Revised and Enlarged in 2009 .
The Aeneid is an epic, a long narrative poem in a lofty style about the exploits of a hero. In The Aeneid, that hero is Aeneas, a Trojan destined to found a new civilization in Italy. The work contains twelve books, which are actually long chapters. Virgil (alternate name: Vergil) wrote The Aeneid between 30 and 19 BC. The language of the epic is Latin, spoken in the Roman Empire during Virgil's day and later.
In the ancient Mediterranean world, feminine beauty reaches its zenith in Helen, wife of King Menelaus of Greece. Her wondrous face and body are without flaw. She is perfect. Even the goddess of love, Aphrodite, admires her. When Aphrodite competes with other goddesses in a beauty contest—in which a golden apple is to be awarded as the prize—she bribes the judge, a young Trojan named Paris, promising him Helen in exchange for his vote. After Paris selects Aphrodite, the goddess directs him to the household of Menelaus, where he woos Helen, and absconds with her to Troy, a walled city in Asia Minor (in present-day Turkey).
The elopement is an affront to all the Greeks. How dare an upstart Trojan steal the wife of one of their kings! Which Greek family would be next to fall victim to a Trojan machination? Infuriated, King Menelaus and his friends assemble a mighty army that includes the finest warriors in the land. Together, they cross the sea in one thousand ships to make war against Troy and win back their pride—and Helen. After ten years of battle, the Greeks present the Trojans a gift of a gigantic wooden horse, pretending that they have given up the war and are returning to Greece. Although the prophetess Cassandra and the prophet Laocoön warn against accepting the gift, the Trojans pull it into the city. At night, Greek warriors concealed in the belly of the horse drop down through a trap door and open the gates of Troy. The Greeks pour in, slaughter most of the Trojans, and lay waste the city. Aeneas, the main character of The Aeneid, escapes with his father and son after his wife dies in the burning city. The Aeneid picks up the story of Aeneas, who has been prophesied to found a new civilization.
The time is the Twelfth Century, BC. The action takes place in lands in the Mediterranean region, including Troy (in flashback), Carthage, Sicily, Italy, and various islands. Troy was in northern Anatolia, a region in Asia Minor that is part of modern-day Turkey. Anatolia is east of Greece (across the Aegean Sea) and north of Egypt (across the Mediterranean Sea). Carthage was on the northern coast of Africa in present-day Tunisia. In the language of the Phoenicians, who founded Carthage, the city was Kart-hadasht, meaning New Town. Sicily, an island off the southwestern coast of Italy, is about 100 miles northeast of Tunisia. In the concluding episodes of The Aeneid, most of the action takes place in Latium, a region in west-central Italy through which flows the Tiber River. Its inhabitants were known as Latins.
One episode in The Aeneid takes place in the Underworld, the residence of the souls of the dead in the afterlife. This place is called Hades (also referred to as Dis and Orcus). The lowest section of the Underworld, reserved for the wicked, is Tartarus. The Underworld also contains a kind of heaven called Elysium. There, Aeneas meets the soul of his father, Anchises.
Virgil mainly imitates the lofty tone and style of Homer's great epics—The Iliad and The Odyssey, in particular the latter—and incorporates some of their content. Like Odysseus (Roman name, Ulysses) in The Odyssey, Aeneas wanders the Mediterranean after the Trojan War, encountering perils and diversions. But he never loses sight of his ultimate goal. Like Odysseus, he has a love affair, visits the Underworld, retells parts of his adventures in flashback, and faces one last fight upon reaching his destination.
Virgil also borrows freely from Annales, an epic poem by Quintus Ennius (239-169 BC) that recounts the Aeneas legend. In addition, he draws to a limited extent upon the style and content of Argonautica, by Apollonius of Rhodes (295-215 BC), which tells the story of Jason's quest for the Golden Fleece and his love affair with Medea.
In The Aeneid Virgil uses the verse form Quintus Ennius (239-169 BC) introduced, dactylic hexameter. In Latin, this form contains six metrical feet that each consist of one accented syllable followed by two unaccented syllables.
Virgil opens The Aeneid by asking a muse to inspire his writing. In ancient Greece and Rome, a poet always requested a muse to fire him with creative genius when he began an epic about godlike heroes and villains. In Greek Roman mythology, there were nine muses, all sisters, who were believed to inspire poets, historians, flutists, dancers, singers, astronomers, philosophers, and other thinkers and artists. If one wanted to write a great poem, play a musical instrument with bravado, or develop a grand scientific or philosophical theory, he would ask for help from a muse.
When a writer asked for help, he was said to be "invoking the muse." The muse of epic poetry was named Calliope [kuh LY uh pe]. Following is the invocation that begins The Aeneid. In it, the author says he "sings [writes about] of arms [battle, conflict] and the man [the Trojan hero Aeneas]," who fled Troy and went on a long and perilous journey to Italy to found a new city. Throughout his journey, the queen of the gods, Juno—an unremitting enemy of the Trojans—harried Aeneas. The author then asks the muse to reveal to him the necessary information to write a successful story.
Virgil tells the story in third-person point of view, although he uses the pronoun I at the beginning of the narrative when he invokes the muse. From time to time, Virgil narrates through Aeneas, speaking in first-person point of view, as in Books II and III. The tone is generally dignified, as befitting an epic.
When Troy falls to the marauding Greeks, Aeneas rescues his father and son but loses his wife, Creusa, in the burning city. She dies. After escaping to nearby Phrygia, Aeneas rounds up other Trojan refugees, builds a fleet, and sets sail for a new land and a new life. But a powerful enemy—Juno, queen of the Olympian gods—imperils his voyage at every opportunity. She despises the Trojan race for two reasons. First, a Trojan, Paris, had insulted her when he selected Aphrodite over her in a beauty contest before the war. Second, another Trojan, Aeneas, had been selected by the Fates to found a civilization that would one day vanquish her favorite city, Carthage. Consequently, she visits calamity upon Aeneas time and again, tossing and whirling his ships and pointing their prows into uncharted waters.
For seven years, Aeneas and his followers—including his father, Anchises, and son, Ascanius (known also as Iulus)—roam the trackless oceans as Juno's playthings. In a final attempt to thwart Aeneas, Juno persuades the king of the winds, Aeolus, to loose powerful tempests against Aeneas's fleet. Many ships go down, and their crews and passengers with them. However, the great god of the sea—earth-shaking Neptune, who had built Troy's walls and who had once saved Aeneas on the Trojan battlefield from terrible Achilles—calms the waters to the smoothness of glass. The remaining ships, seven in all, find safe harbor in north Africa. There, the refugees kill stags, make fire, and pacify raging hunger. Aeneas heartens his followers, reminding them that on their voyage they had survived monsters, treachery, and roiling seas.
Ten years of war between the Greeks and the Trojans bring only a stalemate. One day, the Greeks abandon the battlefield and leave behind a gigantic wooden horse, apparently a peace offering. It is a wondrous thing, a mountain of planking cut from fir trees, that stands at the gates of Troy. As the Trojans gaze upon the horse in amazement, shepherds bring into the city a Greek captive, Sinon, bound at the wrists. A talented liar who had allowed himself to be captured, Sinon persuades the Trojans that the horse is an offering to the goddess Minerva. If they accept it, they will prosper as a mighty Asian power; if they destroy it, they will bring calamity upon themselves. A Trojan priest, Laocoön, warns the people not to receive it. "Beware the Greeks bearing gifts," he cries, hurling a spear into its side. At that moment, two serpents rise from the sea, come ashore, and seize Laocoön and his two sons, girding them in coils, then disappear. The Trojans interpret this ghastly event as a sign that the gods prize the horse as a holy offering; Laocoön had received just punishment for desecrating it.
Because of its size—verily, its breadth spans a hundred cubits and its mane touches the clouds—the Trojans take hammer and axe to the city walls, opening a breach big enough to receive the horse into Troy. Cassandra—the daughter of Troy's king, Priam—admonishes her countrymen to cease their madness. The horse, she says, is indeed a trick that will bring ruin to Troy. Cassandra is singularly talented in the prophetic arts; she can see into the future and beyond, knowing the outcome of events before they happen. But the god who gave her this gift of prophecy, Apollo, also emplaced in her a most cruel and debilitating handicap: Whenever she pronounces a prophecy, no one will believe her. So it is that the Trojans ignore her and pull the horse into the city.
After nightfall, its belly opens and releases armed Greeks who bring sword and torch to sleeping Troy. The rest of the Greek horde—hidden behind rocks and hills and in folds of valleys—merge into a river of destruction that rages through the breach in the wall. They burn, pillage, destroy. Aeneas saves his father and son but, in the tumult of fire and smoke and fleeing citizens, loses his wife, Creusa, who later dies.
In Phrygia, the surviving Trojans construct ships, gather wind in their unfolding sails, and set a course for Thrace. There Aeneas founds a city, Aeneadae. But the voice of a dead Trojan, Polydorus, warns Aeneas to seek haven elsewhere, for Thrace is an evil land that betrayed Troy during the war, first stealing Trojan gold sent to Thrace for safekeeping, then pledging allegiance to the Greeks.
Taking the advice of Polydorus, Aeneas and his men sail on to the island of Delos, the birthplace of the god Apollo. Anius, king of Delos and high priest of Apollo, greets Aeneas and welcomes him and his father. At the temple of Apollo, Aeneas prays for guidance, and the voice of Apollo tells him to seek the land that was once a home for the Trojan race. Anchises interprets these words as referring to Crete. It was once the home of Teucer, who later became an early settler of Troy.
Aeneas then sails on, passing through "foaming straits thick with islands" and picking up a wind that carries him on to Crete. There, Aeneas establishes another city, Pergamum, and his men plow the fields while he makes laws and plans for the future of the "new Troy." But after pestilence descends upon the land, the harvest fails and hunger rules. In a dream, Aeneas learns that Italy, not Crete, is to be the home of the new Trojan civilization, for Italy was the birthplace of the progenitor of the Trojan race, Dardanus.
After Aeneas and his followers take to their ships once more, peril besets them in the form of storms, raging seas, and mists. Day becomes night, and they wander in dark fog until at last that they put in at the Strophades, islands in the Ionian Sea. There they slaughter goats and cows and feast on them along the beach. Suddenly, monstrous birds called Harpies descend upon them, snatching at the food. These beasts with clawed hands and the faces of young virgins emit foul excrement from their bellies. After the men battle the Harpies, one of the winged beasts—Celaeno, a prophetess and eldest of the Furies—tells Aeneas to leave the island and seek his destiny in Italy. The frightened crewmen put aside their weapons. Aeneas's father, Anchises, makes sacrifices to the gods, calling on them to protect the travelers, and then they set sail once again, eventually landing at Actium on the western coast of Greece. There they set up altars to the gods and spend their time holding athletic games, such as wrestling bouts.
Reinvigorated and ready to pursue their destiny again, they move on through peaceful seas, passing Epirus, and eventually put into the harbor of Chaonia and visit its city, Buthrotum. There, Aeneas meets and speaks with Andromache, widow of Hector, the greatest Trojan warrior, who was slain by the greatest of all warriors in all the world, the Greek Achilles. She tells Aeneas that when Troy fell to the Greeks, the son of Achilles, Pyrrhus, took her as his captive, and she bore him three sons as his slave. When Pyrrhus pursued another woman, Hermione, he placed Andromache in the care of Helenus, the brother of Hector. Meanwhile, Hermione's husband slew Pyrrhus, and Andromache and Helenus gained their freedom and made their home in Chaonia.
After Andromache completes her account, Helenus, a prophet, learns from Apollo the trials Aeneas yet must undergo before fulfilling his destiny, then advises Aeneas on how to cope with them. With Helenus's advice in mind, Aeneas and his men resume their journey, traveling all the way to Sicily. There, a Greek named Achaemenides warns them of a great danger on the island, a race of one-eyed giants called the Cyclopes. Achaemenides had been a member of the crew of Ulysses, the great Greek warrior who had designed the Trojan horse, when Ulysses sojourned in Sicily while on his way home to Ithaca, Greece. When Ulysses and his crew escaped the island, Achaemenides was left behind. He now urges Aeneas to flee the island. Aeneas does so, taking Achaemenides with him.
Eventually, before the seas carry them to the land of Dido, they stop at several other islands, the last of which is Drepanum. There, his elderly father dies. Aeneas tells Dido, "This was my last trouble, this the end of my long journey."
In the following months, Dido—now desperately in love with Aeneas—spends all her time with him, and he with her. They seem frozen in time, unaware of past or present, and scandalous tales are told about them. Mighty Jove then sends the messenger god, Mercury, to Carthage to remind Aeneas of his destiny. It is wrong for him to dally, Mercury says, when he has an important mission awaiting him. When heedful Aeneas secretly prepares to leave, Dido discovers his plans and implores him to stay. But he is deaf to her pleas. Wounded, angry, bitter, she curses him and his kind and importunes the gods to drive a wedge of everlasting hatred between his future country and Carthage. As the Trojans set sail, she falls on a sword left behind by Aeneas and dies in the arms of her sister, Anna.
Far from shore now, as the fleet gathers wind and speed and Carthage glows with the flames of Dido's funeral pyre, a storm forces Aeneas off course to Sicily. There, a Trojan, Acestes, who has founded a kingdom near Mount Eryx, welcomes Aeneas. Aeneas then holds funeral games in memory of his father, including a boat race, a footrace, a boxing match, an archery match, and a competition in horsemanship.
Meanwhile,ever meddlesome Juno stirs dissent among the Trojan women, who are weary of traveling from port to port. When they set the ships ablaze, great Jupiter—answering a hurried prayer of Aeneas—quenches the fire with rain. Before leaving Sicily, Aeneas learns from the ghost of his father that he is to travel next to Cumae, Italy, to meet with his father in the Underworld. At Cumae a prophetess called the Sybil informs Aeneas that the land in which he will establish the new Troy is Latium, a region along the west coast of central Italy. But he first must fight a war caused by his marriage to a woman of Latium.
By and by, Aeneas and his guide come upon a world of light—a world of grassy meadows, gentle streams, and shaded groves. In this heavenly corner of the Underworld, Elysium, he meets and embraces his father, Anchises, who tells Aeneas of the glorious future in store for him and the Roman civilization he is to found. Aeneas's progeny will become rulers of the world, he says. Anchises even mentions Augustus Caesar by name, saying he will preside over a great golden age in which Rome rules a vast empire that is the jewel of human civilization.
Resuming his journey, Aeneas sails along the Italian coast until he reaches the Tiber River, then turns and enters its mouth, moving on to Latium. There, he wishes to establish his new home and sends a hundred envoys to Latinus, the king of Latium, with a message. One of the envoys, Ilioneus, presents gifts to the king—relics from Troy—and recites the message. Aeneas, he says, asks Latinus to grant him and his compatriots enough land to build a city and live in peace with Latinus. Having heard from an oracle that his daughter, Lavinia, was destined to marry a foreigner, Latinus tells Ilioneus that he will grant Aeneas the land he desires. What is more, he proposes to betroth his daughter to Aeneas even though Latinus has already pledged Lavinia to Turnus, King of the Rutulians, a tribe in Latium. Latinus then gives the visitors gifts of horses for themselves and a chariot and twin horses for Aeneas.
let men in a moment need, demand and seize their weapons.
Alecto then does her dirty work. First, with a snake from her hair, she envenoms Latinus's wife, Amata, with hatred for Aeneas. Amata then lashes out at her husband for promising Lavinia to Aeneas. But he refuses to back down. So Amata goes into the land and, overcome with frenzy, inflames other women against Aeneas and the Trojans. Alecto then goes to the palace of Turnus to inflame him against Aeneas. Appearing to him in the guise of an old woman named Calybe, priestess of the temple of Juno, she tells, him, " The king denies you your bride and the dowry looked for / by your race, and a stranger is sought as heir to the throne."
Finally, while young Ascanius is hunting in the woods, she inflames his hounds to track down the prize stag of the king, a magnificent animal nurtured by Tyrrhus, the keeper of the king's herds. His daughter, Silvia, dotes on the deer and even adorns its antlers with garlands. After the dogs corner the stag, Alecto likewise inflames Ascanius and guides his hand when he shoots an arrow into flank and belly of the stag. The deer returns home to its stall, bleeding profusely and crying out. Alecto sounds the call of the herdsmen, and they come running with axes, staffs, and metal stakes. A clash ensues between the herdsmen and the Trojans. Innocent men who happen to be at the scene are killed, including Galaesus, an old man who was praying for peace at the time.
This skirmish makes war appear inevitable, and the two sides make the necessary preparation. Aeneas sails to Pallantium to seek the aid of Evander, king of Arcadia and its colony of Greeks.
Etruscans under Mezentius ally with Turnus, and Evander allies with Aeneas. Gods and goddesses take sides. Venus calls upon her husband, Vulcan, the god of the forge, to make weapons and armor for the Trojans. Juno sends Iris to rouse Turnus to war, and he in turns mobilizes his men and attacks at Pallantium. The fury of the warfare is reminiscent of the raging violence of the Trojan War. After this early clash, Aeneas returns from Pallantium and a pitched battle ensues on land. Aeneas wields a mighty sword and spear, downing one warrior after another. During the fighting, Turnus seeks out and kills brave Pallas, son of Evander, with a steel-tipped oak spear. His death deeply saddens Evander and Aeneas. Aeneas had taken a great liking to the youth. Even as he mourns the youth, terrible rage fires his blood with vengeance and he now kills furiously and frequently in hopes of coming across Turnus. But Juno intervenes and withdraws Turnus from the battle.
Turnus angrily rejects the idea that the Trojans have conquered his army, saying.
In the end, the conflict comes down to hand-to-hand combat between Aeneas and Turnus. Now is the Trojan hero's opportunity to avenge the death of Evander and end the war. When Aeneas drives his sword through Turnus, peace descends over the land and Aeneas becomes the founder and progenitor of the greatest nation in history: glorious Rome.
Aeneas: Noble Trojan warrior destined to found the great Roman civilization. He is the protagonist. When the Greeks entered Troy and burned the city, he fled with his son and father after his wife died in the Greek onslaught. After rounding up other refugee soldiers from Troy, he and his men go on a long and perilous journey, facing angry seas and monsters, before arriving in Italy only to go to war again. But he defeats his enemy and fulfills his destiny.
Anchises: Father and advisor of Aeneas. After he dies on the journey to Italy, he continues to advise Aeneas when he appears to him in dreams and visions. He also escorts Aeneas through the Underworld.
Ascanius (Iulus): Son of Aeneas. Ascanius, who exhibits the same noble qualities as his father, represents the future of the Trojan immigrants as Romans.
Creusa: Wife of Aeneas and mother of Ascanius. She dies during the fighting at Troy but later appears to Aeneas to urge him to pursue his destiny.
Dido: Queen of Carthage; she falls desperately in love with Aeneas.
Sychaeus: Late husband of Dido. After Dido's brother, Pygmalion, killed him for his gold, Dido vowed never again to marry.
Achetes: Trusted friend of Aeneas.
Anius: King of Delos and high priest of Apollo. He welcomes Aeneas to Delos.
Latinus: King of the Latins, who occupy central Italy. He welcomes Aeneas to his domain and promotes the marriage of his daughter, Lavinia, to Aeneas.
Amata: Wife of Latinus. She supports a marriage between Lavinia and Turnus. Amata commits suicide when it becomes apparent that Aeneas will defeat Turnus and marry Lavinia.
Turnus: King of the Rutulian tribe on the coast of Latium in Italy. He is the chief battlefield foe of Aeneas.
Juturna: Sister of Turnus and a minor goddess of rivers and lakes. At the request of Juno, she persuades the Rutulians to break their treaty with the Trojans, saying that the Trojans plan to subjugate the Rutulians.
Camilla: Female ally of Turnus. After the Trojan warrior Arruns kills her during battle, the goddess Diana causes the death of Arruns.
Arruns: Trojan warrior who kills Camilla.
Mezentius: Estruscan leader allied with Turnus.
Messapus: Leader of Turnus's front ranks at the beginning of the war.
Caicus: Trojan warrior who spies the army of Turnus approaching and alerts his comrades.
Evander: King of Pallantium, Italy. He supports Aeneas against Turnus.
Pallas: Son of Evander. His death in battle deeply grieves Aeneas and Evander. Aeneas slays Turnus in revenge, ending the war with the Latins.
Drancës: Prominent Latin who blames Turnus for the problems arising from the war in Italy. He supports Latinus's proposal for a peace treaty with the Trojans.
Palinurus: Navigator of Aeneas's ship.
Teucer: Early settler of Troy who came from Crete.
Dardanus: Founder of the House of Troy and ancestor of Aeneas.
Tyrrhus: Keeper of the king's herds of deer and manager of his lands.
Almo: Oldest of the sons of Tyrrhus. An arrow brings him down in a clash between the Trojans and Latins.
Galaesus: Peaceful and just man who is killed in the early clash between the Trojans and Latins after Ascanius kills the king's prize stag.
Calybe: Priestess of the temple of Juno in Latium. Alecto disguises herself as Calybe when she rouses Turns from sleep to go to war.
Trojan Athletes: These are men and boys who take part in the Sicilian games Aeneas holds in honor of his deceased father. They include Mnesthus, Sergestus, Cloanthus, Menoetes, Cleanthus, Diores, Salius, Patron, Helymus, Panopes, Dares, Entellus, Hippocoön, Eurytion, Phegeus and Sagaris, Nisus, Euryalus, Little Priam, Polites, and Atys.
Acestes: Native Trojan who founds the kingdom of Drepanum in Sicily. After a storm forces Aeneas and his crew to shore, Acestes hosts them. He wins the archery contest during the athletic competition.
Eumelus: Trojan Warrior who alerts others to the burning ships.
Hector: A son of Priam and Hecuba and the greatest of the Trojan warriors in the Trojan War.
Helen: Beautiful wife of King Menelaus of Greece.
Paris: A son of Priam. He started the Trojan War by stealing the beautiful Helen from Menelaus.
Menelaus: Greek king and warrior; husband of Helen.
Agamemnon: Greek king and commanding general of the Greek armies in the Trojan War.
Achilles: Greatest of the Greek warriors in the Trojan War. He kills Hector.
Ajax the Great (Greek: Aias): Gigantic Greek warrior, second only to Achilles in battlefield prowess.
Ulysses: Wily Greek warrior who proposed the idea of the wooden horse. Hero of Homer's Odyssey.
Epeus: Designer of the wooden horse.
Sinon: Greek youth who persuades the Trojans to accept the wooden horse as a gift.
Eurypylus: Greek whom Sinon says was sent to consult the oracle of Apollo.
Panthus: Trojan who informs Aeneas that the wooden horse concealed Greek warriors.
Andromache: Widow of Hector, the great Trojan warrior slain by Achilles.
Hermione: Daughter of Helen. While married to Andromache, Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles, pursued Hermione.
Orestes: Husband of Hermione and slayer of Pyrrus.
Helenus: A son of Priam. He marries Andromache after the death of Pyrrhus.
Laocoön: Trojan seer who warns his fellow citizens not to accept the wooden horse. When a sea serpent kills him and his two sons, the Trojans believe their deaths are a sign from the gods that Laocoön was lying. He was, of course, telling the truth.
Cassandra: Trojan prophetess who also warns against accepting the wooden horse.
Sybil: Prophetess of the god Apollo. She tells Aeneas of the tribulation that awaits him in Italy and urges him to meet his challenges courageously.
Faunus: Father of King Latinus.
Marica: A nymph and mother of Latinus.
Diomede (Greek: Diomedes): Powerful Greek warrior during the Trojan War.
Orontes, Amycus, Gyus, Cloanthus: Trojans who die in the storm created by Aeolus.
Deiphobus: A son of Priam who dies at Troy. Aeneas sees him—his entire body torn and mutilated—in the Underworld.
Calchas: Greek prophet during the Trojan War.
Greek Warriors in the Wooden Horse: Thessandrus, Sthenelus, Acamas, Thoas, Neoptolemus, Machaon.
Ripheus, Epytus, Hypanis, Dymas, Coroebus: Trojan warriors who, with Aeneas, fight for their lives in the burning city of Troy.
Iphetus, Pelias: Trojans who accompany Aeneas to the palace of Priam during the burning of Troy.
Polites: A son of Priam. He dies during the burning of Troy.
Aletes: Elder Trojan who offers advice during the war in Italy.
Sarpedon: Trojan who died heroically in the war with the Greeks.
Theron, Lichas, Cisseus, Gyas, Pharus, Maeon: Warriors whom Aeneas kills first after returning from Pallantium.
Jupiter or Jove (Greek: Zeus): King of the gods. When Trojan ships are burning at Sicily, he sends rain that extinguishes the fire.
Juno (Greek: Hera) Queen of the gods. She opposes the Trojans and attempts to sabotage their voyage at every opportunity.
Venus (Greek: Aphrodite): Goddess of love and mother of Aeneas; she works on behalf of her son. The Aeneid also refers to her as Cytherea.
Neptune (Greek: Poseidon): God of the sea. He calms stormy waters for Aeneas and his fleet.
Triton, Cymothoë: Sea gods who assist Neptune.
Vulcan (Greek: Hephaestus): God of the forge and husband of Venus. He makes weapons and armor for the Trojans.
Aeolus: God of the winds. At Juno's behest, he causes raging winds to harry the Trojan fleet.
Apollo: God of prophecy, music, poetry, and medicine; supporter of the Trojans. He is sometimes referred to as Phoebus Apollo, or simply Phoebus.
Deiopea: Beautiful nymph whom Juno promises to Aeolus for sending his winds against the Trojan ships.
Celaeno: One of the Harpies. She prophesies that Aeneas will not reach his future homeland until he and his men encounter plague and hunger.
Alecto: One of the Furies. She helps Juno in her efforts to thwart Aeneas and the Trojans.
Tiberinus: God who rises from a stream in Latium and speaks to Aeneas in a dream, telling him the place of the new Troy and prophesying that Aeneas's son, Ascanius, will found the city of Alba within thirty years.
Cupid: God of love and son of Venus.
Saturn (Greek: Cronus): Father of Jupiter and Juno.
Minerva (Greek: Athena, or Pallas Athena): Goddess of wisdom and war. She was born fully grown in a suit of armor, issuing from the forehead of Jupiter. Her Greek name is Athena.
Mars (Greek: Ares): God of war.
Pluto (Greek: Hades): God of the Underworld.
Proserpine or Prosperpina (Greek: Persephone): Goddess of the Underworld.
Diana (Greek: Artemis): Goddess of the moon and of hunting.
Mercury (Greek: Hermes): Messenger god..
Charon: Ferryman who takes souls across the River Styx to the Underworld.
Polyphemus: King of a race of one-eyed giants known as the Cyclopes (or Cyclops).
Romulus and Remus: Twin sons of Mars and legendary founders of Rome. Romulus is also called Quirinus.
Aurora (Greek: Eos): Goddess of dawn.
Vesta (Greek: Hestia): Goddess of the hearth.
Ceres (Greek: Demeter): Goddess of agriculture.
Hercules: Son of Zeus; subject of myths telling of his great strength.
Orpheus: Musician who fails in his attempt to bring his wife, Eurydice, out of the Underworld.
Virgil's goal in writing The Aeneid was to glorify Rome and exalt its emperor. During Virgil's lifetime, Rome achieved the pinnacle of its greatness under Augustus Caesar, earlier known as Octavian, who was by adoption the grandnephew of Julius Caesar. Octavian (63 BC-AD 14) became emperor in 29 BC, two years after defeating Mark Antony in the Battle of Actium. In 27 BC, the senate bestowed on Octavian the title "Augustus" to call attention to his superior qualities. Augustus Caesar instituted many political and social reforms, constructed roads linking imperial cities, promoted the arts, and inaugurated an era of peace (known as the pax romana) that endured long after his death. Virgil, who benefited from the emperor's patronage, decided to extol Caesar in The Aeneid, conferring on him a noble heritage and lineage brought from Troy to Italy in the person of the princely Aeneas, whose courage, nobility, perseverance, and ingenuity seeded Italy with greatness. Although Aeneas was a figure of myth, not fact, all-powerful Augustus welcomed Virgil's tale as a fitting metaphor for historical truth.
Even Juno, queen of the Olympian gods, cannot thwart the destiny of Aeneas to found a great civilization. Nor can Dido, passionately in love with Aeneas; nor can Turnus, rabidly in hate with Aeneas.
In overcoming obstacles, Aeneas receives the help of his divine mother, Venus, the goddess of love, as well as her father, Jupiter, the king of the gods, and his brother, Neptune, the god of the sea.
As a literary work intended to glorify Rome, The Aeneid had to present the legendary founder of Rome as an almost superhuman hero. So it was that Virgil endowed Aeneas with great courage, nobility, fortitude, and ingenuity. During his voyage to Italy, he overcomes the wrath of the gods, battles monsters, mourns the death of his father, and fights a war. But perhaps his most difficult feat was to abandon the beautiful Dido, the queen of Carthage. His commitment to destiny trumped his desire for personal fulfillment.
It takes centuries for the foundation and development of the great Roman civilization. Virgil takes the reader back to the beginning, to the destruction of Troy, and shows him the tortuous path that led to the birth of Rome.
In ancient Rome and Greece, it was important to conduct dignified funeral rites for the dead, to acknowledge their achievements, and to remember them in prayers and keep their memory alive in tales handed down from generation to generation. In The Aeneid, the author continually alludes to noble figures from the past, sometimes digressing from the main plot to tell stories about them.
The climax appears to occur when Turnus kills Evander's son, Pallas, enraging Aeneas, who then kills furiously and frequently in hopes of coming across Turnus. It is now only a matter of time before Aeneas quenches his wrath. After Turnus rejects a proposal to make peace with the Trojans, Aeneas slays him and the war ends.
During his voyage, Aeneas must overcome the wrath of gods, monsters, and beasts. These opponents seem to represent the obstacles and the bad luck, or fate, that humans must face on their voyage through life.
Beginning the main story in the middle of a hero's adventures, then flashing back to recount previous events. Such an epic device is known by a Latin term, in medias res, meaning in the middle of things. In The Aeneid, Aeneas is already under way in his sea voyage. After he arrives in Carthage, Africa, he recounts previous events—those occurring at the end of the Trojan War—at the request of Dido.
Telling a story with which readers or listeners are already familiar. Most of the great writers of the ancient world—as well as many great writers in later times, including Shakespeare—frequently told stories already known to the public. Thus, in such stories, there were no unexpected plot twists, no surprise endings. If this sounds strange to you, the modern reader and theatergoer, consider that many of the most popular motion pictures today are about stories already known to the public. Examples are The Passion of the Christ, Titanic, The Ten Commandments, Troy, Spartacus, Pearl Harbor, and Gettysburg.
Conflict in the celestial realm. Divine beings fight and scheme against one another—and against humans—in the epics of Homer and Virgil, and they do so in John Milton's Paradise Lost on a grand scale, with Satan and his forces opposing God and his forces.
Digressions from the main plot, such as the episode about the Sicilian athletic games in The Aeneid.
Encyclopedias and mythology books generally list twelve deities as the chief gods in Greek mythology and as residents of Mount Olympus. However, two of these important deities spent most of their time in the domains which they governed, the sea and the underworld. In addition, the Greeks of one era sometimes differed with the Greeks of another era on who were the most important gods. Consequently, the list of the favored twelve sometimes changed, omitting one god in favor of another.
The Olympian gods were the successors of an earlier dynasty of gods known as Titans. The Titan ruler, Cronos (also Cronus), believing that one of his children might attempt to overthrow him, swallowed each of them after his or her birth. However, one child, Zeus, was rescued by his mother and hidden on the island of Crete. Later, Zeus forced his father to vomit the other children from his stomach. Then, with the help of his siblings, he overthrew Cronus to become lord of the universe.
The names of the chief Olympian deities are listed below. Writers in ancient Greece—such as Sophocles, Aeschylus, and Euripides—used the original Greek names, the English transliteration of which appears at left in the list. Writers in ancient Rome, including Virgil, used the Latin version of the names, the English transliteration of which appears in parentheses.
Some English language writers, past and present, use the transliteration of the Greek version; others prefer the transliteration of the Latin (or Roman) version. For example, William Shakespeare uses the transliteration of the Latin version in his plays and poems. Instead of referring to the king of the gods as Zeus (the transliteration of the Greek name), he refers to him as Jupiter and Jove, the transliterations of the Latin names (Iuppiter and Iovis). Here are the names of the Olympian gods and a brief description of each:.
Zeus (Jupiter and Jove): King and protector of the gods and humankind. As ruler of the sky, he made rain and thunder and wielded lightning bolts. Zeus was the youngest son of the Titans Cronus and Rhea.
Hera (Juno): Queen of the gods and protector of marriage. She was the wife of Zeus and, as the daughter of the Titans Cronus and Rhea, also his sister.
Athena or Pallas Athena (Minerva): Goddess of wisdom and war. She was born fully grown in a suit of armor, issuing from the forehead of Zeus. The Greeks highly revered her and built many temples in her honor.
Ares (Mars): God of war and the son of Zeus and Hera.
Poseidon (Neptune): God of the sea and brother of Zeus.
Hades (Pluto): God of the underworld and brother of Zeus.
Hephaestus (Vulcan): God of fire and metalwork who built the palaces in which the Olympian gods lived. He also forged their armor and made their jewelry. He was the son of Zeus and Hera.
Apollo, Phoebus Apollo, or Phoebus (Same as Greek Names): God of prophecy, music, poetry, and medicine. His alternate name, Phoebus, means brightness, and he was thus also considered the god of the sun. He was the son of Zeus and Leto, the daughter of Titans. The Greeks highly revered him and built many temples in his honor. One such temple at Delphi was the site of a famous oracle, the Pythia, who pronounced prophecies as the mouthpiece of Apollo.
Artemis (Diana): Goddess of the hunt. She was the daughter of Zeus and Leto (see Apollo) and the twin sister of Apollo.
Aphrodite (Venus): Goddess of love and beauty. According to Homer, she was the daughter of Zeus and Dione, the daughter of a Titan; according to the Greek poet Hesiod, she was born from the foam of the sea.
Hermes (Mercury): Messenger god who wore a winged hat and winged sandals. He was also the god of science, luck, commerce, and cunning. He was the son of Zeus and Maia, the daughter of a Titan.
Hestia (Vesta): Goddess of the home and hearth and sister of Zeus.
Identify other heroes in myth or history who traveled a great distance to found new civilizations, reap the riches of virgin lands, find new navigation routes, or institute trade with native cultures.
In an informative essay, discuss Virgil's debt to the great Greek epic poet, Homer.
Does Aeneas's abandonment of Dido suggest that he is at heart cruel and unfeeling or that he is fiercely dedicated to the goal of founding the "new Troy"?
In an essay, explain the extent to which ancient Romans and Greeks relied on soothsayers.
In the opening of The Aeneid, Aeneas "invokes the muse." What was a muse? What does it mean to invoke a muse?
Why does Juno despise the Trojans?
Write an essay that compares and contrasts The Aeneid with Homer's Odyssey.
Write an essay that explains dactylic hexameter, the verse form Virgil used in The Aeneid.


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Home > Blog > The 5 Best Russian Webcam Sites
Top 5 Webcam Sites to chat with Hot Russian Cam Girls
Russian women are so widely considered to be among the most beautiful in the world that any porn starring them is far from being a niche. There are a lot of hot Russian webcams out there, and so finding a good one is not really a hassle. However, finding the very best Russian webcam sites, just like finding the best of anything, can be a bit trickier.
Luckily for you, I've done the, ehm, "research." I've scoured the web and, all jokes aside, found the safest and most secure Russian adult chat sites, rated them according to what's important (i.e video quality, model selection, special features, customer support and prices) and listed them here. Find the best one for you and enjoy.
Some of the best and most secure Russian cam sites are also among the best webcams sites in general. And at the top of them is LiveJasmin. It is considered by many to be the highest quality chat site on the web for its fantastic video resolution, model selection and two-way video and audio. On top of it, though, it is highly safe and discreet, using the most cutting-edge information security protocols.
LiveJasmin is pretty much an all-around "quality comes first" cam site, preferring to remain pretty hands-on when it comes to most aspects of its platform. This is easily noticeable one you enter a few of the Russian cam shows on the site and see that the rooms are not only all streamed in HD, but are very tidy and presentable. LiveJasmin actually requires this of its models, along with instructing them to frame their room well with their webcam. This keeps the shows looking professionally shot and directed.
This only goes to accentuate how gorgeous LiveJasmin's Russian cam girls are. Usually blonde with a slender body and perky tits, these babes know how to drive you mad with passion. LiveJasmin didn't grace them with their own dedicated category, though they're easy enough to find once you search the site.
Once you find a cam room to your liking, feel free to chat her up before deciding whether or not to take the next step, as it tends to be quite pricey. With an average price of $2.70 per minute of private show, LiveJasmin is a tad more expensive than the run-of-the-mill Russian adult chat site, especially since its two-way video and audio features both cost around a dollar extra a minute. As an aside, it is worth to note that prices can go as low as $1.10 a minute, so make sure to shop around before you buy.
Know that you'll be getting your money's worth, though. These Russian cam models will do whatever they can to please you, and chatting with them will be a breeze using LiveJasmin's fantastic two-way video and audio. They are both crystal-clear, and while two-way audio costs extra, it's worth it. You will never feel like you're talking to yourself, as is sometimes unfortunately the case on other sex chat sites.
LiveJasmin is also very sensitive to its members' concerns, and to this day remains one of the most secure and discreet cam sites in the world. It lets you pay with PayPal and even accepts gift cards (via PayGarden), two of the safest and most anonymous methods to pay online. It also has a giant FAQ page and employs a large team of customer support representatives which you can contact via email, phone and live chat as long as you're registered, even with a free account.
LiveMindy.com
LiveMindy is one of the most trusted cam sites in the industry. It is a veteran adult chat site with years upon years of experience and tens of millions of satisfied customers. It places safety and anonymity as its highest priorities, even reminding you not to share your personal information at times. It also boasts a huge amount of Russian cam babes, cementing it as one of the most private and secure Russian cam sites around.
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After so many years in the business, LiveMindy has accrued a huge amount of performers. I has one of the biggest collections of models in the live cam porn industry, many of which are drop-dead gorgeous Russian cam models. With around 1,300 sexy babes online at any given moment, most of which streaming in HD and obviously enjoying their job, LiveMindy is never short on variety.
LiveMindy's security, though, comes at a small price: The site requires you to enter a valid payment method just so you can open a free account. You're not charged anything, and it is just a security precaution in place so no one can open fake accounts, but it can still put off anyone who's still hesitant about the site. It also accepts only the most popular and secure payment methods, so if you don't have a Visa, MasterCard or Discover card or a PayPal account, you're probably better off with another site from this list.
As mentioned, LiveMindy's cam shows look amazing. They open with a large view of the stream and — since the large majority of cam shows on the site are in HD — can really take your breath away. They're also fairly cheap. An average private show on LiveMindy will run you about $2.50 a minute, and the site's cheap group chows (called Gold Shows) go for even less. They're not only affordable, they're a bargain.
The downside is that keeping this high quality so cheap tends to lose the site money, and so LiveMindy makes up for it by limiting the amount of bandwidth you can use: You can watch only 1 cam show at a time. This will probably sadden many who enjoy flipping through several different shows for the variety, but it's a small price to pay for such value.
On the more technical side of things, LiveMindy makes sure you feel at ease at all times, giving you access to customer support at all hours of the day. You can contact them via email, phone and live chat, or just use the site's comprehensive FAQ section to try and resolve any problem you have on your own.
Cams.com
If interactivity is what you're looking for, then Cams.com is the place. It has the best support for simulated online sex out of any cam site on this list, or even out of any cam site in the business: the Connexion feature. This gem allows you to control your model's sex toy, while she controls yours. Just imagine it: you're making an insatiable hot Russian babe climax while she's getting off playing with your dick like she owns it. Bonus points if you two cum at the same time.
Go to Cams.com
Cams.com has an impressively large selection of Russian cam girls and boys, which it lets you easily find by simply selecting Russia when you're filtering by region. Do that, and all the site's Russian adult models will be right at your fingertips. It's really that easy, and when you'll see the selection Cams.com has to offer, you'll be kicking yourself for not getting familiar with this site sooner.
That will also be due to high gorgeous the streams themselves tend to be. Most of the models on Cams.com stream in HD and know exactly what their viewers want to see, framing themselves well with the camera and flashing some skin to entice you to shell out.
The issue is that Cams.com isn't all that cheap. An average private show may only cost you about $2.50 a minute, but every extra feature — such as the Connexion feature and cam2cam — costs extra. It's only a small amount, but can add up if you get hooked, and believe me when I tell you that chances are high that you will.
You're also encouraged to tip via the site's Buzzmode. This feature makes tipping simpler by letting you spoil your favorite Russian cam model by clicking the screen, though, as you can probably imagine, this can result in you tipping without intending to. Two-way audio, at least, is included for free when you pay for cam2cam.
The site itself, though, gives you a slick experience that is worth the price. It's highly secure, very discreet and the streams lack any stutter or buffering issues prevalent in many other lesser cam sites, and even if you have any troubles, Cams.com's FAQ page is extensive enough to help you resolve it fairly quickly. In case you fail to, you can contact the site's customer service and technical support through the email, or the billing support through either email or phone.
BongaCams is known for two things: being a freemium cam site, and being filled by gorgeous white European chicks. This site has so many young Estonian, Latvian, Belarusian, Ukrainian and Russian cam girls that you'll wonder how any are left for other cam sites. Aside from being plentiful, BongaCams' hot Russian babes also tend to be jaw-dropping. I've had times when I visited the site to review something in it, got bombarded by hot naked Russian girls and just forgot what i meant to do there.
Go to BongaCams.com
There's no exact way to search BongaCams for Russian cam shows. Fortunately though, there are so many of them that you won't really have to. And, since the BongaCams is a tip-based sex chat site, you'll be able to browse it to your heart's content. The downside here is that BongaCams is pretty ad-heavy, badgering you to register and purchase tokens. Even after you do so, it will often remind you about special deals and features, sometimes ad nauseam.
The main reason why BongaCams is not higher up on this list despite its insane selection of Russian hotties, though, is its prices. BongaCams may be free, but many of its models will save the climax of their show for private, or until they're tipped enough. And while how much you tip depends on you, the price of a private show does not, and costs €3.05 a minute. This price is also fixed, so don't expect to find some cheap hot Russian cams after some browsing. You want to save money? Purchase a bigger package to get bonus tokens.
Even more so, you can always spy on other members' private shows for a fraction of the cost. But, if you want to take some Russian babe to a private chat yourself and don't wish others peeping in on the action, then you'll have to pay extra.
Two-way video and audio are both freely included in every chat. Yes, even in open chat. This is something only BongaCams allows, and is a wonderful addition to this freemium adult chat site. Only the model can see you in this case, so no peeping Tom is going to ruin your enjoyment of this discreet experience. The interactivity on BongaCams is also excellent, with a lot of models opting to use remote-controlled vibrators to please their audience.
BongaCams does care a lot about user experience. As such, it puts an emphasis on having a fast and responsive interface and great customer support at all hours of the day. Aside from that, BongaCams also has a pretty big FAQ section to aid you in case your having some minor issue.
MyFreeCams, as its name suggests, is yet another freemium adult chat site. Unlike BongaCams, though, it is not only free, but free of ads. Take a troll through this veteran cam site and you'll see for yourself: no annoying ads, no obtrusive pop-ups, nothing. Also, a whole bunch or tits and asses.
MyFreeCams has one of the largest collections of cam models out there. It lets you easily view them with a mass-preview feature and allows you to search specifically for its live Russian cam girls by using the site's Settings menu to filter for them. Sadly, this menu, just like any other part of the site, looks and feels outdated. The site itself looks like something that got pulled straight from the nineties. Its cumbersome and uninviting, and takes a while to get used to.
On the other hand, the streams themselves are far from looking outdated. Nearly all models on MyFreeCams has an HD camera and knows how to use it well. I'm sure that, just like me, you'll have moments when you'll wonder to yourself how this site is even financially viable as a business with all that your getting for free.
Similarly to BongaCams, MyFreeCams has set prices for its paid shows and tends to cost more than the average xxx chat site. Since purchasing bigger token packages on MyFreeCams will cost you less per token, it's really recommended to make a big purchase ahead of time if you're interested in this site's paid features. Due to this, the price for a minute of private varies, but I calculated it to be a whopping $5.40 a minute on average. Again, not for those in the market for a cheap Russian cam site.
Thankfully, the site makes up for it a bit with its premium membership, which grants you the ability to send models and other members private messages. All you need to get it is to purchase any token package on the site, and you have it for life.
All in all, MyFreeCams treats its member well. It has an entire wiki page dedicated to resolving any problem you might have and to general FAQ, and tends to answer queries sent to its customer support within a day or two. Sadly, this is the only way you can contact them, as MyFreeCams lack any customer service call number or live chat.
This isn't really a fair competition, to be honest. Since Russian cam models are in such high demand, it stands to reason that the best Russian cam site is also the best live xxx chat site in general.
No one delivers on the quality that LiveJsmin so consistently offers. From the video quality, amount of hot Russian adult chat stars and their actual performance to the fantastic customer support and fluid interface, LiveJasmin has it all, and in affordable prices.
There are, of course, other great options on this list. They may even cater better to some of you, and if they do, then by all means, have at it - they're among the top 5 Russian webcam sites in the world, after all.
But if you're looking for the best of the best, then in this case, you should look no further, and head to LiveJasmin to start your Russian adventure.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Ok, I had a weird set of days. Lets see if I can break it all down and also combine my notes and memories to makes something somewhat coherent.
I found UnSplash especially interesting, and ended up writing a script to download all images from the site. There are about 4GB of images on the site, as a fair warning.
I watched some anime (I'm slowly working through The Irregular at Magic High School, which has an interesting approach to magic, but is overall pretty bad) and continued my reread of Transmetropolitan. I then grabbed dinner, came back, turned on the Warriors game, and played a really long game of Dominion). Once the game was over, I started talking with James, Steve, Kamal and Mudit (I think others were there too... but my memory gets pretty fuzy). While talking, I finally started setting up a Raspberry Pi to play 1080p video on the projector. By the time it was working, it was 3am, and everyone but James and Mudit had gone home. We then made the brilliant decision to stay at RC till 5am when the breakfast places opened and the trains started running express again. We watched some Blade Runner, saw a bit of the sunrise, and I finally got home around 7:30.
I got back into RC around 1400, and quickly went over to a meeting with Max from Keybase. Max was super interesting to talk to, and the stuff Keybase is planning sounds really cool.
Around 1800, I met up with Mark and Tracy. We had some delicious Thai food, and then went and saw Sleep No More). The play was amazing, but I also have no idea what I saw over the three hours. Confused, inspired and tired, I stumbled home.
Mark, Tracy and I visited the Met and went to Katz. Stuffed and arted out, I went home and slept for a long time.
I think I left the house around noon, and headed to the Financial District. I ate lunch, and then wandered over to the 9 / 11 Memorial. I continued wandering, stopping in a few places to read and drink. I finished my re-reads of Transmetropolitan and Snow Crash. I'm amazed out how relevant those two both still are.
In the evening I went and saw the Entourage Movie) and sat in a bar to watch the Warriors game.
Tomorrow's goal is to get different drum sets and configurable patterns working. You can create patterns by clicking right now, but everything longer than one measure looks really weird and is hard to navigate.


Both the SF1 World Solution StarFire iTCTM receiver as well as the SF1 AutoTracTM KeyCard or GS2 SF1 AutoTrac activation can be upgraded to SF2 capability. Activations for each of these must be purchased as attachments for field conversion. Activation codes will be issued through StellarSupport.com and will require COMAR order numbers for both keycard and receiver upgrade. StarFire receiver serial number is needed for receiver upgrade.
AutoTrac SF1 is a broad-acre guidance solution allowing operators to take their hands off of the steering wheel as the machine travels down the most optimum pass in the field.
Operators still have to turn the machine around on the end rows, but by simply pressing the resume button, AutoTrac again regains control and starts steering the vehicle down the adjacent pass.
AutoTrac helps to increase profitability and performance in many farming operations.


Opinion article* published in The Newcastle Herald written by Professor Andrew Parfitt, Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Academic), Office of the Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Academic) at the University of Newcastle.
FOR thousands of people, 9pm last Wednesday signalled the start of an exciting educational journey as the University of Newcastle offered more than 6700 places to study in 2014. These bring the total offers to date to over 8200, marking another year of strong demand from both school and non-school leavers.
Eighty per cent of the offers were made to students living in the Hunter, Central Coast and mid-north coast regions, signalling a strong commitment to regional growth and the continuation of our mission to offer high quality education across a range of disciplines.
There is good news too for those who may be still considering their future career options. There is time to secure a place at a world-class university (according to both the Times Higher Education World University and QS World University Rankings) with 85 degree programs still open for late round applications.
READ the full opinion piece in the Newcastle Herald.
* Opinion pieces represent the author's views.


Hi. My name is Neil Mueller with Google cloud platform we're. Here as part of the on-air cloud, series, is, a series of live webinars for Google cloud today. We're hosting two webinars my. Webinar on pricing, and then Sergey and team will join me after five minutes five minutes when I'm finished to, talk about streaming, analytics also. Next month something to look forward to we'll be talking about security, and IT development, tools okay. Without. Further ado let's talk about customer, friendly GCP. Pricing. I've. Got a lot of ground to cover today but, let me spend a few minutes on why we're here we're, here because customers, are really excited about the cloud but, unfortunately, a number of customers feel like they're, they're wasting money now, fortunately, most of these cloud customers are not ours and we'll talk about that in a moment but, according to right scale which is a third-party analyst firm they were to report called the state of the cloud in 2017. And they. Said that 45% of their, cloud spen was, wasted. This, is self-reported, waste so. You. Want to believe it on the left-hand side you see the. Cause of a lot of this waste, we've. Got inflexible, three-year, VM leases that are provided by other cloud providers, inflexible. VM configurations. Where you have to buy a certain amount of RAM to get a certain amount of CPU also, something. Not. On our cloud but on every other cloud and. Per our billing, as, opposed to what we have in here in GCP which is per minute billing so. Customers, are feeling like they're wasting, a lot of money on the cloud at the same time that they're saving a lot of money because the cloud is much, less expensive than on-prem alternatives, we're, here to give you the best of both worlds to give you a cloud that is exactly, what you expected to pay for with, customer friendly pricing, models that you can really easily understand. So. This is a summary slide we'll come to it at the very end also if. You look on the Left we've got other cloud providers let's consider that a baseline of a hundred percent what, you would expect to pay on. The right hand side we've, got the discounts, that discount innovations, that we have here at GCP and we'll talk through each of those so, an average of 24 percent savings, assisted from sustained use discounts, this, is very similar to the. Card that you get when you go to your favorite, sandwich shop and if you ten sandwiches, they, give you one for free sustained, use discount when you lose it when you use a lot of GCP you, save a lot on GCP.
21. Percent list price differences, this is just a rack rate of our, compute, if you look at the the, list price we are on average 20 percent less than other cloud providers and I'll talk to you a bit more in a few minutes about why that's the case. 15 percent average savings from right sizing recommendations, we recommend. Within. The cloud, console if you're using too much or too little compute, we recommend that you can either save money or you should be puffy puffs beefed, up that server to. Make it more. Performant. On. Average if you add those numbers together you, get a 60% average, discount when. You compare us to other clouds, that's. A big discount. All. Right, let's talk about all of our pricing, innovations, this. Slide, is very much a table of contents for my talk we're gonna start in the upper left and work our way down to the lower right so. Let's talk about, list. Price advantages, I've talked to you about how that we get a 21% average. List price reduction, compared to other clouds a sustained, use discounts, the, lunch counter our card up. To 24% average, savings committed. Use discounts, up to 57%, savings, when you buy. Instances. In advance when you commit to their use per. Minute billing up to 38% savings, when, you pay, per. Minute and not per our custom. Machine types up to 19% savings, because, you don't have to if you need a lot of RAM and but not a lot of CPU, you, can only pay for exactly what you want we. Call that custom machine types right. Sizing recommendations, 15%. Average savings we. Give you recommendations on. Whether. You you. Need more CPU or more RAM. Preemptable. VM instances, we, call these PMS, and we, give you an. Average eighteen percent savings, on workloads that can be interrupted, network. Service tears our newest, addition we just launched it last week it allows you to either pick performance, or cost, savings when you when, you buy your network from us cold. Line archival. Storage at the speed. Of tape and. The. Speed of disk and the cost of tape. And, lastly. Support. We offer you the opportunity to, pay per user per month as opposed, to a flat, percentage. Fee uplift, on your on your cloud cost. Okay. Let's, talk about why GCP is the perennial price, leader. Well. It has a lot to do with our volume, google. Has a lot of infrastructure, you probably used YouTube in Google search you. May have also used Google cloud platform we. Are a very large technology, company with a lot of infrastructure we, buy in bulk we purpose build much of our infrastructure, we, spent more last year than any other cloud provider ten, point nine billion in capex in 2016. Google's, vast scale means that we can offer you more, for less. We. Also are smart about how we build our infrastructure, on average, a Google Data Center uses 50 percent less energy than a typical data center our PUA. Which, is a measure of our of our efficiency, our power usage effectiveness is, one point one to lower, than any other public cloud provider this, means that we use less, energy than. Average, if you look at the global average of the largest data centers in the world there are 1.7, now what this means is, that about, 40%, of the, average energy and in a datacenter is wasted. To cooling or heating or just general loss by, comparison about 10% of the energy and a Google Data Center is wasted, meaning 90%, of the energy that we buy goes. To providing you cloud services, we're more efficient when we run our datacenters and we can pass the savings on to you. We're. Also more. Efficient because we deploy very interesting technologies, like machine learning you, may have seen the article written about deepmind who applied some of their technology to our data center and if you look on this graph right here time is on the x axis on the, y axis is PUA this, power use effectiveness, ratio that I told you about the. Closer you are to one the, better. Google. Is closer to one than other average data centers and when we deploy deep Minds AI in our data center it reduced cooling by 40% so. You. Can imagine what this ml, looks like is we've got let's, take for example we've got like 10 dials, and each dial has 10 10.
Positions On it that's 10, to the 10th power or 10, million that's. A lot of instance. Is to calculate through which is exactly what deep mind is calculating, through and finding, the exact right middle ground where, we can safely operate our data centers and also simultaneously reduce, cooling this. Allowed us to reduce the cooling bill by 40 percent. We're. Not the only one noticing, greenpeace gave. Us an a other. Cloud providers in the space didn't. Get an A we, earned this as a result of energy transparency, committing, to being a hundred percent renewable, by 2017. And. Our. Green, advocacy, that, we do. We. Think our data centers are beautiful inside and outside in fact this is one of our murals that we have if. You send me a tweet and you're the first person to send it to me I'll send you a $25, Starbucks, gift card this, is part of our mural project. We. Paint many of our data centers with, murals just, ten be the state name via Twitter and I'll send you that gift card. This. Is a very large data center. Alright. Let's talk about sustained use discounts, this is the sandwich, car that I talked to you about so. If this is the neck on, the x-axis here we have the, monthly average usage and so if you use a, hundred. Percent of this VM for the entire month you can get 30, percent, savings. We're, seeing our customers experiencing. An average of 24 percent average savings, because many of our customers use that VM for the entire month in other words they're getting a lot of free sandwiches. What. Sustained use provides is if you use us more we, will give you a lower price this is automatic, there's no upfront payments, required there's no lock-in and there's no complex decision-making. You, don't even have to remember the sandwich card for, us to give you the discount so it really is just that easy. You. Might be wondering we. Use terms like customer, friendly pricing, but are we really that friendly when we're doing the calculation, of sustained use discounts, I can tell you yes we are if you look at the graph on the lower left you, can, imagine in the actual use case where you've got a whole bunch of VMs. And a whole bunch of projects, across. A across. Your. Your entire organization what, we could what we could do is we could. Not be friendly about it and we could calculate your, actual usage and say that you hadn't used a single VM the, entire month but. That's not how we calculate, it what we do is we have this technology this technique that we call inferred, instances, where, if you look in the middle where we group them we group all of the instance usage together and then on the far right we compute, a discount based on that so, we we put them together in a way. That. Looks like a very successful tetris game which gives you the maximum possible sustained, use discount truly. Customer friendly pricing. Okay. Let's talk about cut committed. Use discount, with. This but this is is when you buy cores, and memory and bulk you can either select to use a one-year or a three-year, commitment and you can change your machine types at, any time if you do this with us for, one year or for three years we'll give you up to a fifty seven percent discount. Big, discount. So. What, you're doing here is you're buying cores in memory in bulk if. You buy for one year it's a thirty seven percent savings, if you buy it for three years it's a fifty seven percent savings. If. You. Compare this to other similar, offerings, in the cloud space for, example AWS, is reserved, instances, this, is again a report from a company called RightScale they're, a third party advisory, firm out there and this is a report that they did very recently in March when we released, committed use discounts, we.
Are The blue block. In, this case lower is better because we're talking about price and costs, so, because, of the digit, rigidity, of the AWS, our eyes and the flexibility, of the committed use discounts, the realized benefit, for you is, much higher in this case the, costs are much lower. Okay. Let's. Get into a bit more detail about committed, use discounts, like, I said these available in one and three year you. Commit to a certain number of V CPUs and a certain amount of memory this. Is valid for any Google, cloud compute. Engine or gke. Non shared core, VMs, and. It's, ideal for predictable. Steady-state, workloads. I said, that it's a committed use on CPU, and also, memory. There, are very flexible limits, on the ratio between memory. And CPU, so, anything from 0.9, gigabits, of RAM up to, 6.5, gigabits, of RAM per CPU, inclusive, those two numbers is an appropriate ratio so, if you've got a very memory, intensive application, that doesn't require much CPU committed. Use discounts, it's still gonna be good for you the. Disk out supplied to aggregate regional, usage for example all of your Restall of usage in Iowa or Oregon or London. Okay. This, is a summary slide talking about committed use discounts, what I want to highlight here is the, very far right block, which, says that in order to attain these deep discounts, without upfront payment, in order you can attain these deep discounts without upfront payments, at all because, we don't require you to do any upfront payments, this is very different from other. Reserved instance type, structures. That you see there in the cloud. Per. Minute billing. Okay. So, I'm DCP. You only pay for what you use so, for example if you're using a VM for only 11 minutes you're, gonna pay for 11 minutes not 60 minutes this, is a big differentiator with other from other cloud providers. Let's. Walk through a short example so. On the right here you see that if you're using the the, virtual, machine for between 12 and 25 minutes your average savings is up to 38 percent. Custom. Machine types. If. You go with another cloud provider you will be dictated, a certain amount of CPU, and memory, and if you need more CPU, or less, CPU. You. Have to pay for the stuff that you don't use so, right here on the x-axis you've got a series of machines and the, gray would be waste, in. This. Case on GCP the, the waste would be much much less on average we're seeing customers save up to 19 percent, when. They use custom. Machine types. This. Is a screenshot that I took from the user interface, we've. Got these dials, where you can dial up the amount of cores or, the amount of memory that you want and we, did the math and it turns out that there's, 690. Different, compute types if. You compare that to other cloud providers we, have a hundred and ten more compute types than they do so, it really is you. Know you get exactly what, you want and, and nothing more. Right. Sizing recommendations, this, is very similar to custom machine types. What. This looks like in the user interface is a recommendation, where it says hey you're using a bit more instance, compute. Then, you. Have purchased would you like to upgrade or in, more cases than that you. Have purchased an instance type that is larger than you need and you're paying for something that you're not using would you like to save yourself a little money and all, you have to do is click, the button right here to either dismiss all those recommendations, or to. Learn more and with, one click you can activate them it's, the opposite, of requiring you to plan in advance for, demand, that you can't possibly forecast. 25%, of of. Monitored. Instances, get a recommendation on, average, so, that's a lot it'll be a good portion of your instances now, you can very easily dismiss, these or or take action.
Recommendations. Take, take. A look at CPU and memory on. Average we're seeing 60%. Of those recommendations offering, to save you money and 40%, offering, to increase, your instance size to give it absolutely suggest that you get a big a beefier instance because you're getting a more traffic than you then, you may have expected, if. You use stack driver the, the, the. Granularity, of these recommendations improves. Quite a bit. Let's. Talk about preemptable, machine types. Preemptable. Machine types are very good for workloads, such. As batch or scientific. Predictable. Workloads that you don't think we're going to go down they're, exactly. Like regular VMs except. For they are eighty percent less expensive, they. Can run for a maximum, of 24 hours at which time they'll, be shut down. You. Can terminate them earlier if, you like, and. It. Offers predictable, billing compared to other cloud providers that have similar structures, like this but they're based on marketplaces where. You would have to hire somebody to go into that marketplace and understand, the. Flow price of that machine, instance whereas, here it's just a flat 80%, off, so, much easier to forecast, we. View this as you know customer, friendly pricing. Like. I said they're very good for various. Kinds of workloads that you know. Might. Be able to be interrupted for, example batch jobs pipeline builds after I was processing big, data workloads analytics, media encoding scientific, work financial, modeling devtest, crawling. That. Kind of workloads. What, is most amazing about PDMS, is how easy they are to deploy I mentioned. With, other types. Of structures. Like this from other cloud providers you might need to hire somebody to go in there and understand the marketplace dynamics, of their, instance of their interruptible. Instances, not with ours they, are a flat 80%, price, reduction and you can either activate it using this code right here that I've got on the screen or.
In The cloud console with a point-and-click. Customers. Love these for. Example Mark, Johnson the founder, of Descartes Labs has, been able to predict, corn yield more. Accurately than the United States Department of Agriculture, all using, P VMs so he's benefiting from GCP at 80% the cost. And. Producing, incredible output, for his customers. Network. Service tiers last. Week we became the first major public cloud to offer a tiered cloud network. What. This means for you is that you can either. Choose. To pick, performance, which we call the premium, tier think, premium gasoline, if. You pick the premium tier it is on average 70% faster, than, other cloud networks, it. Is 14, to 80 percent more expensive than, other competing clouds and so, the ratio of 18. Percent more for 70% more power that's a that's a very good ratio we feel like it's a good value. For your money if. You pick premium you're riding on the Google Network which, is a non circuitous, direct, private dedicated, path from, your, cloud workloads, to your end customers aggressing. Out of a pop very near, to your end customers. If. You choose standard, you'll, benefit from a six to nine percent savings. Over other competing clouds, standard. Network uses, the public internet which is very similar to what other public clouds I will provide you, this. Is often, not a direct path it. Suffers, from lower, security, lower reliability but. It it's. A very good value for the money. Let's. Talk about storage. On. This graph on, the x-axis you see the, retrieval frequency, so, on the left you've. Got Glacier an. AWS, product that offers written. Retrieval. Frequency of three, to five hours it is, very, close to the same price as GCS, cold line which offers millisecond, access time we. Also offer a near line regional. And GCS, multi-regional, the, reason we've put. There of storage options next to ours is what you'll notice is hours are always below theirs, which. Means that we are less expensive for their retrieval time required. So. We think that our storage, is going to be a better value for online, data whether it's hot or cold whether you've got millisecond, access time that. You need globally, reliable, or or, less. Cold. Line is a highly available affordable, solution for backup archival, and disaster, recovery it, really is incredible we, offer you the. Speed. Of discs at the cost of tape. But. You might be asking yourself how am I going to get all my data up into the cloud well, for that we just launched something about, last month called, the transfer appliance, this is a physical, appliance that, we rent you for a window of time you, load your data onto it and then you send it back to us using a courier the, capacity, for this is up to one peda bit compressed it's the largest transfer. Appliance, in the cloud because. A lot of our customers are moving a lot of data to us and we wanted to give them as, much capacity as we possibly could. The, transfer appliance is all about speed in this. Animation what you're seeing is how fast it would take a transfer appliance, to be shipped out to you for, you fill it up and for you to send it back to us and ice to load it into Google Cloud storage on average, 43 days if you compare that over. A typical Network which is 100 megabits per second, it is, going to take a lot longer than 43, days as, you, can see it'll take multiple. Years pick, more than three years. Let's. Talk about what we're doing for support. Support.
Hasn't, Evolved. What. We are doing to evolve it is we're offering role, based support, what. This means is that you pay a flat, price, per user per month as opposed, to a, percentage. Fee, uplift on your cloud usage so, you might be accustomed to paying a, certain, percentage like 10 to 20 to 30 percent uplift, on your cloud usage, we. Are evolving that to this new method where, you pay a, flat, fee per user, per month so, let's take an example, let's. Say that you're a development, shop with 10 engineers that. Would be 10, engineers. Multiplied. By $100. Per user per month multiplied, by 12 so, that's $12,000. In annual support for. This development shop which. Is likely much much less and certainly, much much more predictable, than. If you were to pay a flat percentage fee on. Your on your cloud bill it also is a lot closer to getting, a value for your money because, we're charging you per engineer, as opposed, to charging you a percentage uplift. The, old model we, call a count based the new model we call role based account. Based you're accustomed to long-term contracts, standardized. Tiers and like, I said percentage, based uplift on your cloud bill with, role base you've, got a very flexible environment, that you can change month to month no. Commitments, very customizable, configurations. You tell us how many users. You want. And. It's very predictable because you know how many users you're buying. This. Is coming very soon and. We're incredibly excited about it it offers development, support production support, and also support for your business critical apps. Alright, let's talk about some key takeaways. If. We, start on the upper left we talked about why Google, was a perennial price leader we, operated, at a vast scale and we passed those benefits on to you on average, were 20% less than other cloud providers just. The rack rate. Sustained. Used discounts, just like when you go into a sandwich shop this, is up to 24% average, savings.
Committed. Use discounts, if you, are able to plan ahead and know that you're going to use us we don't make you pay up front but we offer you up to 57, percent savings. For, a three-year contract. Per. Minute billing up to 38 percent savings. By paying by the minute as opposed to paying by the hour the. Analogy I gave the example I gave was. Using. 11 minutes and paying for 60 very frustrating, we don't consider that customer friendly pricing, and so, we don't make you do it, custom. Machine, types up, to 19 percent average savings when you pick any configuration of CPU and RAM. Right. Sizing recommendations, 15. Percent average savings by auto-scaling compute, around your needs we, give you these recommendations. 60%. Of the time they're to reduce the size of the workload offering, you a savings 40, percent of the time on average there. For you to beef up your instance, and save, you downtime. Preemptable. VM instances, up to 80 % savings and this is a flat fee not based on a market place up to 80% savings, on workloads it can be interrupted like batch jobs or crawling or scientific, work, network. Service tears our newest member to this list where. You can pick performance, and get 70%, higher performance, than the average cloud provider or, savings. And save, 9 percent compared to other clouds. Cold. Line archival. Storage. And. The, transfer appliance which allows you to move lots of data to the cloud very quickly. Support. We, are evolving, support, and very excited about it with roll based support customers, pay a flat monthly fee per. User per engineer. Here's. That graph again let's. Talk about where. We where we've come so, another. Cloud provider on the Left will charge you a baseline, of a hundred percent. You, can experience an. Average of 60% savings, for compute workloads on, GCP. 24. Percent is coming from sustained use discounts, 21 percent from list price dis discounts, 15, percent from right sides and recommendations, big, benefits for you. Customers. Are picking GCP in part, because of our customer friendly pricing, but also for a lot of other reasons, on. The Left we offer you true cloud economics, that's all about the pricing we've walked through a number of examples where, we provide you very transparent. Friendly. Pricing, structures that, you can without. Taking a lot of time take, advantage of most, of these you take advantage of just. By using the system at all you don't have to plan ahead. We, offer you future, proof infrastructure, where you can scale your business smoothy, and responsibly, for example where the first cloud to offer Silverlake, Intel, chips and. You didn't have to plan for that you didn't have to you, know buy them a couple of years ago you can buy them the second that you want them and then the second you stop wanting to use them you, can stop paying for them big, advantages, that. You get from using the cloud. You. Can also get access to incredible, innovation, Google. Is known for our interface artificial intelligence and machine learning we, give you access to many. Of our API. S including, vision API natural. Language API bigquery. You. Can use these to really spark. Off a lot of innovation at your company and Google. Grade security. We. Offer multiple layers, of security so. That you can control your. Cloud from chip to chiller. Ok, with, that I think. I've, been told that we've got a couple of questions that I probably should help answer. You. Okay. I'm back I can, see on my screen here that we've got five questions to answer the. First one is where did the idea for sustained use discounts come from. It. Predates me here at Google I came. Up with a lunch counter example, because I eat sandwiches, and when. I buy ten of them I, get, a free sandwich and it sounds a lot like sustained use discounts, the, big difference between sustained use discounts and the. Lunch counter is that I'm always forgetting my little card and losing, it and that never happens because we keep track of it for you. Question. To our, DCP. Pricing innovations, only for compute, many. Of them are for compute right. Sizing recommendations. Sustained. Use discount committed use discount those are for compute. However. Many. Of them are not for, example cold line where, we offer you the. Speed of disk at the cost of tape, is. Very innovative and as a storage innovation, not a computer innovation, network. Service tears also. Is the opportunity for you to experience. 70%, faster networks than the average cloud provider or, nine.
Percent Lower costs, and, that's a networking innovation. Question. Number three can. I change my instance sizes and still, receive committed use discounts, yes. Unlike, other cloud providers that, offer you. Committed. Use discount structures, that are inflexible, hours. Are flexible so you buy a certain amount of CPU, and a, certain amount of memory and within, that, bundle, that, basket, you can change exactly the kind of VM configurations, that you want from. Minutes a minute day to day within. That within that month. Within. That year whether you whether it's a one-year or a three-year, committed, use discount the. Question for what. Is the difference between suds. And cuts. Sustained. Use discount let's. See if I can think of a funny analogy a. Sustained. Use discount is when, you go to the lunch counter and they give you one of those cards, and. If you eat. 10 of those sandwiches they give you a free sandwich committed. Use discounts, is when you go to the car wash and you, say I want to buy 10 car, I'm, gonna buy them right now, and then, I'm gonna use them over the next one. Year or three year and as a result you. You, get you know a cheaper, rate per carwash the, big didn't that analogy falls apart a little bit because we don't make you pay ahead and the carwash would, but. Other than that it's a decent analogy. Number. Five well right sizing recommendations, support, all operating. System compute instance types not just Linux, but Windows servers as well yes. It supports, all of the instances that we have I, use it on mine and. It gives me recommendations, for some reason for mine it's always telling me to make. Them smaller it never tells me to make them bigger maybe it's because I don't run that many popular websites hopefully. You you do and. It works. On on all of mine, Linux. And windows. Are. There any more questions guys. Okay. Thank. You so much for your time please, stick around our. Next webinar is on streaming. Analytics very, exciting Sergey and team will be here to, talk you through that next. Month, also we've got another, on-air. Webinar series by. Google cloud it's. On security, and IT development, tools ok. For now thank you so much your help. You.


text:
Pollution from freight traffic disproportionately impacts communities of color across 52 US cities
by American Geophysical Union
Across 52 U.S. cities, large discrepancies in exposure to NO2 pollution exist between low-income communities of color and high-income white communities. The inequality is driven primarily by proximity to roadways with heavy diesel truck traffic, says a new study in Geophysical Research Letters. Credit: Demetillo et al. (2021)
In urban areas across the U.S., low-income neighborhoods and communities of color experience an average of 28% more nitrogen dioxide (NO2) pollution than higher-income and majority-white neighborhoods. The disparity is driven primarily by proximity to trucking routes on major roadways, where diesel trucks are emitters of NO2 and other air pollutants.
Nitrogen dioxide is a common air pollutant that can cause a range of health problems, such as chronic respiratory illness and asthma. But it can be difficult to trace.
A new study used high-resolution air pollution data measured with satellites to track NO2 for nearly two years in major cities across the U.S. The researchers then paired the pollution data with both demographic data and metrics that analyze the degree of racial segregation in a community.
Cities with bigger populations tended to have larger disparities in NO2 pollution between low-income neighborhoods of color and high-income white neighborhoods, according to the study. Phoenix, Los Angeles and Newark, N.J., have the highest NO2 inequalities, all with a discrepancy in NO2 exposure of over 40%.
Both commuter traffic and heavy-duty trucks contribute NO2 and other pollutants, but diesel trucks are the dominant source, contributing on average up to half of a city's NO2 despite being at most 5% of traffic. Because diesel trucks also emit other harmful gasses and particulates, changes in NO2 are also thought to reflect exposure to other pollutants as well.
The findings are detailed in the AGU journal Geophysical Research Letters, which publishes high-impact, short-format reports with immediate implications spanning all Earth and space sciences.
"One of the novel things we looked at was the integration of segregation metrics and air quality. Previously, we had been limited in our ability to address air pollution inequality, but with improvements in satellite resolution we are now able to get spatially and temporally continuous data at finer resolutions within cities," said Angelique Demetillo, an atmospheric chemist at the University of Virginia and lead author of the study.
Measuring pollutants like NO2 is difficult to do at a scale that's useful to local policymakers. While previous studies have shown disparities in air quality, the new findings offer near-daily pollution data at small scales, providing important quantitative information policymakers can use to guide zoning and public health and that can reflect the lived experience of community members.
The new study found a 60% drop in heavy trucking on weekends results in a 40% decrease in air pollution inequality. That can point policymakers to a clear emissions-reducing target.
"In terms of environmental justice, one of the things we have lacked is these observations across an entire city that also have temporal variability that we can use to understand the sources [of pollution]," said Sally Pusede, an atmospheric chemist at the University of Virginia who co-authored the study.
"We have these new data and methodologies that continue to show us what we already know through experience, but in the U.S., it's [quantitative] data that informs policy," said Regan Patterson, a transportation and public health expert at the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation.
Bigger city, bigger disparity
Transitioning to electric heavy-duty trucks could be one way of reducing pollution exposure in neighborhoods close to highways. California already has a mandate of doing this by 2045. But, Pusede pointed out, while emissions from diesel trucks are the biggest driver of exposure inequality, other pollution sources contribute to the problem. "Even if we eliminated emissions from trucking, we would still see inequalities present because there are other sources of inequality."
Discrepancies in exposure to pollution between communities of color and white communities are well-documented. They often stem from zoning practices that result in communities of color forming in less desirable areas or infrastructure like highways being built in close proximity to—or through—a neighborhood.
Patterson said over the long term, transformative changes are needed to truly begin to remove NO2 pollution disparity. "How do you rectify the inequities that have literally been built into the environment, where certain groups are more likely to be adjacent to major roadways?" she asked.
Both Patterson and Pusede referenced a bill in the new infrastructure package aimed at physically reconnecting communities by removing freeways as a necessary step toward equalizing air quality. More immediately, Demetillo hoped her study and studies like it will help put air-quality information into the hands of community members.
"I see this as just the beginning. There are a lot of potential end-user applications, like people in different cities using this information to help them make decisions about how to go about their day. For policymakers, this could be a new way to plan mitigation solutions or to monitor how well those mitigation strategies are playing out," Demetillo said.
More information: Mary Angelique G. Demetillo et al, Space‐Based Observational Constraints on NO 2 Air Pollution Inequality From Diesel Traffic in Major US Cities, Geophysical Research Letters (2021). DOI: 10.1029/2021GL094333
Journal information: Geophysical Research Letters
Provided by American Geophysical Union
Citation: Pollution from freight traffic disproportionately impacts communities of color across 52 US cities (2021, October 7) retrieved 30 January 2023 from https://phys.org/news/2021-10-pollution-freight-traffic-disproportionately-impacts.html
COVID-19 shutdowns reveal racial disparities in exposure to air pollution
Scientists analyze how the pandemic affected air quality
Disparities in a common air pollutant are visible from space
Addressing inequity in air quality
People of color hardest hit by air pollution from nearly all sources
New WHO air pollution guidelines recommend sharply lower limits
Low emission energy systems can create water conflict without smart design
Climate modelers add ocean biogeochemistry and fisheries to forecasts of future upwelling
Human activity has degraded more than a third of the remaining Amazon rainforest, scientists find
'Dark' side of air pollution across China poses potential health threat


Dissolve salt in water (the solution should be quite concentrated), soak the towel in the solution, and apply it to your face for 10 minutes.
Apply any cosmetic oil to your lips — peach oil, almond oil, or regular lip balm. Then take a soft toothbrush, and rub gently on your lips for 1 minute.


Chewy Gift Box for Cats!!!
How i enjoyed learning this when i was in school, it made the nine tables so much easier. Mr. M was smart to keep this in his archive, it's a fun tool.
I think 9s are the easiest in many ways, but it's hard to get easier than zeros or ones.
This is how I learned and the answer like 9*2=18 1+8=9 so I could double check. 9's are the coolest times table!
Meowser, Ms. Kiara, I'm so pleased that you knew about this! This will be my first Christmas without M and I'm sort of missing him, even tough he was never the 'life of the party', I adore Katsu, but doubt that he'll ever be another M. SO, every once in a while, I snoop through his archives and post things he thought worthy of saving.
LOL, yeah so far Katsu does not seem the scientist type. Who knows though he is young.
He seems more the janitor type.. is downright fascinated by things like laundry, dusting, etc.
Maybe a gardener he likes plants and rocks too.
Our mom wishes she knew that trick in school!
There is one for remembering which months have 31 day or less involving knuckles. Do you know that one? IF you tell me no, I'll see if I can find it.


There are sporting stars in the world who you might forget after a few years and there are guys who you will remenber forever and tell your children with pride that you once saw them play. Michael Jordan, Wayne Gretzky, Pele... guys like that. Fetisov is definitely one of them!
Born on 20th April 1958 in Moscow, Viacheslav (Slava) joined the Central Red Army in 1974-75 and played there for 15 years. During this time he won the national title 14 times, was awarded player of the year three times, nine times Soviet League All-Star, and was also awarded the Pravda Trophy four times as best scoring defenseman in his country. He was Captain for nine years.
His international career began in 1975 when he played his first game for the USSR junior team. He won the junior world title in 1977 and 1978. His first World Championship appearance with the Soviet national squad was in 1978, where he helped his team to win the title. Then followed six further gold, one silver and two bronze medals at the IIHF World Championships. He was named as an All-Star during these tournaments eight times. Slava participated in three Olympic tournaments winning gold in 1984 and 1988 and silver in 1980. He earned the "Gold Stick" award as the best European player three times.
After years behind the iron curtain, with no rights and without permission to play in other countries, Fetisov, together with Igor Larionov forced the rebellion against the Soviet system.
Fetisov: "The Soviet minister of defense tried to scare me, demanding that I apologize for asking to leave. He gave me an ultimatum: apologize or be sent to Siberia, where we will make life very difficult for you. I knew that if I took even a small step back, I would be in deep trouble. I faced a lot of intimidation; most of my friends were afraid to talk to me. It was the toughest time of my life, but I finally won the war. I was the first Soviet to sign a direct contract with the NHL, and I'm proud to say that not only hockey players followed me. The door opened for people in every profession." Fetisov won so many medals and awards in his life, but this was the biggest victory. It was a victory against a whole system.
When Fetisov moved to the NHL to the New Jersey Devils he was already 31 years old. He didn't need to prove his strength again. He was already a hockey legend in 1989. But his big ambitions made him make this step. At the beginning it was difficult. The North American people were raised to hate the Russians. Even his teammates disliked him at first. It was not easy to begin his new life. After five good years with the Devils he changed teams and signed with the Detroit Red Wings. There he fulfilled his last big dream of winning the Stanley Cup in 1997. After that he wanted to retire from active playing but one night changed his plans. After a celebration party a few days after the last game against the Philadelphia Flyers he was involved in a tragic car accident. Although he only suffered small injuries himself, his teammate and friend, Vladimir Konstantinov and the team masseur Sergei Mnatsakanov weren't so lucky. They suffered heavy head injuries and suddenly nothing was as it had been before. Slava put his skates on again with one big goal - to win the Cup again for Vladi and Sergei. And he did. With the unbelievable help and heart of his teammates, the Red Wings were able to win the Cup back to back in 1998. After beating Washington in four games, Captain Steve Yzerman brought the Cup to Vladimir Konstantinov. This was one of the most emotional moments in sport history.
Fetisov: "I want to be close to Vladi. I told him I'm not going to give him a break until he walks again. I feel like he's my younger brother. I have to stay until he gets back to normal".
Slava ended his active hockey career in the jersey of the Detroit Red Wings at the age of 40. He became an assistant coach with the New Jersey Devils, where he won his third Stanley Cup in 2000.
He played his last game in front of 14000 people in August in Moscow with a Russian All-Star team against a World Star team. He turned his testimonial game into a fundraiser for the families of the crew who had lost their lives in the tragic "Kursk" submarine catastrophe a few days previous to that.
Not only this, but a whole lot more makes him an immortal hero of Hockey, and the Russian fans want to see him behind the bench coaching the national team during the Olympics 2002 in Salt Lake City.