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Study 1: Loss Versus Gain Domain Risks
Study 2: Mixed Gains and Losses Risk
Study 3: Replication Using Mixed Gains and Losses
Conflict of Interest Statement
ORIGINAL RESEARCH article
Front. Psychol., 22 November 2011
Sec. Cognitive Science
volume 2 - 2011 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00344
To take risk is to face loss: a tonic pupillometry study
Eldad Yechiam* and Ariel Telpaz
Industrial Engineering and Management, Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
The construct of risk taking is studied through the prism of the relation between tonic arousal and risk taking behavior. Several theories have proposed that high aroused individuals tend to exhibit risk aversion. We posit that this arousal–behavior association is activated much more strongly in risks with losses, as losses increase arousal and trigger relevant traits associated with the sensitivity to risk. In three studies we examined risk taking in experience-based decision tasks, with either token losses or relative-losses (in the gain domain). In Study 1 we found a negative correlation between pre-task pupil diameter and risk taking in the loss domain but not in the gain domain. In Study 2 we re-analyzed a previous pupillometry dataset involving symmetric mixed gains and losses. We found that the negative correlation in this mixed condition emerged even while the participants did not show loss aversion. This finding was replicated in Study 3. Thus, the effect of losses on arousal provides sufficient conditions for the moderation of the tonic arousal–behavior association. The findings suggest an important role for losses in the psychological and physiological experience of risk.
In this study we examine the relation between losses and the psychophysiological experience of risk. Economic theory traditionally defines risk attitude as the sensitivity to payoff variance (Markowitz, 1952; Pratt, 1964; Sharpe, 1964; and see recent studies which relate brain activity to perceptions of risk as variance, e.g., Preuschoff et al., 2006, 2008). Yet several theories have proposed that losses are somehow implicated in the feeling of risk. For example, Coombs and Lehner(1981, 1984) examined a basic lottery where individuals have an equal chance of winning or losing $10. They found that adding $10 to the loss increased perceived risk more than adding the same amount to the gain, and therefore suggested that the constructs of risk and loss are not independent (see also Duxbury and Summers, 2004). A similar argument is made by attention-based theories of losses, though these theories posit a more general effect of losses on the sensitivity to incentives (Taylor, 1991; Yechiam and Hochman, 2011). Prospect theory (Kahneman and Tversky, 1979) likewise argues that loss aversion is an important component that steers people away from taking risk when it involves gains and losses, because the subjective weight of losses is larger than the subjective weight of equivalent gains. We examine whether losses are an inherent part of what make things risky through the prism of the relation between tonic arousal and risk taking behavior.
Several theories of personality have converged to predict a negative association between tonic arousal and risk taking. In their sensation seeking theory, Zuckerman et al. (1964) suggested that individuals differ in the level of stimulation required for maintaining optimal arousal, with those exhibiting lower levels of arousal requiring more stimulation in order to reach their optimal level of arousal. Since risk taking is one form by which stimulation is achieved, this account suggests that low tonic arousal is associated with a greater tendency to take risk (Farley and Farley, 1972; Ellis, 1987; McNamara and Ballard, 1999)1. Eysenck's (1967) personality theory similarly characterized extroverts as low-arousal individuals, who seek stimulating activities in order to heighten their arousal levels (see also Gray, 1987). A somewhat modified account appears in theories of trait anxiety (Zuckerman, 1960; Eysenck, 1992). The literature on trait anxiety suggests that anxious individuals are chronically more aroused on the one hand, and avoid risk and uncertainty on the other (Eysenck, 1992); thus, high arousal is naturally associated with risk aversion. In support of this prediction, studies have shown that high sensation seekers exhibit lower galvanic skin response (GSR) in response to various stimuli (Stelmack et al., 1983; Plouffe and Stelmack, 1986) and even at rest (Gatzke-Kopp et al., 2002).
We propose that the association between tonic arousal and risk taking is moderated by the presence of losses in the experience of risk. It is relatively well known that losses increase arousal and attention (Taylor, 1991; Rozin and Royzman, 2001). Recently, several studies have found that this attentional effect is exhibited independently from loss aversion (Hochman et al., 2010; Hochman and Yechiam, 2011; Yechiam and Telpaz, in press). Based on these findings, we have proposed that this attentional effect of losses provides sufficient conditions for many of the phenomena attributed to losses (Yechiam and Hochman, 2011). For example, it was found that the effect of losses on consistency in risk taking behavior emerges even in the absence of loss aversion (Yechiam and Telpaz, in press). Similarly, the effect of losses on decision performance was demonstrated even in tasks where usually participants exhibit no loss aversion (Bereby-Meyer and Erev, 1998; Erev et al., 1999). These effects are explained by a mere increase in on-task attention in response to losses.
Here, we extend this argument to suggest that because losses increase arousal and attention more than gains, risks with losses are more "rewarding" for individuals with low tonic arousal. Likewise, risks without losses are less intimidating for those having high arousal. Thus, without losses sensation seekers might not consistently relish and replenish on the risky experience, while anxious people might not be consistently intimidated by it. Therefore, the postulated negative correlation between tonic arousal and risk taking is observed more reliably for risky situations that involve losses. It is further predicted that this effect of losses is not contingent on the decision weight asymmetry induced by losses (i.e., loss aversion; Kahneman and Tversky, 1979). We suggest that the arousal and attention produced by losses are sufficient for producing this effect.
To examine these predictions, we used a pupillometric measure of tonic arousal. The pupil diameter (PD) is an immediate and direct index of autonomic activation (Granholm and Steinhauer, 2004). Changes in PD are controlled by two muscles, the dilator and the sphincter, which are differentially influenced by activity in the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system. The former channel is mediated primarily by norepinephrine and the latter by acetylcholine (Hutchins and Corbett, 1997). Thus, differently from the GSR, the PD is affected by both branches modulating autonomic arousal, and not only the sympathetic branch. Parasympathetic arousal may be relevant to risk taking behavior since this system is known to have a role in defensive reaction and anxiety (Lyonfields et al., 1995). Also, importantly, the tonic PD is unaffected by physical fitness factors (Filipe et al., 2003) and body mass (Piha et al., 1994; Filipe et al., 2003), which is not the case in other autonomic measures, such as heart rate and blood pressure (Gelber et al., 1997; Rennie et al., 2003). Accordingly, individual differences in physical capability affect tonic PD to a lesser extent than in other arousal measures.
There is very little data on whether PD is a reliable measure of tonic arousal. To clarify this issue, we conducted a pilot study where we measured the mean pupil size of 26 student participants for 1 min during rest, on two consecutive days. The test–retest correlation between the different measurements was high (r = 0.83, p < 0.01), supporting the reliability of the PD as a measure of tonic arousal.
In this study we focused on two choice problems, one involving risks in the gain domain and the other involving risks in the loss domain. The two choice problems were as follows:
Problem 1. Gain Condition:
S 600 withcertainty
R 0 or 1200 with equal probability P(R)=0.38
Problem 2. Loss Condition:
S −600 with certainty
R −1200 or 0 with equal probability P(R)=0.52
In each choice problem, the participants selected among two alternatives with equal expected value, a safe alternative (S) and a riskier alternative (R). These two problems are identical but for fact that in the Loss condition all outcomes are multiplied by −1. P(R) denotes the average proportion of R selections in Study 1.
The two choice problems were administered in an experience-based task. The participants were not provided with a written description of the payoffs but rather had to learn to make choices by sampling the alternatives and receiving feedback. The task began with the participant facing two blank buttons. Upon selecting a button a payoff was sampled from the alternative's payoff distribution and the participant was presented with this payoff as feedback. The use of experience-based tasks is common in studies of physiological arousal and brain activity (e.g., Bechara et al., 1997). Risk taking in these experiential tasks is typically operationalized as the average proportion of selections from the alternative with the higher variance payoffs (see Yechiam and Ert, 2011). Our main prediction was that the association between tonic pupil size (as recorded prior to the task) and risk taking level would be more pronounced in the Loss condition.
The participants were 20 undergraduates from the Technion (12 men and 8 women). Their average age was 23 (ranging from 20 to 27). Upon completing the experiment, they were given a fixed fee which was updated according to the accumulated amount of tokens won (or lost) in the experimental task. The conversion rate of experimental tokens to money was 1 Israeli Shekel per 1000 point earned (participants were informed of the conversion rate beforehand).
Behavioral task
All participants completed two experience-based decision tasks involving 100 trials. Half of them performed the Loss condition task followed by the Gain condition task and the others performed the tasks in reverse order. In both tasks, they were asked to operate a "money machine" with two choice alternatives presented as blank virtual buttons (see Hertwig et al., 2004; Newell and Rakow, 2007; Erev and Haruvy, in press). They were informed simply that their task would be to repeatedly select a button in the machine in order to maximize their total earning. They were further told that they would perform two tasks but their final payoffs would be set according to the accumulating amount from one of the tasks, selected at random. This was done to prevent diversification biases and income effects across different tasks (Cho and Luce, 1995).
Each button selection was followed by the presentation of the obtained payoff and the accumulated payoff, allowing participants to learn to select the choice alternatives from their experience. The outcomes from the two buttons were drawn from the payoff distributions for the Gain and Loss condition problems presented above. The allocation of the Safe and Risky alternative to the left and right buttons was randomized for each participant, but was kept constant throughout an experimental condition (e.g., in the Gain condition). The outcomes were randomly generated on each trial from the alternative's payoff distribution.
PD measure
Pupillometry data was collected using ViewPoint PC 60 EyeFrame system (Arrington Research, Scottsdale, Arizona). The system operates with a single tiny camera and an infrared illuminator mounted on a lightweight frame facing toward the participant's dominant eye, and supported by comfortable head straps. It records pupil data at approximately 30 frames per second (fps). Pre-task pupil size samples were taken just after the calibration and prior to the start of the decision-making task for a period of 30 s. During this time the participants looked at the center of the screen and were asked to wait for the experimenter's instructions. The eye tracking measures continued while the participants performed the decision task.
Like other autonomic measures (e.g., GSR) the tonic pupil size is affected by gender, with some studies demonstrating larger pupil sizes for women than men (Zinn, 1972; Alexandridis, 1985) though this is disputed (see Jones, 1990; Filipe et al., 2003). Accordingly, we examined the possible effect of gender on the pre-task PD, as well as on risk taking levels.
Design and analysis
Our main prediction pertained to the negative association between pre-task arousal and risk taking in the two within-subject task conditions. We therefore used a one-tailed test for this analysis (as explicitly noted in the results below). For all other analyses, we used two-tailed tests.
Risk taking and pupil diameter during the task
The average proportion of risky selections in the Gain condition was 0.38 (SD = 0.23), while in the Loss condition it was 0.52 (SD = 0.24). Thus, the findings show greater risk seeking with losses. This pattern is similar to the reflection effect observed by Kahneman and Tversky's (1979). An examination of the median behavior showed more distinct changes in risk taking as a function of the payoff domain, with 0.4 selections of the risky alternative in the Gain condition and 0.63 in the Loss condition. This difference between conditions was statistically significant [t(19) = 2.38, p = 0.03]. The correlation between P(R) in the two conditions was r = 0.37, p = 0.10; as found previously (Ert and Yechiam, 2010; Yechiam and Ert, 2011) participants had a somewhat consistent tendency to prefer certainty to risk or vise versa, though it was not statistically significant.
Although our main predictions pertained to pre-task PD, we also measured the PD during the task. The results are shown in Figure 1. Consistent with previous studies (e.g., Satterthwaite et al., 2007; Hochman and Yechiam, 2011) the participants' PD was higher following losses (of −1200 or −600) compared to equivalent gains. The difference between the PD following losses and gains was significant 0.375–0.875 s following the outcome presentation [t(19) = 2.71, p = 0.04]2.
Figure 1. Mean pupil diameter in the Loss and Gain conditions (in mm) across participants and events (of loss: − 600 or − 1200, or of gain: 600 or 1200). Time zero denotes the outcome presentation onset.
To examine the effect of losses on extended arousal we also compared the response time in the Gain and Loss conditions (see Porges, 1992). Previously, RTs were found to be longer in loss compared to gain domain tasks (e.g., Yechiam and Telpaz, in press). The average RT in the Loss condition was 0.61 s while in the Gain condition it was 0.46 s. The difference was significant [t(19) = 2.52, p = 0.02]. Thus, losses seemed to increase both immediate arousal and processing time beyond gains.
Pre-task pupil diameter
Scatter plots of risk taking proportions by pre-task PD appear in Figure 2. As clearly indicated in the figure, individuals with high pre-task PD tended to make fewer risky selections in the Loss condition, but this was much less evident in the Gain condition. In the Loss condition the correlation between pre-task PD and P(R) was r = −0.44, p = 0.026 (one tailed). In the gain condition the correlation was only r = −0.25, p = 0.15 (one tailed).
Figure 2. Scatter plot and regression lines of the proportion of risky selections across 100 trials by pre-task PD in Study 1. Top: Loss condition. Bottom: Gain condition.
To verify that this result is not due to women participants having larger PDs (as found previously; e.g., Alexandridis, 1985) and also taking less risk, we examined gender differences in the studied variables. The pre-task PD in women (Mean = 3.62 mm, SD = 0.40) was actually smaller than that of the men (Mean = 4.26 mm, SD = 0.40), but the difference did not reach significance t(18) = 1.69, p = 0.11. Additionally, there were no significant gender differences in the proportion of risky selections in the Loss and Gain conditions. We can thus rule out gender as leading to major differences in the studied variables.
The results are consistent with our prediction that tonic arousal – risk taking associations should be stronger in the Loss condition compared to the Gain condition. The direction of the effect is in turn consistent with the prediction of the aforementioned personality theories: those showing low-arousal tended to take more risk. We have argued that this phenomenon is due to the attentional effects of losses. However, an alternative explanation is that it is due to loss aversion. If one assumes that (a) losses have greater subjective weight than gains, and (b) people behave more reliably in tasks that are of importance to them (Judd and Krosnick, 1989; Chaiken and Maheswaran, 1994; Kanfer et al., 1994), then it stands to reason that individuals would exhibit more reliable risk taking behavior in a loss-domain task. Loss aversion can therefore increase the association between tonic arousal and risk taking behavior. In our second study we therefore examined whether these effect of losses can be observed simultaneously with no loss aversion, namely with the participants showing no behavioral tendency to give greater weight to losses over gains.
In experience-based tasks it was previously found that people do not display loss aversion when the risk involves symmetric gains and losses (see Erev et al., 2008; Silberberg et al., 2008; Hochman and Yechiam, 2011; Yechiam and Telpaz, in press). While the generality of this finding into other situations is a matter or controversy (Rick, 2011), the fact that in the experiential setting there is no loss aversion provides a testing ground for whether different effects of losses may emerge even in the absence of a decision weight asymmetry of the sort proposed by Kahneman and Tversky (1979).
The study focused on the following two choice problems:
S 2 or 4 with equal probability
R 1 or 5 with equal probability P(R)=0.49
Problem 4. Mixed Condition:
S −1 or 1 with equal probability
R −2 or 2 with equal probability P(R)=0.54
The term Mixed refers to a choice problem producing both gains and losses. In the studied Mixed condition the risky alternative produced gains and losses of the same probability and magnitude. Under loss aversion people should avoid risk in this situation. An existing pupillometry dataset (Hochman and Yechiam, 2011; Study 1) in which these two problems were administered was used. Previous analyses of the data focused only on phasic (i.e., on-task) arousal (Hochman and Yechiam, 2011). We tested whether the association between tonic pupil size and risk taking would be more pronounced in risks with losses, even while the participants were loss neutral.
Twenty-five undergraduates from the Technion (13 men and 12 women) participated in the study. The participants were given a fixed fee and were also compensated according to the number of points earned in the experimental task, at a rate of 0.1 Israeli Shekel per 1 point earned (they were informed of the conversion rate beforehand).
All participants completed two experience-based decision tasks involving 60 trials. Approximately half of them performed the Mixed condition task followed by the Gain condition task and the other half performed the tasks in reverse order. The instructions were as in Study 1. The tasks involved operating a "money machine" with two choice alternatives. The payoffs were drawn from the outcomes of the Gain and Mixed conditions above. In order to make the incentive structure less obvious, a constant of 0.1–0.5 (in 0.1 intervals) was randomly added or subtracted from the sampled payoff in every trial. Additionally, to eliminate possible surprise effects that would be non-symmetric with respect to gains and losses, payoffs were delivered in a deterministic fashion. Each choice alternative initially produced either a gain/relative-gain or a loss/relative-loss, which was switched to a payoff from the opposite domain on each selection. About half of the participants were presented with a gain/relative-gain in the first selection, while for the other participants this order was reversed.
Pre-task pupil size was examined as in Study 1. Due to a technical problem we did not get pre-task results from two of the participants. Thus, all correlations with tonic PD are based on a sample size of 23.
As reported in Hochman and Yechiam (2011), the average proportion of risky selections in the Mixed condition was not significantly different from 0.5 (Mean = 0.54, SD = 0.15). Clearly, the participants did not avoid the alternative incurring larger losses. Additionally, the average proportion of risky selections in the Mixed condition and in the Gain condition (Mean = 0.49, SD = 0.23) was quite similar, t(24) = 1.07, p = 0.30. Thus, the participants exhibited no loss aversion in this experience-based choice task.
Differently from Study 1, the correlation between risky choices in the two task conditions was close to zero (r = −0.02, p = 0.91). This is consistent with previous results showing that consistency across domains is impaired when there is no sure thing alternative (Yechiam and Ert, 2011).
Scatter plots of risk taking proportions by pre-task PD appear in Figure 3. As illustrated in the figure, individuals with high pre-task PD tended to take less risk in the Mixed condition. In the Gain condition a surprising reverse trend was observed: those with higher pre-task PD actually took more risk. Correlation analyses showed that in the Mixed condition the pre-task PD was negatively correlated with the proportion of risky choices, r = −0.37, p = 0.04 (one tailed), while in the Gain condition, pre-task PD was positively correlated with risky choices, r = 0.47, p = 0.02.
Figure 3. Scatter plot and regression lines of the proportion of risky selections across trials by pre-task PD in Study 2. Top: Mixed condition. Bottom: Gain condition.
We examined whether the positive effect found in the Gain condition is a product of boredom at the end of the task. Previous findings suggest that in monotonous tasks that have little cognitive requirement, individuals with moderate levels of arousal seek to maintain their arousal (Fischer et al., 2008). One way to increase arousal may be to explore both alternatives and thus to also take risk (see Iglesias-Parro et al., 2001). Possibly, this situation was more likely to develop in the Gain condition because losses are more arousing. Also, recall that the task in Study 2 was more monotonic than in Study 1 because of the gain–loss–gain–loss pattern. In the first half of the task, the negative correlation for the Mixed condition remained about the same, r = −0.41, p = 0.05. By contrast, the positive correlation in the Gain task was found to be non-significant, r = 0.30, p = 0.17. Thus, consistent with the boredom-based explanation, the positive correlation for the Gain condition emerged only in the second half of the task (Gain: r = 43, p = 0.04; Mixed: r = −0.40, p = 0.06). For both halves of the task, the negative correlation predicted by personality theories was only apparent when the risk involved losses, and this was found simultaneously with no loss aversion.
We also examined gender differences in the studied variables. The pre-task PD in women (Mean = 4.59 mm, SD = 1.59) was larger than that of the men (Mean = 3.92 mm, SD = 0.85) but not in a significant manner, t(21) = 1.24, p = 0.22. Additionally, there were no significant gender differences in the proportion of risky selections in the Mixed and Gain conditions. In fact, when aggregating the results across the two studies, the PD for both genders was quite similar (mean difference of 0.09 mm).
To examine the interpretation that the positive correlation in the Gain condition was a product of low task demands, we replicated Study 2 with time pressure and a secondary requirement to perform an arithmetic task between choice trials. We expected to replicate the negative correlation observed in Study 2 for risky losses, but not the positive correlation observed for risky gains.
Forty undergraduate students from the Technion (20 women and 20 men) participated in the experiment. Their average age was 24 (ranging from 19 to 28). Participants were given a fixed fee and were also compensated according to the number of points earned in the experimental task, with a conversion rate of 0.1 Israeli Shekel per 1 point earned.
The decision task consisted of two buttons and two counters, as in Study 2. Participants performed 30 trials in each of the two experimental conditions (Mixed and Gain). The order of the Mixed and Gain task conditions was counter-balanced so that half of the participants performed each task first. The choice outcomes were as in Study 2. The participants received no prior information concerning the choice outcomes, and learned to make choices from their experience. An arithmetic task was administered along with the decision task, as follows.
In each trial participants made their decision and afterward performed an arithmetic task. They were required to accomplish both tasks in 7.5 s, and failure to do so resulted in a loss of three points. The arithmetic problems were presented in the upper section of the screen. The answers were typed using a virtual keypad. The task involved adding or multiplying a single-digit number with a two-digit number. The exact numbers were randomly generated in each trial (the single-digit number was chosen from a uniform distribution ranging from 2 to 6, and the two-digit number was chosen from a uniform distribution ranging from 10 to 17). If participants answered the arithmetic question incorrectly they received an "incorrect answer" feedback but could give other answers within the 7.5 s time window. The task included a time meter which noted the time left until the end of each trial. When participants answered the arithmetic problem correctly the screen elements of that task were darkened. Each participant was randomly allocated to receive either addition or multiplication questions. As the allocation of the participants into the addition or multiplication questions had no effect on the studied correlations, we pooled across this manipulation.
Pre-task pupil size was examined as in Study 1. Due to a technical problem we did not get pre-task results from one of the participants, leaving a total of 39 participants.
We first examined the difference between risk taking patterns in the Mixed and Gain conditions. As in Study 2, the proportion of risky selections in the two task conditions was quite similar, 0.46 (SD = 0.19) in the Mixed condition and 0.46 in the Gain condition (SD = 0.25), t(37) = 0.02, p = 0.98. Scatter plots of risk taking proportions by pre-task arousal levels (in PD) appear in Figure 4. In the Mixed condition the participants' pre-task PD was negatively correlated with the proportion of risky selections (r = −0.34, p = 0.02, one tailed). However, in the Gain condition there was no significant correlation between the two measures (r = 0.07, p = 0.33, one tailed). Thus, the positive association in the Gain condition found in Studies 1 and 2 did not emerge in a statistically significant manner in Study 33.
To sum up, in this study where the decision task was performed with moderate time pressure and with an additional cognitive requirement, we replicated the negative correlation between tonic PD and risk taking with losses. However, as opposed to Study 2, there was no positive association between arousal and risk taking in the gain domain. The findings are therefore consistent with the prediction of the attentional model of losses, which implies that losses do not reverse the association between tonic PD and risk taking but rather, accentuate it.
Several theories of personality and traits predict a negative association between arousal level and risk taking (e.g., Zuckerman et al., 1964; Gray, 1987; Zuckerman, 1990; Eysenck, 1992). Though the exact mechanisms that lead to this negative correlation are different in each theory, their general idea is similar: they suggest that people exhibiting lower levels of internal arousal seek stimulation by taking risk. Here, we hypothesized that the negative association between tonic arousal and risk taking would be enhanced in risks with losses, due to the simple fact that losses increase arousal and on-task attention (Yechiam and Hochman, 2011).
The results of our three pupillometry studies supported the predicted moderating effect of losses. In Study 1 we have shown that in a loss-domain task there was a significant negative correlation between pre-task PD and the proportion of risky selections. In an equivalent gain domain task this negative correlation was much lower and not statistically significant. In Study 2 we examined whether these effects of losses on arousal–behavior relationship are due to loss aversion. For this purpose we studied a previous pupillometry database (Hochman and Yechiam, 2011) which included a choice task with symmetric gains and losses, and an equivalent task in the gain domain. While the participants showed no loss aversion on average, a negative correlation between pre-task arousal and risk taking was only observed in the condition with losses.
Somewhat surprisingly, in this second study we found that across all trials there was a positive correlation between pre-task arousal and risk taking in the gain domain. We argued, however, this positive association did not represent a general pattern. This was supported by a block by block analysis, which showed that the positive association only appeared in the second half of the task. We explicitly examined this assertion in Study 3, where we showed that administering the decision task in a more demanding environment (involving time pressure and a secondary task) eliminated the positive correlation in the gain domain. In this study, as in Study 1, in the absence of losses there was a zero correlation between arousal and risk taking, and the addition of losses produced a negative correlation between these measures.
We proposed that the negative correlation between tonic arousal and risk taking in the conditions with losses reflects the effect of losses on arousal and attention. This explanation was supported by our findings that losses led to significantly elevated pupil size and response time compared to equivalent gains during the decision task. Our results are consistent with past findings on the effect of losses on arousal (e.g., Hochman and Yechiam, 2011).
Taken together, the current results suggest that losses are an inherent part of what makes things risky. Indeed, the dictionary definition of risk equates it with loss. For example, In Merriam Webster (2011) risk's first definition is "possibility of loss or injury (peril)." Similarly, the Oxford English Dictionary (OED, 1982) defines risk as "hazard, danger, exposure to mischance, or peril." Indeed, while there is some disagreement about the ancient origin of the word, it is considered to have come to the English language from the French word risque, and in this language it was adapted from Italian risco, which stands for "navigating among dangerous rocks" (Timmerman, 1986). In Hebrew the word "sikun" which denotes risk is derived from sakana, or danger. The economic definition of risk, which is based on the variance of the outcomes and is almost universally accepted as a way of operationally defining risk, ignores the relation between risk and losses.
Here we have shown that losses matter. When individuals with low tonic arousal take risk they only do so for risks that involve losses. Therefore, in adjusting their behavioral responses to their arousal states, people "acknowledge" things as risky only when losses are part of them. In risks that do not include losses, the link between arousal and risk taking is severed. We have also shown that this property of losses does not depend on loss aversion, and emerges in experience-based tasks, where typically and in our study as well, no loss aversion is exhibited (Erev et al., 2008). Thus, the studied effect of losses appears to be quite general. We have therefore suggested that it may be due to the effect of losses on arousal and attention, rather than due to an asymmetry in decision weights.
Our findings do not preclude, however, that there may be other factors which can serve as cues that a given situation is risky. Possibly, after a prolonged learning period individuals may learn to associate an alternative producing relative gains and relative-losses (or small gains) as risky. Yet in our study this did not happen in the course of 100 repeated choice trials. Factors such as the size of the relative-loss could play a part in this. Another important limitation of the current studies is the small sample sizes used. This issue is especially pertinent in the context of examining individual differences (see e.g., Stanovich and West, 2008).
The current findings may explain some of the mixed findings in the literature on the association between physiological indices of tonic arousal and sensation seeking. Gerra et al.'s (1999) study of healthy adults demonstrated a positive association between NE concentration and sensation seeking on Zuckerman et al.'s (1964) scale, whereas similar studies of clinical populations reported negative correlations (Ballenger et al., 1983; Arque et al., 1988; Zuckerman, 1994). Studies of tonic endocrine levels in pathological gamblers also obtained mixed results (Ramirez et al., 1988; Roy et al., 1988; Schmitt et al., 1998). The Sensation Seeking Scale is a list of activities (e.g., "I would like to take the sport of water skiing," "I would not like to learn to fly an airplane") without explicit information concerning the perceived outcomes of those activities. Possibly, some individuals find these activities more dangerous; and this activates the negative association between tonic arousal and risk taking. Yet for others who find these activities less dangerous, this may not occur.
The current findings may also be relevant to the issue of risk communication. The experimental results suggest that presenting the negative side effect of risky products (e.g., cigarets) is a double edged sword. On the one hand, it reduces the attractiveness of the risky alternative; but on the other hand it may increase the arousal associated with it and this can actually attract some individuals.
This research was supported in part by the European Commission Integrated Project IP-SKILLS-35005.
^In later writings Zuckerman (1990) maintained the idea of a negative association between arousal level and sensation seeking but focused on the complex interaction between the high reactivity of the dopaminergic system and the weakly reactive serotonergic system.
^Note that as shown in Figure 1 there was a (non-significant) difference in PD before obtaining losses and gains. This is to be expected given the fact that the participants knew they were about to face losses.
^An examination of possible gender effects revealed that the pupil size of women (Mean = 3.83 mm., SD = 0.83) was not significantly different from that of the men [Mean = 4.02 mm., SD = 1.08], t(37) = 0.59, p = 0.56. There were also no significant gender differences in risk taking both in the Mixed and Gain conditions.
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Keywords: risk, arousal, experience, decision, personality, individual differences, pupil
Citation: Yechiam E and Telpaz A (2011) To take risk is to face loss: a tonic pupillometry study. Front. Psychology 2:344. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00344
Received: 18 September 2011; Paper pending published: 17 October 2011;
Accepted: 03 November 2011; Published online: 22 November 2011.
Itzhak Aharon, The Interdisciplinary Center, Israel
Davide Marchiori, Technion, Israel
Shira Elqayam, De Montfort University, UK
Copyright: © 2011 Yechiam and Telpaz. This is an open-access article subject to a non-exclusive license between the authors and Frontiers Media SA, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in other forums, provided the original authors and source are credited and other Frontiers conditions are complied with.
*Correspondence: Eldad Yechiam, Faculty of Industrial Engineering and Management, Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel. e-mail: yeldad@tx.technion.ac.il
The Neuroscience and Psychophysiology of Experience-Based Decisions


