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The Adaptation Challenge: Key issues for crop production and agricultural livelihoods under climate change in the Russian Federation
Climate change has serious implications for global food production and food security. This report uses data on current changes and future scenarios to examine possible impacts on crop production in the Russian Federation. It considers what measures Russia might need to make to achieve its aim of playing a leading role in ensuring global food security. Oxfam carried out interviews with farmers in Russia to research ways in which they are adapting to new climatic conditions and to identify the problems those conditions are posing, particularly to smallholders. This report considers what more should be done to support their efforts to boost their resilience and contribute to national food security.
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OXFAM RESEARCH REPORTS OCTOBER 2012
THE ADAPTATION
Key issues for crop production and agricultural
livelihoods under climate change in the Russian
Worker with combine harvester, Rubtsovsk, Altay Krai, 2011. Photo: Anna Moiseenko
Climate change has serious implications for global food production and food security.
Part One of this report uses scientific data on current changes and future scenarios to
examine possible impacts on crop production in the Russian Federation. It considers
what measures Russia might need to implement to achieve its desired aim of playing a
leading role in ensuring global food security. Part Two uses interviews with farmers to
highlight ways in which they are adapting to new climatic conditions, but also the
problems those conditions are posing, particularly to smallholders. It considers what
more should be done to support their efforts to boost their resilience and contribute to
national food security.
Oxfam Research Reports are written to share research results, to contribute to public debate
and to invite feedback on development and humanitarian policy and practice. They do not nec-
essarily reflect Oxfam policy positions. The views expressed are those of the author and not
necessarily those of Oxfam.
www.oxfam.org
Executive Summary ...................................................................... 3
Main findings of the report ....................................................................................................... 3
Recommended measures to increase the resilience of Russian agriculture for adaptation to
climate change .......................................................................................................................... 5
Part 1 .............................................................................................. 7
1.1 Characteristics of changing climate .................................................................................... 8
1.2 Current and near-future climate change impacts on crop production ............................. 12
1.3 Long-term climate change impacts on crop production ................................................... 17
Part 2 ............................................................................................ 22
2.1 Solitary struggle: farmers facing climate change in the Russian regions .......................... 23
Annex 1: List of participants .................................................................................................... 34
Annex 2: Questionnaire for semi-structured interviews......................................................... 36
Bibliography ............................................................................................................................ 37
Notes ....................................................................................................................................... 38
2 The Adaptation Challenge: Key issues for crop production and livelihoods under climate change in the
Russia is ready to assume a leading role in addressing yet another global task food security.
We should not allow food shortages or excessive price hikes on world food, which is
something we have witnessed in recent years. Russia, with its vast crop areas, the largest in the
world, has significant capabilities. We invite all investors, all potential partners to cooperate in
this sphere.
Dmitry Medvedev, Prime Minister of the Russian Federation at Rio+20, June 2012
Agriculture has simply fallen out of favour. Everyone has rushed to earn money no one thinks
about developing agriculture [any more]. I hope new people will come into farmingThis is what
has happened to nature: social and economic changes go hand in hand with climate changes
Elena, female, 42, self-employed farmer, Altay Republic
In the face of the threat of climate change, can Russia use its resources and play a key role in
ensuring global food security? This research report provides an analysis of the impacts of
current and future climate change on crop production in Russia, and on Russias aspiration to
become a leading global food producer.
The report is comprised of two parts. The first aims at assessing the extent of the actual and
potential impacts of climate changes on crop production in the Russian Federation and also
what potential Russia has to supply agricultural products to the world market under certain
projected climate conditions. The second is an analysis of the results of qualitative research
based on interviews with smallholder farmers from Altay Republic (West Siberia economic
area), Republic of Buryatia (Eastern Siberia economic area) and Krasnodar region (North
Caucasus economic area). The choice of the regions was determined by the role that farming
and agriculture play in the lives of individuals, the community, and the local economy and by the
distinctive patterns of climate change impacts on agriculture of those regions.
MAIN FINDINGS OF THE REPORT
1. It is essential to understand that the climate is changing throughout Russia, but the
changes are highly regionally specific. The enormous extent of Russias territory and the
variety of its environments cause different climate change impacts in different regions.
Climate change effects are observable in European Russia and in Eastern Siberia, but they
differ in many ways. Some impacts are region-wide. For example, a growth of dryness has
been most notable in the southern regions of European Russia.
2. Droughts and floods are increasing in frequency. There is increasingly strong evidence
linking the increasing atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gasses and an increase in
the frequency and/or severity of extreme weather events. Global Climate Models (GCM)
show that Russia and Central Asian States (CAS) will experience warming accompanied by
decreases in the yearly number of frost days (days with surface air temperature below 0C)
and decreases in the duration of extremely low winter temperatures and annual ranges of
extreme temperatures. An increase is projected in the duration of summer temperature high
extremes. The most severe heat waves are projected to occur in West Siberia and CAS.
Besides droughts, climate changes are also expected to cause an increase in other
dangerous meteorological events, such as high waters, hail, sleet, frosts, hard frosts, strong
heavy rains, hurricanes, etc.
The droughts of 2010 and 2012 that in the former case led to imposition of an export
ban and in the latter to decreases in exports of almost 20% showed how vulnerable
The Adaptation Challenge: Key issues for crop production and livelihoods under climate change in the
Russia's agriculture will be as global warming intensifies and especially if mitigation efforts
continue to fail. The droughts also highlighted the lack of adequate investment in
mechanisms to help farmers and citizens in general particularly in vulnerable communities
adapt to climate change.
3. As well as increasing extreme events, climate change will exacerbate chronic
problems. In wetter regions an increase in average annual and seasonal temperatures
together with a growth of moisture content as warmer air can hold more moisture creates
favourable conditions for wider distribution of pests, weeds, and plant diseases. It leads to
increased workload for farmers and the need for more chemicals to eliminate pests, the use
of which can be detrimental to the health of workers.
4. Climate change will exacerbate water inequalities. Water resources are distributed
unequally among the regions. A reduction in water resources by 515% is expected at the
same time as an increase in water consumption in many densely populated regions (Central
and Black Soil Zone, the South of Russia, the North Caucasus, the South of Siberia), which
are regions already characterized by water deficiency. Water resources will decrease in
those regions most important for crop production.
5. There is a pressing need for a farsighted and ambitious adaptation policy. According to
the National Report on Climate Change Issues prepared by the Ministry of Economic
Development and Trade of the Russian Federation (2002), one can pick out certain positive
consequences of climate change for crop production, namely:
an increase of areas appropriate for farming;
an increase in the duration of the vegetation growing period;
an increase of hot periods impacting agricultural cultures;
an improvement in winter conditions for field and orchard crops;
an improvement in conditions for some farm operations, including harvesting.
At the same time, the National Report noted that it will not be possible for Russia to attain
advantages over other countries which are food exporters without action to adapt agriculture
to the expected changes in climate and the natural environment. It should be emphasized
that even in those regions where climate change impacts may be more conducive to
agriculture, adaptation is still needed.
Although the agricultural potential of many territories which are not so suitable for agriculture
now may be increased in the future, the main agricultural areas will experience significant
losses in the absence of adequate adaptation measures. Given the growing global demand
for agricultural products, the most important tasks are to implement adaptation policies in key
agricultural regions and increase the efficiency of agricultural production in order to
strengthen the competitiveness of domestic products in the world market. This is especially
important for wheat production.
6. Smallholder producers in particular feel the adverse impacts of climate change and
pay a high price in trying to adapt to changing conditions. Adaptation measures come
at a great financial cost for smallholder farmers. They do not have the required support from
the regional or national authorities. As a result they struggle to pay their loans back, which
forces some of them to leave agriculture altogether. Insurance could be a great help but
currently, bureaucracy makes the insurance process painful and time consuming so many
farmers are unable or reluctant to insure their crops. Therefore, adaptation policies and
practice should have a particular focus on supporting smallholders.
RECOMMENDED MEASURES TO INCREASE THE
RESILIENCE OF RUSSIAN AGRICULTURE FOR
The following measures taken by the relevant actors could help to increase the resilience of
Russian agriculture not only to climate change, but also to other stresses both environmental
and economic.
1. Federal and regional governments should formulate and implement clear and
consistent agricultural adaptation strategies at both federal and regional level. Given the
different scenarios of climate change impacts on crop production in various regions, it is
important to look carefully at these variations and implement appropriate and specifically
tailored adaptation measures. The adaptation policy should also cover the possibility that at
some point there may have to wholesale change to the agrarian specializations of the regions,
their land-use and crop production patterns. Possible measures could include:
In the regions with warmer and more humid climates, expanding plantings of later ripening
and higher yielding varieties of grains and legumes, sunflower, canola, soybean, plus late-
ripening varieties of potatoes and species of fodder crops that can thrive at relatively high
temperatures.
In the arid regions, expanding planting of winter crops, e.g. wheat in the steppe regions of
the Volga and the Urals, barley in the Northern Caucasus.
In the arid region, rehabilitating existing irrigation systems and expanding irrigated
agriculture. However, irrigation can be inefficient and wasteful of water unless it is done very
carefully and scientifically, therefore it must be accompanied by measures to rationalise
water use through the widespread introduction of moisture saving technologies (e.g. snow
retention, reducing unproductive evaporation, drip irrigation).
Investing in reforestation and afforestation and reintroducing these modalities as effective
and traditional adaptive measures for land use stability. Afforestation intertwined with
agriculture not only exerts a favourable influence on soils, moisture regimes and crop
microclimates, but also binds carbon and thus inhibits global warming.
