text:
Q: D3 Line Chart - Uncaught TypeError: Cannot read property 'length' of undefined I'm working on a D3 based chart and I'm receiving an "Uncaught TypeError: Cannot read property 'length' of undefined" error, and can't figure out where the issue is located.  Any help is appreciated.
Here is the error stack:

*

*line d3.v3.js:2810

*attrFunction d3.v3.js:1527

*(anonymous function)    d3.v3.js:1854

*d3_selection_each    d3.v3.js:1860

*d3_selectionPrototype.each       d3.v3.js:1853

*d3_selectionPrototype.attr    d3.v3.js:1510

*(anonymous    function)    main.js:74

*(anonymous function)          d3.v3.js:442

*event    d3.v3.js:526

*respond d3.v3.js:404

Here's the code:
  var data;
  var BEI = {};
  d3.csv("/pmo/sandbox-lcs/jwstWithD3/BEI2.csv", function(error, data) {

    if (error) {
      console.log("Error: ",error)
    } else {
      //console.log("Data: ",data);
    }

    var m = [40, 120, 40, 120]; // margins
    var w = 600; // width
    var h = 300; // height

    var baselineStartDates = [];
    var baselineFinishDates = [];
    var dateDiffArr = [];
    var statusDate = new Date('3/31/14');
    var duration = ["2013-01-01","2019-12-31"];

    var x = d3.time.scale()
              .domain([new Date(duration[0]),new Date(duration[1])])
              .range([0, w]),
        xAxis = d3.svg.axis()
                .scale(x)
                .orient("bottom")
                .ticks(d3.time.months,3)
                .tickFormat(d3.time.format("%m-%y")),

          y = d3.scale.linear()
                .domain([0,2]).range([h, 0]),
          yAxis = d3.svg.axis()
              .scale(y)
              .ticks(10)
              .orient("left")

        // Add an SVG element with the desired dimensions and margin.
      var graph = d3.select("#viz").append("svg:svg")
              .attr("width", w + m[1] + m[3])
              .attr("height", h + m[0] + m[2])
              .attr("id","chart_bei")
            .append("svg:g")
              .attr("transform", "translate(" + m[3] + "," + m[0] + ")");

        // Add the x-axis.
          graph.append("svg:g")
               .attr("class", "axis_x")
               .attr("transform", "translate(0," + h + ")")
               .call(xAxis)
             .selectAll("text")
               .attr("y", 0)
               .attr("x", 9)
               .attr("dy", ".35em")
               .attr("transform", "rotate(90)")
               .style("text-anchor", "start");

        // Add the y-axis to the left
          graph.append("svg:g")
               .attr("class", "axis_y")
               .attr("transform", "translate(0,0)")
               .call(yAxis);

  var BEIHard = [{"Date":"2013-01-01","BEI":0.89},
                 {"Date":"2019-12-31","BEI":0.79},
                 {"Date":"2018-12-31","BEI":0.49}];

          graph.append("svg:path")
               .attr("class", "line")
               .attr("d", d3.svg.line() // <<--stack error
                   .x(function(d) { return x(new Date(BEIHard["StatusDate"])) })
                   .y(function(d) { return y(BEIHard["BEI"]) })
               );

    // Not currently being used
    function getBEI() {

      var BEI = BEI;
      var BEIIncomplete = [];
      var BEIIncompleteTaskCount = 0;
      var BEITotalTaskCount = 0;

      data.forEach(function(d,i) {

        var baselineFinish = new Date(data[i]["Baseline_Finish"]);
        var percentComplete = data[i]["Percent_Complete"];

        if ( baselineFinish < statusDate ) {
          BEITotalTaskCount +=1;
          if ( parseInt(percentComplete) < 100 ) {
            BEIIncompleteTaskCount +=1;
            BEIIncomplete.push(data[i]);
            //document.getElementById('bei').innerHTML += 'ID: ' + JSON.stringify(data[i]["ID"], null, 4) + ' NAME: ' + JSON.stringify(data[i]["Name"], null, 4) + '
';
          }
        }
      })
      BEI = { "Status Date": statusDate,"BEI": (((BEITotalTaskCount-BEIIncompleteTaskCount)/BEITotalTaskCount)).toFixed(1)} ;
      document.getElementById('bei').innerHTML += '
BEI = ' + BEI["BEI"] + '%
';
      window.BEI = BEI;
      //console.log("BEI: ", (BEITotalTaskCount-BEIIncompleteTaskCount)/BEITotalTaskCount);
      //console.log("Number of Incomplete Tasks: ",BEIIncompleteTaskCount);
      //console.log("Total Count of BEI Tasks", BEITotalTaskCount);
      //console.log("Incomplete Tasks: ",BEIIncomplete);
      //console.log("Local BEI: ",BEI);
      return BEI;

    }getBEI();

  });

A: I solved this issue by making the following adjustment:
var line = d3.svg.line()
                   .x(function(d,i) { return x( new Date(d["Date"]) ) })
                   .y(function(d,i) { return y( d["BEI"] ) });

          graph.append("svg:path")
               .attr("class", "line")
               .attr("d", function(d,i) {  return line(BEIHard); });

If anyone can explain why this solution works, compared to the first example, I would like the knowledge.


text:
Israel Defeats an Amorite Coalition
10:1 Adoni-Zedek, king of Jerusalem, 1 heard how Joshua captured Ai and annihilated it and its king as he did Jericho 2 and its king. 3 He also heard how 4 the people of Gibeon made peace with Israel and lived among them. 10:2 All Jerusalem was terrified 5 because Gibeon was a large city, like one of the royal cities. It was larger than Ai and all its men were warriors. 10:3 So King Adoni-Zedek of Jerusalem sent this message to King Hoham of Hebron, King Piram of Jarmuth, King Japhia of Lachish, and King Debir of Eglon: 10:4 "Come to my aid 6 so we can attack Gibeon, for it has made peace with Joshua and the Israelites." 10:5 So the five Amorite kings (the kings of Jerusalem, Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon) and all their troops gathered together and advanced. They deployed their troops and fought against Gibeon. 7
10:6 The men of Gibeon sent this message to Joshua at the camp in Gilgal, "Do not abandon 8 your subjects! 9 Rescue us! Help us! For all the Amorite kings living in the hill country are attacking us." 10 10:7 So Joshua and his whole army, including the bravest warriors, marched up from Gilgal. 11 10:8 The Lord told Joshua, "Don't be afraid of them, for I am handing them over to you. 12 Not one of them can resist you." 13 10:9 Joshua attacked them by surprise after marching all night from Gilgal. 14 10:10 The Lord routed 15 them before Israel. Israel 16 thoroughly defeated them 17 at Gibeon. They chased them up the road to the pass 18 of Beth Horon and struck them down all the way to Azekah and Makkedah. 10:11 As they fled from Israel on the slope leading down from 19 Beth Horon, the Lord threw down on them large hailstones from the sky, 20 all the way to Azekah. They died – in fact, more died from the hailstones than the Israelites killed with the sword.
10:12 The day the Lord delivered the Amorites over to the Israelites, Joshua prayed to the Lord before Israel: 21
"O sun, stand still over Gibeon!
O moon, over the Valley of Aijalon!"
10:13 The sun stood still and the moon stood motionless while the nation took vengeance on its enemies. The event is recorded in the Scroll of the Upright One. 22 The sun stood motionless in the middle of the sky and did not set for about a full day. 23 10:14 There has not been a day like it before or since. The Lord obeyed 24 a man, for the Lord fought for Israel! 10:15 Then Joshua and all Israel returned to the camp at Gilgal.
10:16 The five Amorite kings 25 ran away and hid in the cave at Makkedah. 10:17 Joshua was told, "The five kings have been found hiding in the cave at Makkedah." 10:18 Joshua said, "Roll large stones over the mouth of the cave and post guards in front of it. 26 10:19 But don't you delay! Chase your enemies and catch them! 27 Don't allow them to retreat to 28 their cities, for the Lord your God is handing them over to you." 29 10:20 Joshua and the Israelites almost totally wiped them out, but some survivors did escape to the fortified cities. 30 10:21 Then the whole army safely returned to Joshua at the camp in Makkedah. 31 No one 32 dared threaten the Israelites. 33 10:22 Joshua said, "Open the cave's mouth and bring the five kings 34 out of the cave to me." 10:23 They did as ordered; 35 they brought the five kings 36 out of the cave to him – the kings of Jerusalem, 37 Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon. 10:24 When they brought the kings out to Joshua, he 38 summoned all the men of Israel and said to the commanders of the troops who accompanied him, "Come here 39 and put your feet on the necks of these kings." So they came up 40 and put their feet on their necks. 10:25 Then Joshua said to them, "Don't be afraid and don't panic! 41 Be strong and brave, for the Lord will do the same thing to all your enemies you fight. 10:26 Then Joshua executed them 42 and hung them on five trees. They were left hanging on the trees until evening. 10:27 At sunset Joshua ordered his men to take them down from the trees. 43 They threw them into the cave where they had hidden and piled large stones over the mouth of the cave. (They remain to this very day.) 44
Joshua Launches a Southern Campaign
10:28 That day Joshua captured Makkedah and put the sword to it and its king. He annihilated everyone who lived in it; he left no survivors. He did to its king what he had done to the king of Jericho. 45
10:29 Joshua and all Israel marched from Makkedah to Libnah and fought against it. 46 10:30 The Lord handed it and its king over to Israel, and Israel 47 put the sword to all who lived there; they 48 left no survivors. They 49 did to its king what they 50 had done to the king of Jericho. 51
10:31 Joshua and all Israel marched from Libnah to Lachish. He deployed his troops 52 and fought against it. 10:32 The Lord handed Lachish over to Israel and they 53 captured it on the second day. They put the sword to all who lived there, just as they had done to Libnah. 10:33 Then King Horam of Gezer came up to help Lachish, but Joshua struck down him and his army 54 until no survivors remained.
10:34 Joshua and all Israel marched from Lachish to Eglon. They deployed troops 55 and fought against it. 10:35 That day they captured it and put the sword to all who lived there. That day they 56 annihilated it just as they 57 had done to Lachish.
10:36 Joshua and all Israel marched up from Eglon to Hebron and fought against it. 10:37 They captured it and put the sword to its king, all its surrounding cities, and all who lived in it; they 58 left no survivors. As they 59 had done at Eglon, they 60 annihilated it and all who lived there.
10:38 Joshua and all Israel turned to Debir and fought against it. 10:39 They 61 captured it, its king, and all its surrounding cities and put the sword to them. They annihilated everyone who lived there; they 62 left no survivors. They 63 did to Debir and its king what they 64 had done to Libnah and its king and to Hebron. 65
10:40 Joshua defeated the whole land, including the hill country, the Negev, the lowlands, 66 the slopes, and all their kings. He left no survivors. He annihilated everything that breathed, just as the Lord God of Israel had commanded. 10:41 Joshua conquered the area between Kadesh Barnea and Gaza and the whole region of Goshen, all the way to Gibeon. 67 10:42 Joshua captured in one campaign 68 all these kings and their lands, for the Lord God of Israel fought for Israel. 10:43 Then Joshua and all Israel returned to the camp at Gilgal.
1 map For location see Map5 B1; Map6 F3; Map7 E2; Map8 F2; Map10 B3; JP1 F4; JP2 F4; JP3 F4; JP4 F4.
2 map For location see Map5 B2; Map6 E1; Map7 E1; Map8 E3; Map10 A2; Map11 A1.
3 tn Heb "as he had done to Jericho and to its king, so he did to Ai and to its king."
4 tn Heb "and how."
5 tn This statement is subordinated to v. 1 in the Hebrew text, which reads literally, "When Adoni-Zedek…they feared greatly." The subject of the plural verb at the beginning of v. 2 is probably the residents of Jerusalem.
6 tn Heb "Come up to me and help me."
7 tn Heb "and they camped against Gibeon and fought against it."
8 tn Heb "do not let your hand drop from us."
9 tn Heb "your servants!"
10 tn Heb "have gathered against us."
11 tn Heb "And Joshua went up from Gilgal, he and all the people of war with him, and all the brave warriors."
12 tn Heb "I have given them into your hand." The verbal form is a perfect of certitude, emphasizing the certainty of the action.
13 tn Heb "and not a man [or "one"] of them will stand before you."
14 tn Heb "Joshua came upon them suddenly, all the night he went up from Gilgal."
15 tn Or "caused to panic."
16 tn Heb "he." The referent is probably Israel (mentioned at the end of the previous sentence in the verse; cf. NIV, NRSV), but it is also possible that the Lord should be understood as the referent (cf. NASB "and He slew them with a great slaughter at Gibeon"), or even Joshua (cf. NEB "and Joshua defeated them utterly in Gibeon").
17 tn Heb "struck them down with a great striking down."
19 tn Heb "on the descent of."
20 tn Or "heaven" (also in v. 13). The Hebrew term שָׁמַיִם (shamayim) may be translated "heaven(s)" or "sky" depending on the context.
21 tn Heb "Then Joshua spoke to the Lord in the day the Lord placed the Amorites before the sons of Israel and he said in the eyes of Israel." It is uncertain whether the phrase "before the sons of Israel" modifies the verb "placed" (as in the present translation, "delivered the Amorites over to the Israelites") or the verb "spoke" ("Joshua spoke to the Lord before the sons of Israel in the day the Lord delivered over the Amorites").
22 tn Heb "Is it not written down in the Scroll of the Upright One." Many modern translations render, "the Scroll [or Book] of Jashar," leaving the Hebrew name "Jashar" (which means "Upright One") untranslated.
sn The Scroll of the Upright One was apparently an ancient Israelite collection of songs and prayers (see also 2 Sam 1:18).
23 tn Heb "and did not hurry to set [for] about a full day."
24 tn Heb "listened to the voice of."
25 tn Heb "these five kings."
26 tn Heb "and appoint by it men to guard them."
27 tn Heb "But [as for] you, don't stand still, chase after your enemies and attack them from the rear."
28 tn Or "enter into."
29 tn Heb "has given them into your hand." The verbal form is a perfect of certitude, emphasizing the certainty of the action.
30 tn Heb "When Joshua and the sons of Israel finished defeating them with a very great defeat until they were destroyed (now the survivors escaped to the fortified cities)." In the Hebrew text the initial temporal clause ("when Joshua…finished") is subordinated to v. 21 ("the whole army returned").
31 tn Heb "all the people returned to the camp, to Joshua [at] Makkedah [in] peace."
32 tc Heb "No man." The lamed (ל) prefixed to אִישׁ ('ish, "man") is probably dittographic (note the immediately preceding יִשְׂרָאֵל [isra'el] which ends in lamed, ל); cf. the LXX.
33 tn Heb "no man sharpened [or perhaps, "pointed"] his tongue against the sons of Israel." Cf. NEB "not a man of the Israelites suffered so much as a scratch on his tongue," which understands "sharpened" as "scratched" (referring to a minor wound). Most modern translations understand the Hebrew expression "sharpened his tongue" figuratively for opposition or threats against the Israelites.
35 tn Heb "they did so."
38 tn Heb "Joshua." The translation has replaced the proper name with the pronoun ("he") because a repetition of the proper name here would be redundant according to English style.
39 tn Or "Draw near."
40 tn Or "drew near."
41 tn Or perhaps "and don't get discouraged!"
42 tn Heb "struck them down and killed them."
43 sn For the legal background of the removal of the corpses before sundown, see Deut 21:22-23.
44 tn Heb "to this very day." The words "They remain" are supplied in the translation for clarification.
46 tn Heb "Libnah." Repetition of the proper name here would be redundant according to English style, so the pronoun ("it") has been employed in the translation.
47 tn Heb "he"; the implied subject may be Israel, or Joshua (as the commanding general of the army).
52 tn Heb "encamped against it."
54 tn Heb "people."
55 tn Heb "they encamped against it."
65 tn Heb "as he did to Hebron, so he did to Debir and its king, and as he did to Libnah and its king." The clauses have been rearranged in the translation for stylistic reasons.
66 tn Or "foothills"; Heb "the Shephelah."
67 tn Heb "and Joshua struck them down, from Kadesh Barnea even to Gaza, and all the land of Goshen, even to Gibeon."
68 tn Heb "at one time."
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TIP #26: To open links on Discovery Box in a new window, use the right click. [ALL]

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Will the Persian Brooks Brothers ever make up?
Hello, everyone! I'm baaack! Starting with the second episode this season. Better late than never, right? I blame it on Persian Time or as our Shahs have called it PST (Persian Standard Time).
The first episode started off with a bang, arguing (like all good Persians do) about clothes. And last night's episode was not short on the drama. Here's the quickie: Mike wants to be the king of his castle like Borat, while Jessica gets a taste of the non-engaged life slaving over a hot stove.
We learned that MJ is a true professional. By professional I mean she self-sexts from her client's phone, who apparently is the Persian tripod. I'm assuming they didn't show the picture because he's too big to blur. Side note, there should be a drinking game based on how many times the word "dool" is mentioned in each episode. In fact, I think I'll play this drinking game drinking from a "dool" shaped straw.
While MJ was busy "working," Jessica became Jewish official (it's like Facebook official, but with religion). And of course, the biggest news of the episode was GG divulging her big Turkish secret…the same week of the Persian Malibu Staycation.
Lots to get to, but let's quickly talk about what seems to be the biggest problem of the last two episodes: Grown men fighting. Last week it was the case of the sewn-in vent, and this week tensions seem even higher when the Persian Brooks Brothers, Mike and Bobby, don't back down. Mike wants an apology, and Bobby doesn't want to force a friendship. This strangely reminds me of the GG/Asa feud in Season 2, but without the hair extensions and gold hoops. If they can make up, so can our Persian Brooks Brothers.
The show ended with Jessica leaving because she had to work early the next day. Of course before she left, Jessica asked everyone (including Mike) to make sure he doesn't fight. A sign of things to come? Is it just me, or did this whole episode play like a cliché horror movie?
Shahs scenario: Jessica warned Mike to not put himself in bad situations with the group. She said the next time something happens, Mike should just leave… Well, we all know how that turned out when Bobby and Asifa showed up at the dreamy Malibu Staycation. The two men couldn't even apologize. Instead they took the fight outside, and nothing got resolved. Annnd…Mike, Bobby and Asifa all remained in Malibu.
Famous line: "Who will survive and what will be left of them?"
Shahs scenario: Jessica begs Mike not to fight and leaves the house because she had to "work" early, and the episode ends with a "To Be Continued…" So the real question is, "Who will survive and what will be left of them?"
Shahs scenario: GG planted some information at Asa's house. In Malibu, there was a fist bump greeting between Mike and GG instead of a hug. Then Jessica leaves, and GG, Asa, and Reza all have this big secret. Like Night of the Living Dead, secrets never die…or will they? That remains to be seen.
I know Jessica has flown the coop, so by default she's the last surviving member of this Staycation. Something tells me (and I could be very wrong) that the fighting next episode won't be centered on the Persian Brooks Brothers, but instead, GG. Thankfully, GG's beloved Toucan lives at her frat house home next to her cable TV remote, her #FART hat, and white tube socks. And want to know the worst part about all of this fighting? GG still can't sit comfortably because she got her buns done.


October | 2010 | Juniboy!
Human beings are never alike. An 'only use once blueprint'. With different likes, dislikes and temperaments. Therefore, the only reason people get along is compromise; the willingness of one to simply ignore the things he hates in another. And because we are different we have different 'compromise containers'. Some have large containers that can stomach anything; they choose to love for the good things they see in others instead of disliking them for the bad. They are almost numb tothe occasional 'toe stepping'.
On the other hand, others have quite small containers and pick out the awful stuff in the not so perfect human and use that to pin them down or push them away. The thing is, we will always find a mistake if we look for one; the same way we find good things. So basically, the capacity to compromise is a matter of choice; you can choose to forgive when temperaments clash or you can choose to be upset because the other is not 'feeling' you. Differences are here to stay; the choice to cope or to mope is entirely yours.
I saw you, you saw me and i knew I could be. You sat there I sat here and I knew we'd be great. I said hi you said hi and there it began.
You talked and my heart felt it and I knew I could grow and become much more. You told my story through your own words; you felt my darkness and confusion in your blood and I knew I could be.
Your faith was mine your laughter resounded in my ears your tears fell on my cheeks and together we lived as one in different places.


text:
Waislitz Global Citizens Award
Save a Child's Heart
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The Garaventa Evacu-Trac is an emergency evacuation chair used to move people with a disability or injury down. Evacu-Tracs patented speed governor and braking system allow a small attendant to. It folds compactly when not in use. Quick and easy set up for immediate use.
Carries up to 360 lbs. Passengers weight moves unit down stairs, while the governor controls speed. Failsafe brake brings unit to a complete stop automatically. Unique seat design allows easy transfer from wheelchair. The tracks grip the stairs, regardless of the stair construction material.
Provides quick and safe emergency evacuation. No hand carrying of mobility impaired persons. Small attendants can easily move heavier passengers. The item "GARAVENTA EVACU-TRAC EMERGENCY EVACUATION CHAIR" is in sale since Wednesday, May 2, 2018.
This item is in the category "Health & Beauty\Mobility & Disability\Mobility/Walking Equipment\Stairlifts & Elevators". The seller is "frontline_medical" and is located in New Hudson, Michigan. This item can be shipped to United States.


