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7 Night City Break Explorer Cruise on Anthem of the Seas from Southampton, England
The 7 Night City Break Explorer Cruise from Southampton, England visits Bruges/Zeebruge (Brussels), Belgium; Rotterdam, Netherlands; Paris (Le Havre), France; Bilbao, Spain; Southampton, England. Explore our cruise itineraries and choose from a variety of rooms depending on your needs and budget. Start planning your next cruise vacation by selecting a destination and departure port.
Priced from: $719.0 per person 1 sailing dates available
7 Night City Break Explorer Cruise
Explore Anthem of the Seas
Day 1 - Southampton, England
Day 2 - Bruges/Zeebruge (Brussels), Belgium
Day 3 - Rotterdam, Netherlands
Day 4 - Paris (Le Havre), France
Day 6 - Bilbao, Spain
A river running through Bilbao, Spain
Southampton, England
Bruges/Zeebruge (Brussels), Belgium
Paris (Le Havre), France
From 9:00 AM - 10:00 PM
Your ship Anthem of the Seas
An aerial view of Anthem of the Seas with North Star
Anthem of the Seas® isn't the same old song. It's a thrill ride that packs in cutting edge experiences— like North Star®, which gives you 360-degree views from 300 feet above sea level. And flavor firsts, like creative fare at Wonderland Imaginative Cuisine. Plus showstoppers like We Will Rock You.
UPGRADE YOUR PLAY
Defy gravity with a free-falling experience on Ripcord® by iFLY®. Practice your surf skills on the FlowRider® surf simulator. Score views 300 feet above sea level in North Star®. And witness a spellbinding show in Two70®.
Bumper Cars at Night
SeaPlex®
The largest indoor active space at sea is only on Royal Caribbean®. Basketball and bumper cars — it's the first time you'll ever play like this on a cruise.
North Star Raised Above Rear of the Ship
Young Girl Body Surfing on Flowrider
FlowRider®
Grab your board and get ready for 30,000 gallons of rushing awesome headed your way. The surf's always up on the 40-foot-long FlowRider® surf simulator.
A CULINARY CAPITAL AT SEA
This is a culinary scene to rival many metropolitan cities. Get your family-style fix at Jamie's Italian by Jamie Oliver, and sip cocktails crafted by robots at the Bionic Bar®. Venture down the rabbit hole at Wonderland Imaginative Cuisine. Or dine like a VIP at Coastal Kitchen — exclusively for suites guests and Pinnacle Club members.
Chicken Porcini Bruschetta with Zesty Lime
Jamie's Italian by Jamie Oliver
At Jamie's Italian by Jamie Oliver, sit down to Tuscan-inspired cuisine crafted by one of Britain's most famous chefs. Seasonal ingredients meet authentic recipes in family-style dishes that range from homemade pastas and classic Italian entrees, to contemporary creations infused with rustic influences.
Artfully arrange hummus appetizer platter served with pita bread. Quality Cruise Food Dining served in the Coastal Kitchen
Coastal Kitchen
Exclusively for suite guests and Pinnacle Club members, Coastal Kitchen fuses Mediterranean influences with farm-fresh flavors from California. Filled with Pacific Coast favorites and Med-inspired entrees, the menu here rotates to spotlight delicious, seasonal ingredients. And you can pair every bite with a glass or bottle of wine off a list that includes vintages from the sun-kissed valleys of Napa to the golden-green hills of Tuscany.
WHOA-WORTHY SHOWS
Settle in for the best of Broadway at Sea. Watch as cinema, pop culture and tech combine in Spectra's Cabaret. Embark on a musical journey of fantasy and illusion in The Gift. And rock out to Queen classics in We Will Rock You.
Bionic Bar Cocktail Robot Arm
Crowd of Rockers on brightly lit stage during We Will Rock You Broadway show onboard a cruise ship.
The Olivier Award winning musical We Will Rock You pits "real music" against futuristic pop, settling the score with killer Queen classics and rock anthems.
Two singers on stage surrounded by neon faces during the Spectras Cabaret show on Anthem.
Spectra's Cabaret
Experiential cinema comes alive to pop culture anthems in this mindbending mix of music and tech. Welcome to Spectra's Cabaret.
Day 1: Southampton, England
The Bargate medieval gatehouse in Southampton, England
Located on England's South Coast, Southampton is a city full of surprises. Home to one of the largest ports in Europe, the city has a lot to offer people passing through for the day. Step back in time and explore the old town — walk along the medieval town walls, parts of which date back to 1290. Visit Bargate, a medieval gatehouse built by Normans in the 12th century. Check out SeaCity Museum and learn about what it would have been like to set sail on the Titanic in 1912 — Southampton is where the historic ship left port. Or venture out and explore the Hampshire countryside: Iconic Stonehenge is just a one-hour drive away.
View of Stonehenge in England
Prehistoric Adventure
Located just an hour from Southampton, Stonehenge is one of the most well-known prehistoric sites in all of Europe. Wander around the miraculous stone circle and transport yourself back in time when Neolithic engineers used only simple tools to build the huge monument — it's believed they hauled those massive stones over 240 miles from Wales without the use of machines.
The entrance to the SeaCity Museum in Southampton, England
A Port of Importance
Southampton is home to one of the largest ports in the UK and millions of travelers pass through each year. In 1912, the most famous of those travelers would pass through as they set out to America onboard the Titanic. Southampton's SeaCity museum gives you the opportunity to learn more about the events that happened aboard that famous ship.
The exterior of the Tudor House in Southampton, England
Close up view of The Bargate gatehouse in Southampton, England
Play Knights in Armor
Step back into the medieval era and walk the old walls of the city. Built to protect the town from attack by sea, most of the wall is still standing, leaving visitors a spectacular view of Southampton and the sea. Watch as boats enter the port city, and see how it would have been if you were a knight on watch hundreds of years ago.
A waterfront quayside in Southampton, England
Traditional fish and chips in England
Head to the pub for a refreshing glass of ale to pair with crispy, mouthwatering fish and chips. If fried food isn't your thing, go in for a salad with fresh watercress, the peppery green that the Hampshire region is famous for. You'll also find upscale fare based on England's most-loved flavors: Try chicken with Indian-inspired vegetable pakora and tandoori puree or braised Hampshire beef with ale cream.
Various antiques at a market
Shop for big-name brands galore at Westquay Shopping Centre, the premier shopping destination of the South Coast. Head to Bedford Place for independent shops and boutiques — the country's oldest traditional shoemaker is located here. On weekends, wander down the road to Bar Street to check out the local market for antiques, crafts, vintage accessories and jewelry.
Day 2: Bruges/Zeebruge, Belgium
Bruges/Zeebruge
Various colorful homes reflecting on a canal in Bruges, Belgium
Bruges offers the best of both worlds: a European cultural hub and, not far beyond, a seafront paradise. Often called the Venice of the North, the capital of Belgium's West Flanders province is lined with canals, bridges and historic buildings. One of Europe's best-preserved medieval towns, Bruges' historic town center is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Belgium cruises give you access to the lively market square and see the Belfry of Bruges, a popular piece of Middle Ages architecture. Encounter the city's other personality in Zeebrugge — or "Bruges on sea." This international port and seafront resort is home to cafes, a beach and a marina.
The market square in Bruges, Belgium
Behold the Belfry
Standing 83 meters tall and founded in 1240, Bruges' Belfry tower is home to a carillon with 47 bells. Learn about the tower's history in the reception area, then ascend 366 steps up the narrow staircase for a breathtaking Bruges view.
There's always something happening at Markt in Bruges, whether it's amusement rides, performances or a market.
An assortment of Belgium chocolates
Check Out Choco-Story
Belgium is synonymous with chocolate. Learn more about the history of chocolate at Bruges' chocolate museum, Choco-Story. Housed in the 16th-century Huis de Crone building, the museum lets you see chocolate being made. There's also a section dedicated to chocolate's health benefits.
If you're looking to get away from the crowds, check out the urban orchard Hof De Jonghe or the quaint, quiet Sint-Anna Quarter.
An aerial view of Bruges, Belgium
Get a Seafront Education
Located in a former fish auction hall, at Seafront you'll learn about Belgium's fishing industry and this important world port. Check out the various activities and exhibitions — there are installations on Zeebrugge and World War II. Cruise to Belgium and visit the Russian submarine and West Hinder, the lighthouse-ship. Kids will love the pirate island and the ball pit.
View of a canal in Bruges, Belgium with buildings on both sides
A container with fries topped with mayonnaise
Sample some classic Belgian fries, served with mayo rather than ketchup. Got a sweet tooth? Seek out Belgian waffles, or indulge in a delicious bowl of hot chocolate at The Old Chocolate House. Meanwhile, seafood is Zeebrugge's main food group of choice — the dish moules frites combines mussels with the city's signature fries.
Street view of buildings in Bruges, Belgium
Various miniature traditional home souvenirs in Bruges, Belgium
The best shopping in Bruges is within walking distance of the historic town center. Purchase chocolate at The Chocolate Line, Dumon or Choco-Story's gift shop. Pick up a miniature Bruges house at a traditional handicraft store. If you're visiting between March and November, explore the flea market along the Dijver every Saturday and Sunday.
Day 3: Rotterdam, Netherlands
A several large windmills on a river in the Netherlands
Rotterdam is Europe's biggest port and one of the Netherlands' great surprises. Hit hard by World War II, the city was rebuilt gradually from the 1950s to the '70s — today, it's a lively, thriving metropolis that's home to a diverse, multicultural population. Get a taste of what the city used to look like at the Old Harbour or Delfshaven, a historic marina that survived the 1940 bombardment. Then, visit one of the many top-class museums, such as Boijmans, Van Beuningen or the Kunsthal in Rotterdam's Museum Park. Take a gander at the extraordinary cube houses and the sparkling market hall. Cruise to Rotterdam to relax at the Kralingse Plas lake and park, and snap a photo of the windmills.
The colorful painted arch of the Markthal
Marvel at Market Hall
Head to the Markthal, a striking landmark that accommodates 96 stalls and several restaurants. Sample local delicacies, such as delicious Dutch cheeses or fresh fish. The ceiling bears the world's largest artwork, the "Horn of Plenty" by Arno Coenen, depicting colorful fruit tumbling from a sky, grazing cows and flowers.
The Euro is the official currency in the Netherlands. Many stores and restaurants also accept major credit cards.
View of the Oude Haven Harbor and Openlucht Binnenvaart Museum
Art En Plein Air
Stroll through Rotterdam's Museum Park and visit the Kunsthal, designed by architect Rem Koolhaas. It hosts regularly changing experimental modern art exhibitions. Close by is the Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, which displays world-class artworks by Dutch artists such as Piet Mondrian and Vincent van Gogh.
You can explore Rotterdam by foot, or take the tram, metro or bus.
Boats docked at the Delfshaven historic district
Charm by the Canal
Head to Delfshaven, a picturesque marina and one of the few parts of the city that survived the 1940 bombardment. Admire the historic canal houses, and browse the art studios and boutiques full of antiques and bric-a-brac. Fuel up in one of the down-to-earth eateries, or sample some local craft beer in a brewery.
The skyline in Rotterdam, Netherlands
Eight bitterballen on a plate with a dipping sauce
From exotic foreign cuisine to traditional Dutch dishes, you can find something for every taste here. Rotterdam's internationally inspired comfort food is patatje oorlog, french fries covered in satay peanut sauce, mayo and diced onion. At a pub, order bitterballen, a deep-fried croquette of shredded meat and roux served with mustard. For dessert, try appeltart, a super-moist apple pie that's reminiscent of bread pudding.
Several famous cube houses in Rotterdam, Netherlands
An assortment of souvenir ceramic shoes in Rotterdam, Netherlands
Shops in Rotterdam are open every day. The city center offers plenty of choice in the Beurstraverse, Lijnbaan and Meent, as well as the exclusive Van Oldenbarnevelt street. Witte de With is the cultural shopping street with a wide choice in art boutiques. For vintage clothes and art, go to concept store Toko 51. With your Netherlands cruise, keep an eye out for the signature Dutch trinket: a tiny set of decorative pottery clogs.
Day 4: Paris, France
Le Havre, France
View of the Eiffel Tower in Paris, France
Paris is an iconic city — a melange of everything artistic and sublime, with a worldwide reputation for excellence in cuisine, fashion, architecture and the fine arts. After you take the drive in from the port (just over two hours), hit the streets to see the city's monumental landmarks: Pass through the Arc de Triomphe, and stand in the presence of the Eiffel Tower. The beauty here is only matched by the history and culture. Cruise to Paris to feel the cool morning air outside Gothic Notre Dame cathedral, and see works from prehistoric to postmodern at the Louvre. At evening, walk the lamplit avenues as restaurants' wooden tables and rattan chairs spill onto the sidewalks and terraces. Pull up a seat, order a glass of vin rougeand a plate of pate on toast, and dive in.
Famous gargoyles overlooking the city of the Paris, France
Astounding Architecture
Climb the steps of the heaven-scratching Eiffel Tower for panoramic views of Paris. Then, head to the gargoyle-clad Notre Dame, perhaps the most famous cathedral in the world. And don't miss the Romano-Byzantine influences of the unique Sacre Coeur Basilica.
Take the time to stroll the streets of Paris and find restaurants, boutiques and bars hidden inside little nooks.
View of The Louvre museum in Paris, France
Home of the Arts
Paris is home to perhaps the most famous museum on Earth, the Louvre. It houses the equally well-known "Mona Lisa." But Paris is also home to Musee d'Orsay, an impressionist art hub, as well as the Musee des Arts Decoratifs, focused on the decorative arts.
Scout for impressive views of the city by reaching the top decks of buildings and landmarks.
View of a typical Parisian cafe in Paris, France
Hang With the Locals
Escape the beaten paths and discover a side of Paris few tourists get to see. Cruise to Paris and head to Canal St. Martin to find hip boutiques and cafes with verandas overlooking the water. Then, head to the less-crowded top decks of Montparnasse Tower or the Arc de Triomphe for Paris vistas.
Sample Parisian desserts beyond macarons and chocolate-filled croissants. Try local sables or pates de fruits.
Escargots on a white plate with a side of sliced bread
You'll find Paris' Michelin-starred restaurants in the neighborhoods lining either side of the Seine. Head there at the noon hour for lower-priced lunch menus. Feeling adventurous? Try French classics like escargot and bone marrow on toast. If you have a sweet tooth, don't miss le Paris-Brest, a circular cake filled with praline cream during your Paris cruise.
Leave time for getting to and from the port: Paris and Le Havre are just over two hours apart.
A typical designer storefront in Paris, France displaying shoes and handbags
The Champ Elysees may be the most famous shopping avenue in Paris, with designer boutiques and global chain stores But it's in lesser-known neighborhoods — like North Marais and Rue du Chateau d'Eau — where you can find one-of-a-kind and handcrafted jewelry and goods, as well as the city's funkier fashion options.
Flowrider Teenager Surfing
Slip away to this adults-only indoor and outdoor retreat. The Solarium is your slice of paradise, with soothing whirlpools, warm sunshine and a refreshing water mist.
Ripcord iFly Couple Flying Mid Air
Young Boy Enjoying the H20 Zone Water Park
H2O ZoneSM Water Park
Splish, splash, kids have a blast at this water park, loaded with interactive geysers shooting out from colorful, climbable creations, plus water cannons, pools, and waterfalls.
Young Woman Climbing Up the Rock Wall
Rise to the occasion and take on the signature Rock Climbing Wall. From beginners to speed climbers, everyone can enjoy an unparalleled view from 40 feet above deck. Included in your fare, no reservation required.
Day 6: Bilbao, Spain
A view of the Bilbao, Spain cityscape
The new and the old meet head-on in Bilbao — the unofficial capital of Basque country in Spain's northwest, near southern France. Once an industrial capital, the opening of the Guggenheim in 1997 propelled Bilbao into a hub of outstanding art, architecture and gastronomy. Today, modern trams travel on historic avenues like the Siete Calles ("Seven Streets") of Casco Viejo — Bilbao's medieval quarter, which today is dotted with boutiques, bakeries and outdoor cafes. Meanwhile, futuristic buildings like the titanium-clad Guggenheim Museum and the Gran Hotel Domine hang over the Nervion river that runs through the city. There's no other city with such a polarity of scenes in Spain. Get onboard a Spain cruise and see for yourself why Bilbao is the pride and joy of Basque Country.
A hilltop chapel in Bilbao, Spain
Bilbao's Nature
Bilbao may be famous for architecture, but the rolling green hills, panoramic coastline and lush plazas will enchant you as well. Reach Mount Artxanda by cable car for sweeping vistas of the city. Walk by ponds and fountains at Parque de Dona Casilda de Iturrizar, and reach the riverside walkways for close-up urban views of Bilbao.
Don't miss Bilbao's outskirts — check out the coastal suburb Getxo, a 25-minute train ride away, which offers lush green mountains and ocean views.
Various buildings in downtown Bilbao, Spain that show the city's wonderful architecture
Bask in Basque Culture
Check out the Euskal Museoa and the Arkeologi Museoa for a look into the Basque Country's past. Cruise to Spain to stroll down medieval streets in Casco Viejo, the historical center of Bilbao, or down the Gran Via boulevard for a glimpse into the daily lives of locals, who are usually moving from one pintxos (tapas) tavern to the next.
Follow the locals and hop from one pintxos bar to the next, sampling a variety of dishes.
An aerial view of the city of Bilbao, Spain
Artistic Heights
Take in the monumental beauty of the Guggenheim by first exploring the outside. You'll see how architect Frank Gehry blended titanium, glass and limestone to conceive elegant curves and sharp edges in this masterpiece of modernity. Then, head inside to see the other masterpieces created by legends like Andy Warhol, Pablo Picasso, Joan Miro and more.
Instead of taking a cab or renting a car, discover Bilbao more intimately by bike.
A filet of cod with side dished on a white plate
Food is a pastime in Bilbao. Sample bacalao al pil pil (cod with garlic), Marmitako (tuna and vegetable stew) and savory pintxos, the local version of tapas. Stop by El Globo and La Barraca for a quick bite-sized dish, or head to Mina and Azurmendi for Michelin-starred experiences.
A bridge crossing over a river in Bilbao, Spain
An assortment of botas wine flasks
In Bilbao, you do your shopping on historic streets and sprawling urban areas, with hidden gems in between. Go to the old town and look for the classic botas (wineskin flasks), txapelas (berets) or pañuelos (kerchiefs). Head north to the Abando district for modern shops offering more contemporary wares.
Jamie's Italian Bruschetta Close-Up
Coastal Kitchen, cruise dining Parfait dessert bowl. Served with fresh berries and a thick & creamy Greek-style yogurt.
Grilled Veal Chop entree at the specialty, Chops Grille restaurant. Cruise vacation fine dining steaks served table side.
La Patisserie Entrance with Outside Dining
Solarium Bistro Buffet Style Breakfast
Solarium Bistro Restaurant
Emphasizing fresh ingredients and Mediterranean flavors for breakfast, lunch and dinner, Solarium Bistro offers a bright and breezy gastronomic getaway at sea. Serve yourself from stations piled high with Med-inspired dishes and savor every bite inside or al fresco beneath the sun — or the stars.
Cafe Two 70 Soup and Sandwich Lunch
The Café @ Two70
The Café@Two70 is a gourmet marketplace where every meal comes with a side of captivating views. Choose from a variety of savory hot-pressed sandwiches, crisp custom-made salads, homemade soups and more — all packed up picnic-style, so you can enjoy them while looking out floor-to-ceiling windows in Two70® or anywhere else onboard.
Yachts docked at the Ocean Village Marina in Southampton, England
The Netley Abbey ruins in Southampton, England
The historic Calshot Castle at the entrance of Southampton, England


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Printed Images Australia Pacific (PIAP)
This ambitious project aims to provide an online illustrated catalogue of all prints and books with illustrations produced in Australia; prints by expatriate Australians; and prints relating to Australia from pre-European settlement to the present. The catalogue will also cover similar works produced or relating to New Zealand and Papua New Guinea.
PIAP will use as its core the Australasian print collection of the National Gallery of Australia, the largest and most comprehensive in the country. Further information will come from our partners, including printmakers, print publishers, print workshops, print collectors, art museums, libraries and other collecting institutions.
The database is fully searchable through simple and advanced searches. The powerful advanced search allows one to search all physical attributes of the print, where and when it was produced, as well as offering a comprehensive subject index. PIAP provides related information on artists and other creators, exhibitions and bibliographic references.
This database is one of a new generation of such resources being developed across the world. The closest in structure and comprehensiveness is the British Printed Images to 1700, established in 2006.
PIAP has been developed as a service to all those interested in printed images, be they the general public, students, collectors, cultural historians, art museum or other professionals. This project is an access initiative of the Gordon Darling Australia Pacific Print Fund.
Peter Dowling
Peter Dowling was awarded his Doctor of Doctor of Philosophy from the National Centre for Australian Studies, Monash University in 1997. His thesis, Chronicles of progress: The illustrated newspapers of colonial Australia, 1853-1896, Included as its appendix a subject index to wood-engraved illustrations in Australian Illustrated newspapers. Dr Peter Dowling has generously allowed this index to be in incorporated into Printed Images Australia Pacific.
Gregory Heath
Gregory Heath has long been interested in Australian prints, especially those artists that produced work between 1900 and 1970. His interviews and photographs are an invaluable resource.
Print Council of Australia
The Print Council of Australia was established as a national advocacy organisation for prints and printmaking in Australia in 1966 read more.
Gail Ross
Gail Ross was awarded her Doctor of Philosophy from the University of Canterbury, School of Fine Arts, in 2006. Her thesis, 'New Zealand Prints 1900-1950: An Unseen Heritage' included an extensive listing of New Zealand prints produced during this time. Dr Gail Ross has generously allowed these prints to be included in this Printed Images Australia Pacific.
Sebra Prints
Sebra Prints is a commercial gallery established in Melbourne in August 2003. Director Dafydd Davies has generously offered records from his database of works and images relating to Australia in support of this project.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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Prior to the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, Japan had generated 30% of its electrical power from nuclear reactors and planned to increase that share to 40%. Nuclear power energy was a national strategic priority in Japan.
, of the 54 nuclear reactors in Japan, there were 42 operable reactors but only 9 reactors in 5 power plants were actually operating. A total of 24 reactors are scheduled for decommissioning or are in the process of being decommissioned. Others are in the process of being reactivated, or are undergoing modifications aimed to improve resiliency against natural disasters; Japan's 2030 energy goals posit that at least 33 will be reactivated by a later date.

Though all of Japan's nuclear reactors successfully withstood shaking from the Tohoku earthquake, flooding from the ensuing tsunami caused the failure of cooling systems at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant on 11 March 2011.
Japan's first-ever nuclear emergency was declared, and 140,000 residents within  of the plant were evacuated.

All of Japan's nuclear plants were closed, or their operations were suspended for safety inspections. The last of Japan's fifty-four reactors (Tomari-3) went offline for maintenance on 5 May 2012, leaving Japan completely without nuclear-produced electrical power for the first time since 1970.

Problems in stabilizing the triple reactor meltdowns at Fukushima I nuclear plant hardened attitudes toward nuclear power.
In June 2011, immediately after the Fukushima disaster, more than 80 percent of Japanese said they were anti-nuclear and distrusted government information on radiation, but ten years later, in March 2021, only 11 percent of Japanese said they wanted that nuclear energy generation to be discontinued immediately. Another 49 percent were asking for a gradual exit from nuclear energy.
By October 2011, while there had been electricity shortages, Japan survived the summer of 2011 without the extensive blackouts that some had predicted, but at the price of casting doubts on Japan ambitious carbon emissions cuts. An energy white paper, approved by the Japanese Cabinet in October 2011, stated that "Public confidence in the safety of nuclear power was greatly damaged" by the Fukushima nuclear disaster, and called for a reduction in the nation's reliance on nuclear power.

Despite protests, on 1 July 2012 unit 3 of the Ōi Nuclear Power Plant was restarted.

A comprehensive assessment by international experts on the health risks associated with the Fukushima I nuclear power plant disaster concluded in 2013 that, for the general population inside and outside Japan, the predicted risks were low and no observable increases in cancer rates above baseline rates were anticipated.

In September 2013, Ōi units 3 and 4 went offline, making Japan again completely without nuclear-produced electrical power.
On 11 August 2015, the Sendai Nuclear Power Plant was brought back online, followed by two units (3 and 4) of the Takahama Nuclear Power Plant on 29 January 2016.
However, Unit 4 was shut down three days after restart due to an internal failure, and Unit 3 in March 2016 after the district court in Shiga prefecture issued an injunction to halt the operation of the Takahama Nuclear Power Plant. Though 43 of Japan's pre-2011 total of 54 plants remain idled, the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry said in 2017 that if the country is to meet its obligations under the Paris climate accord, then nuclear energy needs to make up between 20-22% of the nation's portfolio mix. 26 restart applications are now pending with an estimated 12 units to come back in service by 2025 and 18 by 2030.

The total cost of implementing safety measures, maintaining facilities, and decommissioning of commercially operated nuclear power plants in Japan is estimated at ¥13.46 trillion ($123 billion).

History

Early years

Overcoming popular resistance
In 1954, the Operations Coordinating Board of the United States National Security Council proposed that the U.S. government undertake a "vigorous offensive" urging nuclear energy for Japan in order to overcome the widespread reluctance of the Japanese population to build nuclear reactors in the country. Thirty-two million Japanese people, a third of the Japanese population, signed a petition calling for banning hydrogen bombs. Journalist and author Foster Hailey wrote an op-ed piece published in The Washington Post where he called for adopting a proposal to build nuclear reactors in Japan, stating his opinion that: "Many Americans are now aware...that the dropping of the atomic bombs on Japan was not necessary. How better to make a contribution to amends than by offering Japan...atomic energy." For several years starting in 1954, the United States Central Intelligence Agency and other U.S. government agencies ran a propaganda war targeting the Japanese population to vanquish the Japanese people's opposition to nuclear power.

In 1954, Japan budgeted 230 million yen for nuclear energy, marking the beginning of Japan's nuclear program. The Atomic Energy Basic Law limited activities to only peaceful purposes.  The first nuclear power plant in Japan, the Tōkai Nuclear Power Plant, was built by the UK's GEC and was commissioned in 1966.

Light water reactors
In the 1970s, the first light water reactors were built in cooperation with American companies. These plants were bought from U.S. vendors such as General Electric and Westinghouse with contractual work done by Japanese companies, who would later get a license themselves to build similar plant designs. Developments in nuclear power since that time have seen contributions from Japanese companies and research institutes on the same level as the other big users of nuclear power. From the early 1970s to the present, the Japanese government promoted the siting of nuclear power plants through a variety of policy instruments involving soft social control and financial incentives. By offering large subsidies and public works projects to rural communities and by using educational trips, junkets for local government officials, and OpEds written as news by pro-nuclear supporters, the central government won over the support of depopulating, hard-on-their-luck coastal towns, and villages.

Later years

Japan's nuclear industry was not hit as hard by the effects of the Three Mile Island accident (TMI) or the Chernobyl disaster as some other countries.
Construction of new plants continued to be strong through the 1980s, 1990s, and up to the present day.
While many new plants had been proposed, all were subsequently canceled or never brought past initial planning.
Cancelled plant orders include:
 The Hōhoku Nuclear Power Plant at Hōhoku, Yamaguchi1994
 The Kushima Nuclear Power Plant at Kushima, Miyazaki1997
 The Ashihama Nuclear Power Plant at Ashihama, Mie2000 (the first Project at the site in the 1970s was completed at Hamaoka as Unit 1&2)
 The Maki Nuclear Power Plant at Maki, Niigata (Kambara)Canceled in 2003
 The Suzu Nuclear Power Plant at Suzu, Ishikawa2003

However, starting in the mid-1990s there were several nuclear-related accidents and cover-ups in Japan that eroded public perception of the industry, resulting in protests and resistance to new plants.
These accidents included the Tokaimura nuclear accident, the Mihama steam explosion, cover-ups after an accident at the Monju reactor, among others, more recently the Chūetsu offshore earthquake aftermath.
While exact details may be in dispute, it is clear that the safety culture in Japan's nuclear industry has come under greater scrutiny.

2000s

On 18 April 2007, Japan and the United States signed the United States-Japan Joint Nuclear Energy Action Plan, aimed at putting in place a framework for the joint research and development of nuclear energy technology.
Each country will conduct research into fast reactor technology, fuel cycle technology, advanced computer simulation and modeling, small and medium reactors, safeguards and physical protection; and nuclear waste management.
In March 2008, Tokyo Electric Power Company announced that the start of operation of four new nuclear power reactors would be postponed by one year due to the incorporation of new earthquake resistance assessments.
Units 7 and 8 of the Fukushima Daiichi plant would now enter commercial operation in October 2014 and October 2015, respectively.
Unit 1 of the Higashidori plant is now scheduled to begin operating in December 2015, while unit 2 will start up in 2018 at the earliest.
As of September 2008, Japanese ministries and agencies were seeking an increase in the 2009 budget by 6%.
The total requested comes to 491.4 billion Japanese yen (US$4.6 billion), and the focuses of research are the development of the fast breeder reactor cycle, next-generation light water reactors, the Iter project, and seismic safety.

Fukushima disaster and aftermath

A 2011 independent investigation in Japan has "revealed a long history of nuclear power companies conspiring with governments to manipulate public opinion in favour of nuclear energy". One nuclear company "even stacked public meetings with its own employees who posed as ordinary citizens to speak in support of nuclear power plants".
An energy white paper, approved by the Japanese Cabinet in October 2011, says "public confidence in the safety of nuclear power was greatly damaged" by the Fukushima disaster, and calls for a reduction in the nation's reliance on nuclear power.
It also omits a section on nuclear power expansion that was in last year's policy review.
Nuclear Safety Commission Chairman Haruki Madarame told a parliamentary inquiry in February 2012 that "Japan's atomic safety rules are inferior to global standards and left the country unprepared for the Fukushima nuclear disaster last March".
There were flaws in, and lax enforcement of, the safety rules governing Japanese nuclear power companies, and this included insufficient protection against tsunamis.

On 6 May 2011, Prime Minister Naoto Kan ordered the Hamaoka Nuclear Power Plant to be shut down as an earthquake of magnitude 8.0 or higher is likely to hit the area within the next thirty years.

As of 27 March 2012, Japan had only one out of 54 nuclear reactors operating; the Tomari-3, after the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa 6 was shut down.
The Tomari-3 was shut down for maintenance on 5 May, leaving Japan with no nuclear-derived electricity for the first time since 1970, when the country's then-only two reactors were taken offline for five days for maintenance. On 15 June 2012, approval was given to restart Ōi Units 3 and 4 which could take six weeks to bring them to full operation. On 1 July 2012, unit 3 of the Ōi Nuclear Power Plant was restarted.
This reactor can provide 1,180 MW of electricity. On 21 July 2012 unit 4 was restarted, also 1,180 MW.
The reactor was shut down again on 14 September 2013, again leaving Japan with no operating power reactors.

Government figures in the 2014 Annual Report on Energy show that Japan depended on imported fossil fuels for 88% of its electricity in fiscal year 2013, compared with 62% in fiscal 2010. Without significant nuclear power, the country was self-sufficient for just 6% of its energy demand in 2012, compared with 20% in 2010.
The additional fuel costs to compensate for its nuclear reactors being idled was ¥3.6 trillion.
In parallel, domestic energy users have seen a 19.4% increase in their energy bills between 2010 and 2013, while industrial users have seen their costs rise 28.4% over the same period.

In 2018 the Japanese government revised its energy plan to update the 2030 target for nuclear energy to 20%-22% of power generation by restarting reactors, compared to LNG 27%, coal 25%, renewables 23% and oil 3%.  This would reduce Japan's carbon dioxide emissions by 26% compared to 2013, and increase self-sufficiency to about 24% by 2030, compared to 8% in 2016.

Investigations on the Fukushima disaster

The National Diet of Japan Fukushima Nuclear Accident Independent Investigation Commission (NAIIC) is the first independent investigation commission by the National Diet in the 66-year history of Japan's constitutional government.
NAICC was established on 8 December 2011 with the mission to investigate the direct and indirect causes of the Fukushima nuclear accident.
NAICC submitted its inquiry report to both houses on 5 July 2012.

The 10-member commission compiled its report based on more than 1,167 interviews and 900 hours of hearings.
It was a six-month independent investigation, the first of its kind with wide-ranging subpoena powers in Japan's constitutional history, which held public hearings with former Prime Minister Naoto Kan and Tokyo Electric Power Co's former president Masataka Shimizu, who gave conflicting accounts of the disaster response.
The commission chairman, Kiyoshi Kurokawa, declared with respect to the Fukushima nuclear incident: "It was a profoundly man-made disasterthat could and should have been foreseen and prevented."
He added that the "fundamental causes" of the disaster were rooted in "the ingrained conventions of Japanese culture."
The report outlines errors and willful negligence at the plant before the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami on 11 March 2011 and a flawed response in the hours, days, and weeks that followed. It also offers recommendations and encourages Japan's parliament to "thoroughly debate and deliberate" the suggestions.

Post-Fukushima nuclear policy

Japan's new energy plan, approved by the Liberal Democratic Party cabinet in April 2014, calls nuclear power "the country's most important power source". Reversing a decision by the previous Democratic Party, the government will re-open nuclear plants, aiming for "a realistic and balanced energy structure". In May 2014 the Fukui District Court blocked the restart of the Oi reactors.
In April 2015 courts blocked the restarting of two reactors at the Takahama Nuclear Power Plant but permitted the restart of two reactors at the Sendai Nuclear Power Plant. The government hopes that nuclear power will produce 20% of Japan's electricity by 2030.

As of June 2015, approval was being sought from the new Nuclear Regulatory Agency for 24 units to restart, of the 54 pre-Fukushima units.
The units also have to be approved by the local prefecture authorities before restarting.

In July 2015 fuel loading was completed at the Sendai-1 nuclear plant, it restarted 11 August 2015 and was followed by unit 2 on 1 November 2015. Japan's Nuclear Regulatory Authority approved the restart of Ikata-3 which took place on 19 April 2016, this reactor is the fifth to receive approval to restart. The Takahama Nuclear Power Plant unit 4 restarted in May 2017 and unit 3 in June 2017.

In November 2016 Japan signed a nuclear cooperation agreement with India.
Japanese nuclear plant builders saw this as potential lifeline given that domestic orders had ended following the Fukushima disaster, and India is proposing to build about 20 new reactors over the next decade. However, there is Japanese domestic opposition to the agreement, as India has not agreed to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.

In 2014, following the failure of the prototype Monju sodium-cooled fast reactor, Japan agreed to cooperate in developing the French ASTRID demonstration sodium-cooled fast breeder reactor. As of 2016, France was seeking the full involvement of Japan in the ASTRID development.

In 2015, the Agency for Natural Resources and Energy changed the accounting provisions of the Electricity Business Act, so companies can account for decommissioning costs in ten yearly installments rather than a one-time charge. This will encourage the decommissioning of older and smaller nuclear units, most of which have not restarted since 2011.

In 2022, during the global energy crisis which greatly increased the cost of imported fossil fuels, Japan's prime minister announced the building of safer next-generation nuclear reactors and restarting idle existing plants would be considered. In 2022 ten reactors were operational producing about 5% of Japan's electricity.

Seismicity
Japan has had a long history of earthquakes and seismic activity, and destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunamis, occur several times a century. Due to this, concern has been expressed about the particular risks of constructing and operating nuclear power plants in Japan. Amory Lovins has said: "An earthquake-and-tsunami zone crowded with 127 million people is an unwise place for 54 reactors". To date, the most serious seismic-related accident has been the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami.

Professor Katsuhiko Ishibashi, one of the seismologists who have taken an active interest in the topic, coined the term genpatsu-shinsai (原発震災), from the Japanese words for "nuclear power" and "quake disaster" to express the potential worst-case catastrophe that could ensue. Dr Kiyoo Mogi, former chair of the Japanese Coordinating Committee for Earthquake Prediction, has expressed similar concerns, stating in 2004 that the issue 'is a critical problem which can bring a catastrophe to Japan through a man-made disaster'.

Warnings from Kunihiko Shimazaki, a professor of seismology at the University of Tokyo, were also ignored. In 2004, as a member of an influential cabinet office committee on offshore earthquakes, Mr. Shimazaki "warned that Fukushima's coast was vulnerable to tsunamis more than twice as tall as the forecasts of as much as five meters put forth by regulators and Tokyo Electric". Minutes of the meeting on 19 February 2004, show that the government bureaucrats running the committee moved quickly to exclude his views from the committee's final report. He said the committee did not want to force Tokyo Electric to make expensive upgrades at the plant.

Hidekatsu Yoshii, a member of the House of Representatives for Japanese Communist Party and an anti-nuclear campaigner, warned in March and October 2006 about the possibility of the severe damage that might be caused by a tsunami or earthquake. During a parliamentary committee in May 2010 he made similar claims, warning that the cooling systems of a Japanese nuclear plant could be destroyed by a landslide or earthquake. In response, Yoshinobu Terasaka, head of the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency, replied that the plants were so well designed that "such a situation is practically impossible". Following damage at the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant due to the 2007 Chūetsu offshore earthquake, Kiyoo Mogi called for the immediate closure of the Hamaoka Nuclear Power Plant, which was knowingly built close to the centre of the expected Tōkai earthquake. Katsuhiko Ishibashi previously claimed, in 2004, that Hamaoka was "considered to be the most dangerous nuclear power plant in Japan".

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has also expressed concern. At a meeting of the G8's Nuclear Safety and Security Group, held in Tokyo in 2008, an IAEA expert warned that a strong earthquake with a magnitude above  could pose a 'serious problem' for Japan's nuclear power stations. Before Fukushima, "14 lawsuits charging that risks had been ignored or hidden were filed in Japan, revealing a disturbing pattern in which operators underestimated or hid seismic dangers to avoid costly upgrades and keep operating. But all the lawsuits were unsuccessful". Underscoring the risks facing Japan, a 2012 research institute investigation has "determined there is a 70% chance of a magnitude-7 earthquake striking the Tokyo metropolitan area within the next four years, and 98% over 30 years". The March 2011 earthquake was a magnitude 9.

Design standards

Between 2005 and 2007, three Japanese nuclear power plants were shaken by earthquakes that far exceeded the maximum peak ground acceleration used in their design. The tsunami that followed the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake, inundating the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant, was more than twice the design height, while the ground acceleration also slightly exceeded the design parameters.

In 2006 a Japanese government subcommittee was charged with revising the national guidelines on the earthquake-resistance of nuclear power plants, which had last been partially revised in 2001, resulting in the publication of a new seismic guide – the 2006 Regulatory Guide for Reviewing Seismic Design of Nuclear Power Reactor Facilities. The subcommittee membership included Professor Ishibashi, however his proposal that the standards for surveying active faults should be reviewed was rejected and he resigned at the final meeting, claiming that the review process was 'unscientific' and the outcome rigged to suit the interests of the Japan Electric Association, which had 11 of its committee members on the 19-member government subcommittee. Ishibashi has subsequently claimed that, although the new guide brought in the most far-reaching changes since 1978, it was 'seriously flawed' because it underestimated the design basis of earthquake ground motion. He has also claimed that the enforcement system is 'a shambles' and questioned the independence of the Nuclear Safety Commission after a senior Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency official appeared to rule out a new review of the NSC's seismic design guide in 2007.

Following the publication of the new 2006 Seismic Guide, the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency, at the request of the Nuclear Safety Commission, required the design of all existing nuclear power plants to be re-evaluated.

Geological surveys
The standard of geological survey work in Japan is another area causing concern. In 2008 Taku Komatsubara, a geologist at the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology alleged that the presence of active faults was deliberately ignored when surveys of potential new power plant sites were undertaken, a view supported by a former topographer. Takashi Nakata, a seismologist from the Hiroshima Institute of Technology has made similar allegations and suggests that conflicts of interest between the Japanese nuclear industry and the regulators contribute to the problem.

A 2011 Natural Resources Defense Council report that evaluated the seismic hazard to reactors worldwide, as determined by the Global Seismic Hazard Assessment Program data, placed 35 of Japan's reactors in the group of 48 reactors worldwide in very high and high seismic hazard areas.

Nuclear power plants

As of January 2022 there are 33 operable reactors in Japan, of which 10 reactors are currently operating. Additionally, 7 reactors have been approved for restart and further 8 have restart applications under review.

On 6 May 2011, then Prime Minister Naoto Kan requested the Hamaoka Nuclear Power Plant be shut down as an earthquake of magnitude 8.0 or higher is estimated 87% likely to hit the area within the next 30 years. Kan wanted to avoid a possible repeat of the Fukushima nuclear disaster. On 9 May 2011, Chubu Electric decided to comply with the government's request. In July 2011, a mayor in Shizuoka Prefecture and a group of residents filed a lawsuit seeking the decommissioning of the reactors at the Hamaoka nuclear power plant permanently.

In April 2014, Reuters reported that Prime Minister Shinzo Abe favours restarting nuclear plants, but that its analysis suggests that only about one-third to two-thirds of reactors will be in a technical and economic position to restart.
In April 2017 the Nuclear Regulation Authority approved plans to decommission the Genkai 1, Mihama 1 and 2, Shimane 1, and Tsuruga 1 reactors.

Nuclear accidents

In terms of consequences of radioactivity releases and core damage, the Fukushima I nuclear accidents in 2011 were the worst experienced by the Japanese nuclear industry, in addition to ranking among the worst civilian nuclear accidents, though no fatalities were caused and no serious exposure of radiation to workers occurred.
The Tokaimura reprocessing plant fire in 1999 had 2 worker deaths, one more was exposed to radiation levels above legal limits, and over 660 others received detectable radiation doses but within permissible levels, well below the threshold to affect human health. The Mihama Nuclear Power Plant experienced a steam explosion in one of the turbine buildings in 2004 where five workers were killed and six injured.

2011 accidents

There have been many nuclear shutdowns, failures, and three partial meltdowns which were triggered by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami.

Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
According to the Federation of Electric Power Companies of Japan, "by April 27 approximately 55 percent of the fuel in reactor unit 1 had melted, along with 35 percent of the fuel in unit 2, and 30 percent of the fuel in unit 3; and overheated spent fuels in the storage pools of units 3 and 4 probably were also damaged". The accident exceeds the 1979 Three Mile Island accident in seriousness, and is comparable to the 1986 Chernobyl disaster. The Economist reports that the Fukushima disaster is "a bit like three Three Mile Islands in a row, with added damage in the spent-fuel stores", and that there will be ongoing impacts:
Years of clean-up will drag into decades. A permanent exclusion zone could end up stretching beyond the plant's perimeter. Seriously exposed workers may be at increased risk of cancers for the rest of their lives...
On 24 March 2011, Japanese officials announced that "radioactive iodine-131 exceeding safety limits for infants had been detected at 18 water-purification plants in Tokyo and five other prefectures". Officials said also that the fallout from the Dai-ichi plant is "hindering search efforts for victims from the March 11 earthquake and tsunami".

Problems in stabilizing the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant have hardened attitudes to nuclear power. As of June 2011, "more than 80 percent of Japanese now say they are anti-nuclear and distrust government information on radiation". The ongoing Fukushima crisis may spell the end of nuclear power in Japan, as "citizen opposition grows and local authorities refuse permission to restart reactors that have undergone safety checks". Local authorities are skeptical that sufficient safety measures have been taken and are reticent to give their permission – now required by law – to bring suspended nuclear reactors back online.

Two government advisers have said that "Japan's safety review of nuclear reactors after the Fukushima disaster is based on faulty criteria and many people involved have conflicts of interest". Hiromitsu Ino, Professor Emeritus at the University of Tokyo, says
"The whole process being undertaken is exactly the same as that used previous to the Fukushima Dai-Ichi accident, even though the accident showed all these guidelines and categories to be insufficient".

In 2012, former prime minister Naoto Kan was interviewed about the Fukushima nuclear disaster, and has said that at one point Japan faced a situation where there was a chance that people might not be able to live in the capital zone including Tokyo and would have to evacuate. He says he is haunted by the specter of an even bigger nuclear crisis forcing tens of millions of people to flee Tokyo and threatening the nation's existence. "If things had reached that level, not only would the public have had to face hardships but Japan's very existence would have been in peril". That convinced Kan to "declare the need for Japan to end its reliance on atomic power and promote renewable sources of energy such solar that have long taken a back seat in the resource-poor country's energy mix".

Other accidents

Other accidents of note include:
 1981: Almost 300 workers were exposed to excessive levels of radiation after a fuel rod ruptured during repairs at the Tsuruga Nuclear Power Plant.
 December 1995: The fast breeder Monju Nuclear Power Plant sodium leak. State-run operator Donen was found to have concealed videotape footage that showed extensive damage to the reactor.
 March 1997: The Tokaimura nuclear reprocessing plant fire and explosion, northeast of Tokyo. 37 workers were exposed to low doses of radiation. Donen later acknowledged it had initially suppressed information about the fire.
 1999: A fuel loading system malfunctioned at a nuclear plant in the Fukui Prefecture and set off an uncontrolled nuclear reaction and explosion.
 September 1999: The criticality accident at the Tokai fuel fabrication facility. Hundreds of people were exposed to radiation, three workers received doses above legal limits of whom two later died.
 2000: Three TEPCO executives were forced to quit after the company in 1989 ordered an employee to edit out footage showing cracks in nuclear plant steam pipes in video being submitted to regulators.
 August 2002: a widespread falsification scandal starting in that led to the shut down of all Tokyo Electric Power Company's 17 nuclear reactors; Tokyo Electric's officials had falsified inspection records and attempted to hide cracks in reactor vessel shrouds in 13 of its 17 units.
 2002: Two workers were exposed to a small amount of radiation and suffered minor burns during a fire at Onagawa Nuclear Power Station in northern Japan.
 2006: A small amount of radioactive steam was released at the Fukushima Dai-ichi plant and it escaped the compound.
 16 July 2007: A severe earthquake (measuring 6.6 on the moment magnitude scale) hit the region where Tokyo Electric's Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant is located and radioactive water spilled into the Sea of Japan; as of March 2009, all of the reactors remain shut down for damage verification and repairs; the plant with seven units was the largest single nuclear power station in the world.

Nuclear waste disposal
Japanese policy is to reprocess its spent nuclear fuel. Originally spent fuel was reprocessed under contract in England and France, but then the Rokkasho Reprocessing Plant was built, with operations originally expected to commence in 2007. The policy to use recovered plutonium as mixed oxide (MOX) reactor fuel was questioned on economic grounds, and in 2004 it was revealed the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry had covered up a 1994 report indicating reprocessing spent fuel would cost four times as much as burying it.

In 2000, a Specified Radioactive Waste Final Disposal Act called for creation of a new organization to manage high level radioactive waste, and later that year the Nuclear Waste Management Organization of Japan (NUMO) was established under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry. NUMO is responsible for selecting a permanent deep geological repository site, construction, operation and closure of the facility for waste emplacement by 2040. Site selection began in 2002 and application information was sent to 3,239 municipalities, but by 2006, no local government had volunteered to host the facility. Kōchi Prefecture showed interest in 2007, but its mayor resigned due to local opposition. In December 2013 the government decided to identify suitable candidate areas before approaching municipalities.

In 2014 the head of the Science Council of Japan's expert panel has said Japan's seismic conditions makes it difficult to predict ground conditions over the necessary 100,000 years, so it will be impossible to convince the public of the safety of deep geological disposal.

The cost of MOX fuel had roughly quadrupled from 1999 to 2017, creating doubts about the economics of nuclear fuel reprocessing.
In 2018 the Japanese Atomic Energy Commission updated plutonium guidelines to try to reduce plutonium stockpiles, stipulating that the Rokkasho Reprocessing Plant should only produce the amount of plutonium required for MOX fuel for Japan's nuclear power plants.

Nuclear regulatory bodies in Japan
 Nuclear Regulation Authority – A nuclear safety agency under the environment ministry, created on 19 September 2012. It replaced the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency and the Nuclear Safety Commission.
 Japanese Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) 原子力委員会 – Now operating as a commission of inquiry to the Japanese cabinet, this organization coordinates the entire nation's plans in the area of nuclear energy.
 Nuclear Safety Commission 原子力安全委員会 – The former Japanese regulatory body for the nuclear industry.
 Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency (NISA) 原子力安全・保安院 – A former agency that performed regulatory activities and was formed on 6 January 2001, after a reorganization of governmental agencies.

Nuclear power companies

Electric utilities running nuclear plants
Japan is divided into a number of regions that each get electric service from their respective regional provider, all utilities hold a monopoly and are strictly regulated by the Japanese government. For more background information, see Energy in Japan. All regional utilities in Japan currently operate nuclear plants with the exception of the Okinawa Electric Power Company. They are also all members of the Federation of Electric Power Companies (FEPCO) industry organization. The companies are listed below.
 Regional electric providers
Hokkaidō Electric Power Company (HEPCO) - 北海道電力
Tōhoku Electric Power Company (Tōhoku Electric) - 東北電力
Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO) - 東京電力
Chūbu Electric Power Company (CHUDEN) - 中部電力
Hokuriku Electric Power Company (RIKUDEN) - 北陸電力
Kansai Electric Power Company (KEPCO) - 関西電力
Chūgoku Electric Power Company (Energia) - 中国電力
Shikoku Electric Power Company (YONDEN) - 四国電力
Kyūshū Electric Power Company (Kyūshū Electric) - 九州電力
 Other companies with a stake in nuclear power

Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA) - 日本原子力研究開発機構
Japan Atomic Power Company (JPAC) - 日本原子力発電
JAPC, jointly owned by several Japan's major electric utilities, was created by special provisions from the Japanese government to be the first company in Japan to run a nuclear plant. Today it still operates two separate sites.
Electric Power Development Company (EDPC, J-POWER) - 電源開発
This company was created by a special law after the end of World War II, it operates a number of coal fired, hydroelectric, and wind power plants, the Ohma nuclear plant that is under construction will mark its entrance to the industry upon completion.

Nuclear vendors and fuel cycle companies
Nuclear vendors provide fuel in its fabricated form, ready to be loaded in the reactor, nuclear services, and/or manage construction of new nuclear plants. The following is an incomplete list of companies based in Japan that provide such services. The companies listed here provide fuel or services for commercial light water plants, and in addition to this, JAEA has a small MOX fuel fabrication plant. Japan operates a robust nuclear fuel cycle.
 Nuclear Fuel Industries (NFI) - 原子燃料工業 NFI operates nuclear fuel fabrication plants in both Kumatori, Osaka and in Tōkai, Ibaraki, fabricating 284 and 200 (respectively) metric tons Uranium per year. The Tōkai site produces BWR, HTR, and ATR fuel while the Kumatori site produces only PWR fuel.
 Japan Nuclear Fuel Limited (JNFL, JNF) - 日本原燃 The shareholders of JNFL are the Japanese utilities. JNFL plans to open a full scale enrichment facility in Rokkasho, Aomori with a capacity of 1.5 million SWU/yr along with a MOX fuel fabrication facility. JNFL has also operated a nuclear fuel fabrication facility called Kurihama Nuclear Fuel Plant in Yokosuka, Kanagawa as GNF, producing BWR fuel.
 Mitsubishi Heavy Industries / Atmea - 三菱重工業 原子力事業本部 MHI operates a fuel manufacturing plant in Tōkai, Ibaraki, and contributes many heavy industry components to construction of new nuclear plants, and has recently designed its own APWR plant type, fuel fabrication has been completely PWR fuel, though MHI sells components to BWRs as well. It was selected by the Japanese government to develop fast breeder reactor technology and formed Mitsubishi FBR Systems. MHI has also announced an alliance with Areva to form a new company called Atmea.
 Global Nuclear Fuel (GNF). GNF was formed as a joint venture with GE Nuclear Energy (GENE), Hitachi, and Toshiba on 1 January 2000. GENE has since strengthened its relationship with Hitachi, forming a global nuclear alliance:
 GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy (GEH) - 日立GEニュークリア・エナジー This company was formed 1 July 2007. Its next generation reactor, the ESBWR has made significant progress with US regulators. Its predecessor design, the ABWR, has been approved by the UK regulator for construction in the UK, following successful completion of the generic design assessment (GDA) process in 2017.
 Toshiba - 東芝 電力システム社 原子力事業部 Toshiba has maintained a large nuclear business focused mostly on Boiling Water Reactors. With the purchase of the American Westinghouse by US$5.4 Billion in 2006, which is focused mainly on Pressurized Water Reactor technology, it increased the size of its nuclear business about twofold. On 29 March 2017 Toshiba placed Westinghouse in Chapter 11 bankruptcy because of $9 billion of losses from its nuclear reactor construction projects, mostly the construction of four AP1000 reactors in the U.S. Toshiba still has a profitable maintenance and nuclear fuel supply business in Japan, and is a significant contractor in the Fukushima clean-up.
 Recyclable-Fuel Storage Co. A company formed by TEPCO and Japan Atomic Power Co. to build a spent nuclear fuel storage facility in Aomori Prefecture.

There have been discussions between Hitachi, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and Toshiba about possibly consolidating some of their nuclear activities.

Nuclear Research and professional organizations in Japan

Research organizations
These organizations are government-funded research organizations, though many of them have special status to give them power of administration separate from the Japanese government. Their origins date back to the Atomic Energy Basic Law, but they have been reorganized several times since their inception.
 Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute (JAERI) - 日本原子力研究所  The original nuclear energy research organization established by the Japanese government under cooperation with U.S. partners.
 Atomic Fuel Corporation - 原子燃料公社  This organization was formed along with JAERI under the Atomic Energy Basic Law and was later reorganized to be PNC.
 Power Reactor and Nuclear Fuel Development Corporation (PNC) - Succeeded the AFC in 1967 in order to perform more direct construction of experimental nuclear plants, and was renamed JNC in 1998.
 Japan Nuclear Cycle Development Institute (JNC) - 核燃料サイクル開発機構 (semi-governmental agency) Was formed in 1998 as the direct successor to the PNC. This organization operated Lojo and Monju experimental and demonstration reactors.
 Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA) - 日本原子力研究開発機構 This is the modern, currently operating primary nuclear research organization in Japan. It was formed by a merger of JAERI and JNC in 2005.

Academic/professional organizations
 Japan Atomic Industrial Forum (JAIF) 日本原子力産業協会 is a non-profit organization, established in 1956 to promote the peaceful use of atomic energy.
 The Atomic Energy Society of Japan (AESJ) 日本原子力学会 is a major academic organization in Japan focusing on all forms of nuclear power. The Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology is the academic journal run by the AESJ. It publishes English and Japanese articles, though most submissions are from Japanese research institutes, universities, and companies.
 Japan Nuclear Technology Institute (JANTI) 日本原子力技術協会 was established to by the nuclear power industry to support and lead that industry.
 Japan Electric Association (JEA) 日本電気協会 develops and publishes codes and guides for the Japanese nuclear power industry and is active in promoting nuclear power.

Other proprietary organizations
 JCO. Established in 1978 as by Sumimoto Metal Mining Co. this company did work with Uranium conversion and set up factories at the Tokai-mura site. Later, it was held solely responsible for the Tokaimura nuclear accident

Anti-nuclear movement

Long one of the world's most committed promoters of civilian nuclear power, Japan's nuclear industry was not hit as hard by the effects of the 1979 Three Mile Island accident (USA) or the 1986 Chernobyl disaster (USSR) as some other countries.  Construction of new plants continued to be strong through the 1980s and into the 1990s.  However, starting in the mid-1990s there were several nuclear related accidents and cover-ups in Japan that eroded public perception of the industry, resulting in protests and resistance to new plants.  These accidents included the Tokaimura nuclear accident, the Mihama steam explosion, cover-ups after accidents at the Monju reactor, and more recently the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant was completely shut down for 21 months following an earthquake in 2007.  While exact details may be in dispute, it is clear that the safety culture in Japan's nuclear industry has come under greater scrutiny.

The negative impact of the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster has changed attitudes in Japan. Political and energy experts describe "nothing short of a nationwide loss of faith, not only in Japan's once-vaunted nuclear technology but also in the government, which many blame for allowing the accident to happen". Sixty thousand people marched in central Tokyo on 19 September 2011, chanting "Sayonara nuclear power" and waving banners, to call on Japan's government to abandon nuclear power, following the Fukushima disaster. Bishop of Osaka, Michael Goro Matsuura, has called on the solidarity of Christians worldwide to support this anti-nuclear campaign. In July 2012, 75,000 people gathered near in Tokyo for the capital's largest anti-nuclear event. Organizers and participants said such demonstrations signal a fundamental change in attitudes in a nation where relatively few have been willing to engage in political protests since the 1960s.

Anti-nuclear groups include the Citizens' Nuclear Information Center, Stop Rokkasho, Hidankyo, Sayonara Nuclear Power Plants, Women from Fukushima Against Nukes, and the Article 9 group. People associated with the anti-nuclear movement include: Jinzaburo Takagi, Haruki Murakami, Kenzaburō Ōe, Nobuto Hosaka, Mizuho Fukushima, Ryuichi Sakamoto and Tetsunari Iida.

See also
 Energy in Japan
 Environmental issues in Japan
 Nuclear Regulation Authority
 Japan's non-nuclear weapons policy
 Japanese nuclear weapon program
 United States-Japan Joint Nuclear Energy Action Plan

Notes

References

Further reading
 Bacon, Paul, and Christopher Hobson. Human Security and Japan's Triple Disaster: Responding to the 2011 earthquake, tsunami and Fukushima nuclear crisis (2014)
 Dreiling, Michael. "An Energy Industrial Complex in Post-Fukushima Japan: A Network Analysis of the Nuclear Power Industry, the State and the Media." XVIII ISA World Congress of Sociology (13–19 July 2014). Isaconf, 2014.
 Fam, Shun Deng, et al. "Post-Fukushima Japan: The continuing nuclear controversy." Energy Policy 68 (2014): 199–205.
 Jackson, Keith. "Natural Disaster and Nuclear Crisis in Japan: Response and recovery after Japan's 3/11 and After the Great East Japan Earthquake: Political and Policy Change in post-Fukushima Japan." Asia Pacific Business Review (2014): 1–9.
 Kelly, Dominic. "US Hegemony and the Origins of Japanese Nuclear Power: The Politics of Consent." New Political Economy 19.6 (2014): 819–846.
 Kinefuchi, Etsuko. "Nuclear Power for Good: Articulations in Japan's Nuclear Power Hegemony." Communication, Culture & Critique (2015).
 Kingston, Jeff. "Abe'S Nuclear Renaissance: Energy Politics in Post–3.11 Japan." Critical Asian Studies 46.3 (2014): 461–484.
 Len, Christopher, and Victor Nian. "Nuclear versus Natural Gas: An Assessment on the Drivers Influencing Japan's Energy Future." Energy Procedia 61 (2014): 194–197.
 Nian, Victor, and S. K. Chou. "The state of nuclear power two years after FukushimaThe ASEAN perspective." Applied Energy 136 (2014): 838–848.
 Zhang, Qi, and Benjamin C. Mclellan. "Review of Japan's power generation scenarios in light of the Fukushima nuclear accident." International Journal of Energy Research 38.5 (2014): 539–550.

External links

 Nuclear power in Japan on the World Nuclear Association website

Nuclear accidents and incidents

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Q: ETW logging in UWP I would like to use ETW for event logging, and believe I have everything setup correctly. However, I don't see any events in the file when the app quits. I have a FileLoggingSession and LoggingChannel created and associated. I don't get any errors when I use LoggingChannel. Everything seems to behave properly, but the log files don't appear to have any of the messages I post.
    public EtwLogger()
    {
        _channel = new LoggingChannel(LibSettings._etwLogChannel, null);
        _channel.LoggingEnabled += _channel_LoggingEnabled;
        _session = new FileLoggingSession(LibSettings._etwLogSession);
        _session.LogFileGenerated += _session_LogFileGenerated;
        _session.AddLoggingChannel(_channel);
    }
    public Task Log(LogEntry logEntry)
    {
        if (!isDisposed && _channel.IsEnabled(SeverityToLoggingLevel(logEntry.Severity)))
        {
            string message = $"{logEntry.TimeStamp.ToLocalTime().ToString("s")} {SeverityToString(logEntry.Severity)} : ";
            if (logEntry.Source?.Length > 0)
                message += $"{logEntry.Source} {logEntry.Message}";
            else
                message += $"{logEntry.Message}";
            _channel.LogMessage(message, SeverityToLoggingLevel(logEntry.Severity));
            Debug.WriteLine($"ETW: {message}");
        }
        return Task.FromResult(0);
    }

A: Resolved. I need to issue the .CloseAndSaveToFileAsync() when the program terminates (or suspends).

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
By SSgt Tiffany DeNault
CJTF-HOA/PAO
Djibouti, October 3, 2016
KENYA- Kenya Defense Force combat engineer soldiers and officers measure time fuse for timing calculations during demolition training taught by U.S. Navy Sailors from Task Force Sparta during Deliberate Kindle 2016, Sept. 19, at a training center in Kenya. Deliberate Kindle 2016 is taught by U.S. Navy explosive ordnance disposal technicians and a dive independent duty corpsman, assigned to Combined Joint Task Force-Horn of Africa. The training is a four-week Humanitarian Mine Action course designed to provide countering improvised explosive devices and unexploded ordnance, medical, and train-the-trainer skills to approximately 53 KDF soldiers in preparation for future deployments with the African Union Mission in Somalia. (U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Tiffany DeNault)
Kenya Training Africa AMISOM Navy KDF Task Force Sparta
Task Force Sparta teaches Humanitarian Mine Action training to AMISOM Troop Contributing Country
A team from Task Force Sparta, assigned to Combined Joint Task Force-Horn of Africa, is teaching lifesaving skills to Kenya Defense Forces (KDF) combat engineer soldiers and officers during Deliberate Kindle 2016, Sept. 5-30, at a training center in Kenya.
Kenya Defense Forces practice explosive techniques during Deliberate Kindle 2016
Approximately 53 Kenya Defense Forces combat engineer soldiers and officers set off explosives with U.S. Navy Sailors from Task Force Sparta during Deliberate Kindle 2016, Sept. 19, at a training center in Kenya.
Eye in the sky: Task Force Hurricane teaches Kenya Defense Forces how to fly
Members of Task Force Hurricane, 1st Battalion, 124th Infantry Regiment, are conducting unmanned aerial vehicle training with members of the Kenya Defense Forces Sept. 8-24, 2016, at a training center in Kenya.
Deputy command chaplain for U.S. Africa Command engages with key leaders and local practitioners of the Islamic faith during a week-long temporary duty assignment to Djibouti, Africa to take part in USAFRICOM's Cutlass Express 2017 exercise.


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AFL Speaker Series - Taking a Ringside Seat on Lafayette's Farewell Tour
AFL Speaker Series Presents:
Taking a Ringside Seat on Lafayette's Farewell Tour.
The last Friday in February, the 26th at 5:00pm ET is our next AFL Zoom Presentation.
Alan Hoffman, AFL President, and translator of Auguste Levasseur's "Lafayette in America in 1824 and 1825" will present "A Farewell Tour Primer."
Diane Shaw, AFL Curator and Special Collections Director, Emerita at Lafayette College, will discuss the "Art and Artifacts of the Farewell Tour."
Julien Icher, AFL life member and Founder and President of The Lafayette Trail, Inc. Will offer "Highlights of Researching the Lafayette Trail."
Please join us on Friday Feb 26, 2021 5:00 pm ET for this exciting AFL panel.
The Zoom link will be sent to those that register.
Visit the Speaker Series page for more information.