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History of Bengal
This article is about the history of Bengal prior to the partition of India in 1947. For the history of the Indian subcontinent, see History of India. For focus on modern Indian Bengal, see History of West Bengal. For focus on modern Bangladesh, see History of Bangladesh.
The history of Bengal is intertwined with the history of the broader Indian subcontinent and the surrounding regions of South Asia and Southeast Asia. It includes modern-day Bangladesh and the Indian states of West Bengal, Tripura and Assam's Karimganj district, located in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent, at the apex of the Bay of Bengal and dominated by the fertile Ganges delta. The advancement of civilisation in Bengal dates back four millennia.[1] The region was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Gangaridai, a powerful kingdom whose elephant forces led the withdrawal of Alexander the Great from Eastern India. The Ganges and the Brahmaputra rivers act as a geographic marker of the region, but also connects the region to the broader Indian subcontinent.[2] Bengal, at times, has played an important role in the history of the Indian subcontinent.
The area's early history featured a succession of Indian empires, internal squabbling, and a tussle between Hinduism and Buddhism for dominance. Ancient Bengal was the site of several major Janapadas (kingdoms), while the earliest cities date back to the Vedic period. A thalassocracy and an entrepôt of the historic Silk Road,[2] Ancient Bengal established colonies on Indian Ocean islands and in Southeast Asia;[3] had strong trade links with Persia, Arabia and the Mediterranean that focused on its lucrative cotton muslin textiles.[4] The region was part of several ancient pan-Indian empires, including the Mauryans and Guptas. It was also a bastion of regional kingdom. The citadel of Gauda served as capital of the Gauda Kingdom, the Buddhist Pala Empire (eighth to 11th century) and Sen Empire (11th–12th century). This era saw the development of Bengali language, script, literature, music, art and architecture.
The Muslim conquest of the Indian subcontinent absorbed Bengal into the medieval Islamic and Persianate worlds.[5] Between the 1204 and 1352, Bengal was a province of the Delhi Sultanate.[6] This era saw the introduction of the taka as monetary currency, which has endured into the modern era. An independent Bengal Sultanate was formed in 1352 and ruled the region for two centuries, during which a distinct form of Islam based on Sufism and the Bengali language emerged and the region was known as a major trading nation in the world.[7][8] The ruling elite also turned Bengal into the easternmost haven of Indo-Persian culture.[5] The Sultans exerted influence in the Arakan region of Southeast Asia, where Buddhist kings copied the sultanate's governance, currency and fashion. A relationship with Ming China flourished under the sultanate.[9]
The Bengal Sultanate was notable for its Hindu aristocracy, including the rise of Raja Ganesha and his son Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah as usurpers. Hindus served in the royal administration as prime ministers and poets. Under the patronage of Sultans like Alauddin Hussain Shah, Bengali literature began replacing the strong influence of Sanskrit in the region. Hindu principalities included the Koch Kingdom, Kingdom of Mallabhum, Kingdom of Bhurshut and Kingdom of Tripura; and the realm of powerful Hindu Rajas such as Pratapaditya and Raja Sitaram Ray. In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, Isa Khan, a Muslim Rajput chief, who led the Baro Bhuiyans (twelve landlords), dominated the Bengal delta.[10]
Following the decline of the sultanate, Bengal came under the suzerainty of the Mughal Empire, as its wealthiest province. Under the Mughals, Bengal Subah generated almost 50% of the empire's gross domestic product (GDP) and 12% of the world's GDP.[11] The region was globally prominent in industries such as textile manufacturing and shipbuilding,[12] with the capital Dhaka having a population exceeding a million people[11] and being more wealthy than all European empires.[13] Its wealth and economic developments are believed to have waved the period of proto-industrialization.[14]
The gradual decline of the Mughal Empire led to quasi-independent states under the Nawabs of Bengal, subsequent to the Maratha invasions of Bengal, and finally the conquest by the British East India Company.
The British took control of the region from the late 18th century. The company consolidated their hold on the region following the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and Battle of Buxar in 1764 and by 1793 took complete control of the region. The plunder of Bengal made direct significant contributions to the Industrial Revolution in Britain,[15][16][17][18] with the capital amassed from Bengal used to invest in British industries such as textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution and greatly increase British wealth, while at the same time leading to deindustrialisation in Bengal.[15][16][17] Kolkata (or Calcutta) served for many years as the capital of British controlled territories in India. The early and prolonged exposure to British administration resulted in the expansion of Western education, culminating in development of science, institutional education, and social reforms in the region, including what became known as the Bengali Renaissance. A hotbed of the Indian independence movement through the early 20th century, Bengal was divided during India's independence in 1947 along religious lines into two separate entities: West Bengal—a state of India—and East Bengal—a part of the newly created Dominion of Pakistan that later became the independent nation of Bangladesh in 1971.
2 Ancient and classical Bengal
2.1 Prehistory to Iron Age
2.2 Early literary and geographic accounts
2.3 Jain, Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms
2.3.1 Geopolitical divisions
2.3.2 Indian empires
2.3.2.1 Mauryan Empire
2.3.2.2 Gupta Empire
2.3.2.3 Magadha and Bengal
2.3.3 Local dynasties
2.3.3.1 Gauda kingdom
2.3.3.2 Varman dynasty
2.3.3.3 Khadga dynasty
2.3.3.4 Pala Empire
2.3.3.5 Chandra dynasty
2.3.3.6 Sena dynasty
2.3.3.7 Deva dynasty
3 Medieval and early modern Bengal
3.1 Delhi Sultanate (1204–1352)
3.2 Small sultanates (1338–1352)
3.3 Bengal Sultanate (1352–1576)
3.3.1 Ilyas Shahi dynasty (1342–1414 and 1435–1487)
3.3.2 Hindu-Muslim usurpers (1414–1435)
3.3.3 Hussain Shahi dynasty (1494–1538)
3.3.4 Suri interruption (1539–1564)
3.3.5 Karrani dynasty (1564–1576)
3.4 Baro-Bhuyans (1576–1610)
3.5 Mughal period (1529–1857)
3.5.1 Subedar period (1574–1727)
3.5.2 Nawabs of Bengal (1717–1757)
3.6 Nasiri dynasty (1717–1740)
3.7 Afsar dynasty (1740–1757)
3.7.1 Bengal in the Mughal economy
3.8 Hindu states
3.9 Immigration
3.10 Maratha invasions
4 Colonial Bengal
4.1 Portuguese Chittagong (1528–1666)
4.2 Dutch settlements (1610–1824)
4.3 Early English settlements (1600s)
4.4 French settlements (1692–1952)
4.5 Danish settlements (1625–1845)
4.6 Austrian settlement (1700s)
4.7 British East India Company (1757–1858)
4.8 British crown rule (1858–1947)
4.8.1 Bengal renaissance
4.8.2 Bengal Legislative Council (1862–1947)
4.8.3 Eastern Bengal and Assam (1905–1912)
4.8.4 Rebel activities
4.8.5 Bengal Legislative Assembly (1937–1947)
4.8.6 Second World War
4.8.7 Partition of Bengal (1947)
5 Post-partition and contemporary era
5.1 Indian Bengal
Main article: Names of Bengal
The exact origin of the word Bangla is unknown, though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang/Banga that settled in the area around the year 1000 BCE.[19][20] Other accounts speculate that the name is derived from Venga (Bôngo), which came from the Austric word "Bonga" meaning the Sun-god. According to the Mahabharata, the Puranas and the Harivamsha, Vanga was one of the adopted sons of King Vali who founded the Vanga Kingdom. It was either under Magadh or under Kalinga Rules except few years under Pals. The earliest reference to "Vangala" (Bôngal) has been traced in the Nesari plates (805 CE) of Rashtrakuta Govinda III which speak of Dharmapala as the king of Vangala. The records of Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty, who invaded Bengal in the 11th century, use the term Vangaladesa.[21][22][23]
The term Bangalah is one of the precursors to the modern terms Bengal and Bangla.[24][25][26] Bangalah was the most widely used term for Bengal during the medieval and early modern periods. The Sultan of Bengal was styled as the Shah of Bangalah. The Mughal province of Bengal was termed Subah-i-Bangalah. An interesting theory of the origin of the name is provided by Abu'l-Fazl in his Ain-i-Akbari. According to him, "[T]he original name of Bengal was Bung, and the suffix "al" came to be added to it from the fact that the ancient rajahs of this land raised mounds of earth 10 feet high and 20 in breadth in lowlands at the foot of the hills which were called "al". From this suffix added to the Bung, the name Bengal arose and gained currency".[27]
Ancient and classical Bengal
Prehistory to Iron Age
Remnants of the city wall in Mahasthangarh, one of the oldest urban settlements in Bengal
Stone Age tools found in the region indicate human habitation for over 20,000 years.[28] Remnants of Copper Age settlements, including pit dwellings, date back 4,000 years.[28] Bengal was settled by Austroasiatics, Tibeto-Burmans, Dravidians and Indo-Aryans in consecutive waves of migration.[19][28] Archaeological evidence confirms that by the second millennium BCE, the Bengal delta was inhabited by rice-cultivating communities, with people living in systemically-aligned housing and producing pottery.[29] Rivers such as the Ganges and Brahmaputra were used for transport while maritime trade flourished in the Bay of Bengal.[29]
The Iron Age saw the development of coinage, metal weapons, agriculture and irrigation.[29] Large urban settlements formed in the middle of the first millennium BCE,[30] when the Northern Black Polished Ware culture dominated the northern part of Indian subcontinent.[31] Alexander Cunningham, the founder of the Archaeological Survey of India, identified the archaeological site of Mahasthangarh as the capital of the Pundra Kingdom mentioned in the Rigveda.[32][33]
Early literary and geographic accounts
The ancient Bengal region features prominently in legendary history of India, Sri Lanka, Siam, Indonesia, Cambodia, Burma, Nepal, Tibet, China and Malaya. According to the Indian epic Mahabharata, the Vanga Kingdom was located in Bengal. Vanga was described as a thassalocracy with colonies in Southeast Asia. According to Sri Lankan history, the first king of Sri Lanka was Prince Vijaya who led a fleet from India to conquer the island of Lanka. Prince Vijaya's ancestral home was Bengal.[34]
In the Greco-Roman world, accounts of the Gangaridai Kingdom are considered by historians to have referred to Bengal. At the time of Alexander the Great's invasion of India, the collective might of the Gangaridai and the Nanda Empire (Bihar) deterred the Greek army. The Gangaridai army was stated to have a war elephant cavalry of 6000 elephants.[35] The archaeological sites of Wari-Bateshwar and Chandraketugarh are linked to the Gangaridai kingdom. In Ptolemy's world map, the emporium of Sounagoura (Sonargaon) was located in Bengal.[36] Roman geographers also noted the existence of a large natural harbour in southeastern Bengal, corresponding to the present-day Chittagong region.[37]
Jain, Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms
Ancient Bengal was often divided between various kingdoms. At times, the region was unified into a single realm; while it was also ruled by pan-Indian empires.
