text:
\section{Introduction}
Galaxy clusters are the largest gravitationally bound structures to form within the large scale structure of the Universe. The gradient of the potential well of a galaxy cluster gives rise to strong gravitational accelerations, that drive a high velocity dispersion for galaxies residing within it. Nevertheless, it is not the net acceleration of a galaxy, but rather the difference in acceleration across the body of a galaxy, or tidal forces, that cause individual galaxies to suffer tidal mass loss. In \cite{Byrd1990}, the strength of the perturbation, that a galaxy experiences from the cluster potential, depends on its radius within the cluster to the inverse cubed. Thus the tidal forces are a smooth, decreasing function of radius, but the cluster potential is far more destructive near the cluster centre than in the cluster outskirts. The strength of the perturbation also depends on the physical size of the galaxy raised to the power of three. Therefore, at a fixed clustocentric radius, extended galaxies are much more perturbed. Tidal stripping from the cluster potential tends to preferentially affect the outer galaxy first (i.e. `outside-in' stripping). A simple approach to model this effect involves calculating the tidal radius of a galaxy (\citealp{BT1987}). Beyond this tidal radius, it is assumed that all material will be removed by external tides.

However, the cluster potential is not the sole source of tidal mass loss in clusters. Clusters are filled with other cluster member galaxies, with which tidal encounters can arise. Because the cluster galaxies typically have a high velocity dispersion ($\sim$1000~km/s), any galaxy-galaxy encounters tend to occur with high relative velocities. However, an individual galaxy may be subject to multiple, short-lived impulsive encounters. This process is known as `harassment' (\citealp{Moore1996}). The effects of such interactions can be approximated by the impulse approximation (\citealp{Gnedin1999}, \citealp{Gonzalez2005}). In the impulse approximation, the strength of the internal dynamical kicks that a galaxy receives from a high speed encounter depends on the impact parameter, encounter speed, and is linearly dependent on radius within the galaxy. Therefore, as with the potential of the cluster, tidal stripping from impulsive galaxy-galaxy encounters preferentially affects the outer galaxy first, resulting in outside-in stripping.

The results of outside-in tidal stripping could potentially have important consequences for some galaxies. The halos and disks of galaxies may become truncated (\citealp{Smith2015}). In fact, preferential stripping of the more extended stellar body of a nucleated dwarf, leaving the central nucleus remaining, is one evolutionary route by which Ultra-Compact dwarfs may form (\citealp{Bekki2001}; \citealp{Pfeffer2013}; \citealp{Pfeffer2014}; \citealp{Ferrarese2016}). Also, disk galaxies in clusters may become increasingly bulge-dominated because their more extended disk component is preferentially tidally stripped compared to their bulge (\citealp{Aguerri2009}).

Observationally, it is often difficult to assess if a galaxy is clearly suffering harassment. The high speed nature of the tidal encounter means that the interacting galaxy may be long gone by the time we observe a harassed galaxy. Galaxies that undergo harassment often produce stellar streams, however the stellar streams are typically very low surface brightness (\citealp{Moore1996}; \citealp{Davies2005}; \citealp{Mastropietro2005}; \citealp{Smith2010a}). Therefore, understanding the effects of harassment on cluster galaxies has largely remained the realm of numerical simulations (e.g. \citealp{Moore1998}; \citealp{Gnedin2003b}). Simulations have revealed that a key parameter controlling the effectiveness of harassment is galaxy surface-brightness. Low surface brightness disk galaxies suffer much more significant disruption, morphological transformation, and stellar stripping than high surface brightness galaxies (\citealp{Gnedin2003a}; \citealp{Moore1999}). Simulations also find that the high speed tidal encounters can increase the mass loss beyond that from the main cluster potential alone by 10-50$\%$ (\citealp{Gnedin2003b}, \citealp{Knebe2006}, \citealp{Smith2013}). The strength of mass loss from harassment is very dependent on a galaxy's orbital parameters within the cluster (\citealp{Mastropietro2005}; \citealp{Smith2010a}; \citealp{Smith2013}; \citealp{Smith2015}). Galaxies with small pericentres, combined with low eccentricity suffer the highest mass loss as they spend the most time where the cluster tides are most harsh. However, even large eccentricity orbits can be destructive, if the pericentre is sufficiently small (\citealp{Smith2015}).

Tidal mass loss can also arise in groups of galaxies. Simulations show group preprocessing can influence group members, and that the inclination of a galaxy's disk to its orbital plane can influence the efficiency of stellar stripping (\citealp{Villalobos2012}). This same dependence has since been noted in cluster harassment simulations as well (\citealp{Bialas2015}). Indeed a significant fraction of galaxies, that may have suffered effects from the group environment, may be found in clusters by redshift zero (\citealp{Mihos2004}; \citealp{McGee2009}; \citealp{DeLucia2012}). The presence of kinematically decoupled cores in some cluster dwarf ellipticals could be direct evidence for the influence of the group environment (\cite{Toloba2014a}), as it is very difficult to form such features by harassment (\citealp{Gonzalez2005}). The high frequency of cluster galaxies with merger features may also provide evidence for preprocessing (\citealp{Sheen2012}; \citealp{Yi2013}).

The impact of stellar tidal stripping is not just important for galaxies themselves. The stars that are stripped in a cluster contribute to the build-up, and properties, of the Intra Cluster Light (ICL), and the Brightest Central Galaxy (BCG) (\citealp{DeLucia2007}; \citealp{Contini2014}). The N-body simulations of a cosmological cluster in \cite{Rudick2009} showed that as much as 40$\%$ of the ICL is formed from cold streams of stars that, themselves, are formed by tidal interactions with the BCG, or formed in galaxy interactions in groups before infalling into the cluster. In fact, the latter is more common at high redshift, before many clusters assemble, when the group environment was much more common.

The modelling of stellar tidal stripping may be very important in Semi-Analytical Models (SAMs). In SAMs, a dark matter only cosmological simulation is augmented with analytical recipes for how galaxies grow and evolve, including gas cooling, star formation, and stellar feedback. Among these analytical treatments for how the baryons should behave, it is necessary to consider how the stellar component of galaxies should respond to tidal stripping. A wide range of stellar tidal stripping recipes have previously been applied in the literature. In many cases, the stellar mass of a galaxy is not altered until the dark matter reaches some critical limit, and then all of the stars are instantaneously stripped. For example, in \cite{Somerville2008} this occurs when the halo is truncated to a single radial scalelength. In \cite{Guo2011}, it is when the host halo density at pericentre surpasses the density of the baryons of the satellite. An alternative critical limit is when the halo mass is reduced to the same mass as the total baryonic mass (e.g., \citealp{Guo2011}; \citealp{Lee2013}) . In alternative recipes, the stellar mass is decreased more smoothly. \cite{Contini2016} assumes that the stellar mass reduces exponentially, once the galaxy enters a host halo. Alternatively some SAMs only strip stars beyond the tidal radius of that galaxy (e.g., \citealp{Henriques2010}; \citealp{Kimm2011}; \citealp{Contini2014}).

As we will demonstrate in Section \ref{stellarmassfuncsect}, the choice of tidal stripping recipe can impact on the shape of the stellar mass function. The stripping recipe could also impact the growth rate of the ICL and BCG (\citealp{DeLucia2007b}; \citealp{Lidman2013}), and potentially alter the stellar metallicity radial gradients in massive galaxies (\citealp{Contini2014}).

Numerical simulations that model both the halo and stellar mass of galaxies with live components can give some insights into how tidal stripping of stars occurs. \cite{Penarrubia2008} and \cite{Smith2013a} demonstrate that very high fractions of dark matter must be stripped before significant stellar stripping occurs. In \cite{Smith2013a}, for a large number of harassed dwarf galaxy models, it was found that typically 80-90$\%$ of the dark matter must be tidally stripped, just to remove 10$\%$ of the stars. However, the exact fraction of dark matter that must be stripped is found to depend on the size of the stellar disk of the galaxy, such that a smaller disk requires even stronger dark matter losses to be equally affected. Thus, in \cite{Smith2013a}, an attempt was made to link the efficiency of dark matter stripping to the efficiency of stellar stripping. In this study, we will attempt to extend on this previous analysis, by using fully cosmological simulations, and measuring the complete relation between bound dark matter fraction and bound stellar fraction, for galaxies suffering a full range of mass loss. In Section 2 we describe the numerical setup, in Section 3 we present our results, and in Section 4 there is a discussion and conclusion.

\section{Setup}
\subsection{The Hydrodynamic Cosmological Simulations}
\label{hydrosims}
We conduct zoom simulations of clusters of galaxies, using the adaptive mesh refinement code {\sc{ramses}} (\citealp{Teyssier2002}). Clusters are initially selected from a low resolution, dark-matter only, 200~Mpc/h cubic volume, using initial conditions generated by {\sc{mpgrafic}} (\citealp{Prunet2008}). In this study we assume a flat $\Lambda$CDM universe with a Hubble constant $H_{0}$=70.4~km/s/Mpc, a baryon density $\Omega_{b}$=0.0456, a total matter density $\Omega_{m}$=0.272, a dark energy density $\Omega_{\Lambda}$=0.728, a rms fluctuation amplitude at 8Mpc/h of $\sigma_{8}$=0.809, and spectral index $n$=0.963 consistent with Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe 7 (WMAP7) year cosmology \citep{Komatsu2011}.

Then, each selected cluster is zoomed, by first tracking back all particles within 3 virial radii of the cluster, then adding an additional four levels of nested initial conditions. Now, each cluster is resimulated, with a full baryonic physics treatment, and reaching a maximum spatial resolution of 760~pc/h. When 8 or more dark matter particles (or the equivalent mass in baryons) is present in a cell, it refines to the next level.

The baryonic physics treatment is deliberately chosen to match that used in the Horizon-AGN simulations (\citealp{Dubois2012}), and is also described in Choi et al. 2016 (in prep). In brief, we use the standard implementation of radiative cooling in Ramses. A look-up table is applied of the metallicity- and temperature-dependent, collisional equilibrium, radiative cooling functions from \cite{Sutherland1993}, for a mono-atomic gas of H and He, with a standard metal mixture. UV background heating is calculated using \cite{Haardt1996}, assuming z$_{\rm{reion}}$=10.4, consistent with WMAP7. We note that we do not use more recent UV background models (e.g. \citealp{Haardt2012}), however we do not expect this to have a significant influence on the main conclusions of this study because it is focused on tidal stripping. Star formation occurs above a critial density of 0.1~H~cm$^{-3}$, following a Kennicutt-schmidt law, with a star formation efficiency of 0.02. Supernova feedback is modelled as in \cite{Dubois2008}, where stars with mass greater than 10 solar masses explode as supernovae, 10~Myr after their formation, releasing 10$^{51}$~erg per 10~M$_\odot$ into ambient cells, in the form of kinetic and thermal energy. Gas cooling is suppressed for 10~Myr following a supernova, so as energy is efficiently deposited in the ambient gas. Formation of, and feedback from super massive black holes (SMBHs) is also considered following prescriptions in \cite{Dubois2012}. SMBHs tend to form where the density is peaked, and are treated as sink particles, which can accrete mass and merge. SMBH feedback can occur in `quasar' or `radio' mode, depending on whether the accretion rate surpasses the Eddington limit.

The time step between each successive snapshots is approximately 75~Myr. Halos in each snapshot are identified using the AdaptaHOP method (\citealp{Aubert2004}), with a minimum number of dark matter particles of 64. We also rerun the halo finding code but on the stellar particle distribution in order to identify galaxies. For the stellar particles, we use the most massive sub-node method (\citealp{Tweed2009}) and, in practice, we detect galaxies down to $\sim$10$^8$~M$_\odot$/h. We limit our analysis to galaxies within the zoom region (within three virial radii of the cluster), so as to exclude poorly resolved galaxies. In each snapshot we match the stellar component of a galaxy to its halo by finding the closest galaxy to the centre of the halo. In cases where a satellite galaxy is mis-identified as the main galaxy, due to its stellar component temporarily passing close to the halo centre, we filter for rapid, shortlived changes in stellar mass. In order to track halos between snapshots, we follow the main progenitor galaxy up the merger tree. Galaxy merger trees are built with ConsistentTrees (\citealp{Behroozi2013}). All of our sample galaxies have a complete tree from redshift three until redshift zero.

Our galaxy sample is extracted from the hydrodynamical zoom simulations of three cosmological clusters. At redshift zero, Cluster 1 is a massive cluster with virial mass of 9.2$\times$10$^{14}$~M$_\odot$/h, and virial radius of 2.5~Mpc/h. Cluster 2 is significantly less massive, with a virial mass of 2.3$\times$10$^{14}$~M$_\odot$/h, and a virial radius of 1.6~Mpc/h. Cluster 3 is the least massive cluster, with a virial mass of 1.7$\times$10$^{14}$~M$_\odot$/h, and a virial radius of 1.5~Mpc/h. Cluster 1, 2, and 3 contribute 60, 27, and 13$\%$ of our final galaxy sample, respectively.

\subsection{Linking tidal mass loss of stars and dark matter in cosmological simulations}

\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=8.5cm]{sketch.eps}
\end{center}
\caption{Schematic of a toy galaxy undergoing tidal mass loss, and evolving along its dark matter-stellar mass fraction track. Position `A' marks the starting point of the galaxy, where it has all of its dark matter (f$_{\rm{DM}}$=1), and all of its stars (f$_{\rm{str}}$=1). The galaxy evolves to position `B', where it has lost more than half its dark matter, but none of the stars have yet been stripped. At position `C', the dark matter halo has been heavily stripped, and the stars begin to be stripped too. At position `D', the galaxy has been destroyed as all of the dark matter and stars have been stripped (f$_{\rm{DM}}$ and f$_{\rm{str}}$=0). The dashed line indicates the trajectory a galaxy would follow if it suffered equal dark matter and stellar mass loss.}
\label{sketchfig}
\end{figure}

In \cite{Smith2013a}, model early type dwarf galaxies were subjected to harassment. For each model galaxy, we measured the amount of dark matter that was stripped when exactly 10$\%$ of their stars were unbound. We found that the amount of dark matter was always very high, and a similar value was measured for all our model galaxies ($\sim$80-90$\%$). However, in this previous approach, we are only recording the link between the amount of dark matter and stars that are stripped at one specific moment, when exactly 10$\%$ of the stars have been stripped.

A more complete study can be made if we instead record the full relationship between the bound fraction of dark matter (f$_{\rm{DM}}$) and bound fraction of stars (f$_{\rm{str}}$), for galaxies that are undergoing tidal stripping. Note that, initially, before tidal stripping begins, a galaxy has a bound dark matter fraction, f$_{\rm{DM}}$=1. Then, as a galaxy suffers mass loss from tidal stripping of its dark matter halo, f$_{\rm{DM}}$ falls, approaching zero when the halo is almost entirely destroyed. We produce plots of f$_{\rm{str}}$ versus f$_{\rm{DM}}$, and each galaxy creates a track on such a plot, as it undergoes tidal mass loss. A schematic of such a plot is shown in Figure \ref{sketchfig}. We note that in \cite{Smith2013a}, our result represents a single point on such a curve. Therefore by considering the complete curve, we retain significantly more information on the galaxy's evolution while undergoing tidal stripping.

Our toy galaxy is initially at position A, before it suffers any tidal mass loss, and so its bound dark matter fraction and bound stellar mass fraction are both unity. However, as tidal stripping proceeds, the toy galaxy evolves along the track, towards position B. The initially horizontal motion of the track (between position A and B) indicates that dark matter is preferentially stripped, while no stars are stripped. Between position B and C, the dark matter halo has been heavily truncated and stellar stripping begins to occur, causing the turn-down in the track. Finally, the galaxy finishes at position D, where all of its dark matter and stars have been stripped, and the galaxy has been effectively destroyed. The dashed line is a one-to-one line. This is the trajectory a galaxy would follow if it suffered equal dark matter and stellar mass loss, at all times. Therefore, the fact that the track is always above the dotted line demonstrates that dark matter is always preferentially stripped in our toy model galaxy.

We note that when we refer to the total bound fraction of dark matter f$_{\rm{DM}}$, this fraction is derived from the total mass of the halo, which includes dark matter within the baryonic component of the galaxy, and dark matter at larger radii, out to the virial radius of the halo. Therefore we caution that our dark matter fractions should not be directly compared to observationally derived dark matter fractions. In most cases, the dynamics of a galaxy's baryons, such as a HI rotation curve, or stellar velocity dispersion, are used to derive their observational dark matter fractions. As such, the observations only probe the dark matter which exists within the radial extent of the baryons, which is typically just the inner dark matter halo. However, if the a galaxy's outer halo were stripped but its inner halo was largely unaffected, then our total bound dark matter fraction would be reduced, unlike the observationally derived quantity. Therefore the total bound dark matter fractions will often be more sensitive to tidal mass loss. In any case, a primary goal of our study is to improve stellar stripping recipes in SAMs, where calculating the total bound mass fraction of a halo can be accomplished directly from the N-body cosmological simulations on which the SAM is derived.

In \cite{Smith2013a}, `idealised' simulations were used that, although based on parameters from cosmological simulations, were not fully cosmological themselves. In this study we will use fully cosmological, hydrodynamical simulations which are summarised in the following section. Because galaxies first grew hierarchically in cosmological simulations, we measure when each galaxy's dark matter halo peaks in mass. At this instant, we assume each galaxy begins its journey along the f$_{\rm{DM}}$-f$_{\rm{str}}$ track, starting at position (1,1) (e.g. location A in Figure \ref{sketchfig}). As we wish to clearly understand the tidal stripping process, we exclude galaxies that undergo major mergers (i.e. more major than 1:5 mass ratio) since reaching their peak mass (occurring in about 20$\%$ of cases), as these can result in additional scatter in the motion of a galaxy along its track.

Previous studies (\citealp{Penarrubia2008}; \citealp{Smith2013a}) have shown that if a galaxy has a smaller disk, more dark matter must be stripped to cause stellar stripping. Therefore, we divide our sample into three categories based on the relative size of their stellar component (measured using the effective radius r$_{\rm{eff}}$), compared to their dark matter halo (measured using the halo virial radius r$_{\rm{vir}}$). We form the stellar-to-halo size-ratio r$_{\rm{eff}}$/r$_{\rm{vir}}$, which is measured at the moment in which galaxies reach their peak halo mass. Galaxies with r$_{\rm{eff}}$/r$_{\rm{vir}}$$<$0.025 fall in our `concentrated' category, and galaxies with r$_{\rm{eff}}$/r$_{\rm{vir}}$$>$0.04 fall in our `extended' category. Galaxies that fall inbetween these limits are in the `intermediate category'. We choose these limits because, as we will show in Section \ref{deponconcsect}, these choices lead to a clear deviation in the response of the galaxies to tidal stripping between the subsamples. The concentrated, intermediate, and extended category make up 11, 50, and 39$\%$ of our final galaxy sample, respectively. In Figure \ref{concmstrfig}, we plot the stellar-to-halo size-ratio against the stellar mass of the galaxy, measured when the halo mass peaks. More massive galaxies tend to have slightly lower r$_{\rm{eff}}$/r$_{\rm{vir}}$, but the trend is not strong, and the spread is very broad at all stellar masses. Therefore the concentrated, intermediate, and extended galaxy subgroups each contain galaxies with a wide range of stellar masses.

In order to avoid undesirable numerical artifacts, we exclude all galaxies with r$_{\rm{eff}}$$<$2.5~kpc ($\sim$3 times the spatial resolution limit of our simulations). Additionally, the minimum detectable stellar mass of a galaxy is $\sim$1$\times$10$^8$~M$_\odot$/h. Therefore we exclude galaxies whose stellar mass is $<$2$\times$10$^9$~M$_\odot$/h when their halo mass peaks. This ensures we can measure f$_{\rm{str}}$ for all galaxies down to 0.05 or below. There is no imposed upper stellar mass limit. However the maximum stellar mass, measured when their halo mass peaks, is 1.1$\times$10$^{12}$~M$_\odot$/h in Cluster 1, 3.6$\times$10$^{11}$~M$_\odot$/h in Cluster 2, and 3.2$\times$10$^{11}$~M$_\odot$/h in Cluster 3.

\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=8.5cm]{conc_mstr.eps}
\end{center}
\caption{Stellar-to-halo size-ratio (r$_{\rm{eff}}$/r$_{\rm{vir}}$) plotted against stellar mass. Both parameters are measured when each galaxy's halo reaches peak mass.}
\label{concmstrfig}
\end{figure}

In a final step, we separate our sample into two samples depending on the strength of their star formation. Galaxies whose f$_{\rm{str}}$ never rises above 1.15 (a maximum of a 15$\%$ increase in stellar mass) are placed in the `weakly star forming' sample. The remaining are considered to be forming stars more significantly. For most of the analysis of the paper we will focus only on the results of the weak star formation sample, which dominates the sample by number (82$\%$ of the sample). We exclude the strongly star forming galaxies from our final sample in order to understand the effects of tidal stripping of stars alone, while minimising the counter effect of new star formation. However, we expect that some galaxies may continue to form stars vigorously, even after reaching their peak halo mass. Therefore, an alternative recipe for tidal stripping of strongly star forming galaxies is presented in Section \ref{SFsection}. After applying previous cuts for major mergers, galaxy effective radius, minimum stellar mass, and now star formation, our final galaxy sample consists of 496 galaxies.

\begin{figure}
\includegraphics[width=8.5cm]{allin2.eps}
\caption{A plot of the bound stellar fraction f$_{\rm{str}}$ versus the bound dark matter fraction f$_{\rm{DM}}$, for the final galaxy sample. The thick black central line is the fitted curve. Individual data points are shown as black dots. The grey shading indicates the first to the third quartile of the data points surrounding the fitted curve.}
\label{allinfig}
\end{figure}

We produce f$_{\rm{str}}$-f$_{\rm{DM}}$ plots, where each galaxy produces a single data point for every snapshot of the simulation since the galaxy reached peak halo mass. Because we only consider galaxies with weak or non-existent star formation, we find we can well fit the compilation of data points from all galaxies using a simple analytic form,

\begin{equation}
f_{\rm{str}}=1-\exp(-a_{strip} f_{\rm{DM}}){\rm{,}}
\end{equation}

\noindent
where a$_{\rm{strip}}$ is the unique exponential fitting parameter required to match the trend of the data points. In order to assess the degree of scatter about this line of best fit, we calculate the first and third quartile of the data points about the line of best fit.

\section{Results}
\subsection{The f$_{\rm{str}}$-f$_{\rm{DM}}$ diagram - no subcategories}
In Figure \ref{allinfig}, we show an f$_{\rm{str}}$-f$_{\rm{DM}}$ diagram that is based on our total final galaxy sample, without making any further subcategories for stellar-to-halo size-ratio. The bold line indicates the best fit to the data, and has the form
\begin{equation}
\label{allineqn}
f_{\rm{str}}=1-\exp(-14.20 f_{\rm{DM}}){\rm{.}}
\end{equation}

\begin{figure}
\includegraphics[width=8.5cm]{concsep.eps}
\caption{The f$_{\rm{str}}$-f$_{\rm{DM}}$ plot for the galaxy sample, separated by how extended the galaxy stellar component is in comparison to the dark matter halo. The concentrated sample (top panel) has r$_{\rm{eff}}$/r$_{\rm{vir}}$$<$0.025. The intermediate sample (middle panel) has 0.025$<$r$_{\rm{eff}}$/r$_{\rm{vir}}$$<$0.04. The extended sample (lower panel) has r$_{\rm{eff}}$/r$_{\rm{vir}}$$>$0.04. The thick black central line is the fitted curve. The grey shading indicates the first to the third quartile of the data points surrounding the fitted curve.}
\label{starconcfig}
\end{figure}

The best fit line is steeply curved at small f$_{\rm{DM}}$, and remains in the upper left of the figure, indicating that the dark matter halos of the galaxies in the `no-subcategories' sample are always more susceptible to tidal stripping than the stellar component. Initially the dark matter fraction f$_{\rm{DM}}$ falls from 1 to $\sim$0.3, without any indication of stellar stripping. We find that when 10$\%$ of the stars are stripped, 84$\%$ of the dark matter has been stripped (compared to 85$\%$ for the standard model dwarf galaxy in \citealp{Smith2013a}). The upper and lower thin lines are the first and third quartile respectively. The distance between the first and third quartile is generally quite small, indicating that, in the absence of additional information on a galaxy, the bound dark matter fraction alone can provide a good first-order estimate of the fraction of stars that have been stripped. This suggests that Equation \ref{allineqn} could be useful for SAMs that have limited information on other galaxy properties, such as the size of the stellar component. However, as f$_{\rm{DM}}$ approaches zero (i.e. heavily tidally stripped), the spread about the best fit curve become increasingly large. In the next section, we will see that this is due to the range of size that the stellar component has, compared to the halo, in our sample of galaxies.

\subsection{Dependency on stellar-to-halo size-ratio}
\label{deponconcsect}
We now separate our sample into three subsamples, depending on their stellar-to-halo size-ratio. In Figure \ref{starconcfig}, our `concentrated' sample (r$_{\rm{eff}}$/r$_{\rm{vir}}$$<$0.025) is used in the top panel, our `intermediate' sample (0.25$<$r$_{\rm{eff}}$/r$_{\rm{vir}}$$<$0.04) is used in the middle panel, and our `extended' sample (r$_{\rm{eff}}$/r$_{\rm{vir}}$$>$0.04) is used in the lower panel.

In all three panels, the best fit curves deviate considerably from a one-to-one line, in a direction towards the upper-left corner of each panel, indicating that dark matter is always preferentially stripped from the galaxies. This indicates that the halo is significantly more extended than stars, even in the `extended' galaxy sample. However as we move from the `concentrated' to the `extended' sample, the curves increasingly approach the location of a one-to-one line. This indicates that if the sample has a smaller stellar-to-halo size-ratio, the galaxy must lose more dark matter to affect the stars. In other words, {\it{the more embedded the stars are within the halo, the more difficult they are to strip}} (\citealp{Penarrubia2008}).

Comparing with Figure \ref{allinfig}, the spread about the curve is generally decreased, in particular at small f$_{\rm{DM}}$. This is because the different trends seen in Figure \ref{starconcfig}, which differ most at small f$_{\rm{DM}}$, were being combined together in Figure \ref{allinfig}. This means that {\it{the most accurate prediction for stellar stripping is achieved if there is knowledge of the bound dark matter fraction, and the size of the stellar component}}.

The best fit line for the concentrated sample (r$_{\rm{eff}}$/r$_{\rm{vir}}$$<$0.025) is
\begin{equation}
\label{conceqn}
f_{\rm{str}}=1-\exp(-23.94 f_{\rm{DM}}){\rm{,}}
\end{equation}

\noindent for the intermediate sample (0.025$<$r$_{\rm{eff}}$/r$_{\rm{vir}}$$<$0.04) is

\begin{equation}
\label{intermedeqn}
f_{\rm{str}}=1-\exp(-11.87 f_{\rm{DM}}){\rm{,}}
\end{equation}

\noindent and for the extended sample (r$_{\rm{eff}}$/r$_{\rm{vir}}$$>$0.04) is

\begin{equation}
\label{extendeqn}
f_{\rm{str}}=1-\exp(-8.60 f_{\rm{DM}}){\rm{.}}
\end{equation}

Fortunately, most SAMs (e.g. \citealp{Somerville1999}; \citealp{Cole2000}; \citealp{Hatton2003}; \citealp{Croton2006}; \citealp{DeLucia2007b}; \citealp{Somerville2008}; \citealp{Ricciardelli2010}; \citealp{Benson2010}; \citealp{Guo2011}; \citealp{Lee2013}; \citealp{Contini2014}; \citealp{Croton2016}, etc) already include prescriptions for the size of the stellar disk of their galaxies, based on the sharing of a fraction of a halo's angular momentum with its baryonic component (\citealp{Mo1998}). However, in the absence of information on the size of each galaxy's stellar component, the fit given in Equation \ref{allineqn} could be applied, albeit with less accurate results at small values of f$_{\rm{DM}}$.

\subsection{Negligible dependence on cluster mass or galaxy mass}
In the upper panel of Figure \ref{massfig}, we compare all of the galaxies in the `intermediate' sample (solid, black curve) to a `high stellar mass only' sample (containing only galaxies with a stellar mass $>$5$\times$10$^{10}$~M$_\odot$/h), and to a `low stellar mass only' sample (containing only galaxies with a stellar mass $<$2$\times$10$^{10}$~M$_\odot$/h). Previously we imposed a mass limit of 2$\times$10$^{9}$M$_\odot$/h, in order to limit numerical resolution effects. Thus the high stellar mass only sample has a cut at 25 times the value of the previous mass limit, and reduces the number of galaxies in our sample to 14$\%$ of its previous value. Despite the severity of the mass cut, the two curves are so close that it is difficult to separate them in the figure. Similarly, there is only a very minor difference between the curves, and the curve of the `low stellar mass only' sample. These results are important for two reasons. Firstly, it suggests that our results are not significantly affected by resolution effects, which would most likely have appeared in the lower mass galaxies. Secondly, the lack of a significant dependency on galaxy mass implies that the best fit lines (e.g. Equations \ref{allineqn}--\ref{extendeqn}) are universally applicable to galaxies of a wide range of sizes, which is very useful if they are to be applied to SAMs.

In the lower panel of Figure \ref{massfig}, we compare all of the galaxies in Cluster 1 (a massive cluster with a virial mass of 9$\times$10$^{14}$~M$_\odot$/h), to all the galaxies in Cluster 2 and Cluster 3 combined (lower mass clusters with a virial mass range of (1.7-2.3)$\times$10$^{14}$~M$_\odot$/h). Once again, the two best fit curves are difficult to distinguish, even though the cluster mass has changed by a factor of roughly four between the samples. This suggests that the behaviour of galaxies in response to the stripping of their dark matter is rather universal, independent of the mass of the system in which they reside. In fact, physically this makes sense. Even if a more massive cluster could cause stronger tidal stripping of galaxies, we see no obvious reason why such galaxies should deviate from the f$_{\rm{str}}$-f$_{\rm{DM}}$ relations that we have measured. It is logical that the {\it{relative}} tidal stripping of stars to dark matter would depend more sensitively on a galaxy's own properties, such as r$_{\rm{eff}}$/r$_{\rm{vir}}$, than the properties of the external potential. The lack of a dependency on cluster mass that we see once again supports the universal applicability of the best fit lines given in Equations \ref{allineqn}--\ref{extendeqn} to SAMs.

\begin{figure}
\includegraphics[width=8.5cm]{masscomp3.eps}
\caption{Best fit curves for the dependency of the f$_{\rm{str}}$-f$_{\rm{DM}}$ curves on galaxy mass (top panel), and cluster mass (bottom panel). In both panels, the two separate curves lie closely on top of each other, illustrating the weak dependency of the curves on galaxy and cluster mass.}
\label{massfig}
\end{figure}

\subsection{A recipe for tidal stripping of star forming galaxies}
\label{SFsection}
We have so far only considered our main sample, which contains only `weakly star forming' galaxies. Therefore we now consider how to treat galaxies that continue to star form vigorously, after their halos reach peak mass.

Previously, many SAMs assumed that a galaxy lost its gas content, and star formation was halted, as soon as a galaxy became a subhalo of another halo. It is likely that the moment at which a galaxy becomes a subhalo, is similar to the time when the halo mass reaches its peak value. Indeed, in our galaxy sample, only 18$\%$ of the galaxies increase their stellar mass by more than 15$\%$, since their halo's mass peaked. However, the assumption of a total halt in star formation has led to the `satellite over-quenching problem', where too many low mass satellite galaxies become quiescent, compared to observations (\citealp{Kimm2009}).

\begin{figure}
\includegraphics[height=5.0cm,width=8.5cm]{SFcomp2.eps}
\caption{In the upper panel we show the best fit curve for a sample of star forming galaxies, which fall in the intermediate category, whose total stellar bound fraction peaks between 1.5 and 1.75 (red dashed line, labelled `old+new'). The black curve shows the evolution of the stars formed before the halo mass peaked (black curve, labelled `old'). In the lower panel, the two curves are substracted (dot-dashed curve) to show the evolution of the fraction of new stars formed since the halo mass peaked.}
\label{SFfig}
\end{figure}

As a result, a number of authors have included recipes that permit galaxies to continue to star form, at least temporarily, after becoming satellites of a host galaxy. In some, a prescription for the removal of the hot gas content of a galaxy is employed (\citealp{Font2008}; \citealp{Kimm2011}; \citealp{Croton2016}). \cite{Tecce2010} also consider the gradual removal of the cold, atomic disk gas. Therefore, for these types of SAMs, it is necessary to consider a prescription for galaxies that may be undergoing tidal stripping, while simultaneously forming stars.

In our star formation prescription, we split the total stellar mass of a galaxy into two components - `new' and `old'. We label all the stars formed prior to the moment when the halo mass peaks as `old' stars, and all of the stars formed since as `new', and calculate a bound stellar fraction for each component individually (f$_{\rm{str}}$(old) and f$_{\rm{str}}$(new)).

We assume that the old stars are stripped in the same way as we have seen in the main/weakly star forming sample (i.e. f$_{\rm{str}}$(old) obeys Equations \ref{allineqn}--\ref{extendeqn}). We test this assumption, by measuring f$_{\rm{str}}$(old) directly from the cosmological simulation and find it is very reasonable.

To treat the new stars, we calculate f$_{\rm{str}}$(new) of a galaxy at each moment. This can increase if the galaxy continues to form stars. However, when the galaxy is heavily tidally stripped, and f$_{\rm{DM}}$ becomes small, we reduce the contribution of f$_{\rm{str}}$(new) to the galaxy's total bound stellar fraction f$_{\rm{str}}$. We choose that the contribution of the new stars is reduced by the same fractional decrease as f$_{\rm{str}}$(old) has decreased from unity. Mathematically, this can be expressed

\begin{equation}
\label{nustreqn}
f_{\rm{str}}=f_{\rm{str}}{\rm{(old)}}+f_{\rm{str}}{\rm{(new)}} \times f_{\rm{str}}{\rm{(old)}}
\end{equation}

In essence, we are assuming that the new stars are affected by tidal stripping in exactly the same way as the old stars are. In principle, this might not always be valid (for example, if new star formation should occur more centrally). However, our prescription could be easily modified to make the new stars more difficult to strip. For example, we could instead assume that new stars are not stripped until f$_{\rm{str}}$(old) reaches a critical value, f$_{\rm{crit}}$. Then Equation \ref{nustreqn} could become

\begin{equation*}
f_{\rm{str}}=\left\{
\begin{array}{@{}ll@{}}
f_{\rm{str}}{\rm{(old)}}+f_{\rm{str}}{\rm{(new)}}\text{,} & \text{if } f_{\rm{str}}{\rm{(old)}}>f_{\rm{crit}}\\
f_{\rm{str}}{\rm{(old)}}+f_{\rm{str}}{\rm{(new)}}\times \frac{f_{\rm{str}}{\rm{(old)}}}{f_{\rm{crit}}}\text{,} & \text{otherwise.}
\end{array}\right.
\end{equation*}

Nevertheless, in practice we find that the new stars are stripped at a similar rate as the old stars, in our simulations. To test this, we first choose a sample of galaxies that were previously excluded from our main sample because they were forming stars too rapidly. We select galaxies with similar tracks on a f$_{\rm{str}}$-f$_{\rm{DM}}$ plot, by only choosing galaxies whose f$_{\rm{str}}$ has a peak value in the range 1.5 to 1.75 (we also test the range 1.25-1.5 but find the exact choice is not important to our conclusions). From this sample, we choose a subsample with 0.025$<$r$_{\rm{eff}}$/r$_{\rm{vir}}$$<$0.04 (i.e. they have a stellar-to-halo size-ratio that falls in the `intermediate' category). The red dashed curve in the upper panel of Figure \ref{SFfig} is a best fit line to these galaxies. The black curve in the upper panel is the best fit line for the `intermediate' sample (Equation \ref{intermedeqn}), and can be considered to trace the evolution of f$_{\rm{str}}$(old) of the sample. In the lower panel, we show the difference between the two curves in the upper panel, which is f$_{\rm{str}}$(new) for the sample. f$_{\rm{str}}$(new) initially grows as f$_{\rm{DM}}$ decreases from 1, because these galaxies are continuing to form stars. However we note that f$_{\rm{str}}$(new) begins to decrease from their peak value at nearly the same moment as f$_{\rm{str}}$(old) begins to decrease. In fact, f$_{\rm{str}}$(old) and f$_{\rm{str}}$(new) decline at a very similar rate, as f$_{\rm{DM}}$ becomes small. For example, f$_{\rm{str}}$(old) and f$_{\rm{str}}$(new) reach a value of 90$\%$ of their peak values, at roughly the same value of f$_{\rm{DM}}$ (f$_{\rm{DM}}$=0.19 and 0.16 respectively). Therefore, at least for the galaxies considered in our sample, the assumption that the new stars are equally affected by tidal stripping as the old stars appears valid, thereby supporting the use of Equation \ref{nustreqn}.

\subsection{Comparison to high resolution dwarf galaxy models}
By considering the complete evolution of a galaxy on a plot of f$_{\rm{str}}$ versus f$_{\rm{DM}}$, we can gather a more complete picture of how the galaxy responds to tidal stripping. Therefore we revisit the numerical simulations of \cite{Smith2013a}. We calculate how the standard early type dwarf model from our previous study evolves on a f$_{\rm{str}}$-f$_{\rm{DM}}$ plot. The results are shown in Figure \ref{2012compfig}. The red filled circles are the results from the 2013 study, where the error bars are the 1-sigma errors in the mean value. The standard early type dwarf model has r$_{\rm{eff}}$/r$_{\rm{vir}}$=0.013. This means its stellar-to-halo size-ratio clearly falls deep within in our `concentrated' category. Therefore we plot the `concentrated' best fit curve (Equation \ref{conceqn}) for comparison.

This comparison is useful for two reasons. First of all, it provides a test of whether our prescription can be applied for galaxies down to the dwarf mass regime. It is important to test this as, in order to avoid numerical artifacts, we excluded galaxies with r$_{\rm{eff}}$$<$2.5~kpc from our sample, which effectively excluded dwarf galaxies from our sample. Secondly, the gravitational resolution of the early type dwarf simulations in \cite{Smith2013a} was only 100~pc -- roughly ten times better than the cosmological simulations. Therefore, it could also potentially identify if our new results were impacted by their more limited resolution.

As demonstrated in Figure \ref{2012compfig}, we find that both our new results, and the early type dwarf model show similar behaviour. Both lose very large amounts of dark matter before stellar stripping becomes significant. In fact there is excellent agreement between the two studies for galaxies over a wide range of f$_{\rm{DM}}$ from 0.1 to 1.0. However for f$_{\rm{DM}}$$<$0.1, the early type dwarf model systematically sits above the best fit curve. However the offset is not substantial, and the early type dwarf models are found at approximately the position of the third quartile of the galaxies in this study. It is difficult to understand the true origin of this offset, as it could arise for multiple reasons. The significantly high gravitational resolution of the early type dwarf models could enable their self-gravity to be better resolved at their innermost radii, allowing them to better hold onto their stars. However, we also note that with r$_{\rm{eff}}$/r$_{\rm{vir}}$=0.013, the early type dwarf model is highly concentrated, and so might be expected to be slightly more robust to stellar stripping than the average galaxy in our `concentrated' sample.

\begin{figure}
\includegraphics[width=8.5cm]{comp2harass2012.eps}
\caption{The black curve is the `concentrated' category galaxies from this study. For comparison, the red symbols show the curve for the high resolution, early-type dwarf galaxies from the harassment simulations of Smith et al. 2013b. Error bars show the standard deviation of the multiple individual dwarfs used in that study.}
\label{2012compfig}
\end{figure}

Nevertheless, we conclude that the broad agreement between the curves shown in Figure \ref{2012compfig} demonstrates that our recipes for stellar stripping are applicable in the dwarf regime, and suggest our results are not strongly altered by resolution effects.

\subsubsection{Application to a SAM: the stellar mass function}
\label{stellarmassfuncsect}
We apply our new tidal stripping recipe (specifically Equation \ref{allineqn}) to the semi-analytical model, ySAM.  This SAM was developed by \citet{Lee2013}, and is based on a cosmological N-body volume simulation of structure formation, that was simulated using {\sc{GADGET-2}} \citep{Springel2005}. The cosmological parameters used match those in our hydrodynamical cosmological simulations (see Section \ref{hydrosims}). The periodic cube size of the volume is 200/h~Mpc on a side, with $1024^3$ collisionless particles. We generated a halo catalog by identifying substructures using SUBFIND \citep{Springel2001}. Then, halo merger trees were constructed from the halo catalog by a tree building algorithm described in \citet{Jung2014}. These merger trees were used as an input to the semi-analytic model. Further details of the baryonic physics prescriptions can be found in \citet{Lee2013}.

In Figure \ref{SAMcompfig}, we compare the stellar mass function at redshift zero produced by ySAM, using the new tidal stripping recipe (solid line), compared to using the original tidal stripping recipe (dotted line). In the original tidal stripping recipe of ySAM there is no stellar stripping until the dark matter halo mass is equal to the baryonic mass of the galaxy (as also applied in \citealp{Guo2011}). Then, all of the stars are stripped instantly from the galaxy, and are added to the halo stars of the host galaxy.  The deviation between the two curves becomes clear above $\sim$10$^{11}$~M$_\odot$/h. The new recipe reduces the number of massive galaxies, and the offset increases with increasing stellar mass, thereby steepening the high mass end of the stellar mass function.

\begin{figure}
\includegraphics[width=9.0cm]{starmassfunction.eps}
\caption{Comparison of the stellar mass function of the galaxy population at redshift zero, produced by ySAM with the new tidal stripping recipe (solid line), compared to with the original tidal stripping recipe (dashed line).}
\label{SAMcompfig}
\end{figure}

This offset likely arises because the most massive galaxies tend to accrete most of their stellar mass through mergers (\citealp{Lee2013}). Meanwhile these massive galaxies are preferentially found in a high density environment, such as a group or cluster, where tidal stripping of satellites is more likely to occur prior to merging. However, the tidal stripping of the satellites may be difficult to see in Figure \ref{SAMcompfig}, because the sample is drawn from a large cosmological volume, and so is dominated by low mass galaxies inhabiting low density environments. Therefore, we would expect even stronger effects, over a wider range of stellar mass, if we were to focus on the SAM results for high density environments only.

As is customary with SAMs, parameters that control baryonic physics recipes are tuned in order to match observed galaxy relations, such as the luminosity function. Therefore it is possible that some articifial over-tuning of parameters may have occurred, in order to compensate for inaccuracies in those earlier tidal stripping recipes that were employed. We briefly consider likely physical parameters that might have been affected in this way. As the original ySAM tidal stripping recipe creates a larger number of massive galaxies, the strength of AGN feedback may have previously been overestimated, compared to what is required with the new tidal stripping recipe. Altering the strength of the supernova feedback is a less desirable option, as this could impact on the stellar mass function at lower galaxy masses too. Alternatively, when a merger occurs, it is assumed that a fixed fraction (20$\%$) of the stellar mass of the galaxy is scattered into the stellar halo of the host galaxy (\citealp{Monaco2006}; \citealp{Murante2007}), instead of joining the main stellar mass of the galaxy. Therefore this fraction may have been set too high, compared to what is required with the new tidal stripping recipe. A number of other galaxy parameters, which are closely tied to a galaxy's stellar mass, are also likely to be influenced, including mass weighted age, metallicity, and disk-to-bulge ratio. We will explore these, and other consequences of our new recipe for SAM galaxy populations, in a future paper.

\section{Discussion and conclusions}
Using high resolution hydrodynamical cosmological simulations of three galaxy clusters, we have studied how the fraction of bound dark matter and stars is related for galaxies undergoing tidal stripping. We find that, in all galaxies, substantial quantities of dark matter must first be stripped, before stellar stripping can begin. Typically galaxies that lose $\sim$80$\%$ of their total dark matter, lose only 10$\%$ of their stars. We emphasise that we measure the total bound fraction of dark matter, which includes all the dark matter -- both inside and beyond the radii of the baryons. Therefore, our dark matter fractions are not directly comparable to observationally derived dark matter fractions, which typically can only probe the inner halo, where baryons are present.

We find that the ease with which stars are stripped depends on a key parameter - the ratio of the effective radius of the stellar component, compared to the virial radius of the dark matter halo (r$_{\rm{eff}}$/r$_{\rm{vir}}$). We term this ratio the `stellar-to-halo size-ratio'. If the stellar component is more extended with respect to the halo, the stars are more easily stripped. With simple analytical fitting formulae (Equations \ref{allineqn}--\ref{extendeqn}), we quantify the link between bound dark matter fraction and stellar fraction.

These fitting formulae could be applied to improve stellar stripping recipes in Semi Analytical Models (SAMs), or other numerical models of galaxies where only a live dark matter component is considered. With knowledge of only the bound dark matter fraction, a first order estimate of the evolution of the stellar bound fraction can be made using Equation \ref{allineqn}. However, if a galaxy's stellar-to-halo size-ratio is known, a more accurate prediction of the bound stellar fraction can be made using Equations \ref{conceqn}--\ref{extendeqn}. The improvement in accuracy is greatest when tidal stripping of the dark matter halo is very strong. We find negligible dependence on galaxy mass, and/or cluster mass, which suggests these equations can be applied universally, making them ideal for application in SAMs. We also provide a suggested recipe for the treatment of galaxies that continue to form stars, while suffering tidal stripping, in Section \ref{SFsection}.

The small scatter seen in the trends suggests that accurate predictions for the stellar stripping of a galaxy can be made, based on knowledge of the bound dark matter fraction, combined with a galaxy's stellar-to-halo size-ratio. It has been suggested that galaxy rotation could also be a factor dictating the efficiency of stellar stripping (e.g. \citealp{Donghia2009}; \citealp{Villalobos2012}; \citealp{Bialas2015}). Our cosmological simulations contain galaxies with a wide range of rotational properties (Choi et al. 2016 in prep.). Of course, it is possible that rapidly rotating galaxies might also have more extended stellar components. However, if rotation were important to our results, then the range of rotational vector with respect to their orbital plane should cause a wide range in efficiency of stellar stripping. Given the small spread that we measure about the trends, we conclude that rotation does not play as significant a role as stellar-to-halo size-ratio, at least in our simulations.

For some galaxy morphologies the effective radius, alone, might poorly encapsulate the mass distribution of the stars. One example is the case of a galaxy with a massive compact bulge, and an equally massive extended disk. In this scenario, calculating a separate stellar fraction for each of the two stellar components of the galaxy might, in principle, improve the accuracy of predicted stellar stripping. However, given the tightness of the trends, we note that this occurrence does not seem to arise frequently in our cosmological simulations.

In summary, the equations provided in this study can be easily applied to SAMs, to improve existing stellar stripping recipes. In Section \ref{stellarmassfuncsect} we applied our recipe to ySAM (\citealp{Lee2013}), and found that it steepened the high mass end of the stellar mass function. We anticipate that the impact will be even stronger in higher density environments, such as groups and clusters. It will also have consequence for SAM predictions of the growth rate (\citealp{Lidman2013}), and metallicity gradients of brightest central galaxies, and intracluster light (\citealp{Contini2014}). We will fully explore the consequences of applying these improved recipes in SAMs in a future paper. In this paper we have focussed on the total dark matter fraction of the halos of galaxies, as this quantity can be easily measured in SAMs. However, in the future, it would also be interesting to calculate the fraction of dark matter contained within the baryons, as in this way the results could be compared more directly with the observations of real galaxies. As the dark matter halos are preferentially stripped from the outside inwards, we note that our bound dark matter fractions, which are measured for the total halo, represent lower limits for the equivalent quantity measured within the baryons.

\acknowledgments
RS acknowledges support from Brain Korea 21 Plus Program(21A20131500002) and the Doyak Grant(2014003730). SKY acknowledges support from the National Research Foundation of Korea (Doyak grant 2014003730). SKY, the head of the group, acted as a corresponding author. Numerical simulations were performed using the KISTI supercomputer, under the program of KSC-2014-G2-003. We are grateful to the referee for their constructive input.

\bibliographystyle{apj}

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Robert Rene Roberts
I'm a Black Mom, & Charlottesville Isn't What Scares Me Most
by Ashley Stoney
On Saturday, a group of White nationalists convened in Charlottesville, Virginia for a Unite the Right rally, just a little over a month after the Ku Klux Klan gathered in the same otherwise idyllic community a month earlier. I watched counter-protesters, who were mostly White but also included prominent Black civil rights leaders, face off against chanting White nationalists who were captured in chilling photographs reminiscent of ones taken at Klan rallies decades ago. I watched, but I wasn't in the least surprised, and it did not make me more fearful for the Black community. The resurgence of hate groups is not what we have to be afraid of. What we have to be afraid of is much more mundane and pervasive.
Yes, the events in Charlottesville were chilling, especially give their context. The last decade has seen increased media coverage of police brutality and the killings of unarmed Black men and women. At last, the everyday racism and violence exacted on Black communities has been made so visible that those in power cannot afford to look away. Not coincidentally, I think, the country has experienced an uptick in hate crimes against people of color and minority groups like the LGBTQ community. This country is a dangerous place right now for people of color. But there are other types of racism alive and well that stand to affect our lives even when we aren't in physical danger.
As a Black mom of a 3-year-old daughter with another on the way in November, I am used to worrying about my family's safety, but I have to go a step further than that. I have to constantly work to combat social and structural forces that would otherwise guarantee that we always feel less than and always, always have less. I parent cautiously, researching our every move before we take it as we select environments for my beautiful brown girl in a society that is multi-racial and post-segregation, but still systemically designed to benefit more affluent and White communities.
I'm a first-generation college graduate. I worked hard for a corporate career with an upward trajectory. I have provided myself with many of the same opportunities my White counterparts have, but my path was often different from theirs. For example, I attended a prestigious, predominantly White all-girls high school that did its best to educate our community of sweet, affluent young women about issues affecting groups that they couldn't in their wildest dreams imagine from their picturesque suburban bubble. Meanwhile I took the bus to school everyday from a neighborhood on the other side of town that was filled with those issues.
Many of my White peers are now buying their first homes leveraging parental funds. I bought my first home as a co-signer to my grandmother who was next on the list of longtime renters in our gentrifying neighborhood (White friends call it "up-and-coming") to be displaced. It was a steal, and the nearby schools are getting better, but they aren't the caliber of the daycare across town where I send my beautiful brown girl with her cornrows and beads. It's expensive, but she learns Spanish and yoga and plays soccer with a multicultural group of kids. The daycares near our house don't offer those things.
As I begin to join D.C.'s rat race elite considering private education, I worry about sending her to the kind of school I went to. I worry about the experiences she'll have early in her life on the other side of town where the parks are picturesque and pristine and none of the other kids have beads and braids like her, and how that might impact her culturally. I wonder what it will be like as she also begins to notice and comment on book protagonists who are brown like her and have hair like her. I wonder if, while still very young, she will be automatically assumed less innocent than White girls her age and treated accordingly. I wonder if an outburst in class is more likely to get her suspended from school.
I ponder her teen and college years, when she'll potentially date Black. Will her future boyfriend be handcuffed in front of her grandparents' home in what will then be an even more gentrified neighborhood because he looks like a suspect? Or will we eventually move to an affluent neighborhood, only for her brother to be held at gunpoint by cops wondering what he's doing on the block where he resides?
And let's talk about money. Will she not earn as much as her male and White counterparts because she didn't negotiate her starting salary because she was afraid of seeming aggressive? Will she think she should be grateful to secure the job in the first place? Will we be able to fund her wedding or will we still be digging out of first-generation college debt because we thought we needed to go to an expensive private college in order to ensure upward mobility? My high school years were mostly awesome, but had I not experienced them as a minority woman, would I have been as desperate to attend a historically Black university? Had my mother had a college education herself, would she have known to make me accept the generous scholarship and financial aid package offered by a state school, knowing the lifelong financial consequences of student loans?
All of these decisions may seem minor and unconnected to race, but statistics indicate otherwise. White people have more assets and are more likely to own their homes, have lower unemployment, and are less likely to go to jail. And when Black people try to pull themselves up — for instance, when I disagree in a meeting or ask for a raise — I immediately trigger negative stereotypes of the "combative," "ungrateful" black woman. As Christin "Cici" Battle, director of the Young People For program at the People For the American Way Foundation, noted in a recent op ed,
While young black women are now the most educated group in the country, we are also more likely to live in poverty and are still paid less than white women (and much less than white men). On average, black women working full time are paid only 63 cents for every dollar their white male counterparts make.
It does not help our fellow Americans have elected a president who is a vocal opponent of policies that help level the playing field for disenfranchised minority communities and communities of color.
All of the above boils down to one essential truth: there are innumerable policies and prejudices that result in Black people simply having less opportunity, no matter their work ethic or moral fiber. This systemic racial inequality has impacted my family — beautiful, black, and imperfect. It probably limited my early financial literacy and thus my family's ability to build generational wealth. Even given my many advantages, it probably limits my career potential. Things have improved, but it has shaped the woman that I am today.
Racism isn't scary white men in masks. It is structures that favor White people over people of color and other minorities who aren't like-minded, reared in the same way, and are still forced to play by different rules than the White majority. That's what scares me when I put my children to sleep every night.


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Government of India founded the Central University of Tamil Nadu, along with eight other Central Universities, through an Act of Parliament in 2009. It is part of the greater role that the Central Government assumed in making higher education accessible to aspirants from the weaker sections of the society. With eight students in M.A. English Studies, the university started functioning from November 2009, at the Collectorate Annexe at Thiruvarur, 60 kilometers to the east of Thanjavur.
The University offers Integrated M.Sc., postgraduate and doctoral programmes. The departments of Mathematics, Physics, and Chemistry offer I,M.Sc. programmes. Postgraduate programmes are available in the departments of English Studies, Tamil, Media and Communication, Social Work. At the moment, Economics and Social Work programmes are run in collaboration with mentoring institutions, namely, Madras School of Economics and Tata Institute of Fundamental Sciences. Most of the departments have commenced doctoral programmes too. The Community College of the University offers Water Management, Para Legal Course. For these the University has signed M.O.Us with the Tamil Nadu Agriculture University, Coimbatore, and National Law School University of India, Bengaluru.
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Library: The University Library was established in the year 2009 and it serves the students, faculty members and staff of the university. The library has a collection of about 22,600 books. Of these, more than 1,500 books are reference books (Handbooks, Dictionaries, Encyclopaedias, and coloured atlases, etc) and the rest are Textbooks and General books. Besides these, the library also has 114 CDs/DVDs and subscribes to 19 print journals.
Coaching Centre:Central University of Tamilnadu invites application from students belonging to SC/ST/OBC (non-creamy layer), minority communities and physically challenged/economically weaker section for attending the free coaching classes for Central/State public services and Bank recruitment Exams. The coaching will focussed on any one particular competitive exam which will be decided based on the applications received.
In the permanent campus, 200 Nos. each of Boys and Girls hostel have been completed and students have started occupying the new hostels at main campus. A 500 seater mess block was committed to the university recently.
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Authored by Dale Nickey:
More Jandek? Click>>>> morgan / LAlive
<img src="data:image/svg+xml;charset=utf-8,
ST. Louis Friday (DVD)
Recorded Live at The Billiken Club St. Louis Missouri – (March 21, 2014)
Corwood Industries (0816)
Stamp Out Reality…..
In 2004 Jandek crawled out of his carefully maintained crypt of self-imposed obscurity. Gradually, like a racehorse revving up to full gallop, he has released a dizzying catalog of DVD's documenting his live performances throughout Europe and North America. It is doubtful Jandek's globetrotting is supported by his record sales. So we are left to wonder how The Representative of Corwood Industries underwrites his cacophonic crusades. Jandek peels off layers of mystery only to add others.
I was bestowed a review copy of "St. Louis Friday" recently. Jandek's live performance DVD's do not serve the same function that they would for a more conventional artist. His live performances do not document or codify his accumulated repertoire. They are simply field recordings of new (mostly improvised) music with the added stimuli of moving images of the man in holy communion with his muse.
On "St. Louis Friday" Jandek continues a methodology that I first witnessed at his live performance in Los Angeles a couple years back. Which is, assembling a cast of local musos to play improvised free music without a net. All under the watchful eye of free-radical poet/performance artist Sheila Smith.
Sheila Smith is now Jandek's muse, collaborator and onstage foil. She can be found behind the drum kit, at the keyboard or in The Representative's face; taunting, seducing and speechifying. For this writer, comparisons to Yoko Ono are probably as unfair as they are unavoidable.
The cinematic aspect of "St. Louis Friday" is puzzling at best. The video quality is a colorless wash of underdeveloped whites and grays. There are two explanations possible. The videographer pooched it by hitting a wrong button on the camera, and Jandek said "screw it, put it out anyway" or Jandek decided the music performed was best represented with snuff flick production values. Yet another unanswered mystery.
Our hero opens the proceedings parked in a wooden straight-backed chair with an acoustic guitar, fiddling around trying to find an open channel to that peculiar, inexhaustible muse that he mines so consistently. At the doorstep of his seventieth year, the subjects of mortality, aging and entropy are clearly front and center in his mind. Indeed, his lyrics right out of the starting gate declare, "My body is wasted".
On the second song, "The Capsized Boat" Jandek is clearly more preoccupied with narrative as his guitar playing is far more absentmindedly percussive. Jandek seems entranced with the reverb effects produced by the partially plucked steel acoustic guitar string.
At the beginning of the third number, the woman we presume to be Sheila Smith takes her place behind the drum kit and contributes some off kilter fills in support of "Fishing Blues". Jandek tosses out lines such as, "Throw your dead bait out again" and "this ain't no pleasure cruise" which would seem an obvious allegory to the vicissitudes of everyday life, or (then again) the piece might be about a rough day at the ocean.
Smith switches to keyboards as a bassist and drummer take their respective places on stage. Jandek lays down his guitar, commands the microphone, and barks out verse in the manner of a circus ringmaster. What follows is a nuanced and involving improvisation, with Smith contributing some atmospheric noodling and note clusters set against an alternately hyperactive and meditative rhythm bed. Jandek bellows, moans and entreats nobody in particular for unconditional love while stating his determination to …"raise my head above it all".
"Shadow life" sees The Representative strapping on an electric for one of his signature guitar, bass and drums freak-outs. After a couple minutes of dissonant improvisation, Sheila goads him on with some up close and in your face dirty dancing. Jandek turns in an impressive performance on guitar; letting his expert rhythm section do their share of heavy lifting while Jandek's shifts his focus to single note work reminiscent of early 60's garage/surf music run through a wood chipper. Sheila takes the mic and starts throwing down a spoken word rant against her man who has 'no shadow'. The piece goes 10:33 but feels shorter and grinds down to a cogent and surprisingly coordinated conclusion.
"Where Were You Born" continues with the same instrumental format as "Shadow Life". However, the improvisations have shifted from a solid rhythmic foundations to something more stuttering and abstract. Smith interrupts her verbalizing intermittently to slink across the stage and get up in The Reps face. Smith is either smitten with The Representative or she's taunting and teasing him as one would a laboratory rat. Half way through, the rhythm straightens out and Smith's inquisition continues. "Where were you born, Where are you from. Let's get married."
It's hard to predict or imagine where Jandek will land in the pantheon of artists that have strapped on a guitar and displayed their wares on stage, on record and film. As Jandek hurtles into his seventies, he is immune to the paralysis of perfectionism, and oblivious to the opinions and expectations of the listener. Jandek is an archetype; as such, he stands in rare and exclusive company. You can expect only pure undiluted art from Jandek; and like any concentrated mixture or potion, the taste is sometimes bitter and overpowering. But, that doesn't mean it's not good for you.
Click here to visit the Corwood Industries catalog >>> http://corwoodindustries.com/
← Jandek – Live at The Bootleg Theater (8/5/16)
Top 10 Greatest Rock Covers #4 (The Clash "I Fought The Law") →
Profiles in Outsider Music – Klaus Nomi January 15, 2021
Dean Ford Remembered September 25, 2020
David Lewis – "Among Friends" (Album Review) September 21, 2020
JANDEK – New Orleans Monday (CD Review) September 7, 2020
The Sclerotic Six – Bands that should have called it a day… September 7, 2020


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Saudi Post
The Ministry of Communications and Information Technology (previously the Ministry of Post, Telegraph and Telephone ) (Arabic: وزارة الاتصالات وتقنية المعلومات) functioning under the brand name Saudi Post (Arabic: البريد السعودي), is a government operated postal system in Saudi Arabia; it is generally referred to within kingdom as "al-Bareed".
An efficient postal network now covers all the cities and villages of the Kingdom, with 478 main and 180 branch post offices.
In 2006, 858.1 million pieces of post were handled by a network of governmental and private post offices.
Saudi Post has evolved through two main phases. The first phase being the establishment of Saudi Arabia and the second the establishment of post by the late King Abdul Aziz bin Abdul Rahman Al-Saud.
Wasel (Arabic: خدمة واصل): is a service to deliver all postal services to homes of citizens and residents. by providing a unique postal address through geographic information systems (GIS).
Jamaee (Arabic: خدمة جامعي): designed specifically for sending the students admission documents to all public universities for free.
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia -	https://wn.com/Saudi_Post
saudipost.com
sauditimes.com
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offshoresaudi.com
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montrealpost.com
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pretoriapost.com
Side By Side, Dean Martin
Side By Side, Earth Wind And Fire
Side By Side, Ray Charles
Side By Side, Feeder
Side By Side, Rebecca St. James
Side By Side, Patsy Cline
Side By Side, Dianne Reeves
Side By Side, Will Young
Side By Side, Squad Five-O
Side By Side, Hannah Montana
Side By Side, Grant Lee Buffalo
Side By Side, St. James Rebecca
Side By Side, RPWL
City, Beast
Side By Side, Guy Mitchell
Side By Side, Lyriel
Side By Side, Misconduct
Stay Beside You, Breathless
Side By Side, Amiel
Side By Side, Whitmore
Side By Side, Blessed By A Broken Heart
Side By Side, Thunderstone
Side By Side, Angel Crew
Side By Side, Puppini Sisters
Side By Side, Xuman
Side By Side, Pay No Respect
Side By Side, Marusha
Side By Side, Love Bite
Side By Side, Les Thugs
Side By Side, Moe.
See The Beast, Dave Davies
Side By Side, Joe Farren
Side By Side, Kay Starr
(Jeff Wood)
(Side by side.)
Oh, we ain't got a barrel of money
Maybe we're ragged and funny
But we'll travel along singing a song
Side by side.
Don't know what's coming tomorrow
Maybe it's trouble and sorrow
But we'll travel the road sharin' our load
Through all kind of weather
What if the sky should fall
It doesn't matter at all.
When they've all had their quarrels and parted
We'll be the same as we started
Just to travel along singing a song
--- Instrumental ---
(Side by side...)
Latest News for: Saudi post
US ambassador arrives in Turkey as Russian weapons system is delivered
Arab News 13 Jul 2019
As a fluent Arabic speaker, Satterfield also held top positions at US missions in Syria, Saudi Arabia, Egypt and Lebanon. The ambassadorial post has been vacant since October 2017, mainly due to a visa crisis between Washington and Ankara, as well as Turkey's imprisonment of American Pastor Andrew Brunson on charges of terror propaganda....
Rizieq may leave Saudi Arabia. But only if he pays fine for overstaying, Indonesia's envoy says
Indonesia News 12 Jul 2019
Rizieq may leave Saudi Arabia. But only if he pays fine for overstaying, Indonesia's envoy says - The Jakarta Post Jakarta Post Indonesian Ambassador to Saudi Arabia Agus Maftuh Abegebriel said I ... ....
37 countries rally around China at top UN human rights body
Journal Review 12 Jul 2019
Thirty-seven countries including Russia, Saudi Arabia and others, mostly from southeast Asia, Africa and the Middle East, expressed their opposition to "politicizing human rights" in a letter Friday to the Human Rights Council office ... Middle East Beijing China Greater China East Asia Asia Saudi Arabia ... × Post a comment as ... Posting">Post comment....
Progressives just got a major win against Trump on Iran. Can they hold on to it?
Vox 12 Jul 2019
This amendment mirrors the War Powers Resolution Congress passed in April, which Trump vetoed , signaling his commitment to the US's longstanding alliance with the Saudis — but also his personal relationship with Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman (the same MBS who called for Saudi Washington Post journalist Jamal Khashoggi's killing )....
Carrie Underwood's anniversary celebration
News Graphic 12 Jul 2019
Carrie Underwood and Mike Fisher spent their ninth wedding anniversary horse riding ... He wrote ... Mike, 39, also posted a black and white photo from their wedding day and joked in the caption. "She used to think I was funny." ... Nicki Minaj pulls out of Saudi Arabia gig. Colin Hanks posts Michael Keaton picture to mark dad Tom Hanks' birthday ... ....
Tammin Sursok gets candid about eating disorder
She shared an old photo of herself smiling on Instagram and wrote ... "I remember how sad I felt ... Nicki Minaj pulls out of Saudi Arabia gig. Colin Hanks posts Michael Keaton picture to mark dad Tom Hanks' birthday ... Tammin ended her post on a positive note and admitted she has "never looked back" since she hit "rock bottom" and knew things had to change ... ....
TV reboot of Varsity Blues in the works
'Varsity Blues' is being brought "into the 21st century" ... Tollin said in a statement ... This isn't the first time a remake has been in the pipeline ... More from this section. Nicki Minaj pulls out of Saudi Arabia gig. Colin Hanks posts Michael Keaton picture to mark dad Tom Hanks' birthday. Millie Bobby Brown set for The Eternals ... He added ... ....
GOP senator: US should 'reevaluate' long-term relationship with Saudis
The relationship between Washington and Riyadh has come under increased scrutiny in recent months after the October murder of Washington Post columnist Jamal Khashoggi, who was killed in the Saudi consulate in Istanbul ... "The U.S.-Saudi relationship has been going south for a long time," Risch told The Washington Post for a story published Wednesday....
Press advocates urge Saudis to free 30 journalists
Arkansas Online 11 Jul 2019
Saudi Arabia was ranked 172nd out of 180 countries on the group's annual list for 2019 ... Khashoggi vanished in the Saudi Consulate in Istanbul in October 2018 while his fiancee waited outside ... There, he continued his criticism of the Saudi royal family in his columns for The Washington Post....
In the aftermath of Khashoggi's murder, Saudi influence machine whirs on in Washington
Macomb Daily 11 Jul 2019
military veterans to Washington to speak out against a terrorism law the Saudis opposed, as The Washington Post has previously reported ... "The President's praise for MBS, the man who US intel says ordered or authorized the heinous murder of a WaPo columnist & Saudi dissident, sends the wrong message to the world," he posted on Twitter....
In effort to discourage tourism, Saudi warns of passport thefts in Turkey
Middle East Monitor 11 Jul 2019
In a statement posted on Twitter on Monday, the Saudi embassy and Foreign Ministry warned that due to the fact that some Saudi citizens were stopped in Turkey for not carrying their original passports, "the embassy notes the necessity for citizens to hold on to their original ......
Nicki Minaj pulls out of Saudi Arabia concert days before performance over women and gay ...
... Saudi women activists ... NO disrespect to the Saudi govt — MEGATRON (@NICKIMINAJ) July 9, 2019 View this post on Instagram A post shared by Barbie (@nickiminaj) on Jul 9, 2019 at 12.28pm PDT Saudi Arabia is known for its regressive and misogynistic treatment of women and girls....
Amal Clooney: 'World leaders responded with little more than a collective shrug' to Khashoggi killing
Human rights lawyer Amal Clooney on Wednesday blasted world leaders for responding with "little more than a collective shrug" to the death of Saudi Washington Post writer Jamal Khashoggi ... "And last year, when Jamal Khashoggi, Washington Post columnist, was tortured to death and ......


When should you buy a used car? iSeeCars.com took a look at 40 million used car sales from 2013 to 2015 and figured out the best times to find top deals — and when buyers have to do more work to find the right price.
According to the site, the days with the most deals offered are usually late in the year around the holidays, with up to 33 percent more deals found than on an average day. However, some holidays throughout the year beat out the traditional best time for buying a car during end-of-year closeouts in November and December.
As the weather warms up, used-car deals become harder to find, with the iSeeCars.com report finding that the spring and summer months had up to 28 percent fewer deals during these times than on an average day.
Check below to see the results from iSeeCars.com and find out the best and worst days for deals.
The final days of the year are the 10th-best time of year to buy a car, according to data from iSeeCars.com, which found that 21.3 percent of used-car sales deals are better than average around Dec. 31.
As the end of the year draws near, Christmastime is the ninth-best time to buy a used car, according to iSeeCars.com, with 21.4 percent more deals than average.
The last month of the year was the eighth-best time to buy a used car, with 23.5 percent more deals than average.
November is the seventh-best time to buy a used car, with 26.9 percent of the deals below average during that month.
Last-minute car shopping on Christmas Eve isn't a bad thing, as 28.7 percent of used-car sales are deals on that day, according to iSeeCars.com.
The only ideal time in the first nine months of the year to purchase a vehicle is Martin Luther King Jr. Day in January, when 29.4 percent of used cars have better than average deals.
With fall's arrival, the peak in used-car deals begins around Columbus Day, with 30.5 percent more deals that are below average, according to iSeeCars.com.
Turkey, football and ... car buying? Thanksgiving is the third-best day to buy a car, with 30.6 percent more deals than the average day.
The second-best day of the year to buy a car is Veteran's Day (Nov. 11). iSeeCars.com found that 32.5 percent more deals were offered on that day.
Black Friday isn't only one of the best days of the year for shopping, but is also the best day of year to buy a used car, according to iSeeCars.com. Used-car deals on the day after Thanksgiving are 33.1 percent better than average on that day, according to the site.
July has fewer deals than most times of the year, according to iSeeCars.com, as 11.5% of deals during the month are below average.
Father's Day is a good time to work on cars, but not the best to buy used ones. Per iSeeCars.com, it's the ninth-worst day to find a used car deal, with 18.3% of deals below an average day.
While moms are the best, Mother's Day isn't for buying used cars, according to iSeeCars.com, with 18.3% less deals than an average day according to iSeeCars.com.
Good Friday isn't necessarily a good time to buy a used car, with 21.6% less deals found on that day than a typical one.
While they aren't eggs, Easter will have you hunting harder for a used car deal than most other days of the year, with 22.2% less deals than an average day.
According to iSeeCars.com, June is the fifth-worst time of year to buy a car, with 23.6% of the deals being below those on an average day.
May is the fourth-worst time of year to buy a used car, according to iSeeCars.com, with 26.0% less deals to be found in the fifth month of the year.
Tax season isn't necessarily used-car-buying season, with iSeeCars.com finding 27.0% less deals in the month than an average day.
While moms are the best, Mother's Day isn't for buying used cars -- there are 27.5 percent fewer deals that day, according to iSeeCars.com.
Independence Day is the worst day for deals on used cars, with 28 percent fewer deals found on July 4 than on an average day, according to iSeeCars.com.


B737NG FMC USER'S GUIDE only for aircraft with U10 software - NG (600-700-800-900-BBJ) and some Classic (Check your carrier).
Jeppesen size - Approximately 280 pages. Available only in 3-ring binder.
Describes all software features of the GE (formerly Smiths) FMC.
Have re-written about half the manual but the re-write project is in a holding pattern.
Re-written sections are in color.
Includes update version 10.8a so it is getting old.
Manual includes descriptions of the IRUs, covers difficult concepts such as Cost Index, Cruise Performance, and VNAV descent. Extensive use of drawings and CDU displays. Also contains many Techniques, some of which are probably obsolete since I've been out of the airplane for 5 years.


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Q: Actions on Google V2 idToken not sent Looking at the docs for the appRequest for actions on google https://developers.google.com/actions/reference/rest/Shared.Types/AppRequest
The user object says that the userId property is now deprecated and that we should use the idToken instead https://developers.google.com/actions/reference/rest/Shared.Types/AppRequest#user
However testing out a V2 action in the simulator, my response only includes a userId property and not the idToken
I'm definitely using V2 of the API and this doesn't say it's an optional field when linking accounts (for what it's worth I haven't done any account linking).
Should this field be included?

A: That's not quite what that page says.
Yes, it says the userId property is deprecated - it does not show any replacement there. It was deprecated without a direct replacement, although you can create one yourself if needed.
It does not say the idToken replaces it, although you can get a unique ID from the idToken, it doesn't do so directly. It also doesn't give you the idToken unless you take some steps to enable it.
To use the idToken to get a user identifier, you need to do a few things:

*

*Turn on Google Sign In for Assistant.

*Request the user sign into your Action using Google Sign In for Assistant or have them sign via other means (Google Sign In for the web or for mobile) to the same project.

*When you get the idToken, verify and extract the JWT payload. If you're using the action-on-google library, it will do this for you. If not, this is a standard JWT token which you should verify and the payload includes the ID.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
Updated on May 4, 2016
3 Takeaways From Ford Motor Company's April Sales Figures
By Daniel Miller Fool.com
Lincoln's MKX is quietly having a phenomenal year, helping drive the brand's sales higher. Image source: Ford Motor Company.
While the industry's total sales figures have yet to be tallied, it appears April's seasonally adjusted annual rate of new-vehicle sales will reach the mid-17 million range. That's a healthy rise from last month's sales pace of 16.56 million, and an improvement over last April's 16.77 million.
"Increased fleet sales and rising incentive spending among automakers remain the factors to watch, but retail demand appears to be holding steady, signaling the industry's strong run isn't over quite yet." said Tim Fleming, an analyst for Kelley Blue Book, according to Automotive News.
Looking more closely at Detroit's second-largest automaker, let's zoom in on Ford Motor Company's April sales.
Nitty-gritty Let's get some of the details out in the open. Ford's U.S. sales checked in at more than 231,000 last month, a 4% gain over last year's April. Its retail sales also jumped 3% compared to the prior year, which was its best April result over the past decade.
Although many investors overlook them on a monthly basis, Ford's gross stock of inventory and fleet sales remain worth noting. Ford's gross stock of inventory rose from March's 80 days' supply level to 83 days' supply at the end of April. While that's above the industry norm of about 60 days', it's not an issue, as Ford desires higher inventory heading into stronger spring and summer sales months. Plus, nearly half of its total gross stock inventory is trucks, and the company is selling through that segment extremely well right now.
Not all fleet sales are bad business. Image source: Ford Motor Company.
As for fleet sales, the trend of higher fleet sales as a percentage of total sales continues to be elevated during the first half of the year. During April, 32% of Ford's total sales were fleet, which breaks down to 13% commercial sales, 7% government, and 12% daily rental. Looking at year-to-date results gives a better picture, though, with fleet sales generating 35% of total sales compared to the same time period last year, when that number was 30%. However, as I noted recently, fleet sales should no longer be considered akin to the devil.
The driving force As investors have likely noticed over the past year, the driving forces behind Ford's rising sales are again SUVs and full-size trucks. The company sold more than 65,000 Ford-brand SUVs, which marks its best-ever April sales result. Ford's F-Series sold more than 70,000 units for the second consecutive month, the truck's best April since 2005. The F-Series' sales moved 12.6% higher in April compared to the prior year, and have increased 7% throughout 2016.
"We saw strong consumer demand in April, especially for pickups," said Mark LaNeve, Ford vice president, U.S. Marketing, Sales and Service, in a press release. "F-Series has moved past the quarter million sales mark year to date -- the strongest start for F-Series in a decade, while Ford brand SUVs are having their best year ever."
Another trend investors surely find favorable is Ford's rising average transaction prices. Ford's brand average moved $1,500 higher compared to last year's April, and $700 higher versus the industry's average increase. Much of that rise is due to Ford selling fewer passenger cars; the segment declined 11.5% during April, while sales of utilities and trucks rose 4.4% and 3.3%, respectively.
Any surprises? Automakers typically have at least one surprising piece of data, and Ford's April didn't disappoint. To my surprise, at least, Lincoln posted a solid month, with sales jumping 20% to 9,776 units sold. What might be even more surprising, though, was that the MKX's sales jumped 94% in April, which helps its year-to-date gain rise to 85%. If you're keeping track, that makes the MKX Lincoln's best-selling vehicle thus far into 2016 -- which probably wasn't something many Ford investors expected.
Digging a little deeper, the general trend of consumers moving from passenger cars to SUVs is also apparent in Lincoln's sales. The Lincoln MKC's sales rose 51% last month, and they've moved 12% higher during 2016. In fact, the MKT and Navigator also posted double-digit gains last month and have both moved higher for the full year, which helped drive Lincoln's utility segment 34% higher throughout 2016. On the flip side, Lincoln's car sales are down 7% for the year, with its flagship sedan, the MKZ, posting a sales decline of 27% last month.
Ultimately, this was just another solid month of sales from Detroit's second-largest automaker, which should come as no surprise since Ford just posted its most profitable quarter ever.
The article 3 Takeaways From Ford Motor Company's April Sales Figures originally appeared on Fool.com.
Daniel Miller owns shares of Ford. The Motley Fool owns shares of and recommends Ford. Try any of our Foolish newsletter services free for 30 days. We Fools may not all hold the same opinions, but we all believe that considering a diverse range of insights makes us better investors. The Motley Fool has a disclosure policy.


Cockington Cour listed Grade II*, The Drum Inn (Lutyens), Garden Wall, Higher Lodge, Lower Lodge, Cottage in Hellinghay Plantation, Stone Bridge, all listed Grade II.
Cockington Court should be added to the English Heritage Register as a Grade II item.
Cockington Court is the largest of Torbay's many public parks and gardens. The de Cockington family held the manor from 1130 to 1349, some time after which it was sold to Sir William Cary, whose family held the estate for nearly three hundred years. It was sold in 1654 to Roger Mallock, a rich Exeter goldsmith whose family, in turn, occupied the estate until 1932. Parts of the Tudor house survive, but there was extensive remodelling by Rawlin Mallock in about 1673. The whole estate was put up for sale in 1932 and was bought by the Cockington Trust. In April 1933, Cockington Court and 223 acres were leased by the Trust for 999 years to the Borough Council, which subsequently bought the freehold for £50,000. The village of Cockington was put up for sale in 1946, when the Prudential Assurance Company bought twenty-seven of the twenty-nine lots on offer. Cockington Valley is now largely owned by the Torbay Council and the Prudential. It is managed as a Country Park, with support from the Countryside Commission. The grounds include mature avenue and specimen trees, a wide variety of shrubs and a formal walled garden. To the south-east, with tunnel access beneath the Totnes Road, the ornamental parkland is dominated by a series of connected large ponds below Hellinghay Plantation. At the entrance to the grounds is a picturesque lodge, with a rustic verandah on tree trunks supporting the thatched roof. The formal gardens to the adjacent Drum Inn (Sir Edwin Lutyens, 1934) are an integral part of the overall designed landscape.


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A new trailer has just been released for Yoku's Island Express, a "pinball platform adventure" developed by Villa Gorilla under Team17's label set for release this year.
The game will employ a combination of platforming and pinball mechanics, with player character Yoku, postmaster of Mokumana Island, navigating the world while rolling along a big ball that can be used as a dynamic pull weight, flinging the small bug around in a similar way to how Thor uses Mjolnir in the Marvel cinematic universe – which is bloody cool, and leads to some ridiculous platforming akin to the 2D Sonic the Hedgehog games.
Mokumana Island will be home to "a whole host of quirky villagers," adding a wholesome and whimsical charm to the game's atmosphere upon first impressions; characters like Juice Master Spina, Cove Mushroom-craving Fosfor, and more.
Villa Gorilla, a Swedish studio founded by industry veterans Jens Andersson (The Darkness, Enclave) and Mattias Snygg (The Darkness, Syndicate) with the goal of creating "small and unique games with a focus on innovative game design and beautiful execution." And by the looks of this new trailer, that's exactly what they're doing.
Expect to get your hands on Yoku's Island Express for Xbox One, Playstation 4, Nintendo Switch and PC in Q2 of 2018.
2018Indiejens anderssonmattias snyggnintendo switchPCpinballplatformerPlaystation 4q2sonicswedenTeam17villa gorillaXbox Oneyoku's island express
Astrid is the equivalent of Lenin if Indie Haven were the Bolshevik Party. But it's not, she's just the Editor-in-Chief. When she's not mashing Communism into video games and writing about how it makes sense on her personal website, they're manning the ship here, as well as writing news, reviews, and features all about the indie games industry.
All The World's a Stage – A Review of Plague Road