Woodbury's first liquor store got off to a rousing start Friday morning with owner Thomas Mears hustling to take care of his customers.
"They were lined up at the door when we opened at 9 o'clock," said Mears.
There was a little good-natured jostling in the line when Bootlegger's Liquor opened for its first day of business.
"Our first customer bought a bottle of Short Mountain Moonshine," he said.
Located on McCrary Street (Highway 53), the store was busy all week getting ready for the opening.
"We were here until 3 a.m. Friday getting everything in place," Mears said.
Stocking the store came at a fast pace with truck after truck of wholesalers moving in their colorful bottles. That was a contrast to actually getting Woodbury's first liquor license.
"That was a very slow process," Mears said with the city feeling its way into establishing the various codes necessary to operate a liquor store. "We had to jump through a lot of hoops."
"We're glad to be open," he grinned.
Helping Mears run the store is his wife Ellen, who was busy learning the secrets of the store's new cash registers while greeting customers.
Employees were still entering price information into the computerized cash registers late Friday morning and placing prices on each item for sale in the store.
"We're asking customers to be patient and all of them are cooperating with a smile," he said.
Many of the customers have questions about the store.
They ask why beer is not for sale. Similar questions are asked about cigarettes, soft drinks and etcetera.
One customer, who used to live in Michigan, pointed out liquor was available even at drug stores like CVC.
In Tennessee, state law requires liquor stores to sell only alcohol. Mixers aren't even available unless they are packaged with a bottle of liquor. In other states, liquor is only available at state-run ABC stores.


Ofgem is expected to announce a significant increase to its price cap on default tariffs on Thursday (7 February).
A number of industry analysts predict the price cap, which came into effect on 1 January 2019, will rise by around £100 from the current level of £1,137.
Head of regulation at Uswitch, Richard Neudegg, said: "The price cap model swiftly passes through changes in market costs, reducing the possibility of suppliers absorbing at least some of them to avoid or delay customer price rises.
The new cap will come into force in April and will be reviewed again in October this year.
Speaking at Ofgem's Future of Energy Conference in January, chief executive Dermot Nolan cited rising wholesale costs as the reason behind a potential rise.
In response to the news of a potential rise shadow energy minister Alan Whitehead expressed his concern.
He said: "If true then Ofgem is rapidly rising prices only a month after the cap first came in, which after the government's two years of dither and delay in implementing this cap means further costs for energy customers.
"Wholesale price rises peaked before Christmas so we would question the logic of a significant price rise so soon after the initial cap was set.
British Gas owner Centrica revealed in December that it is seeking a judicial review against the regulator over how it calculated wholesale costs when it set the level of the incoming energy price cap.
Centrica insisted it does not intend to delay the implementation of the cap with its actions but stressed it does not believe Ofgem has calculated the price cap fairly.
The news of the anticipated rise has also prompted concern by some in the industry.
Sally Jaques, head of energy at the auto-switching service Weflip, said: "It will be ironic if, three months after being introduced, the government's own price cap unintentionally delivers one of the single biggest energy price increases the market has seen for years.
"This is the first test for the new price cap and more importantly for providers.
"Before the cap was introduced, the big six competed on price, with their standard variable tariffs varying by around £50 to £100 a year.
Yet Gillian Guy, chief executive of Citizens Advice, believes suppliers would still increase their prices without the cap and would do so from a higher starting point.
She said: "While any increase in energy bills will be unwelcome news for households, the cap is expected to increase because the cost of doing business is going up for energy suppliers.
"If the cap was not in place, suppliers would still likely be increasing their prices, but would be doing so from a higher starting point.
"The cap means that people are paying a fairer price now, and will continue to pay a fairer price even if the level of the cap rises.
Similarly the Department of Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy (BEIS) believes the cap will help protect customers.
A spokesperson said: "Customers will always be better off under the cap, protecting 11 million households from poor value standard variable and default tariffs.


text:
#undef _FORTIFY_SOURCE

#include <errno.h>
#include <fcntl.h>
#include <stdarg.h>
#include <sys/resource.h>
#include <sys/types.h>
#include <sys/uio.h>
#include <sys/vfs.h>
#include <unistd.h>

#include "private/bionic_fdtrack.h"

#if defined(__LP64__)
#error This code is only needed on 32-bit systems!
#endif

// System calls we need.
extern "C" int __llseek(int, unsigned long, unsigned long, off64_t*, int);
extern "C" int __preadv64(int, const struct iovec*, int, long, long);
extern "C" int __pwritev64(int, const struct iovec*, int, long, long);

// For lseek64 we need to use the llseek system call which splits the off64_t in two and
// returns the off64_t result via a pointer because 32-bit kernels can't return 64-bit results.
off64_t lseek64(int fd, off64_t off, int whence) {
  off64_t result;
  unsigned long off_hi = static_cast<unsigned long>(off >> 32);
  unsigned long off_lo = static_cast<unsigned long>(off);
  if (__llseek(fd, off_hi, off_lo, &result, whence) < 0) {
    return -1;
  }
  return result;
}

// There is no pread for 32-bit off_t, so we need to widen and call pread64.
ssize_t pread(int fd, void* buf, size_t byte_count, off_t offset) {
  return pread64(fd, buf, byte_count, static_cast<off64_t>(offset));
}

// There is no pwrite for 32-bit off_t, so we need to widen and call pwrite64.
ssize_t pwrite(int fd, const void* buf, size_t byte_count, off_t offset) {
  return pwrite64(fd, buf, byte_count, static_cast<off64_t>(offset));
}

// On LP32, there is no off_t preadv/pwritev, and even the 64-bit preadv/pwritev
// don't use off64_t (see SYSCALLS.TXT for more). Here, this means that we need
// to implement all four functions because the two system calls don't match any
// of the userspace functions. Unlike llseek, the pair is split lo-hi, not hi-lo.
ssize_t preadv(int fd, const struct iovec* ios, int count, off_t offset) {
  return preadv64(fd, ios, count, offset);
}
ssize_t preadv64(int fd, const struct iovec* ios, int count, off64_t offset) {
  return __preadv64(fd, ios, count, offset, offset >> 32);
}
ssize_t pwritev(int fd, const struct iovec* ios, int count, off_t offset) {
  return pwritev64(fd, ios, count, offset);
}
ssize_t pwritev64(int fd, const struct iovec* ios, int count, off64_t offset) {
  return __pwritev64(fd, ios, count, offset, offset >> 32);
}

// There is no fallocate for 32-bit off_t, so we need to widen and call fallocate64.
int fallocate(int fd, int mode, off_t offset, off_t length) {
  return fallocate64(fd, mode, static_cast<off64_t>(offset), static_cast<off64_t>(length));
}

// There is no getrlimit64 system call, so we need to use prlimit64.
int getrlimit64(int resource, rlimit64* limits64) {
  return prlimit64(0, resource, nullptr, limits64);
}

// There is no setrlimit64 system call, so we need to use prlimit64.
int setrlimit64(int resource, const rlimit64* limits64) {
  return prlimit64(0, resource, limits64, nullptr);
}

// There is no prlimit system call, so we need to use prlimit64.
int prlimit(pid_t pid, int resource, const rlimit* n32, rlimit* o32) {
  rlimit64 n64;
  if (n32 != nullptr) {
    n64.rlim_cur = (n32->rlim_cur == RLIM_INFINITY) ? RLIM64_INFINITY : n32->rlim_cur;
    n64.rlim_max = (n32->rlim_max == RLIM_INFINITY) ? RLIM64_INFINITY : n32->rlim_max;
  }

  rlimit64 o64;
  int result = prlimit64(pid, resource,
                         (n32 != nullptr) ? &n64 : nullptr,
                         (o32 != nullptr) ? &o64 : nullptr);
  if (result != -1 && o32 != nullptr) {
    o32->rlim_cur = (o64.rlim_cur == RLIM64_INFINITY) ? RLIM_INFINITY : o64.rlim_cur;
    o32->rlim_max = (o64.rlim_max == RLIM64_INFINITY) ? RLIM_INFINITY : o64.rlim_max;
  }
  return result;
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


Earlier this year, Heath Schuler decided that masquerading as a conservative Democrat in the era of Obama and Pelosi had become too cumbersome, and summarily announced his retirement. This western North Carolina district has become even more Republican after redistricting, providing us with an easy pickup opportunity. This is the sort of seat that we can easily fill with a conservative without having to battle an incumbent Republican. Our choice is Mark Meadows.
A strong comprehensive conservative, Mark was described to us by someone who knows this race as "tea party inside the Republican Party years before the tea party existed." That's a strong endorsement of someone who has fought for principle inside a party structure, one of the hardest things to do. For many years, we have stressed the importance of conservative involvement in the precinct and county levels of the Republican Party. Mark Meadows served as a textbook example of how to get it done. He started off attending precinct meetings in a small county, easily becoming chairman after bringing in a few likeminded friends. Eventually he was able to become county chairman and help push the state party platform to the right, even though he was from an obscure part of the state.
Mark is an outspoken supporter of life and marriage who is opposed to TARP and government bailouts. A successful businessman, Mark's story is the quintessential American one as he started a restaurant with a small line of credit and made it a success, building on that success in the following years. As such, he understands that a true free-market society must work unencumbered by government mandates, but also without government subsidies. He is also committed to restoring power to state and local governments on issues such as transportation and infrastructure. We need more small businessmen and women who understand what it takes to make businesses successful; who have dealt with the onerous burdens of an overreaching government and all the burdens this presents entrepreneurs in our country today.
On top of Mark's solid understanding of the free market, he is also intrepid on social issues. In an election when most candidates are shying away from social issues, Meadows is not ashamed to run as an unabashed social conservative. While many Republicans have retreated in the face of the left's auspicious assault on our traditional values, Mark wants to go to Washington and ensure that our party is standing firm. As a leader in North Carolina's effort to preserve marriage, Meadows wants to fight in Congress for a legislative solution to Obama's assault on DOMA.
The primary will be held on May 8 and early voting begins April 19. Although Meadows appears to be ahead at the moment, he must win 40% in this crowded field to avoid a runoff. Let's help him seal the deal and avoid a runoff.


With 2018 now in full gear, I wanted to take time to discuss some emerging challenges IT infrastructure is now facing as the demands around computing evolve. Today's data center is like a well-running power plant; it is able to meet its specified needs during peak data flow - that is, until it isn't. When factors, such as power, increase demand - like once everyone's air conditioner is powered on during a heatwave - blackouts roll over a region.
But in the mega-data space of data center infrastructure, peak demand is not enough. With Internet of Things (IoT) deployments and other data-heavy applications, that peak is a moving target, and billions in capital are on the line. Blackouts are not an option if a company aims to survive in this highly demanding, and always "on," sector.
So, how does the industry respond as consumer, business, academic, and industrial appetites for data are compounded by the second and as workloads continue to increase into a future that is not yet quantified?
Consider this information: humans generate hundreds of petabytes of data per year through personal activity. Today's data center infrastructure can handle the demand for people's digital lives for now with the storage, agility, and performance capabilities that the cloud offers.
In an increasingly connected world, however, limitations to the cloud model are becoming clearer. These most immediately include the practicality of moving the increasingly enormous data volumes generated by connected devices communicating with each other in the field. The growing scale at which data must be interpreted and acted on in real-time, with computers communicating directly without human intervention, demands that it be managed and analyzed in facilities closer to where it is being generated. Migrating data from IoT devices located throughout the physical environment to traditional, centrally located cloud facilities creates latency issues that slow computing activities. In addition, maintaining static infrastructure to effectively answer the multivalent, inconsistent data flows is cost-prohibitive, if not impossible for any organization outside the largest ISPs.
To further this point, innovation continues to introduce such disruptive amounts of data into the ecosystem that many of today's most cutting-edge architectures can quickly become overwhelmed. The upcoming revolution of self-driving cars is an example of this eventuality, generating mountains of image, telemetry, and diagnostic data. Beyond this, the pace of growth of Industrial IoT will create a "new normal" - generating hundreds of zetabytes per year, several orders of magnitude more than is generated by personal activity. This new normal for handling "peak needs" around zetabyte data management and response will be sooner than expected: in 3-5 years, not 10.
Infrastructure allocation will evolve to triage the management of data on device, at the edge, and in the cloud according to quality of service requirements. Composable Infrastructure is the most flexible and responsive solution to this coming revolution in the industry of data. Composable can respond to workload according to demand, re-prioritizing physical access to data. It can optimize the edge to meet peak demand without being overbuilt, allowing IT administrators to deploy assets where they are needed. Resources can be automated to accommodate data spikes when they occur then directed toward other applications when not in use. In addition, with composable GPU -- a Liqid breakthrough with far-reaching use cases -- the most data-intensive applications using artificial intelligence to interpret these data can now utilize this once-static data center element at scale to accelerate applications in deep learning, analytics, and engineering.
Follow us here, on Twitter and LinkedIn throughout 2018 to keep up with the evolution of infrastructure and how Liqid Composable is delivering the architecture for the Age of Artificial Intelligence.
Read more about the composable future of data center infrastructure.
The Liqid website has been totally revamped to provide tons more information on the Liqid approach to composable, including new product information, news, event, and updates.
We'll be discussing more GTC and how Liqid bridges important gaps and opens new doors in the GPU realm as the date for that draws closer.
Speak with one of our sales experts to learn more about how we aim to deliver complete composability. For other inquiries, you can drop us a line. We'll get back to you as soon as possible.
Liqid's innovative composable hardware and software platform allows users to manage, scale out, and configure physical bare-metal server systems in seconds.
© 2018 Liqid, Inc. All Rights Reserved.


text:
Audiotapes (6)
Electronic records (5)
Videotapes (5)
Black-and-white photographs (4)
Digital versatile discs (3)
Phonograph records (3)
Photographic prints (3)
Exhibition catalogs (2)
Museum exhibits (6)
Museum directors (3)
Fund raising (2)
Popular music (2)
Traveling exhibitions (2)
African American civil rights workers. (1)
African American entertainers (1)
African American musicians (1)
African American preaching. (1)
African American student movements. (1)
Seeger, Pete (4)
Nevelson, Louise (3)
Federal Art Project (2)
Feininger, Lyonel (2)
Folkways Records (2)
Goodnough, Robert, 1917- (2)
Hartigan, Grace (2)
Pereira, I. Rice (Irene Rice) (2)
Picasso, Pablo (2)
Reinhardt, Ad (2)
Smith College (2)
Von Wicht, John (2)
A.I.R. Gallery (New York, N.Y.) (1)
ACA Galleries (1)
Abernathy, Ralph (1)
Albers, Anni (1)
Albers, Josef (1)
Albert, Calvin, 1918- (1)
Altman, Harold, 1924- (1)
American Artists' Congress (1)
American Association for the Advancement of Science (1)
American Council of Learned Societies (1)
American Federation of Arts (1)
American Federation of Teachers (1)
Mebêngôkre (Kayapó/Cayapo) (1)
Seminole (1)
Amazon River Region (1)
Breeze Hill (Harrisburg, Pennsylvania) (1)
Archives of American Art (5)
Query: The Star-Spangled Banner: The Making of an American Icon (Monograph : 2008)
Exhibition and Program Records
13.38 cu. ft. (12 record storage boxes) (2 16x20 boxes)
This accession consists of records documenting the exhibition and program coordinating activities of the Office of Curatorial Affairs, primarily in regard to the preservation of the Star-Spangled Banner and the planning, development, and production of the exhibition "The Star-Spangled Banner: The Flag that Inspired the National Anthem" at the National …
in Accession 16-322 for The Star-Spangled Banner: The Making of an American Icon (Monograph : 2008)
Martin H. Bush papers
Bush, Martin H.
AAA.bushmart
The papers of Martin H. Bush measure 5.1 linear feet and 0.705 GB and date from 1948-2012, with the bulk of the material dating from 1970-2008. The collection documents Bush's career as an art historian, educator, consultant, and gallery director through biographical material, correspondence, interviews, subject files, a scrapbook, and printed and digital material. There is an unprocessed addition to this collection that includes one VHS tape, "American Art Forum: Martin Bush, October 27, 1988."
in AAA.bushmart for The Star-Spangled Banner: The Making of an American Icon (Monograph : 2008)
Thomas Warren Sears photograph collection
Sears, Thomas Warren, 1880-1966
Sears & Wendell
44.5 Cubic feet (4,317 glass negatives. 363 film negatives. 182 glass lantern slides. 12 photograph albums. 56 plans and drawings. 3 monographs. )
AAG.SRS
The Thomas Warren Sears Photograph Collection documents examples of the design work of Thomas Warren Sears (1880-1966), a landscape architect and amateur photographer from Brookline, Massachusetts. Sears, who was based for most of his career in Philadelphia, designed a variety of different types of landscapes ranging from private residences, schools, and playgrounds to parks, cemeteries, and urban housing developments located primarily in Pennsylvania, Maryland, and New York. In addition to some of Sears' design work, images in the collection document Sears' domestic and foreign travels, design inspirations, and family. The collection includes over 4,800 black and white negatives and glass lantern slides dated circa 1899 to 1930. While most images show private and public gardens, there are a significant number of unidentified views and views photographed in Europe during two trips he took there in 1906 and 1908. Few images are captioned or dated. In addition, there are over 50 plans and drawings, most notably for Balmuckety in Pikesville, Maryland and Reynolda in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, and 3 monographs by or about Sears.
in AAG.SRS for The Star-Spangled Banner: The Making of an American Icon (Monograph : 2008)
Nancy Spero papers
Spero, Nancy, 1926-2009
19.12 Gigabytes
AAA.spernanc
The papers of painter, collage artist, and printmaker Nancy Spero measure 26.4 linear feet and 19.12 GB and are dated 1940s-2009. Biographical material, correspondence and other files documenting Spero's personal and professional relationships, interviews and writings, records of Spero's many exhibitions and projects, files highlighting the major subjects that galvanized her, business records, printed and photographic material, and digital and video recordings, offer detailed insight into the career of one of the earliest feminist artists.
in AAA.spernanc for The Star-Spangled Banner: The Making of an American Icon (Monograph : 2008)
William C. Sturtevant papers
Sturtevant, William C.
220 Linear feet (The total extent of the collection is 191.41 linear feet (consisting of 473 document boxes and 2 record boxes) plus 254 sound recordings, 94 computer disks, 42 card file boxes, 85 oversize folders, 9 rolled items, 18 binder boxes, and 3 oversize boxes. Of the total extent, 4.79 linear feet (14 boxes) are restricted.)
NAA.2008-24
This collection contains the professional papers of William Curtis Sturtevant and documents his activities as Curator of North American Ethnology at the National Museum of Natural History, his work as the editor-in-chief of the Handbook of North American Indians, his research among the Seminole and Iroquois people, and other professional activities. The collection is comprised of books, sound recordings, research and field notes, realia, artifacts, clippings, microfilm, negatives, slides, photographs, manuscripts, correspondence, memorandums, card files, exhibition catalogs, articles, and bibliographies.
in NAA.2008-24 for The Star-Spangled Banner: The Making of an American Icon (Monograph : 2008)
Terence Turner papers
Turner, Terence
56.6 Linear feet (100 document boxes, 4 half-document boxes, 21 shoe boxes, 1 oversize box, and 10 map folders)
86 Sound cassettes
72 Sound tape reels (5")
4 Sound cassettes (microcassette)
3 Sound tape reels (7")
157 Videocassettes (VHS)
48 Videocassettes (MiniDV)
11 Videodiscs (DVD)
10 Videocassettes (U-matic)
6 Electronic discs (DVD)
2 Film reels (Approximately 3200 feet)
1 Videocassettes (VHS-C)
1 Videocassettes (Hi8)
1 Videocassettes (Video 8)
Terence "Terry" Sheldon Turner (1935-2015) was best known for his ethnographic work among the Mebêngôkre (Kayapó) people of the Amazon rainforest and his work as an activist for the Mebêngôkre and other communities. This collection documents his interest in the Mebêngôkre and his work as a human rights activist. It includes field notes, censuses, papers, notes, correspondence, news clippings, sound recordings, films, photographs, charts and diagrams, genealogy and kinship information, and computer discs.
Society for the History of Technology Records
Society for the History of Technology
Kranzberg, Melvin, Dr., 1917-1995
353 Cubic feet (378 boxes)
The Society for the History of Technology Records (SHOT) consists of documents relating to SHOT from its inception in 1958- [0ngoing]. The collection is divided into two subgroups: Subgroup I, General Records, 1956-2009 which consist of papers generated and received by Melvin Kranzberg in his various roles as an officer of SHOT, as well as papers of other SHOT officers. Subgroup II,Technology and Culture Records, 1958-2009, consists of documents relating to the Society's journal, Technology and Culture. T & C is a quarterly publication containing articles of interest to and written by historians and students of technology. The records consist of material generated by Melvin Kranzberg in his role as founding editor-in-chief (1959-1981), first at Case Western Reserve and later at Georgia Institute of Technology, and was succeeded at the National Museum of American History by Robert Post (1981-1996) whose editorial assistants were Brooke Hindle, Helena Wright, Jeffrey Stine, Art Molella and Joan Mentzer. When the museum ended its support of the journal, it moved to the Henry Ford under the editorship of John Staudenmaier (1996-2010) and after that to the University of Oklahoma under the editorship of Suzanne Moon (2010-2020).
in NMAH.AC.0400 for The Star-Spangled Banner: The Making of an American Icon (Monograph : 2008)
Rockwell Kent papers
Kent, Rockwell, 1882-1971
AAA.kentrock
The Rockwell Kent papers measure 88.0 linear feet and date from circa 1840 to 1993 with the bulk of the collection dating from 1935 to 1961. The collection provides comprehensive coverage of Kent's career as a painter, illustrator, designer, writer, lecturer, traveler, political activist, and dairy farmer.
in AAA.kentrock for The Star-Spangled Banner: The Making of an American Icon (Monograph : 2008)
Asch, Moses
Distler, Marian, 1919-1964
in CFCH.ASCH for The Star-Spangled Banner: The Making of an American Icon (Monograph : 2008)
Marilyn E. Jackler Memorial Collection of Tobacco Advertisements
Jackler, Robert K.
20 Cubic feet (40 boxes, 1 map-folder)
The collection documents the history of tobacco advertising in America through print advertisements (magazine and newspaper), emphasizing the deceptive advertising practices employed by the tobacco industry to lure and keep smokers. Many of the advertisements contain images of celebrities, athletes, and other notable persons who endorsed tobacco products as well as ethinic imagery.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Third world debt has long been recognized as a major obstacle to human development. Many other problems have arisen because of the enormous debt that third world countries owe to rich countries. Debt has impeded sustainable human development, security and political or economic stability. How has this happened?
The history of third world debt is the history of a massive siphoning-off by international finance of the resources of the most deprived peoples. This process is designed to perpetuate itself thanks to a diabolical mechanism whereby debt replicates itself on an ever greater scale, a cycle that can be broken only by canceling the debt. According to a new Working Paper on Effects of debt on human rights prepared by Mr. El Hadji Guissé for current UN Sub Commission on Human Rights (E/CN.4/Sub.2/2004/27), the developing countries' debt is partly the result of the unjust transfer to them of the debts of the colonizing States! A sum of US$ 59 billion external in public debt was imposed on the newly independent States in 1960. With the additional strain of an interest rate unilaterally set at 14 per cent, this debt increased rapidly. Before they had even had time to organize their economies and get them up and running, the new debtors were already saddled with a heavy burden of debt.
The working paper continues by questioning the legality of such a system that pushes many developing countries into extreme poverty.
Odious debt is an established legal principle. Legally, odious debt is debt that resulted from loans to an illegitimate or dictatorial government that used the money to oppress the people or for personal purposes. Moreover, in cases where borrowed money was used in ways contrary to the people's interest, with the knowledge of the creditors, the creditors may be said to have committed a hostile act against the people. They cannot legitimately expect repayment of such debts.
Jubilee USA continues on to note that this principle has been used by the US to prevent Spain imposing debts on Cuba in 1898, as the US pointed out to Spain that those loans were imposed on Cuba by force, for Spain's interest. Great Britain was also denied similar claims against Costa Rica in 1923).
Many poor countries today have started their independent status with heavy debt burdens imposed by the former colonial occupiers. South Africa as another example, has found it now has to pay for its own past repression: the debts incurred during the apartheid era are now to be repaid by the new South Africa.
This report estimates apartheid-caused debt at £28 billion [about $46 billion at the time the report was written]. That is the £11 billion [$18 billion] that South Africa borrowed to maintain apartheid, and the £17 billion [$28 billion] that the neighbouring states borrowed because of apartheid destabilisation and aggression. This is 74% of the present regional debt of £38 billion [$62.5 billion].
Apartheid wrought vast destruction across the region; now the people of Southern Africa want to rebuild. In a remarkable spirit of reconciliation, the people of Southern Africa want to forgive the horrors of the past and look forward. But the banks, international financial institutions, and individual countries which lent to both sides in the apartheid war are demanding repayment.
... people are dying in Southern Africa so that the debts can be repaid.
... After the Second World War, the United States allowed Britain to repay debt at a very low rate so that it could rebuild. In 1953, the victorious allies met in London to cancel most of Germany's debt, so that it could rebuild. Now the nations of Southern Africa want to rebuild a post-apartheid society, but the creditors of today, are not willing to offer them the space Britain received from the US and the Allies gave to Germany. Instead they are demanding that the states of Southern Africa pay three to five times the level that Britain or Germany paid after World War II.
The report also adds that countries further away, such as Tanzania, also felt the effects and had invested substantial sums (about $800 million for Tanzania) to appose apartheid.
Various other nations have found that they have to pay debts incurred by their previous military dictators (many of which were installed as clients of the rich countries.
As Steve Mandel, of the New Economics Foundation argues, because so much of these loans were knowingly given to unaccountable and corrupt leaders, there should be a shift in discussion from odious debt to odious lending, and thus there should be more of a spotlight on the banks who made large loans to illegal regimes, in effect, sustaining them.
Indonesia, where in the region of US$151 billion relating to odious debts has already been 'overpaid'—twice the level of recorded debt. This means that Indonesia has made a cumulative net transfer to the North of US$138 billion to date—or 90 per cent of Indonesia's GDP.
Argentina, where in the region of US$77 billion relating to odious debts has already been 'overpaid'—75 per cent of the country's recorded debt.
Nicaragua, where the odious debt is over five times the country's total GDP.
thirdly they are oppressed again by the penalties imposed if the odious regimes default.
Also, if debt cancellation only comes through the procedures of the Paris Club and the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative, they pay a fourth time when IMF conditionality imposes the often disastrous policies of trade and capital account liberalisation, privatisation, and restrictions on social expenditure.
1960s saw the US spend more than it had, resulting in the printing of more dollars.
Oil-producing countries, pegged to the dollar were affected as the value of the dollar decreased.
In 1973, the oil-producing countries hiked their prices as a result, earning a lot of money, which they put in to western banks.
Interest rates started to plummet resulting in more lending by banks to try and prevent a crisis.
A lot of the borrowed money went to western-backed dictators, resulting in little benefit for most people.
In 1982 Mexico defaulted on its debt payment, threatening the international credit system.
The IMF and World Bank stepped in to Mexico and other nations facing similar problems, prescribing their loans and structural adjustment policies to ensure debt repayment.
The poor have suffered the most as a result of the harsh conditions of structural adjustment.
Poor countries have soft currencies (values which can fluctuate).
Debt crises can also occur just by the value of the developing country's money going down, which can be due to a variety of other inter-related factors.
Paying off loans implies earning foreign exchange in hard currencies.
Combined with falling export prices for many poor countries, debts become even harder to pay off.
Refinancing loans implies taking on new debts to service the old ones.
Structural adjustment advice in the past from the IMF and others, has led to the cut back on important spending such as health, education, in order to help repay loans. This has implied a downward spiral and further poverty.
....to repay odious debts is to encourage lending to pariah regimes. If banks could lend to apartheid South Africa in the face of global opposition and global calls for sanctions, and still collect on the loans, then the signal to international banks is that they can lend to any regime, no matter how repugnant. There is a moral hazard here: that we will encourage immoral lending.
It is not just the debt that is an issue for poor countries; it is the harsh conditions that come with it, that for years, have been known to make things worse, not better.
Susan George, in her 1992 book, Debt Boomerang: How Third World Debt Harms Us All , calculated a net of $418 billion borrowed funds flowed right back north between 1982 and 1990.
The world's poor are subsidizing the rich. The net gain to the over-capitalized countries (loss to the under-capitalized ones) of $418 billion between 1982 and 1990 is more than double what was spent to rebuild Europe after World War II. Capital flight from Mexico between 1979 and 1983 alone [was] $90 billion — an amount greater than the entire Mexican debt at that time.
Their real role has been to take funds that Third World elites have appropriated from their countries and to loan them back, earning a nice spread each way.
... Loans from the U.S. government are almost invariably tied to the purchase from the creditor nations. Over 80 percent of America's foreign aid returns directly through its exports. Commenting on such generosity, the prime minister of Malaysia pointed out that, Although Japan furnishes loans, it takes back with its other hand, as if by magic, almost twice the amount it provides. Central American authorities estimated that by 1986 the wealth drained from Latin America was more than $70 billion in a single year in the form of money or merchandise for which [Latin America] didn't receive anything in exchange. The effect of this multifaceted assault on the wealth of the Third World is that real wages in Mexico declined by 60 percent in the decade of the 1980s, in Argentina by 50 percent, and in Peru by 70 percent.
... With overcapacity [excessive production] in the developed world and with the buying power — thus the only consumer market — being in the First World, the Third World cannot capitalize. The world's powerless cannot obtain their share of capital, high paying jobs, and markets. Thus, they trade their valuable resources for products manufactured by well-paid labor in the over-capitalized countries. Just as cheap imported agricultural products destroy an undeveloped country's agricultural economy, imported consumer goods forestall the building of industry to produce these products regionally and build an internal market economy. If a loan is to be of lasting value to the country to which it is granted, it must be put to productive, not unnecessary consumptive, or wasteful use. Only by building the tools of production (industry) instead of spending borrowed funds on consumption can a society become self-sufficient, build an internal market economy, gain equality in world trade, and eliminate poverty.
J.W. Smith, The World's Wasted Wealth 2, (Institute for Economic Democracy, 1994), pp. 139-141.
The US began by abandoning the system of fixed exchange rates established by the Bretton Woods Agreements in 1944 and introducing a system of generalised floating exchange rates. There was a strong economic motive for the decision, which the US authorities took unilaterally in 1973. They were seeking to compensate for declining competitiveness and a growing national debt by exporting the country's macroeconomic imbalances. The floating exchange rate system provided a flexible and efficient monetary tool that enabled them to avoid the adjustments that would otherwise have been required by America's new situation as a debtor. In a system of fixed exchange rates and gold convertibility, the US would have been obliged, like every third-world country today, to pay for its indebtedness with a relative loss of sovereignty and highly unpopular domestic austerity measures.
The new system also allowed the US to maintain a high standard of living at home by dipping into the planet's savings. Thanks to its political power and to the dollar, which was the world's only reserve currency, the US was able to keep its monetary sovereignty intact. Its allies could not question American policy without destabilising the institutional fabric and the cold-war security system from which they derived undoubted benefits. The burgeoning US deficit was funded for decades by Japan and Europe.
How It All Began from Jubilee 2000.
Debt: A Silent War from Jubilee 2000.
Structural Adjustment — a Major Cause of Poverty from this web site.
Bringing it all back home from Jubilee 2000 explains why debt in developing countries affect the industrialized nations too.
The Institute for Economic Democracy does a great job in providing a historical look at the political economy of the world and how it has led to the conditions of today.
Beginner's guide to debt from the debtchannel.org provides a good overview.
Africa's Debt is a position paper by Africa Policy with a look at the debt situation of sub-Saharan Africa in particular.
Challenging the legitimacy and legality of Third World Debt, a web site about Odious Debt (debt incurred by regimes that were not in the interest of their people).
Third World Debt a Continuing Legacy of Colonialism from the South Centre looks at the historical causes of third world debt and shows how much of it is illegal.
Shah, Anup. "Causes of the Debt Crisis." Global Issues . 03 Jun. 2007. Web. 21 Apr. 2019. <http://www.globalissues.org/article/29/causes-of-the-debt-crisis>.
July 3, 2005 Added section on odious debt, how Southern Africa is paying debts incurred during South Africa's apartheid regime, and for the destabilization that resulted from it. Also added a note on moral hazard .


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Nitrogen pollution slows down forest decomposers
by Shreya Dasgupta on 6 March 2017 |
Soil fungi are the primary decomposers in temperate forests.
Scientists found that fungi species reared in nitrogen polluted soils were able to decompose far less plant material than the same species collected from less polluted soil.
Even when fungi from polluted areas were grown in un-polluted petri dishes, they still could not decompose as well as fungi collected from cleaner soils.
Researchers hypothesize that nitrogen pollution could be altering how fungi metabolize nitrogen.
Nitrogen pollution can alter the way temperate forests function, a new study has found.
Excess nitrogen from air pollution slows down decomposition of plant matter by soil fungi, which in turn reduces the amount of nutrients available to plants for their growth, researchers report in the study published in Ecology.
"[Soil fungi] are the recyclers of the ecosystem — the primary decomposers of wood, leaves, and other plant material," co-author Serita Frey of the University of New Hampshire, Durnham, said in a statement. "Without them, dead material would not be broken down. We would be buried in leaves and wood, and no new nutrients would be made available for plants to use."
Lead author Linda van Diepen collecting leaf litter and associated fungi from the nitrogen pollution experiment at Harvard Forest. Photo by Serita Frey.
Nitrogen (N) is an important nutrient used by plants and other living beings. But plants can make use of nitrogen only when it is converted to its reactive forms such as ammonia, urea or nitrates — either by nitrogen fixing bacteria or by industrial processes.
Unfortunately, human activities such as burning of fossil fuels and agricultural intensification have increased the amount of reactive nitrogen entering the atmosphere. This rise in nitrogen pollution can increase levels of nitrogen in soil, which in turn can alter the way forest floor communities function.
Since fungi are the primary decomposers in temperate forests, Frey and her colleagues tried to find out the effects of nitrogen pollution on these microbial organisms. The team analyzed two kinds of soil fungi samples — those collected from a long-term study area at the Harvard Forest, where researchers have been adding nitrogen to the soil for the past 28 years to simulate chronic industrial pollution, and those collected from cleaner, un-polluted soils in the forest. The researchers then reared these fungi samples in the lab for 14 weeks.
Fungus (white "fuzzy" material) growing on leaf litter on the forest floor at Harvard Forest. Photo by Serita Frey.
The team found that the fungi grown in polluted soils had evolved. Overall, these fungi species were able to decompose far less plant material than the same species collected from less polluted soil. Even when fungi from polluted areas were grown in un-polluted petri dishes, they still could not decompose as well as fungi collected from cleaner soils.
"Something about the organism had changed in a fundamental way," Frey said.
The mechanism for these changes is still unclear, but the researchers hypothesize that nitrogen pollution could be altering how fungi metabolize nitrogen. This in turn could be affecting decomposition, likely through reduced production of the digestive enzymes necessary for efficient decay of lignin and cellulose.
Decomposition is vital to the functioning of a forest ecosystem, and slowing this fundamental process could hamper the growth of plants.
"We know that temperate forests exposed to long-term nitrogen enrichment have accumulations of organic matter because of reduced decay. Our research provides one mechanism by which this is happening," Frey said. "Although organic matter (or carbon) accumulation is often seen as a positive thing ("carbon sequestration") the flip side of the coin is that when decay is slowed, nutrient recycling is slowed, meaning that plants have reduced access to the nutrients they need for optimum growth."
"Human activities are changing how soil organisms behave and function and this has implications for the health of both natural and managed ecosystems," she added.
Olympic rainforest, United States. Photo by Rhett Butler/Mongabay.
van Diepen, L. T. A., Frey, S. D., Landis, E. A., Morrison, E. W. and Pringle, A. (2017), Fungi exposed to chronic nitrogen enrichment are less able to decay leaf litter. Ecology, 98: 5–11. doi:10.1002/ecy.1635
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Article published by Shreya Dasgupta
Air Pollution, Animals, Biodiversity, Conservation, Environment, Forests, Fungi, Nutrient Pollution, Pollution, Research, Temperate Forests


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text:
Francesca Cappelletti
RESEARCH, CONVERSATION, GENEROSITY. Francesca Cappelletti was appointed Director of Galleria Borghese in Rome in 2020. A professor of the history of modern art at the University of Ferrara, she studied in Rome at the "La Sapienza" University, in London at the Warburg Institute, and in Paris at the Collège de France. Francesca contributed to the rediscovery of Caravaggio's painting The Taking of Christ, now in Dublin, and in the course of her career has conducted many other important research, curating and organisational activities.
Francesca Cappelletti, how do you feel about being appointed Director of Galleria Borghese?
Being at the Galleria Borghese is a way of reconnecting with the subject of all my studies until now, because I used to be a Caravaggio scholar, and I wrote a lot about Baroque collections in Rome, also with great attention to the theme of the display of works of art in 17th century Rome. Rome at that time was the place from which all the other courts in Europe took their examples for collecting and for showing art.
Why is the Galleria Borghese so important?
Even today when visitors come to the Galleria Borghese they can realise how the high life of the Baroque times was at the beginning of the 17th century in Rome. Scipione Borghese, the nephew of Pope Paul V, enjoyed great power, so he was able to commission a lot of very important works from the main artists living in Rome, but not only this, he was able to buy – or simply to take – a lot of masterpieces from other collections, from churches, or paintings that were in the possession of other people in Rome. For example Cavalier d'Arpino was an important painter at that time and he had a house full of paintings left there by his collaborators and fellow artists, and amongst those there were paintings by Caravaggio; and Scipione Borghese was able to take all the collection in 1607. That's why two masterpieces by Caravaggio, Boy with a Basket of Fruit and Bacchus, are still in the collection.
"It's the only museum to own such a high number of paintings by Caravaggio."
Sala di Caravaggio, Galleria Borghese © Galleria Borghese
Francesca Cappelletti, how many Caravaggio paintings are in the Galleria Borghese?
Now we have six. It's the only museum to own such a high number of paintings by Caravaggio. But at the end of the 17th century there were 13, so Scipione Borghese had an even greater number of paintings by Caravaggio.
What happened to the others?
They were dispersed, and maybe one or two or attributed to Caravaggio were not by him, but in any case there were at least 10. At the beginning of the 19th century some of them were put on the market. One of those, The Supper at Emmaus, is now in the National Gallery of London, but it used to be one of the most important Caravaggio paintings in the Borghese.
What do you feel about some of the other wonderful paintings?
Having paintings dating to the Renaissance was a kind of distinction amongst the Roman collectors of the Baroque age. The most important of them tried to enrich their households with paintings by Titian and Raphael. This could also better the social status of the family, because these paintings from another century spoke of the culture of their very rich owner. It was so rare to have Raphael and Titian in a collection. This made the collection here one of the best and most charming of that time.
Galleria Borghese is also a museum of sculpture.
Yes, and sculpture is so important for the Borghese gallery because at a certain point in the story of this villa it was understood as a place in which ancient culture was confronted by masterpieces by Gian Lorenzo Bernini. This dialogue, and also this tension, between the most studied and perfect masterpieces of ancient times and the new interpretation of the antique provided by the Baroque language of Bernini was something that was really peculiar to this place. Some of the examples of ancient culture collected here by Scipione Borghese were very dramatic, so probably they provided inspiration to Gian Lorenzo Bernini. I'm talking about the Gladiator. Some of these very beautiful antiques are now in the Louvre in Paris because they were sold at the beginning of the 19th century, but they were here. We mustn't forget how this vision of antique culture could be a source of inspiration for all the artists coming to the Villa Borghese, not only sculptors but also painters.
One iconic masterpiece is the sculptural portrait of Paolina Borghese commissioned by Prince Camillo Borghese in 1804 from Antonio Canova.
The masterpiece by Canova was commissioned for the wedding of Camillo Borghese with Paolina Bonaparte in 1803, and Paolina is represented as Venus. This is one of the last versions of the modern Venus that artists used to portray the famous women of the Renaissance, but we can see in this beautiful, incredibly carved marble by Canova that the myth of Venus was never to die. Antiquity was always speaking a new language and was present in the mind of the artist as the model of the goddess of beauty and love.
"We have to share all the knowledge we produce with everyone, everywhere in the world."
Francesca Cappelletti, how can you exhibit contemporary artists amidst all these masterpieces?
It's very difficult. A museum is never a repository of inanimate objects, it must be a place in which the experience of the viewer is always contemporary. You have always to understand something more, something that you didn't know before you come to a museum. Sometimes it's possible to organise exhibitions like the one we have on now about the practice of painting on stone. That originated from our collection when the museum was closed and we were thinking more about the works we had in storage. We realised that a lot of them were painted on stone and so we tried to restore them, to study them and to understand why they were collected in the 17th century. The most interesting collectors in Europe, even Cardinal Mazarin, loved these works made with precious stones, and we have now the exhibition A Timeless Wonder: Painting on Stone in Rome in the Cinquecento and Seicento that allows us to understand more a part of the collection that is not on show a lot.
From March until June 2023 you have an exhibition of Giuseppe Penone. Is this part of a tradition of showing famous contemporary artists as you did a few years ago with Damien Hirst?
The exhibition of Giuseppe Penone that we are organizing and currently working on is the conclusion of research that we made for three years on the idea of materials. I mentioned this exhibition of paintings on stone and materials and the creativity of the artists, and Giuseppe Penone fits perfectly into our research, which I'm so happy to conclude with a contemporary exhibition of Giuseppe Penone, both inside and outside, as we will also have his works in the garden. This is a way of reconnecting with our past, with the idea that all sculptures and paintings could take inspiration from the natural world. The idea was not to have something contemporary at the Galleria Borghese, but to find an artist that could conclude this research project on natural materials and art.
Research and study is important at the Galleria Borghese. Are you extensively online?
Yes, we have worked a lot on the digital catalogue, and tried to increase our presence on the web because in a sense we were forced to do so during the pandemic, when we gave virtual tours of the museum. We tried to not lose our connection with our public, and so our audiences became more interested in this kind of digital activity even once museums reopened. During this past two years I realised that our online catalogue was not so modern, and we had the time to work on it. Now we have all our works of art online and everyone can check on them; you can read beautiful essays and see photographs and images on each work of art here at the Borghese, and so it's possible to go across the catalogue and to read the deeper biography and to search for other similar works in other repositories online. Everything is more modern and – I know that this word is one of the most used now for museums, but it's something that we have to realise – it is more accessible. I want the museum to be open, to be friendly and to be generous. We have to share all the knowledge we produce with everyone, everywhere in the world.
Is the Galleria Borghese open every day including holidays?
We will be open on January 1st, the first Sunday of the month. Sometimes the museum has to close, because we do a lot of maintenance works inside and we need some days to do those, but even when the museum is closed formally, the doors are closed but we are always here working. To work in a museum is not only to let people in, but it is conservation, maintenance work, planning restoration, planning renovation of the building. We have a lot of things to do when the museum is closed, but we keep the days of closure really at the minimum.
How many visitors are there?
The maximum is 1800 a day and we always have this number of visitors. The Borghese Gallery is one of the most visited museums in Rome.
Facade of Galleria Borghese, photo Luciano Romano © Galleria Borghese
Caravaggio, Madonna dei Palafrenieri, Galleria Borghese, photo Mauro Coen © Galleria Borghese
Titian, Amor sacro e amor profano, Galleria Borghese, photo Mauro Coen © Galleria Borghese
Canova, Pauline Bonaparte as Venus Victrix ("Venus Victorious"), Galleria Borghese © Galleria Borghese
Ratto di Proserpina © Galleria Borghese
Caravaggio, San Gerolamo, Galleria Borghese, photo Mauro Coen © Galleria Borghese
"I had three key words at the beginning: research, conversation and generosity."
Francesca Cappelletti, do you lend some of your masterpieces to other major museums?
First of all, it depends on the condition of the work, so the first people to be asked at the Galleria Borghese are the restorers. If they say, okay, it can travel, then we have to check on the scientific purposes and the reasons why the work is asked for. It is always difficult to let masterpieces travel but if there is a good reason to do so we consider the request very carefully. I'm in favour of loans, because it's good to have the possibility to contribute to wonderful exhibitions or to important initiatives abroad.
Is it very different to see a masterpiece on a website rather than in presence?
It's impossible to have the same experience online compared to what you can get from a physical visit to a museum. It's not only the fact that you can see the paintings or the works of art you wanted to see in the flesh, but it is also the idea of travel, the fact that you are in the same space in which the work is. It is completely different, but I have to confess that sometimes the perfection of the details is more carefully understood through the incredible new photographs and illustrations that you can take and reproduce on screen with the possibility of enlarging, for example, drawings or small details. So now you can have both. You can experience the place, and the fact that you are finally and eventually in front of the work you sought so much to see, and in another sense, if you want to study it carefully, if you have all these other materials from the web, it is probably something that can complete your experience of the work. But nothing can be the same as being in front of The Boy with a Basket of Fruit.
Can you imagine the Paolina in the Villa Borghese being somewhere else?
No. It's not possible to be moved. It's not only the idea of getting to the place in which the Paolina has been since 1830 something, but it's also the idea that for this particular masterpiece you have to come here. There is no other option.
What are the objectives of your directorship?
I had three key words at the beginning: research, conversation and generosity. We are starting a research project on Baroque collecting in Rome and Europe, and so we will collect all the documents and put them online. For conversation I intend to connect more with the town of Rome, to work with the municipality in the gardens and to understand more about what our public needs. For generosity it is shared knowledge, and we are also working on this more traditionally, organizing exhibitions. These exhibitions will always be created starting from our collections, and so one of the next exhibitions will be on Rubens and van Dyck and the travels of Northern artists to Rome and their place in Rome. How foreign artists tried to establish human relations when they were in Rome, became friends and started to work together, and the workshops became more effective. We would like to investigate how these affected even the artistic languages in the Baroque era. We discovered that around 1620 they really looked very closely into some of the works here. Rubens and van Dyck in Rome, and not only in Rome, but in the Galleria Borghese.
Rome at that time was a melting pot. Did the painters coming from all over Europe influence each other?
Yes, Rubens came at the very beginning of the 17th century, but in the 1620s this city was really a place where artists came from everywhere; from the north of Europe, but also from Spain, from France. There was a sort of informal academy, and this is something that happened only in Rome, we don't have other examples. It's very interesting how Rome was such a different the city from every other place in Europe. They were foreign people and they were young, and they were always trying to help each other. We have this kind of naturalism that was the great revolution operated by Caravaggio at the beginning of the century, but 20 years after we have people who developed and understood nature in very many different ways.
Are young people today interested in old art and visiting the Galleria Borghese?
During the pandemic a lot of young people saw not only contemporary art museums but also museums like the Galleria Borghese on the web. They became familiar with these kinds of places, and now we have a higher percentage of people under 25 years coming to the Galleria Borghese. The number has really increased.
Are you therefore optimistic about the future?
Definitely. We have to rely on young people because they will be the future. They will be in charge of our museums, so they have to start learning now to love these places and to understand their roots in the past. There are all these possibilities of being so inspiring for contemporary artists and for contemporary creativity.
Thank you very much Francesca, and good luck to you and Galleria Borghese.
All images courtesy of Galleria Borghese.
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Changing face of Candida colonization pattern in pediatric patients with hematological malignancy during repeated hospitalization, results of a prospective observational study (2016-2017) in Shiraz, Iran
Sedigheh Hamzavi, Ali Amanati, Parisa Badiee, Mohammad Rahim Kadivar, and 5 more
https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.2.9185/v1
published 30 Aug, 2019
Read the published version in BMC Infectious Diseases →
posted 15 Apr, 2019
Introduction: Surveillance of current changes in the epidemiology of Invasive Fungal Diseases (IFDs) as an important component of the antifungal stewardship programs (ASP), needs careful regular, monitoring especially in high-risk settings such as oncology centers. This study aimed at examining Candida colonization status and corresponding current changes in children with malignancy during repeated admissions and also investigating of possible epidemiological shifts after the implementation of ASP. Methods: In this prospective observational study, all eligible patients younger than 18 years were recruited during 2016-2017 at Amir Medical Oncology Center (AMOC) in Shiraz, Iran. Totally, 136 patients were enrolled and 482 samples were collected from different sites (oral/nasal discharges, urine and stool). Weekly regular sampling was carried out during hospitalization. Candida colonization status and epidemiological changes were monitored during repeated admissions. Samples were cultivated on Sabouraud Dextrose agar medium and identified by Polymerase Chain Reaction -Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (PCR-RFLP). Results: Estimated Candida colonization incidence was 59.9% (82/136) in our patients. Candida colonization was found to be higher in oral cavity and rectum than that in nasal cavity. Among those long-term follow ups and repetitive hospitalizations, a significant number of patients exhibited changes in their colonization patterns (37.7%). Candida colonization did not reveal any significant relationship with age, sex, oncologic diseases and degree of neutropenia. C. albicans (72.0%) was found as the most common Candida species in colonized patients, followed by C. krusei, C. kefyr, C. glabrata and C. parapsilosis. Conclusion: Given the high incidence of Candida infections in children with cancers, close monitoring of epidemiologic change is essential for judicious management, based on local surveillance data and improvement of overall quality of care in high risk patients.
Internal Medicine Specialties
Fungal Colonization
Prevention and management of invasive fungal diseases (IFDs) may be one of the most challenging problems in children suffering from cancer. Despite recent improvements in diagnosis and management of IFDs, we still witness high attributable morbidity and mortality in those with hematological malignancies (1, 2). Among various yeast and mold infections in immunocompromised hosts, Candida is the most common cause with wide spectrum clinical manifestations range from local infection to severe multi-organ involvement (3). Candida colonization in hematological malignancies could affect final clinical outcome, especially when colonization occurs with a strain that has reduced susceptibility to azole antifungals (4, 5). Also, with prolonged colonization during chemotherapy, the possibility of invasive candidiasis increases with the same colonized isolates (6). Although C. albicans literally considered as the leading cause of all Candida related IFDs, a shift toward non-albicans infections has been identified globally (7-9). Among the various types of non-albicans species, there is growing concern about some of them such as C. glabrata and C. parapsilosis because of varying degree of Azole antifungal resistance (3, 10). Changes in colonization may happen during repeated admissions and various risk factors may make children with hematological malignancies prone to new colonization (especially resistance ones), multi-species colonization or changed primary colonization (11). Some of these possible risk factors may be broad-spectrum antibiotic therapy, antifungal prophylaxis, Azole antifungal misuse, various types of short/long term indwelling catheter, total parenteral nutrition, neutropenia, surgical interventions, changes in chemotherapy intensity due to refractory disease or relapse, younger age at oncologic diagnosis, repeated IFDs during course of treatment and comorbidities such as hyperglycemia (11-15). Some of these variables are known risk factor for Candida colonization while the role of others needs to be determined by further risk studies (16). Although attention to these risk factors and application of proper infection prevention strategies for controllable ones (prevention of Azole antifungal misuse, implementation of antimicrobial stewardship programs and prevention of unnecessary prolong catheterization) is almost always ineluctable (17), such changes in Candida colonization should be documented primarily in each individual during repeated admissions by frequent sampling from different possible colonization sites. This study aimed to investigate the epidemiology of Candida colonization and any possible changes in colonization pattern in children with malignancies as a part of regular local surveillance program in AMOC in Shiraz, Iran. Indeed, the study was conducted in the continuation of the previous research carried out in 2014 by Haddadi et al. (18) to investigate the epidemiology of candida colonization and its possible changes during recurrent admission in AMOC.
This prospective, observational study was performed during 2016 -2017 on the children hospitalized in a referral oncology teaching hospital, Shiraz, Iran. Amir Hospital is an oncology hospital with 54 beds for children and about 5000 admitted adolescents under 18 years of age per each year. It was conducted on the pediatric patients under 18 years who were suffering from hematologic malignancies or solid organ tumors. The study procedure was started after filling consent forms by patients' parents. As an observational study, demographic data were obtained using predesigned questionnaires.
To examine the rate of Candida colonization, oral, urine, nasal, and stool samples were collected upon admission in the wards. Only urine and stool samples were collected from those with severe thrombocytopenia or any type of bleeding tendency and oral and nasal samples were withheld in such cases. To observe the changes in colonization pattern during hospitalization, weekly sampling was performed during total course of admission. The Candida colonization index (CI), was calculated as the ratio of the number of non-blood body sites colonized by Candida spp. to the total number of body sites cultured. Samples were cultivated on Sabouraud Dextrose Agar Medium (Merck, Germany). The cultivated Sabouraud Dextrose Agar plates were incubated in ambient temperature and then, the species were identified at mycology division of Professor Alborzi Clinical Microbiology Research Center (PACMRC). To identify the species of filamentous fungi, direct microscopic examination from culture medium (lactophenol cotton blue) was done. Candida spp. were identified by formation of germ tube and PCR-RFLP (Polymerase Chain Reaction -Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism) using forward ITSI1 (5'-TTCCGTAGGTGAACCTGCGG-3') and reverse ITS4 (5'-TCCTCCGCTTATTGATATGC-3') primers. The products were digested using MspI (#ER0541) restriction enzyme (19). The normal distribution was confirmed by Kolmogorov–Smirnov test and the obtained data were analyzed by independent sample T-test and Chi-square test by SPSS version 21.0 (IBM Corp. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Armonk, NY). The significance level (P-value) of all tests was below 0.05 and α = 0.05. Comparison of the proportions between the present study and our recent study in 2011-2012, was done using MedCalc Software bvba, Version 18.9.1.
After exclusion, 136 pediatric patients younger than 18 years were recruited in the study and totally, 482 samples were collected from different sites (oral/nasal discharges, urine and stool). Among them 82 (59.9%) were male. The average age was calculated 7.1 years-old (6 ± 4.69 SD; 4 and 18, minimum and maximum, respectively). Detailed data about sex and patient's age category is shown in Table 1. As for the primary underlying disease, Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL) was the most common oncologic diagnosis (41, 30.1%). Close to 85% (115/136) of the patients had history of recurrent admission (Table 1). The colonization rate was greater in patients with history of recurrent admission (61.7% versus 38.3%). Totally, 39% of patients had long term follow up. Of special note, among children with long term follow up, 71.7% were colonized. In this subgroup of patients, repeated admission was found to be correlated with greater chance of Candida colonization (P-value = 0.014). Common oncological diagnosis and also their colonization status have been shown in Figure 1.
Samples' characteristics
482 samples were collected from different sites and finally 140 positive samples were analyzed (excluding negative cultures). About 80% of patients underwent at least two-time sampling (based on weekly sampling protocol) and more than 20% underwent 3 times or more. Among the collected samples, 195 (40%) were from oral cavity, 220 (46%) from nasal discharges, 44 (9%) from urine, and 24 (5%) from stool. There was no significant difference between colonized and non-colonized patients with regard to age category and sex (P-value = 0.088 and 0.593, respectively).
Colonization status
A. Patient's colonization status
Candida colonization was found in 59.9% (82/136) of the patients. Most children exhibited oral colonization (67.1%). Oral/Rectal colonization (11%) was the second most common type of colonization among the studied children (Table 2). 72% of the children were colonized with C. albicans, followed by C. krusei (9.8%), C. kefyr (7.3%), C. glabrata (2.4%) and C. parapsilosis (2.4%). Among the studied patients, one had double colonization with C. kefir and C. parapsilosis and another one with C. albicans and C. tropicalis. Data regarding distribution of different colonization sites in colonized children are presented in Table 2. Calculated mean Candida CI was 3.11±0.121 [1:4 (78%), 2:4 (19.5%) and 3:4 (2.4%)]. Colonization site preferences were analyzed by Chi-Square Tests for age, sex, degree of neutropenia, primary oncologic diagnosis and recurrent versus new admission (Table 3), revealing no significant differences (p=0.531, p=0.304, 0.125, 0.551 and 0.797, respectively). Also, Candida CI was investigated for these variables that revealed no significant differences, either (p=0.650, p=0.246, 0.259, 0.701 and 0.307, respectively).