Geopolitical divisions
A map showing some of the ancient geopolitical divisions in Bengal
The following table lists the geopolitical divisions of ancient Bengal. The table includes a list of corresponding modern regions, which formed the core areas of the geopolitical units. The territories of the geopolitical divisions expanded and receded through the centuries.
Ancient region
Modern region
Pundravardhana Rajshahi Division and Rangpur Division in Bangladesh; Malda division of West Bengal in India
Vanga Khulna Division and Barisal Division in Bangladesh; Presidency division and Medinipur division of West Bengal in India
Anga Location unclear; probable location around northern West Bengal and eastern Bihar in India
Suhma Burdwan division, Medinipur division and Presidency division of West Bengal in India
Radha Location unclear; probable location in West Bengal of India
Samatata Dhaka Division, Barisal Division and Chittagong Division in Bangladesh
Harikela Sylhet Division, Chittagong Division, Dhaka Division and Barisal Division in Bangladesh
Pragjyotisa Karimganj district of Barak Valley region of Assam in India; Sylhet Division and Dhaka Division in Bangladesh
Indian empires
Mauryan Empire
The Mauryan Empire unified most of the Indian subcontinent into one state for the first time and was one of the largest empires in subcontinental history.[38] The empire was established by Chandragupta Maurya. Under Mauryan rule, the economic system benefited from the creation of a single efficient system of finance, administration, and security. The reign of Ashoka ushered an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of the sciences and of knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of Jainism increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism has been said to have been the foundation of the reign of social and political peace and non-violence across the subcontinent. Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist missionaries to various parts of Asia.[39] The Mauryans built the Grand Trunk Road, one of Asia's oldest and longest major roads connecting the Indian subcontinent with Central Asia.[40]
Bengal's oldest inscription – the Mahasthan Brahmi Inscription – dates from the Mauryan period. The inscription was written in the Brahmi script in the provincial capital of Pundranagara. The inscription was produced during the 3rd century BCE.[41]
A sculpture of ancient Bengal found in Chandraketugarh
The Gupta Empire is regarded as a golden age in subcontinental history. It was marked by extensive scientific and cultural advancements that crystallised the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture.[42] The Hindu-Arabic numeral system, a positional numeral system, originated during Gupta rule and was later transmitted to the West through the Arabs. Early Hindu numerals had only nine symbols, until 600 to 800 CE, when a symbol for zero was developed for the numeral system.[43] The peace and prosperity created under leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavours in the empire.[44]
Bengal was an important province of the Gupta Empire. The discovery of Gupta era coins across Bengal point to a monetised economy.[45]
Magadha and Bengal
Ancient Bengal was often ruled by dynasties based in the Magadha region, such as the Shunga dynasty.
Local dynasties
Gauda kingdom
King Shashanka is considered by some scholars to be the pioneering king of a unified Bengali state. Shashanka established a kingdom in the citadel of Gauda. His reign lasted between 590 and 625. The Bengali calendar traces its origin to Shashanka's reign.
Varman dynasty
The Varman dynasty of Kamarupa ruled North Bengal and the Sylhet region. The area was a melting pot of the Bengali-Assamese languages.
Khadga dynasty
The Khadga dynasty was a Buddhist dynasty of eastern Bengal. One of the legacies of the dynasty is its gold coinage inscribed with the names of rulers such as Rajabhata.
Pala Empire
The ruins of the Somapura Mahavihara, once the largest monastery in the Indian subcontinent and now a UNESCO World Heritage Site
The Pala Empire (750–1120) was a Bengali empire and the last Buddhist imperial power the Indian subcontinent. The name Pala (Bengali: পাল) means protector and was used as an ending to the names of all Pala monarchs. The Palas were followers of the Mahayana and Vajrayana schools of Buddhism. Gopala I (750–770) was its first ruler. He came to power in 750 through an election by chieftains in Gauḍa. Gopala reigned from about 750–770 and consolidated his position by extending his control over all of Bengal.
The Pala dynasty lasted for four centuries and ushered in a period of stability and prosperity in Bengal. They created many temples and works of art as well as supported the important ancient higher-learning institutions of Nalanda and Vikramashila. The Somapura Mahavihara built by Emperor Dharmapala is the greatest Buddhist monastery in the Indian subcontinent.
The empire reached its peak under Emperor Dharmapala (770–810) and Devapala (810–850). Dharmapala extended the empire into the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent. According to Pala copperplate inscriptions, his successor Devapala exterminated the Utkalas, invade the Kamarupa Kingdom of Assam, shattered the pride of the Huna people and humbled the lords of Gurjara-Pratihara and the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
The death of Devapala in 850 ended the period of ascendancy of the Pala dynasty and several independent dynasties and kingdoms emerged during this time. However, Mahipala rejuvenated the reign of the Palas. He recovered control over all of Bengal and expanded the empire. He survived the invasions of Rajendra Chola I and the Chalukya dynasty. After Mahipala I the Pala dynasty again saw its decline until Ramapala (1077–1130), the last great ruler of the dynasty, managed to retrieve the position of the dynasty to some extent. He crushed the Varendra Rebellion and tried to extend his empire farther to Kamarupa, Odisha and northern India. In his endeavour to conquer the Utkala and Koshala, parts of Odisha today, he had to contest with the mighty Ganga king Anangabhima Chodaganga Deva. Eventually Anangabhimadeva defeated Ramapala and united the regions of Trikalinga (Utkala, Koshala and Kalinga) into a major empire famous in history as the Eastern Ganga empire of Kalinga. While Anangabhimadeva defeated the Palas successively and counquered southern Bengal, he had to face stiffer opposition in the south from the great Chola ruler, Kulothunga Chola I. The river Hooghly became the northern boundary of the Odishan kingdom.
The Pala period is regarded as one of Bengal's golden ages. It was the largest Bengali empire that was known to ancient and classical India. The Palas were responsible for the introduction of Mahayana Buddhism in Tibet, Bhutan and Burma. It was during the Pala period Bengal became the main center of Buddhist as well as secular learning. Nalanda, Vikramashila and Somapura Mahavihara flourished and prospered under the patronage of the Pala rulers. Dharmapala and Devapala were two great patrons of Buddhism, secular education and culture.
The Palas also had extensive trade as well as influence in Southeast Asia. This can be seen in the sculptures and architectural style of the Sailendra (present-day Malay Peninsula, Java and Sumatra). However, the economy of Bengal became more dependent on agriculture. Importance of merchant and financial classes declined. While the monarchs were Buddhists, land grants to Brahmin agriculturalists was common.[46]
The life of Buddha depicted in a Pala-era scroll. The script used in the scroll is an ancestor of the Bengali language.
Chandra dynasty
The archaeological site of Mainamati was a religious center used by the Chandra dynasty
The Chandra dynasty ruled southeastern Bengal and Arakan between the 10th and 11th centuries CE.[47] The dynasty was powerful enough to withstand the Pala Empire to the northwest. The Chandra kingdom covered the Harikela region, which was known as the Kingdom of Ruhmi to Arab traders.[48] The dynasty's realm was a bridge between India and Southeast Asia. During this period, the port of Chittagong developed banking and shipping industries.[49] The last ruler of the Chandra Dynasty, Govindachandra, was defeated by the south Indian Emperor Rajendra Chola I of the maritime Chola dynasty in the 11th century.[50]
Sena dynasty
A sculpture of the Hindu deity Vishnu from the Sena period
The Pala dynasty was replaced by the resurgent Hindu Sena dynasty which hailed from south India; they and their feudatories are referred to in history books as the "Kannada kings." In contrast to the Pala dynasty who championed Buddhism, the Sena dynasty were staunchly Hindu. They brought about a revival of Hinduism and cultivated Sanskrit literature in eastern India. They succeeded in bringing Bengal under one ruler during the 12th century. Vijaya Sena, second ruler of the dynasty, defeated the last Pala emperor, Madanapala, and established his reign formally. Ballala Sena, third ruler of the dynasty, was a scholar and philosopher king. He is said to have invited Brahmins from both south India and north India to settle in Bengal, and aid the resurgence of Hinduism in his kingdom. He married a Western Chalukya princess and concentrated on building his empire eastwards, establishing his rule over nearly all of Bengal and large areas of lower Assam. Ballala Sena made Nabadwip his capital.[51]
The fourth Sena king, Lakshmana Sena, son of Ballala Sena, was the greatest king of his line. He expanded the empire beyond Bengal into Bihar, Assam, Odisha and likely Varanasi. Lakshmana was later defeated by the nomadic Turkic Muslims and fled to eastern Bengal, where he ruled few more years. It is proposed by some Bengali authors that Jayadeva, the famous Sanskrit poet and author of Gita Govinda, was one of the Pancharatnas or "five Gems" of the court of Lakshmana Sena.
Deva dynasty
The Deva dynasty was a Hindu dynasty of medieval Bengal that ruled over eastern Bengal after the collapse Sena Empire. The capital of this dynasty was Bikrampur in present-day Munshiganj District of Bangladesh. The inscriptional evidences show that his kingdom was extended up to the present-day Comilla–Noakhali–Chittagong region. A later ruler of the dynasty Ariraja-Danuja-Madhava Dasharatha-Deva extended his kingdom to cover much of East Bengal.[52] The Deva dynasty endured after Muslim conquests but eventually died out.
Medieval and early modern Bengal
Delhi Sultanate (1204–1352)
The Islamic conquest of Bengal began with the capture of Gauda from the Sena dynasty in 1204. Led by Bakhtiar Khilji, an army of several thousand horsemen from the Ghurids overwhelmed Bengali Hindu forces during a blitzkrieg campaign. After victory, the Delhi Sultanate maintained a strong vigil on Bengal. Coins were inscribed in gold with the Sanskrit inscription Gaudiya Vijaye, meaning "On the conquest of Gauda (Bengal)". Several governors of Delhi in Bengal attempted to break away and create an independent state. But the Delhi Sultanate managed to suppress Bengal's Muslim separatists for a century.[53] Gradually, eastern Bengal was absorbed into Muslim rule by the 14th century, such as through the Conquest of Sylhet. Sufis played a role in the Islamic absorption of Bengal. During the Tughluq dynasty, the taka was introduced as the imperial currency.[54]
Small sultanates (1338–1352)
During the middle of the 14th century, three break away sultanates emerged in the Delhi Sultanate's province of Bengal. These included a realm led by Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah (and later his son) in Sonargaon;[55] a realm led by Alauddin Ali Shah in Gauda (also called Lakhnauti);[56] and a realm led by Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah in Satgaon. The Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta visited Sonargaon during the reign of Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah. Ibn Battua also visited the Sufi leader Shah Jalal in Sylhet, who had earlier defeated the Hindu ruler Govinda.[57][58]
Bengal Sultanate (1352–1576)
Main article: Bengal Sultanate
Adina Mosque
The Adina Mosque was India's largest mosque
Ruins of the prayer hall
The Sultan's upper floor gallery
Central mihrab
Ilyas Shahi dynasty (1342–1414 and 1435–1487)
See also: Ilyas Shahi dynasty
In 1352, Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah unified the three small sultanates in Bengal into a single government. Ilyas Shah proclaimed himself as the "Shah of Bangalah". His son Sikandar Shah defeated the Sultan of Delhi and secured recognition of Bengal's sovereignty after the Bengal Sultanate-Delhi Sultanate War. The largest mosque in India was built in Bengal to project the new sultanate's imperial ambitions. The sultans advanced civic institutions and became more responsive and "native" in their outlook. Considerable architectural projects were undertaken which induced the influence of Persian architecture, Arab architecture and Byzantine architecture in Bengal. The dynasty was a promoter of Indo-Persian culture. One of the sultans, Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah, kept a correspondence with the renowned Persian poet Hafez.
The early Bengal Sultanate was notable for its diplomatic relationships. Embassies were sent to Ming China during the reign of Emperor Yongle. China responded by sending envoys, including the Treasure voyages; and mediating in regional disputes. There are also records of the sultans' relations with Egypt, Herat and some kingdoms in Africa.
The Ilyas Shahi Dynasty was interrupted in 1414 by a native uprising but was restored by Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah in 1433.
Hindu-Muslim usurpers (1414–1435)
The Ilyas Shahi reign was interrupted by an uprising orchestrated by the sultan's premier Raja Ganesha, a Hindu aristocrat. Ganesha installed his son Jadu to the throne but his son was influenced to convert to Islam[citation needed] by the court's Sufi clergy. Jadu took the title of Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah. His reign saw native Bengali elements promoted in the court's culture. Bengali influences were incorporated into the kingdom's architecture. The Bengal Sultanate-Jaunpur Sultanate War ended after mediation from China and the Timurids. Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah also pursued the Reconquest of Arakan to reinstall Arakan's king to the throne after he had been deposed by Burmese forces.[citation needed]
Hussain Shahi dynasty (1494–1538)
See also: Hussain Shahi dynasty
Bengal Sultanate and the neighbouring kingdoms (1525 CE).
A Hindu revival movement led by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu emerged during the Hussain Shahi dynasty
The Bengal Sultanate's territory reached its greatest extent under Alauddin Hussain Shah, founder of the Hussain Shahi dynasty. The dynasty is regarded by several historians as a golden age in which a syncretic Bengali culture evolved including elements of Muslim and Hindu traditions. For example, the Muslim sultan promoted the translation of Sanskrit epics like the Ramayana into the Bengali language. The promotion of Bengali literature under the dynasty led to Bengali replacing the strong influence of Sanskrit in the region.
Suri interruption (1539–1564)
See also: Suri Empire
In the 16th century, the Mughal emperor Humayun was forced to take shelter in Persia as the conqueror Sher Shah Suri rampaged through the subcontinent. Bengal was brought under the control of the short-lived Suri Empire.
Karrani dynasty (1564–1576)
See also: Karrani dynasty
An Afghan dynasty was the last royal house of the Bengal Sultanate. The capital of the dynasty was Sonargaon. The dynasty also ruled parts of Bihar and Orissa. Its eastern boundary was formed by the Brahmaputra River.
Baro-Bhuyans (1576–1610)
Main article: Baro-Bhuyan
A confederation of twelve zamindar families resisted the expansion of the Mughal Empire during the 16th and 17th centuries. The zamindars included Muslims and Hindus. They were led by the Muslim Rajput chief Isa Khan. The Baro-Bhuyans defeated the Mughal navy during several engagements in Bengal's rivers. Eventually, the Mughals subdued the zamindar rebellion and brought all of Bengal under imperial control.
Mughal period (1529–1857)
Main articles: Mughal Empire and Bengal Subah
A Mughal miniature showing emperor Akbar rejoicing upon the Mughal conquest of Bengal
The Mughal absorption of Bengal began with the Battle of Ghaghra in 1529, in which the Mughal army was led by the first Mughal emperor Babur. The second Mughal emperor Humayun occupied the Bengali capital Gaur for six months.[59] Following the collapse of the Bengal Sultanate in the Battle of Raj Mahal in 1576, the Bengal region was brought under Mughal control as the Bengal Subah.
Subedar period (1574–1727)
Subedars were the Mughal viceroys in Bengal. The Bengal Subah was part of a larger prosperous empire and shaped by imperial policies of pluralistic government. The Mughals built the provincial capital in Dhaka in 1610 with fortifications, gardens, tombs, palaces and mosques. Dhaka was also named in honour of Emperor Jahangir as Jahangirnagar. Shaista Khan's conquest of Chittagong in 1666 defeated the (Burmese) Kingdom of Arakan and reestablished Bengali control of the port city. The Chittagong Hill Tracts frontier region was made a tributary state of Mughal Bengal and a treaty was signed with the Chakma Circle in 1713.
Members of the imperial family were often appointed to the position of Subedar. Man Singh I was the only Hindu subedar. One subedar was Prince Shah Shuja, who was the son of Emperor Shah Jahan. During the struggle for succession with his brothers Prince Aurangazeb, Prince Dara Shikoh and Prince Murad Baksh, Prince Shuja proclaimed himself as the Mughal Emperor in Bengal. He was eventually defeated by the army of Aurangazeb.
Nawabs of Bengal (1717–1757)
By the 18th century, Mughal Bengal became a quasi-independent country under the nominal rule of the emperor in Delhi. The subedar was elevated to the status of a hereditary Nawab Nazim. The Nawabs maintained de facto control of Bengal while minting coins in the name of the emperor in Delhi.
Nasiri dynasty (1717–1740)
The dynasty was founded by the first Nawab of Bengal Murshid Quli Khan. Its other rulers included Sarfaraz Khan and Shuja-ud-Din Muhammad Khan.
Afsar dynasty (1740–1757)
The dynasty was founded by Alivardi Khan. His grandson and successor Siraj-ud-daulah was the last independent Nawab of Bengal due to his defeat to British forces at the Battle of Plassey in 1757.
Bengal in the Mughal economy
A woman in Dhaka clad in fine Bengali muslin, 18th century
Further information: Muslin trade in Bengal and Mughal economy
Under the Mughal Empire, Bengal was an affluent province with a Muslim majority and Hindu minority. According to economic historian Indrajit Ray, it was globally prominent in industries such as textile manufacturing and shipbuilding.[12] The capital Dhaka had a population exceeding a million people, and with an estimated 80,000 skilled textile weavers. It was an exporter of silk and cotton textiles, steel, saltpetre, and agricultural and industrial produce.[11]
Bengali farmers and agriculturalists were quick to adapt to profitable new crops between 1600 and 1650. Bengali agriculturalists rapidly learned techniques of mulberry cultivation and sericulture, establishing Bengal as a major silk-producing region of the world.[60]
Under Mughal rule, Bengal was a center of the worldwide muslin and silk trades. During the Mughal era, the most important center of cotton production was Bengal, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka, leading to muslin being called "daka" in distant markets such as Central Asia.[61] Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles. Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks and opium; Bengal accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia, for example, including more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks.[62] From Bengal, saltpetre was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold in Indonesia, raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, and cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia and Japan.[63]
Bengal had a large shipbuilding industry. Indrajit Ray estimates shipbuilding output of Bengal during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries at 223,250 tons annually, compared with 23,061 tons produced in thirteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771.[64]
Hindu states
Kantajew Temple
Front of the temple
Terracotta river scene
Terracotta horseman
Temple pillar
There were several Hindu states established in and around Bengal during the medieval and early modern periods. These kingdoms contributed a lot to the economic and cultural landscape of Bengal. Extensive land reclamation in forested and marshy areas were carried out and intrastate trade as well as commerce were highly encouraged. These kingdoms also helped introduce new music, painting, dancing and sculpture into Bengali art-forms as well as many temples were constructed during this period. Militarily, they served as bulwarks against Portuguese and Burmese attacks. These states includes the principalities of Maharaja Pratap Aditya of Jessore, Raja Sitaram Ray of Burdwan, Raja Krishnachandra Roy of Nadia Raj and Kingdom of Mallabhum. The Kingdom of Bhurshut was a medieval Hindu kingdom spread across what is now Howrah and Hooghly in the Indian state of West Bengal. Maharaja Rudranarayan consolidated the dynasty and expanded the kingdom and converted it into one of the most powerful Hindu kingdom of the time. His wife Maharani Bhavashankari defeated the Pathan resurgence in Bengal[65] and her reign brought power, prosperity and grandeur to Bhurishrestha Kingdom. Their son, Maharaja Pratapnarayan, patronised literature and art, trade & commerce, as well as welfare of his subjects. Afterwards, Maharaja Naranarayan maintained the integrity and sovereignty of the kingdom by diplomatically averting the occupation of the kingdom by the Mughal forces. His son, Maharaja Lakshminarayan, failed to maintain the sovereignty of the kingdom due to sabotage from within. The Koch Bihar Kingdom in the northern Bengal, flourished during the period of 16th and the 17th centuries as well as weathered the Mughals and survived till the advent of the British.[66] The Burdwan Raj was a zamindari estate that flourished from about 1657 to 1955, first under the Mughals and then under the British in the province of Bengal in British-India. At the peak of its prosperity in the 18th century, the estate extended to around 5,000 square miles (13,000 km2) of territory[67] and even up to the early 20th century paid an annual revenue to the government in excess of 3,300,000 rupees.
Bengal received many immigrants from West Asia, Central Asia, the Horn of Africa and North India during the sultanate and Mughal periods. Many came as refugees due to the Mongol invasions and conquests. Others found Bengal's fertile land suitable for economic production and commerce. The Arabs were among the earliest settlers, especially in coastal areas.[68] Persians settled in Bengal to become clerics, missionaries, lawyers, teachers, soldiers, administrators and poets.[69] An Armenian community from the Safavid Empire migrated to the region.[70] There were also many Turkic immigrants.[71] The Portuguese were the earliest Europeans to settle in Bengal.[72]
Many Arakanese escaped persecution in Burma and settled in southern Bengal during the 18th century.[73] Many Manipuris settled in eastern Bengal during the 18th century after fleeing from conflict-ridden areas in Assam.[74] The Marwari community continues to be influential in West Bengal's economic sectors. The Marwaris migrated from Rajasthan in western India. In Bangladesh, a Nizari Ismaili community with diverse origins continues to play a significant role in economic sectors.
Maratha invasions
Main articles: Maratha invasions of Bengal and Bargi
Around the early 18th century, the Maratha Empire led invasions of Bengal. The leader of the expedition was Maharaja Raghuji of Nagpur. Raghoji was able to annexe Odisha and parts of Bengal permanently as he successfully exploited the chaotic conditions prevailing in the region after the death of their Governor Murshid Quli Khan in 1727.[75]
During their occupation, the Marathas perpetrated a massacre against the local population,[76] killing close to 400,000 people in western Bengal and Bihar.[77] This devastated Bengal's economy, as many of the people killed in the Maratha raids included merchants, textile weavers,[77] silk winders, and mulberry cultivators.[78] The Cossimbazar factory reported in 1742, for example, that the Marathas burnt down many of the houses where silk piece goods were made, along with weavers' looms.[77] The Maratha invasions of Bengal badly affected the economy of Bengal and it is estimated that 400,000 Bengali Muslims were butchered brutally by the Hindu Maratha bargis and many women and children gang raped.,[79] and the genocide has been considered to be among the deadliest massacres in Indian history.[80]
Colonial Bengal
European ships in Chittagong, 1702
Portuguese Chittagong (1528–1666)
The first European colonial settlement in Bengal was the Portuguese settlement in Chittagong. The settlement was established after the Bengal Sultanate granted permission to embassies from Portuguese India for the creation of a trading post. The Portuguese settlers in Chittagong included bureaucrats, merchants, soldiers, sailors, missionaries, slave traders and pirates. They controlled the port of Chittagong and forced all merchant ships to acquire a Portuguese trade licence. The Roman Catholic Church was established in Bengal by the Portuguese in Chittagong, when the first Vicar Apostolic was appointed in the port city.
The Portuguese eventually came under the protection of the Kingdom of Mrauk U as the Bengal Sultanate lost control of the Chittagong region. In 1666, the Mughal conquest of Chittagong resulted in the expulsion of Portuguese and Arakanese forces in the port city. The Portuguese also migrated to other parts of Bengal, including Bandel and Dhaka.
Dutch settlements (1610–1824)
Main article: Dutch Bengal
Flag of the Dutch East India Company
The Dutch East India Company operated a directorate in Bengal for nearly two centuries. The directorate later became a colony of the Dutch Empire in 1725. Dutch territories in Bengal were ceded to Britain by the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824. Dutch settlements in Bengal included the Dutch settlement in Rajshahi, the main Dutch port in Baliapal, as well as factories in Chhapra (saltpetre), Dhaka (muslin), Balasore, Patna, Cossimbazar, Malda, Mirzapur, Murshidabad, Rajmahal and Sherpur.
Bengal once accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia, particularly in terms of silk and muslin goods.[81]
Early English settlements (1600s)
The East India Company established its first settlements in Bengal around Hooghly during the 1630s.[82] It received an official permission to trade from Mughal viceroy Shah Shuja in 1651.[82] In 1689, the company attempted to take Chittagong and make it the headquarters of their Bengal trade but the English expedition found the port heavily defended.[83][84] In 1696, the English built Fort William on the bank of the Hooghly River. Fort William served as the British headquarters in India for centuries. The area around Fort William eventually grew into the city of Calcutta. English factories were established throughout Bengal. The port in Fort William became one of the most important British naval bases in Asia from where expeditions were sent to China and Southeast Asia. The English language began to be used for commerce and government in Bengal.[82]
French settlements (1692–1952)
The French establishments in India included colonies and factories in Bengal. After permission from Mughal viceroy Shaista Khan in 1692, the French set up a settlement in Chandernagore. The French also had a large presence in Dhaka, where a neighbourhood called Farashganj developed in the old city. One of the notable properties of the French included the land of the Ahsan Manzil, where the French administrative building was located. The property was sold to Bengali aristocrats, who exchanged the property several times until it became the property of the Dhaka Nawab Family. The French built a garden in Tejgaon. Cossimbazar and Balasore also hosted French factories.[85]
The French took the side of Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah during the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Eventually, the French presence in Bengal was only restricted to the colony of Chandernagore, which was administered by the governor in Pondicherry. After India's independence in 1947, a referendum in Chandernagore gave a mandate to end colonial rule. The French transferred sovereignty in 1952. In 1955, Chandernagore became part of the Indian state of West Bengal.
Danish settlements (1625–1845)
The first settlement of the Danish East India Company in Bengal was established in Pipli in 1625. The Danish company later gained permission from Nawab Alivardi Khan to establish a trading post in Serampore in 1755. The first representative of the Danish crown was appointed in 1770. The town was named Fredericknagore. The Danish also operated colonies on the Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. Territories in Bengal and the Bay of Bengal were part of Danish India until 1845, when Danish colonies were ceded to Britain.
Austrian settlement (1700s)
The Ostend Company of the Austrian Empire operated a settlement in Bankipur, Bengal during the 18th century.
British East India Company (1757–1858)
Robert Clive conferring with Mir Jafar, the Bengali traitor who betrayed the last independent Nawab
When the East India Company began strengthening the defences at Fort William (Calcutta), the Nawab, Siraj Ud Daulah, at the encouragement of the French, attacked. Under the leadership of Robert Clive, British troops and their local allies captured Chandernagore in March 1757 and seriously defeated the Nawab on 23 June 1757 at the Battle of Plassey, when the Nawab's soldiers betrayed him. The Nawab was assassinated in Murshidabad, and the British installed their own Nawab for Bengal and extended their direct control in the south. Chandernagore was restored to the French in 1763. The Bengalis attempted to regain their territories in 1765 in alliance with the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, but were defeated again at the Battle of Buxar (1765). The centre of Indian culture and trade shifted from Delhi to Calcutta when the Mughal Empire fell.
The plunder of Bengal directly contributed to the Industrial Revolution in Britain,[15][16][17][18] with the capital amassed from Bengal used to invest in British industries such as textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution and greatly increase British wealth, while at the same time leading to deindustrialisation of Bengal's traditional textile industry.[15][16][17]
During British rule, two devastating famines occurred costing millions of lives in 1770 and 1943. Scarcely five years into the British East India Company's rule, the catastrophic Bengal famine of 1770, one of the greatest famines of history occurred. Up to a third of the population died in 1770 and subsequent years.
British crown rule (1858���1947)
See also: British Empire, British Raj, and Bengal Presidency
The Victoria Memorial flanked by St. Paul's Cathedral in Kolkata, India. The city was the former British capital of India
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 replaced rule by the Company with the direct control of Bengal by the British Crown. Fort William continued to be the capital of British-held territories in India. The Governor of Bengal was concurrently the Governor-General of India for many years. In 1877, when Victoria took the title of "Empress of India", the British declared Calcutta the capital of the British Raj. The colonial capital developed in Calcutta's municipality, which served as the capital of India for decades. A centre of rice cultivation and the world's main source of jute fibre; Bengal was one of India's largest industrial centers. From the 1850s, industry was centered around the capital Calcutta. The railway was created in Britain in 1825. It was introduced in the United States in 1833, Germany in 1835, Italy in 1839, France in 1844 and Spain in 1848. The British government introduced the railway to Bengal in 1854.[86] Several rail companies were established in Bengal during the 19th century, including the Eastern Bengal Railway and Assam Bengal Railway. The largest seaport in British Bengal was the Port of Calcutta, one of the busiest ports in the erstwhile British Empire. The Calcutta Stock Exchange was established in 1908. Other ports in Bengal included the Port of Narayanganj, the Port of Chittagong and the Port of Dhaka. Bengali ports were often free trade ports which welcomed ships from across the world. There was extensive shipping with British Burma. Two universities were established in Bengal during British rule, including the University of Calcutta and the University of Dacca. Numerous colleges and schools were established in each district. Most of the Bengali population nevertheless remained dependent on agriculture, and despite Bengali social and political leaders playing a major role in Indian political and intellectual activity, the province included some very undeveloped districts.
At its greatest extent, the Bengal Presidency covered north and north-east India, as well as Burma, Singapore and Penang
The Bengal Presidency had the highest gross domestic product in British India.[87] Bengal hosted the most advanced cultural centers in British India.[88] A cosmopolitan, eclectic cultural atmosphere took shape. There were many anglophiles, including the Naib Nazim of Dhaka. A Portuguese missionary published the first book on Bengali grammar. A Hindu scholar produced a Bengali translation of the Quran. However, Bengalis were also divided by religion due to the political situation in the rest of India.
Bengal renaissance
Main article: Bengali Renaissance
Rabindranath Tagore's influence on Bengali and Indian literature has been compared to Shakespeare's influence in the English-speaking world. Tagore was the first Asian Nobel laureate in 1913
The Bengal renaissance refers to a social reform movement during the 19th and early 20th centuries in the region of Bengal in undivided India during the period of British rule. Historian Nitish Sengupta describes it as having started with reformer and humanitarian Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1775–1833), and ended with Asia's first Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941).[89] This flowering of religious and social reformers, scholars, and writers is described by historian David Kopf as "one of the most creative periods in Indian history".[90]
Bengal Legislative Council (1862–1947)
The Bengal Legislative Council was the principal lawmaking body in the province. It was created by the Indian Councils Act 1861 and reformed under the Indian Councils Act 1892, the Indian Councils Act 1909, the Government of India Act 1919 and the Government of India Act 1935. Initially an advisory council with mostly European members, native Bengali representation gradually increased in the early 20th-century. In 1935, it became the upper house of the provincial legislature alongside the lower house in the Bengal Legislative Assembly. The Governor of Bengal, who was concurrently the Governor-General of India, often sat on the council.
Eastern Bengal and Assam (1905–1912)
See also: Partition of Bengal (1905)
The All India Muhammadan Educational Conference in Dacca, 1906
The British government argued that Bengal, being India's most populous province, was too large and difficult to govern. Bengal was divided by the British rulers for administrative purposes in 1905 into an overwhelmingly Hindu west (including present-day Bihar and Odisha) and a predominantly Muslim east (including Assam). Hindu – Muslim conflict became stronger through this partition. While Hindu Indians disagreed with the partition saying it was a way of dividing a Bengal which is united by language and history, Muslims supported it by saying it was a big step forward for Muslim society where Muslims will be majority and they can freely practice their religion as well as their culture. But owing to strong Hindu agitation, the British reunited East and West Bengal in 1912, and made Bihar and Orissa a separate province
The short lived province of Eastern Bengal and Assam provided impetus to a growing movement for self-determination among British-Indian Muslim subjects. The All India Muslim League was created during a conference on liberal education hosted by the Nawab of Dhaka in Eastern Bengal and Assam. The Eastern Bengal and Assam Legislative Council was the lawmaking body of the province.
Rebel activities
Bengal played a major role in the Indian independence movement (including the Pakistan movement), in which revolutionary groups such as Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar were dominant. Bengalis also played a notable role in the Indian independence movement. Many of the early proponents of independence, and subsequent leaders in movement were Bengalis. Among the Hindu independence leaders from Bengal were Chittaranjan Das, Surendranath Banerjee, Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, Prafulla Chaki, Bagha Jatin, Khudiram Bose, Surya Sen, Binoy–Badal–Dinesh, Sarojini Naidu, Aurobindo Ghosh, Rashbehari Bose and many more. Some of these leaders, such as Netaji, did not subscribe to the view that non-violent civil disobedience was the only way to achieve Indian Independence, and allied with Japan to fight against the British. During the Second World War Netaji escaped to Germany from house arrest in India and there he founded the Indian Legion an army to fight against the British Government, but the turning of the war compelled him to come to South-East Asia and there he became the co-founder and leader of the Indian National Army (distinct from the army of British India) that challenged British forces in several parts of India. He was also the head of state of a parallel regime named 'The Provisional Government of Free India' or Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind, that was recognised and supported by the Axis powers. Bengal was also the fostering ground for several prominent revolutionary organisations, the most notable of which was Anushilan Samiti. A large number of Bengalis died in the independence struggle and many were exiled in Cellular Jail, the much dreaded prison located in Andaman.
Bengal Legislative Assembly (1937–1947)
The Prime Ministers of Bengal
The Bengal Legislative Assembly was British India's largest legislature. It was created by the Government of India Act 1935 as the lower house of the provincial parliament. The assembly was elected on the basis of the so-called "separate electorate" system created by the Communal Award. Seats were reserved for different religious, social and professional communities. Major parties in the assembly included the All India Muslim League, the Farmers and Tenants Party, the Indian National Congress, the Swaraj Party and the Hindu Mahasabha. The Prime Minister of Bengal was a member of the assembly.
Bengal was used as a base for Allied Forces during World War II. Bengal was strategically important during the Burma Campaign and Allied assistance to the Republic of China to fight off the Japanese invasions. The Imperial Japanese Air Force bombed Chittagong in April and May 1942; and Calcutta in December 1942. The Japanese aborted a planned invasion of Bengal from Burma. The Ledo Road was constructed between Bengal and China through Allied controlled areas in northern Burma to supply the forces led by Chiang Kai Shek. Units of the United States Armed Forces were stationed in Chittagong Airfield during the Burma Campaign 1944-1945.[91] Commonwealth forces included troops from Britain, India, Australia and New Zealand.
The Bengal famine of 1943 occurred during World War II and caused the death of an estimated 2.1–3 million people.
Partition of Bengal (1947)
Main article: Partition of Bengal (1947)
The partition of Bengal in 1947 left a deep impact on the people of Bengal. The breakdown of Hindu-Muslim unity caused the All India Muslim League to demand the partition of India in line with the Lahore Resolution, which called for Bengal to be included in a Muslim-majority homeland. Hindu nationalists in Bengal were determined to make Hindu-majority districts a part of the Indian dominion. A majority of members in the Bengal Legislative Assembly voted to keep Bengal undivided. The Prime Minister of Bengal, supported by Hindu and Muslim politicians, proposed a United Bengal as a sovereign state. However, the Indian National Congress and the Hindu Mahasabha forced the British viceroy Earl Mountbatten to partition Bengal along religious lines. As a result, Bengal was divided into the state of West Bengal of India and the province of East Bengal under Pakistan, renamed East Pakistan in 1955. The Sylhet region in Assam joined East Bengal after a referendum on 6 July 1947.
Post-partition and contemporary era
Indian Bengal
Main article: History of West Bengal
Main article: History of Bangladesh
List of rulers of Bengal
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^ Nitish Sengupta (2001). History of the Bengali-speaking People. UBS Publishers' Distributors. p. 211. ISBN 978-81-7476-355-6. The Bengal Renaissance can be said to have started with Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1775-1833) and ended with Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941).
^ Kopf, David (December 1994). "Amiya P. Sen. Hindu Revivalism in Bengal 1872". American Historical Review (Book review). 99 (5): 1741–1742. doi:10.2307/2168519. JSTOR 2168519.
^ Maurer, Maurer. Air Force Combat Units of World War II. Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Office of Air Force History, 1983. ISBN 0-89201-092-4
Salim, Gulam Hussain; tr. from Persian; Abdus Salam (1902). Riyazu-s-Salatin: History of Bengal. Asiatic Society, Baptist Mission Press.
Majumdar, R. C. The History of Bengal ISBN 81-7646-237-3
Amiya Sen (1993). Hindu Revivalism in Bengal 1872–1905: Some Essays in Interpretation. Oxford University Press.
Abdul Momin Chowdhury (1967) Dynastic History of Bengal, c. 750–1200 A.D, Dacca: The Asiatic Society of Pakistan, 1967, Pages: 310, ASIN: B0006FFATA
Iftekhar Iqbal (2010) The Bengal Delta: Ecology, State and Social Change, 1840–1943, Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies, Palgrave Macmillan, Pages: 288, ISBN 0230231837
M. Mufakharul Islam (edited) (2004) Socio-Economic History of Bangladesh: essays in memory of Professor Shafiqur Rahman, 1st Edition, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, OCLC 156800811
M. Mufakharul Islam (2007), Bengal Agriculture 1920–1946: A Quantitative Study, Cambridge South Asian Studies, Cambridge University Press, Pages: 300, ISBN 0521049857
Meghna Guhathakurta & Willem van Schendel (Edited) (2013) The Bangladesh Reader: History, Culture, Politics (The World Readers), Duke University Press Books, Pages: 568, ISBN 0822353040
Sirajul Islam (edited) (1997) History of Bangladesh 1704–1971(Three Volumes: Vol 1: Political History, Vol 2: Economic History Vol 3: Social and Cultural History), 2nd Edition (Revised New Edition), The Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, Pages: 1846, ISBN 9845123376
Sirajul Islam (Chief Editor) (2003) Banglapedia: A National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh.(10 Vols. Set), (written by 1300 scholars & 22 editors) The Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, Pages: 4840, ISBN 9843205855
Samares Kar: The Millennia Long Migration into Bengal: Rich Genetic Material and Enormous Promise in the Face of Chaos, Corruption, and Criminalization. In: Spaces & Flows: An International Journal of Urban & Extra Urban Studies. Vol. 2 Issue 2, 2012, S. 129–143 (Fulltext see ResearchGate Network).
Dr. Sujit Ghosh, (2016) Colonial Economy in North Bengal: 1833–1933, Kolkata: Paschimbanga Anchalik Itihas O Loksanskriti Charcha Kendra, ISBN 978-81-926316-6-0


Italian meats with fresh sliced tomato and homemade fresh mozzarella served in Panini bread.
Shredded Grilled Chicken mixed with pesto sauce, sun dried tomatoes and mozzarella cheese served in Panini bread.
Marinated assorted vegetables with a touch of marinara sauce and homemade fresh mozzarella served in Panini bread.
Pieces of steak with onions, Portobello mushroom and cheese served in Panini bread.
Thinly sliced Imported Italian meats served with aged cheeses, cured olives and marinated assorted vegetables.
Lightly floured fried calamari and served with a side of marinara sauce; Calamari marinated in extra virgin olive oil Italian style and grilled.
Chopped roma tomatoes with garlic, fresh basil and imported extra virgin olive oil served on crostini.
Homemade fresh mozzarella served with fresh cut tomatoes, fresh basil and drizzle with imported extra virgin olive oil.
Sauteed little neck claim in fresh tomato sauce or garlic white wine.
Sauteed mussels in fresh tomato sauce or garlic white wine.
Dressed spring mix with balsamic vinaigrette and grape tomato.
Grilled Romaine heart dressed with creamy parmesan dressing and crostini.
Baby Arugula Dressed with imported extra virgin olive oil and lemon dressing and served with shaved parmesan cheese.
Baby Spinach tossed in sherry vinaigrette with Cranberries, walnuts and crumbled Gorgonzola on top.
Sauteed baby spinach with extra virgin olive oil and garlic.
Sauteed broccoli robe with extra virgin olive oil and garlic.
Yellow Corn polenta served with fresh tomato sauce and parmesan cheese.
Mediterranean meatball served with fresh tomato sauce.
Pieces of steak sauteed with mushrooms and onion in a red wine cream sauce and served with tagliatelle pasta.
Black olives, capers and anchovies sauteed with white marinara sauce.
Fettuccine pasta served with classic creamy alfredo sauce.
Homemade potato gnocchi finished in a fresh tomato sauce; Homemade potato gnocchi finished in a Creamy gorgonzola sauce.
Pancetta sauteed in a creamy vodka sauce and tossed with penne pasta.
Cheese ravioli sauteed with fresh tomato sauce.
Ground meat, celery, carrot, onion, garlic and tomato slowly cooked with herbs and served over tagliatelle pasta.
Frutti di mare (Mussels, Clams, Calamari, Shrimp) sauteed with fresh tomato sauce or garlic white wine and served with linguini pasta.
Little Neck Claims sauteed in a fresh tomato sauce or white wine garlic and served with linguini pasta.
Frutti di Mare (Mussels, Clams, Calamari, Shrimp) slowly cooked with risotto, onions in a garlic white wine.
Chicken breast breaded with seasoned Italian bread crumbs and baked with fresh tomato sauce and mozzarella cheese.
Chicken breast sauteed with mushroom in a imported marsala wine sauce.
Veal medallions breaded with seasoned Italian bread crumbs and baked with fresh tomato sauce and mozzarella cheese.
Veal medallions sautéed with capers in a lemon white wine sauce.
Pan seared Veal medallions than deglazed with white wine and finished with mushrooms, sage and prosciutto Di Parma.
Grilled Salmon served over Mediterranean salad and drizzled with balsamic reduction.
Fresh cut Steak of the day cooked the way you like it.
Thinly sliced cured Italian meats served with aged cheeses, cured olives and marinated assorted vegetables.
Sautéed little neck claim in fresh tomato sauce or garlic white wine.
Sautéed mussels in fresh tomato sauce or garlic white wine.
Sautéed Asparagus with extra virgin olive oil and garlic.
Sautéed baby spinach with extra virgin olive oil and garlic.
Sautéed broccoli robe with extra virgin olive oil and garlic.
Pieces of steak sautéed with mushrooms and onion in a red wine cream sauce and served with Tagliatelle pasta.
Black olives, capers and anchovies sautéed with white wine marinara sauce.
Pancetta sautéed in a creamy vodka sauce and tossed with penne pasta.
Cheese ravioli sautéed with fresh tomato sauce.
Ground meat, celery, carrots, onion, garlic and tomato slowly cooked with herbs and served over Capellini pasta.
Frutti Di Mare (Mussels, Clams, Calamari, Shrimp) Sautéed with fresh tomato sauce or garlic white wine and served with linguini pasta.
Little Neck Claims sautéed in a fresh tomato sauce or white wine garlic and served with linguini pasta.
Jumbo shrimp sautéed with creamy basil pesto and sun dried tomatoes than tossed with Tagliatelle pasta.
Chicken breast sautéed with mushrooms in a imported marsala wine sauce and served over polenta and asparagus.
Veal medallions sautéed with capers in a lemon white wine sauce and served over capellini pasta .
Pan seared Veal medallions than deglazed with white wine than finished with mushrooms, sage and prosciutto Di Parma and served with roasted potatoes and asparagus.
Grilled Salmon served over warm Mediterranean salad and drizzled with balsamic reduction.
Fresh cut Rib Eye grilled the way you like it and with Diane sauce (Red wine reduction with Mushrooms, Onions and a touch of cream)and served with roasted potatoes and asparagus.
Homemade Tomato pasta layered with ricotta cheese, spinach and served with basil ricotta icing.
Fried Lightly floured calamari served with fresh tomato sauce.
Pear poached in Chianti wine then served over arugula with prosciutto, shaved parm and drizzled with balsamic reduction.
12 Oz New York Strip Steak served with peppercorn Sauce.
Grilled Fillet of Mahi Mahi served over Saffron Risotto and drizzled with olive oil infused with fresh Basil.
Rolled Chicken breast with spinach, Feta cheese and finished in a white wine feta sauce.
Creamy Mushroom Truffle sauce tossed with Egg based Tagliatelle Pasta.
Frutti Di Mare (Mussels, Clams, Calamari,Scallops, Shrimp) Sautéed with fresh tomato sauce or garlic white wine and served over Grilled Polenta.
Bistro Albertino is rated 4.7 out of 5 by 153.
Rated 5 out of 5 by David B from Great little restaurant with excellent food and service.
Rated 5 out of 5 by Mary S from The appetizers, dinners and desserts were all excellent and so was the service. I highly recommend this restaurant.
Rated 4 out of 5 by Maureen O from Staff was very friendly and food was delicious. The only negative is the noise, the room is small and when filled it is loud.
Rated 5 out of 5 by Jill K from Albertino's is our "go-to" restaurant near home. We generally go for the specials which are always well done. The staff are also very professional, attentive without hovering.
Rated 5 out of 5 by paula d from great food, good selection, fast and friendly service.
Rated 5 out of 5 by Jill K from The food was fresh and the wait staff were attentive. While the restaurant was busy during our visit, it was not overly noisy.
Rated 5 out of 5 by susan s from Knowledgeable staff and freshly made pasta, just can't be beat!
Rated 1 out of 5 by Jodi H from We were charged extra money for onions and olives. When we questioned the charge the person was rude and we really like the food but will never go back.
Rated 4 out of 5 by Gail M from Had Bronzini fish. Small portion for $27.00. Wpildnt get again. Most portions too small. Like to take something home.
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My name is Charly and I am 24 years old. I love to write, alone or with a small team, and find a trip to the cinema the best therapy money can buy, (cheaper than an actual therapist too). The escapism experienced when watching a story unfold on screen, or indeed whilst writing one, is something indescribable. I have recently graduated from Royal Holloway University of London this past July with a BA in Film, Television and Digital Production and am looking to start my career in the film industry. I am mainly looking for Runner, Production Assistant or Script Reader roles with the aim to become a Script Writer in the future. Thank you for taking the time to read my profile, and may the force be with you, always.
Phil Aird was my manager from May 2016 to November 2017 whilst I worked as a bartender at The Wheatsheaf Pub.
Ms Heredge is my current employer, I am a childminder for her two children.


text:
PM directs Army chief to contact Iran, Saudi Arabia and US military leadership
Prime Minister Imran Khan has called on Foreign Minister Shah Mahmood Qureshi and Army Chief General Qamar Javed Bajwa to mobilize to ease tensions between the US and Iran in the Middle East.
Prime Minister Imran Khan said in a tweet that Foreign Minister Shah Mehmood Qureshi has been directed to visit Iran, Saudi Arabia and the United States and meet with the foreign ministers of the respective countries.
He also asked Army Chief General Qamar Javed Bajwa to contact the military leadership of the respective countries.
میں نے ہدایات دی ہیں کہ وزیرخارجہ ایران، سعودی عرب اور امریکہ جاکر ان ممالک کے وزرائے خارجہ سے ملیں جبکہ آرمی چیف متعلقہ عسکری قائدین سے روابط قائم کریں اور واضح پیغام دیا جائے کہ: پاکستان امن کیلئے اپنا کردار ادا کرنے کو تو تیار ہے مگر وہ دوبارہ کسی بھی جنگ کا حصہ نہیں بن سکتا۔
— Imran Khan (@ImranKhanPTI) January 8, 2020
Prime Minister Imran Khan said that the Army Chief has been asked to convey a clear message of Pakistan that Pakistan is ready to play a role for peace but can never be part of any other war again.
It is understood that on January 3, 2020, Iran's most important commander, Major General Qasim Sulaimani, was targeted by the US president near the airport in the Iraqi capital, Baghdad, and his vehicle was fired with a drone.In which Suleimani died.
That same day, US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo had telephonic contact with Army Chief General Qamar Javed Bajwa.
The US Secretary of State said in a tweet that he had spoken to Army Chief General Qamar Javed Bajwa on the telephone and spoke to him about the operation in Iraq in his defense which killed Qasim Sulaimani.
On January 4, US President Donald Trump confirmed the resumption of a military training program for Pakistan.
In a statement issued by Assistant Secretary of State for the United States Alice Wells, it was said that the program was restored in view of US national security.
After the death of Major General Qasim Sulaimani, tensions between the United States and Iran have increased and war clouds are shaking in the region.
In this situation Pakistan has clearly stated that it does not support any unilateral action and will not allow its land to be used against anyone.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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maintenance services for greenery and gardening work.
Maintenance of exterior greenery: this range of activities includes all care for the outdoor greenery - mowing grass, caring for trees, bushes and shrubs, pricking flowers and woody plants, watering, weeding, including self-seeded trees, caring for raised terraces and gardens, caring of grass including gardening work such as sowing, planting, trimming and pruning greenery, fertilizing, etc.
Maintenance of interior greenery: all activities related to caring for the green plants inside the customer's building.


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Commentary - Building height changes under consideration not consistent with Elk Grove's recently adopted general plan
http://www.elkgrovenews.net/2019/11/building-height-changes-under.html
By DeAna Melilli |
A historic moment for Elk Grove occurred during the Planning Commission Meeting Agenda Item 5.4 – Zoning Updates, on Thursday, November 21.
City staff requested the Commission to approve increased building height requirements from the existing 40 feet to 60 feet when within 100 feet of a home for development in the Residential Mixed-Use district, therefore going from a 3-story complex to allowing a 4-story complex next to a home.
In addition, staff recommended increasing the allowed building height from 40 feet to 75 feet when within 100 feet of a home for development in the Village Center Mixed-Use district, therefore allowing an increase from a 3-story complex to a 6-story complex for developments next to a home.
It was also recommended that the height standard of the Business Professional (Office) zone would increase from 40 feet to 60 feet.
In addition, the recently prepared citywide General Plan Environmental Impact Report (EIR) did not analyze the effects of a 6-story (75 feet) complex built in Elk Grove and the associated effects on its residents in neighborhoods citywide. The EIR analysis only considered a maximum building height of 40 feet 3-story building Citywide.
Also, for the Residential District 30 (3-story homes), staff recommended that the open space requirement be reduced from 25 to 20-percent, along with removing the any language on open space. This means there would be less of a buffer between homes and businesses.
The bottom line with all these changes would those homeowners who have solar on their homes and located adjacent to new commercial construction may lose the effectiveness of the solar panels, or (if they have light-dependent landscaping) may need to re-landscape their yards.
The General Plan and zoning ordinance are required to be consistent per state law. But the Planning Commission continues to consider approving these type of City of Elk Grove General Plan amendments and zoning changes that do not seem to be consistent with what was just approved in February 2019 Citywide General Plan. No recommendation by the Planning Commission was made on these recent proposals although the community should follow future Planning Commission agendas for further actions on these matters.
Of course any recommendation by the Planning Commission is subject to final action by the City Council. And upon receipt of the Planning Commission's report, the City Council would set the matter for a public hearing.
The decision of the City Council is the final action on such applications. But before these matters go before the City Council, it is important that the ramifications of any such changes be more fully considered and at the Planning Commission level.
If you have an opinion or concern about the changes proposed for building height allowances in the City of Elk Grove, watch for the agenda item for the public hearing – zoning changes. I encourage you to take an interest in our community and by supporting those citizens who dedicated time, energy, and suggestions for the City's future long-term goals in countless meetings when they last comprehensively updated the City of Elk Grove General Plan in February 2019.
DeAna Melilli is an Elk Grove resident.


text:
Geneviève Schmidt sells mid-century architecture home for $899,000
A gorgeous mid-century makeover home has just hit the market in Ste-Adèle priced at almost $900,000 and is believed to be the home of Quebec comedienne Geneviève Schmidt.
TAKING ICZKOVITS
And proof that the real estate market has exploded in a short time, the house is now for sale for the sum starting at $899,000. In 2019, barely 3 years ago, it was displayed at half the price, or $499,000.
• On the other hand: All the most beautiful looks of Quebec stars at the Gala Québec Cinéma
• On the other hand: The character of Nancy Riopelle in "District 31" stirs the passions of fans of the series
The 5 bedroom house, for sale for $899,000 on the Centris websitecurrently belongs to the actress that we have seen in Unit 9 and District 31 among others, according to what various Quebec sites report.
It was designed by architect Jacques Coutu. Built in 1959, the owner "is looking for its third owner who will take great care of it as the previous ones have done".
Check out all the photos in the video above ▲
– With information from Silo 57 and 7 days
See also on the bag of crisps:
Kharl contacts Amélie with a cell phone and spoils the biggest twist of the season on the island of love
Etienne Boulay announces that he will not return to the helm of this show after the summer
Calling our feminist artists
The coolest hidden show of the hour
Brad Pitt celebrates his 59th birthday with his 29-year-old copy
Mass contamination: call for caution in major events
Tom Cruise on Netflix: before Top Gun 2, catch up with the first film before it leaves the platform
Avatar: Sully's interpreter was homeless before being recruited by James Cameron
15 years of love for Catherine-Anne Toupin and Antoine Bertrand
Spielberg at the cinema | The Press
A coffee with… Julianne Côté | "I took the pulse of the effect I can produce"
Love, Glory and Beauty – Top Models, episode broadcast on October 5, 2022 on cbs in the USA


text:
Pistol Annies
Add to My Bands
Edit Band
Pistol Annies Shows
Nearby Shows
Miranda Lambert at Royal Farms Arena
Elle KingPistol AnniesTenille Townes
3 days • Aug 2 - 4, 2019
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Uncasville, CT
Miranda Lambert at Mohegan Sun Arena
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Miranda Lambert at Cajundome
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Miranda Lambert at John Paul Jones Arena
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About Pistol Annies
It began on a wild hair: Two girlfriends on a giddy whim, calling a third gal late one night with an invitation to join the fun and maybe start a little trouble – and a band.
"I thought they were in slumber-party mode," recalls Angaleena Presley of that midnight call she got nearly two years ago from her friend, fellow Nashville-based singer-songwriter Ashley Monroe. Monroe wanted Presley to email every song she had immediately because she "and Miranda" had hatched a plan to put a band together and they wanted her onboard.
"I was like, 'Girls, you're going to wake up tomorrow and realize you're stupid," Presley continues. "And then I went, 'Miranda who?' And Ashley says, 'Lambert!' That's when I was like, 'Oh…better get out of bed right now!'"
Between the two of them, Presley and Monroe (from Kentucky and Tennessee, respectively) had landed a handful of cuts working Nashville's Music Row for the better part of the last decade. Monroe had also worked on projects with famed indie-rocker/producer Jack White and released a major-label debut, while Presley has an exceptional album of her own waiting for a proper home. Lambert, meanwhile, has been one of country music's biggest stars with three successive No. 1 albums: 2005's Kerosene, 2007's Crazy Ex-Girlfriend and 2009's Revolution … and odds are that her forthcoming Four the Record will continue the hot streak later this fall. Monroe actually co-wrote two songs with Lambert for Revolution, including the chart-topping single "Heart Like Mine." But the songs they'd begun writing that fateful night at Lambert's cabin in Oklahoma two Novembers ago begged for an entirely new and different outlet.
"They really weren't right for me or her individually, but they sounded so cool, we were like, 'What can we do with these songs?'" says Lambert. "But we also didn't want to give them to anybody else," adds Monroe. "It's like in our minds, we already knew what was going to happen." That's when Monroe asked Lambert if she had ever heard her friend Presley's songs, and promptly made her listen to a few tracks online. "I knew if I played her one note, she'd flip." She did, and a flurry of excited phone calls, covert meetings and one name change later (their original handle, Calamity Janes, was already owned by a stripper), the Pistol Annies were born.
Only then did they break the news to their respective managers, publishers and label reps. As Presley explains, "Our motto is, 'We ask for forgiveness, not permission.'"
"I don't think it was my manager's favorite thing that I've ever said – 'I've started a band and you have to deal with it!'" confesses Lambert with a mischievous grin. "But it's worked out great. When she realized that it was serious, she was like, 'Let's go full on.'"
Full on, and fast. The newly formed trio began writing and recording songs together straight away, but barely had six tracks down when they were offered an opportunity to make their official debut on national TV via the Academy of Country Music's Girls Night Out special on CBS in April, 2011. "I told our manager, 'Well that's great, but I don't know if we're actually ready yet!'," says Lambert. "It was scary. I've never been more nervous in my life."
"The first time we ever played with a live band behind us was actually at rehearsal the day of the show," marvels Presley. "The show itself was the second time. We literally just jumped in the water, and it was sink or swim. For me, it was like jumping the Grand Canyon, because although Miranda had let me get up and sing with her at one of her shows the weekend before, prior to that I'd never played anywhere bigger than like, the Bluebird Cafe. So I was nervous all day – until I saw Miranda, and then I thought, 'I ain't that nervous!' And then a calm came over me."
"I was really nervous too," adds Monroe, "but the moment we walked out onstage and sang the first note, I thought, 'OK, we've got this.'"
Indeed: The Pistol Annies' performance that night of their original song, "Hell on Heels," hit the proverbial bull's eye, with the three women trading chilling verses and marrying their three distinct voices together on the chorus, a hair-raising declaration of wicked girl power dished out with the dangerous beauty of deadly sirens. Never before or since has the old country maxim "It Wasn't God Who Made Honky-Tonk Angels" seemed more true. You can take their line about having "done made the devil a deal" with a grain of salt, but they sell it with a conviction that suggests you damn well better keep your guard up, just in case.
Fittingly, "Hell on Heels" is both the title track and the opening song on the Pistol Annies' smoking debut, which delivers on the promise of that first high-profile performance in spades. Clocking in at a lean-and-mean, filler-free 30 minutes, the album is equal parts sass ("Hell on Heels," "Bad Example," "Takin' Pills"), heartache ("Beige," "The Hunter's Wife," "Family Feud") and hard knocks ("Lemon Drop," "Housewife's Prayer" and "Trailer for Rent"), sweetened with just enough wistful Southern romance to reveal a teasing hint of vulnerability ("Boys from the South"). Every song was written by one or more of the Annies, with only one intrepid outsider – Lambert's husband, Blake Shelton – sneaking in for a quick co-writing credit.
"We were all over at my house, writing a song called 'Family Feud,' and Blake was there and happened to play an awesome melody, so he's the only outside writer," explains Lambert. "We call him Pistol Andy – and he knows he's lucky."
The three girls have all adopted nicknames of their own: Lone Star Annie for Texan Lambert, Hippie Annie for Monroe, and Holler Annie for Presley (a nod to her Eastern Kentucky roots). They're all women of the South, but as Monroe points out, they each bring different musical influences to the table: classic Tennessee country (a la Dolly Parton) from Monroe; bluegrass from Kentucky girl Presley (daughter of a third-generation coal miner); and hard-edged, outlaw honky-tonk (from Waylon to Merle) from Lambert, who cut her teeth playing the rowdy bar and festival circuit in Texas long before finding fame in the mainstream. But it all blends together in the Pistol Annies' original music as seamlessly as their voices. "The music just came so easily, it's like we didn't even have to try," says Presley. "It kind of just spilled out of us. I think we were writing a song with 30 minutes of getting together for the first time."
"Sometimes when you write with people, you don't have chemistry at all," notes Lambert. "But we have chemistry as friends, we have chemistry onstage, and we have chemistry in our writing. We're three singer-songwriters that come from different places, but we're girls with all the same issues, just saying what every woman in America wants to say or wants to hear. In our songs, we say some things that people aren't usually allowed to talk about – or things that people talk about in their homes, but they don't usually say on record. That's actually kind of been my thing the whole time, and Ashley and Ang's, too, but just not as many people have had a chance to hear it.
"That's why I think the Pistol Annies is such a great avenue for all of us," Lambert continues. "Because I love great music, and I get mad when it's not heard, and now I'm going to use what I've built for two of my best friends who are great and deserve to be huge stars on their own. This has given me a new excitement, a new passion. Usually, after I write a record, I don't want to write anything for a couple of months, because I'm just burned out. But I started writing with these girls immediately after I released Revolution, because this band inspires all of us so much. It's like we can't get enough."
Just don't make the mistake of calling it a "side project."
"This is the farthest thing from a side project that I could do," Lambert makes clear. "Somebody asked me that in an interview, and it made me mad – I think they did that on purpose. I don't do side projects. I do projects that are 100-percent, or I don't do them. And these girls have plenty to say, too. I really want people to know that when they come to see a Pistol Annies show, they're not going to see anything about Miranda Lambert. It's all about the Pistol Annies."
Presently, though, Lambert's own shows are the only place to see the Pistol Annies live: To hone their chops in preparation for their own tour in the near future, the Annies have been accompanying Lambert on her solo dates, with room made in many of her full-production concerts to accommodate mini Pistol Annies sets that are already going over like gangbusters. Lambert notes that fans at her pre-show meet-and-greets have started routinely asking her, "Are the Pistol Annies with you? Are they going to sing tonight?"
"At the beginning, when the three microphones would be put out front in the middle of her show, people had their mouths agape and would be like, 'Huh?'" Presley admits. "But now – like when we were just in Maryland – when those three mics came out, the crowd went wild before we even came onstage."
"We're just taking it a step at a time because we don't have a rule book, and bringing them out with me has been cool because we've already got the busses and the production and the fans to play to," says Lambert. "But I can't wait until we go do Pistol Annies shows just as Pistol Annies, because that's my goal. And because I don't want the pressure all on me – they have to share it, too! That's what's fun about being in a band, you know?"
"She really believes in us, and we are a group, but we've learned so much just being on the road with her," says Monroe, with an affirming nod from Presley. "I mean, there is nothing fake about her. She says, 'I'm just one of y'all,' and she means it, but she also says, 'I can't wait for y'all to get famous so you can't go into Wal-Mart anymore either without getting recognized!'"
— By jambase
In Memoriam: Drummer Bill Vitt
Acclaimed drummer Bill Vitt, best known for his work as part of Jerry Garcia and Merl Saunders' band has died.
Stream This
The Highwomen Confirm Debut Album & Share 'Redesigning Women' Single
Andy Kahn
The Highwomen – Amanda Shires, Brandi Carlile, Maren Morris and Natalie Hemby – confirmed the release of their self-titled debut album and shared the video for the lead single, "Redesigning Women."
Reviews, Recaps & Photos
Dave Matthews Band Welcomes James Casey At Rescheduled Jones Beach Concert
Dave Matthews Band made it through Thursday's rescheduled concert at Jones Beach without any weather issues, dusted off a 'Before These Crowded Streets' classic and jammed with James Casey of the Trey Anastasio Band.
Phish Concludes Camp Oswego Festival On This Date In 1999
2:18 pm PDT
Stream audio, read a recap and check out the setlists from Phish's Camp Oswego festival, which came to a close on this date in 1999.
Festival Lineups
LOCKN' Announces Additional Collaborative Sets
John Popper with Twidde and Cory Wong with Pigeons Playing Ping Pong are among the collaborative sets that have been added to the 2019 LOCKN' lineup.
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text:
<?php
// This file is part of Moodle - http://moodle.org/
//
// Moodle is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
// it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
// the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or
// (at your option) any later version.
//
// Moodle is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
// but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
// MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
// GNU General Public License for more details.
//
// You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
// along with Moodle.  If not, see <http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.

namespace mod_forum\output\email;

defined('MOODLE_INTERNAL') || die();

require_once(__DIR__ . '/../../../renderer.php');

/**
 * Forum post renderable.
 *
 * @since      Moodle 3.0
 * @package    mod_forum
 * @copyright  2015 Andrew Nicols <andrew@nicols.co.uk>
 * @license    http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/gpl.html GNU GPL v3 or later
 */
class renderer extends \mod_forum_renderer {

    /**
     * The template name for this renderer.
     *
     * @return string
     */
    public function forum_post_template() {
        return 'forum_post_email_htmlemail';
    }

    /**
     * The HTML version of the e-mail message.
     *
     * @param \stdClass $cm
     * @param \stdClass $post
     * @return string
     */
    public function format_message_text($cm, $post) {
        $message = file_rewrite_pluginfile_urls($post->message, 'pluginfile.php',
            \context_module::instance($cm->id)->id,
            'mod_forum', 'post', $post->id);
        $options = new \stdClass();
        $options->para = true;
        return format_text($message, $post->messageformat, $options);
    }

    /**
     * The HTML version of the attachments list.
     *
     * @param \stdClass $cm
     * @param \stdClass $post
     * @return string
     */
    public function format_message_attachments($cm, $post) {
        return forum_print_attachments($post, $cm, "html");
    }
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub