Shell some broad beans, top and tail some sugar snap peas and poach an egg for this wholesome sunny style eggs. Simple is best and the bean, pea combo with a simple poached egg, works perfectly with the fresh vietnamese mint. Fresh beans and wholegrain toast make me feel good.Even the colour of the fresh peas and beans are so vibrant they seem to pop! I needed some vietnamese mint for a recipe recently and the markets didn't have any, so I called on a friend who had mentioned he had it growing. I popped round and grabbed a stash. After using it, I kept the leftover sprigs in a glass of water till the roots started to sprout.. about a week or so, then I planted it in the garden, its coming along nicely and hopefully I will have my own thriving plant.
1 Heat oil in a large frypan over medium high heat, add onion and cook, stirring occasionally for 1-2 minutes. Add zucchini and cook for another minute.Season with sea salt and cracked black pepper. Stir in sugar snaps and broad beans and toss together for 1 minute till bright green and crisp.Remove from heat,add mint leaves. Toast bread slices.
2 Heat a medium saucepan half filled with water over high heat, till water begins to boil, reduce heat to medium high. Crack the eggs into a small bowl and, one by one while the water is simmering NOT boiling, tip 2 eggs in. You can swirl if you like, but not too hard to bust up the eggs. Cook for 1-2 minutes till the white is firm, but the yolk is still soft. Remove with a slotted spoon. Repeat with remaining eggs.
3 Top toast with bean mixture and place a poached egg on each. Drizzle with extra olive oil, sea salt and cracked pepper and chilli sauce if desired.
Sizzle tip- The freshest eggs work the best for poaching.You can buy broad beans in the supermarket freezer, thaw for 10-15 minutes or place in a bowl filled with water to make it easier to peel. The beans will be bright green inside. Discard shells.
Sizzle sub- Vietnamese mint is such a fresh unique taste, adding an aniseed flavour to dishes. Use basil leaves or your favourite herb if Vietnamese mint is not available.
Who doesn't like pizza? This easy pizza recipe is a cinch to make. It takes a little while to prove, but all good things take time, so while its proving, busy yourself making the fresh tomato sauce and you will have home made pizzas in no time, fresh from the oven and all your favour toppings.
I make the dough and portion it up into quarters, place each into a plastic bag or wrapped in plastic wrap. So you can just make a pizza for one or two. Place in the fridge for a couple of days or freeze for an easy pizza breakfast.
I have tried this with the eggs baked onto the pizza, but I quite like my eggs runny and prefer it when I fry them off and pop them on top, that way I can control how the eggs are cooked, they tend to cook a bit uneven in the oven ( or maybe thats just my ancient trusty oven ! ) If you like the eggs a little more cooked bake them with the bacon and mozzarella, them add cheese to melt and toppings.
1 Combine yeast, sugar, water, oil and salt in a jug. Place flour into a large bowl and make a well in the center. Pour in enough water to make soft dough. Knead for 4-5 minutes till smooth and elastic. Set aside for 45 minutes -1 hour till dough has doubled in size.
2 While the dough is proving make the tomato sauce.
3 To make the tomato sauce- Heat oil a medium saucepan to medium high heat, cook onion for 2 minutes, add garlic and cook for 1 minute. Add tomatoes and tomato paste, stir to combine. Simmer on low heat for 15-20 minutes till thickened slightly and reduced. Season with salt & pepper to taste.
4 Heat a frypan to medium high heat and cook bacon rashers and salami for 2-3 minutes each side, or till slightly golden. Transfer to a plate lined with baking paper.
5 Preheat oven to 240c or 220c fan forced. Lightly dust a clean work surface with flour, divide dough into 4 pieces and roll out each piece till 5 mm thick, any shape you like. Line 4 pizza trays with baking paper and dust with a little flour. Place pizza onto prepared trays. Spread each base with 1/4- 1/2 cup of tomato sauce. Cook in two batches for 8 minutes till base is golden.
6 Place bacon, salami and mozzarella onto pizzas and return to the oven for 2-3 minutes or till cheese has melted slightly. Heat oil in a large frypan over medium heat and cook eggs for 3-4 minutes, in two batches or till cooked to your liking. Top pizza with rocket leaves, eggs, and drizzle with extra virgin olive oil, and a sprinkle of chilli flakes.
Sizzle Sub– if you are short on time, use a flat bread and bake for just 5 minutes to crisper up the base, add toppings and eggs as directed.
Easy eggs all baked in the same pan… Love the simplicity of this dish. Using the pretzel as my base, I built the dish around the elements I like to eat with eggs. The fresh pretzel was the start and using simple ingredients all the flavours come together nicely to produce a well rounded dish. Add some spicy tomato chutney and this dish is complete.
Try it with bacon stuffed into the pretzel holes, or your favourite tomato salsa. Everything is neatly packaged into the pan fried pretzel.
1 Heat half the oil in a large frypan, add kransky and cook for 3-4 minutes till golden. Place on a plate and set aside. Add spinach and cook for 1 minute till wilted. Set aside.
2 Heat remaining oil in same frypan and cook pretzels right side down for 1 minute till golden. Flip and place kransky into one "hole" of each pretzel. Add cheese into kransky "hole" and allow to melt. Crack egg into a small bowl and pour into one "hole " of the pretzel, allow to cook, covered for 3-4 minutes, till eggs are cooked to your liking. Add spinach to pretzel and sprinkle with basil leaves, season with sea sat and cracked pepper and serve.
sizzle sub – make this a vego option and add sauteed red capsicum with pinch of paprika.
sizzle tip- flatten the pretzel with the back of an egg flip to ensure all the pretzel is on the heat and gets golden brown.
This is an all in one breakfast , easy and simple ingredients with a soft egg yolk.
Turn simple into delicious eggs. These eggs are cooked in a soft pillowy bagel, with just the added touch of spinach and a sprinkle of sage.I love the ease of a one pan breakfast.These so called baked bagel eggs, cook over the stove with the frypan lid on in just minutes. Its a one pan dish, as you don't have to use the toaster.
Add anything you like really to the basic egg recipe- a sprinkle of chilli flakes, or sone hot fruit chunky will give this a little kick along. Serve with bacon and gratings of with parmesan cheese.
1 Remove the middles of the bagels, with a 5 cm cutter or pull out the soft bread with your fingers, set aside to cook or eat.
2 Heat a frypan to medium heat and cook bagel over the cut side for 2-3 minutes till golden, flip over, add spinach into holes and crack an egg into each hole.
3 Place a lid on frypan and cook for 4-5 minutes or till cooked till your liking. Serve sprinkled with sage leaves and sea salt, cracked black pepper.
Feel like some simple but tasty fried eggs? These are a winner, and they are cooked in onions rings which is brilliant! The onions end up sweet and soft and go perfectly with the sautéed zucchini and bacon. Coasters is a relaxing retreat in the basin of Pittwater on Sydney's Northern beaches.We have some beautiful friends who have a house there, and its always a fun weekend, lots of cooking, fire making, and food! This weekend I cooked these eggs coasters style.
1 Heat half the oil in a saucepan over medium high heat, add bacon and cook for 1-2 minutes till golden, add zucchini and cook for 3-4 minutes till softened. Add thyme leaves and stir to combine. Reduce heat to low.
2 Peel onion and cut two thick slices from the middle of the onion. Gently ease out the middle layers by pushing them through, only use the last two onion rings- the largest ones.
3 Place into a frypan and cook for 1 -2 minutes till golden brown, flip over and crack egg into each onion ring. Cook eggs, with a lid on for 2-3 minutes till cooked to your liking. Season with sea salt & pepper.
4 Stir spinach leaves into the zucchini bacon mixture and serve with eggs and a slice of toasted ciabatta.
Sizzle tip- use the left over onion pieces in stocks, or the next family curry. Cut them up and wrap in a plastic bag, or in a sealed container in the fridge, they will keep for a couple of days.
Sizzle tip – don't worry if the onion rings break, they can still be used as long as they are in one piece. Cook them as directed, the egg may slip out on one side, depending on the size or your eggs and onions…. this may happen any way, depending on the size of your onion and eggs , your eggs will probably spill out over the onions rings.
sizzle sub -enjoy these eggs cooked in onion rings on their own, or on top of toast!
My mother has a big birthday this weekend and she is one of a long line of prestons. Today the egg post is named after her and the whole preston family , as with out them we wouldn't have the beautiful person that is mum. HB mum.
1 Heat coconut oil a large frypan to medium high heat. Add shallots and garlic and cook for 1 minute, till softened. Add vegetables and cook for 1-2 minutes. Stir in rice and cook for 2-3 minutes till heated through. season with sea salt and pepper.Divide mixture into two and make a well in the centre of each.
2 Crack each egg into small bowl and tip into the centre of each rice pile. Reduce heat to medium low and place a lid on top. Cook for 1-2 minutes or till eggs are cooked to your liking.
3 Lift each egg, with large egg lift, along with rice onto serving plates. Season with sea salt and cracked pepper. Garnish with tomato slices and micro sorrel to serve.
Sizzle tip– I used left over steamed vegetables in this post, and brown rice. I usually keep some rice and we always have some leftover veg that can be cooked up. If you don't have any on hand, use chopped zucchini, and some chopped broccoli.
You will need 1/3 cup raw brown rice to yield 1 cup cooked rice. Cook up 1 cup, as it keeps in the fridge for a few days, add it to soups, and casseroles to thicken and enrich.
sizzle sub– Using left over vegs is a great way of getting ore fibre and nutrients into your breakfast, add to that the protein form the egg and you have yourself a great start to the day. Try chopped red capsicum, zucchini and roast cauliflower.
I love the crunch of the bun with the silkiness of the sweet pork. Now that the weather is cooling down here, its long weekends spent inside with something hearty bubbling away on the stove or in the oven. I love a good pork shoulder, slowly cooked and then the possibilities are endless. Stuff into a bun, serve with some brown rice and chopped cherry tomatoes… some extra sweet chilli sauce, and the bun to mop up the juices.
This time I even added an egg!( surprise ) a fried egg squashed in between the bun and the pork- perfect harmony for luscious goodness.
Throw this on in the morning, and allow to sit and the flavours to mingle and mellow. Good for a couple of meals, unless your tribe is extra hungry..
1. Preheat oven to 180C. In a small bowl, combine paprika, ground cumin, celery salt and chilli flakes, sea salt & pepper.Place pork into a deep roasting dish, drizzle over half the oil and rub into skin. Spread spice mix over pork. Pour apple cider, sweet chilli sauce and 1 cup water into roasting pan. Cover dish tightly with foil. Roast for 3-3 ½ hours or until very tender.
2Remove pork from oven and using two forks, pull the meat from the bone.Heat remaining oil in a frypan to medium high and crack each egg into a small bowl, tip into pan and cook for 2-3 minutes or till cooked till your liking. Sprinkle each egg with sesame seeds. Half buns and top with egg, pork and rocket, drizzle with extra sweet chilli sauce and replace lid. Serve .
sizzle tip- shoulder of pork loves to be cooked in liquid, keeping the foil or lid on the dish will keep all the moisture in the pork and help it to not dry out. Spoon the juices over the pork to keep all the flavours and moisture in. If the liquid evaporates before the cooking time is up, add a little more so the pork stays moist. You can also use shoulder of pork with the bone in. Pill the pork just before you need it, it keeps more succulent if kept as a whole piece.
sizzle sub- add some herbs and extra crunch with bean sprouts, shredded carrot and sliced tomatoes. If bread is not your thing, make up a pulled pork bowl- section off each item- pork, egg, herbs, some rocket, shredded carrot & zucchini, drizzle with sweet chilli sauce or add some rice noodles, for a slippery finish.