B. Sample's characteristics
From 140 positive samples (excluding black yeasts), species type was determined in 130 samples (10 samples were not recognized). Oral cavity was the most common site of colonization (Figure 2), followed by nasal cavity and rectum, 98 (75.4%), 12 (9.2%) and 20 (15.4%), respectively (calculated from all positive samples). Of special note, in this study we did not find any urinary candida colonization among the studied children. Regarding sex differences, we did not observe any correlation between colonization status and sex (P-value = 0.593). In terms of age distribution, most of colonized children were over 5 years (53, 63.1%) and the rest 1-5 years (29, 59.2%). Although colonization rate was directly correlated with age category (greater in patients >5 years), the difference was not significant (P-value = 0.088, LR: 0.05). Candida colonization status was investigated based on different underlying oncologic diagnoses. ALL and AML were the most common diagnoses in both colonized and non-colonized children without any significant difference (P-value = 0.432). No statistically significant relationship was found between Candida colonization and the severity of neutropenia during admission (P-value = 0.166).
C. Candida species characteristics
Among the different types of recognized Candida species (140 spp.), C. albicans was the most common (72%), followed by C. krusei (9.8%), C. kefyr (7.3%), C. glabrata (2.4%) and C. parapsilosis (2.4%); data are shown in figure 3. Of the studied patients, one had double colonization with C. kefir and C. parapsilosis and another with C. albicans and C. tropicalis. A small proportion of the species could not be distinguished phenotypically on culture media and was categorized as "Not defined" (10 samples). Detailed data regarding different Candida species in oral and nasal discharges, and stool samples are summarized in Table 4.
D. Monitoring of colonization pattern during patient's follow up
On average, 53 cases were followed for at least 4 weeks (26.87 days ±SD: 39.6). Follow up duration also was categorized in four-time frame as <30 days, 30-60 days, 60-90 days and >90 days. More than 64% of colonized children were followed for more than 4 weeks (Table 5).
During the study period, 6.1% of monitored cases had changes in their colonization patterns, indicating non-colonization to colonization and vice versa and also change in candida species (Table 6). During repeated sampling, in 2.2% of colonized cases, colonization was not continued (that means negative culture on two occasions at least two weeks apart).
The association between recurrent admissions and any type of colonization status change were assessed by Chi-Square Tests which revealed a significant correlation (p=0.035).
Without systematic use of antifungal prophylaxis, invasive Candida infections account for the most prevalent type of IFDs in onco-hematological centers (14, 18, 20) and usually is considered as a consequence of primary colonization (17). In this study, nearly 60% of all investigated children were colonized with different Candida species. Compared to our recent study in 2011-2012 (18), we found important findings which needs special consideration.
First, compared to the previous study, we found a substantial increase in colonization rate (47% versus 59.9%) [Difference 13.4%, 95% CI: 2.39% to 23.91%, P = 0.0173]. In addition to possibly true increases in the incidence of Candida colonization, this increase also could be partially due to regular sampling program which was conducted by the main investigator during study period.
Second, we found that Candida non-Albicans colonization rate decreased significantly from 38% to 18.5% (P = 0.0003). Although antifungal prophylaxis in onco-hematological patients receiving intensive chemotherapy is encouraged based on logical argument for reducing mucosal colonization and consequently systemic invasive disease, prolonged azole exposure during antifungal prophylaxis also is considered an important risk factor for shifting in epidemiology of candidiasis (20, 21). Due to the very low incidence of proven and probable invasive Candida infections in AMOC, currently (after October 2015) Azole prophylaxis is not routinely used in pediatric patients with hematological malignancies as a part of antifungal stewardship program (ASP). Along with other reports this strategy may explain such a decrease in Candida non-Albicans colonization rate despite a total increase in the incidence of Candida colonization and emphasis on the role of ASP in controlling undesired changing in the epidemiology of candidiasis (21, 22).
Third, similar to our previous report, C. Krusei was the most prevalent type of non-Albicans species in colonized children. As known, C. Krusei usually is considered as an important Azole-resistant non-Albicans colonizer with high MIC to fluconazole and voriconazole (10).
Fourth, we found some increase in the prevalence of C. Parapsilosis and conversely significant decrease in C. Famata prevalence in this study. C. Parapsilosis was the second most common non-Albicans species in colonized children, just after C. Krusei, whereas in our previous study C. Glabrata, C. Tropicalis and C. Famata were more prevalent than C. Parapsilosis. This is of utmost importance because increased resistance to Azoles frequently was seen with C. Parapsilosis (23). Corresponding data regarding common non-Albicans species were shown in Table 7.
Comparable to the previous study in AMOC, ALL was found as the most common oncologic diagnosis in children with hematological malignancies. While acute leukemia was the most common diagnosis in different similar studies, the leukemia type may vary, based on different geographic regions (6, 16). In contrast to the study by Albert et al (24), we did not find any relationship between colonization status or its change with neutropenia. Treatment of newly diagnosed standard risk ALL usually leads to the first successful remission. Excluding a small number of patients with acceptable response to induction chemotherapy, others usually undergo consequent phases of treatment leading to prolonged maintenance treatment phase which is based on the administration of less intensive regimen on an outpatient basis (25). There are several causes that lead to repeated admissions for children with hematological malignancies and such children have greater hospitalization rate, (more than 2-folds), compared to the general population (26). The possible role of recurrent hospitalization on Candida colonization pattern in children with hematological malignancies has not been determined exactly and in this study, we decided to address this issue. More than two-thirds of our studied cases were on maintenance chemotherapy with recurrent admissions. Although Candida colonization rate was significantly greater (more than 6:1) in patients with history of recurrent admission, difference was not statistically significant (p=0.420). However, we found that in the subgroup of children with long term follow up, repeated admission was significantly correlated with a higher Candida colonization rate. Similar to other reports (27), oral cavity was the most common Candida colonization site both in this study and our previous report in 2014 (18), but we found some considerable changes in the present study. First, compared to the previous study, the rate of oral colonization significantly increased (75.4% versus 38.4%). Secondly, we did not find any urinary colonization in this study (Table 6). This may be due to successful adherence to AFS (avoidance of unnecessary catheterization, timely removal of unnecessary catheters and last but not least implementation of antimicrobial stewardship program in our center).
Finally, reports on epidemiologic changes in Candida colonization during repeated admissions are somewhat lacking in the literature, especially in children with malignancy (28). Our study confirmed that repeated hospitalization in children with malignancy (especially those with ALL) has an important role in changing the face of Candida colonization. Consistent with the study by Kaben et al (29), we observed some changes to non-Albicans species during hospitalization (5.1%, Table 5).
This study has some limitations. We encountered inevitable limitations in regular and timely sampling from all pre-defined sites due to uncontrolled patients' clinical situations. Among them we could mention increased bleeding tendency, thrombocytopenia, delay in taking urine and stool samples in young infants.
Changing face of Candida colonization pattern among high-risk colonized children with different types of malignancies may warrant judicious use of Azoles agents and an urgent need for the implementation of ASP to reduce colonization of resistant Candida spp.
AMOC: Amir Medical Oncology Center
PACMRC: Professor Alborzi clinical microbiology research center
IFDs: Invasive Fungal Diseases
CI: Colonization Index
ASP: Antifungal Stewardship Program
Ethics, consent and permissions
The study was approved by medical ethics committee of Professor Alborzi clinical microbiology research center.
All individuals (or their parents) in the study population were informed about the current study, with a written consent form taken from each before her or his enrolment in the present study.
The authors do not have any financial or other relationships which could be regarded as a conflict of interest.
Author contributions:
Study concept and design: Amanati A and Kadivar MR; Acquisition of data: Amanati A, Hamzavi S, Dehghani M, Norouzian Baghani A; Mycological analysis: Badiee P, Jafarian H, Ghasemi F; Analysis and interpretation of data: Amanati A, Hamzavi S, Haghpanah S; Drafting of the manuscript: Amanati A., Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: Amanati A, Badiee P; Study supervision: Amanati A. Badiee P.
Our thanks go to Keliddar Mohammadi Mohammad Ebrahim (Senior expert of Hospital Information System [HIS] at Shiraz University of Medical Sciences), Salma Mehrangiz (infection control unit staff), Khaje Somaye (microbiology department staff), all members of infection control team in AMOC, for their technical support and assistance with the implementation of ASP in AMOC. Our gratitude also to Dr. Hassan Khajehei, for careful linguistic editing of the manuscript.
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Table 1. Demographic data in colonized and non- colonized children with malignancy
P. value a
≤12 months
>5 years
Neutropenia (ANC <1500)
History of admission
First admission
Recurrent admission
a. P-value by Fisher's Exact Test
Table 2. Distribution of different colonization sites in 82 colonized children with malignancy a
Oral/Nasal
Oral/Rectal
Nasal/ Rectal
Oral/Nasal/ Rectal
a. Urinary colonization was not found
Due to technical limitations, Table 3 has been placed in the Supplementary Files section.
Table 4. The prevalence of colonization with different Candida species in oral and nasal discharges, and stool and urine samples
Total samples (number)
Candida species
Number of positive samples
(% of total oral samples)
C. Albicans
C. Krusei
C. Parapsilosis
C. Glabrata
C. Kefyr
C. Tropicalis
Nasal (220)
C. kefir
C. Famata
Stool (24)
Urine (44) *
* No colonization was found in urine specimens
Table 5. Follow-up time frames in colonized children with malignancy
Follow-up time frames
<30 days
Table 6. Significant changes in colonization status during follow-up
Percent a
Valid Percent b
"No colonization" to "colonization"
Change to "colonization with other candida species"
"Decolonization" c
a. From total colonized cases
b. Calculated from those in whom colonization change were detected
c. Negative culture on two occasions at least two weeks apart
Table 7. Colonization characteristics in both studies conducted in AMOC, in children who were colonized with different Candida species
p-value c
Candida species a
0.0003*
Albicans versus non-Albicans Candida species
Albicans
Non-Albicans
Colonization site
<0.0001*
a. Very rare species including C. Guilliermondii, C. Rugosa, C. Lusitaniae, C. Lambica, and Rhodotorula spp. were excluded from 2011-2012 study
b. Number of positive samples
c. Chi-square test
* Statistically significant
supplement1.png
Editorial decision: Minor revision


text:
Q: Submitting Form via AJAX Request What is backbone's convention/best practice for retrieving data from a RESTful web service, based on data entered in a form?
From what I understand I can register a click observer in the view, so when the form submit button is clicked the view will retrieve the data from the form. But I'm unclear on whether I execute the AJAX call from the view, model, or router.
Essentially, I'm unclear as to which of the following is convention:

*

*Have the view get the parameters, execute the AJAX call and then pass the returned JSON to the model

*Have the view get the parameters and pass them to the model and have it execute the AJAX call and retrieve the data from the web service

*Have the view get the parameters and pass them to a router and have it execute the AJAX call and populate the appropriate model and view accordingly?

NOTE: I need to submit search criteria to a RESTful Web Service, which expects the data to be POSTed; correct me if I'm wrong, but it doesn't seem like I can use: fetch or save. Should I create a function within the model that uses $.ajax({...}) to post the params and receive the JSON data?

A: The backbone.js models are already setup to do RESTful requests. Method 2 is what you want to do.
The only thing you have to setup in the model is a URL:
MyModel = Backbone.Model.extend({
    url: 'http://path/to/my/RESTful/service'
});

MyView = Backbone.View.extend({
   events: {
       'submit #myform': 'saveToModel'
   },

   initialize: function() {
       // ...
   },

   saveToModel: function() {
       // this triggers a RESTFul POST (or PUT) request to the URL specified in the model
       this.model.save({
          'foo': 'Foo!',
          'bar': 'Bar!'
       });
   }

});

A: Bind the submit event to the form id or the div id, not the button id.

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