text:
Die Dampfloks der Russischen Baureihe Е [] sind eine Serie von Güterzug-Dampfloks der SŽD mit der Achsfolge 1'E. Sie wurden in verschiedenen nordamerikanischen Werken, vervollständigt mit Zeichnungen von russischen Ingenieuren, für eine schnelle Ergänzung des Dampflokparkes gebaut. Sie gelten als Kriegshilfe aus der Zeit des Ersten Weltkrieges nach zwei Vorauslokomotiven der Reihe ДK [] aus dem Jahr 1895. Sie waren die ersten mit fünf angetriebenen Achsen in einem festen Rahmen in Russland eingesetzten Dampflokomotiven. Drei weitere Unterbauarten der Serie wurde in der Zeit des Zweiten Weltkrieges (SŽD-Baureihe Е) ebenfalls von den amerikanischen Werken hergestellt. Im Betriebsdienst trugen sie die Spitznamen Decapod, Efim, Elena. Mitsamt den Nachlieferungen der Lokomotiven aus den Jahren 1943 bis 1947 wurden nicht weniger als 3193 Lokomotiven der Baureihe gefertigt.

Erste russische Decapoden

Auslöser für die Bestellung der ersten Dampflokomotiven mit der Achsfolge 1'E war die Transkaukasische Eisenbahn. Dort mussten besonders in dem Abschnitt um Chaschuri Lasten von 200 t über den Suramipass des Großen Kaukasus geschleppt werden. In der Zeit arbeiteten dort Gelenklokomotiven der Bauart Fairlie der Baureihe Ф []. Sie besaßen eine gute Beweglichkeit im Gleisbogen, hatten aber eine ungenügende Zugkraft, einen hohen Kohleverbrauch sowie einen großen Reparaturaufwand. Da zu der Zeit schon in vielen gebirgigen Abschnitten in Nordamerika Lokomotiven mit der Achsfolge 1´E fuhren, wurde entschieden, zwei Maschinen dieser Bauart auf diesem Abschnitt auszuprobieren. 1894 lieferte das Werk Baldwin in Philadelphia zwei Lokomotiven dieses Typs. Dies waren die ersten Lokomotiven mit fünf angetriebenen Achsen in einem festen Rahmen bei den Eisenbahnen in Russland.

1895 wurden die Lokomotiven bei der Transkaukasischen Eisenbahn geprüft. Bei der Eisenbahn erhielten sie die Bezeichnung ДK [] und die Nummern 249 und 250. Die Lokomotiven besaßen einen Barrenrahmen und als Antriebsmaschine ein Vierzylinder-Verbundtriebwerk nach dem System Baldwin. Bei der Erprobung zeigte es sich, dass die Dampflokomotiven gut in die Bogen von 150 m Radius einlaufen konnten, beim Befahren derselben gab es aber starke Stöße, und der Spurkranz- sowie Gleisverschleiß waren sehr hoch. In der Zugkraft konnten sie mit den Lokomotiven der Baureihe Ф nicht konkurrieren. Außerdem war der Brennstoffverbrauch größer als bei den Lokomotiven der Reihe Ц [], die um die Zeit bei den Eisenbahnen eingesetzt waren. Nach den Prüfungen wurden die Lokomotiven vorrangig auf ebenen Abschnitten der Bahn eingesetzt. Sie wurden im Depot Tiflis eingesetzt. Später wurden sie auch in dem Depot Gəncə verwendet. 1912 erhielten sie die Bezeichnung EФ [] und bekamen die Nummern 9998 und 9999. Anfang 1940 zählten sie noch zu dem Fuhrpark der Gesellschaft.

Dampfloks von 1915 bis 1918

Vorgeschichte zum Erscheinen

1914 trat das Russische Kaiserreich in den Ersten Weltkrieg ein. Das bedeutete eine wesentliche Erhöhung des Schienengüterverkehrs, wofür die dafür vorgesehenen Dampfloktypen mit den Achsfolgen D (Russische Baureihe О, Russische Baureihe Ч [], Russische Baureihe Ы []) sowie denen der Achsfolge 1'D (Russische Baureihe Р [], Russische Baureihe Ц, Russische Baureihe Щ []) nicht in der Lage waren. Das Reibungsgewicht dieser Lokomotiven war nicht größer als 64 t. Eine wesentliche Erhöhung des Zuggewichtes war nur mit einer Dampflok mit fünf angetriebenen Achsen wie der Baureihe Э zu erwarten. Diese war aber erst in einigen hundert Exemplaren ausgeliefert. Als Alternative bot sich zu der Zeit ein Angebot aus Nordamerika mit 400 Dampfloks der Achsfolge 1´E an.

Projektierung
Obwohl die neuen Lokomotiven in Nordamerika gefertigt wurden, wurde sie jedoch zu der Zeit von russischen Ingenieuren entwickelt. Es wurde ausgewählt eine Dampflok mit fünf angetriebenen Achsen, einem Achsdruck von 16 t und einfacher Dampfdehnung, analog der Dampflok Reihe Э. Da es 1915 Probleme mit der Lieferung hochqualitativer Kohle gab, musste die Feuerung auf die Verwendung von Kohle mit niedrigerem Heizwert umgestellt werden. Das verlangte eine größere Rostfläche, als sie die Russische Baureihe Э hatte. Es wurde ein Wert von 6 m² gewählt. Dadurch steigerte sich das Gewicht des Dampflokkessels, besonders des hinteren Teiles von ihm. Da der Achsdruck 16 t nicht übersteigen durfte, wurde eine vordere Laufachse hinzugefügt. Dadurch steigerten sich die Ausmaße und daraufhin die Leistung des Kessels. Die Dampfmaschine wurde als Zweizylindermaschine ausgeführt.

Entgegen den Vorbildern der Güterzugdampfloks bei den amerikanischen Bahnen, die einen Kuppelraddurchmesser von 1500 mm bis 1600 mm hatten, wurde bei den Maschinen für die russischen Eisenbahnen ein Kuppelraddurchmesser von 1320 mm gewählt. Das war hauptsächlich der Ursache geschuldet, dass die Maschinen auch auf Drehscheiben mit einem Durchmesser kleiner als 20 m gedreht werden mussten. Dadurch erübrigte sich auch zu der Zeit eine Lokomotive mit einem noch größeren Kessel und einer nachfolgenden Laufachse hinter den Antriebsachsen.

Gedacht war eine Dampfmaschine für die neue Lok mit Abmessungen wie bei der Russischen Baureihe Э, also mit 630 mm Zylinderdurchmesser und 700 mm Kolbenhub. Aufgrund der Fertigungsbedingungen bei den amerikanischen Werken nach Zoll ergaben sich für den Zylinderdurchmesser 635 mm (25") und für den Kolbenhub 711,2 mm (28"). Auch wurde die Rahmenbauart geändert. Bei den amerikanischen Bahnen war zu der Zeit der Barrenrahmen vorherrschend, die russischen Bahnen bevorzugten zu der Zeit den Blechrahmen. Letztendlich wurde entschieden, die neue Dampflok mit einem Barrenrahmen einer Stärke von 114,3 mm (4,5") der seitlichen Bleche auszuliefern.

Neben den Aufträgen von den amerikanischen Werken entstanden in verschiedenen Werken in Russland zu der Zeit einige Projekte, die aber allesamt nicht realisiert wurden. So entstand in der Lokomotivfabrik Kolomna ein Projekt über eine Dampflok der Achsfolge 1'E mit Vierzylinderverbundtriebwerk wie für die Russische Baureihe Р. In der Lokomotivfabrik Brjansk wurde eine Lokomotive mit der Achsfolge E1' projektiert, aus der später das Projekt einer Dampflok mit der Achsfolge F erschien. In den Putilow-Werken wurde eine Dampflok mit der Achsfolge E und einem Vierzylinder-Verbundtriebwerk projektiert, ähnlich der Russischen Baureihe У , die schon mit Überhitzer arbeiten sollte. Von dieser Dampflok begann schon die Fertigung. Doch auf Grund der Annahme weiterer Aufträge wurde der Bau einer Probemaschine bald darauf beendet.

Dampfloks Serie EФ,k,c

Im Juni 1915 wurde an die amerikanischen Werke Baldwin, ALCO und CLC ein Auftrag von über 400 Dampflokomotiven vergeben, der sich wie folgt verteilte: 250 Lokomotiven sollten die Werke Baldwin, 100 die American Locomotive Company und 50 die Canadian Locomotive Company bearbeiten. Aus dem Herstellungsort ergab sich auch die Bezeichnung der Lokomotiven, die bei Baldwin hergestellten Lokomotiven erhielten nach dem Standort Philadelphia die Bezeichnung EФ, die bei ALCO hergestellten Lokomotiven erhielten nach dem Standort Schenectady die Bezeichnung Ec [] und die bei der Canadian Locomotive Company hergestellten Lokomotiven erhielten nach dem Standort Kingston die Bezeichnung Ek. Die Lokomotiven erhielten die Bezeichnung E obwohl sie mit den 1895 gelieferten Maschinen außer der Achsfolge und des Herstellers keine Gemeinsamkeiten besaßen.

Die Dampflokomotiven wurden ohne Bremse in den amerikanischen Werken hergestellt. Dieser Umstand hing damit zusammen, dass die Lokomotiven mit Bremsen nach dem System Westinghouse vorgesehen waren, die Ausrüstung erfolgte jedoch mit den Bremsen des Werkes in St. Petersburg. Daher wurden die auf dem Seeweg in Wladiwostok ankommenden Lokomotiven zuerst nach Harbin bei der Chinesischen Osteisenbahn versandt. Dort wurden sie mit den notwendigen Bremsausrüstungen ausgerüstet und an die Eisenbahn im europäischen Teil von Russland versendet.

1916 wurde an der EФ-3 eine kraft-wärmetechnische Untersuchung durchgeführt. Diese wurde unter Leitung von Juri Wladimirowitsch Lomonossow auf verschiedenen Strecken der Piwdenna Salisnyzja durchgeführt. Im Zuge der Erprobung zeigten die Lokomotiven genügend gute Zugkraft-Eigenschaften. So fuhr bei einer Steigung von 13,5 ‰ die Lokomotive einen Zug mit einer Masse von 1150 t und einer Geschwindigkeit von 15 km/h. Auf flachen Abschnitten zeigte die Lokomotive sich der Russischen Baureihe Ѳ [] ebenbürtig, nur in der Steigung war sie ihr auf Grund des geringeren Reibungsgewichtes unterlegen.

Dampfloks Serie EЛ

1916 ergab sich die Frage nach einer neuen großen Bestellung von Dampflokomotiven. Die Prüfung der EФ-3 zeigte die Korrektheit der Wahl der Parameter der Dampfmaschine, für die Wahl der Parameter für die neu zu bestellende Dampfmaschine wurden daher dieselben Parameter ausgewählt. Durchmesser der Treibräder 1320 mm, Zylinder-Durchmesser 635 mm, Kolbenhub 711 mm und dieselben Parameter des Kessels. Da es in der Zwischenzeit eine Menge von Erfahrungen von Unzulänglichkeiten der bisher ausgelieferten Lokomotiven der Reihe gab, ergab sich eine Menge von Konstruktionsänderungen für die neu zu erbauende Maschine. Die Bezeichnung der neu zu erbauenden Lokomotiven sollten ursprünglich Baureihe E mit dem Index N für neu mit dem untergestellten Index des Fertigungsortes erhalten, nach dem Vorschlag von Juri Wladimirowitsch Lomonossow, der sich zur Zeit des Baues der Dampflok gerade in Amerika befand, erhielten die Lokomotiven die Bezeichnung EЛ [], wodurch der größte Anteil von Alfons Iljitsch Lipez (kyrillisch ) an der Entstehung der Lokomotive bezeichnet wurde.

Es ergaben sich bei der neu entstandenen Lokomotive einige Missverständnisse zwischen den konstruktiven Forderungen und den tatsächlich ausgeführten Lokomotiven. Da nach Erhalt von konstruktiven Änderungen einige Zulieferer schon die betreffenden Teile geliefert hatten, ergaben sich mitunter Lokomotiven mit unterschiedlichen Parametern. Unter diesen Umständen konnten einige notwendige Änderungen in die Konstruktion von 1916 nicht hineingetragen werden. Es sollte z. B. der zylindrische Teil des Kessels bei den ersten 80 gelieferten Lokomotiven (Nummer 501 – 580) weniger betragen als bei den folgenden Maschinen. Gleichfalls wurde bei den ersten 40 Maschinen der Abstand zwischen den ersten Radsätzen des Tenders nach amerikanischem Standard (2036 mm) ausgeführt, bei den folgenden Maschinen wurde er nach russischem Standard (2100 mm) durchgeführt.

Die Dampflokomotiven der neuen Bestellung erhielten anstatt der Feuerbüchse aus Kupfer eine aus Stahl, bei der gelenkige Stehbolzen verwendet wurden. Ursprünglich war für die neuen Dampflokomotiven ein Belpaire-Stehkessel vorgesehen, doch der Ingenieur Alfons Iljitsch Lipez gab die Empfehlung für eine radial angeordnete Feuerbüchse, die mit geringerem Gewicht begründet wurde. Im Vergleich zu den vorher gelieferten Lokomotiven stiegen bei der neuen Lokomotive das Reibungsgewicht, das Gesamtgewicht, die Heizfläche des Dampfüberhitzers und die vollständige Verdampfungsfläche.

Anfang 1917 wollte das Ministerium für Verkehr und Nachrichtenwesen noch eine Serie von 200 Dampflokomotiven der Reihe EЛ bestellen, die amerikanischen Werke waren aber zu der Zeit noch mit Aufträgen aus England und Frankreich ausgelastet, wodurch nur ein Auftrag 75 Dampflokomotiven durch das Werk Baldwin möglich war. Diese Situation änderte sich erst zum 6. April 1917, als die USA in den Krieg gegen Deutschland eintraten. Daher war eine Produktion von Dampflokomotiven für Russland als Kriegshilfe möglich, was eine Produktion von 500 Dampfloks der Serie EЛ möglich machte. Von diesen sollten jeweils 250 Fahrzeuge von den Werken ALCO und Baldwin zum 1. Juli 1918 geliefert werden. Diese Dampfloks wurden nach Zeichnungen von dem Jahr 1916 gebaut, bei denen eine Reihe von Änderungen ausgeführt wurden. Diese richteten sich auf Verbesserungen der Konstruktion (z. B. leichtere Treibstangen, besserer Massenausgleich und vieles mehr).

Doch im Oktober 1917 fand in Russland die Oktoberrevolution statt, wodurch von den 500 bestellten Fahrzeugen nur 100 an Russland ausgeliefert wurden. 200 Lokomotiven dieses Auftrages wurden auf eine Spurweite von 1435 mm umgearbeitet und auf Eisenbahnen in den USA verteilt, die restlichen 200 Maschinen wurden nicht vollendet.

Die Tabelle zeigt die in der Zeit des Ersten Weltkrieges von den amerikanischen Werken nach Russland ausgelieferten Lokomotiven. Die Quelle beruft sich auf eine Statistik von Alfons Iljitsch Lipez

Von den ersten 250 hier angeführten Lokomotiven sollen acht Maschinen beim Transport nach Wladiwostok mit den Schiffen untergegangen sein. Zu den Daten in dieser Tabelle gibt es von anderen Quellen andere Angaben. So gibt W. A. Rakow zusätzlich zu den hier aufgeführten 881 noch 78 Dampfloks der Reihe an.

Konstruktion
Hauptmaße der Dampflokomotiven aus der Lieferung der Zeit um den Ersten Weltkrieg

Die Lokomotive steht für eine Konstruktion der Bauart Decapod, ausgerüstet mit einer Zweizylindermaschine und Barrenrahmen.

Betrieb

Nach der Fertigung wurden die Lokomotiven nach Russland verschifft und fuhren von New York über die Magellanstraße und dem Stillen Ozean oder rings des Kap der Guten Hoffnung und dem Indischen Ozean nach Wladiwostok. Das erklärt auch, dass einige Lokomotiven den Bestimmungsort nicht erreichten. Anfangs wurden die Dampflokomotiven in den europäischen Teil Russlands zum Einsatz gesandt. Ursprünglich waren die Lokomotiven für den Betrieb auf der Katharinenbahn und der Piwdenna Salisnyzja vorgesehen. Später wurden sie auch bei den Eisenbahnen um Perm und Slatoust eingesetzt.

Im Betrieb gab es anfangs Schwierigkeiten durch die unterschiedlichen Sorten Kohlen für die Feuerbüchse. Auch war der Gesamtzustand der Lokomotiven insgesamt nicht gut. Das wurde anfangs auf nichtgenügende Qualität in der Fertigung zurückgeführt, war aber wohl mehr ein Transportproblem. Die Seereise der Lokomotiven dauerte im Schnitt 60 bis 80 Tage, während denen die Lokomotiven ständig unter Einwirkung von feuchter Meeresluft standen. Auch hatten die Depots in Russland zu der Zeit keine Möglichkeit für die Reparatur der Barrenrahmen. Das führte insgesamt anfangs zu einer großen Zahl von Pannen bei den Dampfloks, besonders Teile der Feuerbüchse zerrissen, zum Teil nach nur einem Jahr Betrieb. Das führte zu einer großen Skepsis zu der neuen Lokomotive, in manchen Depots stand jede dritte Maschine still oder wurde im Betrieb gegenüber Maschinen der Reihe Э, Щ oder О ausgetauscht.

Nach einiger Zeit kamen viele Depots mit der neuen Lokomotive zurecht, besonders weil sie die zur damaligen Zeit stärksten Lokomotiven des Russischen Kaiserreiches waren. In den 1920er Jahren wurden viele Lokomotiven der Serie verlagert von dem europäischen Teil Russlands nach Sibirien bzw. den Fernen Osten. Am 1. Januar 1923 wurden auf den Eisenbahnen in Russland 604 betriebsfähige Dampfloks aller Unterbauarten gezählt. Davon arbeiteten 277 in Sibirien, 266 bei der Permer Eisenbahn und 61 bei der Katharinenbahn. Den Status der kräftigsten Lokomotive in Russland hielten die Lokomotiven bis zum Jahr 1931, als die Lokomotiven der SŽD-Baureihe Т und besonders die ФД [] erschien. Mit der Fertigung der SŽD-Baureihe Л wurden die Lokomotiven in nebensächliche Dienste oder dem Rangierdienst überführt. Daran änderte auch nicht mehr eine Vergrößerung des Kesselmantels, was außer einer Vergrößerung des Gewichtes der Lokomotive zu einer Vergrößerung des Kesseldruckes auf 14 bar führte. In den 1970er und 1980er Jahren begann ihre intensive Ausmusterung.

Modernisierungen
Wie bei nahezu jeder Dampflokomotive gab es auch bei der stärksten Dampflok in Russland Versuche zur Erhöhung der Zugkraft und der Verbesserung der Wirtschaftlichkeit.

Zusätzlicher Tenderantrieb
Durch den direkten Vergleich mit der Russischen Baureihe Ѳ zeigte sich, dass die Lokomotiven der Reihe E in der Zugkraft und der Reibungsmasse nicht mit dieser Reihe gleichkamen. Dadurch wurde 1927 eine Lokomotive mit einem Booster ausgerüstet, der bei dieser Lokomotive auf dem hinteren Teil des Tenders wirkte und deren hinteren beiden Räder antrieb. Der Antrieb kam von einer kleinen, zweizylindrischem Dampfmaschine, ihre Zylinder besaßen einen Durchmesser von 305 mm bei einem Kolbenhub von 250 mm und hatten einen Dampfdruck von 0,5 bar. Die Kraft wurde von der Dampfmaschine über eine Treibstange und eine spezielle Zwischenwelle auf ein Zwischengetriebe übergeben, was eine Achse des Tenders zusätzlich antrieb. Eine zusätzliche Welle übertrug die Kraft auch auf die andere Achse des Tenderdrehgestelles. Die gesamte Konstruktion war in einem Gehäuse untergebracht, welches auf einen Seite am Drehgestellrahmen des Tenders, auf der anderen Seite ähnlich wie eine Tatzlager-Aufhängung an einer Achse des Tenderdrehgestelles aufgehängt war.

Insgesamt wurden zwei Lokomotiven mit dieser Hilfsausrüstung ausgerüstet. 1928 wurde eine Maschinen zur Erprobung auf den Abschnitt um Harbin, die andere auf der Priwolschskaja schelesnaja doroga zur Erprobung gegeben. Die Erprobung zeigte, dass sich beim Anfahren und Fahren auf Steigungen das Zuggewicht von 1666 t auf 1900 t steigern konnte. Außerdem ergab sich durch den Booster eine Verringerung des Kohleverbrauches um 10 %. Dadurch konnte für bestimmte Einsätze eine zusätzliche Maschine eingespart werden. Dennoch kam eine Verbreitung des Booster nicht zustande, was seine Ursache in der relativ komplizierten Konstruktion und des hohen Wertes hatte.

Versuche mit Dampfüberhitzung

Wie bei Dampflokomotiven überall auf der Welt gab es Versuche, die Leistungsfähigkeit durch die zusätzliche Überhitzung des Dampfes zu steigern. In Russland sind Überhitzer bei einer Dampflok der Reihe О ab 1916 bekannt. Ab 1929 wurde ein Überhitzer nach einem anderen System erarbeitet, welcher bis 1933 bei dem Dampflokausbesserungswerk in Dnepropetrowsk in der Dampflok Eф.127 zum Einsatz kam.

Der Überhitzer arbeitete in zwei Kammern, die untergebracht waren an den Seiten des zylindrischen Teiles des Dampfkessels. Dadurch änderte sich der Gasstrom in dem Kessel; aus den Rauchrohren verteilten sich die Gase in zwei Ströme, die in je ihre Seite der Dampfüberhitzung gelangten. Dadurch erhöhte sich die Verdampfungsfläche von 240,2 m² auf 300 m² durch vergrößerte Anzahl der Rauchrohre (322). Die gesamte Fläche der Überhitzung änderte sich von 61,3 m² auf 118,5 m². Die Achse des Kessels wurde um 673 mm auf 3600 mm angehoben und die Feuerbüchse 550 mm tiefer gelegt. Durch die Vergrößerung der Leistungsfähigkeit des Kessels bekam die Lokomotive neue Zylinder mit 710 mm Durchmesser. Die Reibungsmasse stieg bei ihr von 75,1 t auf 90,1 t, die Gesamtmasse von 85 t auf 101,7 t.

Die Lok lief zunächst mit Ölfeuerung und danach mit Kohlefeuerung. Sie hat bei ihrer Erprobung 6000 km zurückgelegt, bis sie im Winter 1935 auf den Versuchsring des Allrussisches Forschungsinstitut für Schienenverkehr gelangte. Die Lokomotive konnte sich im rauen Alltagsbetrieb nicht durchsetzen, weil es Unzulänglichkeiten in der Konstruktion des Überhitzers gab. So gab es komplizierte Dampfleitungen, mehrfach gekrümmte Leitungen und im Alltagsbetrieb kam es zu Verlusten von Bolzen. Nachdem auch noch Risse in einem Zylinder auftraten, wurde die Lokomotive aus dem Betrieb genommen und 1952 ausgemustert.

Neben dieser Maschine wurden noch einige Lokomotiven der Reihe Eл mit einem Dampftrockner ausgerüstet, wie sie schon bei mehreren Lokomotiven der Reihe СО angewandt wurde. Die Einrichtung besaß das bedeutende Gewicht von 2 t. Und obwohl die Lokomotiven eine Vergrößerung des Wirkungsgrades erreichen konnten, wurden keine weiteren Fahrzeuge umgebaut. 1956 wurde auf dem Parteitag der KPdSU der Übergang der Beförderungsleistungen auf Diesellokomotiven und Elektrolokomotiven beschlossen, wodurch sämtliche Versuche an Dampflokomotiven eingestellt wurden.

Erhaltene Exemplare

Auch wenn die meisten erhalten Lokomotiven aus der Zeit des Zweiten Weltkriegs (SŽD-Baureihe Е) stammen, so sind auch einige Lokomotiven aus der Zeit des Ersten Weltkrieges erhalten geblieben, wenn auch nur als nicht betriebsfähige Exponate.

Die ersten erhaltenen Lokomotiven verdanken ihren jetzigen Museumsstatus politischen Motiven, wie die Eл.629, die in Ussurijsk als Denkmallok 1972 aufgefunden wurde und auch heute noch dort auf dem Denkmalsockel steht. Ebenfalls als Denkmal erhalten ist die Ec.350 in Tscheljabinsk. In Museen stehen die Eл.266 im Eisenbahnmuseum Ulaanbaatar, die Ec.311 und Eл.534 befinden sich in der Sammlung des Russischen Eisenbahnmuseums, die Eл.345 steht im Eisenbahnmuseum Brest, und die SAL Nr. 544, die in dem Eisenbahnmuseum in North Carolina untergestellt ist, ist einer Eл zuzuordnen. Eine vollständige Auflistung der erhaltenen Lokomotiven der Reihe E befindet sich auf der Russischen Wikipedia, wobei dort die Russische Baureihe Е und die SŽD-Baureihe Е zusammen behandelt sind.

Siehe auch
 Liste russischer und sowjetischer Triebfahrzeuge

Literatur
 W. A. Rakow: Russische und sowjetische Dampflokomotiven. Transpress-Verlag für Verkehrswesen, 1988, ISBN 3-344-00413-1

Einzelnachweise

E
Dampflokomotive Achsfolge 1E
Schienenfahrzeug (American Locomotive Company)
Schienenfahrzeug (Baldwin Locomotive Works)
Schienenfahrzeug (Canadian Locomotive Company)

ru:Паровоз Е


text:
Fluff is a Swedish punk rock band, formed from former members of the bands Mindless Sinner and Skinny Horse. They were formed in 1996 by Christer Göransson and Magnus Danneblad. They released one album in 1996, called Volume One. The band changed their name to Everlone, but the members stayed the same.

Volume One (1996)
 Welcome To Bartertown (2:06)
 People (1:46)
 Breakfast In America (2:00)
 Psychohead (2:50)
 Dreaming Is For Free (2:24)
 Leave Me Alone (1:57)
 My Medication (2:23)
 90% (1:59)
 I Say Hello (2:02)
 I'm In Love With Myself (3:18)
 Stupid (1:41)
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 Sha La La La (2:45)
 If I Was A Lunatic (2:34)
 Don't You Wanna Know Me (2:50)
 Keep Your Country Tidy (2:40)
 Checking In (3:30)
 Tears (1:59)
 So Far So Good (2:02)
 Breakfast in America (hidden track)

Members
Lead vocals and rhythm guitar: Christer Göransson
Lead and rhythm guitar: Magnus Danneblad
Bass: Hård-Per
Drums: Tommy Johansson

Swedish punk rock groups

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Halorates es un género de arañas araneomorfas de la familia Linyphiidae. Se encuentra en la zona paleártica y Sur de Asia.

Lista de especies
Según The World Spider Catalog 12.0:
 Halorates concavus Tanasevitch, 2011
 Halorates reprobus (O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1879)
 Halorates sexastriatus Fei, Gao & Chen, 1997

Referencias

Erigoninae


Shane Carrow lives in Melbourne, but don't bother looking for him in any Aussie phone books. Shane Carrow is an alias, a nom de plume, a pen-name. But whoever Shane Carrow is in real life, he's a great story teller, even if his speech is peppered with the occasional f-bomb.
Shane Carrow is an Australian writer of post-apocalyptic fiction, science fiction, horror and fantasy. Born and raised in Western Australia, he currently lives in Melbourne.
On Twitter, he's @ShaneCarrow and you can sign up for his email list by clicking here.


Fruit bowl, pitcher and fruit, 1894 paul cezanne, artists/artworks that inspire me gabriellagiaconia#039;s blog, cezanne fruit bowl, pitcher and fruit porcelain plate. Fruit bowl canvas art by paul cezanne icanvas. Cezanne apples stock photos cezanne apples stock images.


text:
RED BANK: MENNA TUGS REINS ON HORSES
Prince, from Dream Horse Carriage Rides, pulls a carriage through downtown Red Bank in 2014. (Photo by John T. Ward. Click to enlarge.)
By JOHN T. WARD
Mayor Pasquale Menna thinks having horses pull tourist carriages through downtown Red Bank during the Christmas holiday season is "inhumane."
He said so at Wednesday night's semimonthly council meeting, when he formally appointed an Animal Welfare Advisory Committee and asked that it look into ending the annual rides.
What does the owner of the horses think?
"Oh, not this idiocy again," said Tania Lawson, owner of Dream Horse Carriage Rides in Jackson Township.
Prince grabs a nosh between rides. (Photo by John T. Ward. Click to enlarge.)
Noting that a resolution approving the dates of this year's rides and an ordinance creating the committee were both on the agenda, Councilman Mike Whelan referred to Menna's past comments about the horses, and suggested that the committee "look into the company we have been using and see if we want to continue."
"I've shot my mouth off too many times on that," Menna said, acknowledging that he is a "bleeding heart" when it comes to animals. "And I've been shot down by RiverCenter," the downtown promotion agency that hires the carriages for the season, he said. "But I will continue to be an advocate," he said.
"I think that having those old horses, and they are old, in an urban setting, on a Friday and Saturday night, with people honking their horns at them… is inhumane to those horses," he said. "And I don't care if the owner says he feeds them the best oats in the world, it's still pretty rough on them."
He said the carriages have been banned "in most urban centers, in most cities, because of these issues."
Nonsense, said Lawson. Her animals are draft horses, bred to work, and most of them are Percherons, a breed developed to carry armor-wearing French soldiers into battle, she said.
"It is not bad treatment," she said to redbankgreen Thursday. "It's actually what the horses are bred to do."
All of her animals are "big" and accustomed to humans and urban hubbub, she said, noting that one horse, Prince, who annually comes to Red Bank, spent years pulling carriages in Manhattan. "This is like a vacation for him," she said.
The horses are well-treated, she said, and even become depressed and may stop eating if not put into harness to work, she said.
Lawson said the borough had looked into the issue about six years ago, finding no reason to halt the annual custom. She speculated that the People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals "got to" Menna to stir up the issue anew.
But RiverCenter executive director Jim Scavone told the council that PETA and other animal rights groups "support the carriage rides in Red Bank." He also offered police data showing no incidents involving the animals to committee. He could not be reached for comment Thursday morning.
The committee has existed since last summer, and last month weighed in on a debate over puppy mills. Wednesday's was a final vote on an ordinance formally creating the committee, which Menna said had previously existed as an "ad hoc" group, "I guess to give it the imprimatur of legitimacy."
Councilwoman Kathy Horgan is the liaison to the committee, whose members are Vyolet Savage, Nick Lembesis, Deborah Marks, Pam Befarah, Karen Fasano, Stephen Murphy and Suzanne Viscomi.
Posted on February 15, 2018 at 12:00 pm, filed under Animals, Featured, RED BANK, Seasonal, Tourism and tagged animal welfare advisory committee, Animals, christmas, cruelty, dogs, dream horse carriage rides, holiday, horse and carriage, horses, nj, pasquale menna, peta, puppy mill, red bank, RiverCenter, tania lawson, tourism. Bookmark the permalink. Follow any comments here with the RSS feed for this post. Trackbacks are closed, but you can post a comment. Email this story.
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Bishop Denis Nulty pays tribute to Bishop Martin Drennan RIP
It was with sadness that I learned of the death of Bishop Martin Drennan, Emeritus Bishop of Galway and Kilmacduagh and Apostolic Administrator of Kilfenora Diocese.
Bishop Martin was ordained as a priest of Ossory Diocese in 1968 and ministered in a number of parishes and lectured in Sacred Scripture in Saint Kieran's College, Kilkenny.
Following further studies Bishop Martin again lectured Sacred Scripture in Saint Patrick's College, Maynooth, and in so doing gifted a love of the Holy Bible and a deep knowledge of the Lord to successive generations of students.
I was fortunate to be one of those and I recall fondly his deep reflective and warm nature.
In his service as Bishop he continued to share this deep love, and his immense knowledge, of Scripture with all he encountered.
As Apostolic Administrator of Ossory I know well of Bishop Martin's love for his native home; and in which he is still very much fondly remembered as a loyal son.
I pray on my behalf, and that of Bishop-elect Niall Coll, along with the priests, religious and people of Ossory, that the good Lord will reward Bishop Martin for a lifetime of faithful, humble, service.


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Teva Announces the Launch of a Generic Version of Lialda® in the United States
Product-Approvals-Launches
Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd., (NYSE and TASE: TEVA) today announced the launch of a generic version of Lialda®1 (mesalamine) delayed-release tablets, 1.2 g, in the U.S.
Mesalamine delayed-release tablets are indicated for the induction of remission in adults with active, mild to moderate ulcerative colitis and for the maintenance of remission of ulcerative colitis.
"The launch of mesalamine is a significant addition to Teva's generic portfolio," said Brendan O'Grady, Executive Vice President and head of North America Commercial at Teva. "With more than a million people in the U.S. estimated to suffer from inflammatory bowel diseases, including ulcerative colitis,2 this is an important and more affordable generic treatment option for our customers."
Mesalamine further enhances Teva's already-comprehensive anti-inflammatory portfolio. With nearly 600 generic medicines available, Teva has the largest portfolio of FDA-approved generic products on the market and holds the leading position in first-to-file opportunities, with over 100 pending first-to-files in the U.S. Currently, one in seven generic prescriptions dispensed in the U.S. is filled with a Teva generic product.
Mesalamine Delayed-Release Tablets, 1.2 g had annual sales of approximately $1.11 billion in the U.S., according to IMS data as of January 2018.
About Mesalamine Delayed-Release Tablets
Mesalamine delayed-release tablets are indicated for the induction of remission in patients with active, mild to moderate ulcerative colitis and for the maintenance of remission of ulcerative colitis.
Mesalamine delayed-release tablets are contraindicated in patients with known hypersensitivity to salicylates or aminosalicylates or to any of the ingredients of mesalamine delayed-release tablets.
Renal Impairment, including minimal change nephropathy, acute and chronic interstitial nephritis, and, rarely, renal failure, has been reported in patients given products that contain mesalamine or are converted to mesalamine. Mesalamine has been associated with an acute intolerance syndrome that may be difficult to distinguish from an exacerbation of ulcerative colitis.
Some patients who have experienced a hypersensitivity reaction to sulfasalazine may have a similar reaction to compounds that contain or are converted to mesalamine. Mesalamine-induced cardiac hypersensitivity reactions (myocarditis and pericarditis) have been reported with mesalamine delayed-release tablets and other mesalamine medications. There have been reports of hepatic failure in patients with pre-existing liver disease who have been administered mesalamine.
Pyloric stenosis or other organic or functional obstruction in the upper gastrointestinal tract may cause prolonged gastric retention of mesalamine which would delay mesalamine release in the colon. The most common adverse reactions (incidence greater than or equal to 2 %) in clinical trials were ulcerative colitis, headache, flatulence, liver function test abnormality, and abdominal pain.
For more information, please see accompanying full Prescribing Information.
This press release contains forward-looking statements within the meaning of the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995 regarding the launch and potential benefits of Teva's generic version of Lialda®, which are based on management's current beliefs and expectations and are subject to substantial risks and uncertainties, both known and unknown, that could cause our future results, performance or achievements to differ significantly from that expressed or implied by such forward-looking statements. Important factors that could cause or contribute to such differences include risks relating to:
commercial success of Teva's generic version of mesalamine, including due to a potential launch of an Authorized Generic version;
our generics medicines business, including: that we are substantially more dependent on this business, with its significant attendant risks, following our acquisition of Allergan plc's worldwide generic pharmaceuticals business ("Actavis Generics"); our ability to realize the anticipated benefits of the acquisition (and any delay in realizing those benefits) or difficulties in integrating Actavis Generics; the increase in the number of competitors targeting generic opportunities and seeking U.S. market exclusivity for generic versions of significant products; price erosion relating to our generic products, both from competing products and as a result of increased governmental pricing pressures; and our ability to take advantage of high-value biosimilar opportunities;
our business and operations in general, including: uncertainties relating to the potential benefits and success of our new organizational structure and recent senior management changes; the potential success and our ability to effectively execute a restructuring plan; our ability to develop and commercialize additional pharmaceutical products; manufacturing or quality control problems, which may damage our reputation for quality production and require costly remediation; interruptions in our supply chain; disruptions of our or third party information technology systems or breaches of our data security; the failure to recruit or retain key personnel; the restructuring of our manufacturing network, including potential related labor unrest; the impact of continuing consolidation of our distributors and customers; variations in patent laws that may adversely affect our ability to manufacture our products; adverse effects of political or economic instability, major hostilities or terrorism on our significant worldwide operations; and our ability to successfully bid for suitable acquisition targets or licensing opportunities, or to consummate and integrate acquisitions; and
compliance, regulatory and litigation matters, including: costs and delays resulting from the extensive governmental regulation to which we are subject; the effects of reforms in healthcare regulation and reductions in pharmaceutical pricing, reimbursement and coverage; potential additional adverse consequences following our resolution with the U.S. government of our FCPA investigation; governmental investigations into sales and marketing practices; potential liability for sales of generic products prior to a final resolution of outstanding patent litigation; product liability claims; increased government scrutiny of our patent settlement agreements; failure to comply with complex Medicare and Medicaid reporting and payment obligations; and environmental risks.
and other factors discussed in our Annual Report on Form 20-F for the year ended December 31, 2016 ("Annual Report") and in our other filings with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (the "SEC"). Forward-looking statements speak only as of the date on which they are made, and we assume no obligation to update or revise any forward-looking statements or other information contained herein, whether as a result of new information, future events or otherwise. You are cautioned not to rely on these forward-looking statements. You are advised to consult any additional disclosures we make in our reports to the SEC on Form 6-K, as well as the cautionary discussion of risks and uncertainties under "Risk Factors" in our Annual Report. These are factors that we believe could cause our actual results to differ materially from expected results. Other factors besides those listed could also materially and adversely affect us. This discussion is provided as permitted by the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995.
1 Lialda® is a registered trademark of Nogra Pharma Limited., Ireland.
2 https://www.cdc.gov/ibd/ibd-epidemiology.htm
Ran Meir, 215-591-3033
Tomer Amitai, 972 (3) 926 7656
Kaelan Hollon, 202-412-7076


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France to Donate US$100 million (€90 million) for WHO Academy
Geneva: France has pledged to donate a sum of US$100 million (€90 million) for the proposed World Health Organisation's Academy, France's Minister for Europe and Foreign Affairs said on Monday in Geneva.
Mr Jean-Yves Le Drian's reiterating statement in Geneva during a meet with Dr Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, Director-General of WHO was in line with a Declaration of Intent signed by French President Emmanuel Macron and WHO Chief Dr Tedros on 11 June 2019, and a pledge by France in the amount of US$ 100 million (€ 90 million) to WHO to support the creation of the WHO Academy, which will be established as an internal division within the global health body.
The Academy hoping to provide learning opportunities for leaders, educators, researchers, health workers, WHO staff and the broader public, and will deliver high quality, multilingual learning, both online and in-person, alongside a cutting-edge simulation centre for health emergencies, will be the world's largest and most innovative lifelong learning platform in global health. According to WHO.
"Technology and innovation in learning are creating exciting new opportunities to accelerate progress towards health for all in every country," said Dr Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, Director-General of WHO. "The WHO Academy will support millions of learners to maximize health impacts with the best evidence, adult learning approaches and state-of-the-art technologies."
By propelling and strengthening digital innovations and lifelong learning opportunities around the world, the WHO Academy will play an instrumental role towards achieving WHO's triple billion goal by 2023 and the health Sustainable Development Goals: 1 billion more people will benefit from universal health coverage; 1 billion more will be better protected in health emergencies, and 1 billion more will enjoy improved health and wellbeing.
According to WHO, the funding from France represents a commitment to accelerate the development of the WHO Academy, and confirms the engagement of France -- a longstanding partner of WHO and a key actor in global health – and its strong support to the ambitions of 13th WHO General Programme of Work to ensure healthy lives and well-being for all ages.
Tags: Education France news politics UN


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HOME > NEWSROOM > ARTICLES > NRB Members Invited to Join the NRB President's Council
NRB Members Invited to Join the NRB President's Council
From among its membership, NRB is building up a select group of strategic partners who wish to bolster the work of the association through additional commitments of time, support, and financial resources.
Members of the NRB President's Council understand the singular importance of NRB's engagement in the legislative, legal, and regulatory processes centered in Washington, DC, recognizing that these efforts are crucial in the battle to keep the doors of electronic media open for the spread of the Gospel.
Through participation in special events in Washington, DC, President's Council members serve as influential ambassadors for NRB as they interact with political leaders and others with positions of significant influence and authority in our nation's capital.
Members of the President's Council also make up a special advisory board for the association and are members of NRB's Guardian Group, which provides certain legal benefits, including information and education, to participating NRB members.
"WLMB-TV 40 Toledo supports the President's Council because we believe the NRB is best positioned to preserve and expand Christian broadcasting not only in the United States, but literally around the globe," remarked Jamey Schmitz, President & CEO of WLMB-TV 40 Toledo, a member of the NRB President's Council, and a member of the NRB Board of Directors.
"Our investment is a well-placed strategic investment in the building of the Kingdom of God, and without question, the successes of the NRB for Christian broadcasters, for Christian communicators, have been monumental," he added. "If you are a Christian broadcaster, I can think of no wiser place to invest in the preservation and expansion of your religious freedoms than to become a Member of the NRB President's Council."
For more information about the President's Council and a list of current members, click here. You can also contact Melissa Sturgis, Director of Membership, at 703-331-4502.
Each year, President's Council members receive a special invitation to attend the President's Council Reception held during the annual NRB International Christian Media Convention as well as the annual Capitol Hill Media Summit at the Gaylord National Resort in Washington, DC, each fall.
This year's Capitol Hill Media Summit will be held September 9-10.
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One of the great unresolved controversies in paleobiology is whether extinct dinosaurs were endothermic, ectothermic, or some combination thereof, and when endothermy first evolved in the lineage leading to birds. Although it is well established that high, sustained growth rates and, presumably, high activity levels are ancestral for dinosaurs and pterosaurs (clade Ornithodira), other independent lines of evidence for high metabolic rates, locomotor costs, or endothermy are needed. For example, some studies have suggested that, because large dinosaurs may have been homeothermic due to their size alone and could have had heat loss problems, ectothermy would be a more plausible metabolic strategy for such animals.
Here we describe two new biomechanical approaches for reconstructing the metabolic rate of 14 extinct bipedal dinosauriforms during walking and running. These methods, well validated for extant animals, indicate that during walking and slow running the metabolic rate of at least the larger extinct dinosaurs exceeded the maximum aerobic capabilities of modern ectotherms, falling instead within the range of modern birds and mammals. Estimated metabolic rates for smaller dinosaurs are more ambiguous, but generally approach or exceed the ectotherm boundary.
Our results support the hypothesis that endothermy was widespread in at least larger non-avian dinosaurs. It was plausibly ancestral for all dinosauriforms (perhaps Ornithodira), but this is perhaps more strongly indicated by high growth rates than by locomotor costs. The polarity of the evolution of endothermy indicates that rapid growth, insulation, erect postures, and perhaps aerobic power predated advanced "avian" lung structure and high locomotor costs.
Copyright: © 2009 Pontzer et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Funding: Washington University, USA supported HP for this project. The National Science Foundation, USA funded JRH from 2001–2003, which supported development of this work, as did the Department of Veterinary Basic Sciences at The Royal Veterinary College (2003–2009). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
The metabolic physiology of dinosaurs and their extinct relatives – whether they were ectothermic ("cold blooded") like modern reptiles, or endothermic ("warm blooded") like birds and mammals – is important for reconstructing their ecology, behavior, and fate –. Endothermic animals are better able to inhabit a wide range of climates and maintain higher levels of activity than ectotherms, and thus much of our understanding of dinosaur paleoecology and evolution hinges on this critical distinction. Evidence for competing views of dinosaur metabolic physiology has come from a range of sources, including the anatomy of ventilatory organs –, the apparent absence of ossified respiratory turbinates , reconstructed posture, habitat, and ecology , , –, analogies with extant taxa based on experimental studies , the presence of feathers or filamentous integument , , and especially bone histology and growth –, with much recent work suggesting at least some degree of endothermy.
High growth rates and perhaps activity levels seem to have been ancestrally present in the clade Ornithodira (dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and all descendants of their most recent common ancestor) , , in addition to perhaps some form of potentially-insulative filamentous integument . Thus these characteristics apparently predate the parallel evolution, in pterosaurs and saurischians, of advanced respiratory systems (e.g., expanded air sacs and one-way air flow; –). Many studies take these features to indicate high metabolic rates and thus endothermy (or at least intermediate stages in its evolution) in extinct dinosaurs and other ornithodirans . The question remains whether endothermy evolved earlier in Ornithodira, or independently in Pterosauria and Saurischia [e.g., 19]. Some researchers remain unconvinced of endothermy even in non-ornithurine birds (e.g. , ) or tentatively favor more complex scenarios involving multiple origins of endothermy . Independent evidence would help distinguish between these alternative hypotheses.
In modern mammals and birds, endothermy incurs an energy cost of maintaining a high basal metabolic rate, but provides a substantial advantage in aerobic capacity over ectothermic reptiles. Whereas endotherms and ectotherms are capable of similar peak power output during short bursts, the maximum aerobically sustained metabolic rate, also termed "maximum aerobic power" or VO2max, is an order of magnitude greater for endotherms . Consequently, sustained locomotor activity, which incurs similar costs for both groups , is relatively infrequent and limited to moderate running speeds in extant ectotherms , . While increased locomotor activity might not have provided the initial evolutionary advantage for endothermy , , sustained aerobic activity provides a clear distinction between modern endothermic and ectothermic vertebrates; the metabolic physiology of modern ectothermic reptiles cannot sustain the aerobic activity commonly seen in birds and mammals.
To assess the metabolic physiology of extinct dinosaurs and thereby test whether individual taxa fit endothermic or ectothermic models better, we compared estimated metabolic rates (oxygen consumption; mlO2 s−1) during walking and running in thirteen bipedal dinosaurs and one dinosauriform outgroup, Marasuchus ("Lagosuchus"; Sereno and Arcucci, 1994) to maximum aerobic power, VO2max (mlO2 s−1), for living endotherms and ectotherms. We used two recently developed methods linking locomotor anatomy to walking and running cost to estimate locomotor metabolic rates for dinosaurs (Fig. 1). Since walking and slow to moderate-speed running are aerobically sustainable in most modern amniotes , , , ectothermy in extinct species would be supported if their predicted locomotor costs at these moderate speeds fall within the aerobic capacity seen in living ectotherms. Alternatively, if the aerobic power needed for walking and slow running in these extinct species is predicted to exceed the maximum aerobic power for ectotherms, this would suggest these species were endothermic. We focused on bipedal species, because issues of weight distribution between fore- and hind limbs make biomechanical analysis of extinct quadrupeds more difficult and speculative.
Figure 1. Schematic of extensor fascicle length (lfasc), the GRF vector moment arm (R; segmental gravitational, but not inertial, moments were also included but not shown here; see ), and the extensor (antigravity) muscle moment arm (r) for the hip joint.
These parameters were calculated at midstance for the antigravity muscle groups at the hip, knee, and ankle, and combined with step length (estimated from hip height) to estimate the volume of muscle activated per meter travelled (Vmusc); see Methods. Joint angles and position of the center of mass (yellow circle) are taken from Hutchinson . Adapted with permission from original artwork by Scott Hartman.
Surprisingly, the estimated locomotor metabolic rates for many dinosauriforms, especially larger taxa in our sample, consistently exceeded the 95% confidence interval for maximum aerobic power, VO2 max, seen in extant ectotherms (Figure 2). Locomotor power requirements (mlO2 s−1) estimated from hip height exceeded ectothermic capabilities at moderate running speeds (Fr 1.0) for all species, and at a slow run (Fr 0.50) for all but the smallest species (Archaeopteryx). Even during walking (Fr 0.25), the required metabolic output for the five largest species (a juvenile Gorgosaurus, Dilophosaurus, Plateosaurus, Allosaurus, and Tyrannosaurus) exceeded the range of aerobic capacity seen in extant ectotherms (Figure 2). Similarly, locomotor cost estimates based on active muscle volume, Vmusc, exceeded ectothermic capabilities at all walking and running speeds for the five largest species, and at moderate running speeds in the small, presumably active bipeds, Heterodontosaurus, Compsognathus and Velociraptor. Only the smallest species, Archaeopteryx, had estimated locomotor metabolic rates that fell within or near the range of VO2max seen in modern ectotherms, for all but the fastest speeds using both hip height and Vmusc approaches (Figure 2; Table 1).
A. Locomotor power requirements for dinosauriforms (aeroic power, mlO2/s) plotted on a graph of maximum aerobic power (VO2max, mlO2/s), for extant endotherms (light red circles and shaded region) and ectotherms (blue circles and shaded region) versus body mass. Estimated rates of oxygen consumption for dinosauriforms are calculated using the two methods described in the text for walking (Froude 0.25), slow running (Froude 0.50), and moderate running (Froude 1.00) speeds (from left to right, Archaeopteryx, Marasuchus, Microraptor, Compsognathus, Lesothosaurus, Heterodontosaurus, Coelophysis, Velociraptor, Gorgosaurus, Dilophosaurus, Plateosaurus, Allosaurus, Tyrannosaurus). White symbols are estimates from hip height, black symbols are estimates from active muscle volume, Vmusc. The data points for Coelophysis and Velociraptor (both 20 kg) have been separated slightly for clarity. The upper limit of maximum aerobic power for modern ectotherms (i.e., the upper 95% confidence limit) is indicated by the upper boundary of the blue region; the upper limit for modern endotherms is indicated by the upper boundary of the red region. B. A similar plot as in A showing log10 residuals from the ectotherm trendline.
Table 1. Anatomical parameters, Vmusc, and locomotor costs estimated for thirteen extinct dinosauriforms.
Differences between hip height- and Vmusc-based estimates of dinosauriform locomotor cost highlight the different assumptions underlying each method. The reconstructed posture used to estimate Vmusc employs more extended joints than expected for the smallest animals in our analysis . More crouched poses, like those of similarly-sized extant species , would result in lower effective mechanical advantage (EMA) for the muscles, and hence produce higher estimates of locomotor cost . This suggests that hip-height based estimates, which assume that EMA values for small dinosauriforms are similar to similarly-sized modern vertebrates, are likely more accurate for the small species in our dataset. Notably, hip height-based estimates consistently placed slow and moderate running costs for the smaller dinosauriforms within the endothermic range of aerobic output (Table 1, Figure 2). Conversely, the hip height approach assumes extremely extended limb postures for the largest dinosaurs, like those of walking elephants and other similarly-sized extant vertebrates. Such extended, "columnar" limb postures are incommensurate with the joint morphology and probable limb configuration of these species , , suggesting that the Vmusc approach, which provides higher estimates of cost, is likely more accurate for the largest dinosaurs in our sample.
Phylogenetic analysis of our data supports the hypothesis that an endothermic level of metabolism was needed to power at least slow running gaits in all Dinosauriformes (Figure 3). If a conservative approach is taken, using only locomotor cost estimates for slow walking, for which our two methods identify the same set of taxa as endothermic, then the hypothesis that endothermy arose independently at least three times (in Sauropodomorpha, Tetanurae and Neornithes) and was lost once (in Coelurosauria) is favored. This is at odds with insulatory and histological evidence for endothermy at least in coelurosaurs (14,15,18,19,20,22), but would correspond to some degree of coevolution of advanced ventilator structure, large body size and endothermy. An alternative, less conservative approach, using locomotor cost estimates for moderate speed running from our simple hip height-based method, supports the hypothesis that endothermic physiology and aerobic power were ancestral for dinosauriforms.
Figure 3. Evolution of locomotor cost and endothermy in Archosauria.
A. Estimates from our Vmusc-based method for slow walking (Fr 0.25) used to reconstruct the evolution of endothermy. Substantial size-related homoplasy is shown. B. Estimates from our hip height-based method for moderate running (Fr 1.0) as a less conservative alternative to Fig. 2A. Endothermy is estimated as ancestral for at least Dinosauriformes.
These results strongly suggest endothermy for larger (>20 kg) bipedal dinosaurs, because other explanations require physiological adaptations or locomotor limitations unseen in living terrestrial vertebrates. For example, it might be proposed that extinct dinosauriforms were ectothermic, but were able to achieve a greater VO2max than modern reptiles. While the respiratory physiology of dinosaurs has been the subject of much debate –, , , the latter proposal would require an aerobic scope (VO2max/Resting Metabolic Rate) for the five largest species in our sample of 30–90x resting rate, far exceeding the maximum aerobic scope in our sample of modern ectotherms (14.5) and even greater than the aerobic scope of most mammals (mean 12.9±11.0 S.D.; max 61.9; see Table S2). Alternatively, it is possible that extinct dinosaurs/dinosauriforms did not engage in sustained locomotion, and instead used anaerobic metabolism to fuel short locomotor bouts. However, while intermittent locomotion is often used by modern lizards , this would suggest severely limited locomotor performance relative to living reptiles because even walking would need to be fueled anaerobically (Figure 2). Given the high post-exercise metabolic costs incurred by intermittent locomotion , utilizing an ectothermic "run now, pay later" strategy with such a high cost of transport would require problematically long, inactive recovery periods, particularly in the largest species. Finally, it could be argued that, by extrapolating the modern ectotherm aerobic power limit to the body size of large theropods, our approach underestimates the aerobic limits for large reptiles. However, while caution must always be used when extrapolating beyond the size range of comparative data, we see no evidence that relationship between aerobic capacity and mass changes at large body sizes among ectotherms or among endotherms.
Our results for smaller taxa are more ambiguous. The smallest species in our sample are estimated to exceed ectotherm aerobic capacities only at moderate running speeds (Fr = 1.0) and then only marginally (Figure 2). Thus, it is possible that these species were ectotherms that did not engage in sustained moderate or fast running. However, given the active lifestyles suggested for these species in other analyses , ,  it is quite plausible that our conservative approach did not examine costs for sufficiently high speeds. This underscores an important limitation of our analysis. Because both endotherms and ectotherms are capable of producing low levels of aerobic power (i.e., below the upper power limit for ectotherms), species that require low aerobic power to fuel walking and moderate running speeds could be either endothermic or ectothermic. If the aerobic demands at these speeds can be met with either endothermic or ectothermic physiology, our approach cannot distinguish which physiology is more likely. Thus, while species that exceed ectothermic capabilities during slow and moderate locomotion may be reliably classed as endothermic, species that do not exceed ectothermic capabilities at these low and moderate speeds cannot be classed exclusively as ectotherms.
Further work on habitual speeds for the smaller species in our dataset would enable us to adjust the range of speeds modeled to better reflect those commonly used, and would improve the utility of this approach for those species. The limb poses of small dinosauromorphs also warrant further investigation. If the relatively extended postures input for our Vmusc-based estimates of cost are correct, this may indicate that relatively upright postures were a strategy that enabled small ectothermic dinosaurs to sustain moderate running speeds.
Large dinosaurs have sometimes been argued to be the most likely to have been ectothermic, based on "inertial homeothermy," heat loss problems, and other constraints including ecological/energetic ones , , , . Our study provides independent results that support the reconstruction of endothermy in large dinosaurs; indeed our method most clearly supports this inference for larger taxa. Likewise, as growth rates and other factors plausibly correlated with endothermy are reconstructed as having relatively different patterns and constraints in smaller- and larger-bodied taxa (e.g. , , , , , methods must quantitatively test for size-dependent influences on such factors. Our method does account for size effects, using a hip-height-based approach for smaller taxa and a muscle volume-based approach for larger taxa.
Sensitivity analyses (Text S1) indicate that our estimates of dinosaur locomotor cost are robust, especially for larger taxa. For example, for Tyrannosaurus, increasing hip height to reflect maximum joint extension only decreases hip height-based estimates of cost by 1.3% (Text S1). Vmusc-based estimates are similarly robust, with the high rates of muscle activation, and hence locomotor cost that are expected for the range of plausible musculoskeletal anatomy and poses in these species. Even for slow running (Fr = 0.5), estimated aerobic power in the large dinosaurs is 3 to 15 standard errors above the ectotherm VO2max trendline, or 100–500% above the upper bound for ectotherm aerobic power. In contrast, two-fold changes of the key unknown parameters (especially estimated body mass, moment arms, or lfasc), or moving the center of mass posteriorly to be coincident with the hip joint, result in a maximal total reduction of only 65% in estimated locomotor cost, still well above the ectotherm range for aerobic capacity (Text S1). Further, the Vmusc approach works for species with known aerobic capacities: it correctly places the extinct moa (Dinornis) and moderate running speeds (Fr 0.5) for extant birds (Gallus and Eudromia) in the endotherm range, and walking and slow running in Iguana, Basiliscus, and Alligator in the ectotherm range for VO2max (Figure S1).
Our findings concur with multiple lines of independent evidence from bone histology , ,  and cardiorespiratory anatomy ,  indicating high growth rates and activity levels, if not endothermy, in Dinosauriformes. As locomotor costs were somewhat high for all dinosauriforms, this is consistent with the hypothesis that endothermy was ancestral for the entire clade. As pterosaurian outgroups had advanced bone histology ,  and respiratory anatomy  as well as long muscular hindlimbs similar to those of dinosauriforms (although bipedalism/quadrupedalism remains controversial), the most parsimonious hypothesis is that endothermy first evolved in the shared common ancestor of Pterosauromorpha and Dinosauromorpha, in the clade Ornithodira. Since pterosaur anatomy, posture and gait remain highly controversial, and basal pterosauromorph taxa are quite small in body size, we considered it too speculative and ultimately ambiguous to apply our methods to pterosauromorphs, but predict that if such models could justifiably be done, our results would be further strengthened. Likewise, our analysis does not include quadrupedal dinosaurs, and therefore excludes many of the largest dinosaurs, such as sauropods. Analyses of the postures and weight distribution for these large quadrupeds are needed to test whether the high aerobic power requirements for bipedal forms seen here were common among large dinosauromorphs.
Our methodology adds a new, repeatable line of evidence that is explicitly and quantitatively linked with well-demonstrated metabolic mechanisms that underlie fundamental differences between endothermic and ectothermic species, and its assumptions are checked with sensitivity analysis. Our results provide new support, in agreement with other strong lines of evidence , , , , –, that endothermy was present in many, if not all, non-avian dinosaurs, especially larger taxa. Endothermy still plausibly was plesiomorphic for Dinosauriformes or even Ornithodira, but this is more ambiguous with our method. This is because these taxa all tend to be small-bodied and thus have relatively low estimated locomotor costs, close to the ecto/endothermy boundary (or areas of overlapping costs between the two groupings). Endothermy, linked to rapid growth and high locomotor aerobic scope, may have presaged the evolution of advanced ventilatory anatomy and function, providing a critical locomotor advantage for dinosauromorphs, particularly in larger species.
We used recent work linking locomotor anatomy to cost to determine the rate of energy expenditure during locomotion for fourteen species of extinct dinosauriform archosaurs, including Marasuchus and the giant flightless bird Dinornis (Table 1). We applied two different methods, one simple and one more complex, to do this.
Taxa were chosen for completeness, accessibility, and phylogenetic representation of the lineage from basal archosaurs to extant birds. All basal dinosauriforms were assumed to be bipedal although evidence for bipedalism is more ambiguous for some taxa, particularly Marasuchus and Plateosaurus. Our sampling is far from complete; inclusion of more basal dinosauromorphs/dinosaurs, non-avian coelurosaurs, and basal birds could be interesting but we feel we have captured the basic diversity in body size and locomotor functional morphology with the chosen taxa. Our results suggest that additional taxa would show results similar to those in our sample with similar mass and locomotor anatomy. Adding more basal dinosauromorphs, for example, would add more values similar to those for Marasuchus. It is unclear how species with markedly different anatomy, such as large quadrupedal sauropods, would compare to the taxa in our sample.
Our first, simpler method estimated the mass-specific locomotor cost of transport, COT (mlO2 kg−1 m−1), using effective limb length (i.e., hip height); the distance from the hip joint to the ground while standing. In a recent comparison of locomotor cost in 28 terrestrial species, including 11 mammals, 8 birds, and 5 reptiles, effective limb length explained 98% of the variation in observed COT . Moreover, once hip height was accounted for there was no independent effect of body mass on cost, indicating that effective limb length is the primary determinant of the well-documented scaling of locomotor cost with body size . Using reconstructed initial limb postures for the dinosaurs in this analysis (Figure 1; Table 1; ), we estimated COT from hip height as COT (J kg−1 m−1) = 90.284(Hip Height, cm)−0.77 following Pontzer , and converted to mlO2 assuming 1 mlO2 = 20.1 Joules. This simple approach does not explicitly consider joint mechanics or muscle anatomy in estimating locomotor cost, effectively assuming that dinosauriforms followed the same scaling relationships for muscle fascicle length, lfasc, and joint effective mechanical advantage (EMA) as modern birds and mammals do , , .
We multiplied COT by estimated body mass (Table 1) and walking or running speed in order to calculate the whole-body rate of oxygen consumption, VO2 (mlO2 s−1) during locomotion. Note that this approach gives the net rate of locomotor oxygen use, above the baseline rate of resting metabolism. Speeds were tailored to each species' body size using the Froude number , where Fr = speed2 (hip height·g)−1. VO2 was calculated at a walk (Fr = 0.25), a slow run (Fr = 0.5), and a moderate run (Froude = 1.0). Although running capacity in the largest theropods remains controversial, biomechanical solutions exist that allow slow to moderate-speed running (below Fr ∼5) , , – which we focus on here. Speeds and VO2 estimates are given in Table 1.
The second, more complex, method we used to reconstruct COT and VO2 uses the volume of muscle activated to support and propel the body while walking and running to predict the cost of locomotion. Following previous experimental work , , – that indicates a strong link between the cost of generating muscular force to support body weight during the stance phase, we developed a model predicting COT (mlO2 kg−1 m−1) from the mass-specific volume of muscle activated, Vmusc (cm3 kg−1 m−1), to support body weight during walking and running.
Using published data for 10 extant species (Table S1), the volume of muscle activated per unit of ground reaction force (GRF) was estimated as the mean fascicle length of the extensor muscles, lfasc, divided by the joint's effective mechanical advantage or EMA , –; the posture-dependent ratio of the antigravity muscle and GRF moment arms (r and R, respectively) (Figure 1). Where available, EMA for extant taxa was calculated using force-plate-based measurements of R. For other extant species, EMA was calculated using a free-body diagram of a supportive hindlimb at mid-stance, including segmental gravitational (but not inertial; negligible at midstance) moments . The poses input for these modeled taxa were based upon experimental data for running animals at mid-stance .
Where possible, modeled poses were updated with more recent kinematic data. For example, we used more accurate poses for quadrupedal (walking) alligators  as well as running ostriches , but note that these updated poses did not change our results drastically when compared to prior reconstructions  (see Text S1). Also note that the alligator pose used in  was bipedal and not identical to the quadrupedal pose used here. Additionally, predicting total muscle volumes solely from hindlimb data for the extant quadrupeds simply assumes that the fore- and hindlimbs are acting with similar mechanical advantage, activating similar volumes of muscle to produce one Newton of GRF. This assumption is supported by force-plate studies in other quadrupeds (dogs  and quadrupedal chimpanzees ).
Using EMA and cadaver-based estimates of fascicle length, and assuming an isometric muscle stress of 200 kNm−2  (plausible variation of this parameter, ±50%, does not affect our ultimate results), we then estimated the volume of muscle needed to produce one Newton of GRF during locomotion. The volume per 1N of GRF at each joint (hip, knee, and ankle) was summed, and then multiplied by g/step length  to give the total mass-specific muscle volume, Vmusc, activated per meter travelled , –. In our validation test of this model, Vmusc predicted 98% of the variation in net (i.e., with resting costs removed) mass-specific COT (r2 = 0.98, df = 9, p<0.001; Figure S1a), indicating this method reliably predicts locomotor cost across a range of terrestrial vertebrates. This strong correlation remained even when the smallest species, Bobwhite quail, was removed (r2 = 0.93, df = 8, p<0.001, Figure S1b). Notably, estimates of Vmusc from both force-plate studies and from inverse dynamic models fit the Vmusc/COT trendline equally well (Figure S1). Note that degrees of freedom reflect the number of species.
We then applied this validated model to the extinct dinosauriforms in our dataset in order to predict locomotor metabolic rate for these extinct bipeds. Vmusc for each dinosaur species was calculated as for extant species, using published reconstructions of EMA and lfasc , ; as in our extant sample, active muscle volume for the metatarsophalangeal joint in our dinosaur sample was excluded (see ,  for discussion). Non-avian dinosaur step lengths were estimated from the ratio of step length to hip height in modern birds (step length = 1.1hip height, ordinary least squares (OLS) regression: r2 = 0.87, n = 6, p<0.01). We converted Vmusc to COT using the OLS equation from our model, as COT = 0.0029 Vmusc+0.0598 (r2 = 0.93, df = 8, p<0.001; Figure S1B). As with hip height based estimates of cost (above), we then multiplied COT by estimated body mass and speed to give the whole-body rate of oxygen consumption, VO2 (mlO2 s−1) during locomotion.
VO2 for each dinosauriform was then compared to VO2max for extant endotherms and ectotherms. VO2max data used in our comparative sample were from measurements reported explicitly as VO2max, from the maximum reported aerobic power elicited during treadmill exercise studies, or, for three large varanid lizards, estimated as five times the field metabolic rate  measured in active, free-ranging animals. The use of maximum reported aerobic power from exercise studies will tend to underestimate true VO2max. While this will have the effect of depressing the VO2max-Body Mass trendline (see below), this effect is very small for the ectotherm group in our sample, since most (89%) of ectotherm measurements are explicit measurements of VO2max. The effect on the endotherm trendline is likely somewhat larger; however, the critical comparison for our dinosauriform taxa is to the ectotherm range.
For comparison with net locomotor aerobic power (mlO2/s) predicted by our model, we subtracted resting metabolic rate (RMR, Watts), estimated from body mass (kg) using published regressions (mammals : RMR = 3.40mass0.75; birds : RMR = 3.79mass0.72; reptiles : RMR = 0.69mass0.82; all converted to mlO2 assuming 1 mlO2 = 20.1 Joules, from these VO2max measurements, and then plotted them against body mass. All measurements for ectotherms are from body temperatures of 30° to 40°C; when multiple measurements were reported, the measurement in the warmest environment (which typically is the highest VO2max value) was used (see Table S2). As reported previously , VO2max in our sample of endotherms (n = 62 birds and mammals) was an order of magnitude higher than for ectotherms (n = 37 reptiles) of similar body mass (endotherm OLS trendline: VO2max = 1.23Mass0.93, ectotherm: VO2max = 0.16Mass0.85, Figure 2).
Next, VO2max and body mass were log10 transformed, and compared using OLS in order to calculate the standard error of estimate (SEE) for this relationship. The 95% confidence ranges for ectotherm and endotherm VO2max were then calculated as ±2SEE from their respective OLS trendlines. Due to the relatively large sample sizes for endotherms and ectotherms, removal of the largest and smallest taxa from this analysis had negligible effect on the confidence intervals, and did not affect the outcome of our dinosaur comparisons. Similarly, removal of ectothermic taxa for which VO2max was estimated (Table S2) did not affect overall results in identifying dinosauriforms as endotherms.
To test this approach for distinguishing ectotherms and endotherms, we calculated Vmusc and COT as above for three ectothermic and three endothermic species (Table S3). Our approach correctly placed moderate running (Fr = 1.0) for two extant birds, and all locomotion for the extinct moa, in the endotherm range. Similarly, locomotor costs for the bipedal basilisk lizard, and for slow running in quadrupedal iguanas and alligators, were correctly placed in the ectotherm range (Figure S2).
The results of our sensitivity analyses for our models of dinosauriform anatomy, posture, and locomotor cost are outlined above, and are described in the Supporting Information (Text S1).
To test whether endothermy predated advanced lung structure in Saurischia, we mapped our quantitative data for our hip height and Vmusc-based estimates of locomotor cost onto a consensus phylogeny (Figure 3) of Archosauria, using Mesquite 2.6  and coding the data as qualitative character states (see below). The phylogeny represents an informal "consensus" tree for Archosauria –. Alternative placements for taxa such as Dilophosaurus (i.e. moved to sister taxon with Coelophysis as ,  rather than the initial position based on ) have minimal effects on the results; the positions of other taxa are generally uncontroversial. The data from Table 1 were used to code taxa into four character states of two characters: one from the conservative VO2 estimates of locomotor cost for slow walking, and one from the generally higher hip height estimates of locomotor cost. Character states were: (0) known ectotherms, (1) uncertain metabolic status (i.e. locomotor cost estimates within ectotherm 95% CIs), (2) likely endotherms (i.e. locomotor cost estimates above ectotherm 95% CIs) and (3) known endotherms. Parsimony-based character optimization was then implemented in Mesquite to trace the evolution of these characters in Figure 3.
Explanation of methods and sensitivity analysis.
Anatomical measurements, locomotor cost, step length, and active muscle volume for species used to validate the model.
Body mass, estimated resting metabolic rate (RMR), and maximum aerobic power (VO2max) for extant species. RMR: estimated from mass; see text. Data type: VO2max, studies explicitly measuring maximum aerobic power; exercise, from highest reported aerobic power in a locomotion study; 5x FMR, five-times the reported field metabolic rate for this species. Temp.: environmental temperature for measurements of ectotherms.
Anatomical parameters, mass-specific active muscle volume (Vmusc) and mass-specific cost of transport (COT) estimated for three endothermic and three ectothermic species.
Mass-specific active muscle volume (Vmusc) versus cost of transport for the extant comparative sample. Black circles: Vmusc data from force-plate trials, gray circles: Vmusc modeled from free-body diagram analysis –; see Table S1.
Cost of locomotion at Fr 0.25, 0.5, and 1.0 for three ectotherms (Basiliscus, Iguana, and Alligator, blue circles) and three endotherms (Eudromia, Gallus, and Dinornis, red circles). Symbols as in Figure 2a. Data in Table S3.
We thank two anonymous reviewers, academic editor Andrew Farke, David Raichlen, Kevin Padian, Martin Bäker, Steve Gatesy, and the Structure and Motion Laboratory for constructive criticism that improved this study. Chelsea Kebodeaux assisted with manuscript preparation. We thank Heinrich Mallison for sharing data on Plateosaurus, and the University of California Museum of Paleontology (Berkeley, USA), American Museum of Natural History (New York, USA), and The Natural History Museum (London, UK) for access to specimens. We also thank Mark Davis, NOVA, and WGBH (Boston) for assisting with provision of the Microraptor sculpture by Jason Brougham.
Conceived and designed the experiments: HP JH. Performed the experiments: HP JH. Analyzed the data: HP JH. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: VA. Wrote the paper: HP VA JH.
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Antagonism of the chemokine Ccl5 ameliorates experimental liver fibrosis in mice
Marie-Luise Berres, … , Christian Trautwein, Hermann E. Wasmuth
Research Article Hepatology
Activation of hepatic stellate cells in response to chronic inflammation represents a crucial step in the development of liver fibrosis. However, the molecules involved in the interaction between immune cells and stellate cells remain obscure. Herein, we identify the chemokine CCL5 (also known as RANTES), which is induced in murine and human liver after injury, as a central mediator of this interaction. First, we showed in patients with liver fibrosis that CCL5 haplotypes and intrahepatic CCL5 mRNA expression were associated with severe liver fibrosis. Consistent with this, we detected Ccl5 mRNA and CCL5 protein in 2 mouse models of liver fibrosis, induced by either injection of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) or feeding on a methionine and choline–deficient (MCD) diet. In these models, Ccl5–/– mice exhibited decreased hepatic fibrosis, with reduced stellate cell activation and immune cell infiltration. Transplantation of Ccl5-deficient bone marrow into WT recipients attenuated liver fibrosis, identifying infiltrating hematopoietic cells as the main source of Ccl5. We then showed that treatment with the CCL5 receptor antagonist Met-CCL5 inhibited cultured stellate cell migration, proliferation, and chemokine and collagen secretion. Importantly, in vivo administration of Met-CCL5 greatly ameliorated liver fibrosis in mice and was able to accelerate fibrosis regression. Our results define a successful therapeutic approach to reduce experimental liver fibrosis by antagonizing Ccl5 receptors.
Marie-Luise Berres, Rory R. Koenen, Anna Rueland, Mirko Moreno Zaldivar, Daniel Heinrichs, Hacer Sahin, Petra Schmitz, Konrad L. Streetz, Thomas Berg, Nikolaus Gassler, Ralf Weiskirchen, Amanda Proudfoot, Christian Weber, Christian Trautwein, Hermann E. Wasmuth
Association of CCL5 with liver fibrosis in humans.
(A) Haplotype analysis of the CCL5 gene in patients with mild (stage F0/F1, 2n = 200) or advanced (stage F2–F4, 2n = 222) liver fibrosis. The overall haplotype distribution is significantly different between patients with mild fibrosis versus subjects with severe fibrosis (P = 0.01). Specifically, the third most common haplotype, CCL5_H3, is significantly more prevalent in individuals with advanced fibrosis (15.4%) compared with patients with mild fibrosis (5.9%, OR 2.83; *P < 0.05). (B) CCL5 mRNA expression is significantly elevated in subjects with advanced HCV-induced fibrosis compared with that of patients with only mild fibrosis (*P < 0.05). (C) The association of CCL5 mRNA expression with liver fibrosis is confirmed in patients with fibrosis due to NASH (*P < 0.05).


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text:
require 'spec_helper'

describe Ci::PlayBuildService, '#execute' do
  let(:user) { create(:user) }
  let(:project) { create(:project) }
  let(:pipeline) { create(:ci_pipeline, project: project) }
  let(:build) { create(:ci_build, :manual, pipeline: pipeline) }

  let(:service) do
    described_class.new(project, user)
  end

  context 'when project does not have repository yet' do
    let(:project) { create(:project) }

    it 'allows user to play build if protected branch rules are met' do
      project.add_developer(user)

      create(:protected_branch, :developers_can_merge,
             name: build.ref, project: project)

      service.execute(build)

      expect(build.reload).to be_pending
    end

    it 'does not allow user with developer role to play build' do
      project.add_developer(user)

      expect { service.execute(build) }
        .to raise_error Gitlab::Access::AccessDeniedError
    end
  end

  context 'when project has repository' do
    let(:project) { create(:project, :repository) }

    it 'allows user with developer role to play a build' do
      project.add_developer(user)

      service.execute(build)

      expect(build.reload).to be_pending
    end
  end

  context 'when build is a playable manual action' do
    let(:build) { create(:ci_build, :manual, pipeline: pipeline) }

    before do
      project.add_developer(user)

      create(:protected_branch, :developers_can_merge,
             name: build.ref, project: project)
    end

    it 'enqueues the build' do
      expect(service.execute(build)).to eq build
      expect(build.reload).to be_pending
    end

    it 'reassignes build user correctly' do
      service.execute(build)

      expect(build.reload.user).to eq user
    end
  end

  context 'when build is not a playable manual action' do
    let(:build) { create(:ci_build, when: :manual, pipeline: pipeline) }

    before do
      project.add_developer(user)

      create(:protected_branch, :developers_can_merge,
             name: build.ref, project: project)
    end

    it 'duplicates the build' do
      duplicate = service.execute(build)

      expect(duplicate).not_to eq build
      expect(duplicate).to be_pending
    end

    it 'assigns users correctly' do
      duplicate = service.execute(build)

      expect(build.user).not_to eq user
      expect(duplicate.user).to eq user
    end
  end

  context 'when build is not action' do
    let(:build) { create(:ci_build, :success, pipeline: pipeline) }

    it 'raises an error' do
      expect { service.execute(build) }
        .to raise_error Gitlab::Access::AccessDeniedError
    end
  end

  context 'when user does not have ability to trigger action' do
    before do
      create(:protected_branch, :no_one_can_push,
             name: build.ref, project: project)
    end

    it 'raises an error' do
      expect { service.execute(build) }
        .to raise_error Gitlab::Access::AccessDeniedError
    end
  end
end

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub