text:
Audi S8 Talladega S by MTM
6 Mar 2015 12:17 pm | Audi, Cars
To be presented in a world premiere at next week's Geneva Motor Show, the Talladega S is a super-fast tuned version of the existing Audi S8, which usually makes use of a 4.0-liter twin-turbo V8 engine good for 520 PS (510 hp). MTM's work managed to improve upon that and squeeze 802 PS (791 hp) and 945 Nm (697 lb-ft out of the same engine.
This means a 0 to 100 km/h (62 mph) sprint in 3.1 sec, 0 to 200 km/h (124 mph) in 9.9 sec and 0 to 300 km/h (186 mph) in 29.0 sec, with a quoted top speed of 350 km/h (218 mph). On the outside, there are no visual mods, except the 'S' model's fixed rear wing; the custom Audi S8 still rides on 21-inch Bimoto alloys in 295/30 ZR tires, lowered air suspension and features an RS-style aero-kit. A carbon ceramic braking system is meant to keep you safe.
Including the price of a new Audi S8 (€124,300), the Talladega S with all the mechanical, exterior and interior revisions will set you back €222,249 or about $249,000 in Germany.
Tags: Audi Audi S8 Audi S8 Talladega Audi S8 Talladega S Audi S8 Talladega S by MTM Audi tuning mtm
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text:
Bradford City of Film at Bradford City Centre TownBradford UNESCO City of Film is celebrating its tenth anniversary this year with a series of events, activities and screening for everyone across the city to enjoy.
Bradford is the world's first UNESCO City of Film. It received the title due to the city's rich film heritage, its inspirational movie locations and its many celebrations of the moving image through the city's annual film festivals.
Bradford has been a film location since the beginning of cinema with its film heritage dating back to the years around the First World War. From British classics such as The Railway Children through to contemporary hits, the King's Speech and The Selfish Giant, Bradford has hosted many top film productions and is currently a hot location for the UK's hit TV dramas and box office films including; Peaky Blinders, Victoria, the ABC Murders, Downton Abbey the movie and Official Secrets which is out later in 2019 and stars Keira Knightley.
Top film and TV locations around the district include; the Keighley and Worth Valley Railway, Haworth Village, historic Little Germany, City Hall, Undercliffe Cemetery and the iconic Ilkley Moor.
Bradford is a great place to enjoy film, with the majesty of the multiplex to the intimacy of a number of independent film clubs and societies and we are also home to one of the largest 3D Imax screens in the world at the National Science and Media Museum which also has the UK's National Cinematography collection.
Visit the Bradford UNESCO City of Film website to view the 10th anniversary programme.
Bradford City CentreBradfordBD1 United Kingdom53.793782898080-1.754331242640http://www.bradford.film
Bradford City of Film at Bradford City Centre
Bradford City of Film
bradford.unesco@gmail.com
www.bradford.film
Bradford City Centre,
Fri 26 Jun - Sun 5 Jul Bradford Literature Festival
Sat 4 Jul - Tue 4 Aug Bradford Fringe Festival
Sat 11 - Sun 12 Jul Bradford Science Festival
Bradford UNESCO City of Film is celebrating its tenth anniversary this year with a series of events, activities and screening for everyone across the city to enjoy.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Chance for a Wintry Mix in DC Area Sunday Night
This doesn't appear to be a big snow-maker, but slushy conditions could affect schools Monday morning
By Storm Team4	• Published February 7, 2019 • Updated on February 9, 2019 at 7:40 am
Winter is about to make a quick return to the Mid-Atlantic, and Storm Team4 is tracking the chance for a mix of rain, freezing rain, sleet and snow mix as early as Sunday night.
Temperatures will fall into the 30s by Friday evening, with the wind making it feel even colder.
Saturday will be sunny breezy and cold. Temperatures will be in the mid-20s Saturday morning and stay in the mid to upper 30s for the afternoon, with winds still in the 15-25 mph range. Wind chills Saturday will be in the 20s for most of the day.
Gov. Larry Hogan 4 hours ago
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Sunday will start out sunny and cold, with temperatures in the mid-20s. Clouds will increase Sunday afternoon with highs in the low 40s.
That chance for a wintry mix could arrive after sunset and continue into Monday morning. It doesn't appear to be a big snow-maker, but slushy conditions could affect schools Monday morning before changing to mostly, if not all, rain by Monday afternoon.
Rain likely changes back to a wintry mix Monday night into Tuesday so there could be additional issues for schools and travel in this time period.
Any mix will change to all rain by Tuesday afternoon as temperatures warm to near 40 degrees.
The forecast for Monday and Tuesday is very tricky, and confidence remains low. The specifics of how much, and what type, of precipitation to expect will take time to work out. Right now, the greatest impacts look to be north and west of Washington Monday and Tuesday. Storm Team4 will follow this carefully and provide frequent updates throughout the weekend.


text:
"Hey Mama" is a song recorded by French record producer David Guetta featuring Trinidadian rapper Nicki Minaj, American singer Bebe Rexha and co-production by Dutch record producer Afrojack. The song was released on 16 March 2015, as the fourth single from Guetta's sixth studio album, Listen (2014). It was produced by David Guetta, Afrojack, and Giorgio Tuinfort, who also wrote the song with Rexha, Minaj, Ester Dean, and Sean Douglas. American ethnomusicologist Alan Lomax is also credited as a writer, as the track samples his recording of "Rosie", a field holler sung by an Afro-American chain gang at the Mississippi State Penitentiary.

The song peaked at number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States, and peaked within the top 10 in numerous countries including Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Lebanon, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Scotland, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.

Background and composition
The artists co-wrote the song with Ester Dean, Sean Douglas, and Giorgio Tuinfort; the latter co-produced it with Guetta and Afrojack. The intro and post-chorus features a prominent sample from "Rosie", an Alan Lomax recording from the 1940s.

Rexha explained to Billboard why she wasn't initially credited as a featured artist on the track: "We talked about it - I actually emailed Guetta about it. I really wanted to be featured on it, because, you know, I've been signed and dropped, and now signed a second time, so it's been hard. What ended up happening was that it looked like a lot of names on the title, so they wanted to keep as many low features as possible. That's what I was told, and it makes sense to me. I guess more than two [featured] names doesn't look good on the radio. It's tough hearing your voice on the radio, on a chorus, and knowing that people think it's another artist." As of June 2015, Rexha is officially credited in all instances of the song's mention.

"Hey Mama" is the third collaboration between Guetta and Minaj, following Nothing but the Beat singles "Where Them Girls At" (which features Minaj and Flo Rida) (2011) and the double-platinum "Turn Me On" (2011).

According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com, "Hey Mama" is written in the key of E minor with a tempo of 86 beats per minute.  The vocals in the song span from A3 to E5.

Critical reception
"Hey Mama" was well received by critics, with many praising the discothèque nature of the song. Bianca Gracie of Idolator described it as "a crazed electro-house/trap sound", noting Minaj's "rap flow into a island-tinged romp." It was described by Direct Lyrics as an "intelligently-produced radio-friendly EDM-island sound", whilst Richard Baxter of Popology Now complimented the track's electronic styles, describing Bebe Rexha as the "star" of "Hey Mama" with her "hook heavy chorus".

Several music companies and reviewers chose "Hey Mama" as the highlight of the album, with Billboard describing it as a "bombastic island-flavored jam" and the Associated Press stating Minaj and Afrojack had produced "a startling R&B bump and funk gem." Minaj, in particular, received positive reviews for her vocals, with Newsday calling the track Minaj's "most undeniable hit" since her song "Super Bass", and The Guardian describing Minaj's vocals as a highlight from the album.

The song's lyrics, on the other hand, have been subject to criticism from feminist media, with many of them calling the lyrics sexist. Katie Barnes of Feministing described the song's second verse ("Yes I do the cooking/ Yes I do the cleaning/ Plus I keep the na-na real sweet for your eating/ Yes you be the boss and yes I be respecting / Whatever that you tell me cause it's game you be spitting") as "pretty terrible," stating that, "It doesn't matter if the verse is accompanied by a bumpin' beat, the lyrics still present a retro ideal of what a woman should be and how she should treat her man." Katherine Burks of The Lala called the lyrics "horribly misogynistic bullshit."  Alex Kritselis of Bustle found the lyrics "seriously groan-inducing," noting that "the whole 'I'll do whatever you want, whenever you want' vibe" made him "more than a little uneasy."

Commercial performance

The song peaked at number eight on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Guetta's sixth top 10 in the US, also making Minaj's 12, Afrojack's second since Pitbull's "Give Me Everything", and Rexha's first as a singer but her second as a writer after the number one Billboard Hot 100 hit "The Monster" by Eminem featuring Rihanna. It spent six weeks in the top 10 of the Billboard Hot 100 chart. "Hey Mama" spent five weeks within the top 10 of the UK Singles Chart. The song rose to number 10 and remained there for four weeks until it peaked at number nine. It peaked at number two in the UK R&B Chart.

Music video
The official video (directed by John Ryan) was released on 19 May 2015. The video begins with Guetta walking through a desert with a group of people to find a machine inside the box. Scenes of a holographic Minaj intercut the video while other scenes include other people being shrouded in curtains and dancing while during the chorus, Guetta and the others are seen driving in their vehicles through the desert. During the chorus and bridge, everyone dances while Minaj raps. Meanwhile, a screen plays various clips of natural scenes, such as bolts of lightning and a swarm of sharks swimming. The video ends with people walking through and sitting around a neon heart light and one last shot of the holographic Minaj, before cutting to Guetta standing in the desert. Afrojack also appears in the video.

As of August 2019, the video has received over 1.4 billion views. It is Guetta's and Rexha's most viewed video, and Minaj's fourth.

Live performances
On 17 May 2015, Guetta and Minaj performed the song for the first time on 2015 Billboard Music Awards along with "The Night Is Still Young". On 30 May 2015, Minaj and Rexha also performed the song together for the first time on the iHeartRadio Summer Pool Party 2015 in Las Vegas, joined by Guetta on stage.

Track listing

Charts

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

Decade-end charts

Certifications

Release history

Awards and nominations

References

2014 songs
2015 singles
David Guetta songs
Nicki Minaj songs
Bebe Rexha songs
Afrojack songs
Atlantic Records singles
Parlophone singles
Music videos directed by Hannah Lux Davis
Songs written by David Guetta
Songs written by Giorgio Tuinfort
Songs written by Nicki Minaj
Songs written by Ester Dean
Songs written by Sean Douglas (songwriter)
Songs written by Bebe Rexha
Songs written by Afrojack
Number-one singles in Greece
Song recordings produced by David Guetta
Number-one singles in Poland
Trap music (EDM) songs

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


A combination prescription opioid painkiller, Percocet is tightly regulated by the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) as a Schedule II controlled substance, the highest level of control for a drug with approved medicinal use. Containing both the powerful opiate oxycodone and the over-the-counter analgesic acetaminophen, Percocet is commonly diverted and abused with the potential for drug dependence and addiction.
In 2014, the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) reports that over 4 million Americans (aged 12 and older) abused prescription pain relievers within 30 days of the survey. Opioid drugs fill opioid receptors in the brain and block pain sensations while increasing levels of dopamine and therefore pleasure as well. Functions of the central nervous system involved in the stress response, such as respiration, blood pressure, body temperature, and heart rate, are all decreased with Percocet use.
Percocet is meant to be taken to treat high levels of pain, although it may often be used recreationally for the mellow "high" it can produce. Individuals may chew or crush the tablets and then swallow, snort, smoke, or inject the powder.
This sends all of the drug into the bloodstream at once and can more rapidly cause a person to become dependent on it. The American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM) publishes that around 2 million people in the United States (aged 12 or older) suffered from a prescription opioid substance use disorder in 2014.
A drug dependence is when the brain's chemical makeup and even some of the circuitry is changed from regular interference of these substances. When someone takes Percocet regularly, for example, levels of some of the brain's chemical messengers are disrupted. Dopamine floods the system and is not absorbed at previous rates. Dopamine is involved in mood regulation and feelings of happiness, and drugs like Percocet interfere with the way it is normally produced, moved through the brain, and reabsorbed. With regular use, a kind of shortcut can be created, meaning that when the drug is not present, it may be more difficult to feel pleasure through normal activities. This can lead to significant emotional distress as well as cognitive difficulties. Physically, functions of the central nervous system are used to being suppressed by Percocet use, and when the drug is removed, these autonomic actions may rebound. These negative side effects that occur when Percocet stops being active in the bloodstream are withdrawal symptoms.
Percocet contains the opiate oxycodone, which is considered a short-acting drug with a half-life of 3-5 hours, the journal Clinical & Translational Oncology reports. Drug withdrawal begins when a substance loses effectiveness in the body and stops actively working. In the case of Percocet then, withdrawal begins within 6-10 hours on average.
Opioid withdrawal syndrome can be difficult, and it is not recommended to stop taking a drug like Percocet suddenly, or "cold turkey." The makers of Percocet, Endo Pharmaceuticals, warn that regular use of the drug for more than a few weeks (even when taken exactly as directed for medical purposes) can create dependence, which requires that the drug be slowly weaned off to avoid withdrawal symptoms.
On average, detox typically lasts 5-7 days and sometimes up to 10 days for Percocet. Several factors can influence the severity and duration of Percocet withdrawal, however. Abuse of any other substances like other drugs or alcohol can impact withdrawal as can medical or mental health conditions that may co-occur. Genetics, biology, and environmental factors can impact how significant a person's dependence on Percocet may be, which in turn influences withdrawal. Percocet withdrawal may be unpredictable and uncomfortable, and for this reason, medical detox is deemed the safest and most secure route to get off the drug.
In addition, medications are often used during opioid withdrawal that affect the overall detox timeline. If replacement medications are used, a complete detox, in which the person has no opioids in their system, may not occur for months or even years.
In 2011, the Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) published that more than 150,000 people in the United States sought emergency medical care in an emergency department (ED) for a negative reaction resulting from the misuse of oxycodone (the active opioid ingredient in Percocet). A major complication that can arise during detox is relapse, or a return to drug use after being sober for a period of time. A relapse is especially dangerous at this point because individuals may return to abusing Percocet at levels they did before, and their body may no longer be able to handle it. Fatal overdose is a potential side effect of Percocet relapse during or after detox. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) warns that the United States is in the midst of an opioid overdose epidemic with six out of every 10 drug overdoses in 2014 involving an opioid drug.
Medical detox can help to prevent the likelihood of relapse and overdose as a result. It is performed in a secure and specialized facility where substance abuse, mental health, and medical providers all work to ensure that relapse is avoided and withdrawal is managed safely.
Pharmacological tools are often used to smooth withdrawal and manage the possible symptoms. This can help to lessen the severity of withdrawal symptoms. The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) reports that the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approves buprenorphine medications for use during opioid dependence and addiction treatment. On its own, buprenorphine products like Subutex work to replace Percocet as they stay in the body longer, keeping opioid receptors at least partially activated to keep withdrawal symptoms from being as significant. Buprenorphine is a partial opioid agonist that has a similar mechanism to other opioids, meaning that it can stave off withdrawal symptoms without producing the "high" that Percocet does. Buprenorphine is also often combined with the opioid antagonist medication naloxone (Zubsolv, Suboxone, and Bunavail) after the initial detox period is over in order to help prevent relapse. The antagonist part remains dormant unless the medication is abused, altered, or other opioids are introduced.
Antidepressant medications, sleep aids, and medications that help to regulate some of the autonomic central nervous system functions like blood pressure and heart rate can be helpful during medical detox also. Clonidine, for example, a blood pressure medication, is commonly used off-label during opioid detox to control withdrawal symptoms, the journal Practical Pain Management publishes.
Overall, medical detox provides the most comprehensive and highest level of care to safely remove Percocet from the body and regain healthy physical balance before entering into an addiction treatment program.


text:
Q: malloc or _Znwm, which should we use in LLVM IR System While applying for memory in heap in LLVM, we can use malloc, but the IR clang++ compiled c++ code, using _Znwm (_ZdlPv instead of free).
Why?  And which one should we choose?
Source Code:
class A {
  public:
  A();
  int a;
};

int main() {
  A *a = new A();
  // delete a;
  return 0;
}

IR Code;
define i32 @main() ... {
  %1 = alloca i32, align 4
  %2 = alloca %class.A*, align 8
  ...
  %5 = call i8* @_Znwm(i64 4) #4
  %6 = bitcast i8* %5 to %class.A*
  invoke void @_ZN1AC1Ev(%class.A* %6)
          to label %7 unwind label %8
  ...

A: _Znwm stands for operator new (and _ZdlPv for operator delete):
$ echo _Znwm | c++filt
operator new(unsigned long)

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


90% of our graduates PASS their license exam on the first attempt. Compare that to the average 36% of all first time test takers who FAIL their exam.
It is to your advantage to attend our live, classroom licensing exam prep course. Or you can purchase our online study system…So, you are ready to jump into the lucrative world of selling insurance. The first thing you need to do is get licensed by the state that you reside in. To guarantee yourself the best chance of passing your state exam, you need to enroll in an license school and be prepared to study-study-study.
The insurance licensing exam consists of different sections that cover everything from life, health, accident and annuities. With so much information that you need to be able to absorb before you sit for your exam, it is imperative that you set yourself up for success early on in the process. The last thing you want to do is under-prepare for your test and have to take it over again. By enrolling in a license course and spending two solid days learning the basics of insurance, you will increase your chances of passing by an extra 26%.
So, if you are serious about getting your new career off to a solid start, make sure that you make an insurance license course a priority.
We are so confident in our instructors and our program that we guarantee you will pass your exam on the first attempt. if you don't pass the test, we will PAY for you to be able to take it a second time.


05:31 Penalty corner by Wellesley Hannah Flesch [05:31].
05:36 Shot by Wellesley Hannah Flesch, High.
11:38 Shot by Salisbury Summer Washburn, Save (by goalie) Brit Mscisz.
12:04 Penalty corner by Salisbury Samantha Johnson [12:04].
17:10 Shot by Wellesley Hannah Flesch, Wide Left.
18:04 Substitution!Wellesley substitution: Alex Azzi for Nikki Sharkin.
21:58 Penalty corner by Salisbury Samantha Johnson [21:58].
23:59 Shot by Salisbury Samantha Johnson, Save (by goalie) Brit Mscisz.
24:52 Substitution!Wellesley substitution: Neha Vellanki for Alex Azzi.
25:01 Substitution!Salisbury substitution: Jessica Crew for Yumi Kim.
26:40 Substitution!Salisbury substitution: Emily Voshell for Mallory Elliott.
27:38 Substitution!Salisbury substitution: Karen Cindea for Courtney Jantzen.
28:37 Shot by Salisbury Summer Washburn, Save (by goalie) Brit Mscisz.
30:08 Penalty corner by Wellesley Hannah Flesch [30:08].
30:28 Shot by Wellesley Anissa Sridhar, Save (by goalie) Rachel Clewer.
30:53 Penalty corner by Wellesley Hannah Flesch [30:53].
30:59 Shot by Wellesley Nikki Sharkin, Blocked.
31:48 Shot by Salisbury Summer Washburn, Save (by goalie) Brit Mscisz.
33:45 Penalty corner by Salisbury Samantha Johnson [33:45].
33:50 Shot by Salisbury Samantha Johnson, Wide Left.
34:18 Substitution!Salisbury substitution: Karen Cindea for Mallory Elliott.
35:00 For Salisbury: #55 Rachel Clewer, #17 Courtney Jantzen, #20 Summer Washburn, #7 Amanda Cooper, #19 Hannah Miller, #30 Katie Hastings, #1 Yumi Kim, #11 Jessica Seay, #18 Alexis Carroll, #8 Samantha Johnson, #12 Mallory Elliott.
35:00 For Wellesley: #2 Anissa Sridhar, #5 Hannah Flesch, #33 Brit Mscisz, #18 Nikki Sharkin, #6 Courtney Peterson, #13 Lallie Lukens, #24 Meghan Peterson, #8 Nathalie Gruet, #9 Caroline Guild, #4 Dana Marks, #7 Kaitlyn Kirkaldy.
36:27 Penalty corner by Wellesley Courtney Peterson [36:27].
36:31 Shot by Wellesley Nikki Sharkin, Save (by goalie) Rachel Clewer.
37:00 Penalty corner by Wellesley Courtney Peterson [37:00].
37:27 Penalty corner by Wellesley Courtney Peterson [37:27].
43:03 Penalty corner by Salisbury Samantha Johnson [43:03].
43:09 Shot by Salisbury Yumi Kim, Blocked.
43:15 Shot by Salisbury Jessica Seay, Blocked.
43:28 Shot by Salisbury Mallory Elliott, Defensive Save by Dana Marks.
43:32 Shot by Salisbury Jessica Seay, Save (by goalie) Brit Mscisz.
43:41 Shot by Salisbury Yumi Kim, Wide Left.
44:23 Substitution!Salisbury substitution: Jessica Crew for Yumi Kim.
45:42 Penalty corner by Wellesley Hannah Flesch [45:42].
45:51 Shot by Wellesley Lallie Lukens, Save (by goalie) Rachel Clewer.
46:45 Substitution!Salisbury substitution: Karen Cindea for Courtney Jantzen.
47:38 Penalty corner by Salisbury Samantha Johnson [47:38].
47:42 Shot by Salisbury Mallory Elliott, Blocked.
48:02 Shot by Salisbury Mallory Elliott, Save (by goalie) Brit Mscisz.
50:00 Substitution!Salisbury substitution: Emily Voshell for Samantha Johnson.
50:39 Penalty corner by Wellesley Hannah Flesch [50:39].
50:49 Shot by Wellesley Meghan Peterson, Blocked.
53:07 Penalty corner by Wellesley Hannah Flesch [53:07].
53:36 Shot by Salisbury Jessica Crew, Save (by goalie) Brit Mscisz.
54:00 Substitution!Salisbury substitution: Stacey Lamboni for Jessica Crew.
56:03 Substitution!Salisbury substitution: Hannah Castelow for Mallory Elliott.
56:22 Green card on Wellesley Courtney Peterson.
58:56 Substitution!Salisbury substitution: Becca Rinaca for Karen Cindea.
61:16 Penalty corner by Wellesley Courtney Peterson [61:16].
61:19 Shot by Wellesley Nikki Sharkin, Save (by goalie) Rachel Clewer.
61:58 Penalty corner by Wellesley Courtney Peterson [61:58].
62:01 Shot by Wellesley Lallie Lukens, Blocked.
62:44 Penalty corner by Wellesley Courtney Peterson [62:44].
62:56 Shot by Wellesley Nikki Sharkin, Save (by goalie) Rachel Clewer.
67:46 Penalty corner by Wellesley Courtney Peterson [67:46].
68:14 Shot by Salisbury Becca Rinaca, Save (by goalie) Brit Mscisz.
68:17 Substitution!Salisbury substitution: Haley Quillen for Summer Washburn.
69:18 Green card on Salisbury Stacey Lamboni.
69:45 Penalty corner by Wellesley Courtney Peterson [69:45].
69:50 Shot by Wellesley Meghan Peterson, Save (by goalie) Rachel Clewer.


Before you can start booking GP appointments online you must first register your details for this service.
It's quick and easy to register - simply follow the three steps below.
Ask at reception for a registration form. This provides all the information you need to register to use the Patient Access internet facilities.
You are now ready to book appointments online.
Once registered, simply log on HERE with your practice ID, patient ID and password. You can view any appointments you have already made, cancel them if necessary, or book a new appointment after checking which times are available.
When you book an appointment online, you will receive confirmation immediately. There is no need to re-confirm by email or telephone - just arrive promptly on the day.


text:
Title: Kinetic theory
Subject: Temperature, Statistical mechanics, James Clerk Maxwell, History of molecular theory, The Feynman Lectures on Physics
Collection: Concepts in Physics, Gases, Thermodynamics
The temperature of an ideal monatomic gas is a measure of the average kinetic energy of its atoms. The size of helium atoms relative to their spacing is shown to scale under 1950 atmospheres of pressure. The atoms have a certain, average speed, slowed down here two trillion fold from room temperature.
This article applies to gases; see also Kinetic theory of solids
The kinetic theory of gases describes a gas as a large number of small particles (atoms or molecules), all of which are in constant, random motion. The rapidly moving particles constantly collide with each other and with the walls of the container. Kinetic theory explains macroscopic properties of gases, such as pressure, temperature, viscosity, thermal conductivity, and volume, by considering their molecular composition and motion. The theory posits that gas pressure is due to the impacts, on the walls of a container, of molecules or atoms moving at different velocities.
Kinetic theory defines temperature in its own way, not identical with the thermodynamic definition.[1]
While the particles making up a gas are too small to be visible, the jittering motion of pollen grains or dust particles which can be seen under a microscope, known as Brownian motion, results directly from collisions between the particles and gas molecules. As analyzed by Albert Einstein in 1905, this experimental evidence for kinetic theory is generally seen as having confirmed the existence of atoms and molecules.
Assumptions 1
Properties 2
Pressure and kinetic energy 2.1
Temperature and kinetic energy 2.2
Collisions with container 2.3
Speed of molecules 2.4
Transport properties 2.5
Endnotes 6
The theory for ideal gases makes the following assumptions:
The gas consists of very small particles known as molecules. This smallness of their size is such that the total volume of the individual gas molecules added up is negligible compared to the volume of the smallest open ball containing all the molecules. This is equivalent to stating that the average distance separating the gas particles is large compared to their size.
These particles have the same mass.
The number of molecules is so large that statistical treatment can be applied.
These molecules are in constant, random, and rapid motion.
The rapidly moving particles constantly collide among themselves and with the walls of the container. All these collisions are perfectly elastic. This means, the molecules are considered to be perfectly spherical in shape, and elastic in nature.
Except during collisions, the interactions among molecules are negligible. (That is, they exert no forces on one another.)
This implies:
1. Relativistic effects are negligible.
2. Quantum-mechanical effects are negligible. This means that the inter-particle distance is much larger than the thermal de Broglie wavelength and the molecules are treated as classical objects.
3. Because of the above two, their dynamics can be treated classically. This means, the equations of motion of the molecules are time-reversible.
The average kinetic energy of the gas particles depends only on the absolute temperature of the system. The kinetic theory has its own definition of temperature, not identical with the thermodynamic definition.
The time during collision of molecule with the container's wall is negligible as compared to the time between successive collisions.
Because they have mass, the gas molecules will be affected by gravity.
More modern developments relax these assumptions and are based on the Boltzmann equation. These can accurately describe the properties of dense gases, because they include the volume of the molecules. The necessary assumptions are the absence of quantum effects, molecular chaos and small gradients in bulk properties. Expansions to higher orders in the density are known as virial expansions.
An important book on kinetic theory is that by Chapman and Cowling.[1] An important approach to the subject is called Chapman–Enskog theory.[2] There have been many modern developments and there is an alternative approach developed by Grad based on moment expansions.[3] In the other limit, for extremely rarefied gases, the gradients in bulk properties are not small compared to the mean free paths. This is known as the Knudsen regime and expansions can be performed in the Knudsen number.
Pressure and kinetic energy
Pressure is explained by kinetic theory as arising from the force exerted by molecules or atoms impacting on the walls of a container. Consider a gas of N molecules, each of mass m, enclosed in a cuboidal container of volume V=L3. When a gas molecule collides with the wall of the container perpendicular to the x coordinate axis and bounces off in the opposite direction with the same speed (an elastic collision), then the momentum lost by the particle and gained by the wall is:
\Delta p = p_{i,x} - p_{f,x} = p_{i,x} - (-p_{i,x}) = 2 p_{i,x} = 2 m v_x\,
where vx is the x-component of the initial velocity of the particle.
The particle impacts one specific side wall once every
\Delta t = \frac{2L}{v_x}
(where L is the distance between opposite walls).
The force due to this particle is:
F = \frac{\Delta p}{\Delta t} = \frac{m v_x^2}{L}.
The total force on the wall is
F = \frac{Nm\overline{v_x^2}}{L}
where the bar denotes an average over the N particles. Since the assumption is that the particles move in random directions, we will have to conclude that if we divide the velocity vectors of all particles in three mutually perpendicular directions, the average value along each direction must be equal. (This does not mean that each particle always travel in 45 degrees to the coordinate axes.) That is,
\overline{v_x^2} = \overline{v^2}/3 .
We can rewrite the force as
F = \frac{Nm\overline{v^2}}{3L}.
This force is exerted on an area L2. Therefore the pressure of the gas is
P = \frac{F}{L^2} = \frac{Nm\overline{v^2}}{3V}
where V=L3 is the volume of the box. The ratio n=N/V is the number density of the gas (the mass density ρ=nm is less convenient for theoretical derivations on atomic level). Using n, we can rewrite the pressure as
P = \frac{n m \overline{v^2}}{3}.
This is a first non-trivial result of the kinetic theory because it relates pressure, a macroscopic property, to the average (translational) kinetic energy per molecule {1 \over 2} m\overline{v^2} which is a microscopic property.
Temperature and kinetic energy
Rewriting the above result for the pressure as PV = {Nm\overline{v^2}\over 3} , we may combine it with the ideal gas law
\displaystyle PV = N k_B T ,
where \displaystyle k_B is the Boltzmann constant and \displaystyle T the absolute temperature defined by the ideal gas law, to obtain
k_B T = {m\overline{v^2}\over 3} ,
which leads to the expression of the average kinetic energy of a molecule,
\displaystyle \frac {1} {2} m\overline{v^2} = \frac {3} {2} k_B T.
The kinetic energy of the system is N times that of a molecule, namely K= \frac {1} {2} N m \overline{v^2} . Then the temperature \displaystyle T takes the form
\displaystyle T = {m\overline{v^2}\over 3 k_B}
which becomes
\displaystyle T = \frac {2} {3} \frac {K} {N k_B}.
Eq.(3) is one important result of the kinetic theory: The average molecular kinetic energy is proportional to the ideal gas law's absolute temperature. From Eq.(1) and Eq.(3), we have
\displaystyle PV = \frac {2} {3} K.
Thus, the product of pressure and volume per mole is proportional to the average (translational) molecular kinetic energy.
Eq.(1) and Eq.(4) are called the "classical results", which could also be derived from statistical mechanics; for more details, see .[4]
Since there are \displaystyle 3N degrees of freedom in a monatomic-gas system with \displaystyle N particles, the kinetic energy per degree of freedom per molecule is
\displaystyle \frac {K} {3 N} = \frac {k_B T} {2}
In the kinetic energy per degree of freedom, the constant of proportionality of temperature is 1/2 times Boltzmann constant. In addition to this, the temperature will decrease when the pressure drops to a certain point. This result is related to the equipartition theorem.
As noted in the article on heat capacity, diatomic gases should have 7 degrees of freedom, but the lighter gases act as if they have only 5.
Thus the kinetic energy per kelvin (monatomic ideal gas) is:
per mole: 12.47 J
per molecule: 20.7 yJ = 129 μeV.
At standard temperature (273.15 K), we get:
per mole: 3406 J
per molecule: 5.65 zJ = 35.2 meV.....
Collisions with container
A = \frac{1}{4}\frac{N}{V} v_{avg} = \frac{n}{4} \sqrt{\frac{8 k_{B} T}{\pi m}} . \,
This quantity is also known as the "impingement rate" in vacuum physics.
Speed of molecules
v_\mathrm{rms} = \sqrt
with v in m/s, T in kelvins, and m is the molecular mass (kg). The most probable speed is 81.6% of the rms speed, and the mean speeds 92.1% (isotropic distribution of speeds).
See: Root-mean-square speed
Transport properties
The kinetic theory of gases deals not only with gases in thermodynamic equilibrium, but also very importantly with gases not in thermodynamic equilibrium. This means considering what are known as 'transport properties', such a viscosity and thermal conductivity.
In approximately 50 BCE, the Roman philosopher Lucretius proposed that apparently static macroscopic bodies were composed on a small scale of rapidly moving atoms all bouncing off each other.[6] This Epicurean atomistic point of view was rarely considered in the subsequent centuries, when Aristotlean ideas were dominant.
Hydrodynamica front cover
In 1738 Daniel Bernoulli published Hydrodynamica, which laid the basis for the kinetic theory of gases. In this work, Bernoulli posited the argument, still used to this day, that gases consist of great numbers of molecules moving in all directions, that their impact on a surface causes the gas pressure that we feel, and that what we experience as heat is simply the kinetic energy of their motion. The theory was not immediately accepted, in part because conservation of energy had not yet been established, and it was not obvious to physicists how the collisions between molecules could be perfectly elastic.[7]:36–37
Other pioneers of the kinetic theory (which were neglected by their contemporaries) were
WorldHeritage articles needing clarification from June 2014
Articles with dead external links from May 2009
Concepts in physics
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=47bF13o8pb8&list=UUXrJjdDeqLgGjJbP1sMnH8A A demonstration apparatus for the thermal agitation in gases.
Sydney Chapman and T.G. Cowling (1939/1970). The Mathematical Theory of Non-uniform Gases: An Account of the Kinetic Theory of Viscosity, Thermal Conduction and Diffusion in Gases, (first edition 1939, second edition 1952), third edition 1970 prepared in co-operation with D. Burnett, Cambridge University Press, London.
J.O. Hirschfelder, C.F. Curtiss, and R.B. Bird (1964). Molecular Theory of Gases and Liquids, second edition (Wiley).
R.L. Liboff (2003). Kinetic Theory: Classical, Quantum, and Relativistic Descriptions, third edition (Springer).
^ a b Chapman, S., Cowling, T.G. (1939/1970).
^ Kauzmann, W. (1966). Kinetic Theory of Gases, W.A. Benjamin, New York, pp. 232–235.
^ Grad 1949
^ Maxwell, J. C. (1867). "On the Dynamical Theory of Gases". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 157: 49.
^ L.I Ponomarev; I.V Kurchatov (1 January 1993). The Quantum Dice. CRC Press.
^ Lomonosov 1758
^ Le Sage 1780/1818
^ Herapath 1816, 1821
^ Waterston 1843
^ Krönig 1856
^ Clausius 1857
^ Mahon 2003
^ Maxwell 1875
^ Einstein 1905
^ Smoluchowski 1906
Williams, M. M. R. (1971), Mathematical Methods in Particle Transport Theory, Butterworths, London.
Smoluchowski, M. (1906), "Zur kinetischen Theorie der Brownschen Molekularbewegung und der Suspensionen", Annalen der Physik 21 (14): 756–780,
Maxwell, James Clerk (1873), "Molecules" (– Scholar search), Nature 417 (6892): 903,
Mahon, Basil (2003), The Man Who Changed Everything – the Life of James Clerk Maxwell, Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley,
Lomonosow, M. (1758/1970), Henry M. Leicester, ed., Mikhail Vasil'evich Lomonosov on the Corpuscular Theory (Cambridge: Harvard University Press): 224–233
Liboff, R. L. (1990), Kinetic Theory, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J.
Le Sage, G.-L. (1818), "Physique Mécanique des Georges-Louis Le Sage", in Prévost, Pierre, Deux Traites de Physique Mécanique, Geneva & Paris: J.J. Paschoud, pp. 1–186
Krönig, A. (1856), "Grundzüge einer Theorie der Gase", Annalen der Physik 99 (10): 315–322,
Herapath, J. (1821), "On the Causes, Laws and Phenomena of Heat, Gases, Gravitation", Annals of Philosophy (Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy) 9: 273–293
Grad, Harold (1949), "On the Kinetic Theory of Rarefied Gases.", Communications on Pure and Applied Mathematics 2 (4): 331–407,
Einstein, A. (1905), "Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen", Annalen der Physik 17 (8): 549–560,
de Groot, S. R., W. A. van Leeuwen and Ch. G. van Weert (1980), Relativistic Kinetic Theory, North-Holland, Amsterdam.
Clausius, R. (1857), "Ueber die Art der Bewegung, welche wir Wärme nennen", Annalen der Physik 176 (3): 353–379,
Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution
Mixmaster dynamics
Particle Statistics
Spin-Statistics Theorem
Identical Particles
Maxwell–Boltzmann
Bose–Einstein
Fermi–Dirac
Parastatistics
Anyonic Statistics
Braid Statistics
Thermodynamic Ensembles
NVE Microcanonical
NVAT Canonical
µVAT Grand canonical
NPH Isoenthalpic–isobaric
NPT Isothermal–isobaric
µVT Open statistical
Debye
Internal energy
Grand potential / Landau free energy
Ehrenfest
von Neumann
Tolman
In the beginning of the twentieth century, however, atoms were considered by many physicists to be purely hypothetical constructs, rather than real objects. An important turning point was Albert Einstein's (1905)[16] and Marian Smoluchowski's (1906)[17] papers on Brownian motion, which succeeded in making certain accurate quantitative predictions based on the kinetic theory.
In 1857 Rudolf Clausius, according to his own words independently of Krönig, developed a similar, but much more sophisticated version of the theory which included translational and contrary to Krönig also rotational and vibrational molecular motions. In this same work he introduced the concept of mean free path of a particle. [13] In 1859, after reading a paper by Clausius, James Clerk Maxwell formulated the Maxwell distribution of molecular velocities, which gave the proportion of molecules having a certain velocity in a specific range. This was the first-ever statistical law in physics.[14] In his 1873 thirteen page article 'Molecules', Maxwell states: "we are told that an 'atom' is a material point, invested and surrounded by 'potential forces' and that when 'flying molecules' strike against a solid body in constant succession it causes what is called pressure of air and other gases."[15] In 1871, Ludwig Boltzmann generalized Maxwell's achievement and formulated the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution. Also the logarithmic connection between entropy and probability was first stated by him.
[12] (probably after reading a paper of Waterston) created a simple gas-kinetic model, which only considered the translational motion of the particles.August Krönig. In 1856 mechanical explanations of gravitation which connected their research with the development of [11] (1843),John James Waterston and [10] (1816)John Herapath [9]
Thermodynamics, Ideal gas, Statistical mechanics, Entropy, James Clerk Maxwell
Mass, Energy, Classical mechanics, Velocity, Potential energy
Statistical mechanics, Temperature, Entropy, Energy, Pressure
Philosophy of science, Quantum mechanics, Nobel Prize in Physics, Zürich, Isaac Newton
Mass, Velocity, Energy, Time, Acceleration
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