2. Both state and private actors invest in research and development, which would allow
them to formulate and implement evidence-based adaptation strategies. Possible
measures could include:
Development of seeds more resistant to changing climate conditions, especially seeds
resistant to higher temperatures and drought. Farmers already use drought resistant seeds,
self-pollinating seeds, and seeds with shorter maturing periods. Some farmers also choose
to use European seeds because of their higher yielding capacity in comparison with Russian
seeds.
Selection of cultures adjusted for each specific climate zone. As different regions of Russia
will be impacted differently by climate change, there needs to be information available on the
possible impacts in each zone, as well as cultures suitable for the new climatic conditions.
Modernisation and expansion of observation networks, development of early warning
systems on possible crop losses, as well as adoption of modern methods of data evaluation.
Given that climate change will see an increase in dangerous meteorological events that are
hard to foresee or predict, it will be essential to improve the accuracy of weather forecasts
and particularly, ensure that they can be disseminated very rapidly and efficiently to enable
recipients to take appropriate action in advance of the event.
Development of educational programmes for farmers, managers and employees to
disseminate knowledge on adaptation techniques.
3. Both state and private actors support small and medium-sized farmers to sustain
agricultural production under the changing climatic conditions. Smallholders are already
attempting, but struggling to adapt to these changing climate conditions, and they are not being
properly supported in their struggle. Smallholders are already having to invest a lot of their
limited resources into adaptation measures. These also require an increased workload.
Possible measures could include:
Development of a specific programme aimed at reducing risks caused by climate change,
which would take into account regional differences, as well as difference in socio-economic
situations of farmers. This could be achieved through introduction of climate risk
management tools which are not yet used in Russia, such as, for example, a weather
insurance index or progressive subsidy mechanisms.
Reduction of agricultural loans interest rates. At the moment, the minimum interest rate is
14%, and smallholders whose yields in some regions are in decline due to changing climate
conditions struggle to pay the loans back.
Reducing bureaucratic procedures for farmers trying to obtain subsidies and crop insurance
premiums. They also need prompt and adequate compensation for losses caused by severe
climatic events.
Allowing farmers to use subsidies for both domestic and foreign inputs of production.
Currently, farmers can use loans only towards purchasing Russian-produced inputs, which
many of them find less efficient for climate change adaptation.
Implementation of long-term land rental agreements, which would motivate farmers to invest
in mid- and long-term climate change adaptation measures.
We conclude however that the current situation is that the absence of adaptation and support
for smallholders and agriculture in general which is revealed by our research means that unless
this is addressed, the future of Russian agriculture looks uncertain and with it the potential for
Russia to play a key role in ensuring global food security in the face of current and future
SERGEY KISELEV
Professor of Economics, Eurasian Centre for Food Security under Lomonosov
ROMAN ROMASHKIN
Associate Professor of Economics,Eurasian Centre for Food Security under
Lomonosov State University
SERGEY BOBYLEV
Professor of Economics, Faculty of Economics, Lomonosov State University
SOFIA SOLOVIEVA
Associate Professor of Economics, Faculty of Economics, Lomonosov State
1.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF CHANGING CLIMATE
According to the majority of Russian scientists, most of the current observed climate changes
are caused by increases in concentrations of anthropogenic greenhouse gases since the middle
of the twentieth century. The links between the two are clear. The continuing increase in
atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases is driving further global temperature increases
the results of which include changes in precipitation patterns, more extreme and abnormal
weather events, melting glaciers, rising sea levels, oceanic acidification and shifting seasons.
It is possible to pick out a number of key parameters of climate change in the Russian
Federation.
Observed surface temperatures over land in Russia have increased, on average, at a greater
rate than in the rest of the world. According to Roshydromet, the average temperature in Russia
increased by 1.29 between 1907 and 2006 and it has been accelerating. Looking at the
period 19762006, the average warming was 1.33, while between 1976 and 2010 it was
1.54. This is significantly higher than the 0.74 average global warming between 1907 and
2006. Since the turn of the century, yearly temperatures in Russia have been consistently
warmer than previously. Compared with the 19611990 average rate, the temperature was
higher by 2.06 in 2007 (the warmest year so far), by 1.88 in 2008, by 0.54 in 2009, by
0.65 in 2010, and by 1.66 in 2011.
Temperatures have increased in all seasons but spring and the autumn have got warmer to a
greater extent. The average annual linear temperature trend coefficient over 19762009 is
0.47 per 10 years, but the same coefficient for the spring and the autumn is 0.58 and 0.51
per 10 years respectively.
The growing period for vegetation increases and the agricultural zone extends due to warming.
However there are also negative consequences connected with expansion of areas of
distribution of various plant pests and diseases. The Ministry of Emergency Situations has also
warned that the shift of permafrost borders may open up burials in which smallpox viruses and
anthrax bacteria are still viable.
Warming will increase the number and intensity of forest fires. The Ministry of Emergency
Situations estimates that the duration of the fire-risk period in the middle latitudes of Russia may
increase by 3040% or by 5060 days by the mid 21st century, taking into account the existing
rates of warming. As a result of forest fires, the depth of frost penetration into soils will increase,
surface drainage and water erosion across vast territories will amplify, and these changes, with
plentiful precipitation and faster snow thawing, will increase the probability of floods. These
processes will impact negatively on agricultural production and soil fertility. The current year
2012 has been little better than the drought year 2010 and clearly demonstrates the severity of
the problem. Abnormally hot weather in spring and summer caused forest fires in 11 regions of
Siberia and the Urals. The surface area covered by wildfires was 20% more in 2012 than in
Precipitation changes
The changes observed in rainfall so far and modelled for the future are favourable for Russia.
Annual rainfall increased by 7.2 mm per 10 years over 19762006. This trend remained
unchanged up to 2010, by which time annual rainfall had increased by 8.5 mm per 10 years.
Previous to the increase in rainfall from the mid-1970s, annual rainfall had increased in the
1950s, and was then followed by a drier period from the mid-1960s to 1970s.
However, there are noticeable differences between seasons. There has been a distinct increase
of precipitation in spring, less so in autumn and winter, and the increase in rainfall in summer is
insignificant or even, latterly, negative. Thus the increase of precipitation in the vast territory of
Russia is mainly connected with stronger spring rains, and, as a consequence, high waters and
floods. Moreover, the lack of precipitation in the summer periods combined with the growth of
temperature leads to aridity that has had an adverse effect on summer agricultural production
and increases the risk of drought.
Regional variations
It is essential to examine the regional aspects of climate change in the Russian Federation.
Climate change may impact either broadly positively or broadly negatively owing to the huge
extent of Russia's territory and the variety of its climatic zones.
A positive average annual temperature trend is observed in all regions but particularly in
European Russia and Eastern Siberia.
Eastern Siberia is distinguished by a strong temperature rise in spring, autumn and summer, but
a fall in temperature in winter. This combination and contrast of considerable warming in spring
and in autumn and a negative temperature trend in winter makes Eastern Siberia unique among
Russian regions, and the most disadvantaged from the point of view of temperature.
In rainfall terms, changes occurring in Eastern Siberia are unfavourable as well. Rainfall is
increasing in total and especially in spring. There is a decreasing trend in winter and summer,
although not very large.
Given the large size of certain regions it is also important to consider possible changes within
regions. European Russia, for example, comprises Central, North-West, Volga and South
Federal Districts. European Russia accounts for about 70% of total Russian grain production.
However, South of Russia and Central Black Soil regions are seeing increasing aridity that
impacts negatively on grain production.
Dangerous meteorological events
Figure 1: Annual numbers of dangerous meteorological events in the Russian Federation
(blue all events, red unforeseen events)
Source: The Report on Features of Climate in the Territory of the Russian Federation in 2010, 2011,
Roshydromet, p. 52.
The above are trends, but according to the Ministry of Emergency Situations, 297 dangerous
meteorological events occurred in 2011. This number exceeds the mean annual number of 262
dangerous meteorological events by 13.3% but is 36% less than the number in 2010 (467) . In
terms of the number of events and the damages caused, 2010 was abnormal. As a rule, the
greatest number of dangerous meteorological events in the Russian Federation occurs during
the period from May to August.
The annual damage from the impact of these events in Russia is estimated to be up to 60 billion
rubles ($2 bln) . With climate change the upward trend is expected to continue into the future
and expand into more territories, and losses from these hydro-meteorological events will
Impacts on water resources
The impacts of climate change upon water resources merit particular attention given the popular
belief that Russia has water in abundance and in the long term can serve as a source of water
for other countries. Lake Baikal is often mentioned in this context. As it is noted in Roshydromet
publications, an increase in renewable water resources by 810% is expected in Russia. Taking
into account decrease in population, water endowment per one inhabitant will increase by 12
However, this water endowment needs to be viewed in the context of very unequal distribution
of water among the regions. An improvement in water endowment will occur in the North and
the Northwest of European Russia, the Volga region, the Non-Black Soil Centre of Russia, the
Urals, and also the majority of Siberia and the Far East. At the present time these regions have
more than 95% of the water resources of the country.
Yet at the same time a reduction in water resources of 515% and an increase in their
consumption is expected in many densely populated regions (Central and Black Soil Zone, the
South of Russia, the North Caucasus, the South of Siberia), which are already characterized by
their deficiency in water. As a result of climate changes, along with demographic shifts, the
current inequality of water resources distribution among regions will increase. Moreover, a
deficiency of water resources will increase in those regions where the most crop production is
located.
It should be noted that in terms of water supply at the present time, Russian agriculture is in a
difficult situation:
about 80% of croplands are located in areas of unstable and insufficient moisture;
about 10% of croplands are located in areas of over-moistening.
Zones of precarious and inadequate moisture are the main arable regions, especially regions of
the South of Russia (Astrakhan, Volgograd , Republic of Kalmykia, etc.), the North Caucasus
(Stavropol, Rostov), the Volga (Saratov, Samara, etc.) the Urals and the Siberia (Chelyabinsk,
Sverdlovsk, Tyumen, Orenburg, Altai, Republic of Buryatiya, etc.). Precarious moistening, for
example, is typical for the Central Black Soil region (Voronezh, Tambov, etc.). The most
favourable agricultural region in Russia, Krasnodar, has an average annual rainfall of 400
600mm in the plains. In Iowa, USA, which was often compared with Krasnodar region in Soviet
times, the average annual rainfall is 710970mm.
Reclaimed areas are of special value in these conditions, as their use facilitates production of
stable crops. Nowadays there are only 9m ha of reclaimed areas in Russia, 4.25m ha of which
are irrigated, and 4.75m ha are drained (see Fig. 9).
Reclaimed areas cover 8% of the total area of croplands and produce about 15% of gross crop
production. They produce up to 70% of vegetables, the whole of Russias rice harvest, more
than 20% of succulent feeds, and fodder and other products are also produced there.
10 The Adaptation Challenge: Key issues for crop production and livelihoods under climate change in the
As a result of the socioeconomic crisis about 1.9m ha of irrigated areas were not involved into
agricultural land transactions after 1990 anymore and became fallow lands. Construction of new
irrigation and drainage systems was virtually stopped, while only 510% of the required
reconstruction works on existing systems was carried out. The technical state of reclamation
systems has also become worse; this is especially true in regard to farm-irrigation systems. At
present as a consequence of defects in farm irrigation systems, irrigation is absent on more
than 1.8m ha of previously irrigated areas or on more than one-third of the supposedly
irrigated land.
Under current conditions a federal budget requirement for the hydraulic work reconstruction
constitutes 68bn rubles, while actual financing is only 1.52bn rubles. Demand for the current
repairs comprises 2bn rubles with actual financing of only 0.30.6bn rubles. In these conditions
the restoration of irrigation systems is a priority among the measures that should be
implemented for adaptation to climatic changes.
Figure 2: Evolution of reclaimed areas in Russia (million ha)
Source: Report on the State and Utilization of Agricultural Lands. Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian
Federation, Moscow, 2011, p. 24.
Finally, thus far we have considered trends that, while accelerating, are still spread over several
decades. It should be noted however that it is possible that future climate change will not be so
linear but will instead see very rapid acceleration and the climate jump to a new and more
extreme state. There are mechanisms which might cause this to happen. For example,
according to many scientists, permafrost thawing may cause the release of an additional 85
billion tons of greenhouse gases mainly methane into the atmosphere. Compared with the
13 billion tons which has been released into the atmosphere by all of mankind so far, such
emissions would lead to utter calamity.
Russian Federation 11
1.2 CURRENT AND NEAR-FUTURE CLIMATE
CHANGE IMPACTS ON CROP PRODUCTION
Regional impacts on grain production
Grain production has a special place in the agrarian sector of the Russian Federation. The
value of grain production accounts for 16% to 20% of gross agricultural production. Grain crops
occupy about 60% of the cultivated areas.
Production of crops depends on complex interactions; including moisture content, warmth
thermal conditions during winter and climate continentality. Changes in all of these over the
period 19752004 were in general positive for the agrarian sector in the Russia's regions which
provide the most significant share of grain production. At the moment climate-related crop
yield increases have occurred in many agricultural regions of Russia. The calculated
parameters for grain crops in the Stavropol Territory have increased by 30% over 20 years, for
example. As we shall see, however, these trends may not remain positive, with increasing
aridity a particular threat.
At the same time there are other regions where climate changes have had negative impacts. A
deterioration in moisture content is observed in the Central Black Soil, Central, East-Siberian,
Far East and Northwestern regions and has had a negative impact on grain crops in the Central
Black Soil and East-Siberian regions. Less warmth has a negative impact on grain production in
Ural region, and a deterioration of conditions for winter-crops on grain production in the West
Siberian region. Grain yields have benefited from the reduction in climate continentality,
consisting in a decrease in amplitude of day and night air temperature.
A significant decrease in minimum temperatures is notable in the most important agricultural
zones of Russia, the Central Black Soil Region, the Volga Region, and the North Caucasus,
which negatively impacts winter crops. Conditions for winter crop cultivation and expansion of
the area under cultivation have improved in the North Caucasus, steppe zones of the Volga
Region, Southern Urals and in some areas of Western Siberia.
In general, changes have led to a more stable regime for crop production. This is most
noticeable in the zone where there is a high risk of winter crops being killed (the Orenburg and
Samara Regions, Republic of Bashkortostan, Republic of Tatarstan). With more favourable
temperature conditions and if there is conservation of sufficient moisture, a rise in the yield of
grain and feed crops is expected in the Northern and North-Western Regions, the Central,
Volga-Vyatka Regions, and in the Far East.
The number of frost-free days has increased by 515 in average in a number of regions (north-
eastern part of the Northwestern Federal District, Central and Volga Federal Districts). The
border of cultivation of mid-season varieties of corn and late-season varieties of sunflower will
move northward to the latitude of Moscow Vladimir Yoshkar-Ola Chelyabinsk in the near
future. Expansion of the cultivation area of sugar beet to the Ivanovo Izhevsk Kurgan line
will become possible. Conditions will be created for farming of subtropical crops in some
southern regions.
An increase in the duration of the growing period and the period without frosts occurs in some
regions (the northeast part of the Northwest Federal District, the Central and Volga Federal
Districts). Those will contribute to better conditions for conducting agricultural work and will
reduce production losses while harvesting.
At the same time, however, warming and an increase in dryness in a number of regions located
in the Asian part of Russia are being associated with reductions in grain crop yields, for
example in Baikal region.
The share of winter wheat in the total wheat crop area has been increasing and this is partly
down to climate factors (see Fig. 3).
Figure 3: Share of winter wheat in the total wheat crop area, %
Source: Rosstat
However the changes in winter wheat cropping areas differ from region to region (see Fig. 4).
The largest growth of cultivation area (more than 200 ths. ha) is shown by the Stavropol
Territory, Rostov, Saratov, and Volgograd Oblasts. The Republic of Tatarstan, the Krasnodar
Territory, Tambov and Lipetsk Oblasts, The Republic of Mordovia, Oryol, Samara, and
Orenburg Oblasts are also characterized by a considerable increase in the winter wheat
cropping area (from 100 ths. ha to 200 ths. ha). On the other hand, a significant reduction in the
winter wheat cropping area (more than 50 ths. ha) has occurred in the Republic of Dagestan,
Kaluga Oblast, the Republic of Kalmykia, Moscow Oblast.
Figure 4: Map of changes in winter wheat cropping area 20072011 compared with 1990
1994, ths. ha
Source: Eurasian Center for Food Security under Lomonosov Moscow State University
This increase in the area cultivated by the largest grain producers, located in the south of
Russia and in the North Caucasus, contributed to a large degree to increasing Russias wheat
production and to Russias occupying second place in the world ranking of leading exporters.
Figure 5: Map of changes of winter wheat yield in 20062010 compared with 19861990,
Source: Eurasian Centre for Food Security under Lomonosov Moscow State University
Changes to agricultural pests and diseases
Climate changes lead to shifts in the distribution areas of agricultural pests and diseases.
Growth of pest populations and the advance of some pests to the North have been observed.
Thus, the area of distribution and acclimatization of Colorado beetle for example has reached
the 62nd parallel of northern latitude (Petrozavodsk Syktyvkar Khanty-Mansiysk). The area
where Colorado beetles now exist extends continuously to the North and the East, consistent
with the potato growing zones.
Locusts are also extending their range northwards and appeared in Bashkiria in 2011.
According to Rosselkhozcenter, the area in which locusts exist in sufficient numbers to cause
economic damage above a certain threshold is constantly growing. It reached 382.8 thousand
ha in 2008, 983.7 thousand ha in 2010, and 1052.4 thousand ha in 2011.
In general it is evident that climate changes an increase in average annual and seasonal
temperatures together with a growth in moisture content can create favorable conditions for
the wider distribution of pests, weeds, and diseases. These matters require detailed study which
is essential for working out adaption measures. The Ministry of Agriculture estimates that timely
measures to combat locusts prevented possible losses of 50 billion rubles ($1.7 bln) in 2011. In
other words, the potential losses caused by locusts would have been comparable to the direct
losses suffered by agricultural producers due to the drought of 2010. This is a good example of
the vital importance of prevention through effective monitoring and rapid action.
Impacts of the 2010 and 2012 droughts
The impacts of the extreme drought of 2010 on grain production have been analyzed in detail
by Roshydromet in the Report on Features of Climate in the Territory of the Russian
Federation (2010). The drought caused the loss of about 44% of grain production (about 50
million tons) in Russia in comparison with 2008, which was a bumper year (see Fig. 6). The
monetary value of losses corresponded to 250 billion rubles in 2011 prices. The losses from the
drought amounted to 37.5 million tons or 48% of grain production in European Russia. At the
same time in the Siberian Federal District gross grain production was reduced by only 4%
compared with 2008, and the share of Siberia in grain production grew to 22%. The drought of
2010 especially affected summer grain production in European Russia, where losses of summer
grain reached 50.9% compared with crop production in 2008. High losses of summer grain were
also observed during droughts in 1972 and 1981. Summer grain losses in European Russia
were balanced to some extent but not completely by an increase of summer grain produced in
Siberia.
The extreme drought in 2010 had a huge impact not only on grain crops. Production of
leguminous crops was reduced by 37%, potato by 32%, sunflower seeds by 17%, sugar beet by
11% and vegetables by 10% compared to the previous year. The drought of 2010 was the most
significant for the last 60 years in terms of losses of agricultural crops. More than 21.5 thousand
farms in 43 of Russias regions suffered from this drought, and the losses of crops occurred
over an area of more than 13.3 million hectares (about 18% of the area cultivated). Farmers
financial losses accounted to 41.8 billion roubles ($1.4 billion) . This is equivalent to 3.5% of
gross crop production. The drought resulted not only in worsening financial and economic
conditions of agricultural production, it also aggravated food security issues due to the rise in
food prices. Additional budgetary funds for agricultural support also needed to be allocated. The
support from the Federal budget was 35 billion roubles ($1.166 billion), from which 25 billion
roubles ($833 million) were granted in the form of the budgetary credits and 10 billion rubles
($333 million) were distributed as subsidies. The support from regional budgets was 11.1 billion
roubles ($370 million).
Figure 6: Cross grain production (ths. tons)
Unfortunately, the summer of 2012 has not been much better: 20 regions of Russia declared an
emergency situation and asked the federal government for financial support. According to the
Russian Ministry of Agriculture, drought caused about 37 billion roubles ($1.2 billion) of
damage. The 2012 drought has destroyed crops, including grains and legumes, on 7.6 percent
of the total sown area. The impacts of the drought of 2012 have not yet been systematically
analysed, but the estimations of the Ministry of Agriculture available at the moment of writing of
this report indicate that the export of grain has decreased by almost 20% in the period between
July and September 2012 when compared with the same period of 2011 , while the overall
grain crop this year has been 17% smaller than that of last year.
1.3 LONG-TERM CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS ON
For the purpose of long-term forecasting of climate changes, Global Climatic Models (GCM) are
used; such models calculate the interactions of physical and chemical processes in the
atmosphere with oceans and land surfaces taking into account various scenarios of greenhouse
gas emissions as a result of human activity. The result of such modelling is an estimate of future
rainfall and temperature changes throughout the world. Figures 7 and 8 are based on different
GCMs using the IPCC A1B greenhouse gases emission scenario. They depict changes up to
2050 in annual average rainfall and maximum temperature over a month (i.e. highest average
daytime temperature).
Simulation results with various GCMs indicate an increase of rainfall amounts for the majority of
Russia's regions up to 2050. For southern regions of Russia all GCMs predict quite small
changes in rainfall. The same situation is typical of the Black Soil area, the Volga Region, the
Southern Urals and the South of Siberia.
All GCMs demonstrate an increase of maximum temperature over a month. The GCM of the
Centre of Systemic Climate Researches (Japan) predicts the largest temperature increase. In
this case the temperature will increase by more than 3.5 C in the western part of country and in
the north, and between 33.5 C in the south, in the Far East and on the south of Siberia.
Hence the climate over the major part of Russia on the base of forecasts up to 2050 will be
more warm and humid. However the increase in maximum temperature may be accompanied
by little change a reduction or only a small increase of rainfall in the south, in the Volga and
Black Earth regions, and in the Southern Urals and South of Siberia. According to Roshydromet
estimations, the frequency of droughts in major grain-producing regions of Russia may increase
by 1.5-2 times. In these circumstances, to adapt to drier conditions, it will be necessary to
change the specialization of the traditional agricultural regions in the direction of more drought-
resistant crops (maize, millet, etc.), to carry out major irrigation works, and to implement
technology in agricultural production to a greater extent.
Figure 7: Changes of annual average rainfall in the Russian Federation between 2000 and
2050 based on the A1B greenhouse gases emission scenario (millimeters)
National Center for Meteorological research (France) Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Organization (Australia)
Max Planck Institute for Meteorology (Germany) Center of Climate System Research of the Univer-
sity of Tokyo (Japan)
Source: International Food Policy Research Institute
In the absence of measures to adapt to the expected increase in aridity in the major grain-
producing regions, grain yields up to 2020 can be estimated using forecasts by Roshydromet on
the basis of the most arid climate change scenario (see Table 1). According to these estimates,
a significant reduction in grain yield in 2020 is expected in the North Caucasus, the Urals and
the Central Black Soil regions, i.e. the most productive areas. Losses in grain yields for the
country as a whole could reach 1012 million tons or about 13% of the gross grain harvest in
Figure 8: Changes of maximum temperature over one month with highest average day-
time temperature in the Russian Federation between 2000 and 2050 based on the A1B
greenhouse gases emission scenario (C)
The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) estimated the effect of various factors
temperature and rainfall, soil quality, fertilizer use, number of sunny days in each month on
the crop yields and cultivation areas of the countrys primary crop products with regard to their
location, varieties, and cultivation technologies. Virtually similar results were achieved within the
scope of scenario analysis using the data on climate changes from all GCMs. Figure 9 shows
maps of changes in the yield of rainfed crops in 2050 compared with 2000 under simulation
scenario A1B based on GCM of the Centre of Climate System Research (Japan). This GCM
was chosen because it estimates the impacts of the most arid climate change scenario, i.e. the
worst-case scenario and assuming no adaptation.
Table 1: Changes of climate-related crop yields and grains harvests under climate
warming: arid scenario.
Regions Total Share of Changes of Changes of
grain region in climate climate related
harvest, in the total related crop crop yields in
average grain yields, % of comparison with
per year, harvest,% average level average harvests
thousands of 20012005 of 20012005,
tons thousands tons
2001-2005 2001-2005 2010 2020. 2010 2020
North 220,3 0,3 4,8 7,1 10,6 15,6
North-West 117,1 0,1 4 7,9 4,7 9,3
Kaliningrad Region 218,6 0,3 2 4 4,4 8,7
Central 5110,5 6,5 -1,9 -0,8 -97,1 -40,9
Volga-Vyatka 3250 4,1 -5,6 -6,8 -182,0 -221,0
Central Black Soil area 8905,9 11,3 -6,9 -14,1 -614,5 -1255,7
Volga Region 15074,4 19,1 -13,3 -13,5 -2004,9 -2035,0
North Caucasus 20503,7 26,0 -22,1 -23,8 -4531,3 -4879,9
Urals 10396,7 13,2 -14,2 -15,9 -1476,3 -1653,1
West Siberia 11751,4 14,9 -7 -12 -822,6 -1410,2
East Siberia 2830,3 3,6 -12 -18 -339,6 -509,5
Far East 387,3 0,5 4 7 15,5 27,1
Total 78766,2 100,0 -12,7 -15,2 -10033,3 -11944,5
Source: Strategic Forecast of Climate Changes of the Russian Federation for the Period 2010-2015 and
Their Impacts on Branches of Russias Economy, Roshydromet, Moscow, 2005, page 53.
The scenario analysis shows that the increase of wheat yield by 5% to 25% by 2050 as
compared with 2000 is observed only on the territories bordering the northern part of
Kazakhstan. The wheat yield in other regions will decrease or changes will be small (about 5%).
An absence of adaptive measures will lead to a significant decrease in wheat yield in the
Krasnodar Territory, which is the main wheat producer and exporter at the moment.
On the other hand, climate changes will favour increases in corn yield in regions where corn is
traditionally cultivated. In addition, new territories for corn cultivation will appear on the south of
Western Siberia.
Figure 9: Yield change map for rainfed crops in 2050 compared with 2000 under climate
change scenario A1B based on GCM of the Center of Climate System Research (Japan).
Baseline area lost
Yield lost more than 25% of baseline
Yield lost 5% to 25% of baseline
Yield change within 5% of baseline
Yield gain 5% to 25% of baseline
Yield gain more than 25% of baseline
New area gained
DARIA UKHOVA
Regional Research Officer, OXFAM
YULIA YEVTUSHOK
Programme Coordinator, Climate Change and Economic Justice, OXFAM
2.1 SOLITARY STRUGGLE: FARMERS FACING
CLIMATE CHANGE IN THE RUSSIAN REGIONS
As demonstrated in the previous chapter, climate change could have positive impacts on
agricultural production in some of the Russian regions. However, without proper adaptation
measures, these regions are unlikely to see all of the benefits of this. In addition, climate
change is projected to negatively affect agricultural production in the other regions, including
those with high concentrations of agriculture at present, and adaptation measures are urgently
needed here. These changes will particularly affect people working in agriculture in the latter
regions, especially smallholder farmers, because they depend on agriculture for their livelihoods
and have few or no other means of earning a living.
As Part 1 also shows, the impact of climate change on agriculture is not a matter of the distant
future, and one can already observe the changes taking place, especially in some of the
regions. Moreover, modelling (see page 17) allows us to understand the future direction of
these changes. In this chapter, we focus on the experiences of farmers from three distinct
regions in which, as was shown in the previous chapter, climate change has already affected
agriculture and where projections show its likely to have further impacts on the agricultural
potential of those regions in the future.
First, we look at the Republic of Altay (West Siberia economic area) one of the poorest and
least developed regions of Russia, where large numbers of people are engaged in subsistence
farming, and where so far the impact of climate change has been mixed, but which has resulted
in substantial increases in the productivity of winter crops. Then, we turn to the Republic of
Buryatiya (East Siberia economic area) also a comparatively poor region, where subsistence
farming is highly important, but where, from the agricultural point of view, the climate changes
have been negative and are projected to stay negative in the future. We finish this chapter with
an overview of the farmers' situation in Krasnodar region in the south of Russia (North
Caucasus economic area). Krasnodar is the leading agricultural region, commonly referred to
as the granary of Russia, where agriculture and the food industry are the leading sectors of the
economy, employing a large proportion of the population, and where climate changes represent
a serious threat to agricultural activities.
The main goal of this chapter is to highlight the ways in which climate change impacts on
smallholder farmers in the regions considered, and, furthermore based on the farmers
accounts of their experience of adaptation to provide evidence which could help both local
and regional governments, the business community, and smallholders themselves to develop
tailor-made adaptation strategies.
With the help of its partners, Oxfam conducted semi-structured interviews with 29 farmers in
these regions (see Annex 1 and Annex 2 for details). We took a conscious decision not to focus
exclusively on grain producers, but to include in our sample also those who grow fruit and
vegetables, as well as farmers engaged in livestock breeding, since this would allow us to
account for a wider range of experiences and to triangulate our findings.
2.1.1 Altay Republic, West Siberia economic area
Box 1: The role of agriculture in the Altay Republic
Altay Republic was not industrialised during the Soviet period, and agriculture was the
leading sector of the regions economy. Although in the first post-Soviet years the
agricultural sector contracted, in the last six years it has again become the leading sector
of the economy. Large enterprises have been replaced by middle-sized and small
enterprises in the post-Soviet years. Self-employment in the agricultural sector has
substantially increased. The main types of agricultural production are livestock and the
growing of a variety of plants. Poverty and the low density of population in the region are
the main factors impeding the development of the market. According to the UNDPs index
of human development, this region ranks very low among the Russian regions, i.e. number
77 out of 80 (data from 2009). People's incomes, educational level, and life expectancy in
the Altay Republic are substantially lower than the national average. More than 80% of the
Republic's budget comes in the form of subsidies from the federal budget.
As discussed in Part 1, climate change happening in Western Siberia has rather mixed effects
on agriculture. On the one hand, an increased incidence of droughts in summer has obvious
negative consequences. On the other hand, changing weather conditions in winter means some
parts of Western Siberia are becoming more favourable for cultivation of, for example, winter
grain crops. Productivity of winter wheat crops in Altay Republic has, indeed, increased by 60
70% over the course of fifteen years, which could at least partially be attributed to the changing
climate conditions (see Figure 4 in Part 1).
However, contrary to what might have been expected from the above data, the farmers we
interviewed in Altay Republic painted a rather gloomy picture of what is happening with the
climate in their region, how this affects their work, and what costs they have to pay to adapt to
the new weather conditions. Notably, the farmers observations about the character of the
climate changes and also their effects have been very consistent:
Box 2: Farmers observations of the changing climate in the Altay Republic
Colder winters
Much hotter summers with increased frequency of droughts
Longer spring and autumn periods with increased incidence of ground frost in the first
Increased diurnal temperature range
Increased frequency of storm winds, which interviewees related to a systematic
Disappearance of ground waters vital for farming, which interviewees also associated
with the deforestation
Table 2: Seasonal climate change effects on agricultural production in the Altay
Season Climate change effects
Winter Farmers who have livestock have to double or even triple the
amount of fodder given to animals in winter, because of the low
Spring Droughts impoverish the soil. In spring, it is now drier than it
used to be, and this impedes development of seeds.
Summer Droughts in the first summer months followed by rainfall in late
summer impede grain ripening. As one of the farmers told us,
because of this year's severe drought there will be no wheat
harvest, as in many farms the decision was taken not to harvest
the crop, since the expenses incurred to do this are likely to
exceed the incomes earned.
Droughts do not allow farmers to stock up with sufficient
amounts of hay for their livestock.
Droughts impede ripening of berries.
Droughts have almost eradicated mushrooms in the forests.
Ground frost in June last year spoiled cucumbers and potato
tops, as well as flowers on the fruit trees. This year ground frost
destroyed flowers on blackcurrant bushes and strawberries.
Heavy rainfall in July and August also cause rot and
phytophthora (moulds) on vegetables.
Strong winds break plants and branches of fruit trees.
Autumn Cold dew causes rot on vegetables, so it is very difficult to
preserve them.
Some farmers also pointed out an increase in the frequency of extreme weather conditions
which negatively affect crops, e.g. hail storms and floods. For example, the fruit garden of
Larisa (female interviewee, 50 years old) was completely destroyed by the flood in 2006.
Box 3: Adaptation measures used by farmers in the Altay Republic
Selecting new sorts of crops and new cultures which are more frost resistant and have
shorter growing periods and at the same time ceasing to sow cultures with long growing
periods, e.g. barley
Using greenhouses to protect vegetables from radical diurnal temperature changes.
Some farmers even install heating systems in greenhouses to protect plants from
extremely low temperatures at night
Cultivating seedlings in the greenhouses. Previously seeds were planted directly into
open ground
Tying up plants such as tomatoes and cucumbers to protect them from rot caused by
heavy rains in late summers
Shadowing (a term used by one of our respondents) plants, e.g. cabbage, eggplants,
peppers, from excessive sunlight. Farmers cover vegetables with materials available at
hand.
Intensifying watering during summer droughts
The farmers work hard to adapt to the changing climate conditions, but this requires substantial
additional time and financial investments. For example, smallholders incur significant additional
costs, since they need to invest extra resources in building and maintaining greenhouses, as
well as paying for their heating. When asked how their workload has changed due to changed
weather conditions, the interviewees pointed out that it had substantially increased. In spring,
they need to repair and prepare greenhouses, which are now used as one of the main
adaptation measures. Moreover, at night, greenhouses need to be heated, and this also implies
additional time has to be invested. In summer, the workload has increased, since watering
needs to be done much more frequently. Finally, in late summer and early autumn, the workload
has increased due to the necessity of preserving the harvest, which, as it was pointed out
above, is increasingly affected by rot and phytophthora mould.
Importantly, increases in labour input related to climate change adaptation are also clearly
gendered, especially in subsistence farms. As one of the respondents (Alexandra, female, 58)
pointed out, a gendered division of labour in subsistence farms has always existed men
usually deal with more physically demanding tasks, such as digging soil or constructing, while
women do the rest of the tasks, such as watering, crop weeding, dealing with vermin,
conserving, etc. The kind of adaptation measures that farmers use in this region results in a
disproportionate increase in traditionally female tasks, such as taking care of greenhouses,
planting seedlings, saving crops from illnesses. Galina (female, 61) also pointed out that
changing climate conditions, in particular the very hot summer weather, plus the increased
workload, make farming significantly more difficult for people in the older age group, for whom
work in such weather conditions leads to increased health risks.
However, it is not only the increased amount of work and expenses that the farmers lament.
One of their major concerns is that they see no real support from the state, although, in
their opinion, this support is essential for sustaining agricultural production in their
region under the changing climate conditions. For example, one of the farmers pointed out
that while frost-resistant seed selection is an issue that should be dealt with at the regional
level, it is not happening. And this lack of support is experienced particularly painfully by the
smallholders who need it most.
Its a shame that on TV they say that there is support to the agricultural sector and that so
much money is channelled down while we those who really live in villages dont see any
support! Well... maybe the big agri-complexes do...
Andrey, male, 43
As our interviews have shown, smallholders are not (yet) experiencing the potential benefits of
the changing climate. Macro models which are certainly important for agricultural planning at
the country level and that paint a relatively positive picture of the climate changes and a quite
bright future for farming in this region do not account for the experiences of smallholders who
are struggling with the negative sides of these changes and who are not properly supported in
their struggle. Smallholders need to be supported to make the most of the opportunities
suggested by macro models, as well as to cope with the negative impacts of changing climate.
2.1.2 Republic of Buryatia, East Siberia economic area
Box 4: The role of agriculture in the Republic of Buryatia
Buryatia is located in the zone of high risk and extreme farming. Therefore, volumes of
agricultural production vary greatly from year to year. However, because of low real
incomes and high unemployment, people are increasingly turning to agricultural activities.
The contribution of subsistence farming to the budgets of both urban and rural households
is steadily increasing. Agricultural production in the region is heavily privatised: 90% of
potatoes, 80% of vegetables, 83% of meat, and 90% of milk is produced by private farms.
The main types of agricultural production are livestock and plant growing. As in the
republic of Altay, the poverty of the population impedes the development of the market in
Buryatia. According to the regional index of human development, this region ranks number
66 out of 80 (data from 2009). Despite comparatively high educational levels, the
population of the region has lower than national average income and life expectancy.
Eastern Siberia, which contains the Republic of Buryatia, is the region with the most negative
climate change patterns, which are expected to only get worse in the future (see Part 1 for
details). The climate here is getting increasingly more continental a trend which is the
opposite of the general trend in the country. In addition, precipitation in this region is
decreasing. The forecast for Buryatia is that these trends will continue in the future (see Figures
7 and 8 in Part 1).
The farmers that we interviewed in this region are conscious of, and concerned about, the
climate changes, which are already seriously affecting their work, and they are trying to find
ways to adjust to the new conditions. But adaptation is difficult for numerous reasons. As in the
Altay Republic, the interviewees observations about climate change were very similar.
Box 5: Farmers observations of the changing climate in Buryatia
Somewhat colder, but less snowy winters.
Longer, but less rainy springs, with increased incidence of ground frost in late spring
and early summer.
Hotter and more arid summers. The steppe is not as green as before before it was
blossoming.' (Olga, female, 43 years of age)
Shorter summers with increased incidence of ground frost or snow in late summer/early
Except for the early ground frost, warmer and longer autumns.
Increased diurnal temperature range.
Stronger winds, which farmers consider to be caused by deforestation
Local rivers are drying up and becoming shallower, which farmers relate to
deforestation and construction of hydropower station(s) in Mongolia.
The most important agricultural problem caused by climate change in Buryatia is a shortened
cropping season. As Grygoryi (male, 23) told us, in 2009, when the snow fell on 15
September, his family's farm lost 30% of the harvest, and ever since then they have tried to
reap the harvest earlier. Because of the shortened cropping season some plants do not reach
full maturity, and, overall, the yields have decreased substantially. Moreover, not all the crops
such as cabbage or carrots can be harvested so early, since they would simply rot before
farmers could sell them.
Tamara (female, 56) who started working in agriculture in 1978 indicated: From a hectare of
cabbage we used to get 2225 tons. Now, we get about 15 tons. According to technological
norms, 30 tons of potatoes should be collected from one hectare of land. Its not us who
invented this. And its precisely how it was before, even more. But now we harvest only 1012
tons.
Table 3: Climate change effects on agricultural production by season in Buryatia
Winter Decreased precipitation in winter and spring leads to the soil
getting drier.
Strong cold winds destroy trees and bushes
Spring Sowing happens later because of the risk of late ground frost.
Strong winds blow the fertile topsoil off.
Summer Summer droughts negatively affect yields.
Increased number of pests, such as sod webworms,
grasshoppers, blister beetles, lice, armyworms.
Decreased number of pollinating insects.
Large diurnal temperature changes hamper vegetation and
cause plant sickening (e.g. bacterial blight, etc.). The farmers
also relate diurnal temperature changes to increases in the
number of pests.
Autumn Farmers try to reap the harvest earlier to avoid the risk of losing
it because of early ground frost or snow.
Box 6: Adaptation measures used by farmers in Buryatia
Seed selection: In particular, farmers increasingly use drought resistant seeds, self-
pollinating seeds, and seeds with shorter maturing periods. Some farmers also choose
to use European seeds because of their higher yielding capacity in comparison with
Russian seeds.
Increased use of greenhouses to protect vegetables from ground frosts and
consequences of diurnal temperature changes: As in the Republic of Altay,
greenhouses often have heating systems.
Covering bushes and trees with special materials and/or soil for winter periods to
protect them from cold and wind.
Cultivating vegetable and herb seedlings rather than planting seeds directly in the
open ground to shorten the growing period.
Increased use of organic: e.g. manure for warming up the soil, and mineral
fertilisers.
Increased use of anti-pest chemicals.
Increased watering.
Additional ramming of seed plots during sowing, which is meant to prevent the
fertile topsoil being blown off by the wind and taking the seeds with it.
Use of new equipment: e.g. for raising plant stems flattened by the early snow in
Purchasing energy-efficient equipment to save on fuel in anticipation of possible
losses of harvest
Using weather forecasts.
Adaptation requires additional labour inputs from farmers, and in most cases farmers in
Buryatiya bear this increased burden on their own shoulders. As in the Altay Republic, several
interviewees emphasised that the burden of labour increased unevenly for men and women,
and also that older farmers find it more difficult to adapt to changing climate conditions. For
them it is very hard to bear a more onerous labour burden combined with the increased diurnal
temperature range, which can provoke strokes.
Adaptation measures also imply substantial additional financial investments. Building or
purchasing greenhouses and using more expensive windproof plastic or glass in them, storing
up additional firewood for heating greenhouses, purchasing expensive anti-pest chemicals,
paying for additional water used for intensified watering in summer are all expensive and often
simply unaffordable measures for the famers that we interviewed. Notably, only two of the
interviewees mentioned crop insurance, which is often presented as one of the main policy
recommendations to help people adapt to climate change impacts. Evgenyi (male, 55) said that
for his farm it was unaffordable. Grygoryi (male, 23) said that his farm started insuring small
areas of land, but overall he was rather sceptical about the potential red tape one would
encounter when trying to receive the compensation.
Overall, the farmers that we interviewed in Buryatiya had a rather fatalistic attitude towards the
climate change, which could be explained by the fact that many of them totally depend on
farming for their livelihoods: 'Despite harsh climate conditions we do our work, because we don't
have any other source of income. What else can we live on?' (Tamara, female, 56). However,
the sustainability of this kind of unsupported adaptation was questioned by many farmers.
I think agriculture could dwindle. Because we are people of the old school, we know that it
feeds us, we get something from it, and we get our children habituated to this kind of labour. My
children can still work like this, on the land. But fiddling on this land theyre fed up with this.
And I understand them; I pity them, because I have lived a similar life myself. I understand that
they want to sleep, to go dancing, to travel to the city to buy something. But they dont see any
of that none of that. Willing or not, they have to sweat blood on this land. My children could
still bear with it. But my grandchildren will think differently. And my children will try to give them
education, so that they could go to the city
(Tamara, female, 56)
2.1.3 Krasnodar Krai, North Caucasus economic area
Box 7: The role of agriculture in the Krasnodar Krai
The agricultural sector in the Krasnodar Krai region is the biggest and the most developed
in the country. The region produces 7% of the country's gross agricultural product. The
region produces large amounts of grain and other crops and has a very well developed
and growing food industry, supplied by access to relatively cheap agricultural produce. The
food industry accounts for 50% of industrial production in the region. The majority of the
farms in Krasnodar Krai are large collective farms, many of which also process agricultural
produce. The proportion of smallholders is higher in the peripheral, more arid parts of the
region. Unemployment rates here are much lower than the national average, since the
agricultural sector provides the population with jobs. However, low unemployment rates
may conceal the part-time or seasonal nature of employment. Moreover, people are
considered as self-employed, even if they just own some livestock or land. But, overall,
Krasnodar does rank high in the regional human development index rating 16th out of 80
since its population has life expectancy higher than the Russian average, and
comparatively high income.
Krasnodar Krai has always been one of the key agricultural regions in Russia, and it is often
referred to as the granary of Russia. As shown in Part 1, in the last fifteen years, climate
change has made it possible to expand winter grain production. However, recent trends, such
as an increasing incidence of drought combined with increasing lack of water resources in this
region, as well as an increasing number of extreme weather events, e.g. floods, have already
negatively affected agricultural production. In the absence of adaptation measures, agricultural
production in Krasnodar Krai might radically decrease.
As our interviews have shown, the changes are already affecting agricultural production and,
consequently, the livelihoods of many farmers here. For many of them, the losses incurred due
to changing climate conditions are dramatic.
I havent planted anything this year. Two years ago, I lost my harvest because of the drought.
Then again last year because of the continuous rainfall at the end of the summer. For me, it
was a real disaster tomato bushes were basically washed away together with the soil down
into the river. Imagine a stream of mud mixed with plants and it all goes to hell right in front of
your eyes. After this adversity, I went bankrupt. So, this year I havent planted anything, since I
simply had no money. And the fields are overrun by weeds.
Alexander, male, 56
Just as in the other two regions, the observations of our interviewees in Krasnodar Krai were
highly consistent.
Box 8: Farmers observations of the changing climate in Krasnodar Krai
Weather increasingly unpredictable
Harsher and damper climate, with precipitation now more unevenly distributed
Colder (with longer periods of negative temperatures at night), but less snowy winters
Disappearance of the phenomenon of February windows (very sunny and warm
periods, when temperatures would go up to 2022C)
Longer, colder, and damper springs
Much hotter and more arid summers, with air temperature going up to 40C, and soil
temperature getting up to 60C
Longer, damper, and warmer autumns, but with increased incidence of early ground
frost (already occurring in October)
More radical temperature changes, especially during the seasonal change from spring
to summer. If yesterday it was +10C, tomorrow it could already be +30C. (Vasilyi,
male, 60)
Stronger winds in winters, springs and summers that the farmers relate to
As our interviewees indicated, climate change has already had profound impacts on agricultural
Table 4: Climate change effects on agricultural production by season in Krasnodar Krai
Winter Cold and snowless winters are detrimental for winter grain
crops. Three farmers told us that their farms lost all the winter
grain crops this year. The soil just froze through the
temperature in winter fell to as low as -35C in the complete
absence of snow. Two farms have completely reseeded the
crops in spring.
Disappearance of so-called February windows means that it
has become impossible to seed potatoes so early.
Spring Snowfalls now sometimes occurring in March are another
problem for winter grains while melting during the day, at
night melted snow turns into a thick layer of ice, which basically
causes plants to rot.
Because of the longer and damper springs, the sowing season
now, on average, starts two weeks later than before. Water
stays on the fields for longer than before, so it is impossible to
get machinery onto the fields. Last year, Oxana (female, 32)
said her farm for the first time ever simply did not manage to
sow corn at all.
Radical temperature changes during the seasonal change from
spring to summer inhibit plants' development.
Increased diurnal temperature range is also very damaging for
the harvest. In 2011, Vasilyi (male, 60) lost 70% of his
strawberries because of the night ground frosts in spring
during the day the temperature was 20C, while at night it went
down to 0C.
Strong rainfall damages harvests. This year, in Alexey's (male,
55) farm, 10 hectares of sunflowers were completely damaged
by the rains, and on the other sunflower fields herbicides that
he had applied shortly before the rainfall started were washed
Summer Summer droughts together with dry hot winds (sukhvoei) burn
crops. And because of the later sowing, plants are less
prepared to resist droughts.
Autumn Because of the early rains, farmers have to rush with the
harvesting. Many do not manage to harvest in such a short
time, and plants rot in the fields.
Early ground frost kills plants that have not been reaped yet.
Because of the ground frosts farmers growing vegetables can't
benefit from long warm autumns which climate change has
brought. Otherwise, it would have been possible to have
cucumbers, tomatoes, cabbage, and potatoes in November.
Long periods of warm weather in late autumn and early winter
negatively affect winter grain crops. In these periods, plants
grow too actively to be able to later resist cold snowless periods
coming in the second half of winter.
Moreover because of these unusually warm periods some
types of vermin, e.g. carabid beetles, are now found on the
fields as late as in December, while previously they survived
only until mid-November. They represent an additional danger
for winter grain crops
Apart from the impact of changing climate, pollution caused by the local industries further
aggravates the situation of the farmers. Evdokiya (female, 86) told us about the pollution
coming from the chemical plant in a town near her village. Emissions happen at night, and in
the morning poisoned dew subsides on the bushes and erodes the leaves. The plants start
sickening.
Box 9: Adaptation measures used by farmers in Krasnodar Krai
Selecting cultures adjusted for specific climate zone. E.g., Vladimir (male, 57) told us
that sugar beet grows very well in Krasnodar Krai region even under the new climate
conditions, and profit from the sugar beet harvest allows his farm to cover financial
losses incurred due to the climate.
Seed selection. Our interviewees prefer to use Russian sorts of grains, vegetables,
berries, etc. Although they yield smaller harvests, they are more frost- and disease-
resistant that the European ones.
Manual cultivation during rainfall
Increased watering during summer droughts
Using systems of drip irrigation
Using dry irrigation techniques
Using no till techniques
Earlier crop harvesting due to the risks of early ground frost in autumn
Increased use of organic and mineral fertilizers
Increased use of anti-stress products to help plants resist droughts and cold weather
Strict adherence to crop rotation
Reseeding of winter crops in spring. The problem is that doing this might disrupt crop
rotations. Vladimir (male, 64) pointed out that this year his farm had to reseed the
damaged fields with corn, although, according to the crop rotation plan, corn should
only be seeded on those fields next year. This means that next year corn crops on
those fields will likely be affected by pests.
Observing weather forecasts
Supplementing agricultural activities with other types of business activities, such as, for
example, agritourism
Covering plants with soil and insulating materials for the winter period
Using greenhouses for vegetable growing
Manual chemical spraying of pests. Farmers have to use this technique which is
rather dangerous for health for eliminating pests appearing on fields of winter crops in
late autumn/early winter (a new phenomenon discussed above). Farmers cant use
technical equipment for this purpose, since it could damage young plants.
Planting seeds deeper (down to 10 cm) to save plants from droughts. This technique is
somewhat risky, since it lowers plants chances to compete with weeds.
Farmers also emphasized the importance of forest belts in protecting the crops.
Like in the other two regions, adaptation measures come at great financial cost for the farmers.
Currently, they incur higher fuel expenses. Because of the damper weather in spring, the soil is
heavier this creates an additional load for tractors, and, consequently, additional expense of
diesel. Reseeding also results in a significant increase in fuel consumption. Reseeding also
causes indirect losses, since the fields of winter wheat are usually reseeded with corn, which
does not require as much fertilizer as wheat does, and, therefore, those fertilizers that had been
already have basically been wasted. Building greenhouses, as well as purchasing special
technical equipment (e.g. fans for blowing snow off the trees, equipment for no till, etc.) are big
investments. Anti-stress products now widely used by the farmers are very expensive, since
only foreign produced products are really effective, from the farmers point of view
The problem of adaptation costs is aggravated because instead of support from the local
authorities and food producers, farmers say they encounter broken promises, the desire to profit
from others adversities, or simple lack of understanding of what kind of assistance programmes
they really need. Food producers often make farmers sell their produce for below the market
prices. For example, Oxana (female, 32) whose farm now reaps sunflowers earlier said that oil
producers give them a take it or leave it low price for the moist seeds, knowing that the farmers
cannot risk hanging on to the seeds and must sell them.
Most of the interviewees pointed out that the local government subsidy programmes cover only
technical equipment and anti-stress products produced in Russia. This, for example, basically
prevents farmers from using no till technique discussed above, since the equipment for it is
produced only abroad.
Red tape holds up crop insurance applications. Previously I insured my crops, but then
stopped. To be honest, doing that (insuring) doesnt make much sense. Insurers just suck
money out of us. To prove the fact that the crops died, to calculate acreage, to prove damage
you have to collect a bunch of papers, to undergo expert visits. Every day I wake up at 56 a.m.
and finish work at 1 a.m., and I dont have either time, or the desire to run to those offices and
collect papers. (Alexey, male, 55)
Getting subsidies also implies sometimes impossible struggles with red tape. When I got
hit by adversity (floods in 2011), they (the local authorities) introduced the programme of
greenhouse development. In the city administration, they advised me to take out a bank loan to
build a greenhouse. I was really tempted by this idea having a greenhouse is a completely
different thing from a risky business of growing tomatoes in open ground. I took a loan for
300,000 roubles (6,000 GBP) and built it. But I have not got the compensation (a grant to pay
back the loan) The city administration told me that I violated some conditions of subsidy
provision. Either they didnt like the business plan, or something else. Now Im totally in debt,
without any operating assets. Most likely I wont use the greenhouse this year. (Alexander,
Local authorities do not hold to their promises when it comes to compensating for
losses. Regional authorities promised to those farmers who had to reseed winter crops this
year to pay compensation of, as far as I remember, three thousand roubles per hectare (approx.
60 GBP per hectare). But in our district department of agriculture I was told that there would be
no money, and I should not even wait for it. The government just let us down this year. (Alexey,
Local authorities continuously fail to repair run-down irrigation systems in the villages.
We dont have a centralized water supply like in suburban dacha communities. Boring
individual wells is very expensive. There is a pond in the village, and it would be possible to
install a pumping station there. But there is a problem sewage from our houses is draining in
there. The thing is that the sewage treatment facilities were broken when there was still a
collective farm, and now nobodys repairing them. The mayor promises to do that before
elections, but then just shrugs his shoulders that theres no money. For some reason, money for
changing paving slabs in the centre of the city is found every year, but for repairing the sewage
in our village no. (Natalia, female, 55)
The situation with land rent has made some farmers unwilling to make investments in
adaptation. For example, Vladimir's (male, 66) farming cooperative that specialises in fruit
growing has decided not to change the cultivated cultures, since they are not sure whether their
rent agreement will be prolonged, and investing in new fruit trees should be a long-term project.
To conclude, the absence of adaptation and support for smallholders and agriculture in general
means that the future of Russian agriculture looks uncertain and with it the potential for
ANNEX 1: LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
A number of interviewees expressed their preference for anonymity. Therefore, it was decided
not to indicate the names of the villages where the interviews were collected. Instead, we simply
indicate the geographical location of the villages within the considered regions.
Altay Republic
Location in the Name, gender, Type of employment, farming specialisation
region age
1 South-western Alexander, Director of a farming enterprise, livestock
male, 33 breeding and plant growing
2 South-western Sergey, male, Manager of a farming enterprise, livestock
57 breeding and plant growing
3 South-western Elena, female, Self-employed, subsistence farm, vegetable
42 growing
4 South-western Andrey, male, Self-employed, subsistence farm, livestock
43 breeding and tourism
5 North-western Nadezhda, Pensioner, subsistence farm, vegetable and
female, 57 fruit growing
6 North-western Larisa, female, Self-employed, subsistence farm, vegetable
50 and fruit growing
7 North-western Alexandra, Pensioner, subsistence farm, vegetable and
female, 58 fruit growing, livestock breeding
8 North-western Galina, female, Pensioner, subsistence farm, vegetable and
61 fruit growing
Republic of Buryatiya
1 Central- Grygoryi, male, Head of a family farming enterprise, livestock
southern 23 breeding and plant growing
2 Central- Nadezhda, School teacher, subsistence farm, vegetable
southern female, 52 growing
3 Central- Svetlana, Pensioner, subsistence farm, vegetable
southern female, 63 growing and livestock breeding
4 Central- Svetlana, Self-employed, subsistence farm , vegetable
5 Central- Evgenyi, male, Head of a family farming enterprise, vegetable
southern 55 growing
6 Central- Olga, female, 43 Employee of a farming cooperative, vegetable
southern growing
7 Central- Yuryi, male, 72 Pensioner, subsistence farm, vegetable
8 Central- Elena, female, Accountant, subsistence farm, vegetable and
southern 56 fruit growing
9 Central- Tamara, female, Owner of a farming enterprise, vegetable and
southern 56 plant growing, livestock breeding
Krasnodar Krai
Location in Name, gender, Type of employment, farming specialisation
the region age
1 South-eastern Alexander, male, Owner of an individual farming enterprise,
56 vegetable and fruit growing
2 South-eastern Oxana, female, 32 Assistant to the head of a family farming
enterprise, plant growing and livestock breeding
3 North-eastern Vladimir, male, 57 Co-founder and director of a farming enterprise,
aviculture and plant growing
4 South-eastern Vladimir, male, 66 Owner of a subsistence farm and head of a
farming cooperative, fruit growing
5 Central Vasilyi, male, 60 Owners of a subsistence farm, vegetable and
Tatyana, female, fruit growing
6 Central Lyubov, female, Agronomist of a farming enterprise, plant
7 Central Vladimir, male, 64 Chief agronomist of a farming enterprise, plant
8 Central Alexey, male, 55 Owner of an individual farming enterprise, plant
9 Central- Alexander, male, Owner of an individual farming enterprise, plant
eastern 62 growing and livestock breeding
10 South-eastern Natalia, female, Pensioner, owner of a subsistence farm, fruit
55 and vegetable growing
11 South-eastern Evdokiya, female, Pensioner, owner of a subsistence farm, fruit
ANNEX 2: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR SEMI-
STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS
Would you tell us a little bit about yourself and your family?
When did you start working in agriculture? What were the main stages of your career?
Would you tell us about the farm that you are working at?
In recent years, have you noticed any signs of climate change in your region? If yes, what in
particular? How do you evaluate these changes?
Have these changes influenced your work/work of your farm? If yes, how? (stimulate the
interviewee to provide as many examples as possible)
For each month, could you tell us how have your activities changed due to the climate
How has the distribution of work/responsibilities between men and women in your farm
changed due to the climate change?
How do you adapt to the climate change? (stimulate the interviewee to provide as many
examples as possible) Is it difficult? Why?
How, in your opinion, will climate change affect agricultural production in your farm in the
future?
Assessment Report on Climate Change and Its Consequences on the Territory of the Russian
Federation. General Summary. Federal Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring
Service, 2008, page 14.
All-Russia Ecological Portal (http://ecoportal.su/news.php?id=58093)
Daily electronic newspaper Utro.Ru (http://www.utro.ru/articles/2012/04/19/1041773.shtml)
Ministry of Natural Resources and Ecology of the Russian Federation
(http://www.mnr.gov.ru/news/detail.php?ID=14443)
Porfiriev B.N. Climate changes: risks or development factors? Russia in Global Affairs, 3,
2010. (http://www.globalaffairs.ru/number/Atmosfera-i-ekonomika-14886)
Article Demand for inflation in the Vedomosti newspaper 12.03.2012, 43
(http://www.vedomosti.ru/finance/news/1532338/spros_na_inflyaciyu)
Information Department of Audit Chamber of the Russian Federation
(http://www.ach.gov.ru/ru/news/archive/03082011/)
National information group newsinfo (http://www.newsinfo.ru/news/2011-07-
29/merzlota/758586/)
The Report on Features of Climate in the Territory of the Russian Federation in 2010, Federal
Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring Service, 2011, page 15.
Assessment Report on Climate Change and Its Consequences on the Territory of the
Russian Federation. General summary, Roshydromet, 2008, page 9.
Global warming in Russia can bring dangerous infections, the News, January 30, 2009
(http://www.izvestia.ru/news/443876)
Information Agency Grain Online (http://www.zol.ru/z-news/showlinks.php?id=79471)
RIA Novosti news agency, Ecology (http://eco.ria.ru/danger/20120116/540611308.html)
Hydrometeorological Safety and Sustainable Development of Russias Economy for the
Service of Consumers: Results of the Statistical Analysis of Dangerous Weather Conditions,
Korshunov A.A., Shaymardanov M.Z., Shaymardanova I.L. Information Technologies of the
State Fund of Data on a Condition of Surrounding Environment, Researches of Public institution
" All-Russian research institute of Hydrometeorological Information the World Center of Data",
release 174, Obninsk, 2010.
The Fifth National Message prepared according to articles 4 and 12 of the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change and article 7 of the Kyoto Protocol, Moscow, 2010,
Strategic Forecast of Climate Changes of the Russian Federation for the Period 2010-2015
and Their Impacts on Branches of Russias Economy, Roshydromet, Moscow, 2005, page 18.
The Fourth National Message Prepared According to Articles 4 and 12 of the United Nations
Strategic Forecast of Climate Changes of the Russian Federation for the Period 20102015
N.Lemechko and M.Nikolaev. Climate Change, Vulnerability, and Adaptation in Agriculture
the Situation and State of Art in Russia. Sofia, 1011 March 2008.
According to the parameters used in IMPACT model, the real per capita income in Russia
trebles under the pessimistic scenario (low growth rates of gross domestic product and
population reduction) and increases 7 times at the optimistic scenario (high growth rates of
gross domestic product and population reduction) in comparison with an indicator of 2000.
Despite such indicators, in 2050 gross domestic product per capita in Russia makes only 25 %
from a similar indicator in the USA.
Report on the State and Utilization of Agricultural Lands. Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian
http://www.interfax.com/newsinf.asp?id=341731
http://ipcc-wg2.gov/SREX/report/
GCMs refer to mathematical models of the dynamic interactions of physical and chemical processes in
the atmosphere with the oceans and land surfaces. They are used to model different climate change
scenarios under different greenhouse gas emission trajectories.
http://neacc.meteoinfo.ru/research
Federation. General Summary. Federal Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring Service,
2008, page 14.
Federation. General summary, Roshydromet, 2008, page 9.
http://www.unep.org/yearbook/2008/report/UNEP_YearBook2008_Full_EN.pdf
http://ria.ru/infografika/20120727/710676168.html By expert estimations, the emission of carbon dioxide
from fires in 2010 may amount to 400 million tons, that is equivalent to 18% of annual anthropogenic
emissions of greenhouse gases in Russia (The Conclusion of the Public Commission on Investigation
of the Reasons and Consequences of Natural Fires in Russia in 2010
(http://www.yabloko.ru/mneniya_i_publikatsii/2010/09/14)).
Hydrometeorological Safety and Sustainable Development of Russias Economy for the Service of
Consumers: Results of the Statistical Analysis of Dangerous Weather Conditions, Korshunov A.A.,
Shaymardanov M.Z., Shaymardanova I.L. Information Technologies of the State Fund of Data on a
Condition of Surrounding Environment, Researches of Public institution " All-Russian research institute
of Hydrometeorological Information the World Center of Data", release 174, Obninsk, 2010.
(http://www.izvestia.ru/news/443876). According to the world's largest reinsurance company Munich
Re, at least 56 thousand people were lost from a heat and air pollution, having made a natural disaster
of 2010 of the largest in Russia's history from the point of view of mortality
(http://kommersant.ru/doc/1566066)
Significant differences between day and night temperatures
The Fifth National Message prepared according to articles 4 and 12 of the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change and article 7 of the Kyoto Protocol, Moscow, 2010, page 102.
Strategic Forecast of Climate Changes of the Russian Federation for the Period 2010-2015 and Their
Influence on Branches of Russias Economy, Roshydromet, Moscow, 2005, page 18.
The Fourth National Message Prepared According to Articles 4 and 12 of the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change and article 7 of the Kyoto Protocol, Moscow, 2006, page 79.
Influence on Branches of Russias Economy, Roshydromet, Moscow, 2005, page 18. The Fifth
National Message prepared according to articles 4 and 12 of the United Nations Framework
N.Lemechko and M.Nikolaev. Climate Change, Vulnerability, and Adaptation in Agriculture the
Situation and State of Art in Russia. Sofia, 10-11 March 2008.
http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-08-21/russia-s-drought-seen-by-ministry-as-destroying-7-6-of-
crops.html
http://latifundist.com/novosti/36239-eksport-zerna-s-rossii-snizilsya-pochti-na-20
http://www.ya-fermer.ru/news/urozhay-2012-rossiya-k-10-sentyabrya-sobrala-zerna-na-13-mln-tonn-
menshe-chem-v-proshlom-godu
1 scenario is described by a balanced use of all energy sources (fossil fuels and non-fossil fuels).
This scenario is characterized by rapid economic growth, increase of world population to 9 billon
people by 2050 with subsequent gradual decrease, quick spreading of new and efficient technologies,
equalization of income and style of life in different regions, broad social and cultural interaction in the
Data taken from Zubarevich http://atlas.socpol.ru/portraits/alt.shtml, the regional web-site
http://www.altai-republic.com
UNDP (2011) Human Developent in the Russian Federation Report 2011: Modernisation and
Development of Human Potential. http://www.undp.ru/documents/nhdr2011rus.pdf The average
subsistence level for all socially-demographic groups of the population across Russia corresponded to
187.4 US dollars in 2010.
Whilst the consequences of deforestation may have consequences for local climate, this is not the same
as climate change. But since the changes caused by deforestation are said by farmers to have such
great impact on agriculture, it was decided to include them in this list. Moreover, it is important to note
that deforestation itself is a contributory factor to climate change in that it reduces the biosequestration
of atmospheric carbon dioxide trees.
Adapted from Zubarevich http://atlas.socpol.ru/portraits/buryat.shtml . The data is for 20072008.
UNDP (2011) op. cit.
See note 21
Data taken from Zubarevich http://atlas.socpol.ru/portraits/k_kray.shtml
E.g. 2012 floods in Krymsk
The report development was a co-operative effort, involving external consultants, Oxfam staff and Oxfam
partner organisations. The first part of the report was written by a group of authors led by Sergey Kiselev.
The second part is based on the analysis of cases provided by Lyudmila Itigilova, Sociological Agency
Eydos (Ulan-Ude, Republic of Buryatia), Dmitriy Shevchenko, Regional non-government organisation
Environmental Watch on North Caucuses (Krasnodar) and Yuriy Kotenev, Altay Regional Non-
Governmental Youth Organization Ecological Club Black Stork (Barnaul, Altay Krai). Daria Ukhova and
Yulia Yevtushok made specific written contributions to the report. Oxfam acknowledges the
assistance of Tim Gore, John Magrath, Richard King, Johnathan Puddifoot, Richard English, Anna
Collins and Fionna Smyth. The text was edited by John Magrath.
For more information, or to comment on this report, email Yulia Yevtushok, Oxfam Programme
Coordinator, at yyevtushok@oxfam.org.uk
Oxfam International October 2012
This publication is copyright but the text may be used free of charge for the purposes of advocacy,
campaigning, education, and research, provided that the source is acknowledged in full. The copyright
holder requests that all such use be registered with them for impact assessment purposes. For copying in
any other circumstances, or for re-use in other publications, or for translation or adaptation, permission
must be secured and a fee may be charged. E-mail policyandpractice@oxfam.org.uk.
The information in this publication is correct at the time of going to press.
Published by Oxfam GB for Oxfam International under ISBN 978-1-78077-197-7 in September 2012.
Oxfam GB, Oxfam House, John Smith Drive, Cowley, Oxford, OX4 2JY, UK.
Oxfam is an international confederation of 17 organizations networked together in 92 countries, as part of
a global movement for change, to build a future free from the injustice of poverty:
Oxfam America (www.oxfamamerica.org)
Oxfam Australia (www.oxfam.org.au)
Oxfam-in-Belgium (www.oxfamsol.be)
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40The Adaptation Challenge: Key issues for crop production and livelihoods under climate change in the
www.oxfam.org Russian Federation
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