God, thanks for revealing your glory to us in all goodness. May we continue to appreciate your goodness and pay it forward to everyone in this world, especially those who are far away, so that we may be mutually strengthened. Some of those whom great distance separates are Kenyans and others East Africans. Please encourage us to distribute your goodness to those suffering from drought in Northwest Kenya, the internally displaced in Northeast Kenya, the gay citizens of Uganda, those affected by extremism in Somalia, the extremists themselves, girls subject to mutilation and forced into early marriage across East Africa, the mistreated mentally handicapped, those without access to enough food and safe water, and those students who cannot afford to go to high school, let alone college. God, be with community leaders and international partners and give them the courage and wisdom to address these many challenges as they share God's abundant life. Please force our attention upon the plight of others, no matter how uncomfortable it makes us, so that we may walk in solidarity with them—amen.
Many people have shared their heart wrenching stories with me this last year. I met one resilient woman in Tanzania named Nipaeli Waioto, who suffered successive floods and droughts that devastated her small farm. In Kenya, I met a passionate school principal named Sasi Kabaka who, when he first arrived at his elementary school, was appalled by its condemned state. I also met a majestic young lady in Rwanda named Margaret. During the genocide, eight-year-old Margaret and her mother were raped and both parents were killed. Margaret contracted HIV during this horrifying experience. These heroes and countless others are now thriving due to their own resilience, supportive communities, and encouragement from local and international partners, such as Global Ministries, Week of Compassion and One Great Hour of Sharing. Nipaeli was given emergency food and aid to help her in restoring her farm, which enabled her to meet the challenges of the disasters. Sasi's school received desks, new classrooms, and training for parents and teachers. Margaret joined a psychosocial/entrepreneurial support group and now owns a barbershop. There are few government safety nets in East Africa. Many people are impoverished with little to insure their fragile survival. Your donations and the support of local ministries are saving the lives of sweet, sincere, hardworking people who have the determination required to succeed more independently. It has been a tremendous experience to witness the fruits of your humble sacrifices and the lives they have nurtured.
Joel Cooper, member of First Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Bloomington, Indiana, serves as a Global Mission Intern with Church World Service East Africa in Nairobi, Kenya. His appointment is supported by Week of Compasssion, Our Churches Wider Mission, Disciples Mission Fund and your special gifts.


This Big Lake Golf Course Map shows all of the Big Lake golf courses. When you click on one of the Big Lake golf course icons on the map you will find additional information about the golf course including: website, phone number, number of holes, Texas Outside Rating, and a link to the Texas Outside review of the golf course.
Click here to view Big Lake Private Golf Courses.


text:
Body knows best: A natural healing mechanism for inflammatory bowel disease
by Weizmann Institute of Science
The cross-section of the inner lining of a human gut adjacent to a cancerous tumor. The enzyme ASL (red-brown), which helps manufacture nitric oxide, has accumulated in unusually high amounts in cells of the lining, probably in an attempt to alleviate the inflammation that commonly occurs in the gut of colon cancer patients. Credit: Weizmann Institute of Science
Treating inflammatory diseases of the bowel is extremely challenging: Genes, gut microbes and disrupted immune function all contribute. Weizmann Institute of Science researchers are proposing a way around this complexity. In a study in mice, published in Cell Reports, they have found a way to trigger a natural defense mechanism that prompts the body itself to alleviate intestinal inflammation.
The study, led by veterinarian Dr. Noa Stettner, who is also a Ph.D. student in the lab of Dr. Ayelet Erez in the Biological Regulation Department, focused on nitric oxide (NO), a signaling molecule involved in a variety of biological processes. Scientists have long tried to determine what role NO plays in such inflammatory conditions as Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, but NO alleviated intestinal inflammation in some circumstances and promoted it in others.
The Weizmann researchers hypothesized that the paradoxical findings might arise because NO has different effects in different types of cell in the gut. They genetically engineered mice to block NO production exclusively in certain types of cells: either in the cells making up the inner lining of the gut or in immune cells. They found that the symptoms of a colitis-like disease got worse when NO synthesis was blocked in the gut cells; but they improved when NO was blocked in immune cells, particularly in large cells called macrophages.
The scientists concluded if inflammatory bowel diseases are treated by raising NO levels, it may cause side effects in cells outside the gut lining. Stettner, with the help of collaborators at the Weizmann Institute and elsewhere, set out to develop a method for boosting NO production only in the gut lining cells.
They relied on Erez's earlier finding that an enzyme called ASL that is responsible for the making of the amino acid arginine, the raw material from which the body manufactures NO. The researchers turned to two natural substances: fisetin, which is present in apples, persimmons and strawberries elevated ASL levels, and citrulline, found in watermelon, beets, and spinach increased ASL activity.
The two supplements, when given together, promoted the manufacture of NO exclusively in cells of the inner lining of the gut. Most important, in mice, the symptoms of an inflammatory disease in the gut improved significantly.
The treatment also had a beneficial effect on colon cancer, which is known to be aggravated by gut inflammation. In mice with tumors of the colon, intestinal inflammation subsided and their tumors decreased in number and size after receiving the supplements.
If this approach is shown to raise NO levels in the inner lining cells in humans, it may help treat inflammatory bowel diseases ? and potentially even colon cancer. The fact that it makes use of over-the-counter nutritional supplements should facilitate its implementation.
Smoking may cause inflammatory bowel disease
More information: Noa Stettner et al. Induction of Nitric-Oxide Metabolism in Enterocytes Alleviates Colitis and Inflammation-Associated Colon Cancer, Cell Reports (2018). DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2018.04.053
Journal information: Cell Reports
Provided by Weizmann Institute of Science
Citation: Body knows best: A natural healing mechanism for inflammatory bowel disease (2018, May 30) retrieved 20 January 2021 from https://medicalxpress.com/news/2018-05-body-natural-mechanism-inflammatory-bowel.html
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Patty and the Millennials Podcast
Patty Jackson: Patty TV
Teacher Allegedly Sends Students Home With Instructions On How To Make And Inject Crystal Meth
posted by Latifah Waddy - Feb 21, 2017
When Delight Greenidge's 13-year-old son came home with instructions on how to make and inject crystal meth, she was stunned. "I'm thinking this cannot be real," she said to CBCNews.
Her son said the project initially involved making an original skit about an old TV show using emotions, but when the idea fell through, the teacher suggested the crystal meth skit instead.
Greenidge said the assignment instructed the students to "act scared" when dramatizing making the drug, but to "act happy" when injecting it.
Seth Fletcher - a counselor with the Canadian Centre for Addictions - weighed in on the situation, stating, "I don't know if the intention was to condone drug use, but what's equally dangerous is what is the perception it leaves, and if someone in that classroom condones it, that's the exact same effect."
The Peel District School Board did confirm the teacher handed out the instructions to some students, but wouldn't give any details. Although the school is investigating, Greenidge is wondering why the incident happened at all. The teacher has since been suspended with pay until the investigation is complete.
Hear from the mother in the video below.
Listen to Patty Jackson every weekday from 10am-3pm and Sundays 8am-12n Read more
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Chrichton's World: Review Death Wish (2018): Bruce Willis actually tried this time!
Review Death Wish (2018): Bruce Willis actually tried this time!
To jump right in you don't have to worry about this being ome of those " I don't give a damn" Bruce Willis movies. This is more like " I still don't give a damn but I am going to give it more effort because I am enjoying myself a little " Bruce Willis movies. This probably is one of the most decent films he has been in recently.
Also to be clear I am not going to compare this to the original since I want to watch it properly first before I say anything. I owe Charles Bronson that much. Although I do have to add that when this remake was announced I was incredibly sceptical. I like Bruce Willis (when he gives a damn) but he sure isn't Charles Bronson. Honestly I was surprised that they picked Bruce to do this. He just isn't the right type.But I have to say I did warm up to the character he plays although there are some problems with the way Willis is acting. He has his " not give a damn face " on all the time. Even in a very pivotal scene where he tells his brother Frank (Vincent D'Onofrio):" look what they did to my baby ". He couldn't even shed a tear. I mean come one Bruce. Only much later towards the end there is a scene where you get some sense of the agony his character has gone through.
In essence Death Wish is your basic revenge flick where you know how things are going to play out. For some reason they decided to use famous radio personalities of Chicago to fake discuss vigilantism and the repercussions. At first it seemed like they were going somewhere like it did in The Boondock Saints. But apart from them supporting or disapproving the actions of The Grim Reaper (Willis) nothing is done with the commentary. It's just there to make it seem like this is a political film while it's not. Director Eli Roth is more concerned with the action and violence. Especially the violence. Nothing you haven't seen before although in once scene particular it was very graphic. And in hindsight totally unnecessary. Actually it's one of those moments where I felt no sympathy for Bruce's character at all. Far too excessive and too cold blooded. I think one real problem is that there barely is a depiction of the rampant and violent crime in Chicago. If they had given us more examples and by that I mean show and then have Paul Kersey deal with these criminals it would have been more cathartic. Now you kinda have to tap in your own feelings about crime and how it's dealt with. But what if you live in an area where the worst crime is returning your library book too late? Then it becomes real hard to sympathize with Paul. To give some credit to Roth he does try to make you feel for Paul and the situation he is in. On a surface level that is enough. However if you are craving more than just action and violence there is nothing there. That is a real shame if you ask me. Because it would have been nice if the film would have addressed better or real solutions to crime issues.
I guess Vincent D'Onofrio's character was supposed to act as Paul's conscience. But Roth fails to make good use of him. The little dialogue he has is so basic and pointless. In fact he could have been left out of the film and it wouldn't have changed a single thing. That's just all kinds of wrong.
If you don't care about politics and you don't need more than your typical vengeance type action you will get more than enough to be satisfied.


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NewsSCIENCEDevastating floods to be 14 times more frequent across Europe: Study
Catastrophic floods to be 14 times more frequent across Europe, study blames climate change
Europe has been going through the worst flooding in recent history, with consistent downpours in Germany, the Netherlands, and Belgium killing over 200 people.
India Today Web Desk
A regional train sits in the flood waters at the local station in Kordel, Germany. (Photo: AP)
By India Today Web Desk: Climate change is unleashing new challenges across the world, while one part burns under intense heatwaves and wildfires, another is submerged due to heavy flooding and excess rains. At least 171 people were killed in Germany when small rivers swelled quickly into raging torrents following heavy downpours.
A new study now claims that the catastrophic floods that hit Europe are likely to become much more frequent due to global warming and climate change. Researchers said that environments with extreme rain potential are likely to be seven times more frequent than today by 2100.
The research published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters, states that intense rainstorms are expected to be more frequent due to global warming because warmer air can hold more moisture. Climate scientists have long predicted these extreme events due to climate change.
Mumbai rains LIVE: Train services affected as heavy showers batter Mumbai, other areas
Researchers developed computer models and simulations showing that the storms producing intense rain across Europe might move slower with climate change, increasing the duration of local exposure to these extreme events. "Our results suggest such slow-moving storms maybe 14 times more frequent across the land by the end of the century," researchers said in the paper.
A destroyed spa complex and the river Ahr after extreme weather in Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler, Germany. (Photo: AP)
Led by Abdullah Kahraman of the School of Engineering at the Newcastle University, researchers used Met Office computer models with a resolution of 2 kilometers, the same as used in short-term weather forecasting. Researchers said that currently, almost-stationary intense rainstorms are uncommon in Europe and happen rarely over parts of the Mediterranean Sea, but in future are expected to occur across the continent, including in the north.
The main reason seems to be a reduced temperature difference between the poles and tropics, which weakens upper-level winds in the autumn, when these short-duration rainfall extremes most occur.
Catastrophic floods across Europe
The recent spell of floods in parts of Europe has baffled climate scientists, who had not expected it to be this devastating. Flooding, that raged through a southern Dutch tourist town last week caused around $470 million in damage to homes and businesses. According to Associated Press, the southern Dutch province of Limburg was hit with the most severe flooding in decades late last week. However, unlike in neighbouring Germany and Belgium where a total of 202 are confirmed dead, there were no casualties in the Netherlands.
Furniture damaged by the flood piles up at a collection point, in Kordel, Germany. (Photo: AP)
Around 700 people were evacuated from part of the German town of Wassenberg, on the Dutch border, after the breach of a dike on the Rur river. Meanwhile, In Austria, a flash flood swept through the town of Hallein, near the German border, late Saturday. Chancellor Sebastian Kurz said on Twitter that heavy rain and storms were causing serious damage in several parts of Austria.
Parts of the southern Netherlands experienced heavy flooding, though thousands of residents were allowed to return home after being evacuated last week.
Sibu Kumar Tripathi
Responses in last 24 hours made me feel I can't coexist: Anil Antony after quitting Congress roles
IMF denies financial help to bankrupt Pakistan, govt employees' salaries likely to be cut
High drama at JNU over screening of BBC series on PM Modi, Lucknow building collapse claims 3 lives
Why is he Fasting at 18000 ft. and -40°C?
Chopper carrying Art of Living's Sri Sri Ravi Shankar, 4 others makes emergency landing in TN's Erode
Mulayam Singh Yadav awarded Padma Vibhushan posthumously
MM Keeravaani, composer of RRR's 'Naatu Naatu,' to be awarded Padma Shri
Screening of PM Modi-BBC series stopped midway at Panjab University
Bihar: Fearing harassment, woman jumps off moving bus
'We are all one': President Droupadi Murmu addresses nation ahead of 74th Republic Day


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Keeping Up with Mr. Jones brings you life lessons and landscape lectures of running a green industry business. Whether he is on the classroom podium or on a job site you should be taking notes from the Turf Teacher. That's if you want to keep up with Mr. Jones.
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Bald Eagle Nesting (All You Need To Know)
Where do Bald eagles nest?
What kind of trees do Bald eagles nest in?
What do Bald eagle nests look like?
How big are Bald eagle nests?
How high do Bald eagles nest?
What time of year do Bald eagles nest?
How long do Bald eagles nest for?
How do Bald eagles build their nests?
How long do Bald eagle nests take to build?
Do Bald eagles reuse their nest?
What do Bald eagle eggs look like?
What month do Bald eagles lay eggs?
How many broods do Bald eagles have?
How long do Bald eagle chicks stay in the nest?
Bald Eagle Nest FAQs
The proud Bald eagle is one of the world's most well-known and handsome birds. Bald eagles are found in every US state except Hawaii and much of Canada and northern Mexico. These adaptable birds have been studied closely for centuries, and their nests are of particular interest given their colossal size and weight.
So why are Bald eagle nests so large, and what are some other interesting facts about Bald eagle nests?
Bald eagle nests are constructed with care and attention over the course of 1 to 3 months. Nest building is very much a cooperative process, though the female often takes the lead in building the nest while the male supplies material.
The stand-out feature of a Bald eagle nest is size - the average nest measures around 1.2 to 1.5m in diameter (4 to 5ft) 60 to 120cm deep (2 to 4ft). Bald eagles add around 1 to 3ft of new material to the nest every year. The largest Bald eagle nest, found in St. Petersburg, Florida, was 2.89m in diameter (9.5ft), 6m (20ft) deep, and weighed almost 3 tons!
Despite their majesty, Bald eagles are pretty lazy and spend a lot of time in their nest. Benjamin Franklin said himself that the Bald eagle was a lazy bird that didn't deserve to be the USA's national emblem. Of course, with nests that large, you can't really blame the Bald eagle for being somewhat of a homebody!
Read on to learn more about this majestic raptor's nesting habits and behaviours!
The nest of a Bald eagle with one chick inside
Bald eagles nest right across the USA, Canada and northern Mexico. They usually choose tall, mature trees that are solid and stable with strong, broad forks on which to build their nest.
Despite preferring tall trees, Bald eagles build ground nests where trees are not available, especially in Alaska, Canada, islands off the coast of California and Arizona. Ground nests are usually built on cliffsides or next to rivers.
Bald eagles are thought to evaluate the food supply of the local area prior to choosing their territory. Since Bald eagles are adept at fishing, they prefer to stay close to rivers, lakes or waterways. Coastal populations will happily fish from the area too.
A large bald eagle nest
Bald eagles generally tend to nest in conifers, firs, oaks, hickories, cottonwoods and aspens.
One study found that chosen nest trees typically measured around 20 to 60 m in height and 50 to 190 cm in diameter. While living trees with strong canopies are preferred, Bald eagles do also nest in dead trees, particularly in more arid or treeless regions.
Bald eagle nests are large, broad and deep. The shape is often described as a wine glass without the stem - it extends upwards with a deep, walled cup. Nests built on the ground are flatter but are still built up from the floor to create an enclosed space.
The primary structure of the nest is created from dense, large sticks; some can measure around 1m in length. Smaller sticks, twigs and foliage are laid inside the main structure, which is lined with mosses. Bald eagles are creative with what materials they use to build the nest - some coastal nests even feature driftwood or kelp.
A pair of breeding Bald eagles in their nest
A typical Bald eagle nest measures around 1.2 to 1.5m in diameter (4 to 5ft) 60 to 120cm deep (2 to 4ft).
A Bald eagle nest currently holds the Guinness World Record for the biggest nest ever recorded. Found in St. Petersburg, Florida, the nest measured 2.89m in diameter (9.5 feet) and 6m (20 feet) deep! It was examined in 1963 and was estimated to weigh almost 3 tons.
Bald eagles prefer to nest in tall, strong, mature trees. One study found that chosen trees measure around 20 to 60 m in height (65 to 200ft) and 50 to 190 cm in diameter (1.6 to 6ft).
The nest itself is typically built at the height of around 15 to 25m. Some nests are built as low as 5m above the ground.
In treeless or coastal regions, Bald eagles do choose to nest on the ground. This is common in Alaska, Canada, California, Minnesota, Florida and Arizona. When nesting on the ground, Bald eagles often choose a cliffside spot.
Bald eagles nesting above the ocean in Canada, British Columbia
Bald eagle nesting occurs at different times, depending on the latitude. In the southern areas of their range, e.g. the states of Florida, Texas, Arizona, and northern Mexico, Bald eagles start building nests as early as late summer or as late as mid-spring. In the north USA and Canada, nest building typically starts in early spring.
The warmer it is in the region, the more flexible Bald eagles are with their breeding season. The breeding season in the south is much longer compared to the north. Virtually all Bald eagle nests are finished by late winter in around February.
Bald eagles are either sedentary or migratory. Some Bald eagles migrate in winter or at other times of year to pursue food. But for much of the year, Bald eagles spend their time in and around their nests.
Bald Eagle with eaglet in the nest
The main structure is interweaved from larger sticks. Then, the pair will begin to fine-tune the nest for warmth and comfort by weaving smaller twigs and greenery into the primary structure.
Both the male and female cooperate to build the nest. The female is often responsible for building the initial structure while the male forages sticks from nearby.
In some areas, the eagles go out of their way to line the nest with soft mosses. In addition, feathers and down shed by the eagles are used to insulate the interior of the nest.
Sticks can be carried from as far as 1km from the nest. One pair of Bald eagles carried sticks from as far as 1.6km away!
A bald eagle deliveries nesting material to the nest with its mate looking on
The average bald eagle nest takes between 1 and 3 months to build. Tree nests take longer to build than ground nests.
Bald eagles typically show high breeding ground fidelity, which essentially means that they prefer to return to the same place to breed and nest every year. Once a successful nest is established, pairs of Bald eagles will replenish and maintain it intently all year round.
Each year, nests may increase in size by some 1 to 3ft, which explains why Bald eagle nests tend to grow and grow.
One nest in Ohio was reportedly used for 34-years before the tree blew down, which presumably suggests that a new pair 'moved in' once the former owners died (as Bald eagles do not tend to live for more than 30 years).
Some pairs of Bald eagles have been observed building an alternate nest, though this is relatively rare and amounts to around 1/10 pairs in the very few regions where this is observed, such as Saskatchewan in Canada.
A bald eagle adds a branch as its final touch to completing the nest, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming
The average bald eagle egg measures around 7.0 to 7.6 cm in length and 5.3 to 5.6 cm in breadth and weigh between 100 and 130g. They are dull white and rarely have brown spots.
Bald eagle eggs are large and sub-elliptical, which means they're more rounded than a typical bird egg. The widest point is of similar width to a tennis ball.
The month that bald eagles lay eggs varies depending on their location. For example, in Alaska and Yukon Territory, eggs are generally laid from late April until May. In parts of Mexico, eggs are usually laid between December and early January. Generally speaking, the higher the elevation, the later the egg laying takes place.
Egg laying by place and time of year:
Saskatchewan: mid April
Yellowstone ecosystem: March through to mid april
Arizona: January to mid February
Florida: October through to April
The Bald eagle breeding season is much extended in the south where it's warmer throughout the year.
Three juvenile bald eagles in the nest, waiting to be fed
Generally speaking, Bald eagles will only produce one clutch per season. However, if the eggs are destroyed or taken by predators, then sometimes another clutch will be produced.
Bald eagle chicks typically fledge after around 10 to 14 weeks but can stay in and around the nest for the following 2 to 3 months.
Parental feeding continues during this time, and the juvenile eagle will not leave to establish its own territories until up to 6 to 8 months or so after hatching. Like most eagles, Bald eagles have a long lifecycle and chicks are not hasty to leave their parents.
A pair of bald eagle chicks in the nest
How much do Bald eagle nests weigh?
The average Bald eagle nest weighs around 1 ton. However, the heaviest nests weigh over 2 tons, and the heaviest recorded is thought to have weighed almost 3 tons! It holds the Guinness World Record for the biggest bird's nest.
Do Bald eagles nest on the ground?
Where trees are lacking, Bald eagles can nest on the ground. This is more common in arid environments where trees are limited, e.g. parts of Alaska, Canada and Arizona. When they live in coastal regions, Bald eagles often nest on cliffsides.
Do Bald eagles nest in pine trees?
Bald eagles nest in a variety of coniferous and deciduous trees, including conifers and pines. The main criteria are that the tree must be relatively tall and strong with a wide fork.
Where do Bald eagles nest in Florida?
In Florida, Bald eagle nests are found in shorter, younger trees than in most other regions. While Bald eagles tend to opt for large, mature trees that are more than 0.5 to 1m in diameter, studies revealed that Florida nests are built in younger trees that measure just 30cm in diameter.
What do Bald Eagles do with eggs that do not hatch?
BirdFact Team
Bald Eagles may continue to incubate unhatched eggs for days, if not weeks longer than the standard hatching time. This is generally in the case of when the eggs haven't started to break up or when there is no nestling already in the nest.
If there is a hatchling in the nest, they're much less likely to continue incubating, due to the fact that it'll just get in the way, and there simply wouldn't be enough room for the adult to continue incubation.
Eventually, bald eagles will give up and unhatched eggs generally will either be trampled or, in rare circumstances, adults will feed it to the eaglets in the nest. After this, the shell will be usually discarded from the nest.
Research and data shows that anywhere between 10% and 25% of bald eagle eggs are either lost or never hatched.
Do Bald Eagles Mate For Life?
Juvenile Bald Eagles (Identification Guide with Pictures)
Are Bald Eagles Endangered? (Threats, Numbers + FAQs)
How Big Are Bald Eagles? (Wingspan + Size)
Female Bald Eagles (Identification Guide)
Where Do Bald Eagles Live? (Habitat, Range & Distribution)
Do Bald Eagles Migrate?
How Long Do Bald Eagles Live? (Complete Guide)
What Do Bald Eagles Eat? (Complete Guide)
Bald Eagle or Golden Eagle: What Are the Differences?


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Production stops at Steelite until after Easter - and staff are still getting full pay
Steelite has confirmed that workers will continue to be paid until at least April 20
Laura WatsonBusiness Editor
Stoke-on-Trent pottery giant Steelite International
Pottery giant Steelite International has stopped production - and sent employees home on full pay until at least April 20.
The company has revealed that manufacturing has come to a halt at its Middleport headquarters as demand for tableware continues to decline amid the coronavirus outbreak.
It means around 650 workers based at the factory and at Steelite's Cross 50 warehouse facility in Newcastle will not return to work until after the Easter shutdown - and still receive 100 per cent of their contracted basic pay.
North Staffordshire manufacturer asks workers to sign new contracts with 'lay-off and short-time working' clause
Pottery giant suspends all manufacturing amid coronavirus outbreak
The move by Steelite comes after the company introduced shorter working hours for hundreds of employees and made a decision to extend the annual Easter shutdown to two weeks.
A Steelite spokesperson said: "Given the unprecedented set of circumstances created by the coronavirus COVID-19 pandemic, Steelite International has taken further steps to safeguard its employees and sustain the business.
"Beginning March 24th, the majority of Steelite employees have been placed on furloughed leave until the week commencing April 20.
"This affects employees at the company's Middleport factory and distribution centre as well as the Cross 50 warehousing facility at Newcastle-under-Lyme. It also applies to office-based employees.
"Considering the difficult times, the business will pay 100 per cent of each employees' contracted basic pay during this time.
"We will continue to communicate with employees during this period and will continue to review our position in line with the latest government advice."
Stoke-on-Trent North MP Jonathan Gullis - who also chairs the All Parliamentary Party Group (APPG) on ceramics welcomed Steelite's decision to financially support its employees during this 'unprecedented time.'
He said: "These are unprecedented times and certainly nothing any of us ever thought we would see in our lifetime. I know this decision would not have been taken lightly.
"We are lucky in Stoke-on-Trent to have companies who sell around the world, but with global demand down in hospitality, and the need to apply strict social distancing, the decision was made.
"I applaud Steelite International for continuing to give financial security to their workers in this difficult time.
"I will continue to stay in touch with all our local ceramic employers to ensure workers continue to get the financial certainty they need.
"As chair of the All Parliamentary Party Group (APPG) on Ceramics, I am in regular contact with the British Ceramics Confederation (BCC) and will lobby government to protect our industry through these very challenging times."


The Toyota company has started road tests of a new generation of the crossover RAV4. Despite the fact that the prototype is seriously camouflaged it is now clear that the car will undergo the most serious changes in appearance.
If the first generation of Toyota RAV4 unequivocally attributed the car to the category of "female", and the latter was made in the style of unisex, then the new generation, definitely, will carry a "masculine". Judging by the profile, which the Japanese did not properly disguise, the car will get a serious, impressive look. And the car will receive a number of design solutions, which could be observed last year on the FT-AC concept. These are aggressive headlights, a large practically vertical radiator grille, large wheel arches.
There are no technical details about the car. With confidence, we can only say that the crossover will be built on a modular platform TNGA (Toyota New Global Architecture), for it, the company gradually translates almost its entire lineup.
Most likely, the public debut of the new generation Toyota RAV4 will take place early next year.


Happy New Year everybody. Our second open walk takes place on Sunday January 12. We will meet at noon in Tinahely Square and take a route on Mangans Hill and return by a more recently opened section of the Railway walk. Details of more walks will be decided shortly and will appear here next week and on the Tinahely.ie website.
Sincere sympathy is extended to Mary Stacy, Carnew Upper National School her family and relatives on the death of her mother in-law Mrs Stacy during the week.
Sincere sympathy is extended to Tom Farrell, Bunclody his family and relatives on the death of his brother during the week.
Unislim classes have resumed on Tuesday mornings at 9.45 am and evenings at 6pm in The Hazel Rooms (above Dorans Bookmakers) all new members welcome. contact Cathy 0877652979.
A course for Applied Mindfulness will run for 8 weeks starting in January on Mondays from 2.30 – 4.30pm €5 per session to book your place or for more details contact 0539426510.


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La filosofia della mente è lo studio filosofico della mente, degli atti, della coscienza e delle funzioni mentali e delle loro relazioni con il cervello, il corpo e il mondo esterno. La filosofia della mente si addentra nelle questioni di fondo e nei problemi metodologici che stanno dietro la ricerca scientifica sulla mente, usando sia il metodo speculativo (attraverso esperimenti mentali), sia tenendo conto dei risultati ottenuti nella ricerca empirica e strumentale, che oggi può avvalersi della PET, la tomografia ad emissione di positroni, e della fMRI, la risonanza magnetica funzionale per immagini.

Secondo Jaegwon Kim, la filosofia della mente è quella branca della filosofia che studia l'ontologia e la natura della mente ma soprattutto la sua relazione con il corpo. Ed è proprio questo paradigma, detto problema mente – corpo, al centro del dibattito filosofico, anche se i filosofi della mente si sono spesso cimentati a discutere di altri paradigmi, come ad esempio il problema della coscienza (distinto tra problema facile e problema difficile) e l'ontologia e natura degli stati mentali.

Storia

Un esponente di spicco della prospettiva anti-sostanzialista è stato George Berkeley, vescovo anglicano e filosofo del XVIII secolo. Molto brevemente, Berkeley sosteneva che la materia non esiste, e che ciò che gli uomini percepiscono come mondo materiale non è nient'altro che un'idea nella mente di Dio. Più dettagliatamente, Berkeley non rifiutava l'ipotesi dell'esistenza del mondo fisico (la materia prima detta), ma rifiutava l'ipotesi che il mondo fisico esistesse come oggetto indipendente dal pensiero, come era stato invece postulato da Cartesio. Secondo Berkeley, il mondo fisico esiste come oggetto indipendente solo dal pensiero di Dio, ma non dalla sua mano, in quanto ne è stato l'unico creatore.

La mente umana è una pura manifestazione dell'anima . In altre parole, Berkeley distingueva tra idee e pensieri. Le idee non derivano da oggetti e relazioni tra oggetti che apprendiamo osservando il mondo fisico esterno, ma sono idee che ci derivano direttamente da Dio. Le idee e i pensieri (questi ultimi generati dalla nostra mente per potere manipolare le idee) sono l'unica realtà materiale e oggettiva di cui possiamo fare esperienza.

Sono pochi i filosofi disposti oggi ad accettare una prospettiva così estrema, ma l'idea che la mente umana abbia una natura o un'essenza diversa e più alta del mero insieme delle operazioni del cervello, continua ad incontrare un largo consenso.

Secondo alcuni, la dottrina di Berkeley è stata attaccata e demolita da Thomas Henry Huxley  ), biologo del XIX secolo, allievo di Charles Darwin, che sostenne i fenomeni della mente essere di un unico genere, e spiegabili esclusivamente a partire dai processi cerebrali, in pratica la stessa cosa che sosteneva Berkeley.

Huxley è vicino a quella scuola di pensiero materialista della filosofia inglese facente capo a Thomas Hobbes, che sosteneva nel XVII secolo che ogni evento mentale ha il suo fondamento fisico, sebbene le conoscenze biologiche dell'epoca non gli consentissero di individuare con precisione tali basi fisiche. Huxley conciliò la dottrina di Hobbes con quella di Darwin, dando così luogo alla moderna prospettiva materialista (o funzionalista) .

Tuttavia è bene evidenziare che il pensiero di Thomas Henry Huxley non trova spazio all'interno della filosofia della mente, non avendo egli proposto ipotesi e/o teorie e/o riflessioni riconducibili all'interno di questo paradigma.

Questa linea di pensiero è stata rinvigorita dalla costante espansione della conoscenza circa le funzioni del cervello umano. Nel XIX secolo non era possibile affermare con certezza in che maniera il cervello svolga certe funzioni quali ad esempio la memoria, l'emozione, la percezione e la ragione, e ciò lasciava ampio spazio alle teorie sostanzialistiche e metafisiche della mente. Ma ogni progresso nello studio del cervello rendeva queste posizioni sempre meno salde, fino al punto in cui è diventato innegabilmente chiaro che tutte le componenti della mente hanno la propria origine nel funzionamento del cervello.

Il razionalismo di Huxley, in ogni caso, è stato scosso all'inizio del XX secolo dalle idee di Sigmund Freud , che sviluppò una teoria dell'inconscio, sostenendo che i processi mentali di cui gli uomini sono soggettivamente coscienti non costituiscono che una piccola parte dell'intera attività mentale. Tale teoria può anche essere considerata come una ripresa dell'idea sostanzialistica in chiave secolare . Sebbene Freud non abbia mai negato che la mente sia una funzione del cervello, sostenne che la mente ha una coscienza sua propria della quale non siamo coscienti, che non possiamo controllare e alla quale è possibile accedere solo tramite la psicoanalisi (ed in particolare tramite l'interpretazione dei sogni) . La teoria dell'inconscio di Freud, sebbene impossibile da dimostrare empiricamente, e quindi tutt'altro che dimostrata scientificamente, è stata ampiamente assorbita nella cultura occidentale ed ha fortemente influenzato la rappresentazione comune della mente  .

Il punto di vista del pensiero indiano
Mentre in Occidente è prevalsa a partire da Cartesio e almeno sino al XIX secolo la prospettiva dualista (con la sola eccezione di Spinoza per il quale "Dio = Mente" e "Mente = Uno-Tutto = Natura), nelle culture dell'Oriente prevale la visione olistica di una mente-anima globale, l'Ātman, riflessa nella mente degli uomini come Jivatman. Questa prospettiva della mente, nel pensiero filosofico orientale, caratterizza il corso completamente differente del pensiero orientale rispetto a quello occidentale.

All'interno di esso spicca il pensiero buddhista, secondo cui la mente non è un'entità, e nemmeno un sistema che esercita funzioni, ma piuttosto un processo, e quindi è definita anche come "mentale". La mente (o "il mentale") secondo tale pensiero è un ponte tra anima (parte eterna dell'individuo) e corpo (parte mortale dell'individuo), a questo è dovuto il suo "irrequieto" movimento per unire due parti impossibili da unire tra loro, ossia l'assoluto e la morte.

Secondo il Buddhismo, la mente è un flusso di singoli istanti di esperienza consapevole e chiara. Nella sua condizione non illuminata, la mente esprime le proprie qualità quali pensieri, percezioni e ricordi grazie alla consapevolezza. La sua vera essenza illuminata è libera dall'attaccamento ad un sé e si sperimenta inseparabile dallo spazio come consapevolezza aperta, chiara ed illimitata.

Natura della mente: dibattito attuale
I filosofi e gli psicologi restano divisi circa la natura della mente. Alcuni, partendo dalla cosiddetta prospettiva sostanzialista o essenzialista, sostengono che la mente sia una entità a sé, avente probabilmente il proprio fondamento funzionale nel cervello, ma essenzialmente distinta da esso. Quindi un'esistenza autonoma e come tale oggetto d'indagine. Questa prospettiva, facente capo a Platone, è stata successivamente assunta all'interno del pensiero cristiano e in qualche modo radicalizzata da Cartesio.

Nella sua forma estrema, la prospettiva sostanzialista mette insieme con la prospettiva teologica il fatto che la mente sia un'entità completamente separata dal corpo, una manifestazione fisica dell'anima, e che essa sopravviva alla morte del corpo e ritorni a Dio, suo creatore. Altri ancora assumono la prospettiva funzionalista, facente capo ad Aristotele, la quale sostiene che la mente è soltanto un termine utilizzato per motivi di comodità ai fini della rappresentazione di una moltitudine di funzioni mentali che hanno poco in comune tra loro, ma riconoscibili attraverso la coscienza.

La consapevolezza di possedere una mente e di poterne cogliere gli effetti percettivi e cogitativi trova in ogni caso il proprio centro nella coscienza. Gli studiosi distinguono una coscienza primaria o nucleare a cui competono quelle funzioni-base che si esprimono in "consapevolezza del mondo esterno", attraverso la percezione e in "consapevolezza del proprio corpo" attraverso la propriocezione autocoscienza. Tranne il fatto che gli uomini sono tutti coscienti della propria esistenza, i funzionalisti tendono a sostenere che gli attributi che denominiamo collettivamente la "mente" sono strettamente legati alle funzioni del cervello (la mente come attività del cervello) e non hanno esistenza autonoma rispetto a questo. In questa prospettiva la mente è una manifestazione soggettiva dell'esser coscienti: nient'altro che la facoltà del cervello di manifestarsi come coscienza. Il concetto della mente è quindi un mezzo tramite il quale il cervello cosciente comprende le sue stesse operazioni.

Descrizione
I problemi tradizionali nella filosofia della mente sono capire e definire cos'è l'Io, il suo funzionamento (spesso in termini di concetti come percezione, appercezione, impressione, sensazione, intuizione, pensiero, rappresentazione, immaginazione, memoria, coscienza, autocoscienza, ragione, intelletto, volontà, istinto, inconscio, sentimento, emozione, passione ecc.) e il suo rapporto con il corpo: queste problematiche assieme al problema anima-corpo hanno coperto il dibattito filosofico fino al XX secolo, spesso indirettamente compresi all'interno di ambiti come la metafisica e la gnoseologia, originando a partire dal XIX secolo discipline interamente dedicate come la psicologia e la psicoanalisi. Filosofi che si sono occupati della mente nei suoi vari aspetti sono stati Sant'Agostino, Cartesio, Locke, Spinoza, Leibniz, Kant, Hegel ecc...

Oggi, con le nuove scoperte della neurofisiologia e più in generale delle neuroscienze, tali problematiche si sono specificate nel dualismo mente-cervello, ovvero la dicotomia tra una prospettiva soggettiva, intrapersonale relativa alla sfera della coscienza e autocoscienza (studiata dalla psicologia) ed una strettamente empirico-materialista tipica della scienza e del metodo sperimentale (es. neurologia, psichiatria, neuropsichiatria ecc...). Nella filosofia della mente si vorrebbe risolvere questo problema fondamentale ed arrivare ad una scienza efficace ed esauriente delle componenti funzionali della mente (soprattutto della coscienza) e della loro integrazione operativa.

Negli ultimi due decenni il concetto di mente è andato definendosi in tre posizioni principali, più altre secondarie:

 La mente si caratterizza con proprietà del tutto proprie e il "mentale" deve esser indagato in quanto tale, in sé, senza riduzionismi di sorta alla neurofisiologia (il cervello diventa contenitore di esperienze mentali e psichiche che seguono però leggi proprie della psicologia). Questa è ad esempio la posizione di John Searle e di Hubert Dreyfus.
 La mente sarebbe il prodotto o l'attività del cervello e ad esso riducibile, dimostrabile col fatto che la "mente senza cervello non può esistere". Quindi anche la mente sarebbe oggetto d'indagine della neurofisiologia usando le moderne tecniche d'indagine medico-scientifica che si occupano o degli effetti di lesioni cerebrali localizzate o dell'attivazione differenziale (afflusso di sangue) in regioni specifiche. Sotto questo punto di vista il sintomo della malattia o della disabilità, rintracciabile a livello neurofisiologico nel malfunzionamento o danno del cervello, coincide con la malattia/disabilità stessa ed eliminato il quale (il sintomo e quindi il danno) viene meno anche la malattia o la disfunzionalità. Tale posizione è assunta da Antonio Damasio e trova un'estremizzazione "eliminativista" (la mente non esiste) in Paul e Patricia Churchland.
 La mente, in quanto cervello, è una macchina sostanzialmente computazionale, quindi analoga ai computer. Ne nasce un rapporto molto stretto con la intelligenza artificiale (AI) e alimenta gli studi per creare macchine sempre più simili al cervello umano. Con questo obiettivo sono attivi alcuni centri di ricerca USA a cui fa riferimento, per esempio, Daniel Dennett.

Ma la mente, secondo il parere di illustri neurofisiologi come Gerald Edelman, non opera in maniera riduzionistica bensì complessa, ed ogni riduzionismo porta fuori strada. Scrive infatti Edelman:
Ma le tentazioni in tal senso sono forti, perché il ricondurre tutto alla fisiologia o alle analogie con la intelligenza artificiale semplifica enormemente il problema e soprattutto ne permette una visione sistemica ed univoca, cosa ritenuta impossibile dagli avversari del riduzionismo, i non riduzionisti, appunto. Un altro prestigioso neurofisiologo come Joseph LeDoux sottolinea come la mente umana non sia assolutamente concepibile come una macchina perché esprime dei sentimenti:

Contro tale posizione riduzionistica si era già espresso significativamente John Searle, tendente a vedere la natura della mente biologica priva di alcun rapporto con quella computazionale, né riducibile a fisiologia pura, che sosteneva:

La filosofia della mente che tiene conto delle evidenze della ricerca scientifica e sperimentale come dati primari, mette questi in relazione con la riflessione filosofica, in modo tale da fornire sempre nuove indicazioni per la sperimentazione in altre discipline connesse come le scienze cognitive che indicano un approccio multidisciplinare ma prevalentemente neurofisiologico e psicologico-sperimentale.

In ogni caso è importante tenere conto che la ricerca neurofisiologica più avanzata resta comunque incapace di andare molto oltre gli aspetti meccanici del pensare e del sentire, quelli che riguardano la generalità del modo di funzionare del cervello del mammifero homo sapiens. L'approccio anti-riduzionista, e che potremmo chiamare olistico, tende invece ad occuparsi dello specifico del mentale, ciò che si lega all'individualità, come i sentimenti e le emozioni intime, restano un campo dove esse, almeno per ora, hanno molto poco da dire all'indagine neurologica. Ciò significa che la filosofia della mente deve avvalersi ancora o di concetti propri della filosofia, o di quelli della psicologia, o della psicoanalisi, debitamente interpretati in senso filosofico.

Il problema mente-corpo, per quanto abbia interessato il pensiero filosofico sin dai primordi, è soltanto uno dei tre approcci entro cui si inquadrano le nuove teorie della mente. Esse nascono con il concorso di acute osservazioni attorno alle teorie storiche del funzionalismo, del computazionalismo e dell'intelligenza artificiale. Possiamo dunque individuare le tre seguenti linee di ricerca:

 Il problema mente-corpo, che concerne il rapporto tra il soma e la psiche a livello infra-soggettivo;
 Il problema mente-mondo, relativo al rapportarsi di ogni singolo individuo con il contesto di esistenza in cui è inserito;
 Il problema mente-mente, come quello del relazionarsi di una mente alle altre menti ad essa simili sul piano strutturale e funzionale, ma con esigenze e aspettative da poco a molto differenti.

Problema mente-corpo
Rispetto al problema mente-corpo si possono individuare due grandi filoni: il monismo ed il dualismo. Il primo sostiene che l'organismo umano si presenta come un'unica realtà, basata su una sola sostanza fondamentale, di cui sia mente che corpo sono parti differenti ma correlate. Il secondo afferma invece che mente e corpo, essendo sostanzialmente differenti come struttura cellulare, vanno considerati separatamente. In altre parole, i neuroni e soprattutto le sinapsi apparterrebbero a un livello di complessità troppo differente dalle cellule somatiche per essere abbracciati in una visione unitaria. In realtà anche questa tesi non esclude la coniugazione di corpo e mente, semplicemente ritiene che ai fini gnoseologici la fisiologia del corpo sia una cosa, quella del cervello un'altra.

Tuttavia, da un punto di vista storico, il dualismo corpo/mente è stato per lungo tempo visto come un dualismo materia/spirito e il maggior responsabile di ciò è certamente Cartesio, che lo espresse in quello res extensa/res cogitans. Quest'errore gnoseologico è stato sottolineato praticamente da tutti gli studiosi della mente dell'ultimo secolo, tra i quali Antonio Damasio, che ha dedicato a questo argomento un intero libro.

Da queste due correnti di fondo si è evoluto un ampio ventaglio di posizioni, agli estremi del quale stanno la visione scientifica riduzionistica e la visione metafisica. Essendo numerosissime le posizioni filosofiche sul problema mente-corpo tra quelle più scientifiche appaiono oggi dominare quelle concernenti due tronconi principali: il fisicalismo o materialismo (riduzionista e non riduzionista), e le dottrine non-fisicaliste, tra le quali spicca quella del Premio Nobel per la medicina Gerald Edelman, che ha proposto la "Groups Neuronal Selection Theory", comunemente indicata come darwinismo neurale.

I filosofi contemporanei hanno abbandonato il dualismo ontologico in favore di un meno impegnativo dualismo delle proprietà o delle funzioni, in base al quale mente e corpo non sono due sostanze separate, ma compenetrate e coniugate funzionalmente. Possono quindi esser visti anche come "stati esperienziali" di un organismo polifunzionale, tali da poter fare una distinzione tra due tipi di stati: gli stati fisiologici o cerebrali, legati alle strutture neurologiche della sensibilità corporea, e gli stati mentali, quelli che concernono più specificamente le emozioni, i sentimenti e l'elaborazione del pensiero. Si è occupato di questo problema Edoardo Boncinelli, facendo una distinzione tra neurostato come fenomeno cerebrale e psicostato come fenomeno mentale. Ha scritto:

Schematicamente i quesiti aperti sono i seguenti:
 Cos'è uno stato mentale?
 Che rapporto c'è tra uno stato mentale e uno stato cerebrale?
 Come può il cervello dare luogo a stati mentali?

Le risposte a questi interrogativi variano al variare della concezione che si abbraccia del mondo, della causa, della natura della mente, del cervello, ecc. Edoardo Boncinelli, e numerosi altri con lui, ne fa una questione di tempi e di complessità, vedendo il cerebrale come il semplice e primario, il mentale come il complesso e secondario. Così lo spiega:

Orientamenti teorici e correnti
Gli studi sulla mente e le teorie relative si sono moltiplicati dal 1956, anno in cui si è tenuto al Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) di Boston un simposio sulla mente nei suoi aspetti funzionali, vista come una possibile struttura informazionale. Con ciò veniva posto il problema delle analogie tra il funzionamento della mente umana e quello dei computer. Il portare l'attenzione non più sul "cos'è" la mente ma su "come funziona" è stato una svolta epocale, che ha portato un ventaglio interpretativo molto vasto nel quale definire correnti e orientamenti; per le continue intersezioni tra questi ultimi, uno studioso può venire collocato in una o in un'altra corrente od essere a cavallo di entrambe.

A parte i fondatori delle varie correnti con conseguente conio di un termine, com'è il comportamentismo da parte di John Watson e il funzionalismo da parte di Hilary Putnam, è sempre molto difficile cogliere uno stretto nesso tra i precursori e i seguaci, tra antecedenti e conseguenti. Per esempio, è indubitabile che il funzionalismo abbia nel comportamentismo un antecedente importante, anche se poi se ne differenzia profondamente, essendo la visione comportamentista semplificata a un meccanismo stimolo-risposta che evocava le risultanze delle ricerche neurofisiologiche di Ivan Pavlov. Quando apparve, nel 1913, il manifesto del comportamentismo da parte di Watson le reazioni furono violente poiché la mente umana veniva ridotta a una macchina nervosa agente secondo automatismi. Ciò risultava intollerabile per chi si rifiutava di considerare il comportamento umano assimilabile a quello di ogni altro animale.

Si può dire che inizia con Watson la divaricazione tra le interpretazioni riduzionistiche della mente e quelle anti-riduzionistiche e che Putnam opera una sorta di conversione del riduzionismo neurofisiologico a quello logico e matematico, che trova poi la sua prosecuzione dalla metà degli anni sessanta del secolo scorso in poi nei riduzionismi computazionalistici ispirati alla intelligenza artificiale. Nasce con Putnam l'idea di guardare alle funzioni cognitive umane e alle strutture cerebrali in analogia con un software supportato da un hardware e questa idea di funzionalismo computazionalista avrà molti seguaci anche dopo che Putnam l'avrà rigettata a metà degli anni ottanta.

Sui due fronti, riduzionista e anti-riduzionista, si confrontano almeno quattro indirizzi:
 quello "computazionalista" che, vedendo il cervello come un organo calcolatore, assume che con l'intelligenza artificiale si possano imitare le funzioni mentali con risultati simili (es: Dennett e Fodor);
 quello "neurologista" che, riducendo la mente alla fisiologia del cervello, annulla il mentale nella elaborazione meccanica dei circuiti cerebrali (es: Churchland);
 quello "mentalista" che nega sia il primo che il secondo rivendicando invece l'autonomia del mentale dal cerebrale (es: Searle);
 quello "evoluzionista" che supera tali indirizzi in una visione evoluzionistica del mentale come epifenomenico del cerebrale (es: Edelman).

Teorie riduzionistiche

Comportamentismo

Il comportamentismo rifiuta qualsiasi forma di introspezione, e ritiene che l'unico dato di fatto oggettivo per uno studio scientifico della mente sia il comportamento esteriore. La mente viene effettivamente trattata come una "scatola nera".
 John Watson
 Burrhus Skinner

Filosofi vicini a questa corrente, anche se non comportamentisti a tutti gli effetti, si possono considerare:
 Rudolph Carnap
 Gilbert Ryle
 Wilfrid Sellars

Funzionalismo computazionalistico

 Hilary Putnam
 Jerry Fodor
 Daniel Dennett
 Douglas Hofstadter

Teoria dell'Identità

 Ullin Place
 John Jamieson Carswell Smart
 David Armstrong
 Paul Churchland
 Patricia Churchland

Teorie anti-riduzionistiche

Olismo

 Aristotele
 Tommaso d'Aquino
 Filosofia scolastica
 Filosofie orientali
 Ken Wilber

Dualismo

 Karl Popper
 David Chalmers

Teorie dualistiche:
 Interazionismo
 Parallelismo (filosofia della mente)
 Epifenomenismo

Coscienza e Intenzionalità
 John Searle
 Thomas Nagel
 Hubert Dreyfus

La ragione emozionata
 Antonio Damasio

Teorie evoluzionistiche
 Gerald Edelman
 Jean-Pierre Changeux
 Merlin Donald
 David Linden,

Note

Bibliografia
 Aa.Vv, Verso una psicologia fenomenologica ed esistenziale, ETS 2009.
 A. Attanasio, Darwinismo morale. Da Darwin alle neuroscienze. Torino, UTET 2010.
 W. Bechtel, Filosofia della mente, Bologna, Il Mulino 2002.
 A. G. Biuso, Dispositivi semantici. Introduzione fenomenologica alla filosofia della mente, Vill. Maori, Catania 2008.
 E. Canone (a cura di), Per una storia del concetto di mente, Seminari di terminologia filosofica e storia delle idee, Firenze, Olschki,vol. I (2005), vol. II (2007).
 F. Cimatti, Il senso della mente, Torino, Bollati Boringhieri 2004.
 M. Di Francesco, Introduzione alla filosofia della mente, Roma, Carocci 2002.
 D. Marconi, Filosofia e scienza cognitiva, VBri, Laterza 2002.
 S. Nannini, L'anima e il corpo. Un'introduzione storica alla filosofia della mente, Bari-Roma, Laterza 2002.
 A. Paternoster, Introduzione alla filosofia della mente, Bari-Roma, Laterza 2008.
  E. Burtt, The Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Physical Science, 2ª ed. (London, 1932), pp. 318–19.
  F. Deutsch (ed.), On the Mysterious Leap from the Mind to the Body, New York, 1959.
 H. Feigl, The "Mental" and the "Physical": The Essay and a Postscript (1967), in H. Feigl et al., (eds.), Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science, Vol. 2, Minneapolis, 1958, pp. 370–497
  C. Green, The Lost Cause: Causation and the Mind-Body Problem. (Oxford: Oxford Forum, 2003). Applies a sceptical view on causality to the problems of interactionism.
  Geshe Kelsang Gyatso, Understanding the Mind: The Nature and Power of the Mind, Tharpa Publications (2nd. ed., 1997) ISBN 978-0-948006-78-4
 Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Princeton, 1980), p. 120, 125.
 Alfred North Whitehead Science and the Modern World, Simon & Schuster, 1997, ISBN 0-684-83639-4

Voci correlate
 Mente
 Intenzionalità
 Coscienza
 Memoria (psicologia)
 Qualia
 Scienze cognitive
 Unità psicofisica
 Epistemologia evoluzionistica
 Teoria della mente
 Anima

Altri progetti

Collegamenti esterni

 London Philosophy Study Guide offre una nutrita bibliografia al riguardo:

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


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text:
1834 and 1835 United States Senate elections
(Redirected from 1834 United States Senate election in South Carolina)
For related races, see 1834 United States elections.
← 1832 & 1833 Dates vary by state 1836 & 1837 →
16 of the 48 seats in the United States Senate (plus special elections)
Majority party
Minority party
Anti-Jacksonian Jacksonian Nullifier
Last election
23 seats 21 seats 2 seats
Seats before
Seats after
Seat change
Seats up
Majority Party before election
Anti–Jacksonian
Elected Majority Party
The United States Senate elections of 1834 and 1835 were elections that had the Anti-Jackson coalition maintain control of the United States Senate. However, during the 24th Congress, the Jacksonian coalition gained control of the Senate.
As this election was prior to ratification of the seventeenth amendment, Senators were chosen by state legislatures.
1 Results summary
2 Change in composition
2.1 Before the elections
2.2 Result of the regular elections
3 Race summaries
3.1 Special elections during the 23rd Congress
3.2 Races leading to the 24th Congress
3.3 Special election during the 24th Congress
3.4 Early elections during the 24th Congress
4 Alabama
5 Connecticut (Special)
6 Delaware
7.1 Georgia (Regular)
7.2 Georgia (Special)
8 Illinois
10 Louisiana
11 Maine
11.1 Maine (Regular)
11.2 Maine (Special)
12 Maryland (Special)
13 Massachusetts
14 Michigan
15 Mississippi
17 New Jersey
18 North Carolina
19 Pennsylvania (Special)
21 South Carolina
23 Virginia
23.1 Virginia (Regular)
23.2 Virginia (Special)
Results summary[edit]
Senate Party Division, 24th Congress (1835–1837)
Majority Party: Jacksonian (21–31)
Minority Party: Anti-Jackson (24–19)
Other Parties: Nullifier (2)
Total Seats: 48–52
Change in composition[edit]
Before the elections[edit]
AJ1 AJ2 AJ3 AJ4
AJ14 AJ13 AJ12 AJ11 AJ10 AJ9 AJ8 AJ7 AJ6 AJ5
AJ15 AJ16 AJ17 AJ18
Miss.
R.I.
La.
Majority →
Tenn.
J13 J12 J11 J10 J9 J8 J7 J6 J5
J1 J2 J3 J4
Result of the regular elections[edit]
Re-elected
Re-elected to different party
Plurality →
AJ Loss[a]
AJ# = Anti-Jacksonian
J# = Jacksonian
N# = Nullfier
V# = Vacant
Race summaries[edit]
Special elections during the 23rd Congress[edit]
In these special elections, the winners were seated during 1834 or before March 4, 1835; ordered by election date.
(Class 2)
William Rives Jacksonian 1832 (Special) Incumbent resigned February 22, 1834.
Successor elected February 26, 1834.
Successor was also elected to the next term, see below.
Anti-Jacksonian gain.
Y Benjamin W. Leigh (Anti-Jacksonian)
[data unknown/missing]
William Wilkins Jacksonian 1832 Incumbent resigned June 30, 1834 to become U.S. Minister to Russia.
New senator elected December 6, 1834.
Jacksonian hold.
Y James Buchanan (Jacksonian) 66 (49.62%)[1]
Amos Ellmaker (Anti-Jacksonian) 31 (23.31%)
James Clarke (Jacksonian) 26 (19.55%)
Joseph Lawrence (Anti-Jacksonian) 6 (4.51%)
Joel Sutherland (Jacksonian) 1 (0.75%)
Not voting 3 (2.26%)
John Forsyth Jacksonian 1818 (Special)
1819 (Resigned)
1829 (Special)
1830 or 1831 Incumbent resigned June 27, 1834 to become U.S. Minister to Spain.
New senator elected January 12, 1835.
Y Alfred Cuthbert (Jacksonian)
Ezekiel F. Chambers Anti-Jacksonian 1826 (Special)
1831 Incumbent resigned December 20, 1834 to become judge of the Maryland Court of Appeals.
Anti-Jacksonian hold.
Y Robert Henry Goldsborough (Anti-Jacksonian)
Peleg Sprague Anti-Jacksonian 1829 Incumbent resigned January 1, 1835.
Jacksonian gain.
Y John Ruggles (Jacksonian)
Races leading to the 24th Congress[edit]
In these regular elections, the winner was seated on March 4, 1835; ordered by state.
All of the elections involved the Class 2 seats.
William R. King Jacksonian 1819
1828 Incumbent re-elected in 1834.
Y William R. King (Jacksonian)
John M. Clayton Anti-Jacksonian 1827 (Special)
Y John M. Clayton (Anti-Jacksonian)
John Pendleton King Jacksonian 1833 (Special) Incumbent re-elected in 1834.
Y John Pendleton King (Jacksonian)
John M. Robinson Jacksonian 1830 (Special) Incumbent re-elected in 1835.
Y John M. Robinson (Jacksonian)
George M. Bibb Jacksonian 1829 Unknown if incumbent ran for re-election.
New senator elected in 1835.
Y John J. Crittenden (Anti-Jacksonian)
George A. Waggaman Anti-Jacksonian 1831 (Special) Unknown if incumbent ran for re-election.
New senator elected in 1835, but due to ill-health, resigned without having been seated.
Anti-Jacksonian loss.
Y Charles Gayarré (Jacksonian)
Peleg Sprague Anti-Jacksonian 1829 Incumbent resigned December 20, 1834 to become judge of the Maryland Court of Appeals.
Successor was also elected the same day to finish the term, see above.
Y John Ruggles (Jacksonian) 73.91%
George Evans 26.09%[2]
Nathaniel Silsbee Anti-Jacksonian 1826 (Special)
1828 Incumbent retired.
Y John Davis (Anti-Jacksonian)
George Poindexter Anti-Jacksonian 1830 (Appointed)
1830 (Special) Incumbent lost re-election.
Y Robert J. Walker (Jacksonian)
Samuel Bell Anti-Jacksonian 1823 Incumbent retired.
Y Henry Hubbard (Jacksonian)
Theodore Frelinghuysen Anti-Jacksonian 1829 Unknown if incumbent ran for re-election.
Y Garret D. Wall (Jacksonian)
Bedford Brown Jacksonian 1829 (Special) Incumbent re-elected in 1835.
Y Bedford Brown (Jacksonian)
Nehemiah R. Knight Anti-Jacksonian 1821 (Special)
Y Nehemiah R. Knight (Anti-Jacksonian)
John C. Calhoun Nullifier 1832 (Special) Incumbent re-elected in 1834.
Y John C. Calhoun (Nullifier)
Hugh Lawson White Jacksonian 1825 (Special)
1829 Incumbent re-elected in 1835 as Anti-Jacksonian.
Y Hugh Lawson White (Anti-Jacksonian)
Benjamin W. Leigh Anti-Jacksonian 1834 (Special) Incumbent re-elected in 1835.
Special election during the 24th Congress[edit]
In this special election, the winner was seated in 1835 after March 4; ordered by election date.
Nathan Smith Anti-Jacksonian 1832 Incumbent died December 6, 1835.
New senator elected December 21, 1835.
Y John M. Niles (Jacksonian)
Early elections during the 24th Congress[edit]
In these elections, the winners were not seated until 1837.
New seat New state.
New senator was elected in November 1835 but not seated until January 6, 1837 due to a territorial dispute with Ohio.
Y Lucius Lyon (Jacksonian)
Y John Norvell (Jacksonian)
Alabama[edit]
See also: List of United States senators from Alabama and 1835 United States House of Representatives elections in Alabama
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2020)
Connecticut (Special)[edit]
See also: List of United States senators from Connecticut and 1835 United States House of Representatives election in Connecticut
Delaware[edit]
See also: List of United States senators from Delaware and 1834 United States House of Representatives election in Delaware
Georgia[edit]
See also: List of United States senators from Georgia and 1834 United States House of Representatives election in Georgia
Georgia had two elections this cycle: a regular election for the class 2 seat and a special election for the class 3 seat.
Georgia (Regular)[edit]
In the class 2 seat, incumbent Jacksonian John Pendleton King, who had served since winning an 1833 special election, was re-elected sometime in 1834.
Georgia (Special)[edit]
In the class 3 seat, incumbent Jacksonian John Forsyth, who had served since winning an 1829 special election, resigned June 27, 1834 to become U.S. Minister to Spain.
Jacksonian Alfred Cuthbert was elected January 12, 1835.
Illinois[edit]
See also: List of United States senators from Illinois and 1834 United States House of Representatives elections in Illinois
Kentucky[edit]
See also: List of United States senators from Kentucky and 1835 United States House of Representatives elections in Kentucky
Louisiana[edit]
See also: List of United States senators from Louisiana and 1834 United States House of Representatives elections in Louisiana
Maine[edit]
See also: List of United States senators from Maine and 1834 United States House of Representatives elections in Maine
Maine had two elections this cycle, both for the class 2 seat.
Incumbent Anti-Jacksonian Peleg Sprague, who was elected in 1829, resigned January 1, 1835.
Jacksonian John Ruggles won both elections.
Maine (Regular)[edit]
Jacksonian John Ruggles was elected January 19, 1835 to the next term. He was then elected to finish the current term, see below.
Maine (Special)[edit]
Jacksonian John Ruggles was elected January 20, 1835 to finish the term that would end March 3, 1835.
Maryland (Special)[edit]
See also: List of United States senators from Maryland and 1835 United States House of Representatives elections in Maryland
Massachusetts[edit]
See also: List of United States senators from Massachusetts and 1834–1835 United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts
Michigan[edit]
Main article: 1835 United States Senate elections in Michigan
See also: List of United States Senators from Michigan and 1835 United States House of Representatives election in Michigan
The new state of Michigan elected its new senators in 1835, both Jacksonians: Lucius Lyon (Class 1) and John Norvell (Class 2). They were not seated until January 26, 1837 due to a territorial dispute with Ohio.
Mississippi[edit]
See also: List of United States senators from Mississippi and 1835 United States House of Representatives election in Mississippi
New Hampshire[edit]
See also: List of United States senators from New Hampshire and 1835 United States House of Representatives election in New Hampshire
New Jersey[edit]
See also: List of United States senators from New Jersey and 1834 United States House of Representatives election in New Jersey
North Carolina[edit]
See also: List of United States senators from North Carolina and 1835 United States House of Representatives elections in North Carolina
Pennsylvania (Special)[edit]
Main article: 1834 United States Senate special election in Pennsylvania
See also: List of United States senators from Pennsylvania and 1834 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania
Rhode Island[edit]
See also: List of United States senators from Rhode Island and 1835 United States House of Representatives election in Rhode Island
South Carolina[edit]
See also: List of United States senators from South Carolina and 1834 United States House of Representatives elections in South Carolina
Tennessee[edit]
See also: List of United States senators from Tennessee and 1835 United States House of Representatives elections in Tennessee
Virginia[edit]
See also: List of United States senators from Virginia and 1835 United States House of Representatives elections in Virginia
Virginia had two elections this cycle, both for the class 2 seat.
Incumbent Jacksonian William Rives, who had just won the 1832 special election, resigned February 22, 1834.
Anti-Jacksonian Benjamin W. Leigh won both elections.
Virginia (Regular)[edit]
Anti-Jacksonian Benjamin W. Leigh was re-elected sometime in 1835 to the next term.
Virginia (Special)[edit]
Anti-Jacksonian Benjamin W. Leigh was elected February 26, 1834 to finish the term that would end March 3, 1835. He was then elected to the next term, see above.
1834 United States elections
1834 and 1835 United States House of Representatives elections
23rd United States Congress
24th United States Congress
^ Winner was elected but resigned without having been seated.
^ "U.S. Senate Election - 6 December 1834" (PDF). Wilkes University. Retrieved December 22, 2013.
^ "Our Campaigns - ME US Senate Race - Jan 19, 1835". www.ourcampaigns.com.
Sources[edit]
Party Division in the Senate, 1789-Present, via Senate.gov
United States Senate elections
Elected by
(before the 17th
Amendment)
Popular election
(after the 17th
even-year
Odd-year
List of all specials
Special elections
Election disputes
Results by state
List of elections in the United States
House elections
Gubernatorial elections
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1834 United States Senate elections
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