text:
Elgin Marbles
This article is about the ancient marble sculptures. For the book, see The Elgin Marbles (book).
Phidias
c. 447–438 BC
The Parthenon Marbles (Greek: Γλυπτά του Παρθενώνα) also known as the Elgin Marbles (/ˈɛlɡɪn/),[1] are a collection of Classical Greek marble sculptures made under the supervision of the architect and sculptor Phidias and his assistants. They were originally part of the temple of the Parthenon and other buildings on the Acropolis of Athens.[2][3]
From 1801 to 1812, agents of Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin removed about half of the surviving sculptures of the Parthenon, as well as sculptures from the Propylaea and Erechtheum.[4] The Marbles were transported by sea to Britain. Elgin later claimed to have obtained in 1801 an official decree (a firman)[5] from the Sublime Porte, the central government of the Ottoman Empire which were then the rulers of Greece. This firman has not been found in the Ottoman archives despite its wealth of documents from the same period[6] and its veracity is disputed.[7] The half not removed by Elgin is now displayed in the Acropolis Museum, aligned in orientation and within sight of the Parthenon, with the position of the missing elements clearly marked and space left should they be returned to Athens.[8]
In Britain, the acquisition of the collection was supported by some,[9] while some others, such as Lord Byron, likened the Earl's actions to vandalism or looting.[10][11][12][13][14][15][16] Following a public debate in Parliament[17] and its subsequent exoneration of Elgin, he sold the Marbles to the British government in 1816. They were then passed to the British Museum,[18] where they are now on display in the purpose-built Duveen Gallery.
After gaining its independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1832, the newly-founded Greek state began a series of projects to restore its monuments and retrieve looted art. It has expressed its disapproval of Elgin's removal of the Marbles from the Acropolis and the Parthenon,[19] which is regarded as one of the world's greatest cultural monuments.[20] International efforts to repatriate the Marbles to Greece were intensified in the 1980s by then Greek Minister of Culture Melina Mercouri, and there are now many organisations actively campaigning for the Marbles' return, several united as part of the International Association for the Reunification of the Parthenon Sculptures. The Greek government itself continues to urge the return of the marbles to Athens so as to be unified with the remaining marbles and for the complete Parthenon frieze sequence to be restored, through diplomatic, political and legal means.[21]
In 2014, UNESCO offered to mediate between Greece and the United Kingdom to resolve the dispute, although this was later turned down by the British Museum on the basis that UNESCO works with government bodies, not trustees of museums.[22][23][24]
4 Legality of the removal from Athens
5 Contemporary reaction
6 Damage
6.1 Morosini
6.2 War of Independence
6.3 Elgin
6.4 British Museum
6.5 Athens
7 Relocation debate
7.1 Rationale for returning to Athens
7.2 Rationale for retaining in London
8 Public perception of the issue
8.1 Popular support for restitution
8.2 Opinion polls
9 Other displaced Parthenon art
10 British Museum loan
11 Labour party leader stance and new dimensions to the dispute caused by Brexit
15.1 Pros and cons of restitution
Built in the ancient era, the Parthenon was extensively damaged during the Great Turkish War (1683–1699) against the Republic of Venice. The defending Turks fortified the Acropolis and used the Parthenon as a gunpowder magazine. On 26 September 1687, a Venetian artillery round, fired from the Hill of Philopappus, blew up the magazine, and the building was partly destroyed.[25] The explosion blew out the building's central portion and caused the cella's walls to crumble into rubble.[26] Three of the four walls collapsed, or nearly so, and about three-fifths of the sculptures from the frieze fell.[27] About three hundred people were killed in the explosion, which showered marble fragments over a significant area.[28] For the next century and a half, portions of the remaining structure were scavenged for building material and looted of any remaining objects of value.[29]
Parthenon Selene Horse
Metope from the Elgin marbles depicting a Centaur and a Lapith fighting
Statuary from the east pediment
Frise West, II, 2
In November 1798 the Earl of Elgin was appointed as "Ambassador Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of His Britannic Majesty to the Sublime Porte of Selim III, Sultan of Turkey" (Greece was then part of the Ottoman Empire). Before his departure to take up the post he had approached officials of the British government to inquire if they would be interested in employing artists to take casts and drawings of the sculptured portions of the Parthenon. According to Lord Elgin, "the answer of the Government ... was entirely negative."[9]
Lord Elgin decided to carry out the work himself, and employed artists to take casts and drawings under the supervision of the Neapolitan court painter, Giovani Lusieri.[9] According to a Turkish local, marble sculptures that fell were being burned to obtain lime for building.[9] Although his original intention was only to document the sculptures, in 1801 Lord Elgin began to remove material from the Parthenon and its surrounding structures[30] under the supervision of Lusieri. Pieces were also removed from the Erechtheion, the Propylaia, and the Temple of Athena Nike, all inside the Acropolis.
The excavation and removal was completed in 1812 at a personal cost to Elgin of around £70,000.[31] Elgin intended to use the marbles to decorate Broomhall House, his private home near Dunfermline in Scotland,[32] but a costly divorce suit forced him to sell them to settle his debts.[33] Elgin sold the Parthenon Marbles to the British government for less than it cost him to procure them, declining higher offers from other potential buyers, including Napoleon.[30]
Main articles: Parthenon Frieze and Metopes of the Parthenon
The Parthenon Marbles acquired by Elgin include some 21 figures from the statuary from the east and west pediments, 15 of an original 92 metope panels depicting battles between the Lapiths and the Centaurs, as well as 75 meters of the Parthenon Frieze which decorated the horizontal course set above the interior architrave of the temple. As such, they represent more than half of what now remains of the surviving sculptural decoration of the Parthenon.
Elgin's acquisitions also included objects from other buildings on the Athenian Acropolis: a Caryatid from Erechtheum; four slabs from the parapet frieze of the Temple of Athena Nike; and a number of other architectural fragments of the Parthenon, Propylaia, Erechtheum, the Temple of Athene Nike, and the Treasury of Atreus.
Legality of the removal from Athens[edit]
The Acropolis was at that time an Ottoman military fort, so Elgin required special permission to enter the site, the Parthenon, and the surrounding buildings. He stated that he had obtained a firman from the Sultan which allowed his artists to access the site, but he was unable to produce the original documentation. However, Elgin presented a document claimed to be an English translation of an Italian copy made at the time. This document is now kept in the British Museum.[34] Its authenticity has been questioned, as it lacked the formalities characterising edicts from the sultan. Vassilis Demetriades, Professor of Turkish Studies at the University of Crete, has argued that "any expert in Ottoman diplomatic language can easily ascertain that the original of the document which has survived was not a firman".[7] The document was recorded in an appendix of an 1816 parliamentary committee report. 'The committee permission' had convened to examine a request by Elgin asking the British government to purchase the Marbles. The report said that the document[35] in the appendix was an accurate translation, in English, of an Ottoman firman dated July 1801. In Elgin's view it amounted to an Ottoman authorisation to remove the marbles. The committee was told that the original document was given to Ottoman officials in Athens in 1801. Researchers have so far failed to locate it despite the fact that firmans, being official decrees by the Sultan, were meticulously recorded as a matter of procedure, and that the Ottoman archives in Istanbul still hold a number of similar documents dating from the same period.[6]
The parliamentary record shows that the Italian copy of the firman was not presented to the committee by Elgin himself but by one of his associates, the clergyman Rev. Philip Hunt. Hunt, who at the time resided in Bedford, was the last witness to appear before the committee and stated that he had in his possession an Italian translation of the Ottoman original. He went on to explain that he had not brought the document, because, upon leaving Bedford, he was not aware that he was to testify as a witness. The English document in the parliamentary report was filed by Hunt, but the committee was not presented with the Italian translation in Hunt's possession. William St. Clair, a contemporary biographer of Lord Elgin, said he possessed Hunt's Italian document and "vouches for the accuracy of the English translation". The committee report states on page 69 "(Signed with a signet.) Seged Abdullah Kaimacan" - however, the document presented to the committee was "an English translation of this purported translation into Italian of the original firman",[36] and had neither signet nor signature on it, a fact corroborated by St. Clair.[37] The 1967 study by British historian William St. Clair, Lord Elgin and the Marbles, stated the sultan did not allow the removal of statues and reliefs from the Parthenon. The study judged a clause authorizing the British to take stones "with old inscriptions and figures" probably meant items in the excavations the site, not the art decorating the temples.[38]
The document allowed Elgin and his team to erect scaffolding so as to make drawings and mouldings in chalk or gypsum, as well as to measure the remains of the ruined buildings and excavate the foundations which may have become covered in the [ghiaja (meaning gravel, debris)]; and "...that when they wish to take away [qualche (meaning 'some' or 'a few')] pieces of stone with old inscriptions or figures thereon, that no opposition be made thereto". The interpretation of these lines has been questioned even by non-restitutionalists,[39][40] particularly the word qualche, which in modern language should be translated as a few but can also mean any. According to non-restitutionalists, further evidence that the removal of the sculptures by Elgin was approved by the Ottoman authorities is shown by a second firman which was required for the shipping of the marbles from Piraeus.[41]
Many have questioned the legality of Elgin's actions, including the legitimacy of the documentation purportedly authorising them. A study by Professor David Rudenstine of the Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law concluded that the premise that Elgin obtained legal title to the marbles, which he then transferred to the British government, "is certainly not established and may well be false".[42] Rudenstine's argumentation is partly based on a translation discrepancy he noticed between the surviving Italian document and the English text submitted by Hunt to the parliamentary committee. The text from the committee report reads "We therefore have written this Letter to you, and expedited it by Mr. Philip Hunt, an English Gentleman, Secretary of the aforesaid Ambassador" but according to the St. Clair Italian document the actual wording is "We therefore have written this letter to you and expedited it by N.N.". In Rudenstine's view, this substitution of "Mr. Philip Hunt" with the initials "N.N." can hardly be a simple mistake. He further argues that the document was presented after the committee's insistence that some form of Ottoman written authorisation for the removal of the marbles be provided, a fact known to Hunt by the time he testified. Thus, according to Rudenstine, "Hunt put himself in a position in which he could simultaneously vouch for the authenticity of the document and explain why he alone had a copy of it fifteen years after he surrendered the original to Ottoman officials in Athens". On two earlier occasions, Elgin stated that the Ottomans gave him written permissions more than once, but that he had "retained none of them." Hunt testified on March 13, and one of the questions asked was "Did you ever see any of the written permissions which were granted [to Lord Elgin] for removing the Marbles from the Temple of Minerva?" to which Hunt answered "yes", adding that he possessed an Italian translation of the original firman. Nonetheless, he did not explain why he had retained the translation for 15 years, whereas Elgin, who had testified two weeks earlier, knew nothing about the existence of any such document.[37]
English travel writer Edward Daniel Clarke, an eyewitness, wrote that the Dizdar, the Ottoman fortress commander on the scene, attempted to stop the removal of the metopes but was bribed to allow it to continue.[43] In contrast, John Merryman, Sweitzer Professor of Law at Stanford Law School and also Professor of Art at Stanford University, putting aside the discrepancy presented by Rudenstine, argues that since the Ottomans had controlled Athens since 1460, their claims to the artefacts were legal and recognisable. The Ottoman sultan was grateful to the British for repelling Napoleonic expansion, and the Parthenon marbles had no sentimental value to him.[30] Further, that written permission exists in the form of the firman, which is the most formal kind of permission available from that government, and that Elgin had further permission to export the marbles, legalises his (and therefore the British Museum's) claim to the Marbles.[41] He does note, though, that the clause concerning the extent of Ottoman authorisation to remove the marbles "is at best ambiguous", adding that the document "provides slender authority for the massive removals from the Parthenon ... The reference to 'taking away any pieces of stone' seems incidental, intended to apply to objects found while excavating. That was certainly the interpretation privately placed on the firman by several of the Elgin party, including Lady Elgin. Publicly, however, a different attitude was taken, and the work of dismantling the sculptures on the Parthenon and packing them for shipment to England began in earnest. In the process, Elgin's party damaged the structure, leaving the Parthenon not only denuded of its sculptures but further ruined by the process of removal. It is certainly arguable that Elgin exceeded the authority granted in the firman in both respects".[44]
The issue of firmans of this nature, along with universally required bribes, was not unusual at this time: In 1801 for example, Edward Clarke and his assistant Cripps, obtained an authorisation from the governor of Athens for the removal of a statue of the goddess Demeter which was at Eleusis, with the intervention of Italian artist Giovanni Battista Lusieri who was Lord Elgin's assistant at the time.[45] Prior to Clarke, the statue had been discovered in 1676 by the traveller George Wheler, and since then several ambassadors had submitted unsuccessful applications for its removal,[46][47] but Clarke had been the one to remove the statue by force,[48] after bribing the waiwode of Athens and obtaining a firman,[46] despite the objections and a riot,[48][49] of the local population who unofficially, and against the traditions of the iconoclastic Church, worshiped the statue as the uncanonised Saint Demetra (Greek: Αγία Δήμητρα).[48] The people would adorn the statue with garlands,[48] and believed that the goddess was able to bring fertility to their fields and that the removal of the statue would cause that benefit to disappear.[46][48][50][51] Clarke also removed other marbles from Greece such as a statue of Pan, a figure of Eros, a comic mask, various reliefs and funerary steles, amongst others. Clarke donated these to the University of Cambridge and subsequently in 1803 the statue of Demeter was displayed at the university library. The collection was later moved to the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge where it formed one of the two main collections of the institution.[46]
Contemporary reaction[edit]
A portrait depicting the Elgin Marbles in a temporary Elgin Room at the British Museum surrounded by museum staff, a trustee and visitors, 1819
When the marbles were shipped to England, they were "an instant success among many"[9] who admired the sculptures and supported their arrival, but both the sculptures and Elgin also received criticism from detractors. Lord Elgin began negotiations for the sale of the collection to the British Museum in 1811, but negotiations failed despite the support of British artists[9] after the government showed little interest. Many Britons opposed purchase of the statues because they were in bad condition and therefore did not display the "ideal beauty" found in other sculpture collections.[9] The following years marked an increased interest in classical Greece, and in June 1816, after parliamentary hearings, the House of Commons offered £35,000 in exchange for the sculptures. Even at the time the acquisition inspired much debate, although it was supported by "many persuasive calls" for the purchase.[9]
Lord Byron strongly objected to the removal of the marbles from Greece, denouncing Elgin as a vandal.[10] His point of view about the removal of the Marbles from Athens is also mentioned in his narrative poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, published in 1812, which itself was largely inspired by Byron's travels around the Mediterranean and the Aegean Sea between 1809 and 1811:[52]
Dull is the eye that will not weep to see
Thy walls defaced, thy mouldering shrines removed
By British hands, which it had best behoved
To guard those relics ne'er to be restored.
Curst be the hour when from their isle they roved,
And once again thy hapless bosom gored,
And snatch'd thy shrinking gods to northern climes abhorred!
Byron was not the only one to protest against the removal at the time:
"The Honourable Lord has taken advantage of the most unjustifiable means and has committed the most flagrant pillages. It was, it seems, fatal that a representative of our country loot those objects that the Turks and other barbarians had considered sacred," said Sir John Newport.[53]
Edward Daniel Clarke witnessed the removal of the metopes and called the action a "spoliation", writing that "thus the form of the temple has sustained a greater injury than it had already experienced from the Venetian artillery," and that "neither was there a workman employed in the undertaking ... who did not express his concern that such havoc should be deemed necessary, after moulds and casts had been already made of all the sculpture which it was designed to remove."[43] When Sir Francis Ronalds visited Athens and Giovanni Battista Lusieri in 1820, he wrote that "If Lord Elgin had possessed real taste in lieu of a covetous spirit he would have done just the reverse of what he has, he would have removed the rubbish and left the antiquities."[54][55]
