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[Paleopsych] AmJHumGenet: Xin Mao: Eugenics in China
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Mao, Eugenics in China
http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v63n3/980223/980223.text.html
Am. J. Hum. Genet., 63:688-695, 1998
0002-9297/98/6303-0006$02.00
Chinese Geneticists' Views of Ethical Issues in Genetic
Testing and Screening: Evidence for Eugenics in China
Xin Mao
Division of Genetics, Department of Psychiatry, West China
University of Medical Sciences, Chengdu, China
Received March 16, 1998; accepted for publication July 15, 1998;
electronically published August 21, 1998.
To identify Chinese geneticists' views of ethical issues in
genetic testing and screening, a national survey was conducted. Of
402 Chinese geneticists asked to participate, 255 (63%) returned by
mail anonymous questionnaires. The majority of respondents thought
that genetic testing should be offered in the workplace for a
-antitrypsin deficiency (95%) and the predisposition of executives
to heart disease, cancer, and diabetes (94%); that genetic testing
should be included in preemployment physical examinations (86%);
that governments should require premarital carrier tests (86%),
newborn screening for sickle cell (77%), and Duchenne muscular
dystrophy (71%); and that children should be tested for genes for
late-onset disorders such as Huntington disease (85%),
susceptibility to cancers (85%), familial hypercholesterolemia (84%),
alcoholism (69%), and Alzheimer disease (61%). Most believed that
partners should know each other's genetic status before marriage
(92%), that carriers of the same defective gene should not mate
with each other (91%), and that women should have a prenatal
diagnosis if medically indicated (91%). The majority said that in
China decisions about family planning were shared by the couple
(82%). More than half had views that, in China, there were no laws
to prohibit disability discrimination (64%), particularly to protect
people with adult polycystic kidney disease (57%), cystic fibrosis
(56%), or genetic predisposition to other diseases (50%). To some
extent, these results might provide a basis for a discussion of
eugenics in China, particularly about China's [1]Maternal and Infant
Health Care Law (1994).
Address for correspondence and reprints: Dr. Xin Mao, Section
of Molecular Carcinogenesis, Haddow Laboratories, Institute of
Cancer Research, 15 Cotswold Road, Sutton, Surrey SM2 5NG,
United Kingdom. E-mail: [2]xin at icr.ac.uk
Genetic testing and screening are hot topics that stimulate
widespread discussion and debate, not only among genetics
professionals, but among clinicians and scientists generally, and
increasingly these topics involve the wider public in developed
countries. Views are expressed in the scientific and general press,
and through other media, about the likely benefits and dangers that
may result from genetic testing and screening ([3]Harper and Clarke
However, there is much less debate about genetic testing and
screening in developing countries, where ?1 95% of the world's
future children will be born. To some extent, this situation
reflects the lack of genetics services in these countries. A
majority (3,330) of the estimated 5,000 specialists in medical
genetics worldwide work in developed countries, which have an
overall geneticist/population ratio of ?1 1:222,000, compared with a
ratio of ?1 1:700,000 for eastern European countries and ?1
1:3,700,000 for developing countries ([4]Wertz et al. 1995).
Clinicians, scientists, and the public in developing countries are
focused on the struggle to improve basic health care. Given the
problems of poverty, illiteracy, low contraceptive use, and high
infant mortality ([5]Galjaard 1997), they have relatively little
interest in the development of genetics research and services.
China, however, is an exception, having to some extent made
genetics a priority. For example, in the 1960s cytogenetics
technology was introduced to China, and in the 1970s chorionic
villi sampling was performed in some hospitals ([6]Luo 1988). Since
the 1980s, molecular-genetic techniques have been used in genetic
research and counseling in several national genetic laboratories
([7]Luo 1988; [8]Fu et al. 1995). In 1988, in vitro fertilization,
embryo transfer, and gamete intrafallopian transfer were available
in several teaching hospitals ([9]Zhang et al. 1988). In 1992, the
techniques of enrichment of fetal cells from maternal blood, for
prenatal diagnosis and sex determination during the first trimester,
were introduced to China. In 1994, China launched its Human Genome
Project ([10]Li 1994). Gene therapy for patients with hemophilia B
has also been used in clinical trials ([11]Fu et al. 1995).
On the other hand, according to international standards,
genetics services in China are underdeveloped because of a lack of
funding and expertise, as well as the large number of people with
genetic conditions ([12]Harper and Harris 1986; [13]Luo 1988).
Chinese geneticists have expressed their views about ethical,
legal,and social issues in genetics research and practice in China.
Their concerns are, however, quite different from those of other
countries, particularly developed nations (Mao [14]1996, [15]1997;
[16]Mao and Wertz 1997).
The term "eugenics" has many meanings. Eugenics can be
voluntary or coerced, government sponsored or individual, a
"science" or a social policy, based on the welfare of individuals
oron the welfare of society or a nation ([17]Paul 1992; [18]Garver
and Garver 1994; [19]Larson 1995; [20]"Brave New Now" 1997). Most
people in developed countries today think of eugenics as a coercive
social program enforced by the state for the good of society. Since
China announced the [21]Maternal and Infant Health Care Law (1994),
it has provoked widespread concern in the international scientific
community, because of some of its eugenic content ([22]"China's
Misconception of Eugenics" 1994; [23]"Western Eyes on China's Eugenic
Law" 1995; [24]O'Brien 1996; [25]"Brave New Now" 1997; [26]Harper and
Clarke 1997; [27]Morton 1998). There has, however, been very little
international discussion on what eugenics means for Chinese
geneticists and why it is alive and well in China. In this article,
I will present Chinese geneticists' views of ethical issues in
genetic testing and screening and will discuss the likely basis of
eugenics in China, particularly China's [28]Maternal and Infant
Subject and Methods
An anonymous international questionnaire including 50 questions
on ethical issues, which was used in an international study
comparing attitudes of geneticists in 37 nations ([29]Wertz and
Fletcher 1993), was distributed to 402 geneticists in 30 provinces
and autonomous regions in mainland China. These geneticists were
registered members of the Chinese Association of Medical Genetics,
the Human and Medical Genetics Branch of the Chinese Society of
Genetics, or the Chinese Society of Family Planning, all of which
are headed by the Chinese Association for Science and Technology
butare affiliated with different departments of state (the Ministry
of Public Health, the Chinese Academy of Science, and the National
Committee of Family Planning, respectively). In all, 255 geneticists
(63%) responded. All of the respondents' comments were translated
into English. The completed questionnaires were mailed to the
Division of Social Science, Ethics and Law, at the Shriver Center
for Mental Retardation, in the United States, for statistical
analysis. Coded data were entered into the SPSSX program (from
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) on an IBM 3090
computer([30]Mao and Wertz 1997).
The questionnaire asked whether genetic testing should be
offered for job application - related situations; the majority of
respondents thought that genetic testing should be offered to
workers for a -antitrypsin deficiency in a very dirty workplace
(95%) and for executives' predisposition to heart disease, cancer,
and diabetes (94%).
The questionnaire listed several ethical issues designed to
survey respondents' opinions. The majority of respondents agreed
that partners should know each other's genetic status before
marriage (92%), that carriers of the same defective gene should not
mate with each other (91%), that women should have prenatal
diagnosis if it is medically indicated (91%), that genetic testing
should be included in preemployment physical examinations (86%), and
that governments should require premarital carrier tests (86%) and
newborn screening for sickle cell anemia (77%) and for Duchenne
muscular dystrophy (DMD) (71%) ([31]table 1). Sixty-five percent
agreed with the statement that "an important goal of newborn
screening is to identify and counsel parental carriers before next
pregnancy."
[32][tb1.t.gif] Table 1  Views on Various Ethical Issues
When Chinese geneticists were asked whether parents should be
able to have their children tested for late-onset disorders or
predisposition to such diseases, the majority said that, if parents
request it, children should be tested for Huntington disease (85%),
susceptibility to cancers (85%), familial hypercholesterolemia (FH)
(84%), and predisposition to alcoholism (69%) or to Alzheimer
disease (AD) (61%) ([33]table 2).
[34][tb2.t.gif] Table 2  Views on the Testing of Children for
Late-Onset Disorders
When asked whether there was a prevailing pattern for
decisionsabout family planning, most (82%) said that decisions
about family planning were shared by the couple. The minority
believed it to be determined by the husband's (10%), doctor's (3%),
wife's (2%), husband's parents' (2%), or wife's parents' (1%) views
([35]table 3).
[36][tb3.t.gif] Table 3  Views on Family Decision Making
When asked whether there were any laws prohibiting disability
discrimination, more than half of Chinese respondents said that
there were no such laws in China (64%), particularly to protect
carriers (56%), and persons with genetic predisposition to other
diseases (50%) ([37]table 4). Ninety-four percent agreed with the
statement that "it is not fair for a child to be brought into the
world with a serious genetic disorder if the birth could have been
prevented;" 79% thought that some disabilities will never be
overcome even with maximum social support, and the majority would
not support disabled parents' decisions to have disabled children.