Amid the ongoing clamour surrounding the protest by FTII students at the IFFI in Panaji, former students of the institute have appealed to the government to intervene to solve the issue and ensure students' safety and security during the 46th edition of the prestigious festival.
A statement by ex-students of the Pune-based Film and Television Institute of India (FTII) and FTII Students' Association on Sunday emphasises that the International Film Festival of India (IFFI) was an important "academic activity" for students, and they should not be deprived of it.
"Having created all the possible obstacles in stopping students from taking part in IFFI, the director of FTII is responsible for the students at IFFI," the statement read.
This comes after two former FTII students were arrested for protesting over the appointment of actor and BJP member Gajendra Chauhan at the inaugural venue of the 11-day film gala in the presence of union ministers Arun Jaitley and Manohar Parrikar.
In another instance, Ashutosh, an FTII student, also claimed that he was detained by police on Saturday for wearing a T-shirt with an FTII logo.
The statement further read: "Also we, the ex-students and the students of FTII, appeal to the ministry to stop victimising the students and ensure their safety and security during the duration of the festival.
FTII students staged a 139-day strike from June 12 in protest against the appointment of Chauhan as the institute director, claiming that the artiste lacked credentials for the position.
They later called off the strike, saying their opposition over the appointment would continue in a "democratic way".


