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text:
New sleep study could explain sightings of ghosts, aliens and demons
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People who experience disrupted sleep due to conditions such as insomnia or sleep paralysis are more likely to report seeing aliens or ghosts, according to a new study.
Paranormal beliefs — such as sightings of ghosts, daemons and aliens — were linked to a range of sleep variables in the study, recently published in the Journal of Sleep Research, which had a large sample size of nearly 9,000 people.
Researchers from the University of London assessed demographics, sleep disturbances and paranormal beliefs reported by the participants.
They found that those with poorer subjective sleep quality, including reports of lower sleep efficiency, longer sleep latency, shorter sleep duration, and increased insomnia symptoms, were more likely to give more support to various paranormal beliefs.
These include beliefs that souls live on after death, the existence of ghosts, demons and aliens on Earth, the ability of some people to communicate with the dead, as well as citing near-death experiences as evidence for life after death. death.
Disorders such as exploding head syndrome and isolated sleep paralysis were found to be linked to the belief that aliens have visited Earth, the study said.
Exploding head syndrome is a condition characterized by loud noises or a perception of an explosion in the patient's head during their wake-sleep or sleep-wake transitions.
Researchers also found that isolated sleep paralysis is linked to the belief that near-death experiences are evidence of life after death.
"If these results are replicated, one possible explanation for these findings is that uncertainty and indecisiveness (in this case, uncertain beliefs) can lead to anxiety, which in turn can disrupt sleep," scientists wrote.
"Findings obtained here indicate that there are associations between beliefs in the paranormal and various sleep variables," they added.
Citing some of the study's limitations, researchers said a cause-and-effect relationship could not be established.
They said the participants were self-selected and likely not representative of the general population.
"Other phenomena that may contribute to these beliefs were not assessed," the scientists stressed.
However, the findings, they say, could help people better equip themselves to support sleep through psychoeducation.
"Mechanisms underlying these associations are likely complex and need further investigation to fully understand why people sometimes report 'stumble things at night'," they added.
Improving nutrition, reducing hunger and promoting health
SGLT2 inhibitors and cardiovascular and renal outcomes
Kao wants the men's makeup category to be as fun as hair care or fashion
Transcendental Meditation effective in reduci

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Krogstad is a Norwegian surname. It derives from Krókr, a crooked person, and staðr, a farm.

People
 Fredrik Krogstad, Norwegian footballer
 Jonas Krogstad, Norwegian footballer
 Marit Trætteberg née Krogstad, Norwegian chemist
 Rangdi Krogstad, Norwegian politician
 Tore Krogstad, Norwegian goalkeeper

In fiction
 Nils Krogstad in A Doll's House

References

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Nancy was born and raised in Cleveland, Ohio.
After receiving BS and MA degrees in art education, she taught art for many years, including a two year position at an international school in West Berlin in the 80's. Upon her return, Nancy lived in the Washington DC metro area for over twenty years where she worked as an art teacher and arts administrator, eventually devoting most of her time to painting. From 2000 on, she got the plein air bug, and began showing and selling her work.
Become a member to get Nancy's work.
Nancy studied for years with Rick Weaver,who received his formal art training in New York at the National Academy of Design, The New York Academy, and Art Students League and is therefore part of a lineage of great artists and teachers from Robert Beverley Hale onward.
She lives on a farm in Charlottesville where she and her husband engage in another pursuit: home and garden design.
Glimpse of Bay View Ave.


Status: Advanced registration is now closed. Please contact Emma Talbott at [email protected] for any inquiries.
Please Note: *A minimum number of registrations are needed by March 01, 2019 to proceed with this seminar. Please register early to avoid cancellation.
Succeeding on Stage™ is specifically designed for women leaders. This program deals with the subtler dynamics of corporate life: the unspoken realities that guide decision-making and determine who advances. Women in this seminar will learn to deal with the most challenging and important situations that shape one's career: (1) speaking upward; (2) succeeding in career conversations,(3) showing political acumen; (4) building senior level networks, and (5) overcoming the male-female cultural divide. Succeeding on Stage™ builds on the skills developed during Taking the Stage®. Taking the Stage® is highly recommended pre-requisite for this course.
Six principles: achieve success by adopting a positive mindset.
Use the Leader's Script® to communicate effectively with senior leaders.
Workshop: Participants will write a script they can use for an upcoming interaction they will have with a senior leader in their organization.
Take control of your career and define your career goals.
You must sell yourself... but what are you doing to promote yourself?
What is your action plan for progressing towards your goals?
Workshop: Participants will define their goals, create a career path, and script a conversation that will help them to advance towards their goals.
Opting out of "the political game" is not an option!
What do we mean by "political intelligence"?
Know who's in power and build relationships with them.
What are your networking opportunities?
Workshop: Participants will list the five most important internal and external relationships that are key to their success and will develop plans to build on each.
What are some Gender Gaps that we must deal with?
Workshop: Women role-play a variety of challenging gender-based situations (being interrupted, ignored, challenged, and diminished) and receive feedback.
Diana is a Consultant based in our Vancouver who works with our clients globally. She has developed a reputation for excellence in both her group training and individual coaching with senior leaders from various industries including energy, infrastructure, technology, and finance. Diana believes the most important area of her work is helping leaders find their voice. She is an expert in delivering presence coaching, which she has cultivated through her diverse background and coaching in the film and television industry. Diana is passionate about developing leaders at all levels of an organization. She specializes in helping her clients communicate authentically and become recognized by their organizations as confident leaders with polished executive presence. A featured Keynote speaker across Canada, Diana received her BFA from the University of Regina, with a Minor in Psychology. Diana is an award winning professional film and television actor.


This all-purpose rucksack features saddle-grade Bridle Leather seam binding, reinforcement, body tabs and straps. Three pockets offer storage options, with a roomy interior. The rustproof brass zipper is custom cut at Filson. Double needle construction and bar tacking add durability.


Food security is the ability of the country provide its citizens with good food for living and includes special organizations, laws and policies, which are aimed to make the situation with food normal under strict control of the government. Good food and pure drinking water is the essential things required for healthy human existence. The problem of food supply has always been urgent and extremely important. Centuries ago people had to work hard to grow the crops, vegetables, fruits and cattle for meat and milk.
Every village and town had to do their best and work hard the whole spring and summer to support themselves with food for winter. The trade was not so developed, that is why, if one could not make good supplies, he would probably die. Today the situation is different, the countries can easily buy or exchange grain, crops, vegetables, nearly everything and supply their people with food. Unfortunately, there are countries, mostly of the third world, which have problems with proper food supply and the situation is quite tragic there.
A well-organized research proposal on global food security under climate change should contain the historical background of the problem and present the ways it was solved before. The paper should be convincing and contain brand new ideas connected with effective policy of food security. One has to prove that his methods are really effective and will solve a range of problems related with the topic and will help the humanity to cope with global shortage of food. If you manage to convince the professor your problem or concept is worth investigation, you will win the chance to conduct further research.
Research proposal is a specific paper, which requires critical, sober and logical thinking, creativity and ability to convince people in your point of view. The aim of the paper is not to present a good idea for the research, but to prove it is worth investigation. No wonder, students who are inexperienced in writing need professional writing help of an expert. There are thousands of websites, which offer free examples of research proposals on food security in India, which are quite helpful for young people to realize how to write a paper of this kind.
The only disadvantage of free samples of research proposals on food security bill is their quality, because very often online samples are prepared by amateurs. In order to be on the safe side, read much about the topic to improve your knowledge on the problem and use these examples only as a model of your own original paper. With the help of a good sample you will manage to create a high-quality unique convincing research proposal.


text:
Faded Future by Talentless Muse
Anime » Dragon Ball Z Rated: T, English, Adventure, Goku, Vegeta, Words: 60k+, Favs: 354, Follows: 377, Published: 6/15/2004 Updated: 3/1/2010}
420 Chapter One
To quote the (in)famous Monty Python: "I'm not dead yet."
Well, I know people are still checking this story out because I see that the hits are continuing to rise and I still receive the occasional review despite my apparent abandonment of it. Yup, I'm back. Can you believe it?
I'm going to go ahead and assume that this is not the sort of update that people were hoping for, but it's what you're getting for now. I actually do intend to finish this, but I first intend to rewrite the entire thing because there are too many things that bother me about the old version to just leave it as it is.
The first update will be the first five chapters all at once, and after that I'll go to uploading it all chapter by chapter…again. Hopefully we'll get to the end this time.
I'm not sure if any of my original readership is still out there, hoping for me to finish, but if they are, I'm sorry it's taken me so long. You guys deserve an ending. You'll get it…eventually.
Slipping out of his bedroom and into the darkened hallway, Vegeta quietly made his way along the familiar path towards the training area. He stepped lightly over a creaky floorboard with the ease and familiarity of someone who'd done the same thing countless times before. It was more out of habit that he avoided it rather than out of any actual belief that someone would hear it and wake up. These people slept very soundly.
He passed quickly through the quiet house, pausing briefly and muttering a few irritated curses as he tripped over a pair of Trunks's shoes that lay carelessly discarded on the living room floor. For a brief moment he considered destroying the offending footwear, but he seemed to decide better of it after consideration. It wouldn't be worth listening to Bulma complain about once she discovered the scorched spot on the carpet and found that her son had lost his favorite pair of shoes. Sucking in a breath, he released it with another grumbled curse as he walked off again.
Reaching the gravity room, he opened the door, squinting for a moment as the lights automatically switched on in response to his entering. He blinked a couple of times as they adjusted to the brightness before beginning his early morning workout.
It was a few hours later when he re-emerged from the room, looking no worse for the wear. There was a faint smell of cooking food in the air that told him he'd come out just in time for breakfast. He grabbed a towel that hung by the door and began to wipe away the thin layer of sweat on his skin as he walked back into the main part of the house.
Walking into the kitchen, he noticed Trunks sitting at the table wearing a glazed, half-dead expression as he ate slowly from his plate of food. He frowned in silent disapproval, knowing that the boy had been awake late into the night playing video games. It was becoming an increasingly common occurrence as he grew more interested in the things that other boys his age enjoyed. Overall, Vegeta was rather mixed on how felt about it.
"Hurry up," said Bulma, leaning against the counter and lifting a steaming mug to her lips, the familiar bitter smell telling him that it was coffee. "You don't need to be late for school again."
"Waste of time," grunted Vegeta as he took a seat at the table. He quickly loaded his plate with food and began to eat.
"Education is not a waste of time," sniffed Bulma in an almost indignant tone of voice.
He frowned as he shoveled food into his mouth, pausing in his frightening pace just long enough to retort, "That wasn't what I was saying."
She frowned dubiously at him over the rim of her mug, but her curiosity got the better of her in the end. "What was it then?"
"The idea of school makes enough sense." He took a few more bites of his food before continuing. "Children need to be educated. There's no question about that, but I don't understand why you insist on sending him to this public institution when you have the resources to employ the world's brightest minds to instruct him privately. It seems like doing that would be a far more productive method of educating the boy."
"There's more to school than simply receiving an education. It's just as much a place for developing social skills as it is a place for developing minds," said Bulma, watching Trunks as he continued to mechanically consume his breakfast. She wondered how long it would be before she received a phone call about him falling asleep in class again.
Vegeta frowned thoughtfully, considering her words for a minute. "That seems like even more of a waste."
"You wouldn't understand," sighed Bulma dismissively.
"Why wouldn't I?" he asked defensively, eyes narrowing suspiciously as he tried to decide whether that comment was a veiled insult or not.
"You have no point for comparison," she answered with a casual shrug of her shoulders. "The world that you grew up in was completely different from this one. You can't judge the two in the same way. What would've been useless in to you at his age might be considered absolutely vital here."
As Vegeta grunted and went back to eating, Trunks rose from his seat, trudging out of the kitchen to finish getting ready for school. This conversation probably wasn't going to get any more interesting, which was unfortunate. It hadn't even been all that interesting to begin with.
"He's turning into a human," muttered Vegeta, scowling at the kitchen door his son had disappeared through. Stabbing his food a little more forcefully than necessary, he grimaced slightly as he heard the plate crack.
"He is human. Part of him is, at least," said Bulma, glancing down at the broken plate but saying nothing.
"And part of him is Saiya-jin, but he acts less and less like it every day." He picked up the pieces of what had been his mostly empty plate and dropped it into the trashcan while his fork went into the sink.
"It can't be helped. We live on a human world," she said, setting her empty mug down on the counter. As he walked past her towards the back door, she lightly grabbed onto his arm. He allowed himself to be halted by her. "Which one of us do you think the next one will be more like?"
"I don't know." His dark gaze settled for a moment on the slight bulge in her stomach before rising up to regard the smiling face. "Do you intend to name this one after underwear as well?"
The serious tone of his voice was too much, and she began to laugh. "Is it really that big of a deal to you?"
"I think it's absurd," he grumbled, obviously displeased at being laughed at.
"Well, it is a bit of a tradition in my family."
"My family has a naming tradition as well."
"Fine," she said with a theatrical sigh that earned an irritated glare from the Saiya-jin. "If it's a boy, we'll go with your tradition."
"What if it's a girl?"
"You're not naming a girl after yourself."
"I wasn't planning on doing that," he scoffed, pulling his arm gently out of her grasp. "There are female Saiya-jin names as well, you know."
Bulma sighed in mild relief, wondering why she hadn't considered that he might mean something like that. "You might get that one."
Spring came slowly to the mountains. There was still a bit of a chill in the air, and a good many of the mountains still had patches of snow on them. Lying on his back in the soft, new grass, Goku decided that this was probably the nicest time of year.
Closing his eyes and smiling, he listened contentedly to the sounds of the world around him. There were small chirping insects hidden in the grass, and lizards and other reptiles were beginning to scurry about as the slowly warmed in the sun's rays. Birds twittered lightly as they searched for food and built their nests in anticipation of this year's hatchlings. It was peaceful watching the world slowly come back to life.
Peace never seemed to last very long for him. There was always some new crisis popping that needed to be taken care of, but he didn't really mind. This was his home. As long as he had the power to do so, he would protect it.
Eyes snapped open as he sensed a familiar ki signature quickly approaching his position. His smile seemed to change slightly as he realized exactly who it was. It was more excited and intense, displaying a different kind of happiness that what he'd derived from the brief and rare peace he'd just been reveling in. As human as he behaved most of the time, he was still a Saiya-jin beneath it all. The love of battle was in his blood.
He rolled out of the way as a low-level ki blast shot down at him from the sky, scorching the ground where he'd been relaxing. Quickly he rose to his feet, looking in the direction the attack had come from. There was no sign of his attacker.
A second attack sped out towards him from amongst some trees, and he quickly extended one hand to counter the blast with one of his own. He was suddenly thrown forward as a surprise blow struck him in the back, sending him into the oncoming attack. There was a small explosion that sent up a cloud of smoke and dust, momentarily hiding the orange-clad man from view.
He flew out of it, throwing a punch at his attacker, who ducked to the side. The fist only barely grazed the other man's cheek. "You should've been able to dodge that completely, Vegeta," he said as he kicked at the smaller man, who easily jumped over it only to be struck a moment later by another fist.
Sneering back at Goku without any real sense of malice, he responded, "Don't criticize me when you couldn't even tell that I was coming up behind you." He leaned back to avoid a punch, snapping one of his legs up to catch the other man in the jaw.
Recovering quickly, Goku pushed forward with his attack again. "I knew the first one was a decoy."
Their fists collided as Vegeta grew tired of defending. "Sometimes I really do wonder how I lost to you that first time," he muttered dryly. They began to exchange rapid blows, landing a few superficial hits on each other. They weren't fighting at a high enough level to really injure each other, but they still tried to avoid taking hits if they could. It would be dangerous to get into the practice of allowing blows just because they knew it wouldn't hurt them. Real enemies wouldn't bother holding back.
"I got lucky," he said as he caught the smaller man's fist in his hand. Pulling him closer, Goku rammed his knee into Vegeta's stomach.
He gagged as his stomach threatened to eject all of its contents but quickly recovered. "Right. Luck," he grunted dubiously as he wrenched his hand out of the other Saiya-jin's grip and dodging a blow that was aimed for his head. He shot off a small ki blast that was easily swatted away, following it with a kick that dug painfully into his opponent's side.
The pair exchanged a few more blows, the power put into each successive strike slowly increasing as both men became more absorbed in the fight. It was familiar, like picking back up where they'd left off all those years ago when they'd first met. It was also very different from that battle. They no longer faced each other as enemies, throwing blows intended to maim or kill. Instead they were comrades—Vegeta would continue to deny that they were friends—fighting to maintain their skills and for the simple enjoyment. Many things had changed since that first time they'd fought.
Raising one arm to protect his head from a kick that would likely have beheaded a weaker man, Vegeta allowed a small smirk to settle on his lips. With his other hand, he grabbed Goku's ankle, and giving it a hard jerk, he swung the younger man over his head and slammed him into the ground. There was something immensely satisfying about seeing his opponent embedded in the rock. No matter how much of a "good" person he might've become, he would always enjoy doing that.
Lifting himself out of the shallow crater he'd created, Goku spat out a bit of soil and grass that had gotten into his mouth. "I think I swallowed a worm," he commented, spitting a couple more times as though trying to rid himself of a bad taste.
Vegeta's expression twisted into one of disgust. He knew that his dislike—he absolutely refused to acknowledge it as a fear—of worms and other squirmy creatures was irrational. It didn't matter. He just couldn't stand them, and no amount of logic had ever been able to change that.
Having finished trying to get rid of the grit in his mouth, Goku kicked out again, missing the smaller Saiya-jin as he stepped just beyond reach of the leg. Pushing himself up, he threw a small ki attack. When the other man dodged that as well, he had already moved so that he could intercept him. He swung his fist, finally landing a solid hit that sent Vegeta flying backwards across the clearing they fought in. Goku flew after him, shooting more attacks after him.
A blue aura suddenly burst to life around Vegeta's body as he regained control over his flight. The ki orbs racing towards him collided instead with the ground as he shot up into the sky. He threw a quick barrage of energy attacks down at his once foe, who was following him up into the air.
They collided with a ripple of energy that shook the ground below them for miles. They broke apart quickly, only to slam back together a moment later with another loud crash as their energies clashed. Again they separated, one sporting a split lip and the other nursing a bloody nose. Goku smiled; Vegeta smirked. For a third time they charged at each other, making the world tremble, but this time one of the men was sent diving back to the ground.
He ploughed roughly into the ground, creating a crater in the soil and rock as he used his ki to slightly cushion his landing. "Damn it," muttered Vegeta as he sat up, rubbing the side of his head where the blow had landed.
Looking back up into the sky where Goku was waiting for him, he frowned as his vision momentarily blurred and shimmer. He blinked a couple of times and shook his head to clear his vision. Maybe he'd taken that blow to the head a little harder than he'd thought. Rising back to his feet, he shot back up into the sky to continue the fight, but suddenly his vision blurred again, and suddenly the world around him faded to black.
Ch 1 of 15 Next »


text:
.class Landroid/media/tv/ITvInputSessionCallback$Stub$Proxy;
.super Ljava/lang/Object;
.source "ITvInputSessionCallback.java"

# interfaces
.implements Landroid/media/tv/ITvInputSessionCallback;

# annotations
.annotation system Ldalvik/annotation/EnclosingClass;
    value = Landroid/media/tv/ITvInputSessionCallback$Stub;
.end annotation

.annotation system Ldalvik/annotation/InnerClass;
    accessFlags = 0xa
    name = "Proxy"
.end annotation

# instance fields
.field private mRemote:Landroid/os/IBinder;

# direct methods
.method constructor <init>(Landroid/os/IBinder;)V
    .locals 0

    invoke-direct {p0}, Ljava/lang/Object;-><init>()V

    iput-object p1, p0, Landroid/media/tv/ITvInputSessionCallback$Stub$Proxy;->mRemote:Landroid/os/IBinder;

    return-void
.end method

# virtual methods
.method public asBinder()Landroid/os/IBinder;
    .locals 1

    iget-object v0, p0, Landroid/media/tv/ITvInputSessionCallback$Stub$Proxy;->mRemote:Landroid/os/IBinder;

    return-object v0
.end method

.method public getInterfaceDescriptor()Ljava/lang/String;
    .locals 1

    const-string/jumbo v0, "android.media.tv.ITvInputSessionCallback"

    return-object v0
.end method

.method public onChannelRetuned(Landroid/net/Uri;)V
    .locals 5
    .annotation system Ldalvik/annotation/Throws;
        value = {
            Landroid/os/RemoteException;
        }
    .end annotation

    invoke-static {}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->obtain()Landroid/os/Parcel;

    move-result-object v0

    :try_start_0
    const-string/jumbo v1, "android.media.tv.ITvInputSessionCallback"

    invoke-virtual {v0, v1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInterfaceToken(Ljava/lang/String;)V

    if-eqz p1, :cond_0

    const/4 v1, 0x1

    invoke-virtual {v0, v1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInt(I)V

    const/4 v1, 0x0

    invoke-virtual {p1, v0, v1}, Landroid/net/Uri;->writeToParcel(Landroid/os/Parcel;I)V

    :goto_0
    iget-object v1, p0, Landroid/media/tv/ITvInputSessionCallback$Stub$Proxy;->mRemote:Landroid/os/IBinder;

    const/4 v2, 0x3

    const/4 v3, 0x0

    const/4 v4, 0x1

    invoke-interface {v1, v2, v0, v3, v4}, Landroid/os/IBinder;->transact(ILandroid/os/Parcel;Landroid/os/Parcel;I)Z
    :try_end_0
    .catchall {:try_start_0 .. :try_end_0} :catchall_0

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    return-void

    :cond_0
    const/4 v1, 0x0

    :try_start_1
    invoke-virtual {v0, v1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInt(I)V
    :try_end_1
    .catchall {:try_start_1 .. :try_end_1} :catchall_0

    goto :goto_0

    :catchall_0
    move-exception v1

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    throw v1
.end method

.method public onContentAllowed()V
    .locals 5
    .annotation system Ldalvik/annotation/Throws;
        value = {
            Landroid/os/RemoteException;
        }
    .end annotation

    invoke-static {}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->obtain()Landroid/os/Parcel;

    move-result-object v0

    :try_start_0
    const-string/jumbo v1, "android.media.tv.ITvInputSessionCallback"

    invoke-virtual {v0, v1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInterfaceToken(Ljava/lang/String;)V

    iget-object v1, p0, Landroid/media/tv/ITvInputSessionCallback$Stub$Proxy;->mRemote:Landroid/os/IBinder;

    const/16 v2, 0x8

    const/4 v3, 0x0

    const/4 v4, 0x1

    invoke-interface {v1, v2, v0, v3, v4}, Landroid/os/IBinder;->transact(ILandroid/os/Parcel;Landroid/os/Parcel;I)Z
    :try_end_0
    .catchall {:try_start_0 .. :try_end_0} :catchall_0

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    return-void

    :catchall_0
    move-exception v1

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    throw v1
.end method

.method public onContentBlocked(Ljava/lang/String;)V
    .locals 5
    .annotation system Ldalvik/annotation/Throws;
        value = {
            Landroid/os/RemoteException;
        }
    .end annotation

    invoke-static {}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->obtain()Landroid/os/Parcel;

    move-result-object v0

    :try_start_0
    const-string/jumbo v1, "android.media.tv.ITvInputSessionCallback"

    invoke-virtual {v0, v1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInterfaceToken(Ljava/lang/String;)V

    invoke-virtual {v0, p1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeString(Ljava/lang/String;)V

    iget-object v1, p0, Landroid/media/tv/ITvInputSessionCallback$Stub$Proxy;->mRemote:Landroid/os/IBinder;

    const/16 v2, 0x9

    const/4 v3, 0x0

    const/4 v4, 0x1

    invoke-interface {v1, v2, v0, v3, v4}, Landroid/os/IBinder;->transact(ILandroid/os/Parcel;Landroid/os/Parcel;I)Z
    :try_end_0
    .catchall {:try_start_0 .. :try_end_0} :catchall_0

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    return-void

    :catchall_0
    move-exception v1

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    throw v1
.end method

.method public onError(I)V
    .locals 5
    .annotation system Ldalvik/annotation/Throws;
        value = {
            Landroid/os/RemoteException;
        }
    .end annotation

    invoke-static {}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->obtain()Landroid/os/Parcel;

    move-result-object v0

    :try_start_0
    const-string/jumbo v1, "android.media.tv.ITvInputSessionCallback"

    invoke-virtual {v0, v1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInterfaceToken(Ljava/lang/String;)V

    invoke-virtual {v0, p1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInt(I)V

    iget-object v1, p0, Landroid/media/tv/ITvInputSessionCallback$Stub$Proxy;->mRemote:Landroid/os/IBinder;

    const/16 v2, 0x10

    const/4 v3, 0x0

    const/4 v4, 0x1

    invoke-interface {v1, v2, v0, v3, v4}, Landroid/os/IBinder;->transact(ILandroid/os/Parcel;Landroid/os/Parcel;I)Z
    :try_end_0
    .catchall {:try_start_0 .. :try_end_0} :catchall_0

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    return-void

    :catchall_0
    move-exception v1

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    throw v1
.end method

.method public onLayoutSurface(IIII)V
    .locals 5
    .annotation system Ldalvik/annotation/Throws;
        value = {
            Landroid/os/RemoteException;
        }
    .end annotation

    invoke-static {}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->obtain()Landroid/os/Parcel;

    move-result-object v0

    :try_start_0
    const-string/jumbo v1, "android.media.tv.ITvInputSessionCallback"

    invoke-virtual {v0, v1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInterfaceToken(Ljava/lang/String;)V

    invoke-virtual {v0, p1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInt(I)V

    invoke-virtual {v0, p2}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInt(I)V

    invoke-virtual {v0, p3}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInt(I)V

    invoke-virtual {v0, p4}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInt(I)V

    iget-object v1, p0, Landroid/media/tv/ITvInputSessionCallback$Stub$Proxy;->mRemote:Landroid/os/IBinder;

    const/16 v2, 0xa

    const/4 v3, 0x0

    const/4 v4, 0x1

    invoke-interface {v1, v2, v0, v3, v4}, Landroid/os/IBinder;->transact(ILandroid/os/Parcel;Landroid/os/Parcel;I)Z
    :try_end_0
    .catchall {:try_start_0 .. :try_end_0} :catchall_0

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    return-void

    :catchall_0
    move-exception v1

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    throw v1
.end method

.method public onRecordingStopped(Landroid/net/Uri;)V
    .locals 5
    .annotation system Ldalvik/annotation/Throws;
        value = {
            Landroid/os/RemoteException;
        }
    .end annotation

    invoke-static {}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->obtain()Landroid/os/Parcel;

    move-result-object v0

    :try_start_0
    const-string/jumbo v1, "android.media.tv.ITvInputSessionCallback"

    invoke-virtual {v0, v1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInterfaceToken(Ljava/lang/String;)V

    if-eqz p1, :cond_0

    const/4 v1, 0x1

    invoke-virtual {v0, v1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInt(I)V

    const/4 v1, 0x0

    invoke-virtual {p1, v0, v1}, Landroid/net/Uri;->writeToParcel(Landroid/os/Parcel;I)V

    :goto_0
    iget-object v1, p0, Landroid/media/tv/ITvInputSessionCallback$Stub$Proxy;->mRemote:Landroid/os/IBinder;

    const/16 v2, 0xf

    const/4 v3, 0x0

    const/4 v4, 0x1

    invoke-interface {v1, v2, v0, v3, v4}, Landroid/os/IBinder;->transact(ILandroid/os/Parcel;Landroid/os/Parcel;I)Z
    :try_end_0
    .catchall {:try_start_0 .. :try_end_0} :catchall_0

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    return-void

    :cond_0
    const/4 v1, 0x0

    :try_start_1
    invoke-virtual {v0, v1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInt(I)V
    :try_end_1
    .catchall {:try_start_1 .. :try_end_1} :catchall_0

    goto :goto_0

    :catchall_0
    move-exception v1

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    throw v1
.end method

.method public onSessionCreated(Landroid/media/tv/ITvInputSession;Landroid/os/IBinder;)V
    .locals 5
    .annotation system Ldalvik/annotation/Throws;
        value = {
            Landroid/os/RemoteException;
        }
    .end annotation

    const/4 v1, 0x0

    invoke-static {}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->obtain()Landroid/os/Parcel;

    move-result-object v0

    :try_start_0
    const-string/jumbo v2, "android.media.tv.ITvInputSessionCallback"

    invoke-virtual {v0, v2}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInterfaceToken(Ljava/lang/String;)V

    if-eqz p1, :cond_0

    invoke-interface {p1}, Landroid/media/tv/ITvInputSession;->asBinder()Landroid/os/IBinder;

    move-result-object v1

    :cond_0
    invoke-virtual {v0, v1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeStrongBinder(Landroid/os/IBinder;)V

    invoke-virtual {v0, p2}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeStrongBinder(Landroid/os/IBinder;)V

    iget-object v1, p0, Landroid/media/tv/ITvInputSessionCallback$Stub$Proxy;->mRemote:Landroid/os/IBinder;

    const/4 v2, 0x1

    const/4 v3, 0x0

    const/4 v4, 0x1

    invoke-interface {v1, v2, v0, v3, v4}, Landroid/os/IBinder;->transact(ILandroid/os/Parcel;Landroid/os/Parcel;I)Z
    :try_end_0
    .catchall {:try_start_0 .. :try_end_0} :catchall_0

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    return-void

    :catchall_0
    move-exception v1

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    throw v1
.end method

.method public onSessionEvent(Ljava/lang/String;Landroid/os/Bundle;)V
    .locals 5
    .annotation system Ldalvik/annotation/Throws;
        value = {
            Landroid/os/RemoteException;
        }
    .end annotation

    invoke-static {}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->obtain()Landroid/os/Parcel;

    move-result-object v0

    :try_start_0
    const-string/jumbo v1, "android.media.tv.ITvInputSessionCallback"

    invoke-virtual {v0, v1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInterfaceToken(Ljava/lang/String;)V

    invoke-virtual {v0, p1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeString(Ljava/lang/String;)V

    if-eqz p2, :cond_0

    const/4 v1, 0x1

    invoke-virtual {v0, v1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInt(I)V

    const/4 v1, 0x0

    invoke-virtual {p2, v0, v1}, Landroid/os/Bundle;->writeToParcel(Landroid/os/Parcel;I)V

    :goto_0
    iget-object v1, p0, Landroid/media/tv/ITvInputSessionCallback$Stub$Proxy;->mRemote:Landroid/os/IBinder;

    const/4 v2, 0x2

    const/4 v3, 0x0

    const/4 v4, 0x1

    invoke-interface {v1, v2, v0, v3, v4}, Landroid/os/IBinder;->transact(ILandroid/os/Parcel;Landroid/os/Parcel;I)Z
    :try_end_0
    .catchall {:try_start_0 .. :try_end_0} :catchall_0

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    return-void

    :cond_0
    const/4 v1, 0x0

    :try_start_1
    invoke-virtual {v0, v1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInt(I)V
    :try_end_1
    .catchall {:try_start_1 .. :try_end_1} :catchall_0

    goto :goto_0

    :catchall_0
    move-exception v1

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    throw v1
.end method

.method public onTimeShiftCurrentPositionChanged(J)V
    .locals 5
    .annotation system Ldalvik/annotation/Throws;
        value = {
            Landroid/os/RemoteException;
        }
    .end annotation

    invoke-static {}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->obtain()Landroid/os/Parcel;

    move-result-object v0

    :try_start_0
    const-string/jumbo v1, "android.media.tv.ITvInputSessionCallback"

    invoke-virtual {v0, v1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInterfaceToken(Ljava/lang/String;)V

    invoke-virtual {v0, p1, p2}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeLong(J)V

    iget-object v1, p0, Landroid/media/tv/ITvInputSessionCallback$Stub$Proxy;->mRemote:Landroid/os/IBinder;

    const/16 v2, 0xd

    const/4 v3, 0x0

    const/4 v4, 0x1

    invoke-interface {v1, v2, v0, v3, v4}, Landroid/os/IBinder;->transact(ILandroid/os/Parcel;Landroid/os/Parcel;I)Z
    :try_end_0
    .catchall {:try_start_0 .. :try_end_0} :catchall_0

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    return-void

    :catchall_0
    move-exception v1

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    throw v1
.end method

.method public onTimeShiftStartPositionChanged(J)V
    .locals 5
    .annotation system Ldalvik/annotation/Throws;
        value = {
            Landroid/os/RemoteException;
        }
    .end annotation

    invoke-static {}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->obtain()Landroid/os/Parcel;

    move-result-object v0

    :try_start_0
    const-string/jumbo v1, "android.media.tv.ITvInputSessionCallback"

    invoke-virtual {v0, v1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInterfaceToken(Ljava/lang/String;)V

    invoke-virtual {v0, p1, p2}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeLong(J)V

    iget-object v1, p0, Landroid/media/tv/ITvInputSessionCallback$Stub$Proxy;->mRemote:Landroid/os/IBinder;

    const/16 v2, 0xc

    const/4 v3, 0x0

    const/4 v4, 0x1

    invoke-interface {v1, v2, v0, v3, v4}, Landroid/os/IBinder;->transact(ILandroid/os/Parcel;Landroid/os/Parcel;I)Z
    :try_end_0
    .catchall {:try_start_0 .. :try_end_0} :catchall_0

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    return-void

    :catchall_0
    move-exception v1

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    throw v1
.end method

.method public onTimeShiftStatusChanged(I)V
    .locals 5
    .annotation system Ldalvik/annotation/Throws;
        value = {
            Landroid/os/RemoteException;
        }
    .end annotation

    invoke-static {}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->obtain()Landroid/os/Parcel;

    move-result-object v0

    :try_start_0
    const-string/jumbo v1, "android.media.tv.ITvInputSessionCallback"

    invoke-virtual {v0, v1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInterfaceToken(Ljava/lang/String;)V

    invoke-virtual {v0, p1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInt(I)V

    iget-object v1, p0, Landroid/media/tv/ITvInputSessionCallback$Stub$Proxy;->mRemote:Landroid/os/IBinder;

    const/16 v2, 0xb

    const/4 v3, 0x0

    const/4 v4, 0x1

    invoke-interface {v1, v2, v0, v3, v4}, Landroid/os/IBinder;->transact(ILandroid/os/Parcel;Landroid/os/Parcel;I)Z
    :try_end_0
    .catchall {:try_start_0 .. :try_end_0} :catchall_0

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    return-void

    :catchall_0
    move-exception v1

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    throw v1
.end method

.method public onTrackSelected(ILjava/lang/String;)V
    .locals 5
    .annotation system Ldalvik/annotation/Throws;
        value = {
            Landroid/os/RemoteException;
        }
    .end annotation

    invoke-static {}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->obtain()Landroid/os/Parcel;

    move-result-object v0

    :try_start_0
    const-string/jumbo v1, "android.media.tv.ITvInputSessionCallback"

    invoke-virtual {v0, v1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInterfaceToken(Ljava/lang/String;)V

    invoke-virtual {v0, p1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInt(I)V

    invoke-virtual {v0, p2}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeString(Ljava/lang/String;)V

    iget-object v1, p0, Landroid/media/tv/ITvInputSessionCallback$Stub$Proxy;->mRemote:Landroid/os/IBinder;

    const/4 v2, 0x5

    const/4 v3, 0x0

    const/4 v4, 0x1

    invoke-interface {v1, v2, v0, v3, v4}, Landroid/os/IBinder;->transact(ILandroid/os/Parcel;Landroid/os/Parcel;I)Z
    :try_end_0
    .catchall {:try_start_0 .. :try_end_0} :catchall_0

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    return-void

    :catchall_0
    move-exception v1

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    throw v1
.end method

.method public onTracksChanged(Ljava/util/List;)V
    .locals 5
    .annotation system Ldalvik/annotation/Signature;
        value = {
            "(",
            "Ljava/util/List",
            "<",
            "Landroid/media/tv/TvTrackInfo;",
            ">;)V"
        }
    .end annotation

    .annotation system Ldalvik/annotation/Throws;
        value = {
            Landroid/os/RemoteException;
        }
    .end annotation

    invoke-static {}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->obtain()Landroid/os/Parcel;

    move-result-object v0

    :try_start_0
    const-string/jumbo v1, "android.media.tv.ITvInputSessionCallback"

    invoke-virtual {v0, v1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInterfaceToken(Ljava/lang/String;)V

    invoke-virtual {v0, p1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeTypedList(Ljava/util/List;)V

    iget-object v1, p0, Landroid/media/tv/ITvInputSessionCallback$Stub$Proxy;->mRemote:Landroid/os/IBinder;

    const/4 v2, 0x4

    const/4 v3, 0x0

    const/4 v4, 0x1

    invoke-interface {v1, v2, v0, v3, v4}, Landroid/os/IBinder;->transact(ILandroid/os/Parcel;Landroid/os/Parcel;I)Z
    :try_end_0
    .catchall {:try_start_0 .. :try_end_0} :catchall_0

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    return-void

    :catchall_0
    move-exception v1

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    throw v1
.end method

.method public onTuned(Landroid/net/Uri;)V
    .locals 5
    .annotation system Ldalvik/annotation/Throws;
        value = {
            Landroid/os/RemoteException;
        }
    .end annotation

    invoke-static {}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->obtain()Landroid/os/Parcel;

    move-result-object v0

    :try_start_0
    const-string/jumbo v1, "android.media.tv.ITvInputSessionCallback"

    invoke-virtual {v0, v1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInterfaceToken(Ljava/lang/String;)V

    if-eqz p1, :cond_0

    const/4 v1, 0x1

    invoke-virtual {v0, v1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInt(I)V

    const/4 v1, 0x0

    invoke-virtual {p1, v0, v1}, Landroid/net/Uri;->writeToParcel(Landroid/os/Parcel;I)V

    :goto_0
    iget-object v1, p0, Landroid/media/tv/ITvInputSessionCallback$Stub$Proxy;->mRemote:Landroid/os/IBinder;

    const/16 v2, 0xe

    const/4 v3, 0x0

    const/4 v4, 0x1

    invoke-interface {v1, v2, v0, v3, v4}, Landroid/os/IBinder;->transact(ILandroid/os/Parcel;Landroid/os/Parcel;I)Z
    :try_end_0
    .catchall {:try_start_0 .. :try_end_0} :catchall_0

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    return-void

    :cond_0
    const/4 v1, 0x0

    :try_start_1
    invoke-virtual {v0, v1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInt(I)V
    :try_end_1
    .catchall {:try_start_1 .. :try_end_1} :catchall_0

    goto :goto_0

    :catchall_0
    move-exception v1

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    throw v1
.end method

.method public onVideoAvailable()V
    .locals 5
    .annotation system Ldalvik/annotation/Throws;
        value = {
            Landroid/os/RemoteException;
        }
    .end annotation

    invoke-static {}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->obtain()Landroid/os/Parcel;

    move-result-object v0

    :try_start_0
    const-string/jumbo v1, "android.media.tv.ITvInputSessionCallback"

    invoke-virtual {v0, v1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInterfaceToken(Ljava/lang/String;)V

    iget-object v1, p0, Landroid/media/tv/ITvInputSessionCallback$Stub$Proxy;->mRemote:Landroid/os/IBinder;

    const/4 v2, 0x6

    const/4 v3, 0x0

    const/4 v4, 0x1

    invoke-interface {v1, v2, v0, v3, v4}, Landroid/os/IBinder;->transact(ILandroid/os/Parcel;Landroid/os/Parcel;I)Z
    :try_end_0
    .catchall {:try_start_0 .. :try_end_0} :catchall_0

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    return-void

    :catchall_0
    move-exception v1

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    throw v1
.end method

.method public onVideoUnavailable(I)V
    .locals 5
    .annotation system Ldalvik/annotation/Throws;
        value = {
            Landroid/os/RemoteException;
        }
    .end annotation

    invoke-static {}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->obtain()Landroid/os/Parcel;

    move-result-object v0

    :try_start_0
    const-string/jumbo v1, "android.media.tv.ITvInputSessionCallback"

    invoke-virtual {v0, v1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInterfaceToken(Ljava/lang/String;)V

    invoke-virtual {v0, p1}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->writeInt(I)V

    iget-object v1, p0, Landroid/media/tv/ITvInputSessionCallback$Stub$Proxy;->mRemote:Landroid/os/IBinder;

    const/4 v2, 0x7

    const/4 v3, 0x0

    const/4 v4, 0x1

    invoke-interface {v1, v2, v0, v3, v4}, Landroid/os/IBinder;->transact(ILandroid/os/Parcel;Landroid/os/Parcel;I)Z
    :try_end_0
    .catchall {:try_start_0 .. :try_end_0} :catchall_0

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    return-void

    :catchall_0
    move-exception v1

    invoke-virtual {v0}, Landroid/os/Parcel;->recycle()V

    throw v1
.end method

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


The Institute for Enterprise and Finance Research (IBFR) encourages you to participate in our tutorial conferences, and to publish in our peer-reviewed journals. You don't start repaying your scholar loans till after you have left college and begin incomes a minimum of £21,000. Please word that the Division for Schooling who govern scholar support for college kids from England have lately introduced it intends to extend this threshold to £25,000. This remains subject to parliamentary approval and we are going to update our website as soon as further data is confirmed.


text:
\section{How to Use this Template}

\section{Introduction}\label{sec:intro}
The standard model of massive star evolution follows a rapid progression from the main-sequence, through a blue supergiant (BSG) phase, to the red supergiant (RSG) branch, to terminal supernova (SN) explosion.  However, surveys of the brightest supergiants revealed an empirical upper luminosity limit to stars on the Hertzprung-Russell (HR) diagram \citep{humphreys1979}.  This limit suggests that stars above some initial zero-age main-sequence (ZAMS) mass ($\approx30-40\,\mathrm{M}_\odot$) do not evolve to the RSG branch on the HR Diagram, and therefore follow an alternative evolutionary pathway.  Since the 1980s, both observational and modeling studies have attempted to describe and constrain the stellar populations and instabilities at the upper luminosity boundary, as well as explore the local environments that influence these massive stars during both their main- and post-main-sequence lives.

It has long been established that massive stars at any stage of evolution provide a favorable environment for enhanced mass-loss in their stellar winds due to low surface gravity ($g$) in their outer atmospheres.  The outer circumstellar (CS) material is only tenuously gravitationally bound to the star itself.  Indeed, mass-loss rates for RSGs range from $10^{-6}\,\mathrm{M}_\odot\,\mathrm{yr}^{-1}$ \citep{gehrz1971,mauron2011} to as high as $10^{-4}\,\mathrm{M}_\odot\,\mathrm{yr}^{-1}$ in extreme supergiant stars like VY~CMa \citep{humphreys2013}---mass-loss rates that represent a significant fraction of a star's initial mass being shed during its post-main-sequence lifetime.  The evolution  and terminal state of a massive star is ultimately governed not just by its ZAMS mass but also by these drastic changes in total stellar mass and outer envelope conditions.  We refer to these changes in stellar mass through ejection of CS material as the ``mass-loss history.'' In this chapter, we summarize some of the literature on the mass-loss histories of evolved supergiant stars and the evidence for post-red supergiant evolution both in observational studies of the circumstellar ejecta and in evolutionary  models that predict the effect of various mass-loss mechanisms on massive star evolution.

\section{Context -- The Red Supergiant Problem}\label{sec:context}
Further context for much of the observational exploration of the last decade comes from a recently-identified ``red supergiant problem'' \citep{eldridge2008,smartt2009a,smartt2009b}.  A survey of Type II-P supernova progenitors using optical and near-IR pre-explosion archival images revealed an upper limit of only $16-17\,\mathrm{M}_\odot$ for the initial stellar masses of their likely red supergiant (RSG) progenitors  \citep{smartt2009a}.  Type II-P SN remnants are a useful laboratory for population statistics of RSGs since they represent the most abundant class of CCSNe ($\sim$70\% of hydrogen-rich SNe; see \citep{li2011} for a discussion of SN rate estimates).

From the notable lack of II-P SN progenitors above $\sim$17~$\mathrm{M}_\odot$ (Figure~\ref{fig:Smartt}), \citet{smartt2009a} suggested two possible scenarios:
\begin{enumerate}[leftmargin=*,labelsep=4.9mm]
\item	\label{enum:one}Systematic underestimation of progenitor mass due to improper extinction correction.
\item	\label{enum:two}Red supergiants greater than  $17\,\mathrm{M}_\odot$ have another terminal state besides II-P CCSNe.
\end{enumerate}
We explore these two scenarios below.

\figSmartt

Though no Type II-P SN progenitors appear to exist much above $\sim$16~$\mathrm{M}_\odot$, red supergiants have certainly been observed with masses far greater than this. For examples, see the recent HR Diagrams for massive evolved stars in the Galaxy \citep{levesque2005}, the Magellanic Clouds \citep{levesque2006}, and in M31 and M33 \citep{massey2009,drout2012,gordon2016}
A comparison with the evolutionary models \citep{meynet2003}, illustrates that many stars are present on the RSG branch above 20~$\mathrm{M}_\odot$ in Local Group galaxies.

One potential caveat for these RSG surveys is that the derived masses require accurate measurement of bolometric luminosity.  As \citet{smartt2009a} suggest in scenario~\ref{enum:one}.\ above, underestimating RSG masses could be a potential solution to the RSG problem.  Extra intrinsic extinction due to dust close to the RSG progenitor would yield lower luminosities and their estimated masses \citep{smith2011,walmswell2012}.
Indeed, mass-loss rates and dust ejecta masses scale with luminosity \citep{van-loon2005,mauron2011,gordon2016}. Additionally, mid-IR interferometry around evolved stars has revealed dust close enough in to the central source \citep{danchi1994} that the dust grains could potentially be destroyed by the star's SN explosion.

\citet{walmswell2012} examined the effect of dust on derived RSG masses by applying the Cambridge STARS code \citep{eggleton1971,stancliffe2009} combined with various mass-loss schema \citep{de-jager1988,vink2001,eldridge2004} to simulate SEDs throughout a massive star's evolution.  They model a series of dust shells and estimate a simulated extinction to measure an average $A_V$ of around 1~mag from the circumstellar ejecta.  The resulting model SEDs do indeed yield lower deduced stellar masses than what would have been observed with proper extinction-correction for the model dust shells, with an underestimate of as much as 5~$\mathrm{M}_\odot$ for supergiants in the $\sim$20$-25\,\mathrm{M}_\odot$ range.
Still, the authors note that even a change in several solar masses worth of dust material does not solve the red supergiant problem.

\citet{beasor2016} explored this missing mass problem  combining mid-IR WISE and Spitzer/IRAC photometry with circumstellar dust shell models from DUSTY \citep{ivezic1999}. The authors apply their model analysis to a co-eval population of RSG cluster stars (NGC 2100), which allows for studying stars with similar initial conditions---mass, metallicity, local environment, etc.  If the cluster stars all have roughly the same initial masses (within a few tenths of a solar mass), then the evolutionary pathway should be the same, and any differences in luminosity should be due to the slightly more massive stars evolving faster on the HR Diagram. This allowed the authors to use luminosity as a proxy for evolution.  Based on their models and estimated mass-loss rates, they find an increase in mass-loss rates along the RSG branch as high as a factor of 40 over the post-main-sequence lifetime of the star, which appears to be consistent with the \citet{de-jager1988} mass-loss prescription. If the increased mass loss is translated into an intrinsic exctinction, they argue that the increased reddening may substantially increase derived masses of Type II-P SN RSG progenitors. As an example, the authors show that similar dust extinction conditions on SNe 1999gi, 2001du, and 2012ec could revise initial mass estimates by as many as 10~$\mathrm{M}_\odot$.

\citet{kilpatrick2018}, however, argue that while circumstellar dust can  alter the observed SEDs of supergiant progentors, several studies of the circumstellar environments around SN progenitors suggest that there cannot be enough material around at least some SN Type~II progenitor systems to hide an underlying high-mass RSG.
They note that the total dust mass in progenitor systems is independently constrained by radio and X-ray observations.  For example, X-ray light curves of CCSNe have been used to estimate stellar wind parameters and the density structure of the CS medium \citep{chevalier2003,dwarkadas2012}. Many of these studies, though, have broad wavelength coverage of the SN progenitor SED.  It is possible that for some RSG progenitors with less constrained SEDs and sparse pre-SN imaging/photometry, the ``missing mass'' scenario from CS dust may indeed be biasing RSG mass statistics.  However, as IR photometry exists for many SN RSG progenitors, this argument is only a partial solution to the red supergiant problem.

As for scenario~\ref{enum:two}.\ above from \citet{smartt2009a}---that high-mass red supergiant progenitors simply do not exist---there are two possible explanations: first, that higher mass RSGs collapse directly to black holes; and second, that stellar evolution to the warmer, blue side of the HR Diagram produces stellar end products other than Type II-P SNe.  The subject of black hole formation, either through direct collapse or fall back, merits a longer discussion that is beyond the scope of this work.  For a review of some of the work surrounding black hole formation in massive stars, see the annual review by \citet{smartt2015}.

One realm of exploration in the literature is the idea of failed supernovae, or ``unnova'': stars that collapse to black holes with little or no energy released \citep[e.g.,][]{kochanek2008,ugliano2012,pejcha2015,gerke2015}). Such events may have no significant transient, and thus be almost impossible to observe \citep{woosley2012}. However, models by \citet{lovegrove2013} and \citet{piro2013} find that RSGs in the $15-25\,\mathrm{M}_\odot$ range can lose so much energy in neutrinos during collapse that the resulting shock in the stellar envelope is expected to create an optical signature.  This can be as bright as $L_{\mathrm{bol}}\sim10^6-10^7\,L_\odot$, though perhaps lasting for only a few days \citep{piro2013}

These results suggest that an optical transient of this type from a failed SN would have only a small observable window, thereby decreasing the likelihood of detection.  Nonetheless, surveys like that on the LBT \citep{kochanek2008,gerke2015,adams2017} have potentially found one such source, N6946-BH1, which brightened to $\gtrsim10^6\,L_\odot$ in March 2009 before fading below its pre-outburst luminosity \citep{gerke2015}. SED modeling constrained the mass of the RSG progenitor to $\sim$25 $\mathrm{M}_\odot$ \citep{adams2017}, above the apparent \citet{smartt2009a} SN Type II-P progenitor limit.  Despite a decade of monitoring, however, objects like this remain exceedingly rare.  While failed SNe may indeed represent some high-mass RSG population that is as of yet undiscovered, for the moment this does not seem to solve missing high-mass SN progenitors.

In this chapter, we focus on another population of transient objects---the yellow supergiants (YSGs) and hypergiants, and evidence for post-red supergiant evolution.

\section{The Milky Way Hypergiants and Post-RSG Evolution}

Many years before attention was drawn to the red supergiant problem, a small group of high luminosity evolved supergiants was recognized with a range of intermediate to cool temperatures, high mass loss, and unstable atmospheres \citep[see several papers in][]{de-jager1992}.  These stars, now referred to as yellow or red hypergiants, defined the empirical upper luminosity boundary in the HR Diagram for evolved massive stars \citep{humphreys1979}.  The well-studied members of this elite group are Galactic members with a few examples in the Magellanic Clouds and M31 and M33 (\S\ref{sec:ysgs}). The visibly bright Galactic stars all exhibit spectroscopic and photometric variability, high mass loss, and several show dusty ejecta.  The evolutionary state of the warm or yellow hypergiants was not obvious; they could be evolving toward the red supergiant region or on a blue-loop back to warmer temperatures.  The instability and brief high mass-loss events exhibited by $\rho$~Cas, for example \citep{lobel2003}, during which it developed TiO bands, and the increasing evidence for episodic high mass-loss events especially visible in the ejecta of IRC~+10420 (\S\ref{sec:irc}) favored a post-RSG evolved state for these stars.

Other warm or yellow hypergiants include the Galactic stars HR~8752 and HR~5171A \citep{nieuwenhuijzen2012,lobel2015,chesneau2014}. These hypergiants are visually bright and relatively nearby, which has made them important laboratories for study of late-stage evolution. Interestingly, \citet{de-jager1998} suggests that all of the yellow hypergiants are post-red supergiants. During blueward evolution, their atmospheres contract, the atmospheric opacity increases, and their rotation increases.  Having shed a sizable fraction of their mass on the RSG branch, these stars are now closer to the Eddington Limit for their ZAMS mass. The stars thus enter a temperature range (6000--9000~K) of increased dynamical instability, that de~Jager called the ``yellow void,'' where high mass-loss episodes occur.  Figure~\ref{fig:void} is a schematic HR Diagram showing the positions of some of the better-studied Galactic yellow hypergiants plus Var~A in M33 with respect to the critical temperature region.

\figVoid

\section{IRC~+10420 and Var~A in M33 -- Clues to Post-RSG Evolution}\label{sec:irc}
The luminosities and apparent temperatures of the two evolved yellow supergiants IRC~+10420 and Var~A place them at the upper luminosity boundary for evolved stars in the HR Diagram. Both stars exhibit a history of photometric and spectroscopic variability with high mass loss episodes and dusty circumstellar ejecta making them excellent candidates for post-red supergiant evolution.

At its initial discovery, IRC~+10420 (V1302~Aql) was quickly recognized as remarkable with its very large infrared excess and late F-type high luminosity spectrum \citep{humphreys1973}. It was soon identified as a powerful maser source and is one of the warmest known OH/IR stars \citep{giguere1976}.

IRC~+10420 is a Galactic star and because of its relative proximity, its circumstellar ejecta is easily resolved by HST imaging \citep{humphreys1997} which revealed a complex environment. The color image in Figure~\ref{fig:IRC} shows the spatial extent of the ejecta, more that 5~arcsec across. Numerous features are visible within two arcsec of the embedded star including condensations arrayed in jet-like structures, rays, and an intriguing group of small, nearly spherical shells  or arcs apparently at the ends of some of the jet-like features.  One or more distant reflection shells at 5 to 6~arcsec from the star are visible in the longer exposure images.

\figIRC

While its actual distance is somewhat uncertain, numerous arguments \citep[e.g.,][]{oudmaijer1996} clearly demonstrated that it was not a post-AGB star and therefore above the AGB-limit at $\textrm{M}_{Bol}$ $\approx -7$~mag.  The reddening of its optical spectral energy distribution, infrared polarization, and its radial velocity \citep{jones1993} suggested a distance of 4--6 kpc and a luminosity of $\approx -9.6 \pm 0.5$~mag (at 5~kpc), which places IRC~+10420 at the upper luminosity boundary in the HRD for evolved stars. Jones et al. \cite{jones1993}  therefore proposed that IRC~+10420 may be evolving from a red supergiant across the HR Diagram to warmer temperatures, and in a phase of its evolution analogous to the post-AGB lower mass giants evolving to the planetary nebula phase, but at much higher luminosities.

The early photographic image-tube spectra \citep{humphreys1973} showed late F-type absorption features, however, 23 years later, Oudmaijer et al. \cite{oudmaijer1998} identified H lines and other absorption features typical of a warmer A-type supergiant implying a significant change in its apparent temperature. HST/STIS spectra a few years later were consistent with the higher temperature \citep{humphreys2002}. The spectrum is dominated by a strong H$\alpha$ stellar wind split emission line (Figure~\ref{fig:IRC}, right) due either to a bi-polar outflow or an equatorial disk. Strong Ca~II triplet emission lines, also with a split profiles, and the  [Ca~II] doublet in  emission formed in the extended low density ejecta plus numerous Fe~II emission lines typical of a stellar wind  are present. \citet{humphreys2002} demonstrated that the wind was optically thick. Thus, observed variations in the apparent spectral type and the inferred temperature are changes in the wind and not to changes in the interior, i.e.\ evolution, of the star on such a short timescale. Subsequent spectroscopic monitoring by \citet{klochkova2016} and by our group do not show any further increase in its apparent temperature suggesting that the blueward motion of IRC~+10420 on the HR Diagram  has slowed.

The morphology of IRC~+10420's circumstellar ejecta had always been elusive, with suggestions of a bipolar outflow or a circumstellar disk with different orientations ranging from edge-on to an inclined disk at different angles. To investigate its three-dimensional morphology, \citet{tiffany2010} combined the transverse velocities for several knots and condensations in the inner ejecta, measured from second-epoch HST imaging, with their Doppler velocities.  The resulting total space motions and direction of the outflows showed that these knots were ejected at different times and in different directions over the last $\approx400$~years, a relatively recent period of asymmetric mass loss. Interestingly, they are all moving within a few degrees of the plane of the sky. Thus we are viewing IRC~+10420 nearly pole-on and are looking nearly directly down onto its equatorial plane. This orientation is confirmed by both the highly polarized 2.2~$\mu$m emission around the star, which places the scattering dust in the plane of the sky \citep{shenoy2015}, and high resolution near-infrared interferometry \citep{de-wit2008}. The more distant reflection shells were ejected about 3000 years ago, suggesting more than one epoch of high mass loss.

To explore IRC+10420's mass loss history, \citet{shenoy2016} used far-infrared imaging from SOFIA/FORCAST at 11--37~$\mu$m to probe the extended cold dust plus high-resolution adaptive optics imaging at 8--12~$\mu$m. They found evidence for two distinct periods of high mass loss, an earlier episode from 6000 to about 2000 years ago with a high rate of 2 $\times 10^{-3}\,\mathrm{M}_{\odot}\,\mathrm{yr}^{-1}$, followed   by an order of magitude decrease  with a current rate of $\approx$ 10$^{-3}\,\mathrm{M}_{\odot}\,\mathrm{yr}^{-1}$, consistent with other recent measurements. This change is additional evidence for IRC+10420's evolution from the red supergiant stage and its transition to a warmer state.

Var~A in M33 is significant since it has actually been observed to transition to a red supergiant and back to its presumably normal state as a high luminosity F-type supergiant within the last century. This color and spectral change, however, was not due to interior evolution, but to a high mass-loss episode that produced a dense, cooler wind. Var~A provides additional evidence for the highly unstable state of evolved stars near the upper limit in the HR Diagram.  This supergiant has the important advantage that its distance and therefore its intrinisic luminosity, M$_{Bol}\approx -9.5$, are known. In M33, however, it is too distant for direct imaging of its ejecta.

Var~A is one of the original Hubble-Sandage (H-S) variables \citep{hubble1953}. However, unlike the other H-S variables that have been subsequently identified as evolved hot stars with episodes of high mass loss---the LBVs---Var A's quiescent state is a high luminosity yellow or intermediate temperature supergiant.  Its historic light curve \citep[Figure~6 in][]{hubble1953} is remarkable. At maximum light it was one of the visually-brightest stars in M33, but then in 1951 its luminosity rapidly declined by 3.5~mag, becoming faint and red after what had been a slow increase in brightness during the previous 50 years.   Spectra from 1985 and 1986 revealed an M-type supergiant with prominent TiO bands \citep{humphreys1987}. Its spectral energy distribution not only showed the shift to cooler temperatures but a large mid-infrared excess due to extensive circumstellar dust, and Var~A was as luminous at 10~$\mu$m as at its visual maximum. The star had experienced a high mass-loss event that had produced an optically thick, cooler wind---a ``false'' or ``pseudo'' photosphere---that resembled a red supergiant.

Subsequent spectra, not observed until 2003--2004, revealed that its ``eruption,'' which had begun $\sim$1951, had indeed ended, having lasted $\approx 45$~years \citep{humphreys2006}. The spectrum showed that the star or its dense wind was now in a much warmer state with absorption lines consistent with an F-type supergiant and emission lines of Ca~II, [Ca~II] and K~I, similar to IRC~+10420, in addition to strong H emission formed in it surrounding low-density gas. The optical photometry shows the transition to bluer, warmer colors, but Var~A remained visually faint and was still obscured by circumstellar dust.  The spectra from 1985 and 2004 are shown in Figure~\ref{fig:VarA} and its light curve and SED in Figure~\ref{fig:VarAlc}. Its 10~$\mu$m flux shows an unexpected decline, which implies an unexpected decrease in the star's total luminosity. The most likely explanation is that the radiation is escaping in some direction other than our line-of-sight. This possibility is supported by recent spectra of small clumps and knots in the inner ejecta of the red hypergiant VY~CMa \citep[][see \S\ref{sec:massloss} below]{humphreys2019}, which require a clear line of sight to the star, and therefore imply large, low density regions even holes in the circumstellar material which may also be the case for Var A.

\figVarA
\figVarLC

Thus, Var~A and IRC~+10420 are not only probable post-red supergiants, but their shared characteristics of photometric and spectroscopic variability, surface instability and stellar winds, high mass loss, and a history of enhanced mass-loss episodes are clues to understanding the evolution of stars near the upper luminosity boundary and their transit across the HRD from red to blue.

\FloatBarrier

\section{YSGs and Post-RSG Candidates in M31 and M33}\label{sec:ysgs}

Other than Var~A, IRC~+10420, and the Galactic hypergiant candidates, what fraction of known evolved supergiants may be in a post-RSG state?  These statistics, as well as the physical characteristics of candidate post-RSGs and their locations on the HR Diagram, are crucial to our understanding the final stages of the majority of massive stars.

Due in part to their position on the HR Diagram, few post-RSGs are known. They occupy a relatively brief, transient state between the blue and red supergiants and may either be evolving from the main sequence to cooler temperatures, or back to warmer temperatures from the RSG stage. In the Galaxy, the warm or yellow hypergiants, close to the upper luminosity boundary in the HRD with high mass-loss rates, enhanced abundances, and dusty CS environments, are excellent candidates for post-RSG evolution. These stars contrast with the intermediate-type yellow supergiants which have normal spectra and long-wavelength SEDs---that is, no evidence for circumstellar dust or mass loss in their spectra.  Considering how few objects of this type are known locally, many studies have pursued observations of supergiants outside of the Galaxy.

As part of a larger program on the luminous and variable emission-line stars in M31 and M33, \citet{humphreys2013} recognized a few high luminosity, A- to F-type stars in each galaxy with spectroscopic evidence for high mass loss, and extensive gaseous and dusty circumstellar ejecta revealed in their spectra and SEDs; characteristics shared with the warm hypergiants IRC~+10420 and the peculiar Var~A also in M33. They  demonstrated that these stars were indeed evolved, intermediate temperature supergiants with strong winds and mass loss, and like IRC~+10420 and Var~A, they were candidates for post-RSG evolution. Based on their luminosities, their initial masses would be greater than 20~$\mathrm{M}_\odot$ or more. One possible exception was B324, one of the visually brightest stars in M33. Its SED showed strong free-free emission in the near-infrared but lacked the cooler dust expected in a post-RSG star.  B324, just at the upper luminosity boundary, with high mass loss, could be approaching the limit to its redward evolution and therfore a candidate for future high mass episodes.  \citet{humphreys2013}   had identified a few candidates, but was not a comprehensive survey for post-red supergiants.

\citet{gordon2016} conducted a survey of the yellow and red supergiants to search for post-RSG candidates. The targets were primarily selected from the published surveys of M31 and M33 for yellow and red supergiants \citep{drout2009,drout2012,massey2009} chosen from  the Local Group Galaxies Survey (LGGS; \citep{massey2006}).  Post-RSG candidates were identified based on spectroscopic evidence for mass loss and the presence of circumstellar dust in their SEDs. In that work, \citet{gordon2016} spectroscopically confirmed 75 YSGs in M31, 30 of which (40\%) are likely in a post-RSG state based on spectroscopic and photometric markers for dusty wind.  For M33, 27 of the observed 86 YSGs (31\%) were determined to be post-RSG candidates.  Further discussion of this work and its methodologies is included below.  We note that a similar survey was conducted by \citet{kourniotis2017}, which flagged yellow super and hypergiant candidates based on photometric criteria for follow-up spectroscopy.

The greatest challenge in photometric surveys of supergiants is distinguishing extragalactic sources from foreground disk dwarfs as well as halo giants in the Milky Way. \citet{humphreys1980}  highlighted the magnitude of this issue in a survey of the brightest blue and red supergiants in M33. There is significant contamination of foreground K and M dwarfs in the red supergiant region of the M33 color-magnitude diagram (CMD), which presents some observational challenges.  Since there is little star formation in the Milky Way halo, there is essentially no foreground contamination in the ``blue plume'' of the CMD. \citet{massey2007} applied the \citet{bahcall1980} model to estimate that almost 80\% of red stars ($1.2 < B - V < 1.8$) fainter than $V\sim16$ seen toward M31 will be foreground stars. The central portion of the CMD, representing the yellow supergiant population, is similarly affected by foreground contamination.  \citet{drout2009} and later \citet{massey2016} apply the Besan\c{c}on model \citep{robin2003} of the Milky Way (two disks + halo) to illustrate that over 70\% of bright stars redward of the blue plume ($B - V > 0.4$) could be foreground contamination.

Massey et al. \cite{massey1998,massey2009} and \citet{drout2012} demonstrated that color criteria could be used as an effective metric for distinguishing foreground contaminants in the RSG surveys in M31 and M33, but few such two-color discriminants have been used for YSGs, except for Bonanos et al. \cite{bonanos2009,bonanos2010}, who defined color ranges for a variety of massive star types in the Magellanic Clouds using 2MASS and Spitzer/IRAC photometry. In general, however, spectra are needed to determine both extragalactic membership and evolutionary state.

\subsection{Spectral Types and Luminosity Classification}

\citet{drout2009,drout2012} use radial velocities from spectral-line features to generate a catalog of extragalactic YSG candidates, whereas both \citet{gordon2016} and \citet{massey2016} classified the stars based on the spectral type and luminosity criteria in their absorption-line spectra. For example, the blends of Ti~II and Fe~II at $\lambda\lambda4172$-8 and $\lambda\lambda4395$-4400 are valuable luminosity criteria in the blue when compared against Fe~I lines, which show little luminosity sensitivity such as $\lambda4046$ and $\lambda4271$.  The O~I~$\lambda7774$ triplet in the red spectra---also used in \citet{drout2012} as part of their classification scheme---is also a particularly strong luminosity indicator in A- to F-type supergiants.

Using these and several other classifiers, \citet{gordon2016} confirmed extragalactic membership of $\sim$150 yellow supergiants in M31 and M33. Thirty, or $\sim$20\%, of the observed YSGs in each galaxy showed evidence for stellar winds in their ejecta and enhanced mass-loss, not shared with the other YSGs, and therefore possible post-RSG evolution.  The notable spectral features include P~Cygni profiles in hydrogen emission, broad wings in H$\alpha$ or H$\beta$ emission indicative of Thomson scattering, and [Ca~II]/Ca~II triplet emission from circumstellar gas.
If mass-loss markers in the YSG SEDs are included (discussed below), the fraction of YSGs likely in a post-RSG state increases to $\sim$40\% of the observed sources.

\subsection{Photometric Evidence of Mass Loss}
\citet{gordon2016} also examined the SEDs of the YSG and RSG  populations in M31 and M33 to identify what fraction of the evolved supergiants have circumstellar dust and are in a mass-losing state.  The RSGs currently experiencing episodes of high mass loss may eventually evolve to become post-RSG warm supergiants, LBVs, or WR stars.

The defining signature of mass loss in RSGs is the presence of circumstellar dust, usually revealed as excess radiation in their IR SEDs from the silicate emission features at 9.8~$\mu$m and 18~$\mu$m, corresponding to the Si--O vibrational \citep{woolf1969} and O--Si--O bending modes \citep{treffers1974}, respectively. The strength of the silicate emission feature is (to first order) correlated with the luminosity and apparent temperature as revealed by the spectral type; i.e., the higher the luminosity and cooler the star, the stronger the silicate emission and the larger the IR excess.

In the YSGs, the presence of excess radiation due to circumstellar warm dust and/or free-free emission in the near and mid-infrared wavelengths is evidence for mass loss. This additional radiation is apparent in their SEDs if the flux in the near-IR bands exceeds the expected Rayleigh-Jeans tail of the stellar component. For example, an infrared excess in the $1-2\,\mu$m 2MASS bands is a well-known characteristic  of free-free emission in stellar winds, while the 3.6 to 8~$\mu$m Spitzer/IRAC data provides evidence for warm CS dust. Free-free emission is generally identified as constant F$_{\nu}$ in the near-infrared, often extending out to 5~$\mu$m. Examples are shown in Figure~\ref{fig:yhgsed} for two warm hypergiants in M31. Beyond being useful for identifying mass loss, this IR excess in the stellar SED is crucial for accurately calculating the bolometric luminosity.  The CS dust will re-radiate the central star's optical flux into the infrared, and this processed radiation can contribute significantly to the total bolometric luminosity of the star + ejecta system.  There are various methods for fitting models to stellar SEDs to account for this, and an example can be found in \citet{kourniotis2017}, who fit an ATLAS9 stellar atmosphere model \citep{kurucz1979,howarth2011} for the stellar component and up to three distinct blackbodies for the warm and cool dust components of their YSG SEDs.
\figYHGsed

\citet{gordon2016} find $\sim$50--60\% of the observed RSGs in M31 and M33 show evidence for an IR excess in their near- to mid-IR SEDs. The IRAC 8~$\mu$m photometry is used in \citet{gordon2016} to provide an estimate of the total dust mass lost over a timescale of about a century and estimate that the RSGs in both galaxies tend to have dusty ejecta of the order of $10^{-3}-10^{-2}~\textrm{M}_\odot$, assuming a warm dust component of $\sim$350~K.  Consistent with the \citet{de-jager1988} prescription, mass loss correlates with luminosity along the RSG branch. If more than 50\% of RSGs are indeed experiencing sufficient mass loss to produce CS dusty ejecta, a large fraction of stars along the RSG branch may evolve back toward the blue to become the warm post-RSG stars before their terminal state as SNe or black holes.

We note that the target selection from \citet{gordon2016}  was derived from optical surveys.  Thus, it may be likely that our surveys of the most luminous stars in M31 and M33 do not necessarily include some supergiant populations that are heavily obscured. Since the most luminous warm and cool supergiant populations are  likely to have the highest mass-loss rates, it is probable that some will be  obscured in the optical by their own CS ejecta in the optical surveys. To complete the upper portion of the HRD would require a further search in the IR to find the brightest infrared sources. There are several IR surveys of M31 and M33 with Spitzer/IRAC \citep[e.g.\ ][]{mcquinn2007,mould2008,khan2015} that have specifically targeted the bright and/or variable stellar populations in the Local Group.  These surveys have already revealed many unique supergiant stars that were obscured in high-resolution optical surveys--for example, the discovery of optically-obscured $\eta$~Carinae analogs by \citet{khan2015b}.

\subsection{The Post-RSG Candidates, the HR Diagram, and Comparison with Evolutionary Models}
The HR Diagrams for the observed YSGs and RSGs in M31 and M33 \citet{gordon2016} are reproduced in Figure~\ref{fig:M33hrd}. For the YSGs with observed optical spectra, effective temperatures can be derived through comparison to intrinsic colors of the stars' identified spectral types.  However, for sources without observed spectra/spectral-type, several photometric temperature scales exist in the literature.  For example, \citet{massey2009} compare the $(V-K)$ colors of their M31 RSGs to MARCS atmosphere synthetic photometric colors, and \citet{drout2012} adopt the $(V-R)$ color transformations from LMC sources \citep{levesque2006} for their observed RSGs in M33.  We note that in the absence of spectral types, photometric temperature scales can be somewhat uncertain.
\figGordonHRD

In both M31 and M33, the post-RSG candidates---flagged in \citet{gordon2016} based on their spectroscopic and/or photometric mass-loss indicators---are preferentially more abundant at higher luminosities. Also shown in Figure~\ref{fig:M33hrd} are Geneva Group \citep{ekstrom2012,meynet2015} evolutionary tracks for different ZAMS mass models. The higher mass models ($\mathrm{M}\gtrsim20\,\mathrm{M}_\odot$) loop through the YSG region of the HRD, perhaps even in multiple passes, before terminating on the RSG branch.  These stars are those supergiants undergoing post-RSG evolution and are sometimes referred to in the literature as ``group 2 blue supergiants'' \citep[e.g.,][]{saio2013,georgy2014}.  We loosely define the YSG region as $\sim$4000 to $12\;000$~K, and this evolution across the HRD can occur over timescales of just a few Myr.

Comparison with the evolutionary tracks suggests that most of the progenitor main-sequence stars have masses $\gtrsim$20~M$_\odot$. Likewise, the dusty RSGs dominate the higher luminosities. This is not surprising considering results from \citet{mauron2011} (Figure~\ref{fig:mauron}) and others that $\dot{\mathrm{M}}$ and total mass lost in the RSGs correlates with luminosity.

HR Diagrams of massive stars in the Local Group like those in \citet{gordon2016} and others \citep[e.g.\ ][]{levesque2006,massey2009,massey2016,drout2012,meynet2015a,kourniotis2017,kourniotis2018} suggest that the mass-losing post-RSG candidates are more common at luminosities above $\sim$10$^5\,L_\odot$. Most appear to have initial masses of 20--40~M$_\odot$, and may be the evolutionary descendants of the more massive RSGs that do not explode as supernovae (i.e.\ the ``missing'' RSGs from \citet{smartt2009a}). The eventual fate of these stars may be either as ``less-luminous'' LBVs or WR stars before their terminal explosion.

\section{Mass-Loss in the Yellow and Red Supergiants}
For many YSG and RSG stars, the \textit{thermal} excess flux is fairly constant across the mid-infrared, which implies that the dust is emitting over a range of temperatures and distances from the central star.  With some assumptions on dust temperature, grain size distributions, silicate grain chemistry, and gas-to-dust ratio, near- to mid-infrared photometry can be used directly to estimate the total mass of the CS ejecta  around each supergiant star.  With some additional measurements and/or assumptions on timescales---such as the stellar wind velocity \citep{humphreys2013,gordon2016}, or the dust condensation timescale---estimates on mass-loss rates can be extracted from the mid-infrared flux alone.  For example, \citet{mauron2011} apply the \citet{de-jager1988} mass-loss prescription to Galactic RSGs to estimate an average mass-loss rate of $\sim$10$^{-6}\,\mathrm{M}_\odot\,\mathrm{yr}^{-1}$ from IRAS 60~$\mu$m flux.  Figure~\ref{fig:mauron} from \citet{mauron2011} illustrates the \citet{de-jager1988} prediction of increasing mass-loss rate with increasing luminosity for a handful of Galactic RSGs.  Similar figures exist in \citet{meynet2015a,gordon2016} and others for Galactic and extragalactic RSGs (see Figure~\ref{fig:gordon} below which illustrates a similar trend for \textit{total} ejecta mass lost).
\figMauron
\figGordon

\FloatBarrier

The DUSTY radiative transfer code \citep{ivezic1999} is now often used to derive mass-loss rates or total ejected mass.  DUSTY solves the radiative transfer equation for a spherically-symmetric dust distribution around a central source. Input parameters include the spectrum of the illuminating source, the optical properties and size distribution of the dust grains, the dust temperature at the inner boundary of the shell, and a functional form for the radial profile of the dust density throughout the shell.  The primary output is the resulting SED of the modeled system. This code has been recently been applied to different populations of RSGs and their ejecta to derive $\dot{\mathrm{M}}$-luminosity relations from the IR SED fitting \cite{beasor2016,beasor2018,shenoy2016,gordon2018}.

\citet{shenoy2016} and \citet{gordon2018} used DUSTY to generate radial profiles for a variety of model dust density profiles to test whether the mass-loss rates of the target RSGs are constant and smooth over time (e.g., $\rho_\mathrm{dust}\propto r^{-2}$), or if the circumstellar ejecta can be better modeled by one (or more) discrete, high-mass ejecta events.
This methodology, however, requires high-resolution imaging both to trace the ejecta close to the central star and also to resolve the thermal emission above the PSF of the telescope/instrument used for the observations. These studies demonstrated that a spherically-symmetric shell model with constant mass loss over time does not adequately explain the morphology of the circumstellar ejecta in many yellow and red supergiants. In fact, variable mass loss over time is required to build up the multiple dust shells observed around several Galactic RSGs.

\subsection{Mass-loss Mechanisms and High Mass-Loss Events}\label{sec:massloss}
Both ground and space-based high-resolution imaging and interferometry of evolved massive stars are transforming our view of  mass loss and the mass-loss mechanism in evolved stars. The precise mass-loss mechanism for red supergiants is not fully understood.  The leading processes have included radiation pressure on grains, pulsation, and convection.  The discovery of large-scale surface asymmetries or hot spots on the surfaces of red supergiants (\citep{gilliland1996,tuthill1997,monnier2004} and more recently \citep{montarges2018,nance2018,lopez-ariste2018}), which vary on short timescales of months or years, supports the important role of convection and surface activity.

Pulsation and dust-driven winds have been successful at explaining mass loss in Miras and AGB stars, which are fundamental-mode pulsators.  However, less variable RSGs with extended, low-density atmospheres are quite different environments than their lower-mass counterparts. Pulsation may be important for the YSGs, which are at the upper-luminosity limit of the Cepheid instability strip. For example, the light and velocity curves for $\rho$~Cas \citep{lobel2003} support a pulsational instability as the origin of its three brief, high mass-loss episodes. Yet, as discussed in \S\ref{sec:irc}, the peculiar M33 Var~A's 45+ year high mass-loss episode \citep{humphreys2006}, during which it resembled an M supergiant, required some high mass-loss mechanism lasting decades.  Additionally, there exists significant dispersion in the measured mass-loss rates for stars of a given luminosity class.  For example, \citet{mauron2011} compiled mass-loss rates for LMC RSGs from several data sets \citep{reid1990,van-loon2005,groenewegen2009} to demonstrate that for stars around $10^5$~L$_\odot$, a rather wide range of mass-loss rates between $10^{-6}$ and $10^{-4}\,\mathrm{M}_\odot\,\mathrm{yr}^{-1}$ have been measured (see their Figure~5).

This dispersion may well be due to observational bias or different measurement techniques, or may indeed be a manifestation of whatever physical mass-loss mechanism is at play. One approach to mitigate systematics in this mass-loss rate dispersion is to study individual RSG cluster populations.  \citet{beasor2018} compared RSGs within NGC~7419 and $\chi$~Per, whose stars are of similar ages \citep[$\sim$14~Myr;][]{currie2010,marco2013}. With a focus on these coeval populations, the effects of age, metallicity, and environment on $\dot{\mathrm{M}}$ are removed, and they  find a tight correlation of mass-loss rate with luminosity.

Optical and near-IR imaging of the extreme OH/IR supergiant VY~CMa and the post-RSG IRC~+10420 (\S\ref{sec:irc}) have yielded surprising results about the circumstellar environments around massive stars.  VY~CMa has an extensive, highly structured nebula consisting of multiple knots and arcs ejected within the last 1000 years \citep{humphreys1997,humphreys2005,humphreys2007,smith2001,tiffany2010}. The numerous knots, arcs, and loops visible in scattered light from the dust in their ejecta are structurally and kinematically distinct from the surrounding diffuse ejecta (see, for example, \citealt{smith2001,humphreys2019}). These features were each ejected at different times over several hundred years, presumably by localized processes from different regions on the star. Estimates of the mass in some of the arcs and clumps in VY~CMa's ejecta from surface photomety in the HST images and from the near-IR imaging of the southwest clump feature \citep{shenoy2013,gordon2019}, yield minimum masses of 3--5$\times10^{-3}\,\mathrm{M}_\odot$ implying short term, high mass-loss events. These discrete ejecta events hint at a very different ejecta mechanism than the slow, spherical shell paradigm. The presence of magnetic fields from Zeeman splitting and polarization of the OH/water masers has been detected in the circumstellar ejecta of VY~CMa and other OH/IR supergiants such as VX~Sgr, NML~Cyg, and S~Per \citep{vlemmings2002,vlemmings2003,vlemmings2005}. These results suggest that enhanced surface convective activity \citep[e.g., in $\alpha$~Orionis;][]{kervella2016,nance2018,lopez-ariste2018} together with magnetic activity may be important for these high mass ejection events.

Recently, HST/STIS spectra revealed TiO and VO molecular emission discrete ejecta close to the central star in VY~CMa \cite{humphreys2019}.  These molecules, previously believed to form in low-density dusty CS shells, instead appear concentrated in small clumps and knots.  Coupled with extremely strong K~I emission \citep[4~L$_\odot$ in just two narrow doublet lines;][]{humphreys2005,humphreys2019}, the emission features imply a dust-free environment between the knots and the star. These localized sources of atomic and molecular emission imply major gaps or holes in the star's envelope or outflow structure perhaps formed by large-scale surface activity.

Thus many of the luminous warm and cool hypergiants have extensive CS ejecta and evidence for high mass loss events. The yellow hypergiants and many of the yellow supergiants are candidates for post red supergiant evolution. IRC~+10420, Var~A, and the extreme red supergiant VY~CMa may be the special cases that provide the clues to understanding evolution near the top of the HR Diagram.  These stars represent  short-lived, unstable states that signal the last stages in RSG evolution and the brief post-RSG transition as the star returns to warmer temperatures.  This class of post-RSG stars with complex mass-loss histories may be the missing piece on the HR Diagram  and the solution to the red supergiant problem.

\FloatBarrier

\vspace{6pt}

\abbreviations{The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:\\

\noindent
\begin{tabular}{@{}ll}
  2MASS & Two-Micron All Sky Survey\\
  BSG & Blue Supergiant\\
  CCSNe & Core-collapse supernovae\\
  CMD & Color-magnitude diagram\\
  CS & Circumstellar [ejecta]\\
  HRD & Hertzsprung-Russell diagram\\
  HST & Hubble Space Telescope\\
  IR & Infrared\\
  IRAC & Infrared Array Camera (Spitzer)\\
  IRAS & Infrared Astronomical Satellite\\
  LBV & Luminous Blue Variable\\
  LGGS & Local Group Galaxy Survey\\
  LMC & Large Magellanic Cloud\\
  MIRAC & Mid-Infrared Array Camera (MMT)\\
  PSF & Point spread function\\
  RSG & Red Supergiant\\
  SED & Spectral energy distribution\\
  SN[e] & Supernova[e]\\
  STIS & Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (HST)\\
  WISE & Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer\\
  WR & Wolf-Rayet\\
  YSG & Yellow Supergiant\\
  ZAMS & Zero-age main-sequence
\end{tabular}}

\reftitle{References}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


A large 10 bedroom town house spread over 3 floors with a separate 7 room cave house for reform attached¸ in a local community on the edge of Baza Granada. This has great potential to be a large family home or a B&B with a separate cave apartment. There is a large back yard and a 200m2 plot to the side.------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10 Bedroom house¸ 3 living areas¸ 3 bathrooms¸ 2 kitchen areas¸ large garage¸ store room and a 2 bedroom cave house.


Home » Browse » Newspapers » U.S. Newspapers » St Louis Post-Dispatch (MO) » Article details, "170409digest"
ST. LOUIS > Security cameras coming to south St. Louis * Six south St. Louis wards will get a total of 36 new security cameras after Alderman Kenneth Ortmann committed just under $437,000 in capital funds for the project. Beginning in May, 20 security cameras and 16 cameras able to recognize license plates will be installed .
Every camera will be tied into the police department's Real Time Crime Center. The surveillance center is staffed by detectives 24 hours a day.
The cameras will be installed at high-traffic intersections on several streets including Jefferson Avenue, South Broadway and Cherokee Street in the Benton Park, Benton Park West, Marine Villa, Mount Pleasant, Soulard and Gravois Park neighborhoods.


text:
O Peixe-gato-gigante é um peixe que habita o Rio Mekong e devido à pesca excessiva está em perigo de extinção.Também se sabe pouco sobre ele, porque quando tem cerca de 1 ano é difícil de diferencia-lo dos outros peixes do rio. Pode chegar atingir 5,50 m de comprimento e viver cerca de trinta anos.

O seu nome peixe-gato-gigante deriva de seus "bigodes" que lembram os dos felinos, bem como de seu tamanho.

Referências

Siluriformes
Peixes descritos em 1931