Ninety percent thought that an ethical code or guidelines for
genetics services are needed in China, and 50% said that public
education in genetics should be the top priority of the government
health budget.
[38][tb4.t.gif] Table 4  Views on Laws Prohibiting Disability
Genetic testing, which is offered to individuals and families
who are at high risk, is either the analysis of a specific gene --
and/or its product or function -- or other DNA and chromosome
analysis, to detect or exclude an alteration likely to be
associated with a genetic disorder. Genetic screening is applied to
large population groups with unknown excess risk to individuals.
Screening is frequently part of government-sponsored public-health
programs and may be a preliminary procedure that identifies people
at elevated risk of genetic disease, but it does not provide a
definitive diagnosis ([39]Wertz et al. 1995; [40]Harper and Clarke
In this survey, questions about newborn genetic screening were
asked. This is because newborn screening for phenylketonuria (PKU)
and hypothyroidism has saved many thousands of infants worldwide
from these two severe disorders and therefore has created a large
store of goodwill and ethical credit in favor of genetic screening
programs ([41]Harper and Clarke 1997). This survey shows that 77% of
Chinese respondents thought that the government should require
newborn screening for sickle cell disease ([42]table 1). The figure
is higher than those for the United Kingdom (13%) and the United
States (11%) ([43]Wertz 1995). One explanation for this difference
might be that Chinese geneticists believe that identification of
parents and newborns who are heterozygous carriers is important,
since sickle cell disease is very common in China. Although newborn
screening for DMD fails to meet the established World Health
Organization guidelines for the adoption of a screening program
([44]Wilson and Jungner 1968), it might be helpful to avoid
diagnostic delays and to permit families to seek genetic counseling
before they embark on another pregnancy. The mothers of infants in
the United Kingdom appeared to have more enthusiasm for newborn
screening for DMD, since 94% of them would accept such screening
([45]Smith et al. 1990). When geneticists around the world were
asked whether the government should require newborn screening for
DMD, 71% of Chinese respondents, 64% of respondents in the United
States, and 49% of respondents in the United Kingdom thought that
the governments should do so ([46]table 1) ([47]Wertz 1995). On this
issue, the difference between geneticists in China and the United
Kingdom may be that Chinese geneticists believe that newborn
screening for DMD is a public-health issue, and that, because it is
very expensive in China, it must be government sponsored.
Geneticists in the United Kingdom are concerned about the state
directing genetic decisions, rather than individuals making the
choices ([48]Harper and Clarke 1997). In addition, the majority of
European, North American, and Chinese geneticists would recommend
newborn screening for cystic fibrosis, FH, fragile X, and
thalassemia if automated DNA diagnostic techniques were available on
newborn blood spots, even though there is no proof that the newborn
benefit from such screening ([49]Wertz 1995). It may still be
reasonable to offer such screening if the disease has its onset in
childhood and if the child's family finds it helpful to have an
early diagnosis ([50]Harper and Clarke 1997).
The advent of DNA-based testing across a wide and increasing
range of late-onset genetic disorders is a challenge to
conventionalthinking about medical tests. This is because those
individuals receiving an abnormal result are sometimes considered,
by themselves and others, to "have the disease," even though they
are still presymptomatic. Testing children for late-onset genetic
disorders may have serious ethical and social implications. This
survey shows that most Chinese geneticists thought that children
should be tested for susceptibility to cancers and FH ([51]table 2).
Most geneticists in Europe and North America expressed the same
view, since they saw early diagnosis and early treatment of these
disorders as being a potential benefit to the child ([52]Wertz
1995). However, most of them thought that testing for Huntington
disease, alcoholism, and AD provided no medical benefit to the
child ([53]Wertz 1995). They opposed the testing of children, on the
grounds that testing was an affront to the autonomy of the child,
who, on reaching adulthood, should be allowed to make his or her
own decisions on whether to be tested. Most Chinese geneticists
favored such testing ([54]table 2), on the grounds that parents
should be able to decide for their children and should have the
power to direct their children's lives. This cultural division
reflects the extension of individual autonomy in developed
countries, to include preservation of the autonomy of minors. In
China, the child is often seen as part of a collectivity (the
family), rather than as a potentially autonomous individual.
Although, thus far, employers' requests for employment-related
genetic testing have been few ([55]Harper and Clarke 1997),
questions on whether such testing should be offered were included
inthis survey because there is an ethical conflict between the
individual's rights and the employer's interest. More and more
Western geneticists have expressed their concerns on the likelihood
of misuse of such testing, which would cause harm to those
employeeswith genetic conditions (i.e., genetic discrimination;
[56]Harper and Clarke 1997). This survey shows, however, that most
Chinese geneticists agreed that such testing should be offered as a
part of a routine physical examination. This result may demonstrate
that Chinese geneticists hold strong social views on genetics
services ([57]Mao and Wertz 1997).
One purpose of genetics services is to provide accurate, full,
and unbiased information that individuals and families may use in
making decisions. Traditionally, China has been a paternalistic
society and parents have had absolute power to make family
decisions. To explore the current situation of family planning in
China, questions on this issue were asked. This survey shows that,
of 255 respondents, 51% were female ([58]Mao and Wertz 1997). Most
of them thought that family planning was currently shared by the
couple. This figure is quite similar to that in developed countries
([59]Wertz 1995) and, in part, may reflect socioeconomic changes
that have occurred in China during the past 4 decades.
In 1994, China's population reached 1.2 billion. Now China is
pushing on with its goal of ensuring that the country's population
is =< 1.3 billion by the end of the century and <1.4 billion by
2010. The basic means of reaching the goal are birth control and
the "one couple, one child" policy, which stipulates that each
Chinese couple is legally allowed to have only one child ([60]Wu
1994). Ironically, China has paid a huge socioeconomic price for
ridiculing the theory and practice of birth control and family
planning during the 1950s and 1960s. On the other hand, according
toa national sampling survey in 1987, there were 51.64 million
disabled people (4.9% of the total population) in China. Of these,
54.3% (i.e., 2.66% of the total population) were children. The
majority of these disabilities (64.91%) are due to postnatal
diseases and injuries, whereas 35.09% are due to birth defects and
genetic diseases ([61]Chen and Simeonsson 1993; [62]Ming and Jixiang
1993). One aim of this survey is to investigate geneticists'
attitudes toward the social and legal aspects of genetics. It would
be necessary to ask whether there are laws or regulations in China
that prohibit discrimination against people with disabilities. This
survey shows that more than half of Chinese respondents thought
that there were no such laws or regulations in China, particularly
to protect people with genetic conditions. This may be because,
although the rights of people with disabilities have been protected
constitutionally in China, there are no Chinese laws specifying
whether people with genetic conditions should be protected as
disabled people. This survey also suggests that most Chinese still
regard disabilities as a severe burden for both family and society.
Population and disability issues are universal. As the history of
the Western eugenics movement has shown, these issues are to some
extent likely to produce a social "medium" or environment for the
"birth and growth" of eugenics ([63]Paul 1995).
Historically, cost effectiveness appears to be one of the major
issues concerning Western eugenicists. A typical example of this
wasseen in 1923, when the American Eugenics Society tried to
justify the expense of building enough institutions to house and
separate all the mentally retarded people by calculating that the
$25,000(U.S.) spent on segregating the original mentally retarded
persons for life would have saved the state >$2,000,000 in later
costs. It also added that sterilizing the original mentally retarded
people would have cost <$150 ([64]Larson 1995). Although it is
questionable whether economic calculations would really work in
genetics, some Western geneticists still regard cost effectiveness
as an important factor in genetics services. This is because the
clinical genetics services already available have been shown to be
highly cost effective, mainly because of the high costs of medical
and psychosocial care for the chronically handicapped in Western
countries. For example, in the Netherlands seven regional clinical
genetics centers involved in pre- and postnatal chromosome analysis,
biochemical and DNA diagnosis, and genetic counseling supported by
the national health insurers cost ?1 $50 million/year. As a result
of their combined activities, the birth of 800 - 1600 severely
handicapped children is avoided every year. The costs of their
medical and psychosocial care would have been $500 million - $1
billion during an average life span of 10 years ([65]Galjaard
1997).Moreover, it even has been predicted that the most enforced
codes of medical practice, particularly in genetics services, may
bebased on cost-effectiveness analysis rather than on ethical
considerations for the future ([66]Wertz 1997).
The concept of cost effectiveness may have different meanings
for Chinese geneticists. This is because, unlike Cuba, where a free
health care system including genetic testing and screening covers
the entire population ([67]Heredero 1992), genetics services in
China are not free and are expensive for most Chinese people. For
instance, in 1987 the average income of a Chinese worker in a
factory or university was ?1 $30/mo, whereas the cost of cytogenetic
testing was $6 - $20. On the basis of the population prevalence of
chromosomal diseases in Sichuan province (31.5/100,000) ([68]Zhang et
al. 1991), it is estimated that there would be 346,500 persons with
chromosomal disorders in China at that time (in an overall
population 1.1 billion). If all of these cases were diagnosed
cytogenetically, it would cost $2,000,000 - $7,000,000, which is
equivalent to 69,300 - 231,000 workers' monthly incomes. The costs
of genetics services have increased very rapidly in recent years
because of inflation and health-care reform, although such services
in China are still underdeveloped and fall far short of the needs
of people with genetic disorders.