A parliamentary committee investigating the situation concluded that the monuments were best given "asylum" under a "free government" such as the British one.[9] In 1810, Elgin published a defence of his actions,[4] but the subject remained controversial.[citation needed] John Keats viewed them in 1817 when they were exhibited in the British Museum, hence his famous sonnet about the marbles titled "On Seeing the Elgin Marbles". Notable supporters of Elgin included the painter Benjamin Robert Haydon.[9]
A public debate in Parliament followed Elgin's publication, and Parliament again exonerated Elgin's actions. Parliament decided to purchase the marbles for the "British nation" in 1816 by a vote of 82–30 for £35,000.[10] They were deposited in the British Museum, where they were displayed in the Elgin Saloon (constructed in 1832), until the Duveen Gallery was completed in 1939. Crowds packed the British Museum to view the sculptures, setting attendance records for the museum.[9] William Wordsworth viewed the marbles at the museum and commented favourably on their aesthetics.[56]
Damage[edit]
Morosini[edit]
East Pediment
Prior damage to the marbles was sustained during successive wars, and it was during such conflicts that the Parthenon and its artwork sustained, by far, the most extensive damage. In particular, an explosion ignited by Venetian gun and cannon-fire bombardment in 1687, whilst the Parthenon was used as a munitions store during the Ottoman rule, destroyed or damaged many pieces of Parthenon art, including some of that later taken by Lord Elgin.[57] It was this explosion that sent the marble roof, most of the cella walls, 14 columns from the north and south peristyles, and carved metopes and frieze blocks flying and crashing to the ground, destroying much of the artwork. Further damage to the Parthenon's artwork occurred when the Venetian general Francesco Morosini looted the site of its larger sculptures. The tackle he was using to remove the sculptures proved to be faulty and snapped, dropping an over-life-sized sculpture of Poseidon and the horses of Athena's chariot from the west pediment on to the rock of the Acropolis 40 feet (12 m) below.[58]
War of Independence[edit]
The Erechtheion was used as a munitions store by the Ottomans during the Greek War of Independence[59] (1821–1833) which ended the 355-year Ottoman rule of Athens. The Acropolis was besieged twice during the war, first by the Greeks in 1821–22 and then by the Ottoman forces in 1826–27. During the first siege the besieged Ottoman forces attempted to melt the lead in the columns to cast bullets, even prompting the Greeks to offer their own bullets to the Ottomans in order to minimize damage.[60]
Elgin[edit]
Elgin consulted with Italian sculptor Antonio Canova in 1803 about how best to restore the marbles. Canova was considered by some to be the world's best sculptural restorer of the time; Elgin wrote that Canova declined to work on the marbles for fear of damaging them further.[9]
To facilitate transport by Elgin, the columns' capitals and many metopes and frieze slabs were either hacked off the main structure or sawn and sliced into smaller sections, causing irreparable damage to the Parthenon itself.[61][62] One shipload of marbles on board the British brig Mentor [63] was caught in a storm off Cape Matapan in southern Greece and sank near Kythera, but was salvaged at the Earl's personal expense;[64] it took two years to bring them to the surface.
British Museum[edit]
Tools used for the cleaning of the Elgin marbles.[65]
The artefacts held in London suffered from 19th-century pollution which persisted until the mid-20th century and have suffered irreparable damage by previous cleaning methods employed by British Museum staff.[66]
As early as 1838, scientist Michael Faraday was asked to provide a solution to the problem of the deteriorating surface of the marbles. The outcome is described in the following excerpt from the letter he sent to Henry Milman, a commissioner for the National Gallery.[67][68]
The marbles generally were very dirty ... from a deposit of dust and soot. ... I found the body of the marble beneath the surface white. ... The application of water, applied by a sponge or soft cloth, removed the coarsest dirt. ... The use of fine, gritty powder, with the water and rubbing, though it more quickly removed the upper dirt, left much embedded in the cellular surface of the marble. I then applied alkalies, both carbonated and caustic; these quickened the loosening of the surface dirt ... but they fell far short of restoring the marble surface to its proper hue and state of cleanliness. I finally used dilute nitric acid, and even this failed. ... The examination has made me despair of the possibility of presenting the marbles in the British Museum in that state of purity and whiteness which they originally possessed.
A further effort to clean the marbles ensued in 1858. Richard Westmacott, who was appointed superintendent of the "moving and cleaning the sculptures" in 1857, in a letter approved by the British Museum Standing Committee on 13 March 1858 concluded[69]
I think it my duty to say that some of the works are much damaged by ignorant or careless moulding – with oil and lard – and by restorations in wax and resin. These mistakes have caused discolouration. I shall endeavour to remedy this without, however, having recourse to any composition that can injure the surface of the marble.
Yet another effort to clean the marbles occurred in 1937–38. This time the incentive was provided by the construction of a new Gallery to house the collection. The Pentelic marble mined from Mount Pentelicus north of Athens, from which the sculptures are made, naturally acquires a tan colour similar to honey when exposed to air; this colouring is often known as the marble's "patina"[70] but Lord Duveen, who financed the whole undertaking, acting under the misconception that the marbles were originally white[71] probably arranged for the team of masons working in the project to remove discolouration from some of the sculptures. The tools used were seven scrapers, one chisel and a piece of carborundum stone. They are now deposited in the British Museum's Department of Preservation.[71][72] The cleaning process scraped away some of the detailed tone of many carvings.[73] According to Harold Plenderleith, the surface removed in some places may have been as much as one-tenth of an inch (2.5 mm).[71]
The British Museum has responded with the statement that "mistakes were made at that time."[74] On another occasion it was said that "the damage had been exaggerated for political reasons" and that "the Greeks were guilty of excessive cleaning of the marbles before they were brought to Britain."[72] During the international symposium on the cleaning of the marbles, organised by the British Museum in 1999, curator Ian Jenkins, deputy keeper of Greek and Roman antiquities, remarked that "The British Museum is not infallible, it is not the Pope. Its history has been a series of good intentions marred by the occasional cock-up, and the 1930s cleaning was such a cock-up". Nonetheless, he claimed that the prime cause for the damage inflicted upon the marbles was the 2000-year-long weathering on the Acropolis.[75]
American archeologist Dorothy King, in a newspaper article, wrote that techniques similar to the ones used in 1937–38 were applied by Greeks as well in more recent decades than the British, and maintained that Italians still find them acceptable.[30] The British Museum said that a similar cleaning of the Temple of Hephaestus in the Athenian Agora was carried out by the conservation team of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens[76] in 1953 using steel chisels and brass wire.[64] According to the Greek ministry of Culture, the cleaning was carefully limited to surface salt crusts.[75] The 1953 American report concluded that the techniques applied were aimed at removing the black deposit formed by rain-water and "brought out the high technical quality of the carving" revealing at the same time "a few surviving particles of colour".[76]
Documents released by the British Museum under the Freedom of Information Act revealed that a series of minor accidents, thefts and acts of vandalism by visitors have inflicted further damage to the sculptures.[77] This includes an incident in 1961 when two schoolboys knocked off a part of a centaur's leg. In June 1981, a west pediment figure was slightly chipped by a falling glass skylight, and in 1966 four shallow lines were scratched on the back of one of the figures by vandals. In 1970 letters were scratched on to the upper right thigh of another figure. Four years later, the dowel hole in a centaur's hoof was damaged by thieves trying to extract pieces of lead.[77]
Section of a frieze from the Elgin Marbles
Athens[edit]
Air pollution and acid rain have damaged the marble and stonework.[78] The last remaining slabs from the western section of the Parthenon frieze were removed from the monument in 1993 for fear of further damage.[79] They have now been transported to the New Acropolis Museum.[78]
Until cleaning of the remaining marbles was completed in 2005,[80] black crusts and coatings were present on the marble surface.[81] The laser technique applied on the 14 slabs that Elgin did not remove revealed a surprising array of original details, such as the original chisel marks and the veins on the horses' bellies. Similar features in the British Museum collection have been scraped and scrubbed with chisels to make the marbles look white.[82][83] Between January 20 and the end of March 2008, 4200 items (sculptures, inscriptions small terracotta objects), including some 80 artefacts dismantled from the monuments in recent years, were removed from the old museum on the Acropolis to the new Parthenon Museum.[84][85] Natural disasters have also affected the Parthenon. In 1981, an earthquake caused damage to the east façade.[86]
Since 1975, Greece has been restoring the Acropolis. This restoration has included replacing the thousands of rusting iron clamps and supports that had previously been used, with non-corrosive titanium rods;[87] removing surviving artwork from the building into storage and subsequently into a new museum built specifically for the display of the Parthenon art; and replacing the artwork with high-quality replicas. This process has come under fire from some groups as some buildings have been completely dismantled, including the dismantling of the Temple of Athena Nike and for the unsightly nature of the site due to the necessary cranes and scaffolding.[87] But the hope is to restore the site to some of its former glory, which may take another 20 years and 70 million euros, though the prospect of the Acropolis being "able to withstand the most extreme weather conditions – earthquakes" is "little consolation to the tourists visiting the Acropolis" according to The Guardian.[87] Under continuous international pressure, Directors of the British Museum have not ruled out agreeing to what they call a "temporary" loan to the new museum, but state that it would be under the condition of Greece acknowledging the British Museum's claims to ownership.[53]
A temporary exhibition at the Acropolis Museum is held to commemorate the major scientific and technical work carried out on the Acropolis monuments. Curated by the Committee for the Conservation of the Acropolis Monuments and the Acropolis Restoration Service, 'CHISEL AND MEMORY. The contribution of marble craftsmanship to the restoration of the Acropolis monuments'[3]. This is an exceptional exhibition of photographs of the marble craftsmen of the Acropolis at work. The exhibition presents over forty years of photographs and documentation from the restoration works grouped in six themes: self-denial, labour, cooperation, zeal, pride and companionship. Presenting the human element and the emotions that the workers experienced in the process of monument restoration. Marble craftsmen dominate the worksite, like forms in flight balancing on towering scaffolds, manoeuvring the huge blocks of marble and conservation materials into and out of position. Equally impressive are the images that capture the craftsmen's techniques embodying centuries-old expertise and others showing their use of the state of the art technologies.
The Parthenon. The treatment of the first drum filling from the fifth column of the south colonnade (1993).
The Parthenon. Shaping a column-capital filling from the pronaos with the use of a pointing device (2001)
Relocation debate[edit]
Rationale for returning to Athens[edit]
Those arguing for the Marbles' return claim legal, moral and artistic grounds. Their arguments include:
The main stated aim of the Greek campaign is to reunite the Parthenon sculptures around the world in order to restore "organic elements" which "at present remain without cohesion, homogeneity and historicity of the monument to which they belong" and allow visitors to better appreciate them as a whole;[88][89][90]
Presenting all the extant Parthenon Marbles in their original historical and cultural environment would permit their "fuller understanding and interpretation";[89][91]
Precedents have been set with the return of fragments of the monument by Sweden,[92] the University of Heidelberg, Germany,[93] the Getty Museum in Los Angeles[93] and the Vatican;[94]
The marbles may have been obtained illegally and hence should be returned to their rightful owner;[95]
Returning the Parthenon sculptures (Greece is requesting only the return of sculptures from this particular building) would not set a precedent for other restitution claims because of the distinctively "universal value" of the Parthenon;[96]
Safekeeping of the marbles would be ensured at the New Acropolis Museum, situated to the south of the Acropolis hill. It was built to hold the Parthenon sculpture in natural sunlight that characterises the Athenian climate, arranged in the same way as they would have been on the Parthenon. The museum's facilities have been equipped with state-of-the-art technology for the protection and preservation of exhibits;[97]
The friezes are part of a single work of art, thus it was unintended that fragments of this piece be scattered across different locations;
Casts of the marbles would be just as able to demonstrate the cultural influences which Greek sculptures have had upon European art as would the original marbles, whereas the context with which the marbles belong cannot be replicated within the British Museum;
A poll suggested that more British people (37%) supported the marbles' restoration to Greece than opposed it (23%).[98]
Rationale for retaining in London[edit]
A range of different arguments have been presented by scholars,[53] British political leaders and British Museum spokespersons over the years in defence of retention of the Elgin Marbles by the British Museum. The main points include:
the assertion that fulfilling all restitution claims would empty most of the world's great museums – this has also caused concerns among other European and American museums, with one potential target being the famous bust of Nefertiti in Berlin's Neues Museum; in addition, portions of Parthenon marbles are kept by many other European museums.[30] Advocates of the British Museum's position also point out that the Marbles in Britain receive about 6 million visitors per year as opposed to 1.5 million visitors to the Acropolis Museum. The removal of the Marbles to Greece would therefore, they argue, significantly reduce the number of people who have the opportunity to visit the Marbles.[99] The English Romantic poet John Keats, and the French sculptor Auguste Rodin, are notable examples of visitors to the Elgin Marbles after their removal to England who subsequently produced famous work inspired by them.[100][101]
the assertion that Greece could mount no court case, because Elgin claims to have been granted permission by what was then Greece's ruling government and a legal principle of limitation would apply, i.e., the ability to pursue claims expires after a period of time prescribed by law;[53]
The last was tested in the English High Court in May 2005 in relation to Nazi-looted Old Master artworks held at the British Museum, which the Museum's Trustees wished to return to the family of the original owner; the Court found that due to the British Museum Act 1963 these works could not be returned without further legislation. The judge, Mr Justice Morritt, found that the Act, which protects the collections for posterity, could not be overridden by a "moral obligation" to return works, even if they are believed to have been plundered.[102][103] It has been argued, however, that the case was not directly relevant to the Elgin Marbles, as it was about a transfer of ownership, and not the loan of artefacts for public exhibition overseas, which is provided for in the 1963 Act.[104]
Another argument for keeping the Elgin Marbles within the UK has been made by J. H. Merryman, Sweitzer Professor of Law at Stanford University and co-operating professor in the Stanford Art Department. He has argued that the Marbles are now established as a significant element of Britain's own cultural history, as "the Elgin Marbles have been in England since 1821 and in that time have become a part of the British cultural heritage."[105] He has also argued that if the Parthenon were actually being restored, there would be a moral argument for returning the Marbles to the temple whence they came, and thus restoring its integrity. The Guardian has written that many among those who support repatriation imply that the marbles would be displayed in their original position on the Parthenon.[30] However, the Greek plan is to transfer them from a museum in London to one in Athens. These arguments are perhaps complicated a little by the completion of the new Acropolis Museum in 2009, where the half not removed by Elgin is now displayed, aligned in orientation and within sight of the Parthenon, with the position of the missing elements clearly marked and space left should they be returned to Athens.[8]
The Trustees of the British Museum make the following statement on the Museum website in response to arguments for the relocation of the Elgin Marbles to the Acropolis Museum: "The Acropolis Museum allows the Parthenon sculptures that are in Athens to be appreciated against the backdrop of ancient Greek and Athenian history. This display does not alter the Trustees' view that the sculptures are part of everyone's shared heritage and transcend cultural boundaries. The Trustees remain convinced that the current division allows different and complementary stories to be told about the surviving sculptures, highlighting their significance for world culture and affirming the universal legacy of ancient Greece."[106]
Public perception of the issue[edit]
Popular support for restitution[edit]
Outside Greece a campaign for the Return of the Marbles began in 1981 with the formation of the International Organising Committee - Australia - for the Restitution of the Parthenon Marbles, and in 1983 with the formation of the British Committee for the Reunification of the Parthenon Marbles. International organisations such as UNESCO and the International Association for the Reunification of the Parthenon Sculptures, as well as campaign groups such as, Marbles Reunited, and stars of Hollywood, such as George Clooney and Matt Damon, as well as Human Rights activists, lawyers, and the people of the arts, voiced their strong support for the return of the Elgin Marbles to Greece.
American actor George Clooney voiced his support for the return by the United Kingdom and reunification of the Parthenon Marbles in Greece, during his promotional campaign for his 2014 film The Monuments Men which retells the story of Allied efforts to save important masterpieces of art and other culturally important items before their destruction by Hitler and the Nazis during World War II. His remarks regarding the Marbles reignited the debate in the United Kingdom about their return to their home country. Public polls were also carried out by newspapers in response to Clooney's stance on this matter.
An internet campaign site,[107] in part sponsored by Metaxa, aims to consolidate support for the return of the Elgin Marbles to the New Acropolis Museum in Athens.
Noted public intellectual Christopher Hitchens had, at numerous times, argued for their repatriation.[108]
In BBC TV Series QI (S12E07XL), host Stephen Fry provided his support for the return of the Elgin Marbles while recounting the story of the Greeks giving lead shot to their Ottoman Empire enemies, as the Ottomans were running out of ammunition, in order to prevent damage to the Acropolis. Fry had previously written a blog post along much the same lines in December 2011 entitled "A Modest Proposal", signing off with "It's time we lost our marbles".[109]
Opinion polls[edit]
A YouGov poll in 2014 suggested that more British people (37%) supported the marbles' restoration to Greece than opposed it (23%).[98]
In older polls, Ipsos MORI asked in 1998, "If there were a referendum on whether or not the Elgin Marbles should be returned to Greece, how would you vote?" This returned these values from the British general adult population:[110]
40% in favour of returning the marbles to Greece
15% in favour of keeping them at the British Museum
18% would not vote
27% had no opinion
Another opinion poll in 2002 (again carried out by MORI) showed similar results, with 40% of the British public in favour of returning the marbles to Greece, 16% in favour of keeping them within Britain and the remainder either having no opinion or would not vote.[111] When asked how they would vote if a number of conditions were met (including, but not limited to, a long-term loan whereby the British maintained ownership and joint control over maintenance) the number responding in favour of return increased to 56% and those in favour of keeping them dropped to 7%.
Both MORI poll results have been characterised by proponents of the return of the Marbles to Greece as representing a groundswell of public opinion supporting return, since the proportion explicitly supporting return to Greece significantly exceeds the number who are explicitly in favour of keeping the Marbles at the British Museum.[110][112]
Other displaced Parthenon art[edit]
Sculpture of Dionysos from the Parthenon's East Pediment[113]
The remainder of the surviving sculptures that are not in museums or storerooms in Athens are held in museums in various locations across Europe. The British Museum also holds additional fragments from the Parthenon sculptures acquired from various collections that have no connection with Lord Elgin.
The collection held in the British Museum includes the following material from the Acropolis:
Parthenon: 247 ft (75 m) of the original 524 ft (160 m) frieze
15 of the 92 metopes
17 pedimental figures, including a figure of a river-god, possibly the river Ilissos;[114]
various pieces of architecture
Erechtheion: a Caryatid, a column and other architectural members
Propylaia: Architectural members
Temple of Athena Nike: 4 slabs of the frieze and architectural members
British Museum loan[edit]
The British Museum lent the figure of a river-god, possibly the river Ilissos, to the State Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg to celebrate its 250th anniversary.[115] It was on display there from Saturday 6 December 2014 until Sunday 18 January 2015. This was the first time the British Museum had lent part of its Elgin Marbles collection and it caused considerable controversy.[116]
Labour party leader stance and new dimensions to the dispute caused by Brexit[edit]
In a 2018 interview to the Athens newspaper Ta Nea, quoted later in The Independent, the British Labour party leader Jeremy Corbyn did not rule out returning the Marbles to Greece, stating
"As with anything stolen or taken from occupied or colonial possession – including artefacts looted from other countries in the past – we should be engaged in constructive talks with the Greek government about returning the sculptures."[117]
Following the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum, it has been suggested that the United Kingdom may be forced to return the marbles to Greece as a precondition for an agreement on Brexit, as any agreement between the European Union and the United Kingdom has to be approved by European Union member Greece.[118][119][needs update]
Imperial Spoils: The Curious Case of the Elgin Marbles
Greece–United Kingdom relations
Francesco Morosini
Persepolis Administrative Archives
University of Chicago Persian antiquities crisis
Palermo Fragment
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^ a b David Rudenstein (29 May 2000). "Did Elgin Cheat at Marbles?". Nation. 270 (21): 30. Yet no researcher has ever located this Ottoman document and when l was in Instanbul I searched in vain for it or any copy of it, or any reference to it in other sorts of documents or a description of its substantive terms in any related official papers. Although a document of some sort may have existed, it seems to have vanished into thin air, despite the fact the Ottoman archives contain an enormous number of similar documents from the period.
^ a b Professor Vassilis Demetriades. "WAS THE REMOVAL OF THE MARBLES ILLEGAL?". newmentor.net.
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^ Brian Fagan (2006). From Stonehenge to Samarkand: An Anthology of Archaeological Travel Writing. Oxford University Press. p. 54. ISBN 978-0-19-516091-8. Clarke and Cripps greatly admired the statue, which weighed over 2 tons (1.8 tonnes) and decided to take it to England. They were lucky to obtain a firman from the governor of Athens with the help of the gifted Italian artist Giovanni Lusieri, who was at the time working for Lord Elgin.
^ a b c d Wroth, Warwick William (1887). "Clarke, Edward Daniel" . In Stephen, Leslie (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. 10. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 422. His chief prize was obtained at Eleusis, whence he succeeded in carrying off the colossal Greek statue (of the fourth or third ...) supposed by Clarke to be ' Ceres ' (Demeter) herself, but now generally called a ' Kistophoros '... statue and with Clarke's other Greek marbles, was wrecked near Beachy Head, not far from the home of Mr. Cripps, whose ...
^ Nigel Spivey (2013). Greek Sculpture. Cambridge University Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-1-107-06704-2.
^ a b c d e John Cuthbert Lawson (2012). Modern Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek Religion: A Study in Survivals. Cambridge University Press. pp. 79–80. ISBN 978-1-107-67703-6. Further, in open defiance of an iconoclastic Church, they retained an old statue of Demeter, and merely prefixing the title 'saint ' to the ... Then, in 1801, two Englishmen, named Clarke and Cripps, armed by the Turkish authorities with a license to plunder, perpetrated an act ... and in spite of a riot among the peasants of Eleusis removed by force the venerable marble; and that which was the visible form of ...
^ Patrick Leigh Fermor (1984). Mani: Travels in the Southern Peloponnese. Penguin Books. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-14-011511-6. uncanonical 'St. Demetra', was Eleusis, the former home of her most sacred rites in the Eleusinian mysteries. ... for prosperous harvests until two Englishmen called Clark and Cripps, armed with a document from the local pasha, carried her off from the heart of the outraged and rioting peasantry, in 1801. ...
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^ Oddy, Andrew, "The Conservation of Marble Sculptures in the British Museum before 1975", in Studies in Conservation, vol. 47, no. 3, (2002), p. 146
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King, Dorothy (2006). The Elgin Marbles. London: Hutchinson. ISBN 978-0-09-180013-0.
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Dürer's Rhinoceros
Isabella Brant
The Ancient of Days
The Disasters of War
The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies
Triumphal Arch
Conservation and Scientific Research
Portable Antiquities and Treasure
British Museum Act 1902
Films shot at the British Museum
Royal Commission on the British Museum
Secretum
Acropolis of Athens
Existent structures
Propylaea
Temple of Athena Nike
Odeon of Herodes Atticus
Pedestal of Agrippa
Stoa of Eumenes
Sanctuary of Asclepius
Theatre of Dionysus Eleuthereus
Aglaureion
Former structures
Pelasgic wall
Hekatompedon temple
Older Parthenon
Old Temple of Athena
Perserschutt
Statue of Athena Promachos
Statue of Athena Parthenos
Sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia
Chalkotheke
Pandroseion
Arrephorion
Altar of Athena
Eleusinion
Nike of Callimachus
Sanctuary of Pandion
Sanctuary of Zeus Polieus
Odeon of Pericles
Frankish Tower
Themistocles
Ictinus
Callicrates
Mnesikles
Xerxes I
Mardonius
Lord Elgin
Giovanni Battista Lusieri
Reverend Philip Hunt
Old Acropolis Museum
Museum of the Center for the Acropolis Studies
Elgin Marbles at the British Museum
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elgin_Marbles&oldid=904663975"
Art and cultural repatriation
Greek and Roman objects in the British Museum
History of museums
History of Athens
Marble sculptures in the United Kingdom
Sculptures by Phidias
Archaeological discoveries in Greece
19th century in Athens
Horses in art
Wikipedia articles in need of updating from May 2019


text:
Contrada est une commune de la province d'Avellino dans la région Campanie en Italie.

Administration

Hameaux

Communes limitrophes
Aiello del Sabato, Avellino, Forino, Monteforte Irpino, Montoro, Solofra

Notes et références

Commune dans la province d'Avellino

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
PSY 315: Childhood Disorders
Guide to library resources to support the child and adolescent psychopathology course
Danielle Masursky
Subjects:Anthropology, Economics, History, Law & Legal Studies, Political Science, Psychology, Sociology, Statistics & Data
Dying to be Thin (2000) - DVD
Looks at the eating disorders anorexia nervosa and bulimia, current research (psychological and biological) and treatments, and the American obsession with thin women. Interviews health experts and models, ballet dancers, and other young women who are seeking recovery or have conquered their disease.
The Silent hunger : anorexia and bulimia (streaming)
This program answers two important questions: what are eating disorders, and what causes them? The program specifically examines anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating syndrome. Seven females who have all suffered from eating disorders, the father of a woman who died as a result of her disorder, and health professionals offer their insights and knowledge. These interviews are highlighted by dramatic sequences designed to encourage a greater understanding of the issues and emotions associated with eating disorders.
Childhood Mental Health Disorders
Call Number: ebook
Comprehensive report, based on a thorough review of the literature, on the current effective use, sequencing, comparative risks/benefits, and integration of psychotropic medications and psychosocial interventions for children and adolescents. Intended as a basic yet comprehensive framework for mental health providers. The disorders addressed include attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, autism and schizophrenia, and others.
Eating Disorders in Children and Adolescents by Daniel Le Grange (Editor); James Lock (Editor)
Call Number: WS130 .E14
Bringing together leading authorities, this comprehensive volume integrates the best current knowledge and treatment approaches for eating disorders in children and adolescents. The book reveals how anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and other disorders present differently developmentally and explains their potentially far-reaching impact on psychological, physical, and neurobiological development. It provides guidelines for developmentally sound assessment and diagnosis, with attention to assessment challenges unique to this population. Detailed descriptions of evidence-based therapies are illustrated with vivid case examples.
Fasting Girls: A history of anorexia nervosa by Joan Jacobs Brumberg
Call Number: WM 175 B893f 2000
A history of women's food-refusal dating back as far as the sixteenth century. A tableau of female self-denial. Incisive, compassionate, illuminating, offering real understanding to victims and their families, clinicians, and all women who are interested in the origins and future of this complex, modern and characteristically female disease.
Wasted by Heath A. Diehl
Departing from the scholarly treatment of addiction, this book instead focuses on the lived experience of addiction and the ways in which it is shaped by a 'metaphor of waste', from the manner in which people describe the addict, the experience of inebriation or his or her systematic exclusion from various aspects of American culture. Analyses scientific and popular cultural texts such as novels and films, scholarly or medical models of addiction, reality television, TV drama, public health and anti-addiction campaigns, and the lives of celebrities who struggled with addiction. It advances the idea that addiction constitutes a site of social control beyond the individual, through which American citizenship is regulated and the 'nation' itself is imagined, demarcated, and contained. As such, it will appeal to scholars of popular culture, cultural and media studies, performance studies, sociology and American culture.
Psychobiology and Treatment of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa by Katherine A. Halmi (Editor); American Psychopathological Association Staff
Call Number: WM175 .P9735
Brings together the most recent clinical research concerning all facets of these distinct but interrelated disorders, providing a current overview of the psychobiology and treatment of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Reviews a diagnostic schema of eating disorders from the perspectives of cross-cultural, longitudinal, and family studies. It presents the psychobiology of anorexia and bulimia nervosa in the context of neuroendocrinology and the psychological perceptions associated with eating behavior. The book also examines the family's contribution to the development and maintenance of eating disorders from the perspective of family interaction studies. The final section of this book reviews the latest developments in therapy and treatments.
Psychological Responses to Eating Disorders and Obesity by Julian Buckroyd; Sharon Rother (Editor)
Brings together many of the most distinguished researchers and clinicians in the field of food misuse. It presents current research while focusing on the application of this new knowledge. It covers both eating disorders and obesity in one volume, thus positioning obesity firmly at one end of the food misuse continuum. Includes psychological and cultural aspects of food use, using CBT for treating eating disorders, and CBT group therapy for obesity.
More Than Moody: recognizing and treating adolescent depression by Harold Koplewicz
Call Number: WM 171 K83m
One of the nation's most distinguished child and adolescent psychiatrists examines the warning signs, risk factors, and key symptoms that offer important clues about depression. He also illustrates a broad range of treatment options including SSRI antidepressants as well as non-pharmaceutical approaches such as cognitive behavior therapy.
BOOK REPORT BOOKS
I Never Promised You a Rose Garden by Hannah Green
Call Number: PS3557.R3784 I6
Semi-autobiographical novel by Joanne Greenberg, written under the pen name of Hannah Green about being diagnosed with schizophrenia
Tweak: Growing up on Methamphedamines by Nic Sheff
Call Number: HV5805.S52 A3
In a voice that is raw and honest, Nic spares no detail in telling the compelling, heartbreaking, and true story of his relapse and the road to recovery. Nic paints a picture of a person at odds with his past, with his family, with his substances, and with himself. It's a harrowing portrait--but not one without hope.
Beautiful Boy by David Sheff
Call Number: HV5831.C2 S54
What had happened to my beautiful boy? To our family? What did I do wrong? Those are the wrenching questions that haunted David Sheff's journey through his son Nic's addiction to drugs and tentative steps toward recovery.
Girl, Interrupted by Susanna Kaysen
Call Number: WM 100 K23g
In 1967, after a session with a psychiatrist she'd never seen before, 18-year-old Susanna Kaysen was put in a taxi and sent to McLean Hospital. She spent most of the next two years on the ward for teenage girls. Kaysen's memoir encompasses horror and razor-edged perception while providing vivid portraits of her fellow patients and their keepers.
Go Ask Alice by Anonymous
Call Number: PZ7.G534 Go
Based on the diary of a 15-year-old drug user chronicling her struggle to escape the pull of the drug world
Next to Nothing: a firsthand account of one teenager's experience with an eating disorder by Carrie Arnold; B. Timothy Walsh
Carrie Arnold developed anorexia as an adolescent and nearly lost her life to the disease. She tells the story of her descent into anorexia, how and why she fell victim to this mysterious illness, and how she was able to seek help and recover after years of therapy and hardwork.
Wasted: a memoir of anorexia and bulimia by Marya Hornbacher
Call Number: WM 175 H814
Why would a talented young girl go through the looking glass and step into a netherworld where up is down and food is greed, where death is honor and flesh is weak? In this vivid, emotionally wrenching memoir, she re-creates the experience and illuminates the tangle of personal, family, and cultural causes that underlie eating disorders. Wasted is the story of one woman's travels to the darker side of reality, and her decision to find her way back -- on her own terms.
Inner Hunger: a young woman's struggle through anorexia and bulimia by Marianne Apostolides
Call Number: WM 175 A64i
A painful, powerful, and ultimately enriching account of what it feels like to be young, confused, and controlled by food. A story of anguish, frustration, and ultimately, triumph.
URL: https://resources.library.lemoyne.edu/courses/psy315

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Medetera liwo är en tvåvingeart som beskrevs av Daniel J. Bickel 1987. Medetera liwo ingår i släktet Medetera och familjen styltflugor.

Artens utbredningsområde är Filippinerna. Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.

Källor

Styltflugor
liwo


Walk in the footsteps of the Yardmen who 'built the ships that would wear out the oceans' on this half day exploration of east Belfast. Head for some liquid refreshment in the Harland & Wolff Welder's Club to meet some of the men and women who worked in the shipyard through the years. Pick up a Yardmen Walking Trail Map (£1) from EastSide Visitor Centre or download the Yardmen Walking Trail Map before you set off.
Shipyard Murals, Templemore Public Baths, McMaster Street, The Great Eastern Bar, Westbourne Church (Shipyard Church), Pitt Park and the Yardmen sculpture.


text:
Treach Net Worth 2019, Bio, Age, Height
In our present article we will talk about music and we will introduce you to different music directions. Music is a kind of art that exists from the origin of humanity and it has always helped us in all spheres of life.
Music is the meaning of life and without music the whole world would be empty. Music has always been a feeling of freedom and the feeling of emotion, and it has helped us to get rid of stress.
Throughout history, music has always changed and various directions have been created. In this text we will talk about the type of music that came into being during the 80's and which has become very popular in the world today.
We will talk about rap music and this music has become more popular over the years, and in the present time we can find many rappers and various kinds of rap music. Rap music helps people to express their emotions and their personal opinions about happenings in life and in the world.
This music is different from the others because with it we can say everything that is on our souls. From the beginning of this music, to this day we can find different styles and different rappers that have gained popularity all over the world.
If you are interested in this kind of music, then we will present you in this text more details about her and about the rapper with whom we will meet today.
In this article, we will get acquainted with rapper who has long been on rap scene and his artistic name is Treach. Treach was born in 1970 and started his career during the 80's when rap started to evolve. He managed to make many quality songs that are being heard in the present time and he managed to establish cooperation with many popular musicians from the USA.
His career was full of success but also of various events and we can say that he had a very interesting career.
His last solo songs were ejected in 2012, and after that year, Treach was featured on several albums of famous rappers. Treach also made success in his film career and acted in many films during his career. He appeared in various film genres and managed to make additional career success. He made his latest film in 2016, but said that he would continue to engage in this profession in the future.
In this text we will reveal the details of his career and his personal life, and if you are interested in learning more about him, then this text will help you.
Treach or Anthony Criss was born on December 2, 1970 in East Orange, New Jersey, USA. Treach grew up in this city with his parents and with his younger brother who later also started a rap career. His growing up was not easy because his parents were often absent and had to spend a lot of time at work. He spent most of his time with his younger brother and with their grandmother who helped them with growing up.
Anthony, like a young boy, loved music and sports and was not too interested in school. His younger brother also shared similar interests and they were in a great relationship. Anthony finished his elementary school with good success, but in high school he began to record rap music and did not spend too much time in school. His parents felt that he had to devote school, but he thought he would succeed in making a career in rap music.
He recorded his first songs with his younger brother, but these songs were on an amateur level.
In the following period, Treach met a few friends who had similar interests like him and they wanted to make a rap group. Their first songs were amateur, but they helped them to hold their first concert in their city. People in their city thought that they had talent for this kind of music and gave them support. Anthony managed to finish high school, but he did not want to enroll in college.
He decided to try to make a rap career and to provide a good financial profit to his family.
After a few years, his brother also started a rap career and in the following period they made several common rap songs. His poems spoke about everyday life and about the problems of young people. He managed to gain fans from his city, but he wanted to make even more success and to make success throughout the USA.
In the following period he managed to achieve success and become one of the more famous rappers in the USA.
Treach started his professional career when he was 19 years old. In collaboration with several friends he began to record rap songs and their beginning in this music was successful. They began to hold concerts in their city and in the following period managed to hold several concerts throughout the USA.
At the end of 1989 his band, called Naughty by Nature, released their first album called Independent Leaders. This album has achieved a lot of success and this album has opened the door for them to become very successful in this music.
Their second album was released in 1991, and after this album they became very popular throughout the US and around the world.
Their video spots have been shown on many TVs. They continued to hold concerts throughout the United States and by the end of the 1990s they released 2 more albums that brought a lot of success to them.
During these years, Treach has been on albums of many famous rappers and he has collaborated with many pop musicians. He managed to make a success and a financial profit and managed to realize his dreams.
Treach also managed to make a successful film career and his first engagement in the film was in 1992 when he appeared in the movie "Juice". After this year, he proved that he have a talent for acting, and by 2005, he took part in another 5 films.
His roles were secondary, but he proved that he had another great talent. In the following years he also appeared in episodes of several popular TV series and these roles gave him extra profit and added popularity.
He acted in a variety of film genres and his first major role was in 2012 when he starred in "One Blood". His latest film was shot in 2016, but Treach stated that he will continue to act in the future.
In addition to his acting career, he continued to record rap songs and his last studio album in collaboration with his rap group was released in 2011. In the following years he released three more singles and made guest appearances on the albums of famous American rappers.
Treach managed to make a profit of about $ 15 million during his career and made a successful career in music and acting.
He is active on social networks and has over 200,000 followers on his Facebook profile.
Full Name: Anthony Criss
Birthplace: East Orange, New Jersey, USA
Date of birth: December 2, 1970
Profession: Rapper, Actor
Net Worth: $15 million
Ace Hood Net Worth 2019, Bio, Age, Height
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The Beachalm is a fusion of a trendy beach bar with cult potential, culinary food and relaxed atmosphere, the most popular beach on the island. Accessible on foot, by car or by water is this absolute trend location, the interface between the famous marina of Puerto Portals and the famous beach of portals. With us will be there for everyone at all times the right thing: Early risers can look for the regular morning swim, the fitness-conscious breakfast and the most exclusive champagne brunch, get everything. Late risers can enjoy these offers, of course, to 13.00. Vitamin rich salads, delicious bocadillos or a delicious piece of meatand fish beautifully prepared, can also radiate the heart of a gourmet. Sunny warm, with always a light Mediterranean breeze, it sits just perfect and expanded in Beachalm. Take a look, we are waiting!


text:
/**
 * spark_src
 */
package com.xiongyingqi.util;

import java.lang.reflect.Field;
import java.lang.reflect.InvocationTargetException;
import java.lang.reflect.Method;
import java.util.*;

/**
 * @author XiongYingqi
 * @version 2013-6-25 下午9:41:57
 */
public class ComparatorHelper<T> {

    @SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
    public List sortByNumber(Collection<? extends T> collection, final boolean asc) {
        List list = new ArrayList();
        list.addAll(collection);
        Collections.sort(list, new Comparator<T>() {
            @Override
            public int compare(T o1, T o2) {
                int result = 0;
                if (o1 instanceof Number && o1 instanceof Number) {
                    Number number1 = (Number) o1;
                    Number number2 = (Number) o2;
                    if (number1.hashCode() < number2.hashCode()) {
                        result = -1;
                    } else if (number1.hashCode() > number2.hashCode()) {
                        result = -1;
                    }
                    if (!asc) {
                        result = -result;
                    }
                }
                return result;
            }
        });
        return list;
    }

    /**
     * 按照日期进行排序

     * 2013-6-25 下午9:46:45
     *
     * @param collection 要排序的集合
     * @param field      指定排序的时间字段
     * @param asc        是否按正序排序
     * @return List
     */
    @SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
    public List sortByDateTime(Collection<? extends T> collection, final Field field,
                               final boolean asc) {
        if (collection == null) {
            return null;
        }
        List list = new ArrayList();
        list.addAll(collection);
        Collections.sort(list, new Comparator<T>() {
            @Override
            public int compare(T o1, T o2) {
                Object object = invokeMethod(o1, field);
                Object object2 = invokeMethod(o2, field);
                if (object == null || object2 == null) {
                    return 0;
                }
                int value = 0;
                if (object instanceof Date) {
                    Date v1 = (Date) object;
                    Date v2 = (Date) object2;

                    if (v1.getTime() < v2.getTime()) {
                        value = -1;
                    } else if (v1.getTime() > v2.getTime()) {
                        value = 1;
                    }
                    if (!asc) {
                        value = -value;
                    }
                }
                return value;
            }

        });
        return list;
    }

    /**
     * 按照字符串进行排序

     * 2013-6-25 下午9:46:45
     *
     * @param collection 要排序的集合
     * @param field      指定排序的时间字段
     * @param asc        是否按正序排序
     * @return List
     */
    @SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
    public Collection sortByString(Collection<? extends T> collection, final Field field,
                                   final boolean asc) {
        if (collection == null) {
            return null;
        }
        List list = new ArrayList();
        list.addAll(collection);
        Collections.sort(list, new Comparator<T>() {
            @Override
            public int compare(T o1, T o2) {
                Object object = invokeMethod(o1, field);
                Object object2 = invokeMethod(o2, field);
                if (object == null || object2 == null) {
                    return 0;
                }
                int value = 0;
                if (object instanceof String) {
                    String v1 = (String) object;
                    String v2 = (String) object2;
                    if (v1.hashCode() < v2.hashCode()) {
                        value = -1;
                    } else {
                        value = 1;
                    }
                    if (!asc) {
                        value = -value;
                    }
                }
                return value;
            }

        });
        return list;
    }

    private Object invokeMethod(Object target, Field filed) {
        Object returnObject = null;
        Class clazz = target.getClass();
        String fieldName = filed.getName();
        String methodName = "get" + fieldName.substring(0, 1).toUpperCase()
                + fieldName.substring(1);
        try {
            Method method = clazz.getMethod(methodName);
            returnObject = method.invoke(target);
        } catch (SecurityException e) {
            e.printStackTrace();
        } catch (NoSuchMethodException e) {
            e.printStackTrace();
        } catch (IllegalArgumentException e) {
            e.printStackTrace();
        } catch (IllegalAccessException e) {
            e.printStackTrace();
        } catch (InvocationTargetException e) {
            e.printStackTrace();
        }
        return returnObject;
    }

    static class Test {
        String i;

        /**
         * String
         *
         * @return the i
         */
        public String getI() {
            return i;
        }

        /**
         * String
         *
         * @param i the i to set
         */
        public void setI(String i) {
            this.i = i;
        }

        /**
         *

         * 2013-9-11 下午12:01:52
         *
         * @see Object#hashCode()
         */
        @Override
        public int hashCode() {
            return i.hashCode();
        }

    }

    public static void main(String[] args) {
        Random random = new Random();
        Collection<Test> collection = new ArrayList<Test>();
        for (int i = 0; i < 100; i++) {
            String string = random.nextInt(1000) + "";
            Test test = new Test();
            test.setI(string);
            collection.add(test);
        }
        ComparatorHelper comparatorHelper = new ComparatorHelper<Test>();
        try {
            collection = comparatorHelper.sortByString(collection,
                    Test.class.getDeclaredField("i"), true);
        } catch (SecurityException e) {
            e.printStackTrace();
        } catch (NoSuchFieldException e) {
            e.printStackTrace();
        }
        for (Iterator iterator = collection.iterator(); iterator.hasNext(); ) {
            Test test = (Test) iterator.next();
            System.out.println(test.getI());
        }
    }
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


We are very grateful to have had the opportunity to share our story with a number of publications and outlets.
If you would like to get in touch with Emma or any of our talented contributors for an interview or comment please send us an email.
The lovely Wendy Hu, publications director of the Australian National University Fashion and Beauty Appreciation Society, came to take a peek inside Leiden editor Emma Batchelor's wardrobe [23/05/18].
Leiden Editor Emma Batchelor unpacks fashion revolution and explains why it is so important to care about how the clothes we wear are made [24/4/18].
In this interview, Vicky from Rockstars and Royalty chats to Emma from Leiden Magazine about her new book, 'Building a Conscious Wardrobe'. We discuss how we need to change our consumption and shopping habits when it come to fashion and in many other aspects of our lives [29/11/17].
Who Shot The Podcast is a Podcast all about Canberra's creatives, photographers, and creative businesses! In Episode 2 features the founder and editor of Leiden Magazine, talking about her life, adventures with Leiden, and everything in between [26/11/17].
James is a wedding and lifestyle photographer with a love of nature and taking photographing people [18/11/17].
Take a peek inside Leiden Editor's Emma home (and dressing room!) with Ashley Feraude [18/8/17].
Leiden Editor Emma Batchelor chats with Kathryn Vukovljak all about Leiden [2/5/17].
Leiden Editor Emma Batchelor talks to Vicky Kidd-Gallichan about how her love of fashion started and shares advice on how to find the confidence to find your own style [2/5/17].
Alex Tricolas talks about Leiden's first birthday [05/03/17].
Emma Batchelor talks to Bicky Lee from Hot Chicks with Big Brains about fashion, style and launching a new platform [21/3/16].
This is Canberra talks to Emma about the launch of Leiden and a few of her favourite pieces in her wardrobe [10/3/16].


text:
Q: Set Python Path in Windows 10 to Install Third-Party Python Packages My IT department does not give me the ability to use pip or easy install to install Python library packages from PyPi.
At some point I figured out that I could download the Python packages, extract the contents with 7-Zip until I exposed the setup.py file.  Then by opening the command line in this same location I could type
set path=%path%;C:\Python27\ArcGIS10.7\
and
python setup.py install
to install the libraries into my Python directory.  This trick worked perfectly on Windows 7.
I have since been 'upgraded' to Windows 10.  When I try my installation trick the Windows PowerShell returns this
PS C:\TEMP\simplekml-1.3.1> set path=%path%;C:\Python27\ArcGIS10.7\
C:\Python27\ArcGIS10.7\ : The term 'C:\Python27\ArcGIS10.7\' is not recognized as the name of a cmdlet, function,
script file, or operable program. Check the spelling of the name, or if a path was included, verify that the path is
correct and try again.
At line:1 char:17
+ set path=%path%;C:\Python27\ArcGIS10.7\
+                 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+ CategoryInfo          : ObjectNotFound: (C:\Python27\ArcGIS10.7\:String) [], CommandNotFoundException
+ FullyQualifiedErrorId : CommandNotFoundException

How do I install these Python Packages in Windows 10?

A: You are able to edit environment variables like so:
$env:path = $env:path + ";C:\Python27\ArcGIS10.7\"

Please check beforehand if there is a semicolon at the end of $env:path or not.

A: You may not get access to set up the environmental path or any other other files to set up in C: drive, better you download in desktop and unzip the Python files and go to script and go to command prompt with the path and try to install using PIP because you have full control on desktop no need to ask permissions.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange