» y así entrevistarse con profesores como Franz Altheim o Rubin, cuyos consejos califica de valiosos. Cabe destacar que alrededor de esa estancia también pudo conversar con los profesores Lemerle y Guillemain, siendo este último el director de su tesis. De igual modo, la obtención de la beca Fulbright le permitió enriquecer las bases de su investigación, la cual vio complementada su bibliografía que ya contaba con el repertorio de las bibliotecas de la PUCV, la PUC y su alma máter, razón por la que da especial agradecimiento a sus respectivos rectores (entre ellos Eugenio González Rojas, fundador del Partido Socialista de Chile y socio del futuro presidente de la República Salvador Allende).

Durante su estancia en Francia, Herrera fue testigo del Mayo del 68 y, de acuerdo a Marín, «su epistolario muestra su tenaz oposición a la llamada "Reforma", proceso que simultáneamente se llevó a cabo en Chile». Aquello fue promovido por el gobierno democristiano del Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva (DC), cuyo partido estuvo involucrado en las elecciones de rector de la PUCV de 1968. Esta elección tuvo como candidatos a Alberto Vial, cercano a Arquitectura, y a Raúl Allard Neumann, futuro ganador y militante DC. A pesar de su oposición a la reforma, según Alejandro Guzmán Brito, Herrera apoyó a Vial a través de su colaboración con uno de los promotores del tal campaña, Oscar Godoy, con quien se reunió en Arica.

Auge académico: 1973–1986
A mediados de 1973, él lanzó en la PUCV la Semana de Estudios Romanos, la cual actualmente se celebra cada dos años, y se ha convertido en uno de los intercambios académicos más prestigiosos de América Latina en relación con la historia de la Antigua Roma. En esa instancia, Herrera ha presentado sus obras en cada una de sus temporadas entre 1973 y 1997.

La primera Semana de Estudios Romanos se realizó a instancias suyas el día 25 de junio de 1973. Esta, naturalmente, transcurrió bajo el clima de polarización política ocurrido durante el gobierno socialista del Presidente Allende. Su presentación contó con el apoyo de Rectoría y con el patrocinio de la Embajada italiana, cuyo embajador, Norberto Behmann, visitó las instalaciones de la Casa Italia en la Avenida Alvares, Viña del Mar. Posteriormente, el Golpe de Estado del 11 de septiembre incidió directamente en la llegada de Herrera Cajas a la posición de Vicerrector Académico, pues Allard Newmann fue destituido como Rector de la Universidad por la Junta Militar. De igual modo, tal cúpula liderada por el Gral. Augusto Pinochet designó al Contraalmirante en retiro Alberto de la Maza, quien a su vez nombró a Herrera Cajas como Vicerrector Académico y como Secretario General a Enrique Aimone, profesor de la Escuela de Derecho.

En 1976, la Federación de Estudiantes de la PUCV lo eligió como «mejor maestro».

En 1986, el Comité Administrativo del XVII Congreso Internacional Bizantino, celebrado en Dumbarton Oaks, aceptó su presentación sobre «Los pueblos de la estepa y la formación de arte bizantino: de la tienda a la Iglesia Cristiana». Sin embargo, no pudo asistir a leerla.

Rectorado en la UMCE: 1986–1989

En 1986, fue designado por las autoridades como Rector de la UMCE por un periodo de tres años de acuerdo al DFL N° 754 del 22 de agosto de ese año.

De acuerdo a una nota correspondiente a la edición N°159 de la Revista Análisis (opositora a Pinochet), su mandato debió enfrentar la presunta polémica de incurrir en prácticas discriminatorias hacia el ingreso y permanencia de alumnos. De acuerdo a los testimonios, sus restricciones indirectas se basaron en medidas como la exigencia de una matrícula anual de $15.000. Este monto hacía prácticamente inaccesible la entrada de una buena cantidad de estudiantes a la institución. Asimismo, fue criticado por aplicar una prueba adicional de Castellano cuyo resultado se ponderaba de manera extra a la rendida en la Prueba de Aptitud Académica. Igualmente, es acusado de haber sido promotor de un test de valoración moral y psíquica cuya evaluación se cercioraba de «revisar los antecedentes políticos de los estudiantes» de acuerdo a Alejandro Millán, entonces presidente del Centro de Estudiantes de Artes Plásticas de esa casa de estudios. Esas razones explican que actuales académicos de esa universidad, como Luis Rubilar Solís, lo describan como un «represor por excelencia».

En materia presupuestaria, otra cuestionada medida suya fue el cierre de la Escuela de Filosofía, unidad académica que dejó de percibir estudiantes desde el año en que la UMCE vio el estreno de Herrera como máxima autoridad. A lo anterior, se suman confusos casos de exoneraciones que involucraban hablar en actos públicos. Esta situación habría afectado directamente no solo a dirigentes estudiantiles sino también a académicos y a funcionarios. A juicio de sus detractores, las razones financieras esgrimidas por su rectorado no resultan convincentes teniendo en cuenta que heredó el superávit presupuestario de 1985, es decir, $700 millones que incluso alcanzaron para construir dos casinos nuevos.

El 25 de abril de 1989, Herrera Cajas presentó su renuncia al cargo conforme a lo dispuesto por el DFL N° 341.

Últimos años y muerte: 1990–1997

Posterior a su renuncia como rector de la UMCE, el mismo año 1989 fue aceptado como miembro permanente de la Academia Chilena de la Historia.

En 1992, el Gobierno de Grecia lo condecoró con la Orden del Fénix en agradecimiento a la difusión que ha hecho de los valores de la cultura helénica en Chile. En 1995, ahora oficialmente invitado por el Gobierno de Grecia, tuvo la oportunidad de admirar personalmente los monumentos bizantinos más importantes. Durante ese viaje, también conoció a Nicolas Oikonomides, entonces Director del Centro de Estudios Bizantinos en Atenas y quien, más tarde, lo encomiaría a través un homenaje póstumo en el libro Dimensiones de la Cultura Bizantina (1998).

El 6 de octubre de 1997, Herrera finalmente murió a causa de un ataque al corazón en la ciudad de Viña del Mar. A partir de ello, el historiador romanista italiano, Umberto Laffi, envió una carta de condolencias dirigida al entonces Rector PUCV, Bernardo Donoso. Allí, declaró lo siguiente:

Desde noviembre de 1997, una de las aulas principales del Instituto de Historia lleva su nombre. El reconocimiento a su figura se mantiene vigente y aún consiste en una placa conmemorativa de bronce. Inicialmente, también estuvo simbolizado por un cuadro suyo al costado lateral de la pared izquierda de esa sala.

