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npj science of learning
Enhancing learning and retrieval of new information: a review of the forward testing effect
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Chunliang Yang1,
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David R. Shanks1
npj Science of Learning volume 3, Article number: 8 (2018) Cite this article
In recent years evidence has accumulated showing that interim testing of studied information facilitates learning and retrieval of new information—the forward testing effect. In the current article, we review the empirical evidence and putative mechanisms underlying this effect. The possible negative effects of administering interim tests and how these negative effects can be mitigated are discussed. We also propose some important directions for future research to explore. Finally, we summarize the practical implications for optimizing learning and teaching in educational settings.
Mastering a large body of knowledge or set of skills is a considerable challenge given the limits on our cognitive resources. Ever since the founding of experimental psychology, researchers have identified many efficient techniques to optimize learning and memory, such as structuring materials in a spaced way,1 administering quizzes or tests on learned information,2 creating concept maps,3 taking notes while learning,4 and so on.5 In the current article, we focus on a new technique recently developed for improving learning and retrieval of new information—administering interim tests during learning, which induces a beneficial forward testing effect.
Before introducing the forward testing effect, we briefly set the stage by describing the classic testing effect—the backward testing effect—to differentiate these two facilitatory effects of testing. The backward testing effect, which has been explored for over a century6 and in hundreds of studies,5 refers to the finding that testing of studied materials improves retention of those materials over restudying or doing nothing. For example, Roediger and Karpicke2 asked participants to study two passages, with one passage studied twice and the other studied once and tested once. In a test 1 week later, the tested passage was better recalled than the restudied one. The backward testing effect has been repeatedly demonstrated in numerous studies using different educational materials in both laboratories and classrooms (for reviews, see refs.7,8).
In addition, many studies have demonstrated that learning and testing of some information can boost the acquisition rate of new information.9,10 For example, Thune9 had participants study two lists of paired-associates across 2 days. On the first experimental day, participants studied a list of paired-associates, and then took a test on those pairs. Next, they restudied and were again tested on those pairs. This study–test cycle repeated until recall performance was perfect. On the second day, participants performed the same task all over again, except with a new list. Thune observed that participants required fewer cycles to reach the criterion on the second than the first experimental day. This facilitation effect is attributed to two psychological factors: "learning to learn" (i.e., prior learning and testing experiences teach people how to learn new information) and "warm-up" (i.e., prior learning and testing experiences warm people up and prepare them to master new information). Previous learning to learn and warm-up studies largely focused on how prior learning and testing experiences moderate subsequent learning of new information, and those studies did not include control conditions where learning took place without testing. Going beyond this, recent research has established that testing of studied information, by comparison with restudying or no treatment, can enhance learning and retrieval of new information—the forward testing effect.11,12
Although this forward effect has been identified fairly recently, many studies have accumulated exploring its robustness and limits. The most widely used experimental procedure for investigating the effect is illustrated schematically in Fig. 1. Two or three groups of participants are instructed to study a few blocks of computer-presented materials. Prior to study, all participants are warned that they will take a final, cumulative test on all to-be-studied materials. They are also informed that following the study of each block the computer will decide at random whether to give them an interim test on the material contained in that block. However, in fact, the interim test decisions are predetermined. In one experimental group, interim tests are administered after every block. In this review, we term this the Interim Test group. In one or two control groups, participants either take a distractor task (such as solving math problems) or restudy the material after each block except the final block, on which they are tested. We term these two control groups the Interim Distractor and Interim Restudy groups.
Experimental procedure for exploring the forward testing effect. The Interim Test (IT) group takes an interim test after studying each block. The Interim Distractor (ID) group completes a distractor task (e.g., solving math problems) after studying each block (except the final one) and takes an interim test on the final block. The Interim Restudy (IR) group restudies each just-studied block except the final one, and takes an interim test on the final block. All groups take a final, cumulative test following the interim test on the final block
Following the interim test on the final block, all three groups take a cumulative test on all blocks. The key finding is that the Interim Test group performs significantly better in the final block interim test than the control group(s). Almost all previous forward testing effect studies have observed the same result pattern in the cumulative test: the Interim Test group substantially outperformed the control group(s). For the sake of brevity, we do not discuss cumulative test results in this review. The critical finding in the research reviewed here is that despite all groups studying the same material in the final block, and taking an identical test on that material, learning and retrieval of that material is boosted if participants have previously been tested on preceding blocks. As we will describe, it has been established that this forward testing effect is a robust phenomenon across a variety of materials and contexts.
The present review aims to summarize the empirical findings on this topic, offer an overview of possible mechanisms underlying the effect, and discuss the practical implications for optimizing learning and teaching in educational settings. We also provide some suggestions for future research to further investigate aspects of this important effect that are currently poorly understood. The possible negative effects of interim testing on learning of new information and how to mitigate such negative effects are also discussed.
Single item learning
Szpunar et al.13 conducted what is by now a classic study demonstrating the forward testing effect in single item learning. In their Experiment 3, they instructed three groups of participants to study five lists of words. An Interim Test group undertook an interim test at the end of every list, in which participants were asked to freely recall the words from the just-studied list. An Interim Restudy group restudied the previous list after studying each of Lists 1–4 and took an interim test on List 5. An Interim Distractor group solved math problems after studying each of Lists 1–4 and took an interim test on List 5.
Szpunar and colleagues found that the Interim Test group correctly recalled about twice as many List 5 words as the Interim Distractor and Interim Restudy groups in the List 5 interim test, which did not differ in their levels of recall. Meanwhile, the Interim Distractor and Interim Restudy groups committed about ten times as many intrusion errors from prior lists (proactive interference, PI; i.e., mistakenly recalling words from Lists 1–4) as the Interim Test group in the List 5 interim test. There was no significant difference in PI between the Interim Distractor and Interim Restudy groups. This study clearly reveals that interim testing of studied single items enhances learning and retrieval of new items compared to no interim testing (distractor task) or restudying. This finding has been repeatedly demonstrated in recent studies using word12,14,15,16,17,18,19,20 and picture lists.21
Practical implications for instructors
Current research suggests that instructors can profitably administer low-stakes tests or quizzes to enhance students' learning and memory of new single items and reduce the build-up of PI. For example, medical students need to master the names of the bones in the human skeleton. They may consecutively study the names of spine, chest, skull, arm, and leg bones. Medical teachers can administer interim tests following the teaching of each body part's bone names to enhance students' learning and retrieval of new names. In addition, interim tests on studied bone names will also prevent students from erroneously recalling other studied names (e.g., arm bones) when they are asked to recall new names (e.g., leg bones).
Nevertheless, we warn instructors to be cautious about the above proposal that interim testing reduces the build-up of PI because it is still unclear whether the effect of interim testing on release from PI will endure over the long term. To our knowledge, in all previous studies, the effect of interim testing on release from PI has been explored with a short retention interval (i.e., the interval between studying the final list and taking the interim test ranged from 0 to 5min). No study has yet investigated whether release from PI, induced by interim testing, is long lasting. This question awaits exploration in future research.
Paired-associate learning
Following Szpunar et al.13 researchers began to explore the forward testing effect in paired-associate learning. For example, Weinstein et al.22 and Yang et al.12,23 asked two groups of participants to study four lists of face–name pairs. An Interim Test group took an interim test after studying each list whereas an Interim Distractor group only took an interim test on List 4. In the interim tests, all faces from the just-studied list were shown one-by-one and participants were asked to recall their corresponding names. The critical finding is that the Interim Test group correctly recalled about twice as many names as the Interim Distractor group in the List 4 interim test. All three studies also found that the Interim Distractor group experienced substantially more PI (i.e., mistakenly recalling names from Lists 1–3) than the Interim Test group. Moreover, the forward testing effect in paired-associate learning has also been established using foreign-translation word pairs such as Swahili–English24 and Euskara–English12 word pairs.
Administering interim tests on studied paired-associates enhances learning and retrieval of new paired-associates and prevents the build-up of PI. Instructors can profitably administer low-stakes tests to promote students' learning and retrieval of new paired-associate materials such as foreign-translation pairs, dates of historical events, simple definitions of scientific terms, and so on.
Learning of complex materials
Researchers have also explored the forward testing effect in the learning of complex materials such as lecture videos and text passages. For example, Szpunar et al.25 instructed three (Interim Test/Interim Distractor/Interim Restudy) groups of participants to study an introductory statistics video, which was divided into four segments, each lasting approximately 5 min. Participants were allowed to take notes while watching the video, and they were asked to report whether their mind was "on task" (mind-wandering check) while watching the video. Szpunar and colleagues again obtained a forward testing effect in the Segment 4 interim test: The Interim Test group significantly outperformed the other two groups. They also found that the Interim Test group wrote down more notes and reported less mind-wandering than the other two groups.
Jing et al.26 conceptually replicated Szpunar et al.'s25 findings by employing a sociology lecture video as their experimental materials. Going beyond Szpunar et al.25 Jing and colleagues found that the Interim Test group reported more on-task mind-wandering (e.g., thoughts relating the lecture content to their own experiences) and less off-task mind-wandering (zoning out). On-task mind-wandering was positively related to later memory performance whereas off-task mind-wandering was inversely related to later recall. The forward testing effect in the learning of lecture video content has also been reported by Szpunar et al.27 and Yue et al.28. Yue et al. explored whether interim testing of a studied lecture video potentiates subsequent learning and retrieval of a new video. In their Experiment 2, Yue et al. had two (Interim Test/Interim Restudy) groups of participants study two scientific videos, with Video 1 concerning the life cycle of a star and Video 2 concerning lightning formation. In the Video 2 interim test, again, the Interim Test group outperformed the Interim Restudy group.
Wissman et al.29 explored the forward testing effect in the learning of prose passages. In their Experiment 1, they instructed participants to study a passage concerning the U.S. labor market, which was separated into three sections. An Interim Test group was tested after studying each section, whereas a No Interim Test group studied all three sections consecutively and was tested only on Section 3. In the interim tests, participants were asked to freely recall as much information as they could from the just-studied section. In the Section 3 interim test, the Interim Test group recalled about twice as much Section 3 information as the No Interim Test group. The forward testing effect in the learning of text passages has also been reported by Healy et al.30 and Zhou et al.31 using different text passages and test formats (e.g., multiple-choice tests).
Interim testing not only enhances memorization of specific content but also boosts information integration and comprehension of complex materials. For example, Jing et al.26 found that interim testing facilitates integration of related information within each segment and across different segments of a lecture video. Zhou et al.31 explored the forward testing effect in text comprehension. In a comprehension test, participants were required to combine several pieces of information to answer a given comprehension question. Zhou et al. observed that the Interim Test group substantially outperformed the Interim Restudy group, indicating that interim testing enhances text comprehension.
Distance and online learning are becoming more and more popular32 and how to make these forms of learning maximally effective is a key concern for educators. As illustrated above, administering interim tests is an effective way to improve learning and retrieval of new information and reduce task-irrelevant mind-wandering. Therefore, instructors are encouraged to administer interim tests in online courses. Interim testing also benefits the learning (both memorization of specific content and comprehension) of text materials.
Inductive learning
The aforementioned studies were largely restricted to exploring the forward testing effect in the learning of specific items (e.g., words, pictures, paired-associates, lecture videos, and passages). Yang and Shanks33 and Lee and Ahn34 explored the forward testing effect in inductive learning. For example, Lee and Ahn had three (Interim Test/Interim Restudy/Interim Distractor) groups of participants study 36 paintings, comprising six from each of six artists, in Block 1. Then the Interim Test group took a cued recall test on Block 1 paintings, in which the same 36 paintings were presented one-by-one in a random order and participants were asked to recall the corresponding artists' names. The Interim Restudy group restudied the 36 paintings and the Interim Distractor group solved some math problems. In Block 2, all three groups studied 36 new paintings from another six artists. Next they took a classification test, in which 48 completely new paintings, comprising 4 from each of the 12 studied artists, were presented one-by one in a random order, with the 12 artists' names presented simultaneously with each painting. Participants were instructed to select which was the correct artist for a given painting. The results showed that the Interim Test group substantially outperformed the Interim Restudy and Interim Distractor groups, revealing a forward testing effect in inductive learning (i.e., interim testing of studied concepts enhances learning and retention of new concepts; for similar findings, see ref. 33).
Inductive learning is a key aspect of how humans learn and understand the world and a critical component of formal education. For example, fine art/history of art students are required to learn the painting styles of different artists; medical students are required to learn how to diagnose different diseases; students of linguistics have to learn the rules of a language; airport security screeners are required to learn how to detect threatening items by examining x-ray images. As illustrated by Yang and Shanks33 and Lee and Ahn34, interim testing during studying is an effective strategy for improving inductive learning.
Self-regulated learning
All the aforementioned studies explored the forward testing effect in experimenter- or instructor-paced situations. But of course the pace of studying is often self-determined. Yang et al.12 investigated the forward testing effect in a self-paced situation. In their Experiment 1 they gave two (Interim Test/Interim Distractor) groups of participants as much time as they wanted to study five successive lists of Euskara–English word pairs. Again, Yang et al.12 obtained a forward testing effect in the List 5 interim test, with recall being higher in the Interim Test than in the Interim Distractor group. Interestingly, they also found that self-determined study time in the Interim Distractor group systematically decreased across lists whereas the decrease of study time was prevented by interim tests in the Interim Test group. When participants could choose how much time to devote to learning, their study time gradually dropped across successive lists in the absence of interim tests. However, when each list was followed by a test, participants maintained their list-by-list study time. This experiment, therefore, reveals that interim testing motivates people to commit more effort (study time) toward encoding new information in self-regulated learning, and shows that a simple intervention can motivate learners to devote more time to studying. This finding was conceptually replicated in Yang et al.'s12 Experiment 2, in which participants studied four lists of face–name pairs.
Practical implications for instructors and learners
With the development of online courses and learning aids, self-regulated learning is becoming more and more common outside of the formal classroom.35 Yet we are far from being sophisticated learners35 and our self-regulated learning is often inadequate to achieve full mastery of the material we are studying.36 Administering interim tests during studying is a potent strategy to promote and sustain the effectiveness of self-regulated learning across a learning phase. Therefore, instructors can encourage learners to test themselves regularly when studying on their own, and learners are encouraged to administer interim tests during their own studying.
Transfer of the forward testing effect
Students typically study different types of information from class to class. A biology class may be followed by a history class, for instance. It is therefore important to explore the transferability of the forward testing effect—whether interim testing of studied information in one domain can enhance learning and retrieval of new information in a different domain.
Yang et al.23 conducted three experiments to explore this question. In their Experiment 3, two (Interim Test/Interim Restudy) groups of participants were asked to consecutively study three blocks of factual statements followed by a block of paintings. In each of Blocks 1–3, both groups studied 10 statements concerning artists' contributions to art (e.g., Veronese introduced a greater realism and sumptuous, decorative color). The Interim Test group took a fill-in-the-blank test (e.g., Veronese introduced a greater _____ and sumptuous, decorative color) following studying each block, whereas the Interim Restudy group restudied the statements. In Block 4, both groups studied 48 paintings, comprising 6 from each of eight new artists, and then took a classification test in multiple-choice format. In the classification test, 32 new paintings, comprising 4 from each of the eight artists, were presented one-by-one, in a random order, with the eight artists' names presented below each painting, and participants were required to identify who the correct artist was for each painting. The results showed that the Interim Test group classified more paintings correctly than the Interim Restudy group, revealing transfer of the forward testing effect from low-level (verbal text) to high-level (visual concept) learning. Yang et al.'s23 Experiments 1 and 2 also obtained transfer of the forward testing effect using different educational materials.
Because the study described above did not include groups which studied materials from the same domain in each block, it is unknown whether the forward testing effect is weaker with a change in domain compared to no change in domain. Hence, to what extent the standard forward testing effect is attenuated by a change of material or by a change of test format is currently unknown and must await further research.
The forward testing effect transfers among different domains of learning, even when test formats are switched across a study phase. Instructors can safely administer interim tests during lectures to enhance learning of new information even when different topics are covered and different types of tests are administered during the course of a lecture. For example, in a class, medical students may study some scientific definitions and then move on to learn diagnostic techniques, or statistics students may study properties of distributions and then learn the steps involved in conducting a test in a software package. Tests administered after the first of these learning episodes are expected to enhance learning and retrieval of the subsequent information.
Underlying mechanisms
Mechanisms that operate during either the encoding or retrieval phase, or both, may contribute to this facilitatory forward effect of interim testing and many possible explanations have been proposed to account for this effect. Here we briefly review these explanations. It is important to emphasize at the outset that these accounts are not mutually exclusive, that most are at a preliminary stage of development, and that few have been subject to direct testing of their key predictions. To aid understanding, we classify the accounts along two major dimensions, whether they regard encoding or retrieval as the main locus of the forward testing effect, and whether or not they propose that the effect is mediated by changes in motivation (see Table 1).
Table 1 Theories proposed to account for the forward testing effect
It has been well-established that testing during learning can induce context changes.37 Szpunar et al.13 postulated that the forward testing effect is mainly caused by the fact that context changes, induced by interim tests, reduce the build-up of PI and improve the recall of new information—we term this explanation the release from PI theory. Interim testing of studied items updates these items' mental contexts, and hence these studied/tested items are associated with both a study (S) and a retrieval (R) context.37 Following the interim test on studied items, participants then study some new items, which are only associated with a study (S) context. In the subsequent interim test in which they are required to recall the target (new) items, the context difference between the previous items, which have been both studied and tested (and associated with both contexts S and R), and the new items (only associated with context S) facilitates differentiation between these items and reduces the impairment from PI. The above-reviewed studies, which explored the forward testing effects in single item learning and paired-associate learning, offer strong support for the release from PI theory: These studies observed that interim testing of studied items reduces the build-up of PI.
Different from the release from PI theory, which focuses on the influences of context changes on subsequent recall of new information, an encoding reset theory, proposed by Pastötter et al.,15 focuses on the influence of context changes on subsequent encoding of new information. Specifically, this theory postulates that interim tests induce context changes between blocks, which in turn induce a "reset" of subsequent encoding, making it as effective as the encoding of material in prior blocks. Indeed, Pastötter et al.38 found that an imagination task (e.g., participants imagined walking through their parents' living room), which induces mental context changes between the studying of two lists of words, makes the learning of the second list as effective as that of the first list. In contrast, in the absence of the imagination task, less attention is attached to the encoding of the second list compared to the encoding of the first one.
Both the release from PI and encoding reset theories focus on the roles of context changes in the forward testing effect. Nonetheless, both theories have difficulty explaining the forward testing effect observed in an important study by Wissman et al.29 In their Experiment 4, Wissman and colleagues had three groups of participants study a three-section passage. An Interim Test group took a free recall test after studying each section, an Interim Distractor group solved math problems after studying each of Sections 1 and 2 but took a free recall test on Section 3, and a Section-3 group only studied Section 3 and took a free recall test on it. The results showed that the Interim Test group recalled about twice as much information from Section 3 as the Interim Distractor and Section-3 groups. This is striking because according to the release from PI theory, recall in the Section-3 group should be better than or at least equal to that in the Interim Test group, for whom at least some PI would accumulate across the study phase. Similarly, according to the encoding reset theory, recall in the Section-3 group should be better or at least equal to that in the Interim Test group, because the Section-3 group's encoding of Section 3 material should be at least as effective as that of the Interim Test group. However, recall in the Section-3 group was, in fact, poorer than that in the Interim Test group.
Hence, Wissman et al. proposed an activation facilitation theory to account for their forward testing effect. This theory postulates that greater activation and retention of learned information, induced by prior interim tests, can facilitate encoding of new related information, especially for complex materials such as lecture videos and text passages. Different sections of a passage or a lecture video are related. Interim testing of prior sections improves retention of tested information compared with restudying or doing nothing. While encoding the target section (new information), the tested information is more activated and accessible on this theory, which in turn facilitates comprehension of new information.39
Besides the three theories discussed above, Cho et al.24 proposed that the forward testing effect may be produced by encoding strategy changes—the encoding strategy theory. This theory hypothesizes that prior interim tests inform people what kind of test to expect and accordingly they adjust their encoding strategies, which facilities subsequent encoding of new information. Previous studies have shown that testing can foster the development and adoption of more effective learning strategies.40,41,42 For example, Soderstrom and Bjork42 found that, following testing, individuals are likely to employ more effective encoding strategies (e.g., relating the item to something that is meaningful to them) than they are following restudying. Cho et al.24 also proposed a complementary retrieval strategy theory to account for the forward testing effect, which postulates that prior interim tests on studied information help people to adopt more efficient retrieval strategies. Specifically, this theory postulates that participants gradually develop more effective retrieval strategies across successive interim tests (for an illustration that prior interim tests induce retrieval strategy changes, see ref. 43), and these more effective retrieval strategies facilitate recall of new items in the subsequent interim test.
We have summarized five (release from PI; encoding reset; activation facilitation; encoding strategy; retrieval strategy) theories explaining the forward testing effect. Nonetheless, Yang et al.23 proposed that all these five theories have difficulty explaining the transfer of the forward testing effect obtained in their Experiment 3. First, a switch of material types led to no PI in the Block 4 interim test, and materials in Blocks 1–3 (text statements) and Block 4 (paintings) were from different domains and completely unrelated. Hence, transfer could be accounted for by neither release from PI nor activation facilitation. Second, a switch of material types also induces substantial context changes between blocks, which should "reset" subsequent encoding regardless of the inclusion or not of a test.18,23,44,45 Therefore, the encoding reset theory is also unlikely to account for successful transfer. Third, given that material types and test formats (fill-in-the-blank tests in Blocks 1–3 and a multiple-choice test in Block 4) were changed, there is little reason to expect that participants could have developed and adopted more effective encoding/retrieval strategies across Blocks 1–3 that would be applicable in Block 4. Hence, the encoding/retrieval strategy theories also have difficulty explaining the transfer. Yang et al.,23 therefore, suggested that the transferability of the forward testing effect that they observed in their Experiment 3 was best explained by enhanced motivation (that is, prior interim tests motivate people to exert more effort toward encoding/retrieval of new information).
Three specific possibilities have been put forward to explain why interim tests might enhance people's motivation toward encoding/retrieval of new information. Weinstein et al.14 suggested that it is caused or mediated by test expectancy. We term this explanation the test expectancy theory. This theory postulates that, since the Interim Test group is always tested on prior blocks, they should have a high expectancy of an interim test on the next list, and high test expectancy motivates people to exert greater effort toward encoding new information.14,23,46 To test this idea, Weinstein et al. asked an Interim Test and an Interim Distractor group to study five lists of words. Before studying each list, all participants were instructed to report how likely they thought it was that they would be asked to take an immediate interim test on the next list. The results showed that the Interim Test group's test expectancy increased whereas the Interim Distractor group's decreased across lists. Yang et al.23 observed the same result pattern in their Experiments 1–3.
An alternative explanation for why interim tests might motivate individuals to devote greater encoding effort was proposed by Cho et al.,24 who postulated that it is retrieval failures in prior interim tests that motivate them to commit more encoding effort. We term this theory the failure-encoding-effort theory. Retrieval failures in prior interim tests induce dissatisfaction about prior learning as well as awareness of the difficulty of achieving successful recall, leading to enhanced study effort to mitigate this dissatisfaction. Consistent with this idea, previous studies have shown that retrieval failures or committing errors in prior tests can potentiate subsequent encoding.47,48,49
Finally, besides enhanced encoding effort (induced by enhanced test expectancy and/or retrieval failures in prior interim tests), enhanced retrieval effort may also play a role in the forward testing effect.24 For instance, Cho et al.24 attributed the forward benefit of interim testing to enhanced retrieval effort—the retrieval effort theory: Retrieval failures in prior interim tests might induce dissatisfaction about prior interim test performance and then motivate participants to exert more retrieval effort in subsequent interim tests to alleviate their dissatisfaction. Evidence supporting the retrieval effort theory comes from Yang et al.'s23 Experiment 3. In the Block 4 interim test, Yang et al. assessed participants' retrieval effort by measuring how much time they spent classifying the paintings. The retrieval effort theory predicts that the Interim Test group would spend more time (an index of retrieval effort) classifying the paintings than the Interim Restudy group. Yang et al.'s Experiment 3 affirmed this prediction.
Overall, we have discussed at least eight possible theories, each proposing a mechanism that may underlie the forward testing effect. Some theories are similar. For example, the retrieval effort theory can be regarded as a subset of the retrieval strategy theory, as committing more effort during retrieval is a form of retrieval strategy change. Similarly, committing more effort during encoding can be seen as a form of encoding strategy change. Cho et al.24 noted that enhanced effort is a quantitative change whereas encoding or retrieval strategy change is a qualitative change. Quantitative changes refer to the changes in the magnitude of effort people devote to a task, whereas qualitative changes mainly refer to alterations in the ways people encode and retrieve items.
These eight theories can be divided into two clusters according to the phase at which the putative mechanism they describe is assumed to be active: encoding (encoding reset; activation facilitation; encoding strategy; test expectancy; failure-encoding-effort) and retrieval (release from PI; retrieval strategy; retrieval effort). They can also be divided according to their proposal about the role of motivation: motivational (test expectancy; failure-encoding-effort; retrieval effort) and non-motivational (release from PI; encoding reset; activation facilitation; encoding strategy; retrieval strategy). Although we divide the mechanisms these theories propose into different clusters, we reiterate that they need not be mutually exclusive and some of them may operate in parallel in some situations and produce overlapping forward testing effects.
For different materials and in different situations, some mechanisms may play the main roles and others may play lesser or even no role. For example, for complex materials (e.g., passages, lecture videos), there may be no PI and therefore the release from PI mechanism may play little or even no role.29 In contrast, the activation facilitation mechanism may play an important role in the learning of complex materials.29 For single items (e.g., unrelated word lists), activation, and retention of prior information cannot aid comprehension of new information and therefore the activation facilitation mechanism may play a small or even no role, while the release from PI mechanism may play a more important role.12,13 Future studies are needed to further explore these possible mechanisms and investigate in which situations and for which materials the different mechanism(s) contribute to the forward testing effect.
In the studies reviewed above, participants were mostly college students. Can we generalize our conclusions about the forward benefits of testing to other groups? There is some evidence that the effect occurs in a range of participant groups, although further research is needed. Pastötter et al.21 explored whether the forward testing effect generalizes to individuals who have suffered traumatic brain injury (TBI). TBI is associated with many memory deficits. For example, it affects short-term much more than long-term memory.50 For individuals with TBI, their memory of past events (e.g., their childhood memory) is relatively intact but they suffer deficits in remembering recent events. Pastötter et al.21 asked TBI and healthy individuals to study three lists of line drawings of common objects. In the List 3 interim test, Pastötter et al.21 obtained a forward testing effect in both TBI and healthy individuals, indicating that interim testing during learning can be used to reduce memory deficits in people with TBI. As yet, it is still unknown whether interim testing can be used to mitigate memory deficits caused by other diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, ADHD, and multiple sclerosis. Future research could usefully investigate this.
Aslan and Bäuml17 explored the forward testing effect in children. They asked adults, older (average age = 8.8 years), and younger children (average age = 6.7 years) to study four lists of words. Aslan and Bäuml obtained a forward testing effect in adults and older children but not in younger children. They observed that, for older children and adults, the interim test groups suffered from less PI than the Interim Restudy groups in the List 4 interim test, whereas for the younger children there was no difference in PI between the Interim Test and Interim Restudy groups. Aslan and Bäuml speculated that the absence of the forward testing effect in younger children's single item learning may result from their deficits in inhibition of PI, because for younger children the interim tests did not reduce the accumulation of PI across lists.
The absence of the forward testing effect for younger children in single item learning does not necessitate the absence of this effect in the learning of complex materials, as the activation facilitation and enhanced encoding effort mechanisms may play important roles for complex materials whereas the release from PI mechanism is likely to play little role.29 Future research could profitably explore this issue.
Possible negative effects of interim testing
We have summarized the facilitatory effects of interim testing in the learning and retrieval of new information. However, recent research has shown that in some situations interim testing can lead to negative effects. Interim testing motivates people to exert more effort to the encoding of new materials. It has been suggested that, when the tested and new materials are presented together, the tested materials may "forcibly occupy" the encoding time and borrow the limited time available for studying new materials––the borrowed time effect.51
As an illustration of this, Finn and Roediger52 asked two (Interim Test/Interim Restudy) groups of participants to study some face–name–profession associations. In the first encoding phase, both groups studied face–name pairs one-by-one, for 5 s each. Following a short distractor task, the Interim Restudy group restudied all face–name pairs one-by-one, for 5 s each, and immediately following the presentation of each face–name pair, the same face with its name and profession were presented simultaneously for 5 s for participants to study. In contrast, following the distractor task, the Interim Test group took an interim test, in which they were asked to recall each face's corresponding name, and immediately following this recall, the same face was shown with its corresponding name as corrective feedback for 2 s. After that, the face with its name and profession were simultaneously presented on screen for 5 s. Twenty-four hours later, both groups took a final test, in which participants were shown the faces one at a time and asked to recall each face's corresponding name and profession.
The results showed that the Interim Test group correctly recalled more names than the Interim Restudy group, whereas the recall of professions showed the reverse pattern: The Interim Restudy group recalled more professions than the Interim Test group. In recent follow-up research, Davis and Chan51 proposed that the interim test on face–name pairs led the Interim Test group to continue to focus on learning the names when they were shown the face–name–profession pairs, as the prior interim test made them aware of the difficulty of remembering the face–name pairs. This focus on the learning of names "borrowed" encoding time and resources which would otherwise be spent on learning professions.
Davis and Chan51 showed that this negative effect can be completely reversed. In their Experiment 4, they separated the interim test on face–name pairs and the encoding of face–profession pairs. Following initial study of the face–name pairs, an Interim Restudy group restudied all face–name pairs one-by-one, whereas an Interim Test group was shown the faces one-by-one and was asked to recall their names, and corrective feedback was given in the interim test. Then both groups were asked to study the face–profession pairs, and in this phase, no names were shown alongside. At the end of this study phase, participants took a final test in which they were asked to recall the names and professions in response to the faces. The results showed that, in the final test, the Interim Test group recalled more professions than the Interim Restudy group. Hence the Davis and Chan51 study showed that separate presentation of tested and new information can not only eliminate the borrowed time effect (the finding that interim testing on face–name pairs impairs the learning of face–profession pairs when face–name–profession information was presented simultaneously) but can also induce a positive forward testing effect (interim testing on face–name pairs enhances the learning of face–profession pairs when the associations are separated). Unfortunately, the positive testing effect for the face–name pairs was also reversed: now testing impaired memory for the names relative to restudy. In a more recent study, Davis et al.53 provided evidence suggesting that the impairment to new learning could be due to a task switching cost rather than to time borrowing, though the two accounts are not mutually exclusive.
Finn54 reported finding that, contrary to the predictions of the borrowed time hypothesis, giving participants unlimited time for test and review of feedback, thereby minimizing the need to borrow time, failed to eliminate retrieval-impaired learning of new information. While time borrowing may account for some of the data, it is therefore unlikely to be a complete explanation for retrieval-impaired learning of complementary associations (for other possible explanations about why interim testing may impair learning of new information, see refs.52,53,54). Finn and colleagues' finding (that interim testing impairs the learning of new complementary information when tested and new information is simultaneously presented) is intriguing and research into this phenomenon is at an early stage. The need for further research concerning this question is pressing.
Clearly, there will be many occasions in the classroom when an instructor asks students to recall a piece of studied information (e.g., A-B associates) as a prelude to introducing new, complementary information (e.g., A-C associates). Finn and colleagues' studies52,54 suggest that simultaneous presentation of tested and new information (e.g., A-B-C associations) following retrieval of studied information (e.g., A-B associates) can impair the learning of new information (e.g., A-C associates) but the mechanisms underlying this effect are not yet clearly delineated. The finding that impairment of new learning is greatest in situations characterized by frequent task switching suggests that it may not pose a serious problem in classroom situations, where such frequent switching is unlikely, but not enough is yet known about the boundary conditions of the effect to make firm recommendations regarding classroom instruction.
Future research directions
Table 2 depicts some directions for future research to explore. As discussed above, more work is needed to investigate the mechanisms underlying the forward testing effect and individual differences in the magnitude of this effect. For example, older adults, like younger children, have difficulty in inhibiting PI. Does the forward testing effect generalize to older adults? To date, little neuroscientific research has been conducted to explore the human brain networks involved in the forward testing effect.55 Future neuroscience research is needed to begin to fill this gap. The backward testing effect has been repeatedly demonstrated in real classrooms but the forward testing effect has not been yet. Of high priority for future research is to test whether the forward effect generalizes to classroom settings. To date, forward testing effect studies have focused on the short-term outcomes of the effect: the target (final) block's interim test was administered immediately following its learning phase. Future research could profitably explore the long-term outcomes of the effect.
Table 2 Future research directions for investigating the forward testing effect
Learners and educators sometimes simply regard testing as a tool for assessing one's learning status. Some educators even propose to minimize testing in the classroom as they think it is time-consuming7 and scoring of tests excessively demanding. However, numerous previous studies have confirmed the reliability of the backward testing effect in laboratories and real classrooms, even with low-stakes quizzes.7 Furthermore, the above-reviewed studies have demonstrated the reliability of the forward testing effect across a variety of educational materials. Therefore, the forward and backward testing effects, jointly, make a strong case for learners and instructors to administer interim tests or quizzes during learning.
Interim testing can not only enhance learning and retrieval of new information but also prevent the build-up of PI.12,13,22 In real-world learning settings, students frequently suffer from PI. For example, in a geography class, students may need to master the basic information (e.g., geography, culture, economy, demographics) of a few European countries (e.g., Norway, Denmark, and Spain). Students may confuse information relating to different countries. Therefore, understanding how to prevent the build-up of PI is critical for instructors and learners in such situations. As Yang et al.12 showed, interim testing significantly decreases the build-up of PI regardless of whether learning is self- or instructor-paced. Therefore, instructors and learners are encouraged to administer interim tests to prevent the build-up of PI. We again warn instructors to be cautious about this proposal, however, because it is unknown whether release from PI, induced by interim testing, is long lasting.
To summarize, interim testing is a powerful technique in optimizing learning of new information. Studies using a variety of educational materials have shown that the forward testing effect is a robust phenomenon. Interim testing can be used to enhance the learning of new single items, paired-associates, complex materials, and concepts (categories). It not only benefits memorization of specific content but also boosts information integration, producing superior knowledge organization. The forward testing effect is not limited to instructor-paced situations but also generalizes to self-paced ones; it is not limited to healthy individuals but also generalizes to individuals with brain injury; it is not limited to the same type of material but is also transferable to different types of material (and different test formats); it not only enhances learning and retrieval of new information but also prevents the build-up of PI. Both variations in the encoding and retrieval phases may contribute to the forward testing effect. Although interim testing may impair learning of new information when tested and new materials are presented together, this negative effect can be eliminated and reversed by the separate presentation of tested and new information. Further investigations on aspects of this important effect, which are currently poorly understood, are needed.
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Szpunar, K. K., Khan, N. Y. & Schacter, D. L. Interpolated memory tests reduce mind wandering and improve learning of online lectures. Pro. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 110, 6313–6317 (2013).
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An award from the Chinese Scholarship Council (CSC) to C.Y. supported this review.
Division of Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, London, WC1H 6BT, UK
Chunliang Yang, Rosalind Potts & David R. Shanks
Chunliang Yang
Rosalind Potts
David R. Shanks
All authors contributed to the writing and approved the final version of this article.
Correspondence to Chunliang Yang.
Yang, C., Potts, R. & Shanks, D.R. Enhancing learning and retrieval of new information: a review of the forward testing effect. npj Science Learn 3, 8 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41539-018-0024-y
Revised: 19 March 2018
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When we're looking for a bit more traction and stability than the standard G-One, the G-One Bite fits the bill nicely. Looser tread spacing and taller edge knobs keep things rolling pretty quickly but give more traction for looser and damper surfaces and cornering.
Schwalbe G-One Allround Tubeless Gravel Tire is one of our go-to tire for use on fast Midwestern gravel roads. When we're looking for a bit more traction and stability than the standard G-One, the G-One Bite fits the bill nicely. Looser tread spacing and taller edge knobs keep things rolling pretty quickly but give more traction for looser and damper surfaces and cornering. Suitable for pressures sub 30psi, we've also had a great experience running the G-One Bite on our dropbar singletrack rides.
Easy to setup tubeless, reasonably long lasting for a performance tire, and more durable than the standard G-One.


In Ohio, involuntary manslaughter can happen when someone causes the death of another person or their unborn child as the result of committing or attempting to commit a misdemeanor or felony. Ohio also has separate charges for vehicular manslaughter, vehicular homicide, and aggravated vehicular manslaughter (see link below, in Related Resources).
Unlike a murder charge, involuntary manslaughter means that a person had no intention of killing another, but due to their actions while committing another crime, they caused the death of a human being. This type of crime is often referred to as "criminal negligence," since there was no intent to kill.
Involuntary manslaughter is charged as a third degree felony in Ohio, which is punishable by nine months to five years in prison. But if another person was killed (or a pregnancy was terminated) -- unintentionally -- in the commission or even attempt of a felony, then it is charged as a first-degree felony (up to 11 years in prison).
Even if a person is charged with involuntary manslaughter in criminal court and is acquitted, the deceased's family may file a wrongful death claim in civil court. It is not uncommon for someone acquitted of these in criminal court to be found liable for wrongful death in civil court, since it requires a lower burden of proof.
The following table highlights the main provisions of Ohio's involuntary manslaughter laws. See also Involuntary Manslaughter Definitions, Involuntary Manslaughter Penalties and Sentences, and Voluntary Manslaughter.
Unintentionally killing another person or unborn fetus while committing or attempting to commit a felony or misdemeanor.
Civil Case Possible wrongful death lawsuit and restitution to the victim's family.
If you do find yourself facing an involuntary manslaughter charge, you may wish to contact an Ohio criminal defense attorney for assistance.


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Page:Popular Science Monthly Volume 52.djvu/91
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THE BERING-SEA CONTROVERSY.
British commissioners on account of the character of instructions received by their American colleagues, at least not until the latter declined on account of such instructions to consider any question at all related to the work of the commission. The incident is referred to only as one of many evidences of a tendency to avoid the simple line of scientific inquiry upon which it had been hoped the commission might work; and, further, that it may be recorded that throughout the entire life of the commission the representatives of the United States were absolutely free and unhampered in the exercise of their personal judgment, not only as to the scope of their powers but as well as to the attitude which they assumed on any question coming before them.
A preliminary basis of agreement had been prepared and was submitted by the Americans at the first conference. Its first proposition was a simple declaration of the decadence of seal life in Bering Sea. It had hardly been suspected that there could be serious difference of opinion on this point, but there was an unwillingness to go on record as believing that the herd was greatly declining in numbers, except in the most guarded manner. It was even affirmed by the British commissioners that there was evidence to show that the number found on the islands in the season of 1891 was greater than in 1890.
The second proposition submitted was a declaration that this decrease in the number of seals frequenting the Pribilof Islands must be attributed largely, if not wholly, to pelagic sealing. This involved the gist of the whole controversy, and in support of it the American commissioners offered the now well-known facts regarding the natural history of the seal, the inevitable results of sealing at sea, the impossibility of perfect control of land killing, the silent but unimpeachable testimony of skins marketed by pelagic sealers, and other evidence, the strength of which time has served only to increase. There were certain facts of profound significance as affecting this question which it seemed impossible to controvert. An animal whose period of gestation is about one year, and which gives birth to but a single individual, belongs to a species not likely to multiply with great rapidity, even when left to contend only with its natural enemies. Add to this the admitted facts that the two sexes are equal in number at birth, and that polygamy is universal, only one male being found on the breeding rookeries for every fifteen or twenty females, and it follows with a certainty rarely met with in discussions of this kind that the preservation of the herd depends upon the preservation of the female, and that a very large proportion of males may be taken annually without affecting in any way the number born. Had a good set of "mortality tables" for seals ex-
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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For decades, "Sweet Auburn" was the main drag of Atlanta's striving black middle class. You still can see the original home of the city's first black newspaper (The Atlanta Daily World), its first large black-owned business (Atlanta Life Insurance), its longtime civil rights organization (the Southern Christian Leadership Conference) - and a museum documenting it all, the APEX (African-American Panoramic Experience).
But the real reason tour buses prowl the avenue is Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. To the right, you see his pulpit (Ebenezer Baptist Church), his tomb (at the King Center) and his birthplace (a two-story Queen Anne house). The white marble tomb, which seems to float on a reflection pool, is close enough to the street that you can make out the famous inscription that begins "Free at last!"
Getting there: Despite its name, the King Memorial MARTA station is not the best stop to use on the rail system. From MARTA, a better station is Georgia State. Exit to Jesse Hill Jr. Drive and walk past Grady Hospital to Auburn Avenue, according to the MARTA Guide web site. Another good transit option is the Atlanta Streetcar, which runs between the Civil Rights Museum and the King Historic District. By car, there is parking behind the Martin Luther King Jr. Historic Site on John Wesley Dobbs Avenue.
Should the MLK Historic District be expanded?
Crowds gather outside the famed Royal Peacock Club on Auburn Avenue in this photo from the 1960s. Originally named The Top Hat Club, the nightspot opened in 1938 and featured some of the top acts in show business, including Cab Calloway, Louis Armstrong, James Brown, Muddy Waters, Otis Redding, B.B. King, the Four Tops, Ray Charles, Sam Cooke, Wilson Pickett, The Supremes, Jackie Wilson, Little Richard, Aretha Franklin, Ike and Tina Turner and Gladys Knight and the Pips. The club, at 186 Auburn Avenue, reopened in 2010 and remains open today. Photo courtesy of Skip Mason Archives. »» SEE MORE FLASHBACK FOTOS FROM THE AJC ARCHIVES.


text:
Children's beliefs about free-fall motion
Children's beliefs about free-fall motion Kuhn, Kenneth C.
Students' beliefs about free-fall motion were explored using structured interviews. The sample of 24 students was composed of 6 students (3 boys, 3 girls) selected from grades 6, 8, 10 and 11 respectively. Three sets of tasks involving one actual experiment and a number of simulated thought problems were used to investigate (a) the student's beliefs about the motion of a single object, (b) the relevance of the variables of height difference, initial velocity difference, frame of reference difference and weight difference for two objects and (c) the combined action of these factors when more than one was present. It was found that the interview methodology and tasks used were effective for collecting the data required in an exploratory study of this type. It was possible to categorize the mode of action of each variable in terms of: (a) not operating, (b) as operating in a short impulse only, (c) as operating but slowly dissipating, or (d) as operating with a continuous action. Examples of most response categories occurred at all levels but a number of possible developmental trends by grade were evident. Also there was a possible indication of the resistance of certain intuitive beliefs to standard kinematics instruction for the grade 11 physics group. The results of this study could be useful to the classroom teacher as well as to the designer of a science curriculum. It suggests that students are able to explore some problems of motion beginning at the grade 6 level; that they should be allowed to explore the relevance of related variables; and that they should be encouraged to express and explore their own beliefs which they bring to the classroom about motion.
Kuhn, Kenneth C.
Master of Arts - MA
Education, Faculty of; Curriculum and Pedagogy (EDCP), Department of
UBC_1979_A8 K94.pdf -- 4.73MB


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Also, thanks to the ability to do online check-in before you leave, you can head straight to your room without having to go to a front desk to check in.
After you do your online check -in you will receive a text message with your room number once it is ready.
But, as with any type of air travel, keep your important items like jewelry, medication, special clothing like running gear and Halloween costumes, with you in your carryon.
Have you used Magical Express before? Leave your thoughts below.
For more tips about navigating Walt Disney World, especially if you have a toddler in your family, pick up a copy of Mousekatots available in Kindle and paperback formats.
This entry was posted in Disney, family fun, Family Vacation, Toddler, Toddler Travel, Uncategorized, Walt Disney World and tagged Disney, disney magical express, disney transportation, disney trasnportation, family fun, Family Vacation, orlando international airport, todder travel, toddler vacation, Vacation, Walt Disney World. Bookmark the permalink.


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UMA's pre-Ramadan lecture holds on Sunday
An Army at War: A Case for Better Funding
2 days ago Features
The 22nd edition of the yearly pre-Ramadan Lecture of the University of Lagos Muslim Alumni (UMA) will hold on Sunday, May 22, 2016 at the university main auditorium, Akoka, Lagos beginning from 10am.
Topic of discussion is The Muslim between the Ideal and the Contemporary Perception to be anchored by two guest speakers: Prof. Yusef Waghid of University of Stellenbosch, South Africa; and Shaykh Muhammad Rabiu Adebayo Abdul-Malik, Founder/Director, Darul-Ifta' wan-Najaat Arabic Institute, Oworonsoki, Lagos State.
Another highlight of the lecture is the presentation of UMA Post-graduate Scholarship Award to successful applicants who are mainly M.Sc. and Ph.D. candidates.
Regarded as one of the remarkable programmes of UMA, the pre-Ramadan lecture has, in the past two decades, grown to become a central aspect of the Ramadan Programme of the South-Western Nigeria particularly the university communities in the geo-political zones with attendance ranging from the university management to government functionaries and members of various strata of the society.
Over the years, UMA has distinguished itself as an association of Muslim graduates of the University of Lagos, providing a platform for continued interaction among its members and for the pursuit of noble goals that may impact positively on the alma mater in particular and the society at large.
MuslimRamadanUMA


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Woods, Joseph. (1860). The Newfoundland almanack for the year of Our Lord 1861, (being the first after bissextile, or leap year, and the latter part of the twenty-fourth and the beginning of the twenty-fifth year of the reign of Her Majesty Queen Victoria) containing astronomical, statistical, commercial, local and general information derived from the most authentic sources. St. John's, Nfld : J. Woods, http://online.canadiana.ca/view/oocihm.38450
Woods, Joseph. The Newfoundland almanack for the year of Our Lord 1861, (being the first after bissextile, or leap year, and the latter part of the twenty-fourth and the beginning of the twenty-fifth year of the reign of Her Majesty Queen Victoria) [microform] : containing astronomical, statistical, commercial, local and general information derived from the most authentic sources / compiled, printed and published by Joseph Woods J. Woods St. John's, Nfld 1860 <http://online.canadiana.ca/view/oocihm.38450>
Woods, Joseph. 1860, The Newfoundland almanack for the year of Our Lord 1861, (being the first after bissextile, or leap year, and the latter part of the twenty-fourth and the beginning of the twenty-fifth year of the reign of Her Majesty Queen Victoria) [microform] : containing astronomical, statistical, commercial, local and general information derived from the most authentic sources / compiled, printed and published by Joseph Woods J. Woods St. John's, Nfld <http://online.canadiana.ca/view/oocihm.38450>
| title=The Newfoundland almanack for the year of Our Lord 1861, (being the first after bissextile, or leap year, and the latter part of the twenty-fourth and the beginning of the twenty-fifth year of the reign of Her Majesty Queen Victoria) [microform] : containing astronomical, statistical, commercial, local and general information derived from the most authentic sources / compiled, printed and published by Joseph Woods
| author1=Woods, Joseph
| publisher=J. Woods
The Newfoundland almanack for the year of Our Lord 1861, (being the first after bissextile, or leap year, and the latter part of the twenty-fourth and the beginning of the twenty-fifth year of the reign of Her Majesty Queen Victoria) [microform] : containing astronomical, statistical, commercial, local and general information derived from the most authentic sources / compiled, printed and published by Joseph Woods
http://online.canadiana.ca/view/oocihm.38450
St. John's, Nfld. : J. Woods, 1860
CIHM/ICMH microfiche series ; no. 38450.
Reproduction of original in: Library of the Public Archives of Canada.
Also available online. Address as at 30/05/2019: http://online.canadiana.ca/view/oocihm.38450
Microfiche. Ottawa : Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions, 1983. 1 microfiche (44 fr.) ; 11 x 15 cm. (CIHM/ICMH Microfiche series = CIHM/ICMH collection de microfiches ; no. 38450)
Almanacs, Canadian -- Newfoundland. | Newfoundland -- Directories.
Woods, Joseph
University Microfilms International University Microfilms International, 300 N. Zeeb Rd., Ann Arbor, MI 48106
A Year book and almanac of Newfoundland for
Newfoundland's first fifty years / by E.D.C. Hiscock
Newfoundland 1949 1969 twenty years of progress
Journal of the Bishop of Newfoundland's voyage of visitation on the coast of Labrador and the north-east...
Newfoundland [microform] : journal of a voyage of visitation in the "Hawk" church ship, on the coast of ...


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Gardner Heist Thieves Identified but Paintings Still Lost
March 18, 2013 by Marion Maneker
The FBI says it knows who pulled the greatest art heist of all time at the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in 1990.
"The FBI believes with a high degree of confidence in the years after the theft the art was transported to Connecticut and the Philadelphia region and some of the art was taken to Philadelphia where it was offered for sale by those responsible for the theft. With that confidence, we have identified the thieves, who are members of a criminal organization with a base in the mid-Atlantic states and New England," Richard DesLauriers, special agent in charge of the Boston office of the FBI, said.
DesLauriers said that after the attempted sale of the paintings about a decade ago, the FBI did not know where the aartworks — which included three Rembrandts, a Vermeer, a portrait by Edouard Manet, and sketches by Renoir — had been taken.
FBI says it has identified the thieves in Gardner Museum heist; paintings' location still unknown (Boston.com)
Unsolved Art Crimes
FBI Says The've Had Confirmed Sightings of Stolen Gardner Museum Works
A Theory of the Gardner Heist Proves Just as Elusive as the Missing Art
Spend Time with Robert Wittman
Privately-Owned Vermeer Gets Philadelphia Showcase
Seven Years After Sales, Art Dealer Indicted for Fraud
Filed Under: Fraud, Theft & Restitution
Private Sale of Two Rothkos and a Diebenkorn from Bunny Mellon Estate Estimated at $300m
Why I Am Leaving Gagosian


More than 670 people in South Derbyshire will have to pay back £173,000 in unpaid council tax after they were taken to court.
South Derbyshire District Council is in the process of clawing back unpaid cash from 674 council tax payers, totalling £173,867.06.
A spokesman was unsure how many months the non-payment relates to but said it was during the period of 2018-19.
It did not have any direct comparison with the same period the previous year.
The district council was given permission to take out 'liability orders' following non-payment of council tax , after taking cases to Southern Derbyshire Magistrates' Court.
The figure was released to Burton Live following a Freedom of Information request.
A spokesman for the authority said: "The amount owed is a small proportion of the total amount billed but, as our service users would expect, we do pursue outstanding amounts.
"We can offer advice to anyone struggling to pay their council tax bill and encourage anyone in this situation to contact us as soon as possible by calling the Revenues team on 01283 595795."
Council Tax is used to pay for services provided by Derbyshire County Council, Derbyshire Fire and Rescue Service, Derbyshire's Police and Crime Commissioner, South Derbyshire District Council, the Environment Agency and some parish councils.
Following the latest council tax set in February last year, it recommended a council tax increase of 1.95 per cent for 2018-19.
It means that a Band D property, taken as the average, saw an increase in the council's precept of £3 to £159 per year.
It comes as Burton Live recently reported that East Staffordshire Borough Council is in the process of clawing back unpaid cash from 375 council tax payers and 58 business rate payers from the last quarter, totalling £526,919.09.
The borough council was given permission to take out 'liability orders' against 375 people for non-payment of council tax , totalling £168,526.97, after taking the cases to Cannock Magistrates' Court.
A total of 58 business owners who failed to pay their rates owed a total of £358,392.12 in unpaid bills.


No visa is required for U.S. citizens visiting Costa Rica for business or tourism. We can only assist foreign nationals permanently residing in the U.S. who want to apply for a visa. Not all nationalities require a visa. Consult the Costa Rican Embassy before applying for a visa.


Project management is a facet of our everyday lives. Whether you're performing a cloud migration or planning a spaghetti dinner, project management is critically important for any task you undertake. If you're getting anything done, you're probably using project management principles—and you may not even know it. For us in the Zumasys Project Management Office (PMO), it's a professional way of life.
We often use the Spaghetti Dinner example to compare project management to our personal interactions. To have a successful spaghetti dinner, there are certain things you have to do to make sure the guests arrive, the food is edible, and everyone has a good time. You need some level of project management skills.
In this blog, we're going to share the secrets of effective project management. This is the first installment in a five-part series on the five keys of project management: communication, stakeholder management, scope management, time management, and risk management. These are five knowledge areas as discussed in the Project Management Institute's (PMI) A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide).
No matter what your task is, at the office or at home, we think these project management keys can help you pull off any project without a hitch.
How you communicate between stakeholders and key people inside and outside of the project group can mean the difference between fantastic success or spectacular failure. It seems simple, but good communication has many different facets.
Take our spaghetti dinner for example. How can we apply communication best practices to a spaghetti dinner?
Remain active in the conversation. Listen to what is being said and offer feedback. If someone has an idea for how to get plates of spaghetti out to your guests faster, don't just nod your head. Listen to them and offer suggestions for how to implement it or improve it.
Understand all players involved, from core team members to vendors and consumers. Who's buying the groceries? Who's cooking the sauce? Who's helping plate and serve the meals? Part of this is understanding any cultural or language barriers that exist and knowing how to work within those constraints.
Part of being a manager is establishing trust with your team. Building personal relationships with each member of the team helps them feel more connected to its success. Determine what motivates the diverse personalities of each team member in order to accomplish the tasks at hand. For both the project team and clients, build confidence in the success of the project, but also be honest when improvements are needed. Developing relationships with external stakeholders is also pivotal to a project's success.
Many projects fail because objectives and expectations are not clear at the start or change mid execution without the impacts being successfully communicated. How many people are you looking to invite? How many do you expect to show up? How much spaghetti are you going to make? What if you get a last minute RSVP with food allergies, or an unplanned guest at your dinner? It is vital to a project's success to keep the ongoing objectives and expectations updated on a regular basis and monitor how the project status aligns with the expectations that were originally set.
Make sure your communication is clear and concise. If one cook heard you say add more parsley to the sauce when another heard you say it was over-seasoned, confusion is bound to occur. Ultimately, that means guests won't get their meals quickly, and the quality of the food goes down.
You are the liaison between all parties involved. For your spaghetti dinner, those parties are the people on your team, your guests, the owners of the venue, the grocery store, and everyone in between. Make sure those people are informed of your vision and direction. Everyone has to row in the same direction.
Communication is not a one-way street. Effective project management involves interactive, external, and internal communication. Hold weekly meetings to plan your dinner. Send out a communication to your guests the week before the event. Create a text or email chain alerting your team to open tasks and to-dos. Determine which method or methods work best for each stakeholder.
Sending out project reports is a great way to make sure your team stays on schedule. Let your team know how long each task should take, from the big to-dos like shopping for groceries down to the smallest task like chopping onions or plating a dish. Alert them to how well they did in meeting those goals. Help them catch up or slow down as needed.
At the Zumasys PMO, we use these same communication tenets that you can use to plan and execute a spaghetti dinner, but for complex technical implementations. Whether we are helping customers migrate to a hosted cloud infrastructure or modernizing their business-critical applications, the Zumasys PMO uses these same best practices to make sure balls don't get dropped and plates are kept spinning. By keeping communication channels open between our team and our customers, our Project Management Professional (PMP) certified project managers make sure that project stakeholder needs are understood and met every step of the way.
Be sure to check back here regularly for the next installment in our series, 5 Keys to a Successful Project: Managing Stakeholders.
Subscribe to the Zumasys Blog and never miss a post!
Ananya Ridenour has always been drawn to the changing nature of technology, which makes it both interesting and challenging. Believe it or not, she likes that the technologies we depend on today are constantly evolving, enabling Ananya to continually learn and adapt to new skills and foundations. Prior to joining Zumasys, Ananya spent five years working as a project manager at an undisclosed tech company, where she united her background in team and program management and interest in technology. Ananya connected with Zumasys in January of 2013 and was immediately drawn to the company's culture and focus on employee appreciation. As a project manager, she coordinates with customers, engineers, and sales teams through discovery, project plans, and on-site visits to make sure that every customer receives a personalized solution that meets its business goals.


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Softball Wins Heartland Conference Title
Home » News » Softball Wins Heartland Conference Title
AUSTIN, Texas – Alex Garcia's bases-loaded walk with two outs in the bottom of the seventh inning scored the winning run and lifted St. Mary's University to a 7-6 victory over St. Edward's University in the 2010 Heartland Conference Softball Tournament, played Saturday afternoon at Diane Daniels Field.
The Rattlers led 6-2 after the fourth inning, but the Hilltoppers rallied for four runs over the next two innings, tying the game at 6-6, entering the seventh inning. Kelly Baker (Jr., Arlington, Texas) led off the inning by walking and Christina Rodriguez (Fr., San Antonio) followed with a walk of her own. The runners moved to second and third on a sacrifice bunt. SEU pitcher Paige Sandahl then walked Chelsea Wenske (Jr., Shiner) to load the bases. After Sarah Perez (Fr., San Marcos, Texas) struck out, Garcia (Fr., San Antonio) stepped up to the plate. Garcia fell behind in the 1-2, and then took three straight pitches out of the zone to force home the game-winning run.
The Rattlers fell behind 2-0 after the first inning, but Lauren Miller (Jr., Baytown, Texas) led the Rattlers back. Katie Nichols (Fr., San Marcos, Texas) walked to lead off and Miller followed with her third homerun of the season to left-centerfield. That started a five-run inning, with Arlynda Flores (Sr., Uvalde, Texas) smacking a solo homerun as well. One inning later, Miller smacked her second homerun of the game in the fourth inning to give the Rattlers the 6-2 lead.
Taryn Munoz (Sr., Bulverde, Texas) was named Tournament MVP after picking up her third win of the tournament. She allowed six runs on 10 hits and five walks, while striking out six. She threw all 21 innings of the Rattlers three games in the tournament. She is now 22-12 overall this season and has won her last five decisions.
The Heartland Conference Championship is the ninth in 10 years for St. Mary's. The Rattlers are 30-3 all-time in Heartland Conference Tournament play. With the win, St. Mary's is now 34-19, while St. Edward's fell to 35-20. The Rattlers will return to action in two weeks when they open play at the NCAA South Central Region Tournament. Exact dates and the tournament site will be announced on May 8.
St. Mary's 7, St. Edward's 6 (May 01, 2010 at Austin, Texas)
St. Edward's…….. 200 013 0 – 6 10 0 (34-21)
St. Mary's………. 005 100 1 – 7 7 0 (34-19)
Pitchers: St. Edward's – Paige Sandahl; Diana Cezeaux(5) and Courtney Lavender. St. Mary's – Taryn Munoz and Kelly Baker.
Win-Taryn Munoz(22-12) Loss-Paige Sandahl(20-10) T-2:33 A-288
HR SEUSB – Meagen Bailey (6).
HR STMU – Lauren Miller 2 (4); Arlynda Flores (8).
Heartland Conference All-Tournament Team
Most Outstanding Player – Taryn Munoz, STMU
P-Taryn Munoz, STMU
P- Victoria Beltran, TAMIU
C-Kelly Baker, STMU
INF-Melanie Padilla, UIW
INF-Arlynda Flores, STMU
INF-Chelsea Wenske, STMU
INF-Angel Montejano, TAMIU
OF-Meagen Biley, SEU
OF-Lana Jo Hairston, SEU
OF-Lauren Miller, STMU
DP-Stacy Giles, SEU
UTIL-Courtney Lavender, SEU
Engineering alumna helps create a new college in West Africa