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Genocide refers to efforts to destroy a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group of people either entirely or a substantial portion thereof. This practice has been all too common in human history. Even biblical examples exist, in some of which the God of the Israelites ordered them to destroy other tribes. Many historical occurrences were considered justified by the perpetrators, based on their need for sufficient lebensraum for their own society, with the "other" people viewed as inferior and a threat to the smooth functioning of their society.
2 Genocide in history
2.1 Biblical genocide
2.2 Roman Empire
2.3 The Americas
2.3.3 Paraguay
2.3.4 The United States
2.4 Congo
2.6 Ottoman Empire (Turkey)
2.7 Rwanda
3 Genocide as a crime under domestic law
3.1 Belgium
4 International prosecution of genocide
4.1 Nuremberg Trials
4.2 Former Yugoslavia
4.3 Rwandan Genocide
However, such reasoning is no longer considered acceptable. Genocide has been deemed criminal by the United Nations, as well as numerous individual nations. As human beings have moved toward an increasingly globalized society, it has become necessary to break down the barriers that divide people. To overcome genocide, people must learn to live together as one harmonious human family, guided by loving parents, so that man no longer kills his own brother.
The term genocide was coined by Raphael Lemkin (1900–1959), a Polish Jewish legal scholar, in 1943, from the roots genos (Greek for family, tribe or race) and -cide (Latin - occidere or cideo - to massacre).
Genocide is defined by the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG) Article 2 as
any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group, as such: Killing members of the group; Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; and forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.
Lemkin said about the definition of genocide in its original adoption for international law at the Geneva Conventions:
Generally speaking, genocide does not necessarily mean the immediate destruction of a nation, except when accomplished by mass killings of all members of a nation. It is intended rather to signify a coordinated plan of different actions aiming at the destruction of essential foundations of the life of national groups, with the aim of annihilating the groups themselves. The objectives of such a plan would be the disintegration of the political and social institutions, of culture, language, national feelings, religion, and the economic existence of national groups, and the destruction of the personal security, liberty, health, dignity, and even the lives of the individuals belonging to such groups.[1]
Lemkin's original genocide definition was narrow, as it addressed only crimes against "national groups" rather than "groups" in general. At the same time, it was broad in that it included not only physical genocide, but also acts aimed at destroying the culture and livelihood of the group.
Genocide in history
Genocide appears to be a regular and widespread event in human history. The phrases "never again" and "not on our watch," which have often been used in relation to genocide, have been continually contradicted.
Determining which historical events constitute genocide and which are merely criminal or inhuman behavior is not a clear-cut matter. Furthermore, in nearly every case where accusations of genocide have circulated, partisans of various sides have fiercely disputed the interpretation and details of the event, often to the point of promoting wildly different versions of the facts. An accusation of genocide is certainly not taken lightly and will almost always be controversial. Revisionist attempts to deny genocide are, in some countries, penally repressed.
The following are some examples of genocide occurring at different times in history, throughout the world. They include Biblical genocide, atrocities perpetrated in the Roman Empire, the Americas, the African Congo and Rwanda, Europe in Germany, and the Armenian genocide by Turkey in the Middle East.
Biblical genocide
The Bible contains several accounts of genocide, although the perceived accuracy and import of these accounts is related to the reader's opinion of the Bible as a whole. They include:
The war and ensuing genocide waged against the Canaanites by the Israelites, in which God gives a commandment to never allow any Canaanite to remain alive. (Deuteronomy 20:16-17)
The extermination of the Amalekites at the hands of King Saul of Israel at the behest of Samuel. (I Samuel 15:2-3)
The conquest and massacre of various Middle Eastern peoples, by the empires of Assyria and Babylon.
Perhaps the ultimate genocide is recorded in the book of Genesis, when God determined to "make an end of all flesh" (Genesis 6:13) through the Flood, sparing only Noah and his family, instructing him to build an ark that would keep his family and pairs of living creatures safe (Genesis 6:14-22). According to this account, God destroyed all people because of their evil and corrupt ways, saving only one righteous family. The account goes on to record that God then made a covenant with Noah and his sons, affirmed by the rainbow, that never again would such destruction of life occur.
Many campaigns of the Roman Empire can by modern standards be rated as genocide:
Julius Caesar's campaign against the Helvetii (inhabitants of present-day Switzerland), in which approximately 60 percent of the tribe was destroyed.
Julius Caesar's campaign against the Gauls (inhabitants of present-day France) under Vercingetorix: over one million (probably one in four of the Gauls) were killed, another million were enslaved and 800 cities were destroyed. The entire population of the city of Avaricum (Bourges) (40,000 in all) was slaughtered.
Carthage: the city was completely destroyed in the Third Punic War, and its people killed or enslaved.
Jerusalem: the city was burned in the Destruction of Jerusalem and its people killed or enslaved.
The long-term decimation, sometimes by government policy and sometimes not, of the indigenous peoples of South and North America by Europeans is estimated to be one of the largest and longest lasting genocidal events in history.[2]
Various estimates of the pre-contact native population of the continental U.S. and Canada range from 1.8 to over 12 million. Over the next four centuries, their numbers were reduced to a low of 237,000 by 1900. It has been estimated that the native population of what is now Mexico was reduced from 30 million to only three million over the first four decades of Spanish rule.
European persecution of natives started with Christopher Columbus' arrival in San Salvador Island in 1492. Native population dropped dramatically over the next few decades. Some were directly exterminated by Europeans; others died indirectly as a result of contact with introduced diseases for which they had no resistance.
Over the next four centuries, European settlers systematically displaced Native American peoples, from the Arctic to South America. This was accomplished through varying combinations of warfare, the signing of treaties (of which the natives may not have fully understood the consequences), forced relocations to barren lands, destruction of their main food supply—such as the bison—and the spread of European disease, notably smallpox.
In the 1880s, Argentine President Julio Roca launched a campaign to exterminate the Indian population of the Pampas and the Patagonia regions. The offensive led to the death of some 20,000 Indians.
The Beothuk people, an aboriginal group, native to the province of Newfoundland in Canada, are now completely extinct as a result of extended low intensity conflict with European colonists (mostly fishermen who regarded them as thieves), loss of habitat, and importation of diseases such as tuberculosis. As European settlements grew, the Beothuks withdrew into the interior of the island and starved.
Activities of European colonists and importation of previously-unseen diseases caused many deaths in other Canadian native communities; the Beothuk are unique in Canadian history as having suffered not only genocide but outright extinction. Tragically, their "genocide" is unique in the sense that it appears to have been a drawn out and unintentional exercise founded in mutual distrust and ignorance. It was not a modern "genocide" in the sense there was no intention or even conscious effort to drive them to extinction. The process was the result of complex relationship dynamics and the peculiarly tenuous ecological nature of the island.
The issue of genocide against the aboriginal peoples of Canada (during the conquest of "turtle island" or the North American continent) has received international attention from various human rights organizations. Principal testimonials from thousands of Aboriginals compiled by former United Church of Canada minister, Reverend Kevin Annett, and his Truth Commission into Genocide in Canada has added considerable merit to this revelation.[3]
The War of the Triple Alliance (1864-1870) almost totally destroyed the Paraguayan population and ended the relative development that took place during its first decades of existence. It is estimated that 300,000 Paraguayans—including a very high proportion of men of military age—were killed.
Throughout the nineteenth century, Native Americans were driven off their traditional lands to facilitate the installation of settlers. On some occasions, entire villages were massacred by the U.S. Army. Tribes were generally relocated to Indian reservations, on which they could be more readily pushed toward assimilation into mainstream U.S. society.
The Conestoga (Susquehanna) tribe of the lower Susquehanna Valley of Pennsylvania was completely annihilated by the "Paxton Boys" Scotch-Irish militias at the end of the French and Indian War in 1763. The last survivors of the tribe sought and were granted refuge in the Lancaster County jail. The Paxton Boys forced their way in and massacred them. The liquidation of the Conestogas is documented by Benjamin Franklin and in "The Light in The Forest" by Conrad Richter.[4]
Prior to its being taken over by Belgium to form the Belgian Congo, under the rule of King Léopold II, the Congo Free State suffered a great loss of life due to criminal indifference by Europeans to its native inhabitants in the pursuit of increased rubber production.
From 1880 to 1920, the population of the Congo fell precipitously; murder, starvation, exhaustion (due to over-work), and disease were the culprits. Estimates vary on how many died and in what timeframe the deaths occurred. A 1904 report cites three million dead between 1888 and 1904; Fredric Wertham's 1966 book A Sign For Cain: A Exploration of Human Violence estimates that the population of the Congo dropped from 30 million to 8.5 million in that period. [5]
These mass-deaths in the Congo Free State became a cause celèbre in the last years of the nineteenth century and a great embarrassment not only to the King but to Belgium, which had portrayed itself as progressive and attentive to human rights. The Congo Reform Movement, which included among its members Mark Twain, Joseph Conrad, Booker T. Washington, and Bertrand Russell, led a vigorous international movement against the mistreatment of the indigenous population of the Congo. [6]
The 1941 massacre at Babi Yar was similar to many other mass killings of Jews. Over 33,000 Jews were shot in the course of two days by Nazi Einsatzgruppen and local Ukrainian forces.
Main article: Holocaust
Nazi genocide before and during World War II and the Holocaust (1933–1945) resulted in the systematic extermination of upwards of 11 million people. The main targets of the Holocaust were the Jews of Europe, of whom between five and six million were killed,[7] , including 1.5 million children, in what was called by the Nazis the "Final Solution of the Jewish Question." Other targets of the Holocaust included Poles, Roma, Serbians, Slavs, homosexuals, and political opponents such as communists.
The resources of a major industrial power, Germany, were harnessed to industrialize mass murder. Jews and other victims were massacred in massive open air shootings by the organized killing squads called Einsatzgruppen, or they were confined in ghettos before being transported to extermination camps where they were killed.
Ottoman Empire (Turkey)
Main article: Armenian Genocide
Major concentration camps
The Allied Powers of Britain, France, and Russia jointly issued a statement explicitly charging for the first time ever another government of committing "a crime against humanity":
in view of these new crimes of Turkey against humanity and civilization, the Allied Governments announce publicly to the Sublime Porte that they will hold personally responsible for these crimes all members of the Ottoman Government, as well as those of their agents who are implicated in such massacres.[8].
"Calling upon the President to ensure that the foreign policy of the United States reflects appropriate understanding and sensitivity concerning issues related to human rights, ethnic cleansing, and genocide documented in the United States record relating to the Armenian Genocide, and for other purposes" A United States Congressional resolution on the Armenian Genocide found that:
Genocide memorial at the Tsitsernakaberd hill, Yerevan
The Armenian Genocide was conceived and carried out by the Ottoman Empire from 1915 to 1923, resulting in the deportation of nearly 2,000,000 Armenians, of whom 1,500,000 men, women, and children were killed, 500,000 survivors were expelled from their homes, and which succeeded in the elimination of the over 2,500-year presence of Armenians in their historic homeland. "[9]
The Turkish Government disputed this interpretation of events and maintained that crucial documents supporting the genocide thesis were actually falsifications [10].
Armenians around the world mark the genocide in different ways, and many memorials have been built in Armenian diaspora communities. A national memorial was built in 1967 in Yerevan, the capital city of Armenia, and each April 24 (Armenian Genocide Commemoration Holiday) hundreds of thousands of people walk to the genocide monument and lay flowers (usually red carnations or tulips) around the eternal flame.
During a period of 100 days in 1994, officially 937,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus were killed by Hutus in Rwanda. The rapid rate at which people were killed far exceeded any other genocide in history. Bodies were left wherever they were slain, mostly in the streets and their homes. The method of killing was done mostly with machetes.
Poster of fugitives wanted for genocide in Rwanda
The killing swiftly spread from Kigali to all corners of the country. Between April 6 and mid-July, a genocide of unprecedented swiftness is estimated to have left between 800,000 to 1,071,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus dead at the hands of organized bands of militias, as reported by Helen Vesperini:
James Smith of Aegis Trust, a British NGO dedicated to the prevention of genocide, says finding an exact number is not the point: "What's important to remember is that there was a genocide. There was an attempt to eliminate Tutsis—men, women, and children—and to erase any memory of their existence."[11]
One such massacre occurred at Nyarubuye. Ordinary citizens were called on by local officials and government-sponsored radio to kill their neighbors and those who refused to kill were often killed themselves. "Either you took part in the massacres or you were massacred yourself," said one Hutu, rationalizing an ambivalent mixture of regret, fear, and shame at being forced to kill Tutsis.[12]
The United Nations established the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) for the prosecution of offenses committed in Rwanda during the genocide which occurred there beginning April 6, 1994.
For many, the Rwandan genocide stands out as historically significant, not only because of the sheer number of people murdered in such a short period of time, but also because of how inadequately the United Nations (particularly, its Western members such as the U.S. and France) responded (or failed to respond) to the atrocities. A major criticism of the international community's response to the Rwandan Genocide was that it was reactive, not proactive. The international community has developed a mechanism for prosecuting the perpetrators of genocide but has not developed the will or the mechanisms for intervening in genocide as it happens.
Genocide as a crime under domestic law
Individual nations have their own laws regarding genocide, including the possibility of prosecuting perpetrators for acts committed in other countries. Examples of such laws in Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain, and the United Kingdom are noted below.
In 1993, Belgium had adopted universal jurisdiction, allowing prosecution of genocide, committed by anybody in the world. The practice was widely applauded by many human rights groups, because it made legal action possible to perpetrators who did not have a direct link with Belgium, and whose victims were not Belgian citizens or residents. However, ten years later in 2003, Belgium repealed this law, although some cases which had already started continued. These included those concerning the Rwandan genocide, and complaints filed against the Chadian ex-President Hissène Habré. [13]
Dutch law restricts prosecutions for genocide to its nationals. On December 23, 2005, a Dutch court ruled in a case brought against Frans van Anraat for supplying chemicals to Iraq, that "[it] thinks and considers legally and convincingly proven that the Kurdish population meets the requirement under the genocide conventions as an ethnic group. The court has no other conclusion that these attacks were committed with the intent to destroy the Kurdish population of Iraq." Because he supplied the chemicals before March 16, 1988, the date of the Halabja poison gas attack, he is guilty of a war crime but not guilty of complicity in genocide.[14][15]
Under Spanish law, judges have the right to try foreigners suspected of genocidal acts that have taken place outside Spain. In June 2003, Spanish Judge Baltasar Garzón jailed Ricardo Miguel Cavallo, (also known as Miguel Angel Cavallo), a former Argentine naval officer, extradited from Mexico to Spain pending his trial on charges of genocide and terrorism relating to the years of Argentina's military dictatorship.[16] [17]
On January 11, 2006 it was reported that the Spanish High Court would investigate whether seven former Chinese officials, including the former President of China, Jiang Zemin, and former Prime Minister, Li Peng, participated in a genocide in Tibet. This investigation followed a Spanish Constitutional Court (September, 26 2005) ruling that Spanish courts could try genocide cases even if they did not involve Spanish nationals.[18] China denounced the Spanish court's investigation as interference in its internal affairs and dismissed the allegations as "sheer fabrication." [19]
The United Kingdom has incorporated the International Criminal Court Act into domestic law. It is not retroactive so it applies only to events that took place after May 2001, and genocide charges can only be filed against British nationals and residents. According to Peter Carter QC, chairman of the Bar's human rights committee[20] "It means that British mercenaries who support regimes that commit war crimes can expect prosecution."
International prosecution of genocide
In the wake of the Holocaust committed by the Nazis, the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG) was adopted by the UN General Assembly on December 9, 1948. It contains an internationally-recognized definition of genocide which was incorporated into the national criminal legislation of many countries, and was also adopted by the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, the treaty that established the International Criminal Court (ICC).
After the minimum 20 countries became parties to the Convention, it came into force as international law on January 12, 1951. At that time however, only two of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council (UNSC) were parties to the treaty: France and the Republic of China. Eventually the Soviet Union ratified in 1954, the United Kingdom in 1970, the People's Republic of China in 1983 (having replaced the Taiwan-based Republic of China on the UNSC in 1971), and the United States in 1988. This long delay in support for the Genocide Convention caused it to languish for over four decades—only in the 1990s did the law begin to be enforced.
All signatories to the CPPCG are required to prevent and punish acts of genocide, during both war and peace, though some barriers make this enforcement difficult. In particular, some of the signatories—Bahrain, Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, the United States, Vietnam, Yemen, and Yugoslavia—signed with the proviso that no claim of genocide could be brought against them at the International Court of Justice without their consent[21]. Despite official protests from other signatories (notably Cyprus and Norway) on the ethics and legal standing of these reservations, the immunity from prosecution they grant has been invoked from time to time, as when the United States refused to allow a charge of genocide brought against it by Yugoslavia following the 1999 Kosovo War.
To date, all international prosecutions for genocide have been brought in specially convened international tribunals. Since 2002, the International Criminal Court can exercise its jurisdiction if national courts are unwilling or unable to investigate or prosecute genocide, thus being a "court of last resort," leaving the primary responsibility to exercise jurisdiction over alleged criminals to individual states. Due to the United States concerns over the ICC, the United States prefers to continue to use specially convened international tribunals for such investigations and potential prosecutions.[22]
Examples of genocide prosecuted through international tribunals include the Nuremberg Trials in Germany, and courts dealing with the atrocities in Former Yugoslavia, and Rwanda.
Main article: Nuremberg Trials
"The Nuremberg Trials" is the general name for two sets of trials of Nazis involved in World War II and the Holocaust. The trials were held in the German city of Nuremberg from 1945 to 1949 at the Nuremberg Palace of Justice. The first and more famous of these trials was the Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal or IMT, which tried 24 of the most important captured (or still believed to be alive) leaders of Nazi Germany. It was held from November 20, 1945 to October 1, 1946.
The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) is a court under the auspices of the United Nations for the prosecution of genocide and certain other types of crime committed in former Yugoslavia since 1991. The tribunal functions as an ad-hoc court and is located in The Hague. It was established by Resolution 827 of the UN Security Council, which was passed on May 25, 1993.
Some of those found guilty of Genocide or crimes against humanity are:
Milan Babić (deceased), Krajina Serb, prime minister of Republika Srpska Krajina (Serb self-proclaimed entity in Croatia); sentenced to 13 years for his part in ethnic cleansing.
Vidoje Blagojevic, Bosnian Serb, a Bosnian Serb Army officer, sentenced to 18 years for involvement in the Srebrenica massacre.
Dragan Jokic, Bosnian Serb, sentenced to nine years for involvement in Srebrenica massacre.
Radislav Krstic, Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army general; sentenced to 35 years (originally 46) for genocide, crimes against humanity, and violations of the laws or customs of war.
The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) is a court under the auspices of the United Nations for the prosecution of offenses committed in Rwanda during the genocide which occurred there during April, 1994, commencing on April 6. The ICTR was created on November 8, 1994 by the Security Council of the United Nations in order to judge those people responsible for the acts of genocide and other serious violations of the international law performed in the territory of Rwanda, or by Rwandan citizens in nearby states, between January 1 and December 31, 1994.
The first trial, of Jean-Paul Akayesu, was completed in 1998; prosecution of many others has been completed, and continues for others. A website was created to keep an ongoing updated progress report for all accused persons, from their arrest to final outcomes of the judicial process. [23]
Genocide, considered by some to be our world's only universal taboo, takes place much more often than anyone could imagine or would like to admit. Justifications by those committing such acts may include claiming their right of Lebensraum for their own group, and that others are inferior, contributing nothing of value, only threatening the smoothing functioning of society.
To solve a problem of such epic proportions one must look to its roots rather than its branches. Genocide is rooted in segregation, fear, and hate. It begins when a partition is made among people, separating them into categories based on race, ethnicity, religion, or any other division. When these divisions are made in the eyes, ears, and minds of a people they may begin to fear each other, fear what is different and fear what they do not understand. This fear can become hate, and if assimilated by a government or any powerful enough group, it can lead to horrifying results.
The only way to end this terrible cycle of destruction is to strive to become a global community, rather than a loosely fastened collection of distinct groups. Only when people see all of mankind as one family can people enjoy those differences rather than fear them. Only when all of the worldwide human family are bound in heart in this way will genocide become a thing of the past.
↑ Raphael Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe (Wash., DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1944), 79.
↑ ReligiousTolerance.orgMass Crimes against Humanity and Genocide: Past Genocide of Natives in North AmericaRetrieved December 4, 2007.
↑ Reverend Kevin Annett Hidden From History: The Canadian Holocaust: The Untold Story of the Genocide of Aboriginal Peoples by Church and State in CanadaRetrieved December 4, 2007.
↑ James Coultas [1]Coultas, James, Pair of Manuscripts (1764) Concerning the Paxton Boys, excerpt provided by Michael Brown Rare Books: Americana.Retrieved December 4, 2007.
↑ R. J. Rummel "Exemplifying the Horror of European Colonization:Leopold's Congo" Nov 2, 2001 posting.Retrieved December 4, 2007.
↑ Andrew Osborn Belgium exhumes its colonial demons The Guardian July 13, 2002
↑ Yadvashem - Shoah Resource Centre
↑ AMI Armenian National Institute [2] Original source of the telegram sent by the Department of State, Washington containing the "French, British and Russian Joint Declaration." Retrieved December 4, 2007.
↑ Affirmation of the United States Record on the Armenian Genocide Resolution (Introduced in House of Representatives) 109th Congress, 1st Session
↑ Republic of Turkey: Ministry of Culture and Tourism: History [3] "Armenian issue allegations-facts."Retrieved December 4, 2007.
↑ Helen Vesperini "RWANDA: No consensus on genocide death toll." AFP.iAfrica: News. Online posting Apr. 6, 2004. iAfrica.comRetrieved December 4, 2007.
↑ Quoted. in The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide (London: Hurst, 1995), by Gérard Prunier; report. in "Rwanda & Burundi: The Conflict." Contemporary Tragedy. Online posting. The Holocaust: A Tragic Legacy.
↑ Belgium: Universal Jurisdiction Law Repealed web page on Human Rights Watch August 1, 2003
↑ Dutch court says gassing of Iraqi Kurds was 'genocide' by Anne Penketh and Robert Verkaik in The Independent December 24, 2005. Retrieved December 4, 2007.
↑ Dutch man sentenced for role in gassing death of Kurds CBC News, December 23, 2005. Retrieved December 4, 2007.
↑ Spanish Judge Sends Argentine to Prison on Genocide Charge by Emma Daly New York Times June 30, 2003. Retrieved December 4, 2007.
↑ BBC News Profile: Judge Baltasar Garzon BBC September 26, 2005. Retrieved December 4, 2007.
↑ Spanish courts to investigate if a genocide took place in Tibet.
"Spain to investigate 'genocide' in Tibet" The Independent in the section "European News in brief" (Wednesday January 11, 2006), 19
Spanish court to investigate Tibet massacre case Reuters report in the New Zealand Herald (January 12, 2006) Retrieved December 4, 2007.
↑ Alexa Olesen China rejects Spain's 'genocide' claims in The Independent June 7, 2006
↑ Bar Human Rights Committee "is the international human rights arm of the Bar of England and Wales. It is an independent body primarily concerned with the protection of the rights of advocates and judges around the world."
↑ United Nations Treaty Collection (As of October 9, 2001): Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide on the web site of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
↑ Statement by Carolyn Willson, Minister Counselor for International Legal Affairs, on the Report of the ICC, in the UN General Assembly(PDF) November 23, 2005
↑ International Criminal Tribune for Rwanda www.ictr.org. Retrieved December 4, 2007.
Chalk, Frank and Kurt Jonassohn. The History and Sociology of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies. Yale University Press, 1990. ISBN 9780300044461
Harff, Barbara. Early Warning of Communal Conflict and Genocide: Linking Empirical Research to International Responses. Westview Press, 2003. ISBN 0813398401
Hochschild, Adam. Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1998. ASIN: B000UF0C76
Israel, W. Charny. Encyclopedia of Genocide. ABC-Clio Inc., 1999. ISBN 0874369282
Klein, Dennis B., et al. The Genocidal Mind. Paragon House, 2005. ISBN 1557788537
LeCour Grandmaison, Olivier. Coloniser, Exterminer - Sur la guerre et l'Etat colonial. Fayard, 2005. ISBN 35251692005 ([4])
Power, Samantha. 2003. A Problem from Hell: America and the Age of Genocide. Harper Perennial. ISBN 0060541644
Rittner, Carol, John K. Roth and Wendy Whitworth. Genocide in Rwanda: Complicity of the Churches? Paragon House, 2004. ISBN 1557788375
Rittner, Carol, John K. Roth, and James M. Smith. Will Genocide Ever End? Paragon House, 2002. ISBN 1557788197
Rummel, R. J. Death By Government. Transaction Publishers, 1997. ISBN 1560009276
Sunga, Lyal S. The Emerging System of International Criminal Law: Developments in Codification and Implementation. Kluwer, 1997. ISBN 9041104720
__________. Individual Responsibility in International Law for Serious Human Rights Violations. Nijhoff, 1992. ISBN 0792314530
Totten, Samuel, William S. Parsons, and Israel W. Charny, Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts, 2nd edition. Routledge, 2004
Valentino, Benjamin A. Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the 20th Century. Cornell University Press, 2004
All links retrieved May 26, 2017.
BBC on defining genocide
Committee on Conscience of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum; Responding to Threats of Genocide
Prevent Genocide International
Stop Genocide Now Global community to change the way the world responds to genocide
Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies, University of Minnesota
Genocide Studies Program, Yale University
Montreal Institute for Genocide Studies, Concordia University
Armenian National Institute
Genocide in Bangladesh, 1971
Hellenic Genocide:Horton's "Blight of Asia"
What is a genocide, to the social scientist?
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text:
One For Keeps: New Order – Technique
by Laurence Green
published: 9 May 2012 in One For Keeps, Spotlights
One For Keeps is a new features series in which musicOMH writers wax lyrical on albums they'd just not be able to cope without. Laurence Green here makes the case for an album made by a band at the top of their game…
Its hard to imagine a world where New Order's Technique doesn't exist. And as such, its equally hard to find a mainstream dance-pop track these days that doesnt owe at least some small part of itself to the various trace elements born in Technique's swirling cauldron of synth magic. Never has there been a greater statement of new intent than the dripping citrus-starburst acid house of Fine Time that kicks the album off with a deliriously tongue in cheek bang. Between the stabbing drum machine, Pandora's box of electronic effects and Bernard Sumner's perve-tastic growls of "Youre much too young…" Fine Time feels like you've rammed ecstasy straight into your eyeballs, and bathes magnificently in its own sense of inflated indulgence.
Like some leering poolside onlooker of grossly overstated masculinity, Fine Time reformats and reboots the New Order sonic template into a mind-blowing transitory period that is distinctly not of the '80s, or the '90s. Technique sounds like neither decade, but exists in its own unique space, feeding from the former and giving life to the latter. Like some digitally programmed synth-pop midwife, Technique's ascension to the top spot in the UK album charts New Order's first album to do so didn't just affirm the band's place in the mainstream, but also acted as a kind of welcoming usher for all the imminent wonders of the UKs flourishing rave-scene and second summer of love that were to soon sweep the country.
Then there's the unbridled pop perfection of All The Way, in which the band channel the spirit of The Cure's Just Like Heaven into a glorious, soaring anthem of a track that seems to kiss the sky with its flippant optimism and individualistic manifesto: "I dont give a damn about what all those people say." In songs like these, New Order spoke to the masses, and were affirmed by the resulting chart success. Now they weren't just the quirky leftovers of Ian Curtis legacy, but a genuine part of the British identity in their own right. Technique was the album where they finally shook off the ghost of Joy Division in its entirety and every aspect of the New Order sound rang at its cleanest and truest.
Even Run in many ways the odd track out on the record sounds utterly triumphant, boasting one of the band's greatest guitar solos, one of those life affirming moments of sheer musical transcendence where you're lifted out of the hum-drum of the real to a world that exists only between your inner thoughts and the input of this, your favourite album. In that trippy melding of a Balearic dream-state and the gritty realisms of a nation coming to the end of a long era of Thatcherism, Technique contained all the sins of a pretentious decade with the hopes of what the next might bring.
And then there's the album cover, in many ways so brilliantly simple, yet so utterly representative of the cornucopia of sound evident on the record itself. That cherubic, Grecian figure, turning out of the shadow and into an intoxicating medley of colour and brightness, like oil spilled across the limits of the Mediterranean sea-spray. When I first heard the album, it was like a literal rebirth, a door opening in the mind and all the limitless potentials of music re-made. To pick a favourite is nigh on impossible, every play-through offers its own candidate depending on the unique state of emotion and circumstance that the listener is inhabiting at the time. But if there was one track that seems, within its four minutes, to neatly sum up every other part of Technique, for me, it'd be Mr Disco. There's that bit, precisely one minute and 10 seconds in where the song explodes into a cacophony of synthesized orchestral hits the sheer unbridled rave elasticity of the whole thing is like a LSD bullet through the gut. In all those gorgeously rubberised electronics is that sense of ultra-commercialised aestheticism the band would revisit on the package holiday cover of 1993's Republic and the white goods feel of 2005s Waiting For The Siren's Call.
The album's sublimely ecstatic closer Dream Attack offers a subtly moving parting shot of why Technique speaks to the emotions with such clarity – Sumner's lyrics underscoring the smoothly plasticised synth-string rhythms to speak with understated elegance: "I don't belong to no-one, but I want to be with you / I can't be owned by no-one, what am I supposed to do / I can't see the sense in you leaving, all I need is your love to believe in / And for you I would do what I can, but I can't change the way that I am."
The beauty is in the utter simplicity of it all. Whereas Technique's musical elements paint life as an utterly synthetic process, Sumner's vocals are the humane caress at the heart of it all. In those lines is every crushing pain and romantic ache we have ever felt, every worry and every essence of devotion. Technique portrays us fragile beings, so often ruled by our emotions but also understands the way that at the end of the day, our unique self-being cannot be changed to fit the wants and desires of another person, as much as we might want it to. In a world where we voraciously define ourselves through lifestyle choices and wanton purchasing, Technique simultaneously cuts through to what it means to be a person.
At the core of what makes Technique so brilliant is that it isn't just an excellent album, but it's an album that understands the full range of pleasures listening to music can entail. It stands at that crux between persona and audio, that meeting point between two incredibly powerful forces; human life in all its variety, and a band at the absolute top of their game. The result is an incredible state of consciousness that can only come from that sense of innate understanding and enjoyment of your favourite album. As Sumner himself sings on Dream Attack: "Nothing in this world could touch the music that I heard, when I woke up this morning…" And that is how it feels to listen to Technique.
New Order MP3s or CDs
New Order on Spotify
More on New Order
Spotlight: New Order – Power, Corruption and Lies
New Order @ Old Granada Studios, Manchester
New Order @ Brixton Academy, London
New Order – Music Complete
Competition: LEAF 2013

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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Home/Contract Awards (page 30)
Kongsberg Subsidiary to Help Develop Contingency Mgmt Platform for FAA Drone Test Site
Nichols Martin July 7, 2020	Contract Awards, News
A Kongsberg subsidiary will participate in a CAL Analytics-led industry team that secured a $1.6M contract from the Federal Aviation Administration to build and demonstrate a contingency management platform at a Rome, N.Y, test site for unmanned aircraft systems. Kongsberg said Monday its geospatial business will support the CMP development project at Griffiss International Airport in collaboration with four other companies, Oneida County and the Northeast UAS Airspace Integration Research organization.
HDR Wins $75M Navy Contract for Marine Species Monitoring Services
HDR Environmental, Operations and Construction has won a potential five-year, $75M contract to help Naval Facilities Engineering Command monitor marine resources within NAVFAC's Atlantic and Pacific areas of operation. The company will support environmental compliance and reporting efforts under the U.S. Navy Integrated Comprehensive Monitoring Program, the Department of Defense said Monday.
Navy Taps Signal Systems Corp to Supply Sensors, Sonar Tech for R&D Program
Brenda Marie Rivers July 7, 2020	Contract Awards, News
Sensor technology maker Signal Systems Corp. has received a potential five-year, $13.5M contract to provide undersea and anti-submarine warfare technologies to support the U.S. Navy's sonar signal processing research and development efforts.
Kratos Books Missile Defense C5ISR Tech Support Contracts
Kratos Defense and Security Solutions has reported multiple contract awards worth $30M combined to support command, control, computing, communication, combat, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance systems for a national security program. The company said Thursday it will provide C5ISR technologies for missile defense-related combat equipment.
LinQuest to Extend Air Force Systems Engineering Support
LinQuest has been awarded a $76.6M contract modification to continue helping the U.S. Air Force engineer, integrate systems. The Los Angeles-based company will provide the services to the branch's programs with high security requirements, the Department of Defense said Thursday.
Cobham Receives Follow-On Order for Navy E-2D Aircraft Oxygen Concentrators
Matthew Nelson July 2, 2020	Contract Awards, News
Northrop Grumman has awarded Cobham a $2.7M follow-on contract to provide oxygen concentration systems that will be integrated onto modernized airborne early warning and control planes for the U.S. Navy.
SMC Drops Intent to Award Rideshare Launch Services Contracts
Jane Edwards July 2, 2020	Contract Awards, News
The U.S. Space Force's Space and Missile Systems Center has decided to withdraw its plans to award firm-fixed-price contracts for rideshare launch services under the Defense Production Act Title III program after reviewing responses to its notice of contract award.
CDC Awards $92M Contract to Chenega Global Protection to Provide Armed Security Services; Bradley Naylor Quoted
Sarah Sybert July 1, 2020	Contract Awards, News
Chenega Global Protection (CGP), LLC, a Chenega Corp. subsidiary, has secured a potential multi-year, $92 million contract to provide armed security services for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the company reported on Wednesday.
CTC Subsidiary to Support USAF Logistics Infrastructure Modernization
Enterprise Ventures Corp., a subsidiary of Concurrent Technologies Corp., has won a $1.4M contract to help modernize U.S. Air Force's depot infrastructure. EVC will perform data analysis and technical work to help the effort's prime contractor update USAF's logistics infrastructure, CTC said Tuesday.
Shadow Objects to Help Manage Navy Aircraft Procurement E-Business Platform
Shadow Objects has secured a potential five-year, $48.1M contract to provide oversight support for the U.S. Navy's electronic business architecture for aircraft procurement programs. The company will help the Naval Air Procurement Group oversee data alignment, support audit readiness, facilitate business processes and plan ePS implementation activities, the Department of Defense said Tuesday.
Akima Subsidiary Lands DOE Technical Support Task Order
An Akima subsidiary has secured a potential five-year, $7M task order to provide technical support services to a power marketing administration under the Department of Energy.
CenturyLink Wins Second NASA Network Support Order Under EIS Vehicle; David Young Quoted
Sarah Sybert June 30, 2020	Contract Awards, Technology
CenturyLink has received a second task order from NASA to provide network connectivity services to more than 15 space centers and regional research facilities, the company announced Tuesday. The agency issued the task order under the General Services Administration's $50 billion Enterprise Infrastructure Solutions contract vehicle.
MTSI to Develop Integrated Tracking System for Air Force Special Ops Command
Matthew Nelson June 30, 2020	Contract Awards, News
Booz Allen Hamilton has selected Modern Technology Solutions Inc. to provide an integrated system consisting of small transponders, algorithms and devices for the Air Force Special Operations Command to view information about manned and unmanned vehicles. MTSI said Monday its Modular Integrated Tracking System will be part of a common operational picture technology that Booz Allen is developing for AFSOC's Melrose Range Operations Control Center.
ECS to Help DHA Build Cloud-Based Data Consolidation Tech; George Wilson Quoted
ECS will develop a cloud-based technology prototype to support legacy data consolidation efforts at the Defense Health Agency as part of an other transaction agreement with the U.S. Navy's Naval Information Warfare Center Atlantic.
NASA Taps Northrop to Produce Rocket Boosters for Future SLS Flights
Brenda Marie Rivers June 30, 2020	Contract Awards, News
NASA has awarded Northrop Grumman a potential 10-year, $49.5M contract to manufacture long-lead items for twin rocket boosters to support additional Space Launch System missions.
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About NICH
NICH Board of Directors
Institute of Creative Arts
Museum of Belize and Houses of Culture
Institute for Social & Cultural Research
Belize Film Commission
Maya Archaeological Sites
Culture Development Fund
What is the Cultural Development Fund?
What is the source of the fund?
Who can apply for funding?
Type of Assistance
Application Period
Cultural Development Fund PDF Download
National Institute of Culture and History
HomeWhat is the Cultural Development Fund?
The Cultural Development Fund is a mechanism developed on the rational provided in the National Cultural Policy 2016 – 2026. It is a technical and financial complement to the ongoing work of individuals and community organizations who are engaged in the work of:
I. safeguarding Belize's tangible and intangible heritage
II. developing Belize's cultural and creative industries. The official launching of the fund and its requirements is January 30th 2019 for activities conducted during April 2019 to March 2020.
National Institute of Culture & History
National Institute of Culture and History What is the Cultural Development Fund?


Fun fact: I have at least a dozen favorite restaurants in San Diego. So for me? The only difficult thing about having visitors in town is deciding where to take them out for food.
It's even more difficult when it's one of your best friends from back home and this is her first time in San Diego and you're planning on using food as your secret weapon in convincing her to move here.
For Marianna's visit last week, I had 4 dinners to plan and in the end, whatever neighborhood we were touring that day more or less narrowed it down. Until her final day when I had the biggest challenge of all: deciding on a dinner spot in the Gaslamp.
We needed a place that had outdoor seating with a decent view, fun cocktails, a solid wine list, a tasty charcuterie board, nice ambiance (preferably with live music), and of course, great food.
Solution: Union Tap & Kitchen.
North County kids have heard of Union before: they opened their popular location on the 101 back in 2011 and it's been an Encinitas staple ever since. Last spring, owner Eric Leitstein decided to share the wealth and opened a gorgeous second location downtown on 5th and K, just a few blocks away from the Convention Center.
The inside is covered in modern-rustic decor and features two ginormous bars, an event space, a main dining area, and outside, a dog-friendly patio. When Mare and I arrived, we had a perfect table waiting for us on the patio... prime spot for people watching. The sounds of the live acoustic singer/guitarist wafted through the restaurant and we decided to kick our final girl's night together off with a couple of glasses of wine and some appetizers.
A little background: Mare and I met during our school's winter study abroad program in London back in 2007. We bonded immediately over British accents, pints of cider and a shared love of traveling. Which is how, several years later, the two of us ended up on an epic European adventure that took us back to London, down to Rome, up through Florence, Venice and Milan, across the South of France to Barcelona and back up to Paris.
On that note, two of the other things we bonded over should come as no surprise: wine and cheese. Not only just on our girl's nights back home in Connecticut, but in practically every European country.
At Union, we started off with two suggestions from Union's wine director, Miguel Vasquez. The red was good, but love at first sip came in the form of a 2012 Sauvignon Blanc from the Margerum Winery up in Santa Barbara, CA. That was definitely our wine of choice for the evening. And needless to say, the first thing we ordered foodwise was the charcuterie board.
Our wonderful waitress warned us that the gouda on this board was insanely delicious and I'm really proud of Mare and I for not ending our friendship right then and there over the last piece. But the rest of the board disappeared quickly as well: fig jam, candied raisins, port wine manchego cheese, brie, and two different types of salami.
Honestly? We probably could have just kept ordering this all night and been satisfied.
But to do so would have been to skimp out on all of Union's other incredible offerings. For instance: their cocktails. Like any good foodies, we had to take a break from wine to sample two of Union's most popular cocktails: Strawberry Fields and The Gardener.
Strawberry Fields features Ketel One, muddled strawberries, balsamic, lemon juice, and agave. I could immediately taste why it's so popular: this is an easy, breezy day time drink that would pair well with brunch or happy hour.
The Gardener is often boasted as their take on the Moscow mule, but to me the comparison is distracting. Enjoy The Gardener for what it is: a refreshing vodka and muddled cucumber cocktail with hints of lavender. For me, it was a bit too sweet to drink with dinner, but I could easily have taken down a few of these at happy hour.
After we finished our appetizers, we finally decided on our entrees: I opted for the Butternut Squash Ravioli, with crispy sage, brown butter and shaved parmesean. Mare went the seafood route and tried their Chia Seed Crusted Albacor with red thai curry and mango relish and a roasted shitake, suonomo salad.
My raviolis were gone in minutes. A bit on the lighter side, this is the perfect portion if you don't want to feel too weighed down by pasta or slip into a food coma before a night on the town. And even though the butternut and sage definitely reminded me more of fall and winter, I didn't feel like the dish seemed out of season. In fact, I was happy to enjoy such a cozy meal on a slightly chilly spring night.
Meanwhile, Mare's diner, the albacore, may have been one of the prettiest dishes I've ever seen. The presentation on this was really beautiful and I'm glad she thought it tasted as good as it looked!
Not ready for our night out to end or for her to leave, we decided to stay for a round of their homemade desserts. We ordered two to split: the Oreo Cookie Mud Pie with a layer of white chocolate ganache, homemade chocolate chip ice cream and Oreo cookie crust, and the Creme Brulee. Paired with a couple more glasses of that Sauvignon Blanc, this ended up being the perfect sweet treat to close out our dinner.
The verdict is still out on whether or not my foodie tour has convinced Mare to move here but at least with our experience at Union Kitchen & Tap, I gave it my best shot. I couldn't have asked for a better Gaslamp restaurant experience to show her what San Diego dining is all about.
I never know where to eat in the Gaslamp. Thank you for the recommendation. Also, I think there's one of these in Encinitas too?


A trust is the formal transfer of assets (it might be property, shares or just cash) to a small group of people (usually two) or to a trust company with instructions that they hold the assets for the benefit of others.
If the trust is to be made in your lifetime, to take immediate effect, then it is usually evidenced by a trust deed. If it is to be created on or shortly after your death then the trust provisions must be set out in your Will – a 'Will Trust'. Whether by lifetime settlement or by Will, the trust document states who are responsible for looking after the gifted assets (the trustees), who are to benefit (the beneficiaries) and any rules or conditions that the trustees and beneficiaries must adhere to. Additionally it must specify clearly the initial trust property sometimes called the Trust Fund.
Trusts are an excellent way to preserve and protect the family's assets and safely pass them down to the next generation. Trusts continue to provide significant inheritance, capital gains and income tax benefits as well as provide the flexibility to ensure that changing family situations are taken care of.
For further information on how you can use trusts to protect yourself and your family, get in touch with our team. We offer a wide range of trust types and can advice on the best approach for your situation.


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Koretsky opens up about 'MMXX' EP, new music, and digital age (Includes interview)
Koretsky has been a big hand in the music world for some time now. He formed DJ outfit and band Jetlag with Andy Rourke of The Smiths, which eventually brought in The Cranberries' lead singer and front-woman Dolores O'Riordan and changed their name to D.A.R.K. Olé also worked with The Cranberries, having toured and recorded two albums with them.
On the song selection process for the EP, he said, "The idea came to me with the video 'Signs of Life' that we released today. I would like for people to see the video on Vevo. TinaKristina is the featured vocalist on it. I knew she was an amazing bass player and I didn't know she was a singer up until quite recently. I met her through Andy Rourke. I sent her this track because I couldn't sing it, it was too emotional. It all came together and it was pretty catchy."
"The song selection process for the EP featured the most recent songs I had," he said. "I thought these were the cleanest songs I had."
He also opened up about "Call It A Day." "I feel it's quite dark. It has a certain energy to it," he said. "Everybody hears something different in that song."
On being an artist in the digital age, he said, "I don't mind it. When I started, I looked at my social media account stats and Spotify."
For young and aspiring musicians and bands, he said, "A crucial piece of advice is do what you want to do. Don't listen to anybody. If you feel like doing it, just do it. Stay off the news and stay off social media. Hire somebody to do your social media. Don't Google yourself and don't compare yourself to other artists. Do what comes naturally to you, and you will be happier and more successful that way."
On his music inspirations, he acknowledged that he is trying to keep his interactions with people around him very positive. "Some songs inspire awe or anger. It doesn't have to be positive or negative because the whole point of writing is to exercise the feelings out of you. It's therapeutic that way," he said.
He also noted that he was happy that The Cranberries earned a Grammy nomination for "Best Rock Album" for In The End. "Dolores would have been so pleased with that. She never considered herself a pop star. She saw herself as a rock star and she played rock music. If you ever saw a show of theirs, it's loud, it's big, and it's rock music. Dolores loved performing," he said.
"Let's all be safe and kind to each other," he concluded, in these trying times.
Koretsky's new music is available to stream on digital service providers by clicking here.
In this article:Cranberries, Dolores O'Riordan, Ep, Koretsky, MMXX


L&T Capacitor bank is conform to the latest standard IEC831-1-2 440V & 525V, standard & heavy duty type designed to withstand high overload current & voltage.
Safety features like PSD and Self - Healing to ensure long life expectancy.
Metalized polypropylene capacitors from 1kVAr to 25kVAr in cylindrical configuration. Those capacitors come with stacked winding and are impregnated with a biodegradable soft resin. These capacitors are self healing type.
Over pressure disconnector and finger proof terminals. Used to provide effective power factor correction in industrial and semi industrial applications.