Pensamiento histórico
La Teoría de la Historia de Herrera Cajas está hegemonizada por una filosofía ligada a la trascendencia religiosa–espiritual, cuyo énfasis se explica por utilizar dicho marco teórico para estudiar globalmente la realidad de la cultura humana (tanto abstracta como material), la cual, además, debe incluir una mirada interdisciplinaria que dé una «sensatez» a la narración histórica a partir de «distintos senderos» que formen «un mismo sentido», es decir, desde diferentes acepciones de la moral (prácticas de una cultura) coherentes con una ética cristiana universal (fundamento filosófico de esas prácticas). Las razones circunstanciales que motivan al autor a decantarse por aquella óptica se encuentran en sus inquietudes intelectuales inspiradas por la fe de los Padres de la Iglesia y enriquecida por su contacto con la obra de autores religiosos como Henri Marrou, Eric Dardel o el teólogo Jean Daniélou, todos ellos intelectuales franceses.

Según Paola Corti, estudiosa y adepta al pensamiento de Herrera Cajas, una de las mayores prioridades de él como historiador radicaría en la búsqueda por el «(...) misterio de la unidad de la historia, el misterio del origen y el fin de ella, y por último, los Misterios del Señor mismo de la Historia; el misterio de Dios (...)».

Para justificar aquellos juicios respecto de la obra del autor, Corti utiliza como estrategia metodológica el hacer dialogar a una conferencia de Herrera Cajas y dos artículos del mismo historiador en los que su idea principal consiste en que «la definitiva conquista de la historia» debe incluso superar «la más compleja investigación formal» con tal de buscar introducirse en el espíritu del tiempo que imbuye al sujeto histórico, ejercicio que Herrera interpreta desde la trascendencia en tanto a la posibilidad de «abrirse al infinito» y «abrirse al misterio de la eternidad». Por ello, la deontología (deber ético) en Herrera Cajas apuntaría a que la actitud del historiador debe basarse en el respeto y la humildad, ya que el sistema de valores que ambos proyectan respectivamente estriba tanto en la valoración especial de los procesos, personajes o hechos como en el conocimiento de nuestras propias limitaciones y debilidades frente a esos elementos, motivo por el que Herrera Cajas posee devoción en torno a la siguiente cita de San Alberto Magno: «somos enanos encaramados en hombros de gigantes».

Esa última cita, que metaforiza el sentido de la humildad que debe tener el investigador, también implica que el historiador debe esforzarse en ser lo suficientemente culto y humanista para sacar provecho de la visión panorámica a la que tiene acceso. Es por ello que Herrera Cajas se declaró crítico del materialismo histórico, método de análisis marxista al que consideraba que solo se quedaba en la forma terrenal del poder y sus dimensiones, las que, en lugar de dar verdadera importancia a la cotidianidad en la historiografía, en realidad hacían de un sinfín de fuentes un método para priorizar una narración rutinaria diferente a lo que transmite el espíritu del anterior concepto de «cotidianidad».

Aportes historiográficos

Germania de Tácito
De sus investigaciones, destaca el artículo titulado El significado del escudo en La Germania de Tácito. Esta obra le valió el honor de ser reimpreso en Die Araber in der Alten Welt, 3, Berlín 1966, obra dirigida por el eminente Franz Altheim, a quien Herrera Cajas conoció en Alemania, después de haber estudiado su obra en Chile, la cual, comentó en más de una ocasión, lo impresionó profundamente.

Res privata–Res publica–Imperium
Res privata Res imperium. En este, el autor examina, conceptual y analíticamente, en una síntesis sobresaliente, el devenir de las instituciones romanas.

Historia de las Relaciones Internacionales de Bizancio
Uno de sus puntos centrales consiste en el catastro que Bizancio hacía de la mentalidad, costumbre y cultura de otros pueblos como fundamento de su política de Estado y selección de embajadores para ejecutar la relación con esos actores en pro de la paz, estatus que era afín al principio del Imperio como pilar del Universo.

Crítica externa
Su tesis (1972) fue el primer trabajo de este tipo publicado tanto en Chile como en América Latina. En palabras de Mario Góngora, su profesor, el «aspecto más importante del libro lo constituye (...) el tratamiento de las ideas, representaciones y sentimientos bizantinos que intervienen en las Relaciones Internacionales con la Persia Sasánida», motivo por el que una «línea importante dentro de la elaboración es la de la simbología política», es decir, cómo «las insignias del poder (...) se prestan para toda clase de transferencias activas, místicas y religiosas que colorean la noción del Imperio».

En palabras de Marín, tal obra:

Por otra parte, su tesis fue la única obra en español que el historiador alemán, Günter Weiß, incluyó en su repertorio bibliográfico especializado, el cual incluye todo lo relevante que ocurrió en la bizantinística entre 1968 y 1985. Teniendo en cuenta que Weiß apenas hace un comentario o una frase sobre otras obras, respecto de Herrera sotiene lo siguiente como tesis:

Historia del arte bizantino
Respecto de este tópico, el profesor Herrera plantea que, en la formación del arte bizantino, gravitaron influencias de los pueblos nómades de la Estepa euroasiática, quienes priorizaban el umbral que separaba al «sagrado» interior del «inhóspito» exterior.

Todo ello, llevó a que el autor desarrollara un artículo académico titulado «Los pueblos de las estepas y la formación del arte bizantino: de la tienda a la Iglesia Cristiana». En él detalla cómo es que los ornamentos al interior de las tiendas móviles influyeron en la simbología de las iglesias bizantinas una vez caída la parte occidental de Roma. A juicio del propio Herrera Cajas, aquella confluencia se trata de una «consonancia espiritual» entre cristianos e invasores, los que ya tenían contacto desde el siglo III por medio de godos y nómades en el Mar Negro, lo que está respaldado bibliográficamente por Amiano Marcelino. Asimismo, esta «consonancia» habría sido posible debido a que la filosofía urbana del mundo grecorromano mundanizaba la noción del espacio exterior, lo que contrastaba con el culto cristiano y la concepción de los nómades esteparios, quienes consideraban ese espacio como algo inestable y complejo de dominar.

Rasgos doctrinarios e ideológicos

Conservadurismo nacionalista
Si bien no militó en partido político alguno, el profesor Herrera adhirió al ibañismo durante la década de 1950. Asimismo, en las elecciones presidenciales de 1964 asumió funciones directivas en la campaña del candidato nacionalista Jorge Prat, nieto de Arturo Prat y antiguo colaborador del segundo gobierno del Gral. Carlos Ibañez del Campo (1952–1958). En dicha administración tanto Herrera Cajas como Prat simpatizaron con el ala corporativista de una gestión nacional–popular que tuvo dos fases: a) una de corte estatista que contó con apoyos del Partido Socialista de Chile y que fue cercana al peronismo (1953–1955), y b) otra marcada por reformas económicas proto–neoliberales ligadas a la Misión Klein-Saks (1955–1958).

Años más tarde, Herrera Cajas fue colaborador de la política educativa diseñada por la dictadura del Gral. Augusto Pinochet (1973–1990), cuya cúpula de poder —la Junta Militar de Gobierno— resolvió asumir decididamente las reformas de mercado que ni Ibáñez ni el Presidente centroderechista Jorge Alessandri (1958–1964) estuvieron dispuestos a aplicar. Así, la inicial línea nacionalista del marco curricular de 1974 luego estuvo contradicha por los principios económicos subsidiario-neoliberales consagrados por el Régimen Militar en la Constitución de 1980. Sin embargo, los nacionalistas durante el régimen no tuvieron contradicción con el relato antimarxista del gobierno, el cual estuvo consensuado entre los valores occidentales clásicos y la predominancia de los deberes cívicos sobre los derechos (entonces cercenados).

Prueba de la consonancia de Herrera Cajas con al menos dos esos tres puntos (salvo el antimarxismo), la dan dos testimonios suyos en un seminario realizado en septiembre de 1987 y titulado «El rol de la cultura en la nueva institucionalidad». Aquella instancia vio la participación de conspicuos políticos de la Segunda República (1925–1973) como Mario Arnello Romo, otrora referente político del Partido Nacional y en esa época profesor del Servicio Nacional del Patrimonio Cultural o DIBAM. Durante aquella instancia, Herrera Cajas declaró:

De acuerdo a Isabel Jara Hinojosa, autora de la fuente que acredita las declaraciones, Herrera Cajas allí mostraría una «evidente aura franquista», la que, según su parecer, fue reforzada cuando luego ahonda en el concepto de tradición. Sobre aquel concepto donde el profesor enfatiza sobre el deber patrio, específicamente establece:

Humanismo cristiano
Herrera Cajas fue reconocido y a la vez criticado por su moral cristiana, un rasgo característico de su idea de universidad, por lo cual, durante la década de 1960, en que la tendencia iba en dirección a la secularización de la PUCV, él defendió por su parte que el deber de la Universidad era formar especialistas en todos los campos de las ciencias, pero "dotados de principios cristianos". Para él, la gestión de los jesuitas había sido una especie de "período fundacional", ya que en su opinión:

Legado docente y académico

Impresión de sus discípulos

Este apartado tiene por objetivo reunir las más variadas apreciaciones de sus pupilos, es decir, diversos historiadores que, habiéndose formado diferentes concepciones epistemológicas o político-ideológicas, reconocen la labor docente que Herrera Cajas proyectó en su trayectoria profesional.

Eduardo Cavieres
Eduardo Cavieres, Premio Nacional de Historia en 2008, quien fue su alumno, y posteriormente su ayudante en la Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, reconoce que:

Gabriel Salazar

El historiador Gabriel Salazar, Premio Nacional de Historia en 2006, quien fuera su alumno y ayudante en la Universidad de Chile, destaca su calidad humana y su forma de hacer las clases aun teniendo posiciones políticas contrapuestas:

José Marín
Marín, su mencionado discípulo y amigo, además de académico del Instituto de Historia de la PUCV, sostiene:

Semana de Estudios Romanos

Las Semanas de Estudios Romanos se convirtieron en uno de los grandes hitos en la carrera académica de Herrera Cajas, puesto que haría de tal instancia un espacio singular en Chile y el concierto internacional. Al no existir la suficiente cantidad de investigadores que se dedicaran a esa área del conocimiento, dichas jornadas significaron un espacio de encuentro tanto para quienes buscaban difundir su conocimiento como para quienes no eran especialistas en la materia y tenían cierto interés. Esto traspasó las fronteras nacionales y atrajo a especialistas de lugares como Argentina, Brasil o Europa a través de, por ejemplo, profesores como Cesare Letta, Narciso Santos Yanguas o Umberto Laffi.

Localmente, esta instancia académica ha influenciado a discípulos suyos formados en el Instituto de Historia de la Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso u otras unidades académicas de otras universidades. Entre ellos podemos contar a Marín, Raúl Buono-Core, Luis Rojas Donat o a Alejandro Bancalari.

Obras

Libros
 El mundo del ayer. Manual de Historia Antigua y Medieval para Educación Básica. Ediciones Pedagógicas. 1971.
 Las Relaciones Internacionales del Imperio Bizantino durante la Época de las Grandes Invasiones. Ediciones del Centro de Estudios Bizantinos y Neohelénicos de la Universidad de Chile. 1972.
 Antigüedad y Edad Media. Manual de Historia Universal, I. Academia Superior de Ciencias Pedagógicas. 1983.
 Dimensiones de la Responsabilidad Educacional. Editorial Universitaria. 1988.
 Dimensiones de la Cultura Bizantina. Arte, Poder y Legado Histórico. Ediciones del Centro de Estudios Bizantinos y Neohelénicos de la Universidad de Chile y Universidad Gabriela Mistral. 1998 (edición póstuma).
 El Imperio Bizantino. Introducción Histórica y Selección de Documentos. En coautoría con José Marín Riveros. Ediciones del Centro de Estudios Bizantinos y Neohelénicos de la Universidad de Chile. 1998 (edición póstuma).
 Ensayos sobre el Mundo Medieval de Héctor Herrera Cajas. Colección de escritos inéditos, compilado por Leonardo Carrera Airola. 2018 (edición póstuma).

Artículos
El Chou-King y la concepción del poder real (1953)
Acerca del Duelo (1955)
El significado del escudo en La Germania de Tácito (1957)
Las relaciones internacionales del Imperio Bizantino (1958)
El Presente, tiempo de la acción (1963)
Engaño y desengaño en la historiografía actual (1969)
Synésios de Cirene. Un crítico del Imperio (1970)
Dagoberto y Heraclio. Un capítulo de Historia Diplomática (1971)
La caída del Imperio Romano en Occidente (1976)
Res privata-Res publica-Imperium (1977)
San Benito y la formación de Occidente (1980)
Bizancio y la formación de Rusia (Los tratados bizantino-rusos del s. X) (1982)
Las estepas euroasiáticas. Un peculiar espacio histórico (1982)
El sentido de la crisis en Occidente (1983)
Apelación a la Historia en el De Officiis de Cicerón (1984)
Los orígenes del arte bizantino, ensayo sobre la formación del arte cristiano (1985)
Aproximación al Espíritu Imperial Bizantino (1986)
Temas de Claudiano (1986)
La Constitución del ámbito cívico en el Mundo Grecorromano (1986)
Una utopía medievalː la "Orden Nueva" concebida por Joaquín de Fiore (1988)
El totalitarismo como persistencia de la mentalidad primitiva (1988)
José Ignacio Víctor Eyzaguirre, Historiador (1989)
Los pueblos de las estepas y la formación del arte bizantino. De la tienda a la iglesia cristiana (1990)
Notas sobre el significado de la guerra (1990)
La arquitectura del "Discurso sobre la Historia Universal" de Bossuet (1990)
Los estudios superiores en Bizancio (1990-1992)
Los árabes y el Islam (1991)
Velleius Paterculus, moralista (1992)
La Espiritualidad Bizantina (1993)
La Doctrina Gelasiana (1994)
La idea imperial bizantinaː representación y concentración del poder (1995)
La espiritualidad bizantina en el arte (1995)
Simbología política del poder imperial en Bizancioː los pendientes de las coronas (1993-1996)
Príncipe e Imperio en el panegírico de Trajano de Plinio el Joven (1996)
El Milenarismo en la Historia Antigua y Medieval (1996)
Fiestas imperiales en Constantinopla (1997)
Cómo leer a Floro (1998) (edición póstuma)
Lo cotidiano, ayer y hoy, aquí y allá (1997-1998) (edición póstuma)
Ética y educación. Una reflexión sobre los valores en nuestra sociedad (1998) (edición póstuma)
San Benito y el Ordo Romano (1999) (edición póstuma)

Notas

Referencias

Bibliografía

Enlaces externos
 Artículos de Héctor Herrera Cajas en el Archivo Digital de la Biblioteca Nacional del Congreso de Chile

Nacidos en 1930
Historiadores de Chile
Bizantinistas de Chile
Nacionalistas de Chile
Anticomunistas de Chile
Alumnado de la Universidad de Chile
Académicos numerarios de la Academia Chilena de la Lengua
Profesores de Chile
Profesores de la Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso
Escritores en español del siglo XX
Colaboradores de la dictadura militar de Chile
Historiadores sociales
Rectores de la Universidad Metropolitana de Ciencias de la Educación

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


First published to accompany a group exhibition at Piano Nobile, Aspects of Abstraction 1952-2007, this fully color illustrated catalogue showcases seminal works of abstract art produced in Britain over the course of five decades. The publication features the work of internationally renowned artists including Terry Frost, William Scott, William Turnbull, William Crozier, Jack Smith, John Golding, William Pye, Anthony Caro, John Hoyland, Bridget Riley, and Anish Kapoor. Lavishly illustrated throughout and with an introductory essay by Margaret Garlake, the catalogue presents exceptional paintings and sculptures, created by artists in dialogue with contemporaries and predecessors in Britain, and diverse international centres of abstraction. Highlighting pivotal artistic moments of transition and transformation in abstraction over the course of a half century, the catalogue presents an innovative vision of the international contribution of post-war British abstract art.


The striking design of the all-new Land Rover 2017 Discovery sets a new benchmark. It stands out with wraparound LED lights and a highly modern spacious interior with space for up to seven adults.
The front opening panoramic roof makes the inside of the new Discovery feel light and airy. Other clever and practical functions include 'gesture control' which allows you to open the boot and lower the tail gate by just waving a foot in front of it. If you have your hands full, there are up to nine USB points so all passengers can keep their phones charged. You can also fold the rear seats flat at the push of a button and keep a bottle cool in the front arm rest chiller.
Air suspension lowers the whole vehicle to seamlessly allow you to comfortably climb in and out based on the terrain. The vehicles off-road geometry allows you to negotiate the toughest of obstacles. Real-time information such as Terrain Response allows you to select and adapt the response to suit the specific terrain. 'Altering Progress Control' enhances control over terrain such as ice, wet grass or sand.
The strong and rigid aluminium structure is 480kg lighter than the previous model allowing better stability and better fuel economy.
Safety features include 'engine drag torque control' to avoid wheels locking, 'corner brake control' which maintains stability and 'dynamic stability control' which prevents under steer and over steer.
The all-new Land Rover Discovery comes with an electrically deployable tow bar and can even tell you if your trailer is correctly loaded.
Aside from all of the clever tech features, this SUV is really beautiful to look at and the squarish look from the older model has been replaced with flowing curves and a much more elegant aerodynamic shape.
Spring 2017 has been set as the release date for availability to purchase in the UK and the entry-level model starts at around £43,500.


text:
Q: Lottery game in javascript The user should enter five numbers and then after clicking the button another five numbers should be extracted randomly. Based on how many of the numbers guessed match with the random numbers, the program should print six different sentences.
 The problem is that I'm stuck, I don't know to to fix it

 <!doctype html>

    <meta charset="utf-8">
    <title>SUPERENALOTTO</title>

superenalotto

    <form>

        1°Numero   <input type="text" id="num1" name="num1">

        2°Numero   <input type="text" id="num2" name="num2">

        3°Numero   <input type="text" id="num3" name="num3">

        4°Numero   <input type="text" id="num4" name="num4">

        5°Numero   <input type="text" id="num5" name="num5">

        Numero pescato1  <input type="text" id="num6" name="num6">

        Numero pescato2  <input type="text" id="num7" name="num7">

        Numero pescato3  <input type="text" id="num8" name="num8">

        Numero pescato4  <input type="text" id="num9" name="num9">

        Numero pescato5 <input type="text" id="num10" name="num10">

 Inserisci la tua scommessa

        <input type="text" id="monete" name="monete">

        <input type="button" id="submit" name="Gioca" value="Gioca" onclick="guessnumbers()">

        <input type="submit" id="submit" name="cancella" style=" background- color:red; width:160px; height:50px" value="Ritenta" onclick="reset()">

    </form>

A:

var howManyNumbers = 5;
var rememberNumbersArray = []; // We do not repeat numbers

createInput("userInputId", false, "Type number from 1 to 10");
createInput("inputId", true);

// create 6 (howManyNumbers) inputs
function createInput(name, disabled, placeholder){
 for(var e = 0; e<howManyNumbers; e++){
  lottery.innerHTML+=e+". ";
  var input = document.createElement("input");
  input.type = "text";
  input.id = name+e; // id
  if(placeholder){
   input.placeholder = placeholder;
  }
  input.disabled = disabled;
  lottery.appendChild(input); // put it into the DOM
  lottery.innerHTML+="

"; // gap :D you can use
 }
}

function randomNumbers(){
 // clear rememberNumbersArray for next lottery :D
 rememberNumbersArray = [];

 // clear results
 results.innerHTML = "";

 var count = howManyNumbers;
 var numberRnd = 0;
 var rndNmb = 0;
 var count = 0;

 while(count<howManyNumbers){
  // ...random
  rndNmb = mt_rand(10,1);

  if(rememberNumbersArray.indexOf(rndNmb)==-1){
   // update input
   document.getElementById("inputId"+count).value = rndNmb;
   // Remember a random number
   rememberNumbersArray.push(rndNmb);
   // if count == howManyNumbers, break the loop
   count++;
  }
 }

 // check if somebody win
 checkWin(count);
}

function checkWin(id){
 results.innerHTML = "Winning numbers:
";
 for(var e = 0; e<rememberNumbersArray.length; e++){
  for(var a = 0; a<howManyNumbers; a++){
   if(rememberNumbersArray[e]==document.getElementById("userInputId"+a).value){
    results.innerHTML += rememberNumbersArray[e]+"
";
   }
  }
 }

}

function mt_rand(max, min){
 return Math.floor(Math.random() * max) + min;
}
Welcome to ITALIA SUPER LOTTO 2017

<button onclick="randomNumbers();">Generate</button>


Zach Despart Nov. 6, 2018 Updated: Nov. 6, 2018 10:22 p.m.
Republican incumbent Harris County Judge Ed Emmett leads Democratic challenger Lina Hidalgo as the polls have closed Tuesday evening.
Early voting results published by the Harris County clerk show Emmett with 412,520 votes to Hidalgo's 406,313.
Emmett is seeking a third full term. Hidalgo is a first-time candidate.


text:
T-Mobile agrees to pay $500 million in class-action settlement for 2021 data breach
US carrier T-Mobile has agreed to pay out $500 million as part of a class action lawsuit settlement for a data breach that took place in 2021. Customer data of "approximately 76.6 million U.S. residents identified by T-Mobile" was compromised as per the court filing on Friday. A report from Motherboard back in August of 2021 identified that the customer data involved in the breach included Social Security numbers, names, addresses, and driver license information of affected customers.
Of the settlement amount, $350 million will be divided between customers and lawyers (to pay fees and legal costs). The amount paid out to individual customers will depend on how much money lawyers are paid and how many customers respond to the class action settlement. Affected customers will be notified by T-Mobile about the settlement soon.
T-Mobile will be required to spend the other $150 million towards security improvements from now through 2023 to minimize the possibility of another data breach (the company has had five breaches involving customer data in the last four years).
The class action lawsuit accused T-Mobile of being unable to protect its customers' information, failing to notify those who were impacted, and having "inadequate data security". By settling the lawsuit, T-Mobile does not admit guilt to any of these accusations.
Sources 1 • 2
Google and Bing search results differ by up to 75 per cent
FDA orders Juul to stop selling its vaping products in the US – TechCrunch
Samsung officially announces fastest ever LPDDR5X DRAM
Huawei nova 10 Pro review
Apple to announce new iPad Pro with M2 "in a matter of days"
Flashback: breaking through the 60Hz barrier
Newsweek sues former owners, controversial pastor David…
Polarized paradise – Washington Examiner
Top 12. Best Tourist Attractions in Laramie – Wyoming


text:
Jean-Yves Le Gall takes part in Industry Day
President of CNES meets with European and American officials from the space industry.
On January 14 and 15, Jean-Yves Le Gall, the President of the Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES), took part in Industry Day, hosted by the French Embassy in Washington, D.C. Mr. Le Gall was appointed as the President of CNES, the government agency responsible for shaping and implementing France's space policy in Europe, in 2013.
Numerous members of the space industry community in Washington, D.C. were present at Industry Day, as well as American officials from organizations such as NASA, the Department of State, the Department of Defense, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). During his visit, Mr. Le Gall had the opportunity to meet with representatives from various European and American scientific organizations, including Ellen Stofan, the chief scientist at NASA. After Ambassador Gérard Araud officially opened the conference, Mr. Le Gall spoke about "The Stakes for 2015" in the space industry. He discussed the achievements of CNES in 2014, which included the initiation of development of the Ariane 6 space launcher and the landing of the Philae lander on the surface of the Rosetta comet. In speaking about the latter achievement, Mr. Le Gall called Rosetta "an international scientific success story."
Mr. Le Gall's visit affirmed the strong cooperation between CNES and fellow leaders in space exploration, notably the United States—the President noted that CNES has enjoyed a fruitful partnership with NASA for over 50 years now. Looking ahead to 2015, Mr. Le Gall said that climate change will be a top priority for CNES, as Paris prepares to host the COP21 Global Climate Conference in December—"In this regard," Mr. Le Gall noted, "the close ties between Europe and the United States will be crucially important."


We are pleased to introduce the newest members of the LESA ERC – Delos, a world leader in providing standards and solutions for interior environments that can enhance the health, well-being and productivity of occupants; Lighting Science Group, manufacturer of breakthrough LED lighting solutions that work in sync with nature, originally created in collaboration with NASA to help regulate the circadian rhythms of astronauts on the International Space Station; and Rambus, creator of cutting-edge semiconductor and IP products, spanning memory and interfaces to security, smart sensors and lighting.
LESA member companies have access to leading research in systems, devices and materials that are driving the Lighting Enabled Systems & Applications industry. ERC members receive monthly research updates, have access to member only events, attend and participate in Annual Industry-Academia Days, LESA Speaker Series and the NSF Site Visit Review, recruitment of well-rounded and diverse students for internships and permanent positions in addition to the many collaboration opportunities available with our world-class researchers and faculty. Please see our membership page for more information.


text:
Watch Gang Of Youths perform a live version of 'The Man Himself'
Gang of Youths have shared a live performance video that sees them playing recent single 'The Man Himself' at Depot Studios in London.
The high-energy performance was filmed for an episode of The Sound, a live music series in the band's home country of Australia. They're joined by a group of string instrumentalists for the grand, soaring rendition.
Watch Gang of Youths perform 'The Man Himself' below:
Gang of Youths released the studio version of 'The Man Himself' back in October – a meditation on grief following the death of frontman Dave Le'aupepe's father. "If I ever have kids I'm not really sure how to raise them without my dad helping me out," Le'aupepe explained at the time.
'The Man Himself' is one of several tracks the band have released since returning this year with 'The Angel of 8th Ave.' in June and 'Unison' in July. Both appeared on surprise EP 'Total Serene' the same month, which also included a cover of Elbow's 'Asleep in the Back'.
In November, the band announced they would release third studio album 'Angel in Realtime' next year, along with revealing extensive world tour dates for 2022 and sharing latest single 'Tend the Garden'.
All four of the aforementioned songs will appear on 'Angel in Realtime', which is scheduled to arrive on February 25. The album will mark the band's first since 2017's 'Go Farther in Lightness'.
Earlier this month, Gang of Youths appeared on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, performing 'The Angel of 8th Ave.' live.


text:
Constituency profile: An old rivalry reignites
A delicate balancing act: Parties capitalise on growing anti-US sentiment
Upcoming election: PTI to end 'thana-kutchery' culture, says Imran Khan
Says revival of local govt system tops his party's priority list.
Photo: Rabia Ali/rashid Ali April 30, 2013
PTI Chairman Imran Khan addressing a public gathering at Attock. PHOTO: RASHID ALI/EXPRESS
ATTOCK:
A confident Imran Khan claimed on Monday that an overwhelming majority of people have already decided to vote for his party, the Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI).
"May 11 [election day] will herald a paradigm shift in Pakistan's politics," says PTI Chairman Imran Khan.
Addressing a public rally in Attock, Imran said his party would not let Nawaz Sharif to come to power a sixth time. "Had they (the PML-N) been sincere in changing the condition of the nation, they would have done it much earlier," he added.
Criticising the PML-N's flag-ship programmes as a ploy to win over the youth, the PTI chief said the Sharif brothers could not 'purchase' the youth by distributing laptops among them. He added that only the PTI could bring about change in Pakistan. "I honoured my promises in the past and I'll also fulfil my promise of introducing a change."
He accused the former ruling parties of massive corruption. "We [on the other hand] have no idea how corruption is done," he said and promised that after coming to power, "neither will the PTI indulge in corruption nor will it allow anybody to do it."
The PTI chief reiterated that if voted to power, his party would hold local government elections to devolve power to the grassroots level and to rid the nation of 'thana-kachery and patwari' system. "The change will come 12 days after the PTI takes over," he said.
Imran advised Nawaz to "sit in the pavilion" because his turn will never come now. He also accused the Sharif brothers for being hands in glove with President Asif Ali Zardari. "Had the PML-N not bolstered Zardari's government throughout the past five years, the country wouldn't have been mired in a medley of crises," he added.
Election trail: Imran Khan wraps up campaign in Seraiki belt
TV debate: Imran Khan lists questions for Nawaz Sharif
Promoting peace: Sufism will end terrorism in the country, says Imran


What Are the Balboa Bay Resort Rooms Like?
The beach inspired rooms feature balconies and rattan accents while the beds have bamboo head-boards and down duvets. Standard rooms are only more basic when it comes to the view. You will still find the same large flat screen TV, high-speed wi-fi, and luxurious bathroom you would find in one of the suites. Of course, the 3000 square foot presidential suite is a whole other experience.
What Amenities Does the Balboa Bay Resort Have?
The large outdoor pool has padded lounge chairs for you to relax the day away, there is a 24 hour fitness studio, boat rentals, and even an on-site retail store. For the greatest relaxation, you can book services at the on-site spa. The free shuttle will whisk you away to some of the close by activities.
Standard room rates at this Newport Beach hotel start at $250 a night and go up to $450 a night during peak seasons. The Presidential suite starts at $2,500 a night for off-peak rates.
What's There to Do Nearby the Balboa Bay Resort?
This slice of Californian heaven is surrounded by beautiful beaches, each within a few miles of the resort. An air museum, nautical museum and art museum are all within seven miles or less. Performance or musical theaters are within a ten-mile radius from the hotels too.
Across the board, the reviews of Balboa Bay Resort are extremely positive. People love the top quality service they receive as well as all the extra perks of staying at a resort.
"Hotel staff was friendly and well informed" "Staff was flawless"
"Restaurants and pool service were excellent" "Restaurants serve delicious food"
74% liked the proximity to shopping.
"Bay view rooms are amazing" "Amazing staff and accommodations"
"We love having breakfast on the patio" "Great weekend Brunch"
"Right across from the fitness center" "Jacuzzi could use some work"
"The resort is dramatically overpriced" "Were charged for liquor"


It is the inventor of the x86 series of microprocessors, the processors found in most personal computers. Download Drivers Search computer drivers by manufacturer. Tell us about your experience with our site. Intel is one of the world's largest and highest valued semiconductor chip makers, based on revenue. Content Type Identify My Product.
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text:
Majically.com > Good News > Former elementary school janitor becomes principal after decades of hard work – "a very rewarding career"
Good News, Inspiration
Former elementary school janitor becomes principal after decades of hard work – "a very rewarding career"
Kayla Kissel
Former elementary school janitor becomes principal after decades of hard work (Mike Huss)
It's not where you start, it's where you finish, and a former elementary school janitor turned principal is out to prove that.
Once upon a time, a man by the name of Mike Huss was a student at Ione Elementary in a small city around 41 miles southeast of Sacramento.
As he got older, he fulfilled the role of the school's janitor, where he learned to connect with the students and build bonds that he never expected.
"A lot of teachers here at Ione Elementary kept saying, 'You're wasting your time. Look at these kids. They [look up] to you … and they want to be around you and they learn from you. You need to go back and become a teacher,'" Huss told Kake.
Life momentarily went on for him, he chose to not reach for higher education, so his wife Kate could attend college. Down the line he got married and had his first child…this is where he had a change of heart.
"When my son was about 3, I said, 'You know what? I want to show my son that you can keep growing in life,'" Huss recalled.
Huss is pictured with son Matthew, wife Karen, and daughter Mia. (Mike Huss)
"I know he was young but between the encouragement from the teachers on campus and the motivation to do something to show my son [that] nothing's impossible, I went back to school in the late '90s to get my teaching credential based on those inspirations."
Huss worked harder than he had in his entire life, he worked shift after shift, from 6 a.m. to 10 p.m., all the while balancing being a dad and going to school.
After he graduated, it only took less than a week for him to get a teaching job at Ione Elementary where he continued to teach second and fifth grade for the next 19 years.
19 years had passed, and the man who started it all at Ione Elementary, was offered to be the principal. Huss was shocked, but knew he can do the job and get it done.
"I really think that I can do this job … because I have the support of everyone," he said.
"I have to try my best every day for them. And at the end of the year, I've told many people if the worst thing I say is, 'I tried my best and fell,' I'll try my best again next year and hopefully be even better. And I try to keep that perspective."
Mike Huss and one of his students who dressed like him for Halloween. (Mike Huss)
Huss claims the students tell him he's doing a great job, and he takes everything one day at a time to be the best he can be for his family and students.
"What I want people to understand is that there are really good teachers out there doing really amazing jobs," he said.
"It's just about growing a world, making it a better place."
I live off of coffee and quite possibly adobe software. I love hearing people's stories and love sharing them with an audience even more. I always say "don't let history be a mystery", share what you have to say and don't regret telling the world your story!
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So how exactly does a bill become a law? While not all bills are the same, below you will find a basic step-by-step accounting of how a bill becomes public law.
An idea for a bill may come from anybody, however only Members of Congress can introduce a bill in Congress. Bills can be introduced at any time the House is in session.
There are four basic types of legislation: bills; joint resolutions; concurrent resolutions; and simple resolutions.
A bill's type must be determined. A private bill affects a specific person or organization rather than the population at large. A public bill is one that affects the general public.
After the idea for a bill is developed and the text of the bill is written, a Member of Congress must officially introduce the bill in Congress by becoming the bill's sponsor.
Representatives usually sponsor bills that are important to them and their constituents.
Representatives who sponsor bills will try to gain support for them, in hopes that they will become laws.
Two or more sponsors for the same bill are called co-sponsors.
Bills can be introduced whenever the House is in session.
In the House, bills are officially introduced by placing them in a special box known as the hopper, which is located at the rostrum, or Speaker's platform. In the Senate, a bill is introduced by placing it on the presiding officer's desk or by formally introducing it on the Senate Floor.
In the House, a bill clerk assigns the bill a number. House bills begin with "H.R." Resolutions begin with "H. Res.," "H. Con. Res.," or "H. J. Res," depending what type they are. Senate bills begin with "S."
The first reading of a bill means the bill's title is read on the House Floor. The bill is then referred to a committee for markup.
The Library of Congress then receives an electronic copy of the bill and posts the bill and its status on Congress Bill Search, a public website.
The bill is referred to the appropriate committee. The 19 House standing committees and 16 Senate committees each have jurisdiction over different areas of public policy, such as agriculture, education and the workforce, and international relations.
The bill is placed on the committee's calendar.
The committee debates on and marks up the proposed bill, and may or may not make changes to it.
Committee members vote to accept or reject the changes made during the markup session.
If a bill includes many amendments, the committee may decide to introduce a "clean bill" with a new number.
The committee votes on the bill after it has been debated and/or amended.
A committee may stop action, or "table" a bill it deems unwise or unnecessary.
Congress Bill Search, a Library of Congress website, posts the status of the bill and updates on major action taken on the bill. Each version of the text of a bill is posted on Congress Bill Search, under Text of Legislation.
If the bill is not tabled, it will be sent either to a subcommittee for intensive study, or reported back to the House Floor.
Congress Bill Search, from the Library of Congress website, receives updates on the status of the bill from the subcommittee and posts the most recent major action on the bill.
The bill is released from the committee, along with a report explaining the provisions of the bill, and is thus ordered reported.
The reported bill is put on one of five House calendars, the Union Calendar and the House Calendar being the most commonly used.
The bill is sent to the House Floor for consideration.
Congress Bill Search, a Library of Congress website, receives updates on the status of the bill from the committee and posts the most recent major action.
A bill can come to the House Floor for consideration in a variety of ways. Many House bills are debated through a parliamentary device known as the Committee of the Whole, which is a mechanism that permits faster consideration.
Floor action begins and Members debate the bill.
The conduct of debate is dictated by the Rules of the House generally, and may also be governed by a special rule granted specifically for the bill under consideration.
Following debate, the second reading of the bill begins in a section-by-section manner, during which amendments may be offered.
At the conclusion of all amendment debate, the bill is read a third time.
Next, the House is ready to vote on the bill.
Current Floor Proceedings including major actions on bills are posted for public view on the website of the Clerk of the House.
The Congress Bill Search website by the Library of Congress receives an electronic copy of the debate as it appears in the Congressional Record, prepared by the Clerk of the House. The latest major action on a bill is posted on the Congress Bill Search website.
The bill is read by title only and put to a vote.
Members in attendance will vote to pass or not to pass the bill.
Members most often vote electronically in the House Chamber using the Electronic Voting System. Members of the Senate cast their votes by non-electronic means.
Roll Call votes cast by the U.S. House of Representatives are recorded in the House Journal, the Congressional Record, and posted on the website of the Clerk of the House.
Members may vote "Yea" for approval, "Nay" for disapproval, or "Present" to record that they were in attendance but chose not to vote.
If a majority of the House votes to pass the bill, the bill is then referred to the Senate to undergo a similar process of approval.
The Congress Bill Search website logs the Roll Number for a vote under "Bill Status."
When a bill passes in the House, it must also pass in the Senate in order to become a law. The two houses of Congress make up the bicameral legislature, part of a system of checks and balances that ensures that laws are created democratically.
Once the bill and its amendments has been officially passed by the House and certified by the Clerk, it is said to be "engrossed."
In the Senate, the bill again may be sent to a committee for study or markup.
Members may choose to ignore the bill and continue to work on their own legislation.
Members may vote to pass or not to pass the bill.
If the bill passes with different language, it must be sent for review to a conference committee, which is a committee made up of members from both the House and the Senate.
Differences must be agreed upon before the bill is sent to the President for signature. At this point the bill is "enrolled."
The Congress Bill Search website logs the latest major action on the bill under "Bill Status."
When a bill passes in the House and Senate and is sent to the President for a signature, it is said to be enrolled.
The president may take no action. If Congress is in session, the bill automatically becomes law after ten days.
A pocket veto occurs when the president takes no action and Congress has adjourned its session. In this case, the bill dies and does not become a law.
The president may decide that the bill is unwise or unnecessary and veto the bill.
The president may sign the bill, and the bill becomes law.
The Congress Bill Search website indicates when a bill is sent to the President and whether it becomes law.
If the President signs the bill, or takes no action while Congress is in session, then the bill becomes a law.
If Congress overrides a presidential veto, the bill becomes a law.
New public and private laws are prepared and published by the Office of the Federal Register (OFR) of the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA).
Congress Bill Search lists public laws by law number.
If the President decides a bill is unwise or unnecessary, the President does not sign the bill, but issues an official statement of objections to the bill called a veto.
The President can veto a bill indirectly by withholding approval of the bill until Congress has adjourned sine die. This informal way of preventing a bill from becoming a law is called a pocket veto.
When the President issues a veto, the bill returns to its House of origin.
Objections to the veto are read and debated on the House Floor.
If there are enough objections in the House to the presidential veto, a vote is taken to override (see Step 13), or overrule, the veto.
If the House does not vote on a veto override, the bill is stalled and does not become a law.
A tally of presidential vetoes and pocket vetoes is available on the Clerk's website in Historical Highlights.
If enough Members object to the presidential veto, a vote is taken to override, or overrule the veto.
A two-thirds vote or greater is needed in both the House and the Senate to override the President's veto. If two-thirds of both houses of Congress vote successfully to override the veto, the bill becomes a law.
If the House and Senate do not override the veto, the bill "dies" and does not become a law.


text:
Image copyrightBeyoncé Brooks
Image caption Beyoncé Brooks says she would prefer better technology than more armed police in schools
Cameras streaming high-definition images over superfast mobile networks could improve security in schools and on our streets, and help cities run their services more efficiently, tech experts say.
Beyoncé Brooks, a 17-year-old student at Millennium High School in Goodyear, Arizona, US, says her school has practice lockdowns each term to deal with gun incidents.
She says there is "probably one real lockdown" a year at her school of 2,000 students.
"Basically, we turn the lights off, the door is locked, and we all sit in the corner of the room huddled. The teachers don't really say anything, so we don't know if it's something that's real," she says.
"We have thousands of cameras around us," says Ms Brooks, who has become a March for Our Lives organiser.
But if one person's looking at 15 cameras, it's easy for them to miss something, she says.
Media captionProtesters around the world are supporting stricter US gun laws
This is where Albert Stepanyan in Munich, Germany, says machine learning and 5G mobile connectivity can help. His firm Develandoo has developed a machine-learning engine called Scylla that can spot potentially violent behaviour, like someone pointing a gun at a crowd, or wielding a knife or a bottle.
"We can teach a system to look for these two metrics and identify violence with up to 96% accuracy," he says.
When security or police personnel "either respond to the alert or mark it as a false positive" they further train Scylla to tell the difference between the two, he says.
His company will provide Scylla at cost to government and commercial installations, and then at highly subsidised prices to schools, he adds.
Image copyrightDevelandoo
Image caption Develandoo's Scylla software automatically spots violent behaviour
And with the arrival of high-speed 5G mobile phone networks from next year, high-definition cameras will be able to stream security images to the cloud with 10 times higher resolution: 10,800 pixels instead of 1,080, he says.
Once in the cloud, algorithms will quickly scan these more detailed images for tell-tale signs of violence. The extra data will be "a complete game changer" and "will save our lives", Mr Stepanyan says.
Ms Brooks says she prefers the idea of making better use of existing security cameras than sending more armed police to schools.
"A lot of minority students already feel intimidated by police officers," she says.
Not only could faster 5G networks enable police and emergency services identify and respond to incidents more quickly, they could also help cities conserve water and mend potholes, argues Manuela Krull-Mancinelli, who runs a "smart cities" accelerator in Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
Image copyrightRoadBotics
Image caption RoadBotics' software automatically locates and rates potholes in the road
"When you can send real-time information in 5G that will only help, and make solutions better," says Ms Krull-Mancinelli.
For example, the way roads are inspected around the world isn't very different to how the ancient Romans inspected theirs.
A human inspector, whether in a chariot or a Ford, drives down the road and makes notes – a process that RoadBotics chief executive Mark DeSantis says is subjective as well as "tedious and expensive".
Mr DeSantis wants to automate the process by fitting cameras to vehicles to monitor the state of the roads as they drive along. Live streaming these images and analysing them in the cloud with image recognition software "is going to change inspection regimes around the world", he says.
Image copyrightManuela Krull-Mancinelli
Image caption Manuela Krull-Mancinelli thinks 5G will help accelerate the move to smart cities
But this "will require a much larger pipe" than currently available, he says, by which he means faster connectivity and a system that enables lots of devices to connect to the internet at the same time in densely packed urban environments – advantages that 5G promises.
"Cities will be able to reduce costs because they have less downtime, and will avoid unnecessary maintenance," believes Ms Krull-Mancinelli.
Driverless cars and buses could become data-harvesting machines as well as modes of transport, their local intelligence being beamed to central analysis platforms in real time, perhaps improving civic services, from rubbish collection to water management.
Many cities don't have good data about where rubbish bins, fire hydrants, and even street lights are, says Janine Yoong, vice president of Mapillary, a crowdsourced street-mapping platform in Sweden.
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So her company sells a great deal of processed data "to lots of cities of average smartness," she says. But the "primary bottleneck" is getting data "from the ground to the cloud, where we can process it".
At the moment, Mapillary frequently receives hard drives in the post, she says.
Faster wireless networks will help all this data get to where it can be analysed much more quickly, so cities can manage their resources better. And water is one of those resources coming under pressure.
In Las Vegas, Nevada, US, for instance, 70% of its water goes on keeping its green spaces looking green, says the South Nevada Water Authority. But up to half is wasted through overwatering – giving the plants water when they don't need it.
Image copyrightRachio
Image caption Smart sprinkler maker Rachio says its products have saved 32 billion litres of water
This is because irrigation systems are often set to a timer according to the season, irrespective of the actual weather conditions.
Internet-connected smart sensors and sprinkler systems on the other hand, can significantly reduce this wastage, says the US Environmental Protection Agency, because they can download weather forecasts and sense the level of moisture in the soil.
"If everyone in the US with an irrigation system installed a smart sprinkler controller we could save 100 billion gallons of water each year," says Eric Petrek of Colorado-based smart irrigation company Rachio.
So faster mobile connectivity wouldn't just mean we could stream high-definition films on our smartphones, it could make our streets safer and our cities more sustainable.
Meet Moxi – the hospital robot helping nurses