Exactly, last I checked there were three choices in that size on tirerack around $150 a pop. Good idea to keep the Protege wheels for some winter duty. As for the FD's, part out the Protege and buy a FD to mount them on.
the chrome is growing on me, but if i change my mind i can always plastidip it.
Hrmm, I was wanting the spacers to run my FD wheels on my p5, between tire selection and spacers I am really questioning why I bought them.
Looks nice, needs moar LSD.
You sedan guys have a bit more room than the hatches in the rear...but I digress. Back to other than econobox chat!
As soon as I am in my miata I completely forget about the other car. Did you drive any NBs or NAs before your new car? If so how does it compare?
i think my first expense for this thing will be a precision alignment. probably get that done in the next few weeks, once the snow realizes that we dont want it around anymore. that should help with the responsiveness. then, maybe some sway bars. i have some research to do!


text:
Push to impeach Kavanaugh could backfire on…
Push to impeach Kavanaugh could backfire on Democrats, observers say
Kavanaugh faces a new allegation of sexual misconduct from his time at Yale University
Supreme Court nominee Brett Kavanaugh testifies before the Senate Judiciary Committee on Capitol Hill in Washington, Thursday, Sept. 27, 2018. (AP Photo/Andrew Harnik, Pool)
By Rick Sobey | rick.sobey@bostonherald.com | Boston Herald
Democratic candidates pushing for the impeachment of Supreme Court Justice Brett Kavanaugh could create a major distraction from issues more important to voters and at the same time activate President Trump's base, political observers say.
Conservative political consultant Brad Marston said a push to impeach Kavanaugh could "seriously motivate conservatives and the Trump base" in 2020.
"An impeachment of Kavanaugh would be seen as Democrats continuing to try to undo the consequences of the 2016 election," Marston said, noting that Trump's appointment of Kavanaugh gave conservatives a majority on the Supreme Court.
Numerous Democratic presidential candidates pushed Sunday for the impeachment of Kavanaugh in the wake of a new allegation of sexual misconduct.
Trump blasted the development, saying in a tweet, ""Brett Kavanaugh should start suing people for libel, or the Justice Department should come to his rescue. The lies being told about him are unbelievable. False Accusations without recrimination. When does it stop? They are trying to influence his opinions. Can't let that happen!"
Kavanaugh was confirmed last year after fiery Senate hearings over a sexual assault allegation from his high school years.
The New York Times over the weekend reported that Kavanaugh faced a separate allegation from his time at Yale University. Kavanaugh has denied all allegations.
At least four Democratic presidential candidates called for Kavanaugh's impeachment on Sunday including U.S. Sens. Elizabeth Warren and Kamala Harris.
Warren tweeted, "Last year the Kavanaugh nomination was rammed through the Senate without a thorough examination of the allegations against him. Confirmation is not exoneration, and these newest revelations are disturbing. Like the man who appointed him, Kavanaugh should be impeached."
Harris sent an email with an "urgent petition" to impeach Kavanaugh, writing that the judge lied under oath and should not be on the Supreme Court.
Impeachment hearings during the heart of the presidential campaign could lead to political blowback, said pollster John Zogby.
"Most Americans tell us they want to focus on the bread-and-butter issues, the economy and health care. An effort like this could be perceived outside the base as them taking their eyes off the prize," Zogby said. "Voters could think going through a process like this sucks up too much time, and is really diverting a lot of attention away from the issues that a majority of voters really care about."
Presidential candidates Beto O'Rourke and Julian Castro also said Kavanaugh should be ousted from office.
"There's really no downside for a Democratic candidate to call for impeachment," said Democratic strategist Patrick Dorton. "There's no woman in America who feels good about the Kavanaugh confirmation."
While impeachment talk could stir the GOP base next year, Dorton said it also has the potential to "fire up" women voters for the Democratic nominee.
These calls over the weekend to impeach Kavanaugh came after the House Judiciary Committee last week approved ground rules for impeachment hearings against Trump.
Herald wire services were used in this report.
Rick Sobey
Rick Sobey is a multimedia, general assignment reporter -- covering breaking news, politics and more across the region. He was most recently a reporter at The Lowell Sun. Rick is a Massachusetts native and graduated from Boston University. While not reporting, he enjoys long-distance running.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
In computational learning theory, Occam learning is a model of algorithmic learning where the objective of the learner is to output a succinct representation of received training data. This is closely related to probably approximately correct (PAC) learning, where the learner is evaluated on its predictive power of a test set.

Occam learnability implies PAC learning, and for a wide variety of concept classes, the converse is also true: PAC learnability implies Occam learnability.

Introduction
Occam Learning is named after Occam's razor, which is a principle stating that, given all other things being equal, a shorter explanation for observed data should be favored over a lengthier explanation. The theory of Occam learning is a formal and mathematical justification for this principle. It was first shown by Blumer, et al. that Occam learning implies PAC learning, which is the standard model of learning in computational learning theory. In other words, parsimony (of the output hypothesis) implies predictive power.

Definition of Occam learning
The succinctness of a concept  in concept class  can be expressed by the length  of the shortest bit string that can represent  in . Occam learning connects the succinctness of a learning algorithm's output to its predictive power on unseen data.

Let  and  be concept classes containing target concepts and hypotheses respectively. Then, for constants  and , a learning algorithm  is an -Occam algorithm for  using  iff, given a set  of  samples labeled according to a concept ,  outputs a hypothesis  such that
  is consistent with  on  (that is, ), and

where  is the maximum length of any sample . An Occam algorithm is called efficient if it runs in time polynomial in , , and  We say a concept class  is Occam learnable with respect to a hypothesis class  if there exists an efficient Occam algorithm for   using

The relation between Occam and PAC learning
Occam learnability implies PAC learnability, as the following theorem of Blumer, et al. shows:

Theorem (Occam learning implies PAC learning)
Let  be an efficient  -Occam algorithm for  using . Then there exists a constant  such that for any , for any distribution , given   samples drawn from  and labelled according to a concept  of length  bits each, the algorithm   will output a hypothesis   such that  with probability at least  .Here,  is with respect to the concept  and distribution . This implies that the algorithm  is also a PAC learner for the concept class  using hypothesis class .  A slightly more general formulation is as follows:

Theorem (Occam learning implies PAC learning, cardinality version)
Let . Let  be an algorithm such that, given  samples drawn from a fixed but unknown distribution  and labeled according to a concept  of length  bits each, outputs a hypothesis  that is consistent with the labeled samples. Then, there exists a constant  such that if , then   is guaranteed to output a hypothesis  such that  with probability at least .

While the above theorems show that Occam learning is sufficient for PAC learning, it doesn't say anything about necessity. Board and Pitt show that, for a wide variety of concept classes, Occam learning is in fact necessary for PAC learning. They proved that for any concept class that is polynomially closed under exception lists, PAC learnability implies the existence of an Occam algorithm for that concept class. Concept classes that are polynomially closed under exception lists include Boolean formulas, circuits, deterministic finite automata, decision-lists, decision-trees, and other geometrically-defined concept classes.

A concept class  is polynomially closed under exception lists if there exists a polynomial-time algorithm  such that, when given the representation of a concept  and a finite list  of exceptions, outputs a representation of a concept  such that the concepts  and  agree except on the set .

Proof that Occam learning implies PAC learning

We first prove the Cardinality version. Call a hypothesis  bad if , where again  is with respect to the true concept  and the underlying distribution . The probability that a set of samples  is consistent with  is at most , by the independence of the samples. By the union bound, the probability that there exists a bad hypothesis in  is at most , which is less than  if . This concludes the proof of the second theorem above.

Using the second theorem, we can prove the first theorem. Since we have a -Occam algorithm, this means that any hypothesis output by  can be represented by at most  bits, and thus . This is less than  if we set  for some constant . Thus, by the Cardinality version Theorem,  will output a consistent hypothesis  with probability at least . This concludes the proof of the first theorem above.

Improving sample complexity for common problems
Though Occam and PAC learnability are equivalent, the Occam framework can be used to produce tighter bounds on the sample complexity of classical problems including conjunctions, conjunctions with few relevant variables, and decision lists.

Extensions
Occam algorithms have also been shown to be successful for PAC learning in the presence of errors, probabilistic concepts, function learning and Markovian non-independent examples.

See also
 Structural Risk Minimization
 Computational learning theory

References

Theoretical computer science
Computational learning theory

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


As mentioned above, machining includes a variety of processes that each removes material from an initial workpiece or part. The most common material removal processes, sometimes referred to as conventional or traditional machining, are those that mechanically cut away small chips of material using a sharp tool. Non-conventional machining processes may use chemical or thermal means of removing material. Conventional machining processes are often placed in three categories - single point cutting, multi-point cutting, and abrasive machining. Each process in these categories is uniquely defined by the type of cutting tool used and the general motion of that tool and the workpiece. However, within a given process a variety of operations can be performed, each utilizing a specific type of tool and cutting motion. The machining of a part will typically require a variety of operations that are performed in a carefully planned sequence to create the desired features.
Milling is the most common form of machining, a material removal process, which can create a variety of features on a part by cutting away the unwanted material. The milling process requires a milling machine, workpiece, fixture, and cutter. The workpiece is a piece of pre-shaped material that is secured to the fixture, which itself is attached to a platform inside the milling machine. The cutter is a cutting tool with sharp teeth that is also secured in the milling machine and rotates at high speeds. By feeding the workpiece into the rotating cutter, material is cut away from this workpiece in the form of small chips to create the desired shape.
Milling is typically used to produce parts that are not axially symmetric and have many features, such as holes, slots, pockets, and even three dimensional surface contours. Parts that are fabricated completely through milling often include components that are used in limited quantities, perhaps for prototypes, such as custom designed fasteners or brackets. Another application of milling is the fabrication of tooling for other processes. For example, three-dimensional molds are typically milled. Milling is also commonly used as a secondary process to add or refine features on parts that were manufactured using a different process. Due to the high tolerances and surface finishes that milling can offer, it is ideal for adding precision features to a part whose basic shape has already been formed.
± 0.001 in. ± 0.0005 in.
0.04 - 40 in. 0.04 - 72 in.
Load/Unload time - The time required to load the workpiece into the milling machine and secure it to the fixture, as well as the time to unload the finished part. The load time can depend on the size, weight, and complexity of the workpiece, as well as the type of fixture.
Cut time - The time required for the cutter to make all the necessary cuts in the workpiece for each operation. The cut time for any given operation is calculated by dividing the total cut length for that operation by the feed rate, which is the speed of the cutter relative to the workpiece.
Idle time - Also referred to as non-productive time, this is the time required for any tasks that occur during the process cycle that do not engage the workpiece and therefore remove material. This idle time includes the tool approaching and retracting from the workpiece, tool movements between features, adjusting machine settings, and changing tools.
Tool replacement time - The time required to replace a tool that has exceeded its lifetime and therefore become to worn to cut effectively. This time is typically not performed in every cycle, but rather only after the lifetime of the tool has been reached. In determining the cycle time, the tool replacement time is adjusted for the production of a single part by multiplying by the frequency of a tool replacement, which is the cut time divided by the tool lifetime.
Following the milling process cycle, there is no post processing that is required. However, secondary processes may be used to improve the surface finish of the part if it is required. The scrap material, in the form of small material chips cut from the workpiece, is propelled away from the workpiece by the motion of the cutter and the spraying of lubricant. Therefore, no process cycle step is required to remove the scrap material, which can be collected and discarded after the production.
In milling, the speed and motion of the cutting tool is specified through several parameters. These parameters are selected for each operation based upon the workpiece material, tool material, tool size, and more.
Cutting feed - The distance that the cutting tool or workpiece advances during one revolution of the spindle and tool, measured in inches per revolution (IPR). In some operations the tool feeds into the workpiece and in others the workpiece feeds into the tool. For a multi-point tool, the cutting feed is also equal to the feed per tooth, measured in inches per tooth (IPT), multiplied by the number of teeth on the cutting tool.
Cutting speed - The speed of the workpiece surface relative to the edge of the cutting tool during a cut, measured in surface feet per minute (SFM).
Spindle speed - The rotational speed of the spindle and tool in revolutions per minute (RPM). The spindle speed is equal to the cutting speed divided by the circumference of the tool.
Feed rate - The speed of the cutting tool's movement relative to the workpiece as the tool makes a cut. The feed rate is measured in inches per minute (IPM) and is the product of the cutting feed (IPR) and the spindle speed (RPM).
Axial depth of cut - The depth of the tool along its axis in the workpiece as it makes a cut. A large axial depth of cut will require a low feed rate, or else it will result in a high load on the tool and reduce the tool life. Therefore, a feature is typically machined in several passes as the tool moves to the specified axial depth of cut for each pass.
Radial depth of cut - The depth of the tool along its radius in the workpiece as it makes a cut. If the radial depth of cut is less than the tool radius, the tool is only partially engaged and is making a peripheral cut. If the radial depth of cut is equal to the tool diameter, the cutting tool is fully engaged and is making a slot cut. A large radial depth of cut will require a low feed rate, or else it will result in a high load on the tool and reduce the tool life. Therefore, a feature is often machined in several steps as the tool moves over the step-over distance, and makes another cut at the radial depth of cut.
During the process cycle, a variety of operations may be performed to the workpiece to yield the desired part shape. The following operations are each defined by the type of cutter used and the path of that cutter to remove material from the workpiece.
End milling - An end mill makes either peripheral or slot cuts, determined by the step-over distance, across the workpiece in order to machine a specified feature, such as a profile, slot, pocket, or even a complex surface contour. The depth of the feature may be machined in a single pass or may be reached by machining at a smaller axial depth of cut and making multiple passes.
Chamfer milling - A chamfer end mill makes a peripheral cut along an edge of the workpiece or a feature to create an angled surface, known as a chamfer. This chamfer, typically with a 45 degree angle, can be machined on either the exterior or interior of a part and can follow either a straight or curved path.
Face milling - A face mill machines a flat surface of the workpiece in order to provide a smooth finish. The depth of the face, typically very small, may be machined in a single pass or may be reached by machining at a smaller axial depth of cut and making multiple passes.
Boring - A boring tool enters the workpiece axially and cuts along an internal surface to form different features. The boring tool is a single-point cutting tool, which can be set to cut the desired diameter by using an adjustable boring head. Boring is commonly performed after drilling a hole in order to enlarge the diameter or obtain more precise dimensions.
Counterboring - An counterbore tool enters the workpiece axially and enlarges the top portion of an existing hole to the diameter of the tool. Counterboring is often performed after drilling to provide space for the head of a fastener, such as a bolt, to sit below the surface of a part. The counterboring tool has a pilot on the end to guide it straight into the existing hole.
Countersinking - A countersink tool enters the workpiece axially and enlarges the top portion of an existing hole to a cone-shaped opening. Countersinking is often performed after drilling to provide space for the head of a fastener, such as a screw, to sit flush with the workpiece surface. Common included angles for a countersink include 60, 82, 90, 100, 118, and 120 degrees.
Reaming - A reamer enters the workpiece axially and enlarges an existing hole to the diameter of the tool. Reaming removes a minimal amount of material and is often performed after drilling to obtain both a more accurate diameter and a smoother internal finish.
Tapping - A tap enters the workpiece axially and cuts internal threads into an existing hole. The existing hole is typically drilled by the required tap drill size that will accommodate the desired tap. Threads may be cut to a specified depth inside the hole (bottom tap) or the complete depth of a through hole (through tap).
Base and column - The base of a milling machine is simply the platform that sits on the ground and supports the machine. A large column is attached to the base and connects to the other components.
Table - The workpiece that will be milled is mounted onto a platform called the table, which typically has "T" shaped slots along its surface. The workpiece may be secured in a fixture called a vise, which is secured into the T-slots, or the workpiece can be clamped directly into these slots. The table provides the horizontal motion of the workpiece in the X-direction by sliding along a platform beneath it, called the saddle.
Saddle - The saddle is the platform that supports the table and allows its longitudinal motion. The saddle is also able to move and provides the horizontal motion of the workpiece in the Y-direction by sliding transversely along another platform called the knee.
Knee - The knee is the platform that supports the saddle and the table. In most milling machines, sometimes called column and knee milling machines, the knee provides the vertical motion (Z direction) of the workpiece. The knee can move vertically along the column, thus moving the workpiece vertically while the cutter remains stationary above it. However, in a fixed bed machine, the knee is fixed while the cutter moves vertically in order to cut the workpiece.
The above components of the milling machine can be oriented either vertically or horizontally, creating two very distinct forms of milling machine. A horizontal milling machine uses a cutter that is mounted on a horizontal shaft, called an arbor, above the workpiece. For this reason, horizontal milling is sometimes referred to as arbor milling. The arbor is supported on one side by an overarm, which is connected to the column, and on the other side by the spindle. The spindle is driven by a motor and therefore rotates the arbor. During milling, the cutter rotates along a horizontal axis and the side of the cutter removes material from the workpiece. A vertical milling machine, on the other hand, orients the cutter vertically. The cutter is secured inside a piece called a collet, which is then attached to the vertically oriented spindle. The spindle is located inside the milling head, which is attached to the column. The milling operations performed on a vertical milling machine remove material by using both the bottom and sides of the cutter.
Milling machines can also be classified by the type of control that is used. A manual milling machine requires the operator to control the motion of the cutter during the milling operation. The operator adjusts the position of the cutter by using hand cranks that move the table, saddle, and knee. Milling machines are also able to be computer controlled, in which case they are referred to as a computer numerical control (CNC) milling machine. CNC milling machines move the workpiece and cutter based on commands that are preprogrammed and offer very high precision. The programs that are written are often called G-codes or NC-codes. Many CNC milling machines also contain another axis of motion besides the standard X-Y-Z motion. The angle of the spindle and cutter can be changed, allowing for even more complex shapes to be milled.
The tooling that is required for milling is a sharp cutter that will be rotated by the spindle. The cutter is a cylindrical tool with sharp teeth spaced around the exterior. The spaces between the teeth are called flutes and allow the material chips to move away from the workpiece. The teeth may be straight along the side of the cutter, but are more commonly arranged in a helix. The helix angle reduces the load on the teeth by distributing the forces. Also, the number of teeth on a cutter varies. A larger number of teeth will provide a better surface finish. The cutters that can be used for milling operations are highly diverse, thus allowing for the formation of a variety of features. While these cutters differ greatly in diameter, length, and by the shape of the cut they will form, they also differ based upon their orientation, whether they will be used horizontally or vertically.
A cutter that will be used in a horizontal milling machine will have the teeth extend along the entire length of the tool. The interior of the tool will be hollow so that it can be mounted onto the arbor. With this basic form, there are still many different types of cutters that can be used in horizontal milling, including those listed below.
Another operation known as a straddle milling is also possible with a horizontal milling machine. This form of milling refers to the use of multiple cutters attached to the arbor and used simultaneously. Straddle milling can be used to form a complex feature with a single cut.
For vertical milling machines, the cutters take a very different form. The cutter teeth cover only a portion of the tool, while the remaining length is a smooth surface, called the shank. The shank is the section of the cutter that is secured inside the collet, for attachment to the spindle. Also, many vertical cutters are designed to cut using both the sides and the bottom of the cutter. Listed below are several common vertical cutters.
The material of the cutter is chosen based upon a number of factors, including the material of the workpiece, cost, and tool life. Tool life is an important characteristic that is considered when selecting a cutter, as it greatly affects the manufacturing costs. A short tool life will not only require additional tools to be purchased, but will also require time to change the tool each time it becomes too worn. The cutters listed above often have the teeth coated with a different material to provide additional wear resistance, thus extending the life of the tool. Tool wear can also be reduced by spraying a lubricant and/or coolant on the cutter and workpiece during milling. This fluid is used to reduce the temperature of the cutter, which can get quite hot during milling, and reduce the friction at the interface between the cutter and the workpiece, thus increasing the tool life. Also, by spraying a fluid during milling, higher feed rates can be used, the surface finish can be improved, and the material chips can be pushed away. Typical cutting fluids include mineral, synthetic, and water soluble oils.
In milling, the raw form of the material is a piece of stock from which the workpieces are cut. This stock is available in a variety of shapes such as flat sheets, solid bars (rectangular, cylindrical, hexagonal, etc.), hollow tubes (rectangular, cylindrical, etc.), and shaped beams (I-beams, L-beams, T-beams, etc.). Custom extrusions or existing parts such as castings or forgings are also sometimes used.
Incorrect cutting parameters - If the cutting parameters such as the feed rate, spindle speed, or axial depth of cut are too high, the surface of the workpiece will be rougher than desired and may contain scratch marks or even burn marks. Also, a large depth of cut may result in vibration of the cutter and cause inaccuracies in the cut.
Dull cutter - As a cutter is used, the teeth will wear down and become dull. A dull cutter is less capable of making precision cuts.
Unsecured workpiece - If the workpiece is not securely clamped in the fixture, the friction of milling may cause it to shift and alter the desired cuts.
The material cost is determined by the quantity of material stock that is required and the unit price of that stock. The amount of stock is determined by the workpiece size, stock size, method of cutting the stock, and the production quantity. The unit price of the material stock is affected by the material and the workpiece shape. Also, any cost attributed to cutting the workpieces from the stock also contributes to the total material cost.
The production cost is a result of the total production time and the hourly rate. The production time includes the setup time, load time, cut time, idle time, and tool replacement time. Decreasing any of these time components will reduce cost. The setup time and load time are dependent upon the skill of the operator. The cut time, however, is dependent upon many factors that affect the cut length and feed rate. The cut length can be shortened by optimizing the number of operations that are required and reducing the feature size if possible. The feed rate is affected by the operation type, workpiece material, tool material, tool size, and various cutting parameters such as the axial depth of cut. Lastly, the tool replacement time is a direct result of the number of tool replacements which is discussed regarding the tooling cost.
The tooling cost for machining is determined by the total number of cutting tools required and the unit price for each tool. The quantity of tools depends upon the number of unique tools required by the various operations to be performed and the amount of wear that each of those tools experience. If the tool wear exceeds the lifetime of a tool, then a replacement tool must be purchased. The lifetime of a tool is dependant upon the tool material, cutting parameters such as cutting speed, and the total cut time. The unit price of a tool is affected by the tool type, size, and material.
± 0.001 in. ± 0.0002 in.
0.02 - 2.5 in. 0.02 - 80 in.
- The time required to load the workpiece into the turning machine and secure it to the fixture, as well as the time to unload the finished part. The load time can depend on the size, weight, and complexity of the workpiece, as well as the type of fixture.
- The time required for the cutting tool to make all the necessary cuts in the workpiece for each operation. The cut time for any given operation is calculated by dividing the total cut length for that operation by the feed rate, which is the speed of the tool relative to the workpiece.
- Also referred to as non-productive time, this is the time required for any tasks that occur during the process cycle that do not engage the workpiece and therefore remove material. This idle time includes the tool approaching and retracting from the workpiece, tool movements between features, adjusting machine settings, and changing tools.
- The time required to replace a tool that has exceeded its lifetime and therefore become to worn to cut effectively. This time is typically not performed in every cycle, but rather only after the lifetime of the tool has been reached. In determining the cycle time, the tool replacement time is adjusted for the production of a single part by multiplying by the frequency of a tool replacement, which is the cut time divided by the tool lifetime.
Following the turning process cycle, there is no post processing that is required. However, secondary processes may be used to improve the surface finish of the part if it is required. The scrap material, in the form of small material chips cut from the workpiece, is propelled away from the workpiece by the motion of the cutting tool and the spraying of lubricant. Therefore, no process cycle step is required to remove the scrap material, which can be collected and discarded after the production.
In turning, the speed and motion of the cutting tool is specified through several parameters. These parameters are selected for each operation based upon the workpiece material, tool material, tool size, and more.
Cutting feed - The distance that the cutting tool or workpiece advances during one revolution of the spindle, measured in inches per revolution (IPR). In some operations the tool feeds into the workpiece and in others the workpiece feeds into the tool. For a multi-point tool, the cutting feed is also equal to the feed per tooth, measured in inches per tooth (IPT), multiplied by the number of teeth on the cutting tool.
Spindle speed - The rotational speed of the spindle and the workpiece in revolutions per minute (RPM). The spindle speed is equal to the cutting speed divided by the circumference of the workpiece where the cut is being made. In order to maintain a constant cutting speed, the spindle speed must vary based on the diameter of the cut. If the spindle speed is held constant, then the cutting speed will vary.
Axial depth of cut - The depth of the tool along the axis of the workpiece as it makes a cut, as in a facing operation. A large axial depth of cut will require a low feed rate, or else it will result in a high load on the tool and reduce the tool life. Therefore, a feature is typically machined in several passes as the tool moves to the specified axial depth of cut for each pass.
Radial depth of cut - The depth of the tool along the radius of the workpiece as it makes a cut, as in a turning or boring operation. A large radial depth of cut will require a low feed rate, or else it will result in a high load on the tool and reduce the tool life. Therefore, a feature is often machined in several steps as the tool moves over at the radial depth of cut.
During the process cycle, a variety of operations may be performed to the workpiece to yield the desired part shape. These operations may be classified as external or internal. External operations modify the outer diameter of the workpiece, while internal operations modify the inner diameter. The following operations are each defined by the type of cutter used and the path of that cutter to remove material from the workpiece.
Facing - A single-point turning tool moves radially, along the end of the workpiece, removing a thin layer of material to provide a smooth flat surface. The depth of the face, typically very small, may be machined in a single pass or may be reached by machining at a smaller axial depth of cut and making multiple passes.
Grooving - A single-point turning tool moves radially, into the side of the workpiece, cutting a groove equal in width to the cutting tool. Multiple cuts can be made to form grooves larger than the tool width and special form tools can be used to create grooves of varying geometries.
Cut-off (parting) - Similar to grooving, a single-point cut-off tool moves radially, into the side of the workpiece, and continues until the center or inner diameter of the workpiece is reached, thus parting or cutting off a section of the workpiece.
Thread cutting - A single-point threading tool, typically with a 60 degree pointed nose, moves axially, along the side of the workpiece, cutting threads into the outer surface. The threads can be cut to a specified length and pitch and may require multiple passes to be formed.
Drilling - A drill enters the workpiece axially through the end and cuts a hole with a diameter equal to that of the tool.
Boring - A boring tool enters the workpiece axially and cuts along an internal surface to form different features, such as steps, tapers, chamfers, and contours. The boring tool is a single-point cutting tool, which can be set to cut the desired diameter by using an adjustable boring head. Boring is commonly performed after drilling a hole in order to enlarge the diameter or obtain more precise dimensions.
Reaming - A reamer enters the workpiece axially through the end and enlarges an existing hole to the diameter of the tool. Reaming removes a minimal amount of material and is often performed after drilling to obtain both a more accurate diameter and a smoother internal finish.
Tapping - A tap enters the workpiece axially through the end and cuts internal threads into an existing hole. The existing hole is typically drilled by the required tap drill size that will accommodate the desired tap.
- The bed of the turning machine is simply a large base that sits on the ground or a table and supports the other components of the machine.
- The headstock assembly is the front section of the machine that is attached to the bed. This assembly contains the motor and drive system which powers the spindle. The spindle supports and rotates the workpiece, which is secured in a workpiece holder or fixture, such as a chuck or collet.
- The tailstock assembly is the rear section of the machine that is attached to the bed. The purpose of this assembly is to support the other end of the workpiece and allow it to rotate, as it's driven by the spindle. For some turning operations, the workpiece is not supported by the tailstock so that material can be removed from the end.
- The carriage is a platform that slides alongside the workpiece, allowing the cutting tool to cut away material as it moves. The carriage rests on tracks that lay on the bed, called "ways", and is advanced by a lead screw powered by a motor or hand wheel.
- The cross slide is attached to the top of the carriage and allows the tool to move towards or away from the workpiece, changing the depth of cut. As with the carriage, the cross slide is powered by a motor or hand wheel.
- The compound is attached on top of the cross slide and supports the cutting tool. The cutting tool is secured in a tool post which is fixed to the compound. The compound can rotate to alter the angle of the cutting tool relative to the workpiece.
- Some machines include a turret, which can hold multiple cutting tools and rotates the required tool into position to cut the workpiece. The turret also moves along the workpiece, feeding the cutting tool into the material. While most cutting tools are stationary in the turret, live tooling can also be used. Live tooling refers to powered tools, such as mills, drills, reamers, and taps, which rotate and cut the workpiece.
The above tools are often specified as being right or left handed, which indicates in which direction they move along the workpiece while making a cut.
As described in the previous section, live tooling can also be used for turning, which includes the use of mills, drills, reamers, and taps. These are cylindrical multi-point cutting tools that have sharp teeth spaced around the exterior. The spaces between the teeth are called flutes and allow the material chips to move away from the workpiece. The teeth may be straight along the side of the cutter, but are more commonly arranged in a helix. The helix angle reduces the load on the teeth by distributing the forces. Also, the number of teeth on a cutter varies. A larger number of teeth will provide a better surface finish. The cutter teeth cover only a portion of the tool, while the remaining length is a smooth surface, called the shank. The shank is the section of the cutter that is secured inside the tool holder.
The material of the tool is chosen based upon a number of factors, including the material of the workpiece, cost, and tool life. Tool life is an important characteristic that is considered when selecting a tool, as it greatly affects the manufacturing costs. A short tool life will not only require additional tools to be purchased, but will also require time to change the tool each time it becomes too worn.
In turning, the raw form of the material is a piece of stock from which the workpieces are cut. This stock is available in a variety of shapes such as solid cylindrical bars and hollow tubes. Custom extrusions or existing parts such as castings or forgings are also sometimes used.
- If the cutting parameters such as the feed rate, spindle speed, or depth of cut are too high, the surface of the workpiece will be rougher than desired and may contain scratch marks or even burn marks. Also, a large depth of cut may result in vibration of the tool and cause inaccuracies in the cut.
- As a tool is used, the sharp edge will wear down and become dull. A dull tool is less capable of making precision cuts.
- If the workpiece is not securely clamped in the fixture, the friction of turning may cause it to shift and alter the desired cuts.
The production cost is a result of the total production time and the hourly rate. The production time includes the setup time, load time, cut time, idle time, and tool replacement time. Decreasing any of these time components will reduce cost. The setup time and load time are dependent upon the skill of the operator. The cut time, however, is dependent upon many factors that affect the cut length and feed rate. The cut length can be shortened by optimizing the number of operations that are required and reducing the feature size if possible. The feed rate is affected by the operation type, workpiece material, tool material, tool size, and various cutting parameters such as the radial depth of cut. Lastly, the tool replacement time is a direct result of the number of tool replacements which is discussed regarding the tooling cost.


Today, teaching involves curriculum, class schedules, and designated meeting times. This is not necessarily bad, but it is very different from the life and ministry of Jesus. The only predictable teaching time of the Lord Jesus would be on the Sabbath at the Jewish synagogue. Beyond this, the teaching of Jesus was almost entirely spontaneous.
The Sermon on the Mount, Matthew 5-7, was a spontaneous sermon. When Jesus was invited to the home of Simon the Pharisee, and His feet were washed by a woman known to be sinful, Jesus used this as an opportunity to teach on the subject of forgiveness (Luke 7:36ff.). When the disciples argued over who was the greatest, Jesus gave them a lesson in true greatness (Luke 9:46f). Repeatedly in the Gospels, our Lord taught in response to situations that arose spontaneously.
Jesus also presented the Gospel in terms that were meaningful to an individual's background and understanding, as well as pertinent to his present conduct. Although the truths of God are eternal and unchanging, we must adapt our method of teaching to the background and understanding of the student while holding fast to God's unchanging message. We are to communicate the Word of God as it is, without adding to it or taking away from it, to men where they are.
The problem today is the same as it was in Jesus' day. Christians do not really have the unchanging message firmly imbedded in their hearts so they reduce God's truth into simple every day language and indiscriminately apply it to everyone, regardless of their background or needs and interests. How desperately we need to adapt our method of teaching to Jesus' method of teaching.
In His method of teaching, Jesus was also discriminating and discerning as to the proper time, and the proper subject matter for teaching. Jesus was in no hurry to teach everything to His followers. He taught when the need was there and when the maturity to grasp it was evident. With regard to some, Jesus chose to conceal the truth altogether, for they had already been given sufficient truth to trust in Him. Instead of repenting, they rejected Him and determined to put Him to death.
In addition, Jesus was selective in the doctrines that He taught. The disciples had an intense interest in the timing of the coming of the Kingdom; Jesus persistently refused to disclose such truth because it was not to their best interest.
Unlike the scribes and Pharisees, Jesus never allowed Himself to be involved in some intricate detail of doctrine. Here is where the scribes and Pharisees spent the bulk of their time. As our Lord said, they "strain out a gnat and swallow a camel" (Matthew 23:24). Sad to say, many Christians seem to have become trivia experts to the detriment of sound doctrinal instruction.
The beauty of the teaching of Jesus was simplicity. When Jesus intended men to grasp what He was saying, no one ever went away wondering what He meant. The scribes and Pharisees prided themselves in their theological presentations, for it showed them to be learned scholars. More important than the communication of the message was the exaltation of the speaker. Jesus on the other hand spoke in the simplest language, so simple that even a child could understand what He was saying.
One thing seems evident about the teaching method of the scribes and Pharisees; there was little originality and creativity. When they spoke, they merely quoted their ancient traditions. Jesus was not confined to the traditions of the Pharisees, either in methodology or in content. He taught by His deeds; He underscored every major claim by miraculous signs. He not only claimed to be the "resurrection and the life," He raised the dead (John 11). When Jesus taught, things happened. A well-told story, a life-like illustration, or a sign punctuated his points. In His method of teaching, Jesus was original.
In the content of His messages, Jesus was original. In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus frequently used the contrast: "You have heard it said … but I say." However, Jesus did not reject the teachings of the Old Testament; He merely differentiated them from that of the scribes and Pharisees. His teaching was not original in the sense of overturning all previous revelation. His teaching was original in the sense that it went back to the original words of Scripture, rather than relying on the traditional interpretations of the fathers.
There is a great deal of difference between the originality and creativity of our Lord and the novelty of some today. Originality does not give a man license to engage in all kinds of bizarre and unorthodox gimmickry in order to get people's attention.
If there is one word that sums up Jesus' teaching, it is the word "authority." The result was, When Jesus had finished these words, the crowds were amazed at his teaching; for He was teaching them as one having authority and not as their scribes" (Matthew 7:28-29).
The authority of the scribes was the authority of tradition and position. Jesus was the mere son of a carpenter, in their eyes (Matthew 13:54ff.). The scribes derived their authority from Jewish tradition and from the fact that they reiterated the teachings of the fathers. Jesus' authority came from the Scriptures. Someone has wisely said that the Scriptures can speak for themselves and do not need our defense. In this, they are like a lion; all we need to do is to turn it loose. Jesus expounded the Scriptures in the light of their original meaning and intent, and when properly expounded they virtually rang out with authority.
There was a significant difference in the way the scribes, Pharisees, and Jesus taught the Scriptures. They focused upon the precepts of the Old Testament, He upon the principles. They focused on the letter of the Law; He focused on the spirit of the Law. Jesus went to the heart of the matter, the thought life of the individual. Sinful actions result from immoral thoughts. While legalism draws the lines and lingers as close to them as possible, Christian liberty gives the principle and flees from sin as far as possible (Matthew 5:29-30).
You and I know that the favorite question of a child is 'Why?' God does not ignore this question. In fact, Jesus concentrated upon it. The reason why so many young people in legalistic churches leave the churches is because they were given rules without reasons. When the principles are taught, the practice is the result of conviction and not compulsion or religious conformity.
Our young people quickly catch our tendency toward legalism. They want to know the lines of what is forbidden so that they can get as close to the fence as possible. The question should not be, "How far can I go," but rather, "What really pleases God, and how far from sin should I stay?
Legalism never sanctifies. Principles give the broad guidelines, leaving the sincere Christian the decision-making process, led by the Spirit in accordance with the principles, and motivated by a desire to please Him.
Jesus' was an exposition of the Old Testament revelation. His teaching did not conflict with the Law and the Prophets, but only with the traditional teaching of the scribes, and Pharisees. His exposition was in plain and simple terms, illustrated by real life-like stories and examples. His teaching was underscored throughout by His own life and example. What He taught, He lived. His teaching was always brought down to the level of experience. It was often motivated by situations that arose naturally and spontaneously. It was illustrated by life-like stories and real-life events. However, in the last analysis, it was concluded in the experience of those who learned at His feet. The principles He taught were brought home in the experience of His followers by practice.
What makes a good teacher is good material. No better material, no greater message is there in the world than that of the Gospel. Every man is a sinner, against God. Our waywardness has brought upon us the righteous wrath and condemnation of God. We stand condemned to an eternity from God's power and presence. The good news of the Gospel is that Jesus Christ has died in the place of the sinner. All who trust in Him have forgiveness of sins and the promise of eternal life with God. That is the message we must communicate. That is the message men must believe to be saved.


Every outdoor enthusiast needs a few multi-purpose items they can rely on and adding these elasticated bungees to your kit will certainly make your journey a lot easier.
These robust elasticated ropes with strong rubber coated metal hooks are multi-purpose and an essential item around the camp.
They are Ideal for a wide variety of purposes including hanging food, securing items for travel, securing groundsheets and awnings and holding up your basha.


At Hult we are passionate about DECA because we believe it teaches a lot of the practical skills that we look for in students. Our Undergraduate program specializes in connecting global businesses with innovative thinking, through real-world Core Challenges.
In fact, the Hult Prize is one to watch if you're an active DECA member. Testing your public speaking and your problem-solving abilities similarly to your DECA experience, the Hult Prize may even be the competition you want to enter next if you are already in college (or once you begin).
Proof that you can use business solutions to do good in the world, the Hult Prize challenges students to develop innovative, scalable, and sustainable ways to meet today's most pressing social challenges. Founded by a Hult International Business School alumnus, Ahmad Ashkar, the Hult Prize allows college students to compete with their peers and make their business ideas a reality, working in teams of three or four to solve an international humanitarian problem through social entrepreneurship.
Each year the Hult Prize challenges social entrepreneurs to innovate and think like no one has before. The teams that reach the final round are those that have developed wholly new concepts that challenge and disrupt in order to impact the world in a positive way. Not only do the students participating often find new business partnerships and opportunities along the way, but the winners earn the $1,000,000 in capital that will enable them to put their dream into action! The Hult Prize 2018 Challenge is no different. The objective is simple, but not easy: harness the power of energy to transform the lives of 10 million people by 2025.
This challenge isn't about inventing new energy systems—we're looking for entrepreneurs, not engineers—but about deploying them in a way that aligns with customer needs in a sustainable business model.
The challenge encourages entrepreneurs to look at the iconic lightbulb for inspiration. Thomas Edison's version of the electric bulb was not the first, but his business acumen made it commercially viable and practical for widespread use. By paving the way for the electrification of homes and workplaces, the lightbulb was the turning point for grid-based energy and the countless other inventions which rely on it.
Similar to a commercially viable light bulb, this year's challenge looks for ways in which existing and cutting-edge energy harnessing methods can bring power to every economic stratum in society, from the ultra-poor upwards. The key is finding the demand, the appropriate method to meet it, and creating a sustainable and viable business model to propel it forward.
To succeed at the Hult Prize Challenge, each entrepreneurial team will need more than hypothetical solutions. The key to a winning business model is to look at the practical applications. Teams must understand their consumers in order to create a sustainable and viable concept.
And by encouraging competing teams to engage directly with the people who would be impacted by their proposals, the Hult Prize also gives participants first-hand experience and learning opportunities to expand and apply the skills and knowledge they've learned in the classroom.
It's the same concept that's at the heart of Hult's approach to learning: In understanding consumers, demand, and sustainability in a real-life situation, students gain experience and preparation to become more than just leaders of business.


text:
May 25th – 29th
By Editorial Board	 On May 30, 2015
Monday, 25th May 2015
ISRAEL – Former Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert was sentenced Monday to eight months in prison and a $25,000 fine for illegally accepting campaign contributions from an American supporter. It is the second conviction and sentence for the former leader, who served as prime minister from 2006 to 2009. He has yet to spend any time behind bars for the convictions. (The Washington Post)
LEBANON – A United Nations envoy urged Lebanon's feuding political leaders to pick a new president, warning on Monday that the country's yearlong power vacuum had undermined its ability to deal with the impact of the Syrian crisis and a host of other problems. (Haaretz)
SYRIA – ISIS poured more fighters into Ramadi as security forces and Shiite paramilitaries prepared to retake the Iraqi city that fell to the Islamists a week ago in a major setback for the government. (The Daily Star)
Thursday, 26th May 2015
LIBYA – Libya's internationally recognized prime minister, Prime Minister Abdullah al-Thani, said Tuesday he had survived an assassination attempt after leaving a session of the anarchic country's elected parliament. The incident highlighted the unravelling of state authority in the North African country in which two governments and parliaments allied to armed factions are fighting for control four years after rebels overthrew Muammar Gaddafi. (The Daily Star)
PALESTINE – Amnesty International said in a report on Wednesday that Hamas committed war crimes against Palestinian civilians in the Gaza Strip during last year's war with Israel. A ceasefire last August ended 50 days of fighting between Gaza fighters and Israel in which health officials said more than 2,100 Palestinians, mostly civilians, were killed. Israel put the number of its dead at 67 soldiers and 6 civilians. (Al Jazeera)
SYRIA – Turkey and the U.S. have agreed in "principle" to provide air protection to Syrian rebels being trained and equipped to fight Islamic State militants, once they enter Syrian territory for battle, Turkey's foreign minister said. (Haaretz)
TURKEY – Turkey's general election looks likely to push Tayyip Erdogan's dream of an all-powerful presidency further from his reach, and usher in a period of turbulence as its most divisive modern leader jockeys to maintain his dominance. Barred by the constitution from party politics as head of state, Erdogan has nonetheless campaigned across Turkey before the June 7 parliamentary vote in a sign of how much he has riding on the outcome. (Al Arabiya)
Wednesday, 27th May 2015
GERMANY – The Cologne administrative court handed down its ruling on Wednesday: "The German government is not obliged to prevent the United States from using the airbase in Ramstein for executing drone strikes in Yemen", presiding Judge Hildegund Caspari-Wierzoch announced following a complaint filed by three Yemenis after their relatives were killed in a U.S. drone strike in 2012. (Deutsche Welle)
ISRAEL – Israel and Palestinian militants appeared to be pulling back on Wednesday from further hostilities after Israel responded with air strikes to a rocket attack from the Gaza Strip. No casualties were reported on either side of the border, and Israeli Defence Minister Moshe Yaalon blamed the rocket launching late on Tuesday on "elements in the Islamic Jihad" group in the Hamas Islamist-run enclave. (Reuters)
The chief of Israel's air force on Wednesday played down worries voiced by some fellow officials about the possibility of Egypt acquiring advanced Russian-made air defences. The Russian news agency TASS said in March Egypt would receive the Antey-2500 missile system, an S-300 variant, and put the value of the contract at more than a billion dollars. Neither Egypt nor Russia has formally confirmed it. The S-300 would pose a challenge to Israel's air force. (Reuters)
SYRIA – The leader of al Qaeda's Syria wing said his group was focused on capturing Damascus and warned members of the country's minority Alawite sect to renounce President Bashar al-Assad and change their beliefs in order to be safe. The Nusra Front has made gains in northwestern Syria alongside other insurgent groups in recent weeks, seizing the city of Idlib, the town of Jisr al-Shughour and bringing them closer to government-held coastal areas north of the capital. (Reuters)
The Syrian government wants more coordination with Iraq on the fight against the Islamic State group, criticized members of the American-led coalition and said Wednesday it was not relying on the current air campaign to eradicate the militants, who continued to make significant advances in both countries. The Sunni Muslim extremist group also known as ISIS overran the Iraq-Syria border last June and declared a so-called caliphate that spanned the two countries. Since then, both Syria and Iraq have amassed international help to fight the group, including an American-led airstrike campaign that has been targeting militants in both Iraq and Syria. (International Business Times)
Tuesday, 28th May 2015
FRANCE – France's foreign minister said on Thursday he would travel to Israel and the Palestinian territories in June to try to revive the peace process and persuade all sides to accept a French U.N. Security Council resolution that would set parameters for talks. (Haaretz)
France challenged Iran's supreme leader on Wednesday over a disputed element of the Iranian nuclear talks, asserting that it would not sign any pact unless Iran allowed all its nuclear installations, including military sites, to be inspected. The French position was stated by the foreign minister, Laurent Fabius, just as negotiations reconvened in Vienna with the aim of reaching a final agreement by June 30. (The New York Times)
ISRAEL – U.S. defence aid to Israel is likely to increase after 2017, sources on both sides said on Thursday, seeing a possible link to Washington's efforts to assuage its ally's fears over nuclear diplomacy with Iran. A current package worth $3 billion (£1.9 billion) a year expires in 2017. A U.S. official, speaking to Reuters on condition of anonymity, said negotiators were close to a new deal that would bring annual payouts to $3.6-$3.7 billion on average. An Israeli official, who also declined to be named, put the expected aid at between $3.5 billion and $4 billion. (Reuters)
LIBYA –Libya is on the verge of economic collapse as rival factions haggle over a political settlement, the United Nations special envoy said on Thursday. Bernardino Leon, who has been trying for months to broker an agreement on a national unity government for Libya, said the United Nations was preparing a new draft of a possible political agreement that it hoped to give to the feuding parties in the first week of June. (Reuters)
Military aircraft belonging to a rival Libyan government on Thursday attacked Islamic State positions in and around the central city of Sirte, where the radical group claimed to have seized an air base, a government official said. Islamic State has exploited the general turmoil and security vacuum in Libya to build up a presence in several cities, where two governments are vying for power four years after the ousting of Muammar Gaddafi. (Reuters)
SYRIA – The people of Syria are losing hope in the fifth year of a civil war that has brought levels of death and destruction that are so extreme they should shock the world's collective conscience, the United Nations chief said in a report on Syria. The war has killed more than 220,000 people and left a third of the population homeless. Of the country's roughly 23 million people, some 12.2 million are in need of humanitarian aid, including 5 million children, Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon said in his monthly report published on Wednesday. (Euronews)
The U.S. military has started training Syrian opposition fighters in Turkey to combat ISIS, an expected expansion of a program that first launched in Jordan weeks ago, a U.S. official told Reuters Thursday. The official, who spoke on condition of anonymity, did not offer details on the size of the first group of recruits undergoing training in Turkey or the specific start date. (The Daily Star)
The Syrian affiliate of Al-Qaida said on Thursday it had taken over the city of Ariha, one of the last urban centres in Idlib province in northwestern Syria close to the Turkish border still held by the government. (Haaretz)
GREECE – Greece's Foreign Minister Nikos Kotzias and his Iranian counterpart Mohammad Zavad Zarif on Thursday vowed to boost bilateral ties at the political level as well as trade relations, with a key focus on the energy sector. (ANSAMed)
ISRAEL – U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon is leaning toward not including Israel on an annual list of states responsible for violating children's rights in armed conflicts, despite proposals to include it, U.N. diplomatic sources said. Israel's foreign ministry has denied pressuring Ban, but several diplomatic sources familiar with the matter said on condition of anonymity that the Israelis were lobbying his office hard to ensure they were not on the list. (The Daily Star)
LIBYA – The Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) has seized control of the airport in the city of Sirte after forces of a Tripoli-based Libyan government withdrew, a spokesman said Friday. (Al Arabiya)
TURKEY – A controversy has flared up again in Turkey over trucks allegedly carrying 1,000 mortars, 1,000 grenades, 50,000 assault rifles and 30,000 heavy machine guns stopped in the southern Turkish provinces of Hatay and Adana. On Friday, the newspaper Cumhuriyet posted a video and published some pictures of the "trucks of Ankara's secret services that were carrying weapons to Syria" in January 2014. (ANSAMed)
A new threat in cyber dimension: ISIS and the Cybercaliphate
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Weekly News 6 – 10 May 2019 | Mediterranean Affairs
Weekly News 29 April – 3 May 2019 | Mediterranean Affairs
Weekly News 22 – 26 April 2019 | Mediterranean Affairs
Editorial Board	 May 11, 2019
Weekly News 29 April – 3 May 2019 | Mediterranean…


With the presidential election coming up, we have a number of opportunities to help engage others in the political process, to discover voter registration needs, and to learn about the electoral process.
In April and May, we are looking for volunteers to conduct voter registration and education programs for eligible students in St. Paul high schools. We are also planning to partner with the Minnesota Justice Foundation to run a program called Street Law in area charter and alternative schools. In the program, law students will be conducting classes and League volunteers are needed to help register voters in classes for senior students.
We'd love to welcome our returning volunteers as well as new volunteers to these upcoming opportunities. Please email mail@lwvsp.org or call 651-789-0118 if you'd like to learn more or to be notified of our upcoming voter registration plans.
What happens at a precinct caucus? Join representatives from the two major parties to learn how to participate in each party's precinct caucus process on Tuesday, March 1.
Building the next generation of poll workers. Learn how you can be involved with recruiting new people to serve as poll workers, with a special emphasis on bilingual citizens, youth, and people of color.
The event takes place on Thursday, February 25 from 12:00 - 1:30 p.m. You can register here.


text:
Meet Crispus Attucks, The Black Patriot Who Opposed The Boston Massacre
While many overlook Crispus Attucks' contribution to American history, he still provides a powerful example of moral courage we should follow.
By Travis Scott
When you think of the American Revolution, of what do you think? Many people think of the British soldiers and their red coats, the Boston Tea Party, the Founding Fathers, and the Constitution.
Many also have the impression the American colonies' efforts for independence were entirely "white" efforts. That is, that the American Revolution and all the important things that happened in it were entirely the result of people of European descent. We think this because of how we have been taught things in school. When we look at actual history, though, we see a different picture that would surprise a lot of people.
This is a portrait of Crispus Attucks. He was the first adult casualty of the American Revolution, and leader of the patriot group that rallied against the redcoats on King Street in Boston. This event would later become known as the Boston Massacre.
What We Know about Crispus Attucks' Early Life
We don't know a lot about Attucks. He was born of a Native-American mother, and his father was an African-born slave. It is likely that Attucks ran away from slavery at age 27. A reward for a runaway slave named "Crispas" was published on October 2, 1750 offering a 10 pounds for his return. It read: "Ran-away from his Master William Browne of Framingham, on the 30th of September, last, a Mulatto Fellow, about 27 years of age, named Crispas, six feet, two inches high, short curl's Hair…"
Spelling standards back in the day were more relaxed, and historians have assumed "Crispus" and "Crispas" were the same name. Attucks became a sailor for whaling vessels, and records show that he often traveled under the alias "Michael Johnson" in certain ports.
As a sailor, Attucks was under constant threat of conscription into the British military. Most sailors did not like conscription, and some writings we have indicate that Attucks did not either. Nor did he enjoy the company of British soldiers. The Friday before the massacre, Attucks and his companions chased a British soldier out of a tavern, and got in a scuffle with three other British soldiers as a result.
What Led to the Boston Massacre
Until the massacre, the British controlled the trade vessels of the American colonies through the Navigation Acts. They also taxed the colonies without representation, and the colonists did not like this. So they often would boycott businesses whose owners were loyal to the British.
On February 22, 1770, a protest occurred outside a British customs house. A man named Ebenezer Richardson, who worked there, tried to break up the protest. Instead of stopping, the crowd took their protest to his house. To ward off the protesters, who were throwing rocks, Richardson fired a musket shot into the crowd from his window. He wounded a teenager, and murdered an 11-year-old child.
Crispus Attucks and his sailor companions confronting the British; Painting by George Gaadt.
After this, tensions escalated quickly between the British and the colonists. Not 11 days later, on March 5, 1770, was the Boston Massacre. What started out as an exchange of words between two men ended with a British soldier striking a colonist over the head with his musket. As a result, a large crowd of colonists appeared outside the customs house the soldier was guarding. One eyewitness account from historian William C. Nell's "The Colored Patriots of the American Revolution" reads:
The people were greatly exasperated. The multitude ran towards king street crying, 'Let us drive out these ribalds; they have no business here!'… a band of the populace led by a mulatto named ATTUCKS… advanced to the quarter, the military were challenged to fire. The populace advanced to the points of their bayonets. The soldiers appeared like statues… at length, the mulatto and twelve of his companions, pressing forward, environed the soldiers, and striking their muskets with their clubs, cried to the multitude: 'BE NOT AFRAID; THEY DARE NOT FIRE…' The mulatto lifted his arm against Capt. Preston, and having turned one of the muskets, he seized the bayonet with his left hand, as if he intended to execute his threat. At this moment, confused cries were heard: 'The Wretches dare not fire!' Firing succeed, Attucks is slain. The other discharges follow…
Nell himself writes, "Attucks was killed by Montgomery, one of Capt. Preston's soldiers. He had been foremost in resisting, and was first slain. As proof of a front engagement, he received two balls, one in each breast." Many other firsthand accounts say Attucks died on the spot when the British fired. Several other men were shot and killed during the scuffle that ensued.
Remember, Remember, the Fifth of March
Despite laws and customs regulating the burial of blacks, Attucks was buried in the Park Street Cemetery with the other honored dead from the massacre. For years colonists observed March 5 as a day of remembrance. During the fortification of Boston in preparation for a battle several years later, George Washington said to his soldiers "Remember, it is the fifth of March, and avenge the death of your brethren!"
The signing of the Declaration of Independence had not happened yet, so for years this event was the most important day of remembrance for the colonists during the Revolutionary War. John Adams, a Founding Father who served as the second president of the United States, later wrote in hindsight that the Boston Massacre served as the "foundation of American independence" from British rule.
Attucks also became a symbol against slavery to American abolitionists. In the mid-1800s, Thomas Sims, a fugitive slave from Georgia, was recaptured and dragged back into slavery in public, over the same street on which Attucks had died. Legislator Anson Burlingame gave a speech about Sims a few months later in October in Boston. He said:
The conquering of our New England prejudices in favor of liberty 'does not pay.' It 'does not pay,' I submit to play our fellow-citizens under practical martial law; to beat the drum in our streets; to clothe our temples of justice in chains, to creep along, by the light of the morning star, over the ground wet with the blood of Crispus Attucks, the noble colored man, who fell in King street before the muskets of Tyranny, away in the dawn of our Revolution… a man made in the image of God… [was] led off to slavery, over the spot where Hancock stood and ATTUCKS fell… where the negro blood of CHRISTOPHER ATTUCKS stained the ground,- over that spot, Boston authorities carried a citizen of Massachusetts to Alexandria as a slave… Where the disgusting rites of sacrificing a human being to slavery were lately performed, was the spot which was first moistened with American blood in resisting slavery, and among the first victims was a colored person.
The great Martin Luther King Jr. wrote about Attucks in the introduction to his book "Why We Can't Wait." While many overlook Attucks' contribution to American history, he still provides a powerful example of moral courage we should follow. A monument for the Boston Massacre (also known as the Crispus Attucks monument) was erected at the Boston Common in 1888, more than 100 years after the massacre.
"First to defy, First to die": Attucks at the forefront of the colonist rebellion against the British.
Sources and More Information
"The Colored Patriots of the American Revolution," by William C Nell
PBS Biography on Crispus Attucks
"Who was Crispus Attucks?"
Crispus Attucks Museum
"The Boston Massacre in Black, White, and Color"
"Crispus Attucks," by George Gaadt
Travis Scott is a currently a student, freelance writer, and a practicing Latter-Day Saint. Athletic hobbies include martial arts, dance, climbing, and working out at the gym. His other hobbies are reading, hiking, camping, and having good old fashioned conversations with people.
Photo "First to defy, First to die"- Attucks at the forefront of the colonist rebellion against the British.
Photo Federal Works Agency / Wikimedia
American Founding American history American Revolution Black History Month Boston Massacre Crispus Attucks Founding Fathers Patriots revolutionary war U.S. History


Railpictures.ca - Matt Watson Photo: A couple of former class one SD's have found a nice retirement gig at the P&H elevator just west of Biggar Saskatchewan. I this scene the pair are enjoying a weekend off. | Railpictures.ca – Canadian Railway Photography – photographie ferroviaire Canadienne.
Caption: A couple of former class one SD's have found a nice retirement gig at the P&H elevator just west of Biggar Saskatchewan. I this scene the pair are enjoying a weekend off.


text:
El Sanjuán o también llamado popularmente Sanjuanito es un género musical autóctono, de los más difundidos y popularizados en los Andes ecuatorianos

Descripción
El Sanjuán es un baile o también género musical perteneciente a las Fiestas de San Juan en la provincia de Imbabura. Con origen en la localidad de Ilumán de Otavalo, este estilo de baile denota el sentimiento del indígena ecuatoriano, con ritmo alegre y melodía melancólica en tonalidad menor y es parte de las danzas religiosas de origen ceremonial ecuatoriano. Existen dos tipos de San juanes:

 Sanjuán indígena: como ritmo originario dándole un contexto ritual (Inti Raymi) y más tarde atribuido al natalicio del santo por el cual lleva su nombre que se celebra la fiesta alrededor de 23 de junio, y todo el evento es en honor del santo Juan. Este ritmo como expresión de la fe y el amor de los indígenas, tiene relación con las creencias y cosmovisión ancestral, por tal motivo este género se encuentra presente en varias celebraciones como forma de agradecimiento a la Pachamama (raymis).
 Sanjuán mestizo o de blancos: popularmente denominado "Sanjuanito", es el mismo ritmo, pero con influencia de la contradanza europea en compás de 2/4, ejecutado en cualquier situación festiva de la región andina del Ecuador.

Etimología
Sobre el origen de su nombre, el compositor ecuatoriano Segundo Luis Moreno, conjetura que se debió al hecho de que se danzaba durante el día de los rituales indígenas del Inti Raymi, y no producto de la invasión europea en donde los españoles lo hacen coincidir con el nacimiento de San Juan Bautista, 24 de junio año desconocido.

Vestimenta
Las mujeres por general usan aretes en forma de argollas, unos collares de semillas disecadas, fajas indígenas, polleras de colores con bordados floreados, blusa blanca y una chalina de colores, sombrero y alpargatas blancos. Los hombres por lo general un zamarro de color negro, marrón, plomo o blanco; un poncho de colores, alpargatas, sombrero, camisa blanca y una faja indígena.

Véase también
Albazo
Bomba del Chota

Bibliografía
 Sandoval, J. M. (2009). Música Patrimonial del Ecuador . Quito: Cartografía de Memoria .

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Los ritmos del Ecuador: El San Juanito, ritmo nacional del Ecuador
 La música que llevamos dentro: El Sanjuanito
 Purimuy (sanjuanito); dúo Aquitania)
 Amores hallarás y Carabuela (sanjuanito)
 Baila en Casa - Aprende el Ritmo de "San Juan" (vídeo)

Cultura de Nariño
Cultura de Putumayo
Géneros de la música tradicional de Colombia
Géneros musicales de Ecuador
Géneros de música latina


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text:
Maat o Ma'at, símbolo de la verdad, la justicia y la armonía cósmica; también era representada como diosa, la hija de Ra en la mitología egipcia. Es fundamentalmente un concepto abstracto de justicia universal, de equilibrio y armonía cósmicos que imperan en el mundo desde su origen y es necesario conservar. Resume la cosmovisión egipcia, similar a la noción de armonía y areté, propia del mundo helénico, o a la idea de virtud, del mundo judeocristiano. También es conocida por su símbolo: la pluma de avestruz, con la cual, según la mitología egipcia, se pesa el alma y se decide si esta merece la vida eterna o a que Ammit se la coma.

Maat como principio

Maat y la armonía universal

La creencia en la maat proviene de muy antiguo en la cultura egipcia y es un elemento clave de ella, que da sentido a su carácter dualista. Ra, el dios solar, descendía cada anochecer al Inframundo, la Duat, y tras recorrerlo, aparecía de nuevo en el cielo al amanecer del día siguiente.

Para que este ciclo diario de regeneración del mundo no se detuviera, Ra debía enfrentarse con éxito, durante su paso por el reino de las Tinieblas, a Apofis, símbolo del Mal representado como una serpiente. Para simbolizar este triunfo de Ra sobre Apofis, es decir, del Bien sobre el Mal, los egipcios representaban el principio de la maat encarnado en una diosa que ayuda a Ra en su lucha.

Maat era para los egipcios la fuerza benefactora de la que se nutrían los dioses a quienes ellos adoraban. Por ello los sacerdotes hacían diariamente ofrendas y rituales de magia con el fin de garantizar su preponderancia, pues de ello dependía el mantenimiento del orden armonioso y justo del mundo.

Como concepto filosófico tiene similitud con los mes, leyes o decretos divinos mesopotámicos, pues ambos constituyen, entre otros, la base de un orden o armonía universal. Otros conceptos fundamentales del taoísmo y el confucianismo también se asemejan a veces a Maat. Muchos de estos conceptos fueron codificados en leyes y plasmados en textos de carácter religioso como los Textos de las Pirámides (Imperio Antiguo), los Textos de los Sarcófagos (Primer Periodo Intermedio e Imperio Medio) y en el llamado Libro de los Muertos (Imperio Nuevo).

Maat y el faraón
Maat estaba estrechamente ligado a la figura del faraón, en un sentido religioso y moral. Esta vinculación alcanzó su máximo desarrollo en el Imperio Antiguo, y era frecuente que fuera el rey mismo quien hiciera las ofrendas diarias.

El faraón, como suprema encarnación de la justicia humana y divina, debía encargarse tanto de propiciar el predominio de maat como de obrar por la prosperidad y bienestar de su pueblo. Ambas cosas estaban estrechamente relacionadas, pues eran guiadas por los mismos principios de Orden, Verdad y Justicia.

La bonanza era interpretada como resultado del buen hacer del faraón. Por el contrario, las crisis denotaban una derrota de maat a manos de las fuerzas malignas. Después de la crisis política que sobrevino a la muerte de Pepi II, la fe de los antiguos egipcios entró en crisis, por lo que el concepto de maat fue separado de las funciones del faraón.

Maat en la retórica
Aunque sobrevive poca mitología sobre la diosa Maat, ella era la hija del dios Sol egipcio Ra; y la esposa de Thoth, el dios de la Sabiduría que inventó la escritura, lo que conecta directamente a Maat con la retórica del antiguo Egipto. Maat (que está asociado con los movimientos solar, lunar, astral y del río Nilo) es un concepto basado en el intento de la humanidad de vivir en un estado armónico natural. Maat está asociado con el juicio del difunto y si una persona ha hecho lo correcto en su vida. Por lo tanto, hacer Maat era actuar de una manera irreprochable o inculpable. Tan reverenciado era el concepto de Maat que los reyes egipcios a menudo rendían tributo a los dioses, ofreciendo pequeñas estatuas de Maat, indicando que estaban defendiendo con éxito el orden universal: la interconexión entre los reinos cósmico, divino, natural y humano. Cuando los retóricos intentan lograr el equilibrio en sus argumentos, están practicando Maat.

Maat en la escritura
Cartas existentes de épocas variadas en la historia egipcia muestran adhesión a Maat y deferencia a los superiores sociales del orador.  Egiptólogos creen que las cartas eran dictadas y leídas por los escribas, provocando el desarrollo de convenciones orales de expresión también en la escritura. Las cartas fueron generalmente  escritas en la tercera persona con gran énfasis en citas en comillas, por lo que  los académicos creen que fue debido a  la importancia dada a las palabras exactas.   Las cartas se enfocan en el orden, estableciendo deferencia a Maat y al poder de estructura así como también  a la contribución del orator al orden social antes de solicitar  algo o establecer el argumento principal de la carta. Otras cartas explican al receptor cuales acciones estarían o no estarían de acuerdo con Maat como un método de persuasión. Otras formas de la escritura, por ejemplo los textos instructivos, también estaban  bajo la influencia de Maat.

Maat en educación
La evidencia muestra que los alumnos jóvenes en el Egipto antiguo aprendían cómo leer y escribir copiando obras instructivas, por ejemplo las Instrucciones de Ptahhotep. Estas eran historias que describían ejemplos de  comportamiento bueno y justo de acuerdo con  Maat, y generalmente eran escritas desde la perspectiva de un padre enseñando buen comportamiento a su hijo. Las obras también detallaron cómo  hablar y escribir eficazmente en la sociedad del Egipto antiguo. Los estudiantes que recibieron esta educación eran casi exclusivamente de las clases altas, y parte del propósito de las obras instructivas era enseñarles cómo cumplir con Maat en sus vidas, incluyendo la oración y escritura.  Como parte de la clase gobernante, ellos también aprendieron  a colocarse ellos mismos  en el orden social que proviene de Maat.

Maat como diosa

Algunas veces se representaba al concepto maat como una deidad más, pero esto parece haber sido por motivos meramente alegóricos, por cuanto la diosa Maat nunca tuvo mayor participación en las sagas mitológicas de los dioses egipcios.

Iconografía
Como diosa, Maat aparece representada como una mujer, de pie o sentada, llevando sobre la cabeza su símbolo, una pluma de avestruz, vertical, portando cetro uas y anj. Tras el reinado de Ajenatón, también fue representada como mujer alada.

Mitología
El jeroglífico que la representa es una pluma de avestruz, vertical, en perfecto equilibrio y otras variantes. Este símbolo aparece en la representación del Juicio de Osiris, el momento en que se pesaba en una balanza de dos platos el Ib (conciencia) del difunto, en uno se depositaba el corazón del difunto (símbolo de su conciencia) y en el otro aparecía el jeroglífico Maat (símbolo de la armonía y justicia universal). Si aquel pesaba igual que el segundo, el fallecido lograba su estancia eterna en el Más Allá. Si no, Ammyt lo devoraba. También se la conoce como Mayet. A través de su representación de la justicia se le vinculaba con la fertilidad.

Culto
Maat, como diosa, fue venerada en Karnak, en su santuario; también tuvo un templo en Menfis, fue venerada en el templo de Deir el-Medina y en muchos templos egipcios dedicados a otros dioses.

Nombres teóforos
Su nombre lo adoptaron importantes personajes de la historia del Antiguo Egipto, como la reina Hatshepsut (Maatkara Hatshepsut).

Referencias

Bibliografía
 Robledo Casanova, Ildefonso: El hombre y el orden del mundo en el Antiguo Egipto. Maat, en Historia 16, Año XXVII, número 336, abril de 2004, págs. 32 a 41, ISSN 0210-6353.
 Lipson, Carol (2004). Rhetoric Before and Beyond the Greeks. Nueva York: SUNY Press.

Referencias digitales
Rosa Thode, El panteón egipcio, Maat en egiptologia.org

Enlaces externos
 Elisa Castel: Gran Diccionario de Mitología Egipcia, en egiptologia.com
 Rueda Calle, J. J.: Aproximación al pensamiento egipcio desde un punto de vista filosófico, en egiptologia.com

Diosas egipcias
Diosas de la justicia
Derecho del Antiguo Oriente Próximo
[[Categoría:Conceptos de los antiguos egipcios


In February, 34 Young People from the Beavers, Cubs, Scouts and Explorers attached to The Salvation Army here in Chatham, were presented with the new Commanding Officers Award by their CO, Major Nigel Schultz.
Sue Willard, Parent and Toddler Leader, writes: The parent and toddler groups met last Friday for a joint Christmas party. Around 25 babies and children gathered in the Gowans room, with their mummies and daddies, aunties and grandmas.
The Ministry Team will be leading as follows on Sunday 17 December.