The prevalence of PKU in the Chinese population is ?1 6/100,000
people ([69]Liu and Zuo 1986). Thus, there would have been ?1 72,000
people with PKU in 1994, when the population was 1.2 billion. A
Chinese study analyzed the cost benefit of newborn screening for
PKU and estimated that the 10-year cost of screening, diagnosis,
medical care, and dietary therapy for each PKU case identified
would be $4,000. If PKU infants were not diagnosed and treated, the
estimated cost of living for one untreated, mentally retarded
individual with a mean life span of 40 years also would be $4,000.
Income loss, special education costs, and inability to contribute
tosociety would cause a total loss of >= $20,000. The long-term
estimated benefits due to early screening, diagnosis, and treatment,
minus the cost of screening and treatment, therefore is ?1 $20,000.
Thus, the ratio of benefit:cost ratio would be ?1 5:1 ([70]Zhou
1995). It is a pity, however, that China is still unable to produce
a low-phenylalanine diet in quantities large enough to provide
adequate therapy for most affected babies ([71]Luo 1988), even
though the PKU test is cheap and newborn screening for PKU seems to
be cost effective in China. All of these actual situations most
likely will lead Chinese thinking to consider the use of other
radical means, such as abortion and sterilization, to reduce the
incidence of PKU ([72]Mao and Wertz 1997).
The word "eugenics," which currently is used more widely in
China than in the West, when directly translated into Chinese, is
"yousheng" and "youyu," which mean "well bear" and "well rear." The
view most widely held by Chinese geneticists is that eugenics
implies processes designed to ensure that children who are born
are, as far as possible, "normal." How to achieve this, in the
context of strict family limitation, has emerged as the most
significant difference, in the approach to medical genetics, between
China and the West ([73]Harper and Harris 1986). This survey was
conducted in 1993, 1 year before China promulgated the [74]Maternal
and Infant Health Care Law (1994). In their comments, almost all
respondents said that the goal of human genetics was "improvement
of the population quality, decrease of the population quantity, and
furtherance of eugenic principles" and agreed that "an important
goal of genetic counseling is to reduce the number of deleterious
genes in the population" ([75]Mao 1997, p. 20). Chinese geneticists
also were extremely pessimistic about directive counseling after
prenatal diagnosis for almost all genetic disorders ([76]Mao and
Wertz 1997). The majority of them would advise voluntary surgical
sterilization for a single blind woman on welfare who had a 50%
risk of blindness in children (88%), for a woman with fragile X who
was living in an institutional setting (73%), and for a cystic
fibrosis carrier-carrier couple (52%) ([77]Mao and Wertz 1997). This
survey reveals that most Chinese geneticists thought that partners
should know their genetic status before marriage, that carriers of
the same defective gene should not marry each other, and that women
should have prenatal diagnosis if medically indicated. These views
were expressed, to some extent, in the Chinese [78]Maternal and
Infant Health Care Law (1994).
The contentious articles of the law are cited as follows
([79]Maternal and Infant Health Care Law 1994):
Article 8. -- The premarital physical checkup shall include the
examination of the following diseases:
1. Genetic diseases of a serious nature;
2. Target infectious diseases;
3. Relevant mental disease.
Article 10. -- Physicians shall, after performing the premarital
physical checkup, explain and give medical advice to both the male
and the female who have been diagnosed with a certain genetic
disease of a serious nature that is considered to be inappropriate
for childbearing from a medical point of view; the two may be
married only if both sides agree to take long-term contraceptive
measures or to get the ligation operation for sterility. However, a
marriage that is forbidden as stipulated by provisions of the
Marriage Law of the People's Republic of China is not included
Article 16. -- If a physician detects or suspects that a
married couple in their childbearing age suffers from genetic
disease of a serious nature, the physician shall give medical
advice to the couple, and the couple in their childbearing age
shalltake measures in accordance with physician's medical advice.
Article 18. -- The physician shall explain to the married
couple and give them medical advice about termination of pregnancy
if one of the following cases is detected in the prenatal diagnosis:
1. The fetus is suffering from genetic disease of a serious
nature;
2. The fetus has a defect of a serious nature;
3. Continued pregnancy may threaten the life and safety of the
pregnant woman or seriously impair her health because of the
serious disease she suffers from.
In these articles, "genetic diseases of a serious nature"
refers to diseases that are caused congenitally by genetic factors,
that may totally or partially deprive the victim of the ability to
live independently, that are highly possible to recur in
generations to come, and that are considered medically inappropriate
for reproduction; "relevant mental diseases" refers to
schizophrenia, manic-depressive psychosis, and other mental diseases
of a serious nature.
The international opinions on the Chinese law vary. Some
Western geneticists have fiercely criticized the law as an "abuse
of genetics" and a "violation of human rights" ([80]Morton 1998).
Others have said that "in a country where millions of female
children vanish, and many children with developmental abnormalities
are left to die, the law might represent an improvement"
([81]Beardsley 1997, pp. 33 - 34). Frankly speaking, in China too
there is opposition to the law, from some geneticists who did their
training in Western countries. For example, they oppose some
radical measures such as "sterilization of people with IQ less than
60" and the use of term "eugenics" in the early draft of the law.
Interestingly, voices of Chinese geneticists are heard defending the
law. Some examples are "China now has a population of 50 million
handicapped. Without effective action, China will have an even
larger population with serious hereditary diseases and it will
naturally impose a grave social problem as regards their livelihood,
social and cultural development as a whole and even the quality of
the whole population" ([82]"Opportunity for Depth in Chinese Eugenics
Debate" 1998, p. 109); "the law was terribly misinterpreted"; "the
law was needed to supplement the one-child policy and had no
intention of enforcing eugenic aspects" ([83]Takebe 1997, p. 89);
"the law only facilitates practices common for decades in Western
countries, and there is no similarity between what is practiced in
China and Hitler's concept of eugenics" ([84]Maddox and Swinbanks
1995, p. 549). The survey results do, however, suggest that social,
economic, and cultural differences most likely will give rise to a
disagreement between China and the West, on the issue of eugenics.
Public education in genetics is thought to be an effective
approach to reduce the incidence of genetic diseases, although it
needs a huge and long-term investment from the government
([85]Harper and Clarke 1997). This survey suggests that at least
half of Chinese geneticists appear to realize the importance of the
issue. On the other hand, genetics education in China has not
covered any ethical issues yet ([86]McCaffrey 1989). One ethicist
who advised the drafting of the Chinese law admitted that bioethics
has just started to be discussed and was not considered seriously
when the law was drafted ([87]Takebe 1997). This survey, however,
reveals that most Chinese geneticists think that ethical guidelines
are necessary for the improvement of genetics services in China.
Although the Ministry of Public Health of China published a brief
ethical code for medical professionals in 1988 ([88]Qiu 1993), at
the moment there are not any ethical guidelines for genetics
services in China. A group of experts from both developed and
developing countries, including China, sponsored by the World Health
Organization, has drafted international guidelines on ethical issues
in medical genetics and on the provision of genetics services. The
guidelines not only provide ethical principles for genetics services
and research but also emphasize respect for cultural, social, and
religious diversity ([89]World Health Organization 1998). It
therefore is expected that the guidelines will be introduced into
China and will serve as a framework for Chinese geneticists in
their practice and research. Perhaps in this practical way, such
guidelines could bridge the social and cultural gap between Chinese
geneticists and their Western counterparts, could help to clarify
the nature of eugenics, and could allow a consensus on the ethical,
legal, and social issues of genetics in the future.
I am deeply indebted to our Chinese colleagues who
participatedin and supported this survey. I wish to thank Profs.
Dorothy C. Wertz (Shriver Center for Mental Retardation) and John
C. Fletcher (University of Virginia Medical Center), for their
excellent organization of the international survey in 37 countries,
and to Prof. Renzong Qiu (Chinese Academy of Social Sciences), for
providing eastern China data. I am grateful to Prof. Peter S.
Harper and Dr. Angus J. Clarke (University of Wales College of
Medicine, United Kingdom), for their face-to-face discussion of my
work with me. I also want to thank Sir Walter Bodmer (Oxford
University) and Profs. Martin Bobrow (Cambridge University) and
Newton E. Morton (University of Southampton), for their comments on
an earlier draft of this article. The fieldwork for this survey was
funded by grant R01-HG00540-02 from the Ethical, Legal, and Social
Implications Branch of the National Center for Human Genome
Research, National Institutes of Health.
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1. http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v63n3/980223/980223.text.html#rf100
2. mailto:xin at icr.ac.uk
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11. http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v63n3/980223/980223.text.html#rf3
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31. http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v63n3/980223/980223.text.html#tb1
32. http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v63n3/980223/980223.tb1.html
90. http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v63n3/980223/980223.text.html#crf1
91. http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/link_Medline?uid=9082548&form=6&db=m&Dopt=r
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100. http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v63n3/980223/980223.text.html#crf4
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124. http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v63n3/980223/980223.text.html#crf100


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Unearth The Original Tomb Raider Game With Square Enix's Latest iOS Release
by Aldrin Calimlim
Lara Croft, everyone's favorite English archaeologist-adventuress immortalized on the silver screen by Angelina Jolie, has just landed on iOS with the release of Tomb Raider I in the App Store. That's right. The original Tomb Raider action adventure game is now available on iOS courtesy of Square Enix. Officially called Tomb Raider I (as though proudly proclaiming its primacy), the game is, of course, based on the first Tomb Raider game, which was released in 1996 for MS-DOS, PlayStation, and Sega Saturn:
Adventurer Lara Croft has been hired to recover the pieces of an ancient artefact known as the Scion. With her fearless acrobatic style she runs, jumps, swims and climbs her way towards the truth of its origin and powers - leaving only a trail of empty tombs and gun-cartridges in her wake. On this trail are breath-taking 3D worlds where exploration, puzzle and platform elements blend in a seamless real-time environment. A perfect chance for newcomers and diehards alike to jump back into the series' seminal single-player action.
According to Square Enix, Tomb Raider I features epic exploration of ancient locations, combat action involving lethal predators, and acrobatic gunplay enhanced with Lara Croft's trademark dual pistols. Compatible with iPhone, iPod touch, and iPad running iOS 7.0 or later, Tomb Raider I is available now in the App Store for $0.99. For more recent news on Square Enix iOS releases, check out Bloodmasque Goes Free In Celebration Of More Than 500,000 Downloads, Square Enix Publishes First Screenshots From Final Fantasy VI For iOS, and Square Enix To Bring Dragon Quest VIII To iOS, But There's A Catch. [gallery link="file" order="DESC"]
Mentioned apps
SQUARE ENIX INC
Hasbro Arcade Features Mini-Games Based On Monopoly, Transformers And More
Check Out What's New In Cut The Rope 2 With This Brand New Gameplay Trailer

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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Half Off Ragnaork – Seanan McGuire
March 26, 2014 August 2, 2014 maddalena@spaceandsorcery2 Comments
Seanan McGuire's Incryptid series might be described as the lighter side of her Urban Fantasy universe – not that it lacks any drama and/or brushes with mortal danger for her characters, but it does so in a far lighter vein than I'm used to in her highly successful October Daye series. And that makes for a fun, relaxing reading.
Coming back to these books is like sitting comfortably down in my favorite armchair, even though there are times when the sitting happens on the very edge of that chair. When I learned about the change in perspective for this book, with the focus switch from Verity (the protagonist of the first two) to her older brother Alex, I was somewhat dubious, having enjoyed Verity's spunk and humor-laced adventures very much.
Well, my doubts were unfounded: this story is just as entertaining and interesting as the previous ones and there is enough "transitional material", including a cameo appearance from Verity, to make the crossing as painless as possible. Alex is a totally different personality: he's more a quiet and dedicated science type – complete with proverbial glasses – and his exploits less physical than his sister's, yet we can nonetheless see him as a productive and pro-active member of the Price family. His choice of pet (a griffin) and the inevitable colony of Aeslin mice – my very favorite cryptid ever – go a long way in defining his character and telling us through interaction what kind of a person he is.
The main focus of interest in this series are indeed the cryptdis – the kind of creatures that would otherwise be labeled as monsters: the fresh approach chosen by McGuire is to show these creatures' perspective and point of view, not so much humanizing them but rather helping the readers see the world through their eyes. Their motivations, their strife for survival, and ultimately the sympathy elicited in the reader (unless we're dealing with really dangerous critters, that is) help to drive across the most important point of these stories: that once we understand what makes the other tick, we can see him/her/it in a different way. And embrace the difference.
The Gorgon colony described in depth in this book is one such example, even though the pride of place goes to Alex's family – not a family created by blood ties, but rather by ones of love: Alex lives with his grandparents – a humanoid telepathic predator and a patched-up zombie – and his cousin Sarah (one of the supporting characters from previous books), a telepath like the grandmother. Plus the griffin and the funny, adorable, witty Aeslin mice (yes, I'm somewhat partial to them…). The love, loyalty and mutual support of these different creatures teaches a lesson that needs no further explanations about embracing our differences, because the teaching is done through example.
My only point of contention with Half Off Ragnarok comes from Shelby, Alex's adventure partner, and the interaction between the two of them. First, I don't get a strong "couple vibe" from them: yes, they pursue similar interests, face dangers and are attracted to each other despite the difficulties created by their chosen profession. Yet I don't perceive any real attraction, any magnetic pull drawing them together, not in the same way as the polar opposites that were Verity and Dominic in the previous books.
And then there is Shelby herself: I'm used to McGuire's heroines being strong, determined and self-sufficient and while Shelby does possess those qualities they are quite subdued, so much that she seems more Alex's subordinate rather than his equal and ultimately she needs rescuing more than once. True, not all female protagonists need to exercise their kickassery all the time, but still all McGuire's characters have been true to that standard, so that I'm somewhat puzzled by Shelby's presentation.
Nonetheless I'll hold any further judgment until next book, because I trust this author to always deliver on her promises. And as long as there will be Aeslin mice and their deceptively funny wisdom, I will be happy.
The Price of Spring – Daniel Abraham
Writing this review was not easy, not because I didn't know what to say, but rather because I didn't exactly know how to say it. First, because talking about this series without mentioning some plot points is near to impossible, and second because when I love a book (or a series) the way I did this one, words seem to elude me… And this fourth and final book in The Long Price Quartet is more compelling than the previous ones, thanks to Mr. Abraham's storytelling style and his writing, clear-cut and lyrical at the same time.
I've finally understood the meaning of the "long price" in the title: the whole story arc points at the price paid for one's actions, and choices – and their consequences, not just for the involved individuals but for the whole world they live in. These consequences can be far-reaching, as well, given how decisions taken decades in the past can come to fruition in the present, and shape the future.
Accepting or refusing the change that comes with this realization is what makes Abraham's characters' tick: some still ferociously cling to the past, to the old way of doing things, therefore raining more grief on an already stricken world. Until now the danger represented by the andats (man-shaped manifestations of abstract concepts) had been clear but at the same time observed from a distance, while at the end of the previous book and in this one, the reader is treated to the full, tragic power of the creatures and the way they can influence the poets, their creators and handlers, who can in turn be shaped, or twisted, by their creations. I don't think it's a coincidence that the andat that drives this point home is called Clarity-of-Sight, also called Blindness for his darker side.
The underlying conflict, that until now has been cultural and political, and only in the previous book turned to all-out war, becomes here a conflict of ideas, and one of personalities: it's only fitting, from my point of view, that it's made manifest in the struggle between Otah and Maati, the main characters. After so many years and so much history (good and bad) between them, the resolution centers on what they are in respect of each other, on how much they influenced each other in the past, and how their present actions stem from that shared past. If their origins are the same – unwanted sons of great houses, sent to the harsh school that trains poets for the binding of andats – they come to walk on different and diverging paths: one of them still tied to the past, despite the dangers of such a vision, and the other daring to dream of a different, if not necessarily better, future.
The beauty of it is that they are both right and wrong at the same time, that there is no well-defined boundary and that the very concepts of right and wrong shift according to any given situation. The horrible mistakes that are made along the way all come from the desire to do good, and their inevitable consequences plague the characters to the very end: we are constantly reminded that they are, after all, only human and as such they always do what they can, hoping for the best. That very humanity is what endeared them to me, not despite their mistakes but because of them: the story does have an epic feel, granted, but the human dimension of it is what gives it life and depth.
There is a definite feeling, in this fourth book, of the end of an era – even more definite than it was in the previous one: the sense of melancholy, the awareness that no matter what time will bring, things will never be the same anymore. Many of the characters I followed from the beginning have grown old, and the sense of loss that accompanies this natural progression only added to the poignancy of the situation, because I had to face the fact I would have to say good-bye to these characters and the world they inhabited – and it made me sad. This realization brought home the awareness of how much I had come to care for them, for better or worse, depending on their place in the story. And yet all things – all people – must come to an end because, as Abraham so poetically states in the last pages, renewal comes only through evolution: Flowers do not return in the spring, rather they are replaced. It is in this difference between returned and replaced that the price of renewal is paid.
Even recognizing the rightness of the concept, it was hard to part from this world – harder still because of the quietly emotional ending. But I also know it will be a pleasure to revisit it some time in the future.
A Retrospective Look: Dune, by Frank Herbert
Thanks to a recent discussion with Mulluane from Dragons, Heroes and Wizards over at Pinterest, I've been thinking about this book, one of my all-time favorites, and one of my rare multiple re-reads. I think I revisited it almost as much as I did Lord of the Rings, which is interesting, since Dune might very well be my iconic science fiction book, as LOTR is for fantasy.
