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The aim of Restaurant Business (RS) is the dissemination of insightful and original marketing knowledge. We welcome novel and ground-breaking contributions from a wide range of research traditions within the broad domain of marketing. Restaurant Business (RS) is not pre-disposed towards either empirical work or pure theory, nor towards one particular method or approach, we feel that any approach that helps to break new ground is welcome. We are Indian however we actively encourage global contributions, from scholars across the broad domain of marketing.
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Restaurant Business (RS) will be an outlet for research that is:
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Taken from theoretical conceptualization and appropriate research methodology
Well written, clear, relevant and most importantly of interest to marketing practitioners as well as academicians
Restaurant Business (RS) will be particularly receptive to the development and testing of new theories and concepts to be brought into practise. We therefore will not generally be open to pure opinion although viewpoint and commentary articles are welcome where they can meet appropriate standards of rigour. Authors who wish to submit such articles are encouraged to contact the editors prior to commencing work. Restaurant Business (RS) is also receptive in principle to the submission of replication studies, where they are able to demonstrate a clear and substantive contribution to existing marketing knowledge and practise.
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Restaurant Business (RS) aims to be a forum for the dissemination of high-quality scholarly research and thinking in marketing. Each paper submitted Restaurant Business (RS) will be subjected to a strict peer review process by practitioners and academicians.
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Restaurant Business (RS) is receptive to all areas of research which are relevant to research and new insight development in the field of Marketing, some examples are:
Rural Marketing
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Restaurant Business (RS) also welcomes articles which cross boundaries between these and other areas of marketing, and in particular multidisciplinary research which brings together various fields of study.
Restaurant Business (RS) with ISSN 0097-8043 is multi-disciplinary journals for management studies, business, economics, ecommerce, finance, trade, banking, insurance, commerce, hospitality, tourism, planning, development studies and allied fields. The journal is open access and available electronically around the world.
Scopus Indexed Journal available at https://www.scopus.com/sourceid/4900152405 . Researchers can find the Restaurant Business (RS) Journal Journal Home Page with Issues and Archives at https://journals.eduindex.org/index.php/rb/
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Call for Papers, Journals, Social Science, Social Studies, UGC Approved Journals
Asian Studies -Call for Papers 2019
1229Wed, 29 May 2019 18:12:05 +0530 Editor Pen2Print	Leave a comment
Asian Studies – An UGC Approved Journal
Asian Studies, a refereed journal of the Asian Literary studies, presents an international scholarly forum for the discussion and evaluation of Asian languages, literature, culture, and arts in postcolonial context. The journal publishes 4 issues every year.
Asian Studies welcomes submissions from any theoretical or critical perspective meant for an audience from various disciplines and written in clear and persuasive prose.
Send papers for review to editor@asianstudiesjournal.com or editor@eduindex.org
Areas of Interest to the Journal
Comparative Aesthetic
Asian Diaspora
Colonial Studies
Postcolonial Studies
Women's Studies
Trans-cultural Studies
For journal information, instructions for authors, and other details please visit the Asian Studies homepage at https://www.asianstudiesjournal.com/ . Scholars who wish to publish in Asian Studies should submit through the journal's dedicated Editorial Manager site. Authors should follow the journal's requirements in style and length to ensure that manuscripts can move through peer review, production and publication smoothly. Instructions for authors that detail these requirements can be found here, so please take the time to read and follow them as closely as possible.
Archives of Asian Studies Journal is available at https://www.eduindex.org/index.php/as
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Navyasrota with ISSN 2249-8133
4628Tue, 28 May 2019 15:46:37 +0530 Editor Pen2Print	Leave a comment
Navyasrota with ISSN 2249-8133 is a UGC Approved half yearly journal for resarch publication. Visit journal site at http://www.navysrota.com and submit papers for publication to editor@navyasrota.com or editor@eduindex.org
Journal Archives available at https://journals.eduindex.org/index.php/ns/
UGC Journal Details
Name of the Journal : Nāvyaśrota, Half Yearly Research Journal
ISSN Number : 22498133
e-ISSN Number : 2249-8133
Subject: Multi-disciplinary
Publisher: Pen2Print, India
Country of Publication: India
Broad Subject Category: Arts & Humanities
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Guest Post, Research Paper, Social Studies
Fundamental Duties Most Unfortunately Has Become A Forgotten Chapter Of The Constitution
352Sat, 02 Sep 2017 15:35:36 +0530 EduPedia Publications	Leave a comment
"The source of right is duty. If we all discharge our duties, rights will not be far to seek. If leaving duties unperformed we run after rights, they will escape us like will of the wisp, the more we pursue them, the further they will fly. I learned from my illiterate but wise mother that all rights to be deserved and preserved come from duty well done. Thus the very right to live accrues to us only when we do the duty of citizenship of the world. From this one fundamental statement, perhaps it is easy though to define duties of man and woman and correlate every right to some corresponding duty to be first performed. Every other right can be shown to be usurpation hardly worth fighting for."
– Mahatma Gandhi when requested to give his thoughts on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
At the very outset, let me begin by saying that it grievously hurts me to painfully note that fundamental duties has more or less most unfortunately become a forgotten chapter of our Constitution. This most definitely should never have happened but we all have been watching this happening right before our own eyes. Communal riots breaking out on very small petty issues in which many people lose their precious lives, many children become orphan and homeless as their houses are burnt are all most painful reminders that fundamental duties have become more or less a forgotten chapter of our Constitution! Nothing on earth can be more unfortunate than this!
To say the least, burning of Indian flags, waving of Pakistani flags, ranting anti-India slogans and doing many other such anti-national acts cannot be justified under any circumstances. It is the fundamental duty of each and every citizen of India to desist from all such anti-national acts. Only then are we true citizens of India!
Needless to say, there can be no chapter in Constitution which is as important as the one on fundamental duties yet it has been mostly ignored. How often do we read articles on Constitution pertaining to fundamental duties? The obvious answer is once in a blue moon. This despite the fact that fundamental duties are most important as I have already noted above. No less than an eminent legal luminary of the stature of former Chief Justice of India – Justice RC Lahoti while delivering a guest lecture in memory of Justice KT Desai on 15 July, 2014 at Central Court Room in Bombay High Court, Mumbai on 'Fundamental Duties – A Forgotten Chapter of the Constitution' had himself most gracefully observed that, "I could not have chosen a subject better than the Fundamental Duties; more so, when as a student of Constitution I find that in the judicial circles and amongst the citizens, a significant provision like Article 51A is found to be conspicuous more by its absence. It is a beautifully well drafted piece of Constitutional enactment. Every word is so well chosen and placed as if a gem studded in necklace! To me, these 10 duties sound like incantations of some holy book."
Having said this, I must now bring out here that Part IVA, Article 51A, providing for ten fundamental duties, was introduced in the Constitution not in 1950 when it was originally prepared but by the 42nd Amendment to the Constitution in 1976. Let us all read the basic text of this all important Article 51A, as enacted by 42nd Amendment pertaining to fundamental duties. It runs as follows : –
51A. Fundamental duties – It shall be the duty of every citizen of India:
(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem;
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom;
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
(d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so;
(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women;
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to have compassion for living creatures;
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform;
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement;
(k) who is a parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education to his child, or as the case may be, ward between the age of six and fourteen years.
No doubt, it is pertinent to mention here that it was in 2002 and by the 86th Amendment to the Constitution that one more fundamental duty was added as clause (k) in Article 51A and very rightly so. The basic education of children is most imperative and must always be provided to children between the age of 6 to 14 as very rightly provided in clause (k). There can be no two opinions on this.
A moot question arises here : Why it never occurred to the founding fathers of our Constitution of the dire need to include fundamental duties also in it? Most certainly, this was because the founding fathers had unflinching faith in all Indians that they would themselves voluntarily do their fundamental duties on their own without their mentioning it specifically in the Constitution. They were not wrong in doing so. It is the people themselves who have not risen to the occasion and abdicated from discharging their fundamental duties due to which it had to be specifically inserted in the Constitution in 1976 by the 42nd Amendment.
All said and done, we must also not forget here that there some provisions which are implicit like all the fundamental rights have corresponding duties also like Article 17 implies a duty not to practice untouchability and same goes the case with other fundamental right. Similarly Article 14 which deals with right to equality also implies a duty to treat all others equally. What is most hurting to note is that while most of us always remember by heart our fundamental rights, we very rarely bother about fundamental duties which are equally as important rather more important but whom we very conveniently ignore blithely for preserving our own vested interest! This is the most sad part which is just not done!
What most of us tend to ignore is that our rich Indian culture never believed in duties being imposed on us as our forefathers always believed in sacrifice and this alone explains that why fundamental duties and directive principles of state policy are not binding on citizens and no penalty is imposed on anyone for not performing them. We must be always grateful to the founding fathers of our Constitution for this but we hardly care for it! Here is where we have gone grievously wrong which we must be honest enough to at least admit.
Truth be told, it is most unfortunate to note that the chapter on fundamental duties even after being inserted has been most blatantly disregarded and very conveniently overlooked everywhere. This alone explains why the former CJI – Justice RC Lahoti had to observe most painfully that, "The chapter on fundamental duties, inspite of having been introduced in the Constitution, is more neglected than noticed. I have not come across any textbook of schools incorporating the text of fundamental duties much less any discussion thereon. The commentaries on Indian Constitution which I have come across, do not deal with this chapter with any emphasis. Eminent jurists writing commentaries on Constitution have not written much on fundamental duties. The apex court of the country and the High Courts have also not much utilized the Article 51A while dealing with other constitutional provisions."
Truly speaking, HM Seervai who is one of the most eminent legal luminary and jurist that India has ever produced in his monumental work on Constitutional law of India has written just a para on fundamental duties which I feel it obligatory to mention here. I must go on to say here that two notable observations made by the eminent jurist Seervai deserves to be quoted here. He says most eloquently that, "[Article 51A] has been enacted under the mistaken belief that if Articles 14 to 32 confer fundamental rights on citizens, and Articles 38 to 51 impose 'duties' on the State, fundamental duties ought to be imposed on citizens…. If the directive principles are violated or ignored nothing happens; equally if fundamental duties are disregarded nothing happens. It is unnecessary to deal with Article 51A beyond saying that they are innocuous". What Seervai has observed can under no circumstances be ignored. Centre must ponder most seriously on this and do what is best suited to meet the present circumstances. The eminent legal luminary Seervai further goes on to say that clauses (b) and (j) must appear ludicrous to people outside India and even to people within India.
Having said this, now let me turn my attention on how fundamental duties came into existence. It was during the term of former PM late Mrs Indira Gandhi that it was decided that certain fundamental duties must be incorporated in the Constitution so that all citizens remain conscious of it and not think that they have no duty at all to perform. On February 26, 1976 the All India Congress Committee appointed Swaran Singh Committee to suggest certain changes in the Constitution to meet the changed circumstances. Swaran Singh Committee consisted of 12 members with former External Affairs Minister, Sardar Swaran Singh as its Chairman and Congress Secretary, AR Antulay, MP, as its Secretary.
While craving for my esteemed readers exclusive indulgence, let me point out here that it is interesting to note here that the Swaran Committee said nothing about the fundamental duties but in its supplementary report, it listed the fundamental duties, which had to be incorporated as a separate chapter in the Constitution. This Committee also laid special emphasis on the dire need of making people more aware of the duties they must perform along with enjoying rights. This is how fundamental duties were inserted in our Constitution.
For my esteemed readers exclusive benefit, I must mention here that actually the Swaran Committee had recommended only 8 fundamental duties but the Congress government in Centre headed by late Mrs Indira Gandhi decided to include 10 duties as fundamental duties. I must also mention here that some suggestions made by Swaran Committee were not accepted by Centre. As for instance, it was suggested by the Committee that there should be a penalty or punishment for non-compliance of the fundamental duties but these were not accepted. The other suggestions made but not accepted were : –
PK Deo (Kalahandi) suggested that, "Every young person, before graduation in any University or before being eligible for any employment in any service, shall serve in the Territorial Army or work in any factory, or farm, or irrigation project, at least for one year".
Smt Maya Ray made a notable suggestion that payment of taxes be included as one of the fundamental duties.
Bibhuti Mishra suggested, "To observe celibacy in the interest of family planning and to abstain from excessive consumption of alcohol". He had also suggested Article 51B and Article 51C being included in the Amendment, as under –
"51B Special duty of holders of public offices – It shall be the special duty of every member of the Council of Ministers either of the Union or of the States, and every person holding an office under the Government or every member or office bearer of any public institution to protect and safeguard interests of the country and abstain from doing anything which jeopardises or is likely to jeopardise the economic, social or political interests of the country in any manner whatsoever."
"51C – It shall be the duty of every member of the Council of Ministers and every officer of the Government responsible for taking decisions in matters relating to policy of the Government or internal administration of the Government or Departments to abstain from consuming alcohol in any public place whether called as such or private."
Sardar Swaran Singh Sokhi suggested, "To have ceiling on expenditure and to have compassion for living creatures".
Dr Karan Singh suggested, "A duty to sustain the unity and integrity of the nation."; "A duty to act in accordance with the Constitution and laws of the land." and "A duty to perform public duties and safeguard public property."
Kartik Oraon suggested, "A duty to undergo compulsory military training for two years at the age of eighteen or on completion of education".
Jambuwant Dhote suggested, "A duty to use swadeshi and indigenously manufactured goods only."; "A duty to undergo military training in the armed forces for one year in case of a student/youth who attains the age of seventeen years."; "A duty to learn how to read, write and speak 'Hindustani language'."; "A duty not to have either in cash or in a bank (Indian or foreign) an amount exceeding Rs 25,000."; "A duty not to keep cash, jewellery, gold, silver, diamonds, pearls, jewels etc., in safe deposit vault either in his name or in the name of a member of his family."; "A duty not to keep gold exceeding ten tolas in the form of ornaments or in any other form in case of a female and not to wear any ornaments made of gold in case of a male."; "A duty to surrender to the Government cash, gold and jewellery in excess of the ceilings."; "A duty to transfer immovable property exceeding the ceiling to the Government through a testament or any other instrument."; "A duty to abjure vice."; and "A duty to consider his foremost duty to build a clean, perfect and ideal character while translating into practice the aforesaid ten duties of a citizen and family."
Priya Ranjan Das Munshi suggested, "A duty to get pass marks in the history of national struggle for independence in respective stages and volumes as specified by the legislation or guidelines of the Education Ministry, in all academic examinations and in all faculties from minor to graduate degree and in all competitive examinations like PSC, UPSC and IAS."; "A duty to set compulsory military training in school and college level for able young men."; "A duty to get compulsory physical culture and sports in all spheres of the youth and students".
Dr Paras Diwan suggested, "A duty to work."; "A duty to pay taxes."; "A duty to maintain discipline at work and public order."; "A duty to participate in public life."; "A duty not to spread hatred, contempt or provoke strife on account of national, regional, lingual, racial and religious differences."; "A duty to be vigilant against the enemies of the state."; "A duty to discharge any public or social office vested in him conscientiously."; and "A duty to receive education".
As it turned out, it was on 1-9-1976 that finally the 42nd Amendment was introduced in the Parliament as Constitution 44th Amendment Bill by HR Gokhale who was the then Law Minister. The debate on the Bill which included Article 51A was a long debate and the motion was adopted with certain amendments on November 2, 1976. The reason why I mentioned above even those suggestions which were not accepted is that most of these suggestions are really laudable and we all must try and do our best to follow them to the best of our ability keeping our national interests above everything else.
As things stand, there are many like me who very strongly feel that fundamental duties are mere "show pieces" or you may say more directly – "dead letters". This is so because they are neither justiciable nor judicially enforceable unlike fundamental rights. There is no direct or even indirect provision in our Constitution or any other law for the time being in force in our country by which we can get fundamental duties enforced. There must be some penalty or punishment to ensure that fundamental duties are properly enforced.
Needless to say, this alone explains why most of the citizens care the least to ensure that they are discharging their fundamental duties properly! This alone explains why it was a "grave mistake" on the part of the Congress government led by Mrs Indira Gandhi to not accept the landmark suggestion of imposing penalty or punishment for non-compliance of fundamental duties! Under the Constitution of Greece and Cyprus, there is a fundamental duty, cast upon the citizens to exercise his right of franchise, founded on the doctrine of compulsory voting. A failure to exercise the right to vote is an offence punishable under the law.
Let me bring out here that the American Constitution does not enumerate any fundamental duties of an individual and the UK does not have any written Constitution. But in general, the common law duties of a citizen are the same in USA and UK and they are as follows : –
Allegiance to the State,
To disclose any treason or felony of which he has the knowledge, and
To assist in the detection and suppression of a crime.
There are more than 35 nations whose Constitution contain specific provisions on fundamental duties. Chapter II of the Chinese Constitution of 1982 clubs "fundamental rights and duties" of citizens together. It merits attention to note here that Article 33(3) makes the performance of the duties an enabling condition for enjoyment of the rights. It would be worth recalling here some of the duties enjoined by Chinese Constitution and they are as follows : –
Duty towards motherland – to safeguard the security, honour and interest of the motherland; to defend the motherland and resist aggression; to maintain national unity and integrity,
To abide by the Constitution;
To protect public property;
To respect social ethics;
To pay taxes; and
To work etc.
Let me also bring out here that the 1977 Constitution of the erstwhile USSR too places rights and duties on the same footing and this is best evident by Article 59 which says that, "Citizens exercise of their rights and freedoms is inseparable from the performance of their duties and obligations." Article 61 lays down that every citizen of the USSR is obliged to preserve and protect socialist property. Persons encroaching in any way on socialist property shall be punished by law.
Going forward, the Yugoslavian Constitution of 1963 also assigns a high priority to the duties of citizen. Article 32 states that, "The freedom and rights shall be achieved in solidarity among the people by the fulfillment of their duties towards each other". Article 36 says that, "The right to work and the freedom to work are guaranteed and whoever will not work, though he is fit to do so, shall not enjoy the rights and the social protection that man enjoys on the basis of work". Article 61 further envisages that, "Every citizen shall conscientiously discharge any public or social office vested in him and shall be personally accountable for discharging it".
To put things in perspective, Chapter III of the Japanese Constitution, 1946, is titled "Rights and Duties of the People" which clearly indicates that rights and duties are clubbed together and not separately thus clearly conveying that duties are as important as rights. Under Article 26, the parents have the obligation to send the children to receive the compulsory free education provided by the State and under Article 27, all people shall have the obligation to work.
There can be no gainsaying the indisputable fact that Justice JS Verma, former CJI, has emphasized that discourse on fundamental rights and fundamental duties cannot be divorced from each other or else we do a dis-service to both. Eminent legal jurist DD Basu says that the fundamental duties can monitor fundamental rights. For instance, a person who burns the Constitution, in violation of the duty in Article 51A(a), cannot assert that the meeting or assembly at which it was burnt, by way of demonstration against the government, should be protected by the freedom of expression or assembly guaranteed by Article 19.
Be it noted, it was as early as in 1969 that the Supreme Court of India in Chandra Bhavan Boarding and Lodging, Bangalore v The State of Mysore, (1969) 3 SCC 84 had stated most categorically that, "It is a fallacy to think that under our Constitution there are only rights and no duties. While rights conferred under Part III are fundamental, the directives given under Part IV are fundamental in the governance of the country. We see no conflict on the whole between the provisions contained in Part III and Part IV. They are complimentary and supplementary to each other. The provisions of Part IV enable the legislatures and the government to impose various duties on the citizens. The provisions therein, are deliberately made elastic because the duties to be imposed on the citizens depend on the extent to which the directive principles are implemented. The mandate of the Constitution is to build a welfare society in which justice – social, economic and political, shall inform all institutions of our national life. The hopes and aspirations aroused by the Constitution will be belied if the minimum needs of the lowest of our citizens are not met." In this case, the court also held that freedom of trade does not mean freedom to exploit, nor do the provisions of the Constitution act as barriers to progress. They provide a balance for orderly progress towards the social order contemplated by the Preamble of the Constitution. Workers were held entitled to minimum rates of wages. In Municipal Council, Ratlam v Vardhichand, (1980) 4 SCC 162, the Supreme Court ruled that paucity of funds shall not be a defence to not carry out the basic duties by the local authorities.
Let me also mention here that in Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra, Dehradun v State of Uttar Pradesh, (1985) 2 SCC 431, a Bench of Chief Justice PN Bhagwati and Justice Ranganath Mishra in order to prevent imbalance in ecology and hazard to healthy environment being created due to working of lime-stone quarries, directed the cancellation of the leases which resulted in permanent closure of lime-stone quarries. These directions were issued in face of the fundamental right to trade and business and the right to earn livelihood assigning paramount significance to fundamental duties and rather placing the fundamental duties, owing to people at large, above the fundamental right of a few individuals. The court held that such closure would undoubtedly cause hardship, "but it is a price that has to be paid for protecting and safeguarding the right of the people to live in healthy environment with minimal disturbance of ecological balance and without avoidable hazard to them and to their cattle, homes and agricultural land and undue affectation of air, water and environment". Similarly in Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra v State of Uttar Pradesh, 1986(Supp) SCC 517, it was held by Apex Court that, "Preservation of the environment and keeping the ecological balance unaffected is a task which not only governments but also every citizen must undertake. It is a social obligation and let us remind every Indian citizen that it is his fundamental duty as enshrined in Article 51A(g) of the Constitution."
It must be added here that in Shri Sachidanand Pandey v State of West Bengal, (1987)2 SCC 295, the Apex Court held that whenever a problem of ecology is brought before the court, the court is bound to bear in mind Article 48A of the Constitution and Article 51A(g) which proclaims the fundamental duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to have compassion for living creatures. Policy decisions taken by State are not ordinarily to be interfered with by the courts. But if it is the question of giving effect to the directive principle and the fundamental duty, the court is not to shrug its shoulders and say that priorities are a matter of policy not to be touched by the court; the court may always give necessary directions.
It must also be added here that in MC Mehta v Union of India, (1988) 1 SCC 471, Article 51A, enacting fundamental duties of citizens, was read as casting duties on the government and for issuing certain directions consistently with Article 51A. The directions to be issued by government were –
The Central Government shall direct to the educational institutions throughout India to teach at least for one hour in a week, lessons relating to protection and the improvement of the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life in the first ten classes;
The Central Government shall get text books written for the said purpose and distribute them to the educational institutions free of cost;
The children shall be taught about the need for maintaining cleanliness, commencing with the cleanliness of the house, both inside and the outside and with the street in which they live;
The Central Government shall consider training of teachers who teach this subject by the introduction of short-term courses for such training;
The Central Government, the Governments of the States and all the Union Territories shall consider desirability of organizing "Keep the city/town/village clean" week;
To create a national awareness of the problems faced by the people by the appalling all-round deterioration of the environment.
On this, the former CJI, Justice RC Lahoti rightly said that, "The logic behind the approach adopted by the Supreme Court seems to be that if Constitution ordains the citizens to perform certain duties then the State is equally ordained to perform all such functions as would enable the citizens to perform their duties.
Also, let me hasten to add here that in Vellore Citizens' Welfare Forum v Union of India, (1996) 5 SCC 647 and MC Mehta v Union of India, (1997) 3 SCC 715, the Supreme Court recognized 'The Precautionary Principle' and 'The Polluter Pays Principle' as essential features of 'sustainable development' and part of the environmental law of the country. It is worth mentioning here that Article 21, directive principles and fundamental duty clause (g) of Article 51A were relied on by the Supreme Court for spelling out a clear mandate to the State to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wild life of the country. The Apex Court held it mandatory for the State Government to anticipate, prevent and attack the causes of environmental degradation. In AIIMS Students Union v AIIMS, (2002) 1 SCC 428, while striking down the institutional reservation in AIIMS as violative of Article 14, the Supreme Court has drawn liberal support and backing of the fundamental duties, giving them paramountcy of consideration with other provisions of Constitution to test the Constitutional validity of such reservation in AIIMS.
Having said this, let me reiterate here that just a few landmark Apex Court rulings even though laudable are woefully inadequate to deal with the endless number of cases of fundamental duties being thrown to the garbage! There are some more rulings which I have not mentioned but they are simply not enough.
Let me be direct in asking: Why can't we fulfill our fundamental duties? Why can't we be loyal to the nation? Why can't we perform our fundamental duties with the same passion with which we claim time and again our fundamental rights? Why can't we respect our national song, national anthem, national flag and everything else which is associated directly or indirectly with our nation's pride? Why can't we refrain from all such acts which directly or indirectly are inimical to the long term interests of our great nation? How can we claim to be Indians if we don't perform our fundamental duties and just keep waxing eloquent on fundamental rights alone? There are many more such thought provoking questions which we must ponder over and answer honestly so that there is no fog of doubt left in our mind whatsoever of any kind!
No prizes for guessing that it is high time and now India too must seriously ponder over the dire need of clubbing duties and rights together so that duties are accorded the same high position as that of rights and to enjoy rights it must be obligatory that citizens discharge responsibly some duties also and not just keep enjoying fundamental rights and keep moving courts for enforcement of fundamental rights as we have been seeing happening in our country since independence till now! Also, it must be obligatory to render some basic fundamental duties and those not doing must be made to face punishment or penalty or both! Those who indulge in blatant anti-national acts by ranting anti-Indian slogans, burning national flag or any other similar act and abdicate their fundamental duty of respecting our national flag, national anthem, national song and unity and integrity of India have no right to claim fundamental rights and they have no right to claim Indian citizenship!
On a concluding note, let me say this most politely but at the same time most firmly: You cannot have it both ways! This is what most unfortunately is not being conveyed by Government to all such people who wantonly indulge in anti-national acts and yet are not ready to abdicate their fundamental rights and privileges associated with Indian citizenship! Fundamental duties most unfortunately has become a forgotten chapter of the Constitution. This must change now for the better and we all must fulfill our fundamental duties if we earnestly love our motherland otherwise we have just no right to stay in India or just keep claiming fundamental rights without performing any of the fundamental duties enshrined in our Constitution! The biggest tribute that we can pay to the founding fathers of our Constitution is to perform our fundamental duties with the same diligence with which we claim relentlessly our fundamental rights!
Sanjeev Sirohi, Advocate,
s/o Col BPS Sirohi,
A 82, Defence Enclave,
Sardhana Road, Kankerkhera,
Meerut – 250001, Uttar Pradesh.
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Research Paper, Social Studies
Mastery of Language of Instruction and Its Influence on Student Academic Performance: Evidence from Secondary Schools in Tanzania
013Sat, 03 Dec 2016 17:01:53 +0530 UMESH RAJ	Leave a comment
Paschal Banga Nade
This study focused at determining the relationship between the language of instruction which is English in this case and the student overall subject performance in secondary schools in Tanzania. A cross-section design was employed and data were collected through the National Examination of Tanzania Website. Three secondary schools from three different regions in Tanzania were purposively selected in this study. The findings show that student performance in English language as the language of instruction has an influence on overall subject performance. The students who scored F and E grades in English language, their respective overall subjects GPA fall under Fail and Pass categories. While the student who scored C and above grades, their overall GPA fall under Credit, Merit and Distinction categories. No significant relationship has been found between language of instruction performance and sex of the students. Further recommendation and analysis has been made clear in this document.
Key words: mastery, language of instruction, academic performance
Learning process is facilitated by using a language that learners understand best as the medium of instruction. Language of instruction is a vehicle through which education is delivered and is an indispensable medium for carrying, or transmitting education from teachers to learners and among learners (Qoro, 2006). Essentially, language mastery / competence is ones' underlying knowledge of the system of a language – its rules of grammar, its vocabulary, all the pieces of a language and how those pieces fit together ( Bodunde and Akeredolu-Ale, 2010).
Øzerk (1999) argues that linguistic interaction constitutes a significant part of any learning activity and that the quality of the linguistic interaction in learning activities consequently represents an important factor in the learning effect of school subjects. He points to two important processes involved in teaching and learning, which are referred to as input and intake. He explains that input in this respect refers to the intensity, or frequency of the language of instruction the teacher confronts the student with during a learning period. The process of intake decides how much of the total amount of this the student understands and is able to attain. A precondition in transforming input into intake is understanding. Mlay, (2010) noted that children who had a language background of studying English from kindergarten or class one and a home environment that was supportive which allowed them to practice English with family or with friends, had a positive contribution in helping them learn English language while those who started English later (from class three) and usually spoke Kiswahili or their mother tongue at home or with friends indicated that their poor competence in English was due to the weak foundation from primary school.
Still a number of developing countries, especially in Africa maintained a foreign language as the medium of instruction, particularly in post- primary education (Galabawa and Lwaitama, 2005) For example, English is the language of instruction in secondary schools in Tanzania as stipulated in the national education policy of 1995 and of course in the proposed new policy of education of 2014 which state that the medium of instruction for secondary education shall continue to be English, except for teaching of approved languages, and Kiswahili shall be a compulsory subject up to ordinary level. The rationale given in the document as to why English is to be used as the medium of instruction at post-primary education is that most instructional media and pedagogical materials are written in the English language and it is assumed that the situation is likely to remain so for a long time in the foreseeable future (Tibategeza, 2010).
Neke, (2003) noted that the continued use of English language as medium of instruction in post-primary education in Tanzania makes it difficult for students at these levels to understand and internalize scientific and technological principles due to their poor proficiency. Some secondary school teachers teach in Kiswahili to make the subject matter easier instead of English which is officially assigned despite the fact that the examination are set in English (Senkoro, 2005) Criper and William (1984) studied on the level of English across the education system in Tanzania confirmed that the levels of competence in English were insufficient in most schools for effective learning to take place. This study therefore, needs to establish relationship between Language of instruction and overall subjects' exam performance.
Statement of the problem
Recently, Language of instruction competency has been blamed as one among the factors that cause poor student exam performance in Tanzania. For example 2010-2014 National Form Four Examination results evaluation has evidenced that English language as subject was ranked second to Mathematics in terms of failure. The evaluation went further by suggesting language of instruction to be changed to Kiswahili language (Kamugisha and Mateng'e, 2014). Godfrey (2014) noted that the learning process in recent years becomes challenging for most students in secondary school as the majority of them largely lack a basic command of English language. Nevertheless, Qorro (2006) observed that only a handful of students take part in active learning and majority of students simply sit and copy notes that their teachers have written on the blackboard. UDSM Academic Audit report suggested that because of serious communication problems, they have to switch to Kiswahili as language of instruction or officially allow bilingual policy adopted at university of Dar es Salaam. Similarly, Senkoro (2005) evidenced that most students have a problem with the language of instruction; also proficiency in language is low and leaves much to be desired.
English language as medium of instruction is noted as an obstacle in learning for secondary school and higher institutions in Tanzania. Students lack proficiency in expressing themselves and therefore limit their participation in the general learning process especially learner centrered approach of learning. Qorro (2006) further assert that, as a matter of efficiency and efficacy, only the language which teachers and students understand can effectively function as the language of instruction. Only when teachers and students understand the language of instruction are able to discuss, debate, ask and answer questions, ask for clarification and therefore construct and generate knowledge.
Studies have concentrated on identifying those competency based limitations such as grammar, fluency in speaking and the presentations in writings, however, the overall mastery/competency relationship on other subjects measured in terms of exam performance at individual level has not being clearly addressed hence creating a gap for this study. Thus, the study therefore needs to establish, indeed, if language of instruction mastery have an influence on overall subjects' exam performance (evaluated in grades and Great Average Point (GPA)).
Bilingual Late-Exit Education Model
Although teacher quality plays a crucial role in facilitating the acquisition of English by students, it is arguable, based on child development research, that the manner in which the language is introduced to students in the earlier years of their development may be the reason of their inability to develop sufficient competencies in the language in later years (Tikolo, 2012). The presumption here is that cognitive development for language is the foundation of language learning, while other factors such as teacher competency facilitate the development of this already developed foundation.
A late-exit transition model involves the delay of transition from mother tongue as a medium of instruction to a different target language to year five to six (Ouane and Glanz, 2011). An efficient late-exit model which maintains the mother tongue beyond year five to six as a subject can lead to additive bilingualism, where effective first and second language pedagogy is used in the classroom along with adequate content area literacy instruction. It is for that reason, Tanzania employs a late-exit transitional bilingual model where mother tongue (Kiswahili) is the instructional language for 8 years and then a switch is made to English. The official language of instruction in Tanzania as articulated in its Education and Training Policy (United Republic of Tanzania, 1995/2014) in pre-primary and throughout primary education is Kiswahili, the local language spoken across the country, while English is to be taught as a compulsory subject. Thereafter, English is to become the medium of instruction from secondary school onward with Kiswahili taught as a compulsory subject.
Student Medium of Instruction Language mastery and overall subjects performance
Aina et al, (2013) made a correlation between proficiency in English language and academic performance of students in science and technical education, they found that students in technical education performed better than their counterpart in science education; students who passed English language performed better than those who failed both in science and technical education. Similarly, a prediction research done by Kong et al, (2012) indicated that English language proficiency scores are significantly predictive of academic reading test scores for K–12 EL (America) students. However, the magnitude of the relationship depends on the content alignment between the assessments and characteristics of the populations included in the study
Likewise the study that aimed to measure the relationship between English Language subject performance on the Accessing Communication and Comprehension in English State to State (ACCESS) for English Language Learners (ELLs) and Criterion Referenced Competency Test (CRCT) have shown that when student characteristics are held constant, a significant positive, though moderate, relationship exists between Els' performances on the ACCESS for ELLs and CRCT. Also the findings show that the time spent in English language development programs along with disability status and grade levels explain more variance in CRCT scores than students' ELP scores and gender (Margaret, 2011).
Regarding the students' proficiency in secondary school in Tanzania (Gran, 2007) noted that the number which is getting within reach of being able to read unsimplified text is less than 10%. It is extremely worrying to find that nearly one third of all students are at the picture book level after four years of official English medium education. These results are a clear indication that throughout their secondary school career little or subject information is getting across to about 50% of the pupils in his sample. Only about 10% of Form IVs are at a level where one might expect English medium education to begin. Commenting on the English situation in Tanzania, Rubanza (2002) asserts that students do lose their English skills after completing their studies because the society they work and live in does not demand the use of the English language. This suggests a major effect of poor implementation of the bilingual education in Tanzania.
Brock-Utne (2005) did a comparative study on the language of instruction in two secondary school classrooms in Tanzania; the two languages were English (Second language) and Kiswahili (first language). As an experiment, the same teacher was teaching the same topic in biology to two different classes of Form I students in a large secondary school. The teacher taught the topics in English to one class and in Kiswahili to another class. In the English class; students were silent, grave and looked afraid, they were trying to guess the answers the teacher wanted. Also miss-pronunciation, miss-spelling, silence/poor cooperation was observed; for instance, Teacher (T): Speak loudly. (It sounded like "lovely") One of the boys, who had been standing for a long time, tried to read in his book and when the teacher pointed at him. He said: Student (Ss): Bird. (He pronounced it "beerd") T: Spell it. S: B – I – R – D. The teacher then wrote "bird" on the blackboard and pronounced it "bird". While in Kiswahili class, students in Kiswahili classroom have demonstrated smiles and much laughter during this lesson and it went quickly (for the teacher, the students and the observers) and students were competing to answer.
Similarly, in a study which instituted treatment as a variety of language of instruction (Kiswahili or English) among secondary form II pupils in four selected schools. Teaching content was selected from the national secondary school syllabus in Biology and Geography. It was found that, the average test scores administered at the end of the teaching period were generally higher in the Kiswahili treatment than those obtained in the English treatment (Galabawa Waitama, 2005).Likewise Kinyanduka and Kiwara (2013) found that 69.5% of students could not understand when taught in English language through classes. Also 78.9% of teachers said that English language was a setback to a student academic achievement. Surprisingly, 64.5% of teachers, 53% of parents and 78.1% of student respondents preferred teachers to use English as a language of teaching and evaluation. In the meantime, 71.4% of students felt that it was better for teachers to use both Swahili and English during classes. This study recommends the use of both, English and Swahili in teaching and evaluation.
Also Peterson (2006) noted positive perception to Kiswahili by students as they expressed that they understand the courses which are given in Kiswahili a lot better than the courses offered in English as it equip them with the availability of terminology/vocabularies, and it is the language they use outside the classroom, and encounter everywhere as part of their daily lives, like at the market, at home, in churches and mosques and school. He further asserts that when English is used as the medium of instruction, on the other hand, students expressed that they learn very little. The main reasons for these difficulties as perceived by the students included problems with understanding the English language structure, for example the difference between writing and pronunciation, and that some of the books provided in English employ complicated language.
Mlay, (2010) assert that one of the reasons why students in secondary schools face so much difficulty using English is their reluctance in the language. She further noted that students are unwilling to actively participate in class discussions because teachers would criticize them or other students laugh at them because of their lack of ability to express themselves in English. However, students who have had early exposure to English from the beginning of primary school are able to cope using English as a medium of instruction in secondary school and their performance tends to be better off in comprehension tests conducted unlike those who started learning English from class three and thus have less exposure in the language.
Vuzo, (2002) pointed out that students can fail to answer well questions simply because they fail to understand the question, not because they do not know the answer. Language can affect a learner's ability to interpret instructions and questions. It can also lead to failure to express their ideas appropriately. His overall findings from this study indicated that there were differences in teaching and learning when the different MOI were used. Student –teacher interaction in Kiswahili MOI was high on average as the majority of students actively gave answers and quite a number asked questions. In English MOI lessons it was minimal as most students were silent, not asking questions or giving any responses.
Sex relation to Medium of Instruction Language Competency
Razmjoo and Movahed (2009) descriptive statistics analysis show that females outperformed males in language proficiency, but their independent sample t-test revealed that the difference is not significant. On the same vein, Hassani (2005) made clear that there was no significant interaction among motivation, gender, and level of English proficiency. Also Sabatin (2013) found no statistically significant differences in performance in reading comprehension between male and female subjects who have cultural background knowledge and those who do not have any knowledge. Mohammadi (2007) investigated if the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety (FLCA) and Foreign Language Reading Anxiety (FLRA) among Iranian EFL learners correlate and can predict each other and the findings showed that both age and gender affect the FLCA and FLRA. In another study girls showed no advantage in general intelligence, but performed significantly better on all subjects except Physics (Deary et al, 2006).
In contrary, Dayıolu and Türüt-Aık (2004) noted that smaller number of female students manages to enter the university and when they do so, they enter with lower scores. However, once they are admitted to the university, they excel in their studies and outperform their male counterparts. Wilberg and Lynn (1999 ) found that female student tend to have better language abilities including essay writing skills, vocabulary and word fluency which contribute to better course work. Younger, Warrington and Williams (1999) focus on the gender gap in English secondary schools and their analysis was based on the performance of boys and girls in GCSE examinations in the UK and girls were found to get better grades than boys. Their findings was explained by boys' disregard for authority, academic work and formal achievement, differences in students' attitudes to work and their goals and aspirations and girls' increased maturity and more effective learning strategies.
Education, Audio-visual and Culture Executive Agency (EACEA) report (2010) showed that recent international assessment studies agree that girls tend to have a higher reading achievement than boys. For instance, among students in the fourth year of schooling girls had significantly higher reading achievement than boys in all countries in Europe except two countries, Spain and Luxembourg, where average achievement was equivalent between the sexes. Also further interesting gender differences regarding reading domains or reading purposes show that Girls have a significantly higher average achievement in literary reading in all European countries (EACEA, 2010). Superior average performance in language by girls at all three ages in reading, writing and talking, with a few specific tasks where boys are superior has been noted. However, overall reading comprehension was differentially easier for the female group than the matched group of males, and males tended to perform better on antonyms and analogies than their female counterparts with equal ability (Song, 2014).
Wilder and Powell, (1989) observed few or no sex differences during the early years, but evidence for a divergence between the sexes starting around age 11. Females scored higher on tasks involving receptive and productive language, fluency, analogies, comprehension of written material, and creative writing. This superiority of females was thought to increase through high school and possibly beyond, and, although the extent of the female advantage tended to vary with the study and the ability under scrutiny, the most commonly cited magnitude was about one fourth of a standard deviation. Although these reviews agree that there are gender differences in verbal ability, they disagree about the kinds of verbal tasks that show such differences and also about the nature of developmental trends in gender differences.
This study employed a cross-section design. The design was chosen since it allows data to be collected at once from different cases. It therefore fit for this study because the data has been collected from three secondary schools which are located in three different regions at one point in time. The target population was all form four graduates who sat for the National Examination in the year 2014 and one of their compulsory subject being English and that subject is a language of instruction for all other subjects they sat for. Three secondary schools were purposively selected because they share the attributes; one being geographical location as they are all located in urban areas and second, their medium of instruction is English and English is one of the subjects they set for that National Exam. The selected secondary schools were Rau (Kilimanjaro), City (Dodoma) and Mwembetogwa (Iringa).
The total of 306 students of the three secondary schools who sat for Form Four National Examination in the year 2014 was selected as a sample size. Primary data was collected through reviewing the Form four National results. Both published and unpublished materials including, books, journals, papers, chapters, reports and thesis were reviewed as secondary data to see the scope, nature of the problem and its relationships with other variables and for consistency and validation of the data. The review of the form four results was done by the researcher. The data were obtained from the National examination council of Tanzania websites (www.necta.go.tz). Both objective one and two were analysed descriptively by using Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) program. The association/ relationship between sex and English grades scores likewise GPA score versus English grades scores were computed by using Chi-square model and percentages. Its interpretation and relation with other findings are presented in the findings section.
Findings and Discussion
The review of results show that 10.1% of 306 sample size have exam problems; therefore their results were not disclosed and regarded as missing cases in this findings and the valid cases were 89.9% of the sample size as shown in the table number 1.
The relationship between English subject performance and overall subjects' performance
The results show that students who scored F grade in English language, their respective GPA largely fall under "fail category", which is equivalent to 88.3 per cent while it is only 11.7 percent who fall under "pass category" of GPA who scored F grade in English Subject. No any student with F grade in English language fall under credit, merit and distinction category of GPAs.
As grade performance increases the number of student falling under GPA category of fail decreases. For instance the student who scored E their GPA under fail category dropped to 58.2%, and for grade D, it dropped to 4.8%. Unlike decreasing percent for Fail category GPA as grade goes up, the Pass category GPA rises as the grade go higher level; for instance for F grade, percent in pass category was 11.7, for E grades is 41.8% and for D grade is 79.0%. However, starting from C to B+ performance grade in English language, their per cents in Pass category of GPA begin to decline.
It is unfortunate that no student scored A grade in English language for the entire sample size, however, there are two students who scored Distinction category of GPA in overall subjects with their grades in English Language being B and B+ respectively. The following table 4 provides more clarification of these relationships.
Majority of student under study have poorly performed in English language as shown in results. Besides, the correlation performed in assessing the relationship between sex of the student and English language subject performance show no significant relation. In terms of grade category of GPA ranging from pass to distinction; there is mixed variation of results as female performed better in some grades and fail in other grades and similar results was found for male counterpart. This result show improvement for gender balance in Tanzania with the assumption that the factors that affect female students have been worked upon by the government and associated stakeholders
However, significant relationship between English Language performance of the students and the overall student subjects' performance has been revealed by this study. When student perform better in English language subject, their respective GPA tend to be in the higher category and when student perform poorly in English language and their respective GPA tend to be in lower category especially fail and pass.
The implication of this result is that much of improvement is needed in language of instruction in classrooms so as to achieve better academic results. This means better understanding of overall subject content largely depend on the language that is used for instruction. Alternatively, the government of Tanzania needs to recast its policy for secondary school and higher institution language of instruction by switching to Kiswahili which is the first language to majority of Tanzanians.
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academic performancelanguage of instructionmasteryResearch-PaperSocial Studies
A Study of Time Management In Relation To Stress and Self Efficacy among Married Working and Non- Working Women
Dr. Gargi Sharma Dr. Monika Sanger
The main aim of the present study was to examine if there was significant difference between working and non-working married women on time management, stress and self- efficacy. The sample was consisted of 150 married women (75 working married women and 75 non-working married women).Self- Efficacy scale (Sood), Stress Scale (Kaur, Kumar and Mehta) and Time Management scale (developed by investigator) were used to measure self-efficacy, stress and time management respectively. For analysis of the data t- test was used. Result showed that there was a difference between working and non-working married women regarding their time management, but there was no significant difference between working and non-working married women regarding self efficacy and stress.
Keywords: Time Management, Stress, Self Efficacy, Working Married Women, Non-Working Married Women.
One of the most challenging aspects in life is time management. In the current fast changing environment, time management is very important in both personal and professional life. Keeping pace with today's fast changing society and fast growing economy, not only the professionals are trying to be maximally efficient in their multifaceted roles, but also the organizations are highly emphasizing on being productive as well as effective. Being effective also means being constructive and using time positively. "Time" being the most finite and scarce resource, needs to be planned and managed. Managing ones time does not mean the quantity of time utilized but how well it is utilized.
Durbin(1997) refers to time management as process of structuring and organizing time to result in better productivity and also to ensure a high quality of living for individuals. Thus the key to time management is to gain control of one's time a working smarter and not harder as 'time management is more concerned with thinking than doing.
Time management is the art of arranging, organizing, scheduling, and budgeting one's time for the purpose of generating more effective work and productivity. Good time management involves keeping a schedule of the tasks and activities that have been deemed important. Keeping a calendar or daily planner is helpful to stay on task, but self-discipline is also required. The most efficient to-do list in the world will not help someone who does not look at or follow his own daily planner.
A survey of the population of married Indian women indicates wide individual differences in the mental and physical capacities of married Indian women. These married women achieve different levels of education, social and economic status in their society as a result of their varying inherited potentialities and the varying opportunities that they receive since their birth.
Although nature has gifted varying levels of abilities and opportunities to different women, the time gifted to each individual women for a single day is the same i.e. 24 hours each woman tries to spend these limited 24 hours in such a way so as to have maximum satisfaction from life. It depends upon their needs and values how they spent their valuable yet limited time each day. Apart from the routine activities there are certain activities for which a particular set of women would definitely spare some time for example women with hedonistic values would spend time for entertainment activities and those with high spiritual values would spare some time for meditation, religious practice and charitable activities. The total time of 24 hours a day would therefore be classified into four categories in the time management scale
1) Time spent on Routine Personal Activities
2) Time spent on Family oriented activities
3) Time spent on entertainment activities
4) Time spent on spiritual activities.
Life is full of struggles against the obstacles, challenges and threats in our environment. Success is most often measured not in the defense of set points, but in our ability to adapt to such conditions, and the ease with which such adaptation occurs. Throughout history, people have lived in close relationship to nature in developing the special skills and traits necessary for their survival. Thus adaptation not stability is the essence of life, biological fitness and health.(Seley,1978)
Stress is unavoidable consequences of life; it afflicts people regardless of their life situation. Stress everywhere within the family, business, organization/enterprise and any other social or economic activity. Right from the time of birth to the last breathe drawn, an individual is invariably exposed to various stressful situation. The 21st century is experiencing on era of rapid changes, complexities, challenges and pressures to survive than any other time. Stress is physiological, emotional and psychological reaction to certain threatening environmental events. It refers to the amount of a person's psychological energy released, in response to a stimulus situation exceeding from what he can constructively use.
In modern life stress is a common problem. The negative effects of stress affect individual's health and performance. As a result, individuals have their own stress perceptions and they develop different kinds of strategies in order to manage stressful situations. Culture is a relevant aspect that influences this process. Considering that stress is presented in different dimension of daily life, educational experiences can also be perceived as stressful. In addition, stress could be strongly experienced at work, and to be teacher is considered one of the most stressful jobs.
The concept of stress is first introduced in life science by Hens Selye in 1936.The word stress is derived from Latin word "stringerd". Stress was popularly used in 17th century to mean hardship, strain, adversity or offication.
According to Selye (1956), "Any external or any internal drive which threatens to upset the organism equilibrium is stress".
Stress is a concept that, although it is familiar for all, is understood in different ways. The use of this term in a vague and general form creates this context of different interpretations that sometimes are contradictory (Rutter, 1983). In this context, authors attempt to categorize the different definitions of stress instead of creating a general definition. Seley (1976) recognized the common set of reactions occurring in response to wide variety of conditions resulting in producing a sequence of physiological changes in the body. This reaction from the General Adaptation Syndrome.
It has three stages
Alarm Reaction
Stage of Resistance
Stage of Exhaustion
The two topics of time management and stress management are often addressed together because they are so closely interrelated.
Stress could be strongly experienced at work (Fletcher, 1988; Fletcher, 1991; Warr, 2005), and there are jobs which are considered more stressful than others, for instance to be teachers(Carlyle and Woods, 2002; Kyriacou, 1998).
Self -efficacy is a self evaluation of whether a person feels they can accomplish a certain task or not (Karen Lewis, 2007). According to Bandura (1997), self-efficacy is people's beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated levels of performance for assigned tasks. The outcome of this exercises influence over events that affect individual's lives.
Self efficacy makes a difference in how people feel, think, and act. In terms of feeling, a low sense of self efficacy is associated with depression, anxiety, and helplessness. Such individuals also have low self-esteem and harbor pessimistic thoughts about their accomplishment and personal development. In terms of thinking, a strong sense of competence facilitates cognitive process and performance in a variety of settings, including quality of decision making and academic achievement. When it comes to preparing action, self- related cognitions are a major ingredient of the motivation process. Self- efficacy levels can enhance or impede motivation. People with high self- efficacy choose to perform more challenging tasks Bandura (1995). They set higher goals and stick to them. Such person invests more effort and persists longer than those who have low self- efficacy level. When setbacks occur, they recover more quickly and remain committed to their goals. They also have the ability to explore and to create new environment for them. Therefore, it refers to a global confidence in one's coping ability in the wide range of demanding or novel situations. While general self efficacy refers to the stable sense of personal competence to deal effectively under the stressful and challenging circumstances (Schwarzer, et.al.2008).
Self -efficacy has been found to be intimately associated with capacity to change one's situation and has been used as a predictor of behavior, usually job seeking behavior, (Wenzel, 1993). According to Flammer (2001), People with higher perceived self- efficacy to fulfill job functions consider a wide range of career options. The construct of self-efficacy, which was introduced by Bandura, represents one core aspect of his social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1977, 1997). Valiante (2004) believes that efficacy contributes more heavily to occupational preferences. Perceived efficacy is a robust contributor to career development. Self-efficacy characterized by spiritual improvement creates a set-back and variations in the rate of progress. Perceived self-efficacy affects how well individuals manage requirements and challenges of occupational pursuits (Bandura, 2005). Bandura (1997) and Flammer (1990) found that individuals with high self-efficacy beliefs also report strong feelings of well-being and high self-esteem in general.
Is there any difference in the level of time management (family oriented activities, routine personal activities, entertainment activities and spiritual activities) between working and non-working married women?
Is there any difference in the level of stress among working and non-working married women?
Is there any difference in the level of self- efficacy among working and non-working married women?
There is no significant difference in the level of time management (family oriented activities, routine personal activities, entertainment activities and spiritual activities) between working and non-working married women.
There is no significant difference in the level of stress among working and non- working married women.
There is no significant difference in the level of self- efficacy among working and non-working married women.
The sample was consisted of 150 married women (75 working and 75 non-working married women) in Jaipur &Alwar were chosen, with the following criteria of inclusion and omission:
Equal numbers of women (75 working and 75 non- working) were chosen.
Only married women were taken.
All of them must be graduates.
They have middle socio- economic status.
They must have 21 to 45 years.
Time management was measured by time management scale. This scale was prepared by investigator herself. The scale consists of 25 items. Stress was measured by stress scale. It was developed by Kaur, Kumar and Mehta It consists of 26 items. Self-efficacy was measured by Self- efficacy scale. It was developed by Sood. It consists of 10 items.
't' test was used to examine the significant difference in time management, stress and self-efficacy of working and non-working women .
Table-1clearly reveals that the mean score obtained from working women on time management was1288.3 and mean score obtained from non-working on time management was 1199.3. The difference between the two means was significant at .01 level. The higher mean score for time management was obtained by working women in comparison to non-working women
It is clear from the results that the working married women have more efficient in managing the time in comparison to non-working married women. There are many causes; working married women appear to have a personal value structure different from that of non-working married women; economic and political value are more prominent among working married women.
On the other side the result found by Myra, Strober and Charles, Weinberg, (2009) is that there appear to be limited differences between employed and nonemployee wives in their use of strategies to relieve time pressures.
Table-2clearly reveals that the mean score obtained from working women on stress was 53.05 and mean score obtained from non-working on stress was 51.25 The difference between the two means was not significant. The higher mean score for stress was obtained by working women in comparison to non-working women. Aujla and Harshpinder, (2006) found that the various financial and temporal factors causing stress among working and non-working women in India. Results indicated that expenses on sudden emergencies, more work and less time to do them were considered to be the stressors by women in both categories. Working women were stressed due to shortage of time for doing work, planning, sharing with family, leisure or social activities and personal health care. Non-working women were stressed due to unavoidable expenses, and irregular income. On average, non-working women were stressed due to financial factors and working women due to temporal factors. It is also consistent with Hsatami (2007) also found in their study that there was significant difference between stress among working and non working married women.
Table-3clearly reveals that the mean score obtained from working women on self-efficacy was 28.8 and mean score obtained from non-working on self-efficacy was 29.8. The difference between the two means was not significant. The higher mean score for self-efficacy was obtained by non-working women in comparison to working women. Kumthekar (2000) examined the working women, being an earner in the family, is easily accepted and respected. Hence; it was thought that working women would have a more positive self- efficacy as compared to non working women. The result was found, it is amazing to note that no significant difference between working and non working women. All women had a devaluated self- efficacy.
In the end it may conclude that working women are more efficient in managing the time in comparison to non married working married women. Result also shows that there is no significant difference in stress among working and non-working women. Surprisingly result also shows that working and non working married women have similar level in self- efficacy.
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Selye, H. (1985).History and present status of the stress concept. In A. Monat& R.S. Lazarus, eds. Stress and Coping, 2nd ed. New York: Columbia University.
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Warr, P. (2005).Work, Well-Being and Mental Health.In J. L. Barling, E.K. Kelloway, and M.R. Frone (Eds), Handbook of Work Stress.California: Sage Publications.
Wenzel SL. (1993).The relationship of psychological resources and social support to job procurement self-efficacy in the disadvantaged. J Applied Psychology; 23(18): 1471–1497.
Non-Working Married Women.Research-PaperSelf EfficacySocial StudiesStressTime ManagementWorking Married Women
TRADITIONAL CULTURE AND SOCIAL CHANGE OF SCHEDULED CASTES IN NAGALURE VILLAGE, ERODE DISTRICT (TAMIL NADU) – A STUDY
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Mr. K. Thangavel Mr. S. Yesu Suresh Raj
This article explores traditional culture and social changes of scheduled caste people in Erode District. In Indian history, scheduled caste have been denied from basic rights and considered even out of caste system. Scheduled Caste people are discriminate in every day and every minutes of their life. They often lack adequate food, health care and houses, are shunned in public places such as hospitals and temples, roads and buses, and discriminate with regards education, employment and ownership of land. In this study main objective are to understand traditional culture of scheduled Castes, to find out reasons behind traditional culture to modern culture, to critically investigate social changes of Scheduled Caste for their development, and to suggest a suitable action plan for their development. Tools for Data Collation In the present study data were both 'primary' as well as 'secondary' sources. The dates were collected primary sources, Researcher collected 50 samples from the study area. The investigator used simple random techniques for selecting the sample size. Design of the Study – descriptive design will be used to describe the data. The collected data were analysed with the help of descriptive and simple percentage. The collected data were analyzed to get a better understanding of the Traditional Culture and Social Change of SCs a case of Nagalur village in Erode District.
INDRODUCTION
Throughout history, scheduled caste have been denied from basic rights and considered even outside of caste system. Ganthi coined the word 'Harijian' which means "children of god" even the word of Harijian has been considered derogatory and scheduled caste means an exploited person. Scheduled cast is the more socially acceptable term, adopted to express the systemic impression which people without caste have endured over thousands of years of Indian culture. Numerous organizations have lobbied to change the way that scheduled caste are treated in Indian society and a number of laws have been passed in attempts to outlaw discrimination
The Indian caste system is quite complex, and based in the Hindu religion although people of all religions are divided into castes in India, along with several other nations. For thousands of years, caste was a crucial determining factor in where someone fit into society, and the rigid system did not have room for social climbing or efforts against discrimination. There are four main castes in India, also known as Varna's; people who do not fall into any caste are considered scheduled caste or out of caste.
Because a Scheduled Caste essentially, lacks divinity, he/she be assigned to menial labour which higher believe is polluting. Scheduled castes have traditionally participated in animal slaughter, garbage collection, sewage handling and dealing with cadavers. These polluting vocations only enforce the status of scheduled cast, with upper casts forcing them to use different facilities, and to avoid handling or touching people of caste. In some parts of India, scheduled caste was not even allowed to cast a shadow onto upper class members of Indian society.
Origin of scheduled caste
Scheduled caste is outcastes, which means that they do not belong to any of the four main castes of Hindu society, created several millennia ago when the Aryans Indo-Europeans invaded India about 1500 year BC from the Northwest, they found there an original dark-skinned people. The newcomers organized their society according to a hierarchical system of four caste or varnas colours that of the Brahmins or priests, the Kshatryas or warriors/rulers, the Vaisyas or farmers/artisans, and shudras who were to serve the other castes. This caste system was an intricate part of the Aryan religion, Hinduism, in that higher caste possessed a religious cleanliness which the lower caste lacked. In fact, contact with lower caste people would make a higher caste person unclean. Since the aboriginal people of India fell outside of this system, they became outcastes or untouchables and unwelcome carrier of pollution. They had to live outside the villages, could not use the common well, and were ordered to perform the duties no one else would do, such as removing excrement or washing clothes. And even in modern democratic. India scheduled Caste are discriminated in every area of life. They often lack adequate food, health care and housing, are shunned in public place such as hospitals and temples, roads and buses, and discriminated with regards to education, employment and ownership of land.
Culture of Scheduled Caste
It is one of hard-work and rest, honest and simplicity, achievements and celebrations. Scheduled Caste are always creative and productive, celebrations and enjoyments. Come with that freedom, frankness, open heartedness, songs, steps, beats, drums dance and drama; food, feasting, festivals, thanks giving, worship, prayer and sacrifices. It is agriculture based agrarian farm culture. Culture is of the workers and working classes. The something continues in the new-world of urbanized industrial area. Work workers celebrations and Rest. Adulterated with ulterior motives cunningly by the Brahmins, stealthily by the baniyas and extracted crudely by the Kshatriyas are liquor drugs and evil practices, particularly in the mode of celebrations, thanks giving and rest. Done only to cheat, swindle and rob the SC of their creation and produce still these DCHs claim themselves superior both culturally and intellectually frauds
Srinivas (1966) in social change in modern India has defined the process of Sanskritization: Sanskritization is the process by which a low Hindu caste, or tribal or other group, changes its customs, rituals, ideology and way of life in the direction of a high, and frequently twice born caste. The low caste takes to the conduct, customs and rituals of higher caste. By Sanskitization a caste or a tribal community ventures to gain higher status in society. In the process of Sanskritization a claim is made for higher status in the social structure and it is therefore a vertical movement. But in Sanskritization there is improvement of status only, there no structural change.
Mohar (1959); patwardhan (1968); Lynch (1969),No doubt certain amount of social mobility has occurred among the Scheduled Caste over a span of time. Such change and mobility in religious, educational, economic and political spheres has been regarded as channels utilized by the educated castes to raise caste status.
In this chapter, methodological framework has designed. Research methodology refers to how entire process of research has been designed and in what manner we are going to conduct it, following are the methodologies adopted for the study.
The study entitled "Traditional Culture and Social Change of SCs a case of Nagalur village in Erode District" is an attempt to understand the whether the change happened in the SC people's traditional culture and their social status.
The main Objective of the study is to find out the changes in traditional culture and social changes of SC people. The specific objectives are given below:
To understand traditional culture of scheduled Castes
To find out reasons behind traditional culture to modern culture.
To critically investigate social changes of Scheduled Caste for their development.
Researcher taken 50 respondents is the sample from the study area. The researcher used simple random techniques for selecting the sample size.
Following major findings have been observed.
74%of the respondents in the participation in the Traditional Cultural in the village.
72%of the respondents are in the health care system satisfy in the village.
The study reveals that, from the historical point of view Dalits are vulnerable and suppressed by the other community. Nowadays they are dominated by the dominant community. Every community people are having their own culture and tradition and they believe their own culture similarly Dalits are following this. But, in this modern word many of the community people are merged with other community by the inter cast or inter religious marriage. Same thing these people should move and mingle with others community people. Some numbers of scheduled caste are converting into other religion. It will bring traditional culture change among the scheduled caste. By the findings the research got some knowledge about the traditional culture of Dalit. They have a wide variety of culture, they are strictly believed in their culture. But only few of the people are came out with this traditions in the modern world. The parents should teach their children about their traditional culture. Local schools are joining with the local community to teach the student. The social changes among the Dalits should come only with the help of the more number of educations and employed. Most of the Dalits people are depending the government schemes to run their family. They must have to come forward to hope their self to work for their family. It is observed that old age person celebrate their traditional culture. But youth can like to celebrate modern functions. Traditional cultures cannot be affected by globalization. This study recommends by saying that government must care traditional culture and give training for youth.
Anandi, S. (1995)., "Contending identities: SCs and secular Politics in Madras Slums", Indian Social Institute, New Delhi.
, M., & Zelliot., E., (1992)., "An anthology of SC literature: Poems", Gyan publishing House, New Delhi.
Human Rights Documentation., (2008) ., "Dalits/Scheduled Castes" , Unpublished paper Indian Social Institute, New Delhi.
Jasmine Rao., (2010)., "The Caste System: Effects on Poverty in India, Nepal and Sri Lanka" Global Majority E-Journal, Vol. 1, No. 2 ,pp. 97-106
Rakeshk Sinha., (2010)., "Social Culture Development of India", Mohit Publications, New Delhi.
Siddaramu B., (2013)., "The Consciousness of Caste in The Contemporary Indian Society" International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Literature, Vol. 1, Issue 1, pp.1-4.
Sukhadeo Thora. T., Katherine S. Newman., (2007)., "Caste and Economic Discrimination: Causes, Consequences and Remedies", Economic and Political Weekly, pp.4121 – 4124
and discriminate with regards educationemployment and ownership of land.hospitals and templesResearch-Paperroads and busesSocial Studies
SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITION OF RUBBER PLANTATION WORKERS- A SYNOPTIC STUDY
Joyjit Sanyal
Dr. Sujit Sikidar,
Ajit Timung,
This present study entitled 'A study on the Socio-Economic condition of Rubber Plantation workers of Diphu, Karbi Anglong district of Assam' is undertaken with the objective to throw light on the lives of the plantation workers. Rubber Plantation is a highly lucrative and profitable business and is mostly privately owned. This research work intends to study the condition i.e. the socio-economic condition of the plantation workers in Diphu where the rubber plantation business is flourishing over the last two decades due to its nature. It is a matter of great concern to study the fact whether the workers are able to gain a part of the fruits of the business or not. This knowledge can only be gained by studying the socio-economic of the workers.
The present study is undertaken with the following objectives:
To Collect Socio-economic data of workers in the rubber plantation with a view to study the problem faced by them in their working, living and social condition and the extent of the welfare amenities available to them.
Key words: Plantation, unskilled labour, labour welfare, etc.
MEANING OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITION
Socio-generally means society, social and it refers to any number of demographic and social conditions such as the age structure, racial composition, sex ratio, marriages and so on.
Economic refers to the economic conditions such as income, unemployment, rates and so on.
Socio-economic condition refers to an individual level of income, wealth, education and prestige. It consists of the cultivated behaviors of their daily life activities like how they live and earns education, hospitality, wages and salaries, role of family, ethical issue, social responsibility of business.
The basic objectives of this research on the socio-economic condition of rubber plantation worker is to gather idea and their problem faced by them and to improve their standard of living, education, provide adequate amount of salary and wages, rent and accommodation.
DEFINITION OF PLANTATION
The term 'Plantation' has been defined under the Plantation Labour Act 1951 to include any plantation to which the Act, whether wholly or in parts applies and includes offices, hospital dispensaries, school or other premises used for any other purpose connected with such plantation. Section 1(14) of the Act applies to any land or intends to be used for growing tea, coffee, rubber, cinchona and cardamom which measure 5hectare or more and in which fifteen or more persons are employed or were employed on any draft of the proceeding 12 month.
WORKERS:
Workers mean a person (including any member of the medical staff) employed in a plantation for hired or reward, whether directly or through any agency, to do any work skilled, unskilled, manual or clerical but does not include:
A Medical officer employed in the plantation
Any person employed in the plantation primarily in a managerial capacity or
Any person temporarily employed in the plantation in any work relating to the construction, development or maintenance of building, road, bridge or canals.
When use in relationship to plantation, it means the person who has the ultimate control over the affairs of the plantation and where the affairs of any plantation are entrusted to any person (whether called a managing agent, manager, superintendent or by any other name) such person shall be deemed to be the employer in relation to that plantation.
ABOUT PLANTATION RUBBER
Rubber plays an important role in the industrial and economic development of a country. Rubber plantation provide the principal raw material required for manufacturing of around 35,000 rubber product ranging from toy balloons to tyres of giant moving equipment.
India ranks third in production fourth in the consumption of natural rubber in the world. Rubber Plantations are spread over 5.9 lakh hectares in 16 states. Rubber is primarily grown in Kerela and adjoining Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu, the traditional growing areas of the country. Besides these, rubber is also grown in the North-Eastern state like Tripura, Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Manipur.
In any research project it is essential to understand what has already been done in the specific topic that the researcher chooses and what has been done in the wider subject area of that topic. A Literature review is a text written by someone to consider the critical point of current knowledge including substantive finding as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic. Literature reviews are secondary sources, and as such, do not report any new or original experimental work. Also, a review of literature can be interpreted as a review of an abstract accomplishment.
Mahalakhsmi, Assistant professor, Bharthiar University Art and Science College, Dec 2012 (IJSETR) volume 1, in her study on the Socio-economic status of women employees in tea plantation industries found out that no. of women workers are facing many problem in the tea plantation. Since women workers are engaged more than the male workers. The study is basically focus on their living condition, wages earning and socio-security benefit. The important factor for their development and the problem faced by the employees are also identified.
V USHADEVI and V.N JAYACHANDRAN (2001) A Project of Kerela Research Programme on Local Level Development (KRPLLD) Centre for Research Studies Thiruvanthapuram. SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE OF RUBBER TAPPERS IN THE SMALL HOLDING SECTOR. The study basically focused on the tapper's workers. The study found that tapper work is not an easy work as it requires skill and is labour intensive for the good health of the rubber tree and maintaining the longetivity of its production period.
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE INFORMAL CONDITIONS OF THE PLANTATION LABOURERS OF INDIA LABOUREROF INDIA AND SRI LANKA. By Neelam Choudhary and Deeksha Tayal. The study focuses on the section of plantation labourers,who are directly employed by the employer are and contract workers. The study also suggest the effectiveness of any formalization strategy would require collective involvement and social dialogue among all the key players in the plantation sector.
Government of India (1980) Labour Bureau Ministry of Labour Socio-economic condition of women workers in plantation action. In this study the Government of India focused on the plantation sectors of the labour economical life.
RESEARCH GAP:
From the above literatures it is known that many researchers have been done regarding socio-economic condition of plantation workers in different geographical areas. The research gap in this study is that no such study has been done in the geographical area where this study has been undertaken. So the survey has conducted among the rubber plantation firm of Diphu, Karbi Anglong of Assam.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The present research enquiry is undertaken with the following objectives with the hope that a new stock of knowledge may be created with the study undertaken:
PROFILE OF THE RUBBER PLANTATION FIRM OF DIPHU, KARBI ANGLONG DISTRICT ASSAM
Plantation crops like rubbers are high value crops of great economic importance and provide huge employment opportunity. Suitable land and also agro climatic condition provide favorable environment for rubber plantation.
Expansion of cultivation, which is one of the reasons for stepping up rubber production on a sustainable basis taking place mainly in non-traditional areas. Diphu is one of such non-traditional areas identified by Rubber Board of India. There is a growing popularity of rubber cultivation in the area. Rubber plantation offer ways for generating additional revenue for the growers.
The beneficiaries under the various scheme of rubber board may also avail of long term financial bank loans in order to supplement the financial and other assistance granted by the Board as well as to acquire financial liquidity for undertaking the plantation operation. The Board will in such instance provide the required technical support to the bank concerned extending finance.
It is gathered from the concerned people that rubber cultivation is highly income generating if managed properly. The small scale cultivators or a grower of rubber is emerging in the district. The implication of this development on firm will be significant. There are of course, several inherent problems of small scale cultivation of rubber like capital lock up due to long gestation period, capital intensive, nature of production systems, processing and marketing problems.
In Diphu, Rubber plantations are very popular and the growers are very much interested in cultivating such crops. The land is climatic in nature which is suitable for rubber plantation. The study reveals three unit level of plantation firm. Out of 15 plantations firm, three unit level of plantation firm has been selected for the study. The firms are privately owned in Diphu.
Out of that unit level is M/S Rongmili Rubber which is located near Matipung 5km distance away from Diphu town. It was established in the year 1990 by Harold Engti a resident of Rongmili, Diphu. At present there are 311 numbers of workers.
Another firm is taken from M/S Tungjang Rubber Estate established in the year 1987 by Mr. Gajendra Timung. The firm is located at Diphu-Lumding road 5km distance from the Diphu town. There are 52 nos of workers.
And the third firm is M/S Babu Teron Rubber firm established in the year 1996 located at Diphu Lumding road 5km from the main town. No. of worker are only 12.
The information collected on the no. of unit allowing all the data are collected in the table all the three unit of firm together.
The research design for this study is descriptive in nature. Descriptive researches are those studies which are concerned with describing the characteristic of a particular individual, or of a group. A descriptive research design can be either quantitative or qualitative. Descriptive research involves gathering data that describes events and then organizing, tabulation, depiction and describing the data collection (Glass and Hopkin, 1984). It includes survey and fact finding.
Here the detailed study of the Socio- Economic Condition of Rubber Plantation workers of Diphu, Karbi Anglong district is done. The information is collected with the help of an unbiased non disguised and structured questionnaire consisting of close-ended question and field survey.
Simple random sampling is the process of drawing a sample from a population in such a way that each and every unit or item of the population has the equal chance of being included in the sample.
Two stages of sampling design were adopted for the survey. In the first stage of sampling, the sample size of the unit level or employer level schedule has been determined.
In the second stages, sample worker level schedule have been canvassed.
UNIVERSE OF THE STUDY
The Universe of the study contains of the 15 registered rubber plantation firms in Diphu where an approximately 1500 numbers of worker are engaged in the plantation work.
SAMPLE UNITS
Out of the 15 numbers of plantation firms, three of the units had permitted the researcher to interact with their employees and as such these three numbers of firms forms the sample units for the study.
The sample size includes all the workers belonging from the three unit level of the plantation
5.4. QUESTIONNAIRE CANVASSED
(i) Two specially designed schedules were canvassed for the purpose of this survey. The unit level questionnaire was canvassed to capture the working condition of workers. A unit level questionnaire was designed to collect data for the unit as a whole on important parameters ,like year of establishment, types of ownership, mode of payment wages and earning of the manual workers, leave and holidays, daily hour of work, sex-wise employment of workers in the plantation, trade union, welfare amenities available to workers, social security and benefit.
(ii) The worker level schedule is designed to collect the data on living condition of women workers employed in the plantation. The schedule was designed to capture the important aspects like migration, status caste, demographic particular (age profile, marital status, education qualification etc.), Wages and earning total income and saving indebtness, medical expenditure etc.
Data has collected both by Primary and Secondary sources.
Primary data: Primary data has been collected through a structured, unbiased and non disguised questionnaire which consisted of field survey all the workers from different firm gave their relevant information during the survey.
Secondary data: Secondary data has been collected through books, websites and journals based on the relevant topics of the research work.
In course of conducting the survey the researcher faced difficulty in establishing communication linkage with the workers because most of the tribal workers in interior areas are not fluent in any language other than their mother tongue. As a result, the researcher has taken the help of university students belonging to Karbi Community and they were engaged by the researcher for facilitating collection of information.
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION:
TABLE PART A. EMPLOYER UNIT LEVEL
FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
The results of the field survey lend us to the following finding:
In course of field survey, it is noticed that the worker chosen in 3 sample plantations have absorbed 100% tribal workers from the same locality, who all belong to ST population in the study area.
Around 63.3% of the workers belonged to the age group of 25-35 years whereas 20% of the workers belonged to the age group of 15-25 years.
Around 36.67% of the workers have never had the opportunity for any formal education whereas about 58.33% of the workers had attended school but couldn't pass out.
It has also been found out that mostly the males are engaged in the plantation works here in Diphu which constitutes about 68.33% of the total population. Whereas the rest constitutes the female workers.
72% of the workers were found to be married and the rest 28% were unmarried. Further, it was also found out that around 30% of the workers interrogated had 4-6 dependent family members, 33% had 2-4 dependents and 30% of them had 1-2 dependents.
Around 63.33% of the workers were found to be permanent employees of the rubber plantations whereas 36.7% of the workers were employed casually.
With regards to the annual earning of the workers, it was discovered that 40% of them have an annual earnings in between Rs.20,000-Rs.40,000 per annum and 33.33% of the workers earned Rs.40,000-Rs.60,000 per annum, which constituted mostly the permanent workers. On the other hand 21.7% of the workers were found to earn below Rs. 20,0000 per annum. This group mostly belonged to the casual workers. Furthermore, this group may be getting engaged as hired wage workers for contract jobs or seasonal jobs, etc.
The Researcher also made his best attempt to get hold of the information with regards to the total household income of the plantation workers. However, in this regards, most of the workers were found to be suspicious over declaring the total household income. The Researcher in this regards could roughly gather the fact that around 66.7% of the worker's household had an annual income below Rs.50,000 whereas 33.33% disclosed that they had an annual income in between Rs.50,000- Rs.1,00,000.
Only 16.75% of the workers were found to have a savings bank account in Diphu, the rest 83.35% were indifferent towards the idea of having any bank account at all.
Most of the workers revealed that they had an annual savings ranging from Rs.10,000 to Rs.20,000 at their respective bank accounts.
Our study also reveals that banking habits, banking services flourished & multiplied in the tribal society with the growth of plantation activities. It appears that there is a positive correlation between banking services & plantation activities. It does ensures that major plantation activities on the other hand promote financial inclusion in Karbi Anglong district comparatively much better than the other districts of the state.
33% of the workers reported that they were paid their wages on a monthly basis, this section of workers constituted the permanent workers of the plantation. Whereas another 13.33% and 18.34% reported that they were paid their remunerations on daily and weekly basis respectively.
However, almost 51.75% of the workers were dissatisfied with the amount of wages structure being paid to them. 41.7% were found to be satisfied with their wages from the plantation. But another 6.6% were unable to undecided on the satisfaction level.
It was quite evident from the field study that the workers were highly satisfied with the working hours since 87% of the workers responded in positive when enquired about their satisfaction with regards to the time they have to spend on the plantation.
Again 71.7% of the workers were also in favour of the recess that they are provided in the working hours by the plantation management but another 25% shared that they were not happy with rest intervals that they are provided with.
Only 65% of the workers responded that they were provided with sick pay leaves whereas the rest 35% shared that they were not provided any kind of sick leaves with pay.
Around 66.7% of the workers responded that they were provided medical benefits by the employer but within certain ceilings on monetary benefits. Usually there family members were not considered in the scheme. Further, the amount provided is usually very meager. Another 33.33% were not provided any such facility at all. It may be because of the fact that they were casual in nature. The casual workers constituting 33.33% of the workforce are excluded under the scheme.
Usually the workers are required to perform their duties in the open and as such the requirement of Rest Shelter facilities is necessitated. However, the Researcher found out that around 8.3% of the sample respondents said they were not provided with any such facilities. The plantation workers are generally exposed to heat, sun rays, rain and gifts of Mother Nature because of the nature of works involved in open fields. As a result, work facilities under a shed or a thatch is not possible accounting to such worker's grievances.
Only 26.7% of the workers responded that they were provided with the canteen facilities of which only a few were found to be satisfied with the food items served in the canteens. However, the majority of the workers responded that they were not provided with any such facilities.
Around 65% of the workers shared that they were provided with housing facilities. The workers are usually provided shelters within the plantation in temporary dwellings. The conditions of the kutccha houses are dilapidated with no electricity facility.
From the study it was found out that around 61.7% of the workers responded that their employers provided educational facilities to their children. On enquiring further, it was found out that the employers usually provides a lump sum amount on yearly basis to the workers for getting their children admitted to the schools and for the purchase of books and other materials.
None of the employers are found to be providing their workers with insurance benefits.
Though the chances of accidents are quite rare in the rubber plantations but all the sample populations responded that their employers bestowed them with accident benefits.
Around 60% of the women workers responded that their employers were providing them with the maternity benefits which included 6 months period with half the pay rates. Most of the other responded in negative mainly because of the fact that they fall in the category of casual workers.
Finally the workers were asked to provide their overall viewpoints with regards to the welfare facilities they were receiving from their employers. It was found out that 40% of the workers were very highly satisfied with all the facilities provided by their employers. On the other hand, 48.3% of the employees were found to be moderately satisfied. However no workers were found to be highly dissatisfied. Only a mere 3.3% of the workers were found to be dissatisfied.
An in depth analysis and study is conducted to find the Socio-Economic Condition of Rubber Plantation worker in Diphu. Among the three selected units, the questions were framed to understand about living condition, employment status earning wages and benefits from the workers view, the researcher gathered in depth status of both the men and women employees in the rubber plantation. The nature of work is very hard. They are engaged in 8-10 hours of work. Most of the employees have no other tasks leaving apart the plantation work. The region surrounding still remains underdeveloped so the employees have no other sources of employment to improve their lifestyle. The present wage structure is not adequate to run their family. They are leading life in poor condition and also not able to provide proper education facilities to their children. Only things they appreciates is that they have free water facilities, accidental benefit, maternity benefit, rest shelter facilities, education facilities with which overall they are moderately satisfied as a whole.
Women tappers represent only a small percent of total sample tapper. Generally, they are forced to enter the field of tapping because of financial crisis of concerned families. They do not have any job satisfaction, because it is difficult to manage in tapping, collecting latex as well as left with household chores. Therefore they hardly have life.
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Research Paper, Social Science, Social Studies
The Relationship between Risk Management Committee Characteristics and Modified Audit Opinion in Malaysia
2626Sat, 26 Nov 2016 21:26:19 +0530 UMESH RAJ	Leave a comment
Suhaimi Ishak
The purpose of the study is to examine the relationship between risk management committee (RMC) characteristics and modified audit opinion in Malaysia among the non-banking and financial companies listed in Bursa Malaysia. Data is collected from the annual reports of a sample of 300 companies for a period of 2004 until 2009. Both descriptive and multivariate analyses are employed to address the research objectives. The results indicate that separate RMC is negatively related with acceptance of modified audit opinion. Besides, the larger the size of RMC and the higher number of overlapping status for RMC's members, it probably will higher the acceptance of modified audit opinion. Further, modified audit opinion that has been received at prior financial year is likely to receive the same opinion at current financial year. However, the status of auditor whether big or small firm is not related to modified audit opinion. The findings provide empirical evidence on the development and importance of RMC and its characteristics for the quality of companies' financial reporting.
Keywords: risk management committee; risk; modified audit opinion; Malaysia
The global economic downturn has exposed the poor risk management practices of many companies and organization (Baker, 2011). At the Corporate Governance Week 2010 and 2011 which jointly hosted by Security Commission (SC) of Malaysia and Bursa Malaysia (BM), the both chairmen of these regulatory bodies stressed about the risk management process and board's awareness on that process as a key element in the corporate governance practices in a company. The remark was pointed to the board as a key person in establishing and implementing well of risk management process in the company. The remark also is a signal to the board of director (BOD) to give more attention to the company's risk management profile and the formation of committee at the board level that concentrate on the risk management profile is one of the good initiatives. Again, the deputy executive of SC at the ASEAN Audit Regulators Group Forum 2013 in Kuala Lumpur has stressed about the auditors to consider seriously when assessing the risks surrounding clients' financial statements. Meanwhile, the objective of the study is to examine the relationship between the risk management committee's characteristics (separate RMC, RMC size and RMC overlapping) and modified audit opinion issued by the auditors in Malaysia. We seek to ascertain whether RMC enhance the quality of financial reporting particularly on risk profile of the organization. We apply the modified auditor opinion as measure to the quality of financial reporting. In Malaysia, under the best practices in corporate governance of Malaysian Code on Corporate Governance (MCCG) (2007) and (2012) (Revised) clearly stated the board has principle responsibility for "identifying principal risks and ensuring the implementation of appropriate systems to manage these risks". BOD has the responsibility in setting the strategies and creating the environment for effective risk management system in a company and the existence of RMC is a good step for the effective of the system (Yatim, 2010). The formation of RMC with focusing on the broad areas of risks including internal and external risks will help company in managing those risks without depending only on the audit committee. Some expertise on the company business's external environmental are needed in RMC rather than depending on audit committee members which have expertise in internal control and accounting transactions. For example, RMC members with expertise on business opportunity and investment will evaluate the company's viability in future and reducing the risks of going-concern. This situation will reduce the acceptance of modified audit report by the company. The job profile of RMC with focusing on broad areas of risks can reduce the exposure of risks by the company including the external risks such as going-concern risks and competition risks. Consequently, the probability of receiving the modified audit report particularly on risks issue is less due to the effective managing the risks exposure to the company. Theoretically, this situation creates a linkage between RMC and modified audit report and further on the quality of financial reporting.
To be an effective committee, RMC as a board committee should has the strong attributes whether in term of its composition (board size and director's type), board process (frequency of meetings) and board characteristics (knowledge, skill, experiences, academic qualification, relevant training and multiple directorships). The strong composition of RMC, its process and characteristics is parallel with the argument in resource dependency theory. The theory as proposed by Preffer and Salancik (1978) argued that board (RMC) as a crucial resource to the organization and also acted as a bridge between organization and external link.
The formation of separate RMC is still voluntary in most countries in the world including Malaysia and the function of risk management sometimes is combined with Audit Committee (AC) or directly under the Board of Director (BOD) of the company (Subramaniam, McManus & Zhang, 2009). This study tries to relate whether the existence of separate RMC probably will reduce the issuance of modified audit opinion by auditor. Board size is prominently used in corporate governance studies (Dalton, Daily, Johnson & Ellstrand, 1999) and viewed as an important element of company's governance quality (Musteen, Datta & Kemmerer, 2010). For the risk issues, the smaller board is expected to gain better oversight function due to the less difference of ideas and approaches. Ong and Wan (2008) argued that larger board may have conflicting in executing and maintaining the board effort norms as the oversight function. They may have conflicting among them for the monitoring and decision made. However, for the company's business and industry risk oversight function, the vast knowledge and experiences of board' members are needed (Dalton et al., 1999) and the knowledgeable and experienced directors would be gained through outside as the independent non-executive directors who are not involved with the company's management function and duty. Some companies have limited members of BOD. The same directors might hold several positions as members of some sub-committee of BOD. The member of RMC might be a member of remuneration or audit committee and the overlapping of directorship by directors is view as the insight to the corporate governance mechanism (Zajac & Westphal, 1996).
The structure of this paper is as follows. The next section provides a brief review of past research and hypotheses development. Followed by research methodology section, analysis of result and discussion. The conclusion and recommendation is presented in last section.
Previous Research and Hypotheses Development
The study on the association between risk management committee's characteristics and modified audit opinion remains scant and limited. However, some previous study have examined the relationship between board's characteristics or audit committee composition and audit opinion (see Carcello & Neal, 2000; Farinha & Viana, 2009; Masyitoh & Adhariani, 2010; Wenyao & Qin, 2007; Pucheta-Martinez & Fuentes, 2007). The role of RMC in risk management is relatively unexplored and the literature on that field is limited and scant. Tufano (1996) added the lack of research in risk management committee was due to the lack of meaningful data on risk management practices. Again, Subramniam and Carey (2011) reported that the establishment of formalized system of risk management in organization is more recent development. The establishment of RMC is seen to be a complement to the oversight function of board of director and might be able to reduce the burden of task by audit committee. Zaman (2001) suggested it is impossible to expect the audit committee to implement more than high level review given their lack of expertise and time. It was also supported by Fields and Keys (2003) that RMCs have gained popularity as an important oversight committee. The argument is parallel with agency theory that RMC as a board committee should acted on behalf of the shareholders at all. Furthermore, Subramaniam et al. (2009) added that the existence of separate RMC with focusing on the risk profile was also able to increase the quality of internal monitoring in relation to risk management. Thus, the probability of the company to receive modified audit opinion is less and the first hypothesis is generated as follow:
H1: The existence of separate or distinct RMC is negatively associated with the probability that the company will receive modified audit report.
A smaller board size is seem to be better for oversight responsibility to monitor financial reporting and related internal control (Farinha & Viana, 2009). However, in their study, the result showed the insignificant relationship between board size and the company to receive modified audit report. It means a board size seems to have no influence on modified opinion. The result is consistent with the earlier study by Wenyao and Qin (2007) which found insignificant relationship between board size and audit opinion and the characteristic of board size was irrelevant to the determinant of audit opinion issued. However, Xie, Davidson and Dadalt (2003) reported the negative relationship between board size and earning management activities. In term of accounting fraud, Beasley (1996) found a positive relationship between the number of board members and the occurrence of accounting fraud. In resource dependency perspective, Boyd (1990) argued that sometimes the small board size is due to the scarcity of resource or competitive uncertainty. The earlier study by Pucheta-Martinez and Fuentes (2007) found a positive relationship between the audit committee size and the company to receive qualified audit opinion. Therefore, the study suggests that RMC size can influence on the probability that modified audit report will be issued by the auditor. A smaller RMC size is better for directors' monitoring functions and less probability that the auditor will issue modified audit report. This situation leads to the second hypothesis:
H2: RMC size is positively associated with the probability that the company will receive modified audit report.
One director might be a member of twice or more boards' committees. A member in the audit committee might be a member of RMC. The overlapping of directorship by directors is view as the insight to the corporate governance mechanism (Zajac & Westphal, 1996). Bettenhausen and Murnighan (1985) argued that the experience and knowledge from the other board membership can be brought to the other board committees and the focal and change can be performed. While Alderfer (1986) mentioned that the multiple board membership experience leads to the affecting board decision it is consistent with resource dependency perspective that board as resource in organization should has a pool of experiences. Most importantly and in agency view, several board membership experiences increased the board oversight control on behalf of shareholders (Mizruchi, 1992). The overlapping of members among boards' committees gives advantages to the BOD entirely because all the committees are the board committee and not related to management function (Carcello & Neal, 2000). The result of each of committees is needed each other. The poor performance of a company is caused by the less directorship member of directors (Gilson, 1990) and the argument was supported by Kaplan and Reishus (1990) that the less directorship member by directors contribute to the emergence of financial distress company. Thus, the next hypothesis is as follow:
H3: RMC overlap is negatively associated with the probability that the company will receive modified audit report.
We use the logistic regression analysis to examine the relationship between modified audit opinion and the variables proposed for the characteristics of RMC. The model used to test the hypotheses is as follows:
MA= β0 + β1 SEPRMC + β2 RMCSIZE + β3 RMCOVER + β4 PRAUREP + β5 BIG4 + ε
where :-
Variable Definition and Measurement
According to Aren et al. (2009) there are five types of audit reports, namely standard unqualified or clean audit report, unqualified with explanatory paragraph or modified wording, qualified, adverse and disclaimer audit report. For the purpose of this study, the unqualified with explanatory paragraph (modified wording), qualified (except for), adverse and disclaimer audit report are classified as modified audit opinion. If a company received modified audit report, the data is valued as '1' in the worksheet and if a company received the audit report other than modified audit report, the value of '0' is coded accordingly.
Researcher considers the existence of separate RMC if the committee has a single committee with title of 'risk management committee' without any combination with any other committees including audit committee. Any combination of task and responsibility of risk management with other committees' task are considered no existence of separate RMC (Combined RMC). For the purpose of this study, if the company has a separate RMC, it is coded as '1' and if a company has not a separate RMC, the value of '0' is coded. This criterion has been used by previous studies such as Subramaniam et al. (2009) and Yatim (2009).
RMC size is the total number of RMC's members sitting on the committee until the end of financial year. A member will be considered as a RMC's member if the appointment as member is at least six months and above. If the appointment as RMC's member is below six months or the resignation is above six months from the financial year end, he or she can not be considered as RMC's member. (see Farinha & Viana, 2009; Pucheta-Martinez & Fuentes 2007).
RMC overlaps refer to the dual or more functions of RMC's members on the different board committees. A Member of RMC might be a member of audit committee or other board committees at the same time. For a company, a member of RMC or any other board committees has become a member of other board committees such as remuneration committee and audit committee at the same time but not all the members having such situation. For the measurement purpose, researcher compares the composition of RMC with all the other board committees' composition to identify the members of RMC with dual or more functions at the same time. Then, the total numbers of RMC's members with dual or more function are divided by the total number of RMC's members. The figure is used for this study. This measurement has been applied by Carcello and Neal (2000).
Prior audit report refers to the audit report that a company has received for prior financial year. The researcher has read the independent auditor report that is located at the end of the annual report booklet. The researcher has carefully read the report starting from the first sentence until the last sentence of the report in order to identify the type of the audit report. For the measurement purpose, the researcher coded a dummy of '1' if the company received modified audit opinion for prior financial year audit and a dummy of '0' if the company received clean audit report for prior financial year audit. This measurement has been used by previous study (Pucheta-Martinez & Fuentes, 2007; Carcello & Neal, 2000).
Big 4 refer to the four largest international audit firms in the world. They are PricewaterhouseCooper, Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu, Ernst & Young and KPMG. The researcher looks at the bottom of auditor report sheet to identify the audit firm audited the company. The name of auditor and audit firm stated at that side. If the audit firm is one of the Big 4, the data is coded as '1' and if the other audit firms or not a Big 4 audited the company, the data is as '0'. More studies have used this criterion for their researches (Yatim, 2010, Kabir, Sharma, Islam, & Salat, 2011; Farinha & Viana, 2009; Pucheta-Martinez & Fuentes, 2007).
Data Collection and Sampling Procedure
The population frame for this study is all the public-listed companies excluding banking and financial institutions listed in Bursa Malaysia's website from the period of financial year ended 2004 until 2009. Based on the data gathering through the Bursa Malaysia's website, there are approximately more than 130 companies with modified audit report for the same period (2004-2009) and there are more than 200 companies which have a separate or a stand-alone RMCs disclosure for the said period (Bursa Malaysia's website, 2012; Yatim, 2009; 2010). Banking and financial institutions are omitted from the sample as the nature and regulations of these firms are significantly different from non-financial companies. The public-listed companies are chosen for this study. Public-listed companies have published the annual report that publicly available and can be accessed through the Bursa Malaysia's website.
A match sampling approach is adopted as a control procedure (see Ballesta & Garcia-Meca, 2005; Wenyao & Qin, 2007; Sekaran, 2003). Firstly, the researcher selects the companies with modified audit report for the period of study (2004-2009). Then, they matched to the control samples which have the clean audit report based on the conditions that paired companies are in the same industry, most similar in companies' size (total assets) and in the same period of financial year (Ballesta & Garcia-Meca, 2005; Wenyao & Qin, 2007). To keep reliable and independence, once a control company has been matched to the corresponding company in the test sample in particular year, it is not allow to be matched again with another company (test sample) in another year (Ballesta & Garcia-Meca, 2005). Besides, any company with never stated of whether separate or combined RMC or risk management matters, it is dismissed as the subject in the sample's list. Lastly, in this study, there are 150 samples with modified audit opinion are gathered and are matched with 150 samples with clean audit opinion. Therefore, the total number of samples in this study is 300 samples.
Analysis of Result and Discussion
Descriptive Statistics for Samples
Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics result for all the companies, modified audit opinion companies and clean audit opinion companies together with the result of t-test. For variable of Separate RMC (SEPRMC), the result shows an average of 13 per cent from the samples have the separate RMC for all companies but in modified audit opinion companies, the result shows only 6 per cent of the samples have separate RMC while for clean audit opinion companies the result shows an average of 20 per cent of the samples have the separate RMC. As expected earlier, the percentage of companies with separate RMC is larger in clean audit opinion companies due to the characteristic of this separate RMC and its function. For the result of Independent t-test, it shows statistically significant for variable of Separate RMC with level of p < 0.01. It is means that there is a significant difference in average for this variable between two different sets of samples (modified and clean audit opinion companies).
Variable Definition:
For RMC Size (RMCSIZE), the result for three categories of companies (all, modified and clean companies) reveals quite similar with average three members. However, in the modified audit opinion companies, two members are recorded in minimum and maximum with seven members of RMC. It is different in clean audit opinion companies, the result states between three and six RMC members. The difference result indicates that in modified audit opinion companies sometimes have very small members of RMC and maximum can be with quite high. Yet, in t-test, the result reveals statistically insignificant for variable of RMC Size.
The result of descriptive analysis also reports for the variable of RMC Overlapping (RMCOVER). All the groups of samples including all companies have minimum with zero per cent of RMC members have overlapping status or do not hold some other board committee members in the same company. While 100 per cent in maximum for the RMC members with overlapping status for all the categories of samples. In average, the modified audit opinion companies recorded with 77 per cent of RMC members with overlapping status and only 72 per cent recorded in group sample of clean audit opinion companies. This difference is statistically significant at weak level (p < 0.1) as showed in the result of t-test.
For the control variable of Prior Audit Report (PRAUREP), the group of all companies recorded 34 per cent in average for the companies received modified audit report for prior year. The descriptive analysis also shows a larger value for the modified audit opinion companies with average of 67 per cent of the samples have received modified audit report for prior year whereas only 0.7 per cent of samples have experienced the said situation for the group of clean audit opinion companies. The huge difference is already expected by the researcher and the result of t-test also reveals the statistically significant at strong level (p < 0.01) for this difference of mean.
Lastly, for Big4 (BIG4), the result of mean for the sample of modified audit opinion companies is at 47 percent whereas for the sample of clean audit opinion companies is at 41 per cent which mean that 41 per cent of the companies in clean audit opinion companies audited by Big 4 audit firms. However, the mean difference for this variable is not statistically
(Pearson Correlation Matrix) for Variables
Table 2 reports the result of correlation among the variables. The correlations are quite low, generally below 0.3 except for a pair of Modified Audit Opinion (MA) and Prior Audit Report (PRAUREP) which are correlated at 70 per cent with significant at level of 0.01. It is means that MA and PRAUREP have strong relationship with assumption of that PRAUREP has major effect on MA. Besides, Separate RMC also has an effect on MA with correlation by 21 per cent and it is significant at 0.01 levels. The other variables that correlated are between Separate RMC and RMC Size, Separate RMC and PRAUREP, RMC Size and RMC Overlap, RMC Size and Big4. The result also reveals that there is no higher correlation with more than 0.85 which means no multicolinearity problem exist in the samples.
Logistic Regression Analysis
Table 3 reports the logistic regression result. The model consists of independent variables (characteristics of RMC) and control variables with Modified Audit Opinion as dependent variable. The result reports the level of correct classification (the percentage of correct predictions) at 83 per cent while Cox & Snell R Square and Nagelkerke R Square report at 49 per cent and 66 per cent respectively. The Chi-square's test reports at 203.123 and the model is significant at level of 0.00 (p < 0.01). All the independent variables (characteristics of RMC) are statistically significant while for the control variables, only the variable of PRAUREP is significant. All the variables are significant at expected direction except for variable of RMCOVER which is significant at positive direction.
SEPRMC = 1, if the existence of separate RMC, otherwise 0
For hypothesis of Separate RMC (SEPRMC), it is statistically significant at level of 5 per cent and following the proposed direction with negative sign. For coefficient, SEPRMC reports at more than 200 per cent and it means that if a company has separate RMC, the probability of the company wills not to receive modified audit opinion is at 200 per cent. The examples of companies that have separate RMC are Opcom Holdings Berhad, Bolton Berhad and Genetec Technology Berhad. The result supported the argument by Subramaniam et al. (2009) that the existence of separate RMC with focusing on the risk profile is also able to increase the quality of internal monitoring and quality of financial reporting in relation to risk management. Consequently, the likelihood of the company to receive modified audit report particularly for risk issues is less. Meanwhile, Harrison (1987) reported that RMC is seen to specifically enhance the accountability of the board as it provides an independent oversight of various board activities especially on the risk issues. Due to the contribution of the RMC, Fields and Keys (2003) argued that RMC has gained popularity as an important oversight committee even though most of the countries in the world are still not to reserve as mandatory requirement to form the separate RMC in a company. The result is supported the proposition of first hypothesis (SEPRMC) that the existence of separate RMC will influence the company not to receive modified audit report. This result is also consistent with the requirement under MCCG 2007 and 2012 which clearly stated that the board has principal responsibility on the risk process including the identification of principal risk until the implementation of appropriateness system to manage those risks. Consequently, the formation of separate RMC as a board committee is able to enhance the effectiveness of risk oversight function by BOD as reported in the result of this study which the existence of separate RMC give impact on the company not to receive modified audit opinion.
For second hypothesis (RMCSIZE), the result also shows a statistically significant at level of 10 per cent with positive direction as expected earlier. For coefficient, the result present at 69 per cent with indication that if a company with higher number of RMC size, the probability it will receive modified audit opinion is at 69 per cent. The result is consistent with the earlier study by Beasley (1996) which found a positive relationship between the number of board members and the occurrence of accounting fraud. However, the result is inconsistent with the finding study done by Xie et al. (2003) that there is a negative relationship between board sizes and earning management activities. While Wenyao and Qin (2007) found insignificant relationship between board size and audit opinion. A big size of committee cause some members ignore their responsibility and assume the other members will look for the duty and responsibility. As a conclusion for this hypothesis, the size of RMC has influence on modified audit opinion.
Besides, there is also a significant (p < 0.05) positive association between RMC Overlapping (proxy by RMCOVER) and modified audit opinion received by the company. The statistical result shows more than 170 per cent for beta coefficient for this variable meaning that if there are RMC members with overlapping status, more than 170 per cent of the company will receive modified audit opinion. However, the expected sign is negative association between RMC overlapping and modified audit opinion. Some reasons would explain the situation and even though the experience and knowledge from the other board membership can be brought to the other board committees and the improvement can be performed as reported by Bettenhausen and Murnighan (1985) but the burden of tasks should be borne by the RMC members. They might not be able to perform well at a board committee (RMC) even they have successful at the other board committees. They also have to spend a lot of time to the several board committees and the concentration on a RMC that focus on risk profiles is at a minimum of time. The other reason might be due to the knowledge gained through multiple board membership that lead to the board oversight control (Mizruchi, 1992) and they have more aware on the risk issues. The highest awareness on risk issues probably gives highest attention by auditor before the modified audit opinion will be issued. As a conclusion, the result provides support to this hypothesis
For control variable, Prior Audit Report (proxy by PRAUREP) is statistically significant (p < 0.01) and with a positive sign as proposed earlier. For coefficient, it is recorded more than 600 per cent and it indicates if a company got modified audit report at prior year, it is 600 per cent likelihood of the company will receive modified audit report in current year. The result is consistent with some previous researches as performed by Pucheta-Martinez and Feuntes (2007) and Mutchler, Hopwood and McKeown (1997). They found that modified audit opinion that has been received at prior year has higher potential to be received at the same in current year. For companies those received modified audit opinion at prior year, they might not be able to solve the issues at current year. Hence, they have probability to receive the same modified audit opinion at current year. This situation leads to the issuance of same modified audit opinion by the auditor which the old issues are concerned by them. As conclusion from this result, Prior Audit Report has a strong association with modified audit opinion that issued by the auditor.
For Big 4 (BIG4), the result states statistically insignificant and there is no relationship between Big 4 audit firms and modified audit opinion. The finding indicates that Big 4 audit firms have no influence on the issuance of modified audit opinion by the auditor. This situation is consistent with study done by Farinha and Viana (2009) that Big 4 audit firms have no significant relationship with modified opinion issued by the auditor.
Conclusion and Limitations
The result from the statistical analysis has shown some significant findings. Firstly, the result documented that the existence of separate risk management committee (RMC) affects the issuance of modified audit opinion by the auditors. The finding contributes to the knowledge and literature that the existence of separate RMC has implication on modified audit opinion specifically for Malaysian environment. The existence of separate RMC probably will reduce the issuance of modified audit opinion. Consequently, the formation of separate RMC as a board committee is able to enhance the effectiveness of risk oversight function by BOD as reported in the result of this study which the existence of separate RMC give impact on the company not to receive modified audit opinion. The regulators and policy makers have to consider for this situation. The formation of separate RMC should be mandatory in future as to perform the risk oversight function at board level.
Secondly, the size of RMC probably affects the issuance of modified audit opinion. The big size of RMC probably the issuance of modified audit opinion is high. The company and regulators have the choice whether to form the big or small RMC since this board committee has influence on modified audit opinion.
The regulators and policy-makers should also be aware on the overlapping status of board members. They have to look at the number of board committees sited by the board members. Some board members sited for more than two or three board committees in the same company at the same time. They also have to spend a lot of time to the several board committees and the concentration on RMC that focus on risk profiles is at a minimum of time. The result of this study shows the higher status of board overlapping will probably higher in acceptance of modified opinion.
Lastly, the acceptance of modified audit opinion by a company at prior accounting year has effect on the acceptance of same modified opinion at current year. For companies those received modified audit opinion at prior year, they might not be able to solve the issues at current year. Hence, they have probability to receive the same modified audit opinion at current year.
This study is like as the other studies which has the limitations. This study used the secondary data as the samples which the company's annual reports are used as the main source. May be in the future, the researcher can use the different method in data collection such as interview with auditors and risk officers. Questionnaires also can be used by the researcher in order to collect the primary data. These type of data collection methods are important to the researcher to know some others implicit information that rose up by the auditors or other respondents. The formation of RMC is till voluntary and not mandatory in most countries in the world. The study for the efficiency of this board committee is limited and scant. Future study should be done on its efficiency in term of other indication like the company market share, profit and investment opportunity. The study should also examine the roles played by this board committee for said indication besides the characteristics of RMC. In term of research framework, this study used modified audit opinion as the dependent variable. May be the other researchers will use qualified audit opinion or going-concern opinion as the dependent variable in the framework. The scope is different for qualified or going-concern audit opinion compared to modified audit opinion. The treatment for each type of auditor report is different and some different results would be produced if different type of auditor report is used as dependent variable in the study.
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Research-Paperrisk management committee; risk; modified audit opinion; MalaysiaSocial ScienceSocial Studies
Delineation of watershed in Amravati tehsil using geomorphological investigations through Remote Sensing and GIS techniques
Khadri S.F.R*, Sachin Thakare and Pooja Surkar
In this study an attempt has been made to understand various geomorphological factors controlling the various landforms which in turn helpful in the delineation of watershed in Amravati tehsil through remote sensing and GIS techniques. The study area exposes part of Pedhi River and Kholad River which is a part of Wardha Watershed. The present investigations have helped to understand the groundwater potential as well as nature of the watershed with the help of detailed geomorphological investigations. Satellite remote sensing data as well as topographic data has been widely utilised in this study to identify the watershed and groundwater potential zones with the help of latest available techniques.
The results of the present study demonstrate the presence of various hydro geomorphological zones showing their groundwater potentialities which vary from excellent to poor. The study area covering Pedhi watershed shows excellent to good ground water quality whereas the Kholad and Kapasi watersheds show moderate to poor ground water quality. Overall, the present study demonstrates the useful ness of remote sensing and GIS techniques in the delineation of potential aquifers in the region which plays a major role in the sustainable management of water resources in the Amravati region.
Key Words: Remote Sensing, GIS, Geomorphology, Watershed, Satellite, Topography.
A watershed can be defined as the area of land that drains to a particular point along a stream. Each stream has its own watershed. Topography is the key element affecting this area of land. The boundary of a watershed is defined by the highest elevations surrounding the stream. A drop of water falling outside of the boundary will drain to another watershed (Sewickley Creek Watershed Conservation Plan, 2003). From a planning standpoint, watershed is considered the most ideal unit for analysis and management of natural resources. For optimal use of environmental resources in a region, integrated watershed development approach is still viewed by many to be the most ideal as it helps in maintaining the ecological basis of resources utilization (Sahai 1988). Geomorphology is defined as the science of landforms with an emphasis on their origin, evolution, form, and distribution across the physical landscape. The science that deals with surface features of the earth, their forms, nature, their origin and development is termed as geomorphology. DAVIS (1912) first projected the concept of geomorphic cycle. According to bauling (1950), the role of factors that are important the geomorphology are lithology, stratigraphy, climatic variation and the regional basis for the development of landforms. The use of remote sensing technology for Geomorphological studies has definitely increased its Importance due to the establishment of its direct relationship with allied disciplines, such as geology, soils, vegetation/Land use & hydrology.
Geomorphological mapping involves the identification and characterization of various landforms and structural features. The various landforms can influence a conservation area in many ways like slope gradient, elevation and aspect, affect the quantity of solar energy, water, nutrients and other materials, while the slope affect the flow of materials. Slope is also the deciding factors of intensity of disturbance, such as fire and wind, which are strongly influenced by the pressure of vegetation (Swanson et al 1988).
Study Area:
Amravati Tehsil basically part of Amravati city and the villages around it lying between 220 45" N to 210 20" N and 770 32" E to 780 02" E. Amravati is District place and major city in Vidharbha region. Amravati names comes from Hindu goddess "Ambadevi", in Mahabharata epic Amravati is a capital of Vidarbha Naresh, and it is a part of Varhad (Berar).
Amravati Tehsil is bordered with Achalpur tehsil as well as Murtizapur Tehsil in North direction and Chandur Bazar Tehsil touches the boundary in east and west direction. Wardha River is naturally separate Amravati District from Wardha District. Wardha River is a major River of Vidarbha region which is join Painganga River in the boundary of Marathwada. Pohra Malkhed is protected forest area in Amravati. The average elevation is 543m from MSL.
Climate of Amravati Tehsil is hot and dry, April to June Month having extremely heat and temperature goes to 450 C as well as winter season temp goes down 110 C which shows temperature variation, Rainy season start from end of June Month to September in an average.
Soil:
There are three main types of soil present in Amravati Tehsil which is-
Deep Black Soil b) Medium Black Soil c) Shallow black Soil
Crop pattern:
Amravati Tehsil is having different types of Crop Pattern such as Cotton, Sorghum (Jawar), Green Gram (Moong), Soybean etc. but Amravati tehsil as well as whole District is famous for Orange (Citrus Spp.)
Rail/Road:
In Amravati tehsil Badnera is Major Railway Station of Central Railway. National Highway 6 is passed through the Amravati Tehsil.Fig.1 shows the location of Amravati Tehsil.
Fig. 1 Location Map of Study Area
Materials and Method:
Data Used
Toposheet Approved by Survey of India Having 1:50000 scale
Satellite Imagery LISS data having 23.5m resolution
ERDAS Imagine Remote sensing Software
ARC GIS Software
Fig.2: Flowchart showing the methodology used for Watershed
Software used:
Arc GIS 10: This software has been developed by ESRI Inc. it is one of the leading software for desktop GIS and mapping. Arc GIS gives the power to visualize, explore, query, and analyze data geographically. In this project Arc GIS has been used to display raster map, digitizing different features and querying the data for finding the attributes for any feature on map. Arc GIS Spatial Analyst is a tool which helps in analysis and understanding of spatial relationships in our data. Reclassify tool has been used to reclassify different data and raster calculator has been used for overlay analysis and calculation of final results.
Generation of contour map: Contours are polyline that connect points of equal value of elevation. The elevation points were prepared from toposheets on a scale of 1:50000 collected from Survey of India (SOI). The collected toposheets were scanned and registered with tic points and rectified. Further, the rectified maps were projected. All individual projected maps were finally merged as a single layer. The contours were digitized with an interval of 10m. The contour attribute table contains an elevation attribute for each contour polylines. The contour map was prepared using Arc Map of Arc GIS 10. Contour map is a useful surface representation because they enable to simultaneously visualize flat and steep areas, ridges, valleys in the study area.
Fig. 3: Contour Map of Amravati Tehsil
Generation of digital elevation model (DEM): A DEM is a raster representation of a continuous surface, usually referring to the surface of the earth. The DEM is used to refer specifically to a regular grid of spot heights. It is the simplest and most common form of digital representation of topography. The Digital Elevation model for the study area was generated from the Tin.
Fig. 4: Digital Elevation Model of Amravati Tehsil
Generation of slope map: The Slope function in Arc GIS 10 calculates the maximum rate of change between each cell and its neighbors. Every cell in the output raster has a slope value. The lower the slope value indicates the terrain is flatter and the higher the slope value, the steeper the terrain. The output slope raster was calculated in both percent of slope and degree of slope. Slope map was prepared from the DEM.
Fig. 5: Slope Map of Amravati Tehsil
Generation of watershed: Watershed of the study area was demarcated using the software Arc GIS. Drainage pattern was taken as the input data.
Fig. 6: Drainage Map of Amravati Tehsil
Fig. 7: Water body of Amravati Tehsil
Fig. 8: Watershed of Amravati Tehsil
Ground Potential zones map: Ground Water Potential Zones map of Amravati Tehsil Shown in fig. 9 having four different types of zone, they are Excellent, Good, Moderate and Poor. The Ground Water Potential Zone of Study area generated with the help of drainages, geomorphology and land use land cover with integration of Remote Sensing and GIS technique as well as Geology of that area plays an important role. Geomorphology of the study area having alluvial plain, Denudation Hills and Platues. During weighed overlay analysis, the ranking has been given for each individual parameter of each thematic map and weights of 25%, 35%, 30% and 10% were assigned according to their influence for Soil, Hydro-geomorphology, Land use/Land cover, and Slope themes respectively and obtained the ground water potential zones in terms of Excellent, Good, Moderate and Poor zones in the form of a GIS map.
Fig. 9: Ground Water Potential Zone of Amravati Tehsil
Geomorphology Map: Geomorphology as a science developed much later than geology although several aspects of geomorphology are embedded in geological processes. Geomorphology deals with the genesis of relief forms of the surface of the earth's crust. Geomorphological mapping and necessary supporting data are crucial to developing countries that are usually under severe environmental and demographic strains. Approaches and methods to map the variability of natural resources are important tools to properly guide spatial planning. In this paper a comprehensive and flexible new geomorphological combination legend that expands the possibilities of current geomorphological mapping concepts. The piece-by-piece legend forms a "geomorphological alphabet" that offers a high diversity of geomorphological information and a possibility for numerous combinations of information. This results in a scientific map that is rich in data and which is more informative than most previous maps but is based on a simple legend. The system is developed to also be used as a basis for applications in GIS.
10: Geomorphological Map of Amravati Tehsil
Five major watersheds were identified in the area. The area occupied by the largest watershed is 167 Sq.km and it falls under the Sub-watershed category which covers around 66.01 % of the area under study, the second watershed has an area of 37 sq km and this also falls in the sub-watershed category and covers around 14.62 % of the study area, the third watershed has an area of 35 Sq.km and falls in the category of Micro-watershed occupying about 13.83 % of the study area. There are two small watersheds having an area of 5 Sq. Km. and 9 Sq. Km respectively falling in the category of Mini-watershed and covers around 4% of the study area
DEM is the 3-D presentation of the surface derived by the interpolation of contour map. It represents x, y and z-axes in pixel size of the order 23.5 meters. The altitude or z axis ranges from 291 meters to 466 meters above sea level
Digital slope was derived from DEM on pixel size of order 23.5 meters
Ground water potential zones were identified on the basis of slope of the area. Five classes i.e. very good, good, moderate, poor, very poor, were identified. Most of the area comes under very good and good ground water potential zones. The area which has 1-3% slope has very good ground water potential due to nearly flat terrain, area having 3-5% slope has good ground water potential due to slightly undulating topography and some run-off, area with 5-10% slope has moderate ground water potential because these areas have relatively steep slope leading to high run-off, areas with 10-15% and 15-35% slope has poor ground water potential due to steep slope and higher run-off
Geomorphology:
Geomorphology as a science developed much later than geology although several aspects of geomorphology are embedded in geological processes. Geomorphology deals with the genesis of relief forms of the surface of the earth's crust. Certain Natural Processes are responsible for the forms of the surface of the earth. The earth's surface forms are primarily due to hypo gene or endogenous processes, which include diastrophism, leading to geologic structure, tectonic activity and volcanism leading to volcanic landforms.
Alluvial Plain:
An alluvial plain is a relatively flat landform and created by the deposition of highlands eroded due to weathering and water flow in study area. The sediment from the hills is transported to the lower plain over a long period of time. It identified on the imageries dark reddish moderate to fine texture due to agriculture activities. Alluvial deposits of the area constitute gravel, sand, silt or clay sized unconsolidated material. The area under alluvial plain cover in geomorphological map is 246 sq km.
Denudational Hills
Denudetional hills are the massive hills with resistant rock bodies that are formed due to differential erosional and weathering processes. These hills are composed of Vindhyan sediments which are fractured, jointed having no soil cover moderate to steep slope. On the satellite image, these landforms were identified by light or dark brownish with mix green color due to thick forest cover. The area under Denudetional hills cover in geomorphological map is 32 sq km.
Structural Hills
Structural hills are representing the geologic structures such as- bedding, joint, lineaments etc. in the study area. They are located in the eastern parts of the study area having greenish and reddish tone with rough texture on the satellite image. The area under structural hills cover in geomorphological map is 3 sq km.
A flood plain is an area of land that is prone to flooding. People realize it is prone to flooding because it has flooded in the past due to a river or stream overflowing its banks. A flood plain usually is a flat area with areas of higher elevation on both sides. The area under flood plain cover in geomorphological map is 1 sq km.
Habitation Mask:
A habitation Mask is an area of land that is occupied by human being. It is human settlement area. It is defined as an area of human habitation developed due to non-agricultural use and that which has a cover of buildings, transport, communication utilities in association with water, vegetation and vacant lands. The area under Habitation Mask cover in geomorphological map is 118 sq km.
Plateau:
A plateau is an elevated land. It is a flat topped table standing above the surrounding area. A plateau may have one or more sides with steep slopes. The area under plateau cover in geomorphological map is 458 sq km.
Water Body:
It is an area of impounded water, areal in extent and often with a regulated flow of water. It includes man-made reservoirs/lakes/tank/canals, besides natural lakes, rivers/streams and creeks. The area under water body cover in geomorphological map is 32 sq km.
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GeomorphologyGISRemote SensingResearch-PaperSatelliteSocial StudiesTopography.Watershed