Bill Winters, the former co-chief executive officer of JPMorgan Chase & Co. (JPM)'s investment bank, said banks misled municipal officials into buying derivatives they didn't understand.
Asked in an interview on PBS Frontline's "Money, Power and Wall Street" if he held banks responsible for leading less sophisticated investors such as the Italian city of Cassino down the wrong path, he concurred.
Cassino, an Italian town that entered an interest rate swap with Bear Stearns Cos. in 2003, was left with a 577,000-euro ($760,000) loss after reaching a settlement with JPMorgan, which bought Bear Stearns in 2008, according to documents obtained by Bloomberg News under a court ruling.


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Photos showing the construction of drainage tunnels. We keep referring to the tunnel as a tunnel, but as many of you might already know, the Deck Park Tunnel isn't technically a tunnel at all. It's actually made up of 19 bridges that are lined up side by side, creating a tunnel effect for motorists.
But there are actual, honest-to-goodness tunnels that were dug during the project.
They're massive and they were constructed underground to serve downtown Phoenix's drainage needs since the new section of I-10 interrupted the storm drains that were in place. According to "The Final Mile," a document published by ADOT to commemorate the completion of Interstate 10, crews created a drainage tunnel system measuring a length of about 6.5 miles. For 5.2 of those miles, the tunnel measures 21 feet in diameter and for 1.3 miles, the tunnel is 14 feet in diameter (we told you they're massive!).
Ron Romley retired from ADOT in 1992, but served as ADOT's project manager during the drainage tunnel project and oversaw the contractors who did the digging.
You better believe that digging wasn't done with shovels (referred to as "muck sticks" by the contractors. "All those guys in the tunneling industry talk in a different language," Romley said. "There was lot of nomenclature that I had to learn.").
There was a machine that did the work – two of them, actually, each with a different diameter capacity. Built in Japan, the tunneling machines were disassembled and shipped to California, loaded onto trucks and brought to Arizona for reassembly.
A porthole was dug so the tunneling machine could be lowered down to the correct elevation. Once it was in place, the excavation began.
"It was quite an operation," said Romley, who besides overseeing the construction also gave tunnel tours to the public during the construction, which you can see in the photos above. "That was the neatest project of my whole career. It was the most challenging and the most rewarding to me as an engineer."


text:
Andy Federico Preciado Madrigal (* 12. Oktober 1997 in Rioverde) ist ein ecuadorianischer Leichtathlet, der sich auf den Zehnkampf spezialisiert hat.

Sportliche Laufbahn
Erste internationale Erfahrungen sammelte Andy Preciado im Jahr 2014, als er bei den Jugendsüdamerikameisterschaften in Cali mit 7007 Punkten die Goldmedaille gewann. Zwei Jahre später siegte er mit 7162 Punkten bei den U23-Südamerikameisterschaften in Lima und 2017 konnte er seinen Wettkampf bei den Südamerikameisterschaften in Luque nicht beenden. 2018 nahm er an den Südamerikaspielen in Cochabamba teil und belegte dort mit 6796 Punkten den sechsten Platz. Anschließend gewann er bei den U23-Südamerikameisterschaften in Cuenca mit übersprungenen 2,05 m die Silbermedaille im Hochsprung hinter dem Brasilianer Jorge Luis da Graça. 2019 konnte er seinen Wettkampf bei den Südamerikameisterschaften in Lima nicht beenden und auch bei den anschließenden Panamerikanischen Spielen ebendort musste er nach dem ersten Wettkampftag aufgeben. 2021 siegte er dann mit neuem Landesrekord von 8004 Punkten bei den Südamerikameisterschaften im heimischen Guayaquil. Im Jahr darauf gewann er bei den Juegos Bolivarianos in Valledupar mit 7966 Punkten die Goldmedaille und musste anschließend seinen Wettkampf bei den Weltmeisterschaften in Eugene vorzeitig beenden. Im Oktober sicherte er sich bei den Südamerikaspielen in Asunción mit 7679 Punkten die Silbermedaille hinter dem Brasilianer Felipe dos Santos.

Persönliche Bestleistungen
 Hochsprung: 2,13 m, 5. Juni 2018 in Cochabamba
 Zehnkampf: 8004 Punkte, 31. Mai 2021 in Guayaquil (ecuadorianischer Rekord)

Weblinks

Hochspringer (Ecuador)
Zehnkämpfer (Ecuador)
Teilnehmer an den Panamerikanischen Spielen (Ecuador)
Teilnehmer an den Südamerikaspielen (Ecuador)
Südamerikameister (Zehnkampf)
Ecuadorianer
Geboren 1997
Mann
Teilnehmer an den Bolivarian Games
Sieger bei den Juegos Bolivarianos

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


As a social worker, we are essentially given the opportunity to utilize our past and personal experiences, educational background, and diverse relationships to make a difference in countless people's lives. Whether we choose to dedicate ourselves to practicing micro or macro social work, we can influence the outcomes of social policies, assist clients with obtaining basic necessities, or change a person's thought processes by applying psychosocial theories as necessary. However, we are obligated to pay close attention to the ways in which we interact with our assigned clients, administer and assess outcomes of therapeutic interventions, and do what we think will ultimately benefit our client's well-being. Considering that a Master's in Social Work is a professional position, general practitioner's guidelines must be followed; hence the purpose of the NASW Code of Ethics, the CSWE Educational Policy and Standards, and precise HIPAA adherence.


According to the National Academy of Engineering, a core need for engineers today is to be able to work with a diverse, multinational, multidisciplinary workforce. Accordingly, colleges of engineering must develop strategies to graduate engineers ready for this global and diverse job market. Actions taken by colleges of engineering to add global preparedness to their curriculum are add-ons to the core curriculum, such as optional study-abroad programs, elective courses, minors, and certificates, and have only reached a small percentage of the students and/or sometimes have not proven sufficient for today's and future demand. Therefore, most engineering students in the United States are graduating not fully prepared to engage with the global job market they will be part of. The purpose of this study was to identify the intercultural maturity level, as determined by the Intercultural Maturity Framework, of students in the College of Engineering at Texas A&M when exposed to intercultural concepts in relation to cognitive, intrapersonal and interpersonal development. Therefore, as a result, understand how students come to appreciate cultural differences to interact effectively with different others is important. This qualitative study followed the Naturalist inquiry paradigm and used the interpretive method relying on information from interviews, documents and reports. The population for this study was the eight students enrolled in the Global Engineering Design Class during Fall 2014. The results of this study showed that this global course had a positive impact on students' intercultural maturity development. The engineering project the company provided linked their cultural learning to the engineering workplace reality. The cultural assignments and the work with the Brazilian students awakened the global interest of the students who had not traveled abroad, and it deepened the cultural understanding of the students who had traveled abroad. Most of the students who return from a study-abroad experience believe it was a life changing experience, but when they talk to potential employers about this experience, they describe the experience with the superficial "touristy" activities they took part in while abroad. In contrast, after the Global Engineering Design class, students described this experience in a less "life changing" manner. Interestingly, they were able to articulate, when describing the experience, their learning and what they will bring to the work environment from this experience.
Barbato Alves, Maria Claudia (2017). Preparing Engineering College Students for a Culturally Diverse Global Job Market. Doctoral dissertation, Texas A & M University. Available electronically from http : / /hdl .handle .net /1969 .1 /165705.


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Why Vessels Prefer Lagos Ports - Politics - Nairaland
Nairaland Forum / Nairaland / General / Politics / Why Vessels Prefer Lagos Ports (234 Views)
Joy As Sanity Gradually Returns To Lagos Ports / Maerskline Plans To Dump Lagos Ports For Onne Port, Stakeholders React / Why Vessels Avoid Eastern Ports — NPA Boss (2) (3) (4)
Why Vessels Prefer Lagos Ports by delpee(f): 9:25am On Sep 11, 2022
Why vessels prefer Lagos to eastern ports – Naval spokesperson, Ayo-Vaughan
By Tunde Ajaja
AYO VAUGHAN
The Director of Information, Nigerian Navy, Commodore Adedotun Ayo-Vaughan, shares with TUNDE AJAJA efforts by the navy to curb crude oil theft, support sister agencies in the anti-terrorism fight and discipline in the service
The issue of crude oil theft has remained an intractable problem and the navy began the court-martialling of 13 naval officers for complicity in the menace, what is the outcome of that exercise?
The court-martial ended some months ago. It started last year and it was an allegation of complacency against some of our men. The report has been submitted and is being reviewed to know whatever verdict would be given to them or whether they were able to defend themselves. The navy is trying to do a quarterly publication of persons who committed very serious offences so that people would know that the navy is being purged of bad eggs. In every organisation, not all the eggs are good. However, the names of erring persons are usually released within the armed forces system. There are also instances where some people try to induce our men. I have served in the Niger Delta many times, so I know. However, we keep talking to our men and we remind them of the punishment that would be meted out to them if they are caught. The Chief of Defence (General Lucky Irabor) has also been very particular about what the men serving in the Niger Delta should not do, for the good of the environment, the country and the image of the Armed Forces. We welcome any report of compromise or involvement of our personnel, with facts, so the authorities could need the needful.
What is the solution to these leakages from the perspective of the navy, since you are on the field?
The solution I would propose is a look at the factors that occasion force majeure, the factors that bring about metering errors and problems, the things that need to be put in place for the effective surveillance of the pipelines, particularly technology. There are 3,000 creeks in Delta State and while I served in Operation Restore Hope in 2011, there were times you would send out men and if they didn't have a guide, they could get missing in the creeks. So, the knowledge of the creeks come into play and it's some of the locals that are siphoning the fuel because they know the area better than even security agents. So, how do we get these locals and other persons involved to be patriotic? How do we get these people to know they can do better rather than destroying pipelines? It has to be a reorientation and it has to involve the efforts of political leaders, traditional rulers, even though some of them are also compromised. The idea of looking for shortcuts and this get-rich-quick syndrome is a reflection of the larger society. There is also the issue of attitude to life. When the young people were getting stipends from the oil companies, somebody would have their name with different companies and after that, they would still threaten to sabotage the companies if they were not given more money. That mindset needs to change. Yes, the oil is yours but you are not going to drink the oil. We are still a federation. So, they need to get engaged and live moderately so they can sustain that lifestyle with legitimate income. It has to do with a lot of reorientation and education, which I believe is doable.
Due to the rate of pirate attacks on Nigerian waters, vessels going to the Niger Delta area were mandated to procure war insurance, yet Nigeria needs the eastern ports to decongest the Lagos ports. What's the situation at this time?
The Nigerian Navy in particular has been able to reduce to the barest minimum maritime piracy, such that for about five months, there has been no report of pirate attacks or violence in our offshore waters. However, I know that since the clean slate was given to the Nigerian maritime environment by the International Maritime Bureau, there are discussions at different levels to reverse that war insurance pronouncement. I have been to all the ports in the Niger Delta, not through the land but through the waterways. Lagos is the best in Nigeria because of accessibility. In six minutes you are in Apapa and six minutes you are out and you can do it 24/7, but when you move to Escravos, Warri, you need over one hour to enter. When you move to Calabar, it's the same thing. When you move to Port Harcourt, yes it's very smooth to Bonny but it's about 30 mins to 45 mins, depending on the speed of the vessel. So, for a seafarer or mariner, after spending two weeks at sea, you may not want to do another one hour to get to a certain port. I know the way we endured it when I served in those places. Insecurity may be one of the factors, but access is a key factor in those places. I know the governments of Akwa Ibom and Ondo states have conceptualised the need for a seaport like there are in Lagos. So, I believe efforts are being made to reverse this war insurance and to reduce the insurance premium for vessels coming to our waters.
Apart from fighting piracy and criminality on Nigerian waters, what role is the navy playing in the fight against insecurity in different parts of the country?
We are involved in anti-terrorism efforts and the navy plays a supportive role for many agencies, including our sister service like the army. A support element of the navy is with the army in Operation Hadin Kai in the North-East. We are also providing support for other operations in the North-West, North-Central and South-East. We collaborate with the Custom, particularly in the maritime domain. We collaborate with the Immigration, particularly at the maritime frontiers, like the frontiers with Cameroon. We even have a base there at Ibakar. We also work with the NSCDC. Majority of the over 100 suspects and oil thieves that have been arrested by the navy in the last six months were handed over to the NSCDC and we work with the Department of State Services. In the North-East for example, we have a complement of the navy, which is the navy special boat service, supporting the operations at the theatre. We have a Naval Base in Baga, Borno State. We also have our men in Operation Wild Punch. We have our men in Shagunu, Niger State, which is North-Central. They may not be as numerous as our colleagues in the army but they are there. We also have our naval base in Lake Chad, working with an amphibious brigade of the army in Maiduguri. The water has receded and there are a lot of islands here and there, and those places could be safe havens for the insurgents. So, we have a naval base on Lake Chad. In the North-East where there is a Civilian Joint Task Force, we also have our men there.
FG, agents bicker over eastern ports' overtime cargoes
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Importers shun eastern ports over insecurity, others – Shippers
Nigeria seems overwhelmed by insecurity currently, with the rate of killings and kidnapping in different parts of the country. How strong is the Nigerian navy?
We are a strong navy by all standards, particularly in the sub-region. The Nigerian navy remains the sub-regional maritime power. It's undisputed. In the last five years, the navy has been undergoing fleet recapitalisation. We have new platforms, we are expecting new platforms and we are doing our best to maintain the old ones we have. There is a move to refit the flagship of the nation, Nigerian Navy Ship Aradu. The senators are championing the case for her refit. Initially, it was thought not to be too economically viable, but for prestige reasons, they are making a case for her refit. As we speak, the Chief of Naval Staff will be travelling to Turkey soon for two offshore patrol vehicles that are being built there. There are also defence boats that are being built locally at the naval dockyard in Victoria Island, Lagos. They would be the fourth and fifth the navy is building. We have built three since we keyed into local content for ship building. We also took delivery of Nigerian Navy Ship Lana last year and she is carrying out a milestone, epoch-making task as we speak. She is surveying our offshore waters, which were last surveyed 200 years ago by the British. But with Lana, we are going to be producing our own charts. We don't need to rely on the British again. The flag off for the survey of our waters was done in June by NNS Lana, a survey ship built in France. A sister ship of ours is also being built in France. We have Aresa, Inshore and Offshore patrol craft that were built. So, if you put together the size of our fleet, and the number of ships in the sub-region, we are actually not at par and there is no basis for comparison. We also took delivery of NNS Kada, which is a landing ship transport, and is for humanitarian, disaster relief effort and for the sealift role for the army. NNS Kada is a replacement for NNS Ambe and Ofiom that were in service during the ECOMOG days but have been decommissioned. Since Kada came in, she had undertaken national assignments to Guinea Bissau to deliver logistics and materials to the Nigerian contingent that was part of the ECOWAS stabilisation support mission in Guinea Bissau after the coup that took place there. So, as we speak, the fleet is being recapitalised and we can only be grateful to the government of the day and Nigerian taxpayers, whose resources are being put into good use for the good of Nigeria.
Some Nigerians still fault the citing of a naval base in landlocked Kano State. Even though there are naval bases in similar states, what was the rationale behind it?
The one in Kano State is not the first. We have the Nigerian Navy School of Health and Medical Services, in Offa, Kwara State. We have the Nigerian Navy School of Armament Technology in Kachia, Kaduna State. There is the Nigerian Navy School of Music in Ota, Ogun State. The one in Kano is Nigerian Navy Logistics College. The reason why it was conceptualised was because we are involved in land operations now. The Nigerian Navy Total Spectrum Maritime Strategy makes provision for involvement in such operations, which means we are playing our primary role in the maritime sector, but we are playing a support role to land forces as Military Aid to Civil Power and Military Aid to Civil Authority, which is part of our constitutional mandate; MACA and MACP. In doing that, there was the need to have a logistics chain of supply for our men in those operations. Also, Kano being central is the reason why that was put in place and it's still undergoing construction. It also brings the navy close to the people in the north.
It has become common practice for military men and personnel of other security agencies to harass private citizens, what are you doing to end this menace because it breeds disgust for such agencies and undermines the support people are supposed to give such security agencies?
It's a very wrong mentality to do that and we keep educating our men. In the training school, we make the men understand that there are sister agencies that also have their distinct roles and are worthy of respect. So, we make them realise they are not superhuman beings and they need to recognise others. The present state of security has brought about inter-service comradeship and esprit de corps. With regard to the average Nigerian citizen, that issue has been there for a long time, but the effort is to keep educating them and making scapegoats of those that brutalise and manhandle people. We remind them that they would also remove the uniform one day. If for nothing, they have relatives that are civilians, so it is only necessary that people are accorded their respect as fellow citizens. We are working on it, and even at the strategic level higher than us, it's something of concern, because we are an apolitical military.
The President, Major General Muhammadu Buhari (retd.), was in Lagos on Thursday to inaugurate the Nigerian Navy Sports Complex and the 12th Nigerian Navy Games. What was the motivation for the sports complex?
The President was in Lagos to flag off the 12th Nigerian Navy Games and inaugurate the just completed Nigerian Navy Sports Complex at Navy Town, Ojo. It was the first of its kind. The idea of the sports complex was initiated by the former Chief of Naval Staff, Vice Admiral Ibok-Ete Ibas (retd.). The need was borne out of the fact that there are a lot of young people in the barracks, young sailors and children of the sailors and accessing any recreational facility is somewhat difficult because of the road and the way Satellite Town is now. In that axis, apart from the Ojo Cantonment and maybe some small places in FESTAC, except you go to Surulere, Teslim Balogun and the National Stadium before you could find a recreational facility. So, I believe that motivated the construction of the sports complex and it would be for the dwellers of Navy Town and that area. It's quite big, comprising the normal pitch for 400 metres, football field, indoor sports arena, swimming pool, and an arena for viewers. So, it's quite big and a lot was spent to realise it.
Re: Why Vessels Prefer Lagos Ports by SlavaUkraini: 9:26am On Sep 11, 2022
OP edit your post effectively...
You just copy and paste everything.... ?
Remove the unwanted details from your post..
Re: Why Vessels Prefer Lagos Ports by mrvitalis(m): 9:29am On Sep 11, 2022
We hear you . Container ships are scared to go to Niger Delta
But oil and gas vessels are not scared to go load oil and gas ?
Make Una tell us another story.....is there militancy attacks on the akwa cross region ? ...so you are saying if Niger Delta was a country no container vessel would land on their shore ?
Re: Why Vessels Prefer Lagos Ports by Nobody: 9:52am On Sep 11, 2022
Re: Why Vessels Prefer Lagos Ports by Thanksful: 10:38am On Sep 11, 2022
Stupid talk.
It will take a vessel 30 mins to 45 mins to get to Bonny. Because of 1 hr laps, the same ship prefer to wait for weeks to be cleared due to congestion at Lagos port because it can get their in 6 mins.
Omo! Our leaders are very stupid.
'ghost Soldiers' – Britain's Shadow War In West Africa / Video Dino Melaye Advise Peter Obi Ahead Of 2023 Election / I Am A Biafran, Asari Dokubo On A Video Interview

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Q: Post Request causes android.volley.NoConnectionError I'm trying to send data from my android app to my .NET core Web API on localhost.
The following is the error I get:
com.android.volley.NoConnectionError: javax.net.ssl.SSLHandshakeException: java.security.cert.CertPathValidatorException: Trust anchor for certification path not found.

The following is the code for post request on Android Studio using volley.
 submitBtn.setOnClickListener(new View.OnClickListener() {
            @Override
            public void onClick(View v) {
                RequestQueue requestQueue = Volley.newRequestQueue(ManualHubActivity.this);

                // 2 Create a post request
                String url = "https://10.103.79.15:44371/continous/Add-Json";
                StringRequest stringRequest = new StringRequest(Request.Method.POST, url, new Response.Listener<String>() {
                    @Override
                    public void onResponse(String s) {
                        editValue.setText(s);
                    }
                }, new Response.ErrorListener() {
                    @Override
                    public void onErrorResponse(VolleyError volleyError) {
                        editValue.setText("request was aborted" + volleyError);
                    }
                }) {
                    @Override
                    protected Map<String, String> getParams() throws AuthFailureError {

                        Map<String, String> map = new HashMap<String, String>();
                        map.put("UserID","205");
                        map.put("Value","205");
                        map.put("ReadtingType","205");

                        return map;
                    }
                };

                // 3 take post Request added to queue
                requestQueue.add(stringRequest);

            }

        });
    }

A: This error occurs when your device's api is less than 19
try to add this function before your connection :
@SuppressLint("TrulyRandom")
public static void handleSSLHandshake() {
    try {
        TrustManager[] trustAllCerts = new TrustManager[]{new X509TrustManager() {
            public X509Certificate[] getAcceptedIssuers() {
                return new X509Certificate[0];
            }

            @Override
            public void checkClientTrusted(X509Certificate[] certs, String authType) {
            }

            @Override
            public void checkServerTrusted(X509Certificate[] certs, String authType) {
            }
        }};

        SSLContext sc = SSLContext.getInstance("SSL");
        sc.init(null, trustAllCerts, new SecureRandom());
        HttpsURLConnection.setDefaultSSLSocketFactory(sc.getSocketFactory());
        HttpsURLConnection.setDefaultHostnameVerifier(new HostnameVerifier() {
            @Override
            public boolean verify(String arg0, SSLSession arg1) {
                return true;
            }
        });
    } catch (Exception ignored) {
    }
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Food and Drugs Administration officials last week said that formaldehyde, a powerful disinfectant used to preserve corpses, was used to preserve fish.
"Yesterday, I was kept quiet. But since fish is a staple food, I had to say that ''Don''t worry, I am monitoring myself''. I think that was required, because people stopped eating fish. How can Goans live without fish?" Mr Parrikar queried at a conference in Panaji.
After a raid on outstation fish consignments, Food and Drugs Administration (FDA) officials last week claimed that formaldehyde, a powerful disinfectant used to preserve corpses, was used to preserve fish.
The controversy snowballed after Agriculture Minister Vijai Sardesai tweeted that the fish was fit for consumption, following which the FDA in a statement said that the chemical was "within permissible limits".
Fish markets over the last few days wore a desolate look following the controversy.


Sciatica is no laughing matter. The pain shooting down your leg can be severe. If you are looking for relief from sciatica, Springfield Chiropractic Clinic has what you need. We offer a wide variety of chiropractic and nutritional procedures and modalities to help you achieve optimal health through natural, safe, and effective care with a personal touch. Our state-of-the-art Springfield wellness center, founded by Dr. Timothy Wenneborg, DC, who has 24 years of extensive training in the most advanced chiropractic techniques, is dedicated to the health, vitality and well-being of each and every one of our patients. Our care includes strategies for Springfield pain management. Our dedication to your care and comfort in a friendly and welcoming environment is what makes us unique. Our goal is to serve the our community with whole body health. We treat a multitude of musculoskeletal conditions using complete chiropractic care, spinal rehabilitation, nutrition and weight loss, cold laser therapy, natural hormone replacement, and a full service clinic.
Sciatica, also called lumbar radiculopathy, is a term that describes symptoms of pain, numbness, and/or weakness that radiate along the sciatic nerve from the lower back to the buttocks and leg. The pain from sciatica can range from a constant, dull pain to an excruciating and debilitating condition. Most of sciatica symptoms result from lower back disorders between the L4 (fourth lumbar vertebra) and S1 (first sacral) levels that put pressure on or cause irritation to a lumbar nerve root. Depending on where the sciatic nerve roots are compressed, symptoms may be felt in different areas of the leg and into the foot. Most commonly, sciatica is caused by a disc problem, such as a herniated disc that is pressing against a nerve root. It can also occur when a disc degenerates, which releases inflammatory proteins that irritate the adjacent nerve. There are also times when hypertonic hip muscles, most often the lateral hip rotator piriformis muscle, compress the sciatic nerve resulting in sciatica pain. Sciatica symptoms are typically felt on only one side of the body. They may include a combination of leg and foot pain, weakness, tingling or numbness. Here at Springfield Chiropractic Clinic, we provide lasting Springfield pain management of your sciatica pain.
One of our Springfield pain management strategies are our chiropractic adjustments. Diversified spinal and extremity adjustments is one of the most widely used forms of adjustment in chiropractic care. This hands-on technique helps create motion in spinal joints with the goal of restoring structure and function. Extremity adjustments are adjustments to joints that are not contained in the spine. Once restoration of motion has been returned to the extremity, there is often reduced pain, improved motion, relaxed muscles, reduced nerve interference and promotion of healing. Another option to control your pain is cold laser therapy. This non-invasive, non-thermal, fast and painless treatment uses low levels lasers to heal and strengthen tissue. Give us a call today to discuss your best treatment options.
Are you in pain? Do you need to see a doctor for Springfield pain management? At Springfield Chiropractic Clinic, we offer a wide variety of chiropractic and nutritional procedures and modalities to help you achieve optimal health through natural, safe, and effective care with a personal touch. Our state-of-the-art Springfield wellness center, founded by Dr. Timothy Wenneborg, DC, is dedicated to the health, vitality and well-being of each and every one of our patients. Our goal is to serve our community with whole body health. We treat a multitude of musculoskeletal conditions including complete chiropractic care, spinal adjustments and rehabilitation, back and neck pain, nutrition and weight loss, cold laser therapy, natural hormone replacement, and a full service clinic. We also have a convenient on-site x-ray facility which helps our staff treat you effectively and quickly.
The cause of most pain can be traced back to compressed nerves all along the spine. One excellent treatment is manual adjustments of the vertebrae to realign the spine and relieve nerve entrapment. Diversified spinal and extremity adjustments are among the most widely used forms of adjustment for Springfield pain management. This hands-on technique helps create motion in spinal joints with the goal of restoring structure and function. Extremity adjustments are adjustments to joints that are not contained in the spine. Once restoration of motion has been returned to the affected area, there is often reduced pain, improved motion, relaxed muscles, reduced nerve interference and promotion of healing.
Springfield pain management also includes the use of cold laser therapy. Whether you have chronic or acute pain, cold laser therapy is a highly effective treatment that can provide relief. This non-invasive, non-thermal, fast and painless treatment uses low levels lasers to heal and strengthen tissue. And if your pain is caused by your feet, Dr. Wenneborg can fit you for orthotics. Orthotics are shoe inserts that are custom made to fit each patient's specific needs and to treat painful conditions such as flat feet, heel spurs, plantar fasciitis and neuromas. Orthotics are intended to correct an abnormal or irregular walking pattern, by slightly altering the angles at which the foot strikes a walking or running surface. If you are looking for someone to treat your pain with effective strategies, years of experience, and a gentle touch, call us for an appointment today.


Home > Boards & Boxes > Cake Cards > Single Thickness Square Cake Card - 7"
Single Thickness Square Cake Card - 7"
Use this 7" silver foil square cake card to provide support to your celebration or stacked wedding cakes.
The cake card is sturdy but lightweight, and can simply be popped under your cake before you begin to decorate.
The card measures 7" in width and 1.7mm in thickness. We also have a double thickness version available for even more support and strength.
These cake cards are available in a range of sizes and shapes.


My latest paper "The rise of the blogspert: biopedagogy, self-knowledge, and lay expertise on women's healthy living blogs" in Social Theory & Health is now available for reading online at this link. This paper reveals how blogs function as teaching tools about health and answers the question of how everyday women are able to position themselves as health experts on blogs.
Thank you to SSHRC for awarding me a 2019 Postdoctoral Fellowship to study women's leadership in food security organizations. Read more about that project here.
Thank you to SSHRC for awarding us a 2019 Connection Grant (with co-applicants Belinda Leach, Gwen Chapman and Samantha Brennan) to host a workshop on inclusivity in universities. Read more about that project here.
Thank you to CAIS for awarding us a 2019-2020 School Innovation Grant (with co-applicant Richard Prosser) to study how high school students develop leadership competencies. Read more about that project here.
I'll be presenting as a plenary speaker at the Eighth International Conference on Food Studies in Vancouver, BC on October 25-26th, 2018. The conference has a special focus on digital food cultures.
Our profile of the University of Toronto's Innovation Hub is in the new issue of Communique (co-authored with Julia Smeed, Heather Kelly and David Newman). We describe how new university services can be designed with students, based on a understanding their needs, using design thinking methodology.
New article, "Disrupting Power Norms to Empower Students: Four Perspectives," in Communique, the journal of the Canadian Association of College and University Student Services, written with Jacqueline Beaulieu, Margaryta Ignatenko and Julia Smeed.
Blog post by Dr. Josée Johnston: "Hats off to Dr. Alexandra Rodney!"


text:
Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa (UAL; Autonomous University of Lisbon) is a private university located in Lisbon, the capital of Portugal.  UAL was founded on December 13, 1985.

Its seat is in the Palace of the Counts of Redondo.

History
The Autonomous University of Lisbon is a private university recognized by the Portuguese government.

The university was created by the Cooperativa de Ensino Universitário (CEU) on December 13, 1985, which is responsible for the economic and financial management of the university.

As mentor of the project, the CEU has participated in the creation of mechanisms that allow for the conception of research as a methodological process and source of knowledge, acting in the field of postgraduate degrees, through activities, both in the acquisition of academic degrees and in the achievement of skills for the world of work.

The university provides advanced training for doctoral and master's students, under the Educational Development Program for Portugal (Prodep II). UAL also has a range of support services in the didactic-pedagogical sphere, as well as in the area of support services, namely: Access to food in canteens and bars, prints, bibliographic and computer support, exemption or reduction of tuition fees, insurance scholarships, support for internships and management of careers or sporting and cultural activities.

In 2015, it served as the setting for the recordings of the TVI soap opera «A Única Mulher».

Erasmus
The Institutional International Relations Office (GRII) coordinates UAL's participation in international student and teacher mobility programs and networks through the Erasmus program, and protocols with universities outside Europe, with particular emphasis on Brazil.

Mobility students have the possibility of receiving a monthly scholarship whose value varies depending on the country (minimum scholarship: 200 Euros/month), they do not pay fees at the host universities and receive a 50% reduction in the fees they continue to pay at UAL. Students who go to Brazil, or other countries outside Europe with which UAL is registered, do not receive a scholarship because it is an extra Erasmus mobility, but have a 75% reduction in the payment of tuition fees at UAL.

Noted alumni
António José Seguro

Gallery

External links
 Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa

References

Lis
Educational institutions established in 1985
Education in Lisbon
1985 establishments in Portugal


This position is responsible to assist in all phases of a competitive women's intercollegiate basketball program in compliance with NCAA, Northeast Conference and institutional rules and regulations. This position is one of three assistant coaches reporting to the Head Women's Basketball Coach.
1.Effectively assist in coaching a competitive basketball program in a manner, which promotes sportsmanship among athletes, ensuring compliance with all NCAA conference, Northeast Conference, and institutional rules and regulations.
2.Effectively assist in recruiting qualified student athletes to participate in the University's athletic program, and effectively promote Bryant University academic and athletic programs to potential students.
3.Ensure that players associated with the basketball program are eligible under NCAA and Northeast Conference regulations.
4.Assist in developing and implementing clinic(s), summer camp(s), and on-campus tryouts.
5.Effectively monitor student athlete academic progress; refer or counsel where appropriate, and motivate the athlete.
6.Perform other duties as assigned.
This position is filled best by an individual with an undergraduate degree and related collegiate basketball experience including successful recruiting, coaching and counseling student athletes. Excellent oral and written communication skills are needed to motivate and supervise athletes and students. A thorough understanding of and experience with NCAA and Northeast Conference rules and regulations is critical. The ability to manage multiple tasks is essential. Knowledge of related computer applications is important. A valid driver's license is required for travel. This position has non-standard hours.
For 155 years, Bryant University has been at the forefront of delivering exceptional education that anticipates the future and prepares students to be innovative leaders of character in a changing world. Bryant delivers an innovative, uniquely integrated business and liberal arts education that inspires students to excel. With approximately 3,700 graduate and undergraduate students from 38 states and 53 countries, Bryant is recognized as a leader in international education and regularly receives top rankings from U.S. News and World Report, Bloomberg Businessweek, Forbes, and Barron's. Abundant co-curricular opportunities, service learning programs, internships, and practicums allow students to put theory into practice while building character and leadership skills. Athletics and recreation play an integral role in the health and well-being of Bryant students, whether competing on one of Bryant's 22 NCAA D1 varsity teams, taking part in a club or intramural sport, or just enjoying the Bulldog school spirit. Bryant is dedicated to the success of our faculty and staff, and the school provides excellent benefits, training, and support so that individual talents may flourish f...or the benefit of its students. Bryant's academic and technological excellence and innovation foster the development of individuals so each can reach his or her personal best in life and their profession. The University is located approximately 15 minutes from Providence and one hour from Boston.