Interesting because – and that was part of the discussion I mentioned above – Dune's genre has long been the subject of debate, my idea being that it stands on some undefined middle ground between the two: the action unfolds in a very distant future and concerns a vast galactic empire, spanned by ships that travel enormous distances almost in the wink of an eye, and yet the technology is… subdued, for want of a better word, and is never the focus of the story. Many references are made to the Butlerian Jihad, the movement that banned the use of computers and stressed the powers of the human mind, and such powers are reflected in the use of Mentats – humans who have been trained in logical thought – and the abilities of the Bene Gesserit, the all-female secret society working, slowly but surely, toward their mysterious goals.
These elements, coupled with the murderous political intrigue that constitutes the backbone of the story, the internal strife between the Empire's noble houses and the amazing world-building underlying the concept of Arrakis, the desert world, would not be out of place in a fantasy novel, and the same can be said about the protagonist's story-arc: Paul Atreides/Muad'Dib goes from sheltered heir of House Atreides to religious leader of an oppressed people seeking freedom, passing though the harrowing grind of loss and betrayal. Moreover, there is a heavy emphasis on esoteric powers, prophecies and melange-induced prescience: all concepts that can be found in many fantasy storylines…
Apart from the debate about genre, that I believe will go on for as long as Dune remains one of the pillars of spec-fic literature (and that's a good way to label it, nicely skirting the issue…), the question I asked myself is: what makes this book so unforgettable, and what compels me (and others) to go back to it time and time again?
One of the reasons must be its timeless quality: Dune is almost 50 years old, and yet does not show its age, as some of the classics of that period do. Frank Herbert's language, though sometimes ponderous and convoluted, does not carry a time stamp that immediately identifies it as a product of the mid-sixties. Some of its themes, as well, are even more actual today than they were at the time of the first publication: the war for precious, finite commodities that engenders political schemes and conflicts is something modern readers are acquainted with in many ways.
But I think that the characters are the real magnet of the story: what's amazing, and also very modern, is that most of them – if not all – are not totally likable people, are not "hero material" according to an old-fashioned, black-and-white concept. And yet we, the readers, root for them and want them to succeed.
Seen through today's filters, Paul Atreides – who ultimately exploits the Fremen's desire for freedom riding a corpus of religious legends he tailors after his needs – would not be so different from GRR Martin's Tyrion Lannister, just to quote one of my favorite examples: not a bad guy, but not a good one either. Just the right blend of light and darkness that makes today's "heroes" more interesting, and believable, despite the shadows lurking behind their backs.
All of the above are good reasons, granted, but sometimes the need to analyze a story makes us forget the main one: we are captivated by it because it's a great story, a compelling tale of honor and betrayal, of sacrifice and determination, love, hate, passion and wisdom. And let's face it, that's all that matters in the end, isn't it?
Aurora: Darwin – Amanda Bridgeman
March 11, 2014 August 2, 2014 maddalena@spaceandsorceryLeave a comment
I won this book and its twin Aurora: Pegasus in a giveaway contest. My thanks to Momentum Books for this opportunity and to SF Signal (one of my favorite places for information and reviews on spec-fic books) for hosting the contest.
Unfortunately I have to confess I could not finish this book, even though I tried hard, doing my best to hold on until the middle of it: it did not work for me on several levels – plot, characterization and a few writing choices. I'm quite sorry about it, because it sounded very promising and I always try to keep my mind open for new, emerging authors, but after a while the struggle became too much.
Promising, indeed: the idea of a ship's crew headed toward unknown danger while they try to overcome some personal troubles was intriguing, but from the very start it was mired down in too much exposition and awkward dialogues, and the author's seeming obsession to offer her readers the whole personal back-story of those characters all at once. This, coupled with the habit of giving the most minute details on eye and hair color, height and build for each of them, the process being repeated for every character present in a determined scene, weighed the story down in an uncomfortable way for me. I'm a great believer of the "show, don't tell" school of thought, and here there was too much telling and very little showing for my tastes.
The technical side of the book felt somewhat out of synch: I'm not a big fan of excruciatingly precise explanations of every working technology present in a story, but I try to look for some believability, and a few details either puzzled or irritated me. For example we are told that the ship's weapons stores hold both laser guns and lead-projectile ones – on a ship? With no though of the danger of de-compressive explosion? And those weapons are stored in wooden crates, that are at some point opened with a crowbar. It's not and end-of-the-world detail, granted, but the anachronistic force of it managed to jar me violently out of the narrative flow.
My main point of contention with the book, however, came from the premise that in this future society the role of women in the military, especially the space branch, is that of second-class citizens, and both the hierarchy and the troops see the women – their fellow soldiers – as a nuisance to be (badly) tolerated, or a PR stunt to be exploited. I'm quite aware that even in today's world there are preconceived notions and glass ceilings in the modern military, but they are not so openly practiced as they are in the future society that Bridgeman depicts, and at least they are not sanctioned by the chain of command. It feels both anachronistic and annoying, especially when considering that the author is a young woman.
The male crew's reaction to the presence of the women feels exaggerated and unbelievable as well: not so much for the attitude, but for the way it's expressed. These are supposed to be highly trained professional soldiers, and they behave like rambunctious school children just one step away from a food fight. I would have understood grumbling resentment – not so much because the new arrivals are women, but because they are added unexpectedly to a team that's already well-integrated: this would have made a great deal more sense, both in a military and personal way. But no, these soldiers, these skilled and finely trained individuals, all but elbow each other and snigger openly when the new recruits make their appearance (and at some point in the story make lewd suggestions that are not properly addressed by the superior officers); these men can't seem to be able to remember that they are adult professionals that should follow rules about military decorum at all times, and the officers that should keep them in line do nothing about it. It would be hard to buy in present society, it's even harder in a future one, especially when we are told that these women soldiers have all been previously tested by completing tours of duty on Earth in various operations.
Characterization suffers from a few flaws as well: the main characters' development is left to long, drawn-out inner monologues, or rather sequences of question they ask themselves trying to puzzle out situations or inter-personal problems. I could not see them as living, breathing people, but rather as sketches of what they should have been, or maybe stereotypes: the bright, spunky soldier out to make a name for herself; the seasoned commander torn between sternness and compassion; the young doctor with a heart of gold; and so on…
Even when the crew meets their antagonists, the latter are so blatantly evil that all that's missing is some proverbial mustache-twirling, and the hints about the danger they represent are so broad that one wonders how in heaven the soldiers miss every single one of them until something finally opens their eyes.
That was the point where I had to stop: despite the intriguing mystery that is the core of the story, I became aware that I did not care about discovering what it was, or how the protagonists solved it. The slow, cumbersome pace of the narrative and the lack-luster characters could not hold my attention any longer: a sad reality I had to accept.
"Repent Harlequin!" Said the Ticktockman – Harlan Ellison
March 8, 2014 August 2, 2014 maddalena@spaceandsorcery2 Comments
I have been meaning to re-read this short story since I saw the promising news about an upcoming movie based on it: the very fact that Harlan Ellison and J.M. Straczynski will renew their creative cooperation from the times of Babylon 5 – one of the very best science fiction series ever – gives me great hope and not little expectation for this movie.
The story is a classic: in a future world where time – and being on time, always – represent the one law whose transgression can mean death, a mysterious rebel tries to put a monkey wrench into this perfectly oiled mechanism. Not with impassioned speeches or acts of terrorism, but with pranks – and so he styles himself as Harlequin, the ultimate jester, hunted by the dreaded Ticktockman, upholder of the establishment and Master of Time.
The story appears fresh and actual even now, almost fifty years after it was written: it made me think about how Ellison's writing style feels timeless, as do many of the topics he developed in his works. Repent Harlequin, Said the Ticktockman, is one such example: time does indeed rule our days, either when we try to keep our busy schedules or when we wish for some free time of our own, the latter being such an elusive beast….
In this future dystopian world Time and punctuality have eaten humanity's soul, robbing it of every joy that makes life worthwhile: there are two such examples in the course of the narration, and though they are polar opposites in mood, they give a clear picture of the society. The first concerns a woman receiving a dreaded Termination Notice from the Ticktockman: she desperately hopes that it's for her husband (as it indeed is), because she's terrified at the notion of losing her life – to the point that she wishes that fate on her spouse, or even on one of her children. As long as it's not her. This chilling little detail speaks loudly about the way the totalitarian rule of Time has changed people. As does the other snapshot, the one about a medical convention whose participants laugh in high amusement at the Harlequin's antics, as if they had forgotten the simple act of laughing, or the meaning of it.
I'm curious to see how the upcoming movie will portray all this, and much more: considering the involved parties, I have high hopes about the outcome.


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Incentivize new business and residential development by increasing sustainable multimodal transportation choices.
Provide residents greater access to jobs, education, and resources that contribute to the economic growth of the region.
Adapt to local transportation needs with variety of transportation options.
Develop new infrastructure to support transit oriented development through a new loan program.
For some individuals with very low income, Medicaid pays for specialized transportation, but only to qualifying Medicaid services, leaving all other needs to be met by other systems and funded by other community programs.
Increased funding for DOT public transportation funding to fulfill 20% service goal (approx. $14M), including for volunteer networks, a voucher program for seniors and those with disabilities, and for regional transportation providers to expand current routes.
of the unmet transportation need in Maine.


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Strathnaver Museum needs your support to secure vital funding
Strathnaver Museum which tells the story of north west Sutherland and Clan Mackay is calling for the support of the local community to help win funding as part of the Aviva Community Fund 2017.
Strathnaver Museum is relying on votes to increase their chances of winning funding of up to £21,808 in the Community Support category which they hope will support their ambitious redevelopment plans. Only projects with the most votes will become finalists, so additional support is vital.
Strathnaver Museum opened in 1976 because of a dedicated group of local people who recognised the importance of the local heritage and the need to preserve it. Since its inception the museum has run numerous innovative community outreach projects and events, involving local people and groups of all ages.
To secure the future of its historically important B listed building Strathnaver Museum want to make improvements to meet accreditation and industry best practice. Coupled with this is the desire to improve the visitor experience by freeing up space to improve interpretation, engage more effectively with children and young people, and provide better access to the collection and archive for everyone.
The redevelopment of the museum into a heritage hub will allow more visitors, a retail space, additional services, more events and activities, and deliver additional training opportunities while continuing to protect, preserve and interpret the important collection. Ultimately, the project will make the Strathnaver Museum more resilient and ensure its future sustainability in the face of reductions in public funding.
Past projects led by Strathnaver Museum have included partnership working with other community groups such as the traditional youth music group, Fèis air an Oir. In 2015 they secured funding of £27,000 as part of the WWI Commemoration project Pibrochs and Poppies. The young people from the Fèis learned tunes composed by WWI piper Willie 'Druids' Macdonald of Melness and latterly Lairg. The youngster then took the music all over Caithness and Sutherland playing at ceilidh's, Highland Games, music festivals as well as visiting older people's groups and residential homes.
In 2017 Strathnaver Museum and Mackay Country Community Trust attracted £56,940 of funding to explore the life and work of Gaelic bard Rob Donn Mackay in an 18-month community project. A contemporary of Robert Burns, Rob Donn, is an extremely important figure in the history of Gaelic literature giving a valuable commentary on 18th century life. He lived through a chaotic period in Highland history as the Jacobite Risings resulted in lasting changes throughout the Highlands.
Strathnaver Museum supports the local economy through tourism development and is one of the few wet weather activities in north west Sutherland. The increasing popularity of the NC500 route means the presence of Strathnaver Museum as part of the infrastructure is increasingly important.
Fiona Mackenzie, Development Manager from Strathnaver Museum says: "For over 40 years the dedicated team of volunteers at Strathnaver Museum have amassed a significant collection that is important to people locally and throughout the world. The historically important B listed building that houses this collection is at the heart of the history of the Clearances. The time has come to recognise this significance and work towards a world class presentation of our people's story. If you want to help bring this vision to reality all you need to do is take a couple of minutes to vote for Strathnaver Museum in the Aviva Community Fund."
To get behind Strathnaver Museum and help make a difference in your local community, visit https://www.avivacommunityfund.co.uk/voting/project/view/17-2025 and submit your vote by 21st November 2017.
For more information on Strathnaver Museum, visit www.strathnavermuseum.org.uk.
The Aviva Community Fund is an initiative that lends a helping hand to local communities by offering support and funding for inspirational local causes. For more information visit aviva.co.uk/community-fund.


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Americas, ER, United States
Boston's Great Molasses Flood of 1919
Aftermath of the disaster Photo Credit- Boston Public Library
Molasses is delicious, a sweet treat to put on fresh biscuits or use to make gingerbread. It can also be used to make rum, which anyone who has been on a cruise can tell you is delicious. However, for a North Boston neighborhood in 1919 it was the source of one of the strangest disasters in American history.
In 1915, the Purity Distilling Company, a subsidiary of the United States Industrial Alcohol Company, built a gigantic tank for molasses in the Boston's North End. The steel tank was 50 feet tall, 90 feet across, and capable of holding 2.5 million gallons of molasses. On January 15, 1919 it was an abnormally warm day. The temperatures rose to 40 degrees Fahrenheit from the previous day's freezing temperatures. The large tank was full of a delivery of Puerto Rican molasses and ready to be processed. However, just after noon witnesses heard sounds like gunfire. The tank's rivets were popping out and the steel seems tore like paper. The molasses poured out of the ripped tank and formed a wave heading down Commercial Street. The wave was 5 ft-high, 160 ft-wide wave that was moving at a clip of 35 mph.
This gave it the power to rip buildings off their foundations, snap steel support girders from an elevated train rail and destroy homes. Electrical poles snapped and the wires fell into the molasses hissing and popping. Ten year old Pasquale Iantosca was killed when a railroad car was thrown into him. Walter Merrithew was pinned against the wall of a railroad freight shed three feet off the ground. He watched horses drown in the sticky flood. People were swept along in the wave and a boat was smashed through a wooden fence. Rescue attempts were hampered by the molasses as medical personnel and police could not get through the viscous goo. By the time the wave subsided, 21 people were dead, 150 people were injured. According to the Massachusetts Foundation for the Humanities, the damage totaled 100 million dollars in today's money.
Damage to elevated train track Photo Credit- Wired
Clean up was also difficult as the molasses hardened as it dried. The firefighters could not hose it off the building with fresh water. It was stuck. They eventually figured out that salt water would strip it off and let it flow into the gutters. However, with all the foot traffic the molasses quickly made its way across the city on the feet of workers and gawkers. All in all, it took 80,000 man-hours to clean up the mess.
Soon after, the fingers began pointing. How could such a thing have happened? The United States Industrial Alcohol Company quickly said it was anarchist, but that was the favorite scapegoat of everyone in the early 20th century. It was theorized that the molasses had fermented in the tank and that caused the explosion. Subsequent investigations found that the manufacture of the steel tank was to blame. The steel tank had been made in a hurry and corners had been cut in its construction. The walls were too thin and were made of a steel to brittle to withstand the volume. The person overseeing the construction of the tank had no experience with engineering or construction. The company basically threw up a huge tank and crossed their fingers and hoped for the best.
At least 125 lawsuits came from the tragedy brought by working families who had lost properties and loved ones. It took Colonel Hugh Ogden nearly six years to hear testimony from 3,000 witnesses. Once he gave his decision, he nixed the companies theory that it was anarchists and ruled it was a very low "factor of safety" in the construction of the tank. Each family in the lawsuit was paid $7,000 by the United States Industrial Alcohol Company.
The disaster drew attention to the lack of inspections against shoddy construction and new laws were passed in its wake. However, the neighborhood bore the marks of the disaster for years. For decades, residents said on a hot summer day they could smell the hot sticky scent of molasses.
Sources available on request
September 11 Memorial and Museum The Tornado that created the Mayo Clinic USS Indianapolis – July 1945 The Great Fire of 1910


We all want to make the most of our nest egg for the future but often don't know how to get started. Bank On Virginia Beach is offering a special workshop to help you learn some of the terminology and strategies for investing. No sales, no gimmicks just good, no cost information to help you grow your portfolio! You will learn about different types of accounts to use when investing and how to minimize taxes while maximizing your earnings. Even if you are a beginner, this is a great workshop for you!


Windows 7 installation step by step explanation is here with screen shots.Many of you have used computers for many days and also using Windows 7 as an operation system, but yet don't aware of the installation of operating system for your computer. In this post I am going to mention step wise installation of Windows 7.
Many get afraid whenever format word come. As we know everybody love his computer/laptop so anything harm to our computer it's really hurt all of us.
If anything wrong happens to our computer and we have to format it than we became sad and start thinking that formatting means losing all the data off your hard drive.
Unfortunately, if all drive is infected with Virus than you should format the whole Hard disk but still I prefer not to Format your PC because it's not an easy task to back up your lost DATA. Yes you will lose your Data but not the complete hard disk Data. If your computer is having three drives naming C D and E and operating system file is present in C Drive than it might be not necessary to format the rest drives D and E. So you can save all Data present in D and E.
Unfortunately, if all drive is infected with Virus than you should format the whole Hard disk but still I prefer not to Format your PC because it's not an easy task to Back up your lost DATA.
If your computer is having three drives naming C D and E and operating system file is present in C Drive than it might be not necessary to format the rest drives D and E. So you can save all Data present in D and E. So you can save all Data present in D and E.
I prefer not to format your complete PC instead you can follow Steps mention here.
So if still your problem doesn't solve after following the steps mentioned in link or anyone want a fresh installation of windows 7 than here I am going to mention you steps followed to FORMAT your system using Windows 7 bootable CD/DVD.
Step 1. The first step should be you have Windows 7 bootable CD with you. Now insert this CD into Your DVD/CD drive and reboot your system.
Step 2. As soon as you reboot a message as shown in below figure should appear. Than you have to press any key without delay.
If you not seeing this message than you have to manually change your boot order by pressing function key just after restarting your computer and select option boot from optical CD/DVD Drive.
*NOTE for different computer the function key may be different it may be F9 in some cases or F2 in another. It's better to watch your computer screen while it booting. It shows the option down there at right or left corner of the screen with the message, press F-x key for boot menu.
Now the next screen will come is shown below. So now you have to wait for some time until the OS check all drives and configuration of computer and start copying file to your local drive.
After this you will be encounter the below screen. You have to just press next button here.
Also accept the user agreement by applying Tick mark in front of check box.
Now drive option will be shown in front of you. Installation process ask you that in which drive you want to install your OS.
Note: - Here you can create new drives and delete old drives. Just Click on the Drive option Link shown there.
You can create a new partition by clicking a new link present there and then allocating the desire size to it.
You can format the any drive by using format option.
Similarly you can delete any partition by clicking on the delete button.
Select the correct drive from shown drive and then click one next button.
You may be encounter with this dialogue box after clicking the next. Click OK and proceed.
After Pressing OK to above the below window will appear and your installation will start wait for few minute (20 Min approx.) and then your computer will restart automatically.
After the reboot the computer will automatically continue with its installation. You don't have to do anything during this. So wait until the next screen come.
Wait for few time until the computer restart and window show below come.
Fill the name of your computer and proceed.
You will be soon show the welcome screen. Congo you are successfully install your operating system.
Thanks for reading my post. Hope you like this post on Windows 7 installation step by step explanation. Please excuse us about low quality images.Windows 7 installation step by step.


The Master of Public Policy (MPP) suite of programs are designed to provide education which complies with international norms, for professionals to develop further as leaders in a variety of roles, including public policy analysis and planning, public management and services, research institutes, government orientated positions within the private sector and the third sector organizations. The MPP's scope includes providing students with the theoretical and practical knowledge to develop and apply the analytical tools necessary for high quality policy analysis and strategic development. This includes aspects of design, advocacy and evaluation of public policies and strategies. It will contribute to growth in program management capabilities within a dynamic economic and global context.
MBRSG offers six (6) Master of Public Policy Programs. There is a Master of Public Policy program and there are five Master of Public Policy programs each with a specialisation.
Master of Public Policy (Science and Technology).
As a student in MPP with Sustainable Development specialization the basic premise humans remain part of the natural world will underpin your studies. The program will explore the assumption that like all other species, we rely upon the resources of the planet to thrive, and we return our wastes to the same environment. Students will examine the impact of human activity on local areas and how exploitation of resources and discharge of waste can progressively reduce the well-being of the human species. The specialization in Sustainable Development provides students with an opportunity to study what is known scientifically about the impact of human economic activity on the earth's resources, and of alternative means to enhance human well-being through public measures designed to optimize resource use.
Compare and contrast current governance and public policy theories and perspectives to the analysis of the relationship between structure of governance and policy performance and the development of innovative public governance systems and policy processes to face the future challenges in public service delivery.
Evaluate how various principles, tools and methods influence the effectiveness of public policy development, implementation and evaluation.
Measure the values of governance not only in terms of better performance, accountability and transparency but also how they engage citizens, markets and the third sector in participatory policymaking and policy change.
Analyze public policies in key sectors such as economic, social, education, health and sustainable environment using appropriate research principles and methods.
Appraise the impact of global political and economic institutions, knowledge sharing and current trends on governance and public policy.
Utilize effective leadership and teamwork skills to solve complex/ advanced public organizational problems and communicate policy decisions.
Completion of a recognized recognized undergraduate (Bachelor's) degree in a discipline appropriate for the MPP or one of the specialisms.
A minimum cumulative grade point average of 3.00 on a 4.0 scale, or its established equivalent, in the applicant's undergraduate or baccalaureate degree program.
an applicant with an undergraduate qualification from an English-medium institution who can provide evidence of acquiring a minimum TOEFL score of 500 on the Paper-Based test, or its equivalent on another standardized test approved by the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, at the time of admission to his/her undergraduate program.
An applicant who meets the above requirements should have minimum of three years of relevant work experience, except for applicants who have a CGPA of 3.5 or above on a 4.0 scale, and who are already working in the public sector or a nonprofit organization, who may be accepted with a minimum relevant work experience of eighteen months.
Prior to enrolling in a Master of Public Policy (MPP) - Sustainable Development program students must demonstrate proficiency in basic statistics and research methods. These requirements can be met by passing an undergraduate university level subject in statistics and/or research methods. Students who have not demonstrated previous proficiency in basic statistics and research methods will be required to take the Foundation Course for Research Methods in Public Policy during their first semester of academic study. Furthermore, these students will be limited to enrolling and studying one Core Module, in addition to the Foundation Course for Research Methods in Public Policy, in their first academic semester as part of their Master of Public Policy (MPP) program of study.
The aim of the MBRSG induction activities is to introduce students to the range of services that are available to postgraduate students, as well as to provide them with essential information about registration and enrollment. It is also an opportunity for students to get acquainted with each other. During these sessions, faculty members will guide you through essential knowledge and skills to enhance your progression through the programs.
We propose that induction will answer many of the questions that students may have about what being a postgraduate student at MBRSG. The Induction course will be delivered over two weekends prior to the commencement of the first semester of study. All new postgraduate students are required to attend.
In support of students at the commencement of their graduate studies or at what may be a return to an academic environment after a period away from higher education, MBRSG requires that all new students admitted to a graduate program attend an Induction Course entitled 'Returning to Learning". The Induction course will be delivered over two weekends prior to the commencement of the first semester of study and all new postgraduate students are required to attend. The Returning to Learning Course includes activities to introduce students to the range of services that are available to postgraduate students, as well as to provide them with essential information about registration and enrollment. It is also an opportunity for students to get acquainted with each other. During these sessions, faculty members will guide you through essential knowledge and skills to enhance your progression through the programs. We propose that the Returning to Learning Course will answer many of the questions that students may have about what being a postgraduate student at MBRSG.
Our Master of Public Policy (MPP) - Sustainable Development graduates will find themselves working in a range of public and private sector organizations. The MPP degree will equip graduates to operate effectively in an environment where public policy options have multiplied and where the boundaries between public and private entities have become increasingly blurred. Graduates can also be promoted into senior policy making and decision making roles with the public or private sector, because they now have a breath of applied knowledge related to the field of public policy. Graduates with the various specializations are further equipped to take up senior decision making, consultancy or advisory positions in their areas of specialization.
To be awarded a Master of Public Policy (MPP) - Sustainable Development degree requires the successful completion of six (6) Modules and a Dissertation totaling 180 (CATS) credits with an overall average grade of 60% (Merit) or above, in accordance with the Graduate Completion Policy (P-ACD-134).
The program is further supported by e-learning resources for each subject on Blackboard and students are required to attend additional (non-credit) workshops focusing on the development of academic writing and research skills. Students are also encouraged to attend seminars and guest lectures hosted by the MBRSG.
Students can exit with a Post Graduate Diploma in Public Policy (Sustainable Development )* after completing 120 credits and prior to attempting the dissertation.
This module facilitates the students' understanding of the theories of governance and public policy process as a critical step to analyze policies in the current context of globalization and governance. The aim of the module is to offer students the knowledge of key issues and processes in public policy to enable them to appreciate how globalization, technology, innovation, and other emerging challenges impact the various phases of policymaking as well as policy implementation and evaluation. Through local and international case studies, the module also provides a comparative perspective of different public policy paradigms in the contemporary world with a special reference to the UAE and MENA region. This module also explores the institutions and processes in public policy making, implementation and evaluation and how leadership plays a catalyst role in policy change and policy adaption. Finally, it examines how future governments will adopt smart policies to shape the social, economic and environmental growth and sustainability in the UAE and Arab region.
This module is designed to give students an understanding of the qualitative and quantitative research methods needed for public policy analysis. Module topics include research design (this includes defining research problems, formulating research questions and reviewing literature), research strategy; methods and data collection tools. Students will be introduced with a wide range of qualitative tools such as case studies, grounded theory and action research as well as quantitative tools moving from descriptive statistics to regression analysis. The module will enhance students' skill in evaluating published research and learn how to use different research methods in their own research and studies in order to grasp and analyze issues related to public administration and public policy; including the evaluation of policy alternatives. They will learn to formulate research questions, design surveys, systematically conduct research and operationalize variables.
This module examines the economic foundations of policy analysis and fiscal administration by introducing basic microeconomic principles and tools required to understand the role of government in the economy. It explores the rationale for government intervention, the goals of intervention (achieving allocative efficiency, redistribution and stabilization), and the prospect of government failure in making such interventions succeed. More specifically, the module provides an overview of the assumptions of perfect competition and considers a variety of situations in which the ideal of a perfect market breaks down, including the cases of public goods, externalities, market power, natural monopolies and asymmetric information. It uses actual policy problems to demonstrate applications of the theoretical framework to areas of education, health, environment, social security and others. It also provides an overview of public sector budgeting and other methods for financial management, regulation and control drawing on contemporary public finance issues. It also provides an overview of regulatory economics and reviews the recent research on implications of behavioral economics for public policy making.
The module is concerned with the determinants of competitiveness and economic development viewed from a bottom up, microeconomic perspective. While sound macroeconomic policies, stable legal and political systems, and the accumulation of factors of production affect the potential for competitiveness, wealth is created at the microeconomic level. The strategies of firms, the vitality of clusters, and quality of the business environment in which competition takes place are what ultimately determines a nation's or region's productivity and wealth. The content covers both developing and advanced economies. The focus is on emerging, transition and advanced countries where microeconomic agendas are critical to sustained success. Furthermore, the module addresses competitiveness at the level of nations, states or cities within nations, clusters, and groups of neighboring countries. A major theme of the module is that competitiveness and economic development is affected by policies at all these levels. The module is also concerned with government policy but also with the roles of business, universities, and other institutions in competitiveness. In modern international competition, the roles of the constituencies have shifted and expanded, and the traditional separation between them works against successful economic development. Also, the ability to mount and sustain a competitiveness strategy for a nation or region is a daunting challenge. The module explores not only theory and policy, but also the nature of the organizational structure and institutions for sustained improvements in competitiveness. In addition to both macro and micro policy choices, the module underlines the role of history, i.e. the legacy of nations (such as language, culture and general institutions), and geography, i.e. the regional circumstances (such as the level of development among neighboring nations and the intensity in regional interaction).
This module develops the study of sustainable development through a focus on governance and policy. It considers the core Global and Regional challenges of sustainable development: the problem of balancing the economic, social and environmental costs and benefits of development, both for people now and for future generations. The module investigates who applies and implements sustainable development principles, and where and how these principles are applied and implemented. The module emphasizes that sustainable development is a political process, one that raises important ethical questions. Students will analyze some of the different policies and approaches that have been formulated to implement sustainable development by governments, communities, and corporate sectors. In establishing the locus of sustainable development principles, the module will examine who the different actors are, and how sustainability is measured in different contexts including in developed and developing countries.
How it is appraised against different criteria; and how it may be contested by different actors.
The Dissertation in Public Policy is designed to enable MBRSG Master's candidates to integrate, apply and extend the knowledge and skills they have acquired throughout their program. The subject matter for the dissertation should also be based upon skills and concepts acquired during the taught part of the program. However, in order to satisfy the requirements for a Masters level dissertation, it will be necessary for the candidate to develop, enhance and apply these concepts through demonstration of independent research skills beyond the level achieved in prior coursework. To this end, candidates will conduct substantive original research on a strategic management, innovation management or service innovation issue of importance to the region. The outcome will be the development and presentation of the research results and recommendations that can inform innovation management in the UAE and beyond.
MBRSG ensures that all applications are considered on academic merit in accordance with the admission criteria. MBRSG applies ethical practices in respect to all applications and no discriminatory practices are tolerated.
Please read the following terms, conditions and instructions carefully and acknowledge your acceptance of them before completing the Online Application For Admission Form.
Applications must be completed and submitted by the applicant themselves.
All questions marked with an asterisk (*) must be answered, or the application will be considered incomplete and will not be reviewed.
First-time users of the MBRSG Student Management System must register to create an account. Once you have selected either full-time or part-time below, you must choose a login username and password of between six and nine alphanumeric characters.
You may save your application and complete it at a later time if necessary.
Applicants are encouraged to apply early, as our postgraduate programs are often capped at 30 students per semester. If the semester you selected is full, MBRSG may consider your application for the following semester.
Applicants may be asked to attend an interview at MBRSG.
An Offer of Admission made to an applicant will only be valid for the academic semester applied for.
Applicants who are employed full time will (normally) only be admitted to a graduate program on a part-time basis. Part-Time students will be limited to studying a maximum of two (2) modules per academic semester. Full-time students will be able to study a maximum of three (3) modules per semester (pending seat availability).
Applicants who are granted conditional admission to an MBRSG graduate program will be limited to studying one (1) module in their first semester, pending satisfying the specific condition(s) of admission detailed in the offer of admission letter.
Applicants who accept an offer of admission must attend and complete the Return to Learning orientation program prior to the start of the semester.
Applicants who have not demonstrated proficiency in basic statistics and research methods in their prior tertiary studies (i.e. passing an undergraduate university level subject in statistics and/or research methods), may only be offered conditional entry, and will be limited to enrolling in one (1) module and required to take the Foundation Course for Research Methods in Public Policy during their first semester.
Applicants who wish to defer their admission should contact the Manager of Admissions and Program Relations prior to the start of the applicable semester. Approval of a deferral request will be considered and acceptance will depend on available seats.
If you wish to submit a formal Application Form for Admission to the Master of Public Policy (MPP) - Sustainable Development, please click on either the Full-Time or Part Time Online Admission link.


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Star Trek Discovery season 3 (Picture: CBS)
When does Star Trek Discovery season 3 return to CBS and how to stream
The third season of Star Trek Discovery officially begins airing on CBS today, and fans are excited for the latest installment focusing on those on board the USS Discovery.
The new season has 13 episodes in total, with the final air date set to be January 27, 2021. What's more, there has been a fourth season officially announced this month.
The events in Star Trek Discovery take place over 900 years after those in the original series. The second season ended with the ship going into the future, which would let them explore storylines in a whole new time period.
Filming took place between July 2019 and February 2020, so there is no need to worry about pandemic-related delays causing any issues with the release of episodes for this season.
Star Trek Discovery can be streamed live on CBS or on demand with CBS All Access. Scenes seen on the show were filmed either in Toronto, Canada or on location in Iceland.
What time does Star Trek Discovery come on? How to stream on CBS
When is Star Trek Discovery season 4 out on CBS?
Check out Star Trek Discovery season 3 with CBS All Access.
Tags: CBS, CBS All Access, Star Trek, Star Trek: Discovery


What documents do you need to get an EEA FP visa?
Visa application form (EEA family permit).
Documents on income, the status of the bank account and other documents confirming your status in Ukraine do not need to provide, because by your application for the EEA family permit to England / EEA visa you declare your intention to immigrate to the UK to your partner.
European passport or ID card.
Certificate of funds available on the account.
Confirmation of places of residence in the UK.
Documents confirmation of your relationship (photos, screenshots of your communication and other).
If you need detailed advice or sample of Invitation Letter for an EEA FP visa to the UK please contact our visa specialist Visa in UA via Viber, Telegram or Whatsapp 063 59 58 501 · 097 221 99 69 · 095 610 75 21 or write a request for mail info@prosto-visa.in.ua.
Consular fee on EEA FP visa is free. When applying for a visa in Ukraine, you do not pay anything. If you submit visa documents in any other country, then the visa center may be charged the service fee. Сost of our services 300 EUR.
Standardly visa for the reunion will be open for 6 months with multi-entry. With visa family permit in the UK, you have the right to move to your husband/wife and live in the UK without having to leave before the expiry of the visa.
After moving to the UK you need to prepare and submit documents to the Home office to obtain a residence permit for 5 years, residence permit in England / UK.
Standard terms of permission document up to 1 month after submitting documents to British visa centre. Urgent procedure for this type of visa is not provided.
Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, the Republic of Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Kingdom of the Netherlands (Holland), Norway, Poland , Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden or Switzerland and lives and works in the UK, you need a visa EEA family permit to England / family member of an EEA national visa / EEA family member visa. In other words, it is a visa for permanent residence in the UK, which allows you to immigrate to the UK, or immigration EEA for family reunification.
By family, in this case, we mean husband, civil partner, child (EEA dependant), who live in England / UK on the basis of their European citizenship.
If your spouse has British citizenship, then you need to apply for a wife visa in England | Great Britain.


What are the closest stations to Beerbox - The Liquor Store?
R T Nagar Post Office is 27 meters away, 1 min walk.
R T Nagara Post Office is 105 meters away, 2 min walk.
Rtnagara Police Station is 149 meters away, 2 min walk.
Rt Nagara Police Station is 149 meters away, 2 min walk.
Gangenahalli Hmt Layout is 259 meters away, 4 min walk.
Which Bus lines stop near Beerbox - The Liquor Store?
These Bus lines stop near Beerbox - The Liquor Store: 111C, 114, 114C, KIAS-11.
data-title="Beerbox - The Liquor Store, J.C.Nagar"
Looking for directions to Beerbox - The Liquor Store in J.C.Nagar, India? Your journey just became much easier!
Download the Moovit App to find the fastest directions and to see the latest Bus schedules to Beerbox - The Liquor Store. Find updated times for all the routes that are available with real-time step-by-step directions from Beerbox - The Liquor Store.
The Moovit App also shows you the closest stops and stations to your destination. Choose from a list of stops closest to Beerbox - The Liquor Store: R T Nagar Post Office; R T Nagara Post Office; Rtnagara Police Station; Rt Nagara Police Station; Gangenahalli Hmt Layout.
Pick Bus options that you can take to get to Beerbox - The Liquor Store. Here's a list of a few lines that pass near your destination - Bus: 111C, 114, 114C, KIAS-11.
Looking to plan your return trip from Beerbox - The Liquor Store, but don't know the street address? You can select your destination from our online map and Moovit will find the best available routes to get you where you need to go!