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Calvin Bryce Hoover (April 14, 1897 – June 23, 1974) was a noted economist and professor. He spent 1929-1930 in Moscow and wrote The Economic Life of Soviet Russia in 1931. Following his travels to Soviet Russia he also traveled to and researched the economies of Germany, Italy, France, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Australia. He is considered the founder of the field of comparative economic systems.

Early life and pre-war education
Hoover was born in Berwick, Illinois, to John Calvin Hoover and Margaret Delilah Roadcap Hoover. Growing up poor, he worked with his father on the railroad and on their tenant farm during breaks from school. He described his early economic and political beliefs as a sort of "primitive socialism," which he came to after noticing the inequities of income in Berwick.  His father also read the newspaper The Appeal to Reason, which further fostered his left-leaning ideas. Hoover was an avid reader of history and literature, and compared to the world in his books he saw his small hometown as boring. Looking back on his youth, he once wrote "I wanted to see far places and to have the adventures which both historians and novelists agreed had happened to me through the ages."

Furthermore, coming of age in the early twentieth century, Hoover felt that he had been born too late, "into an age in which nothing ever happened," and had missed the tumultuous adventures of the American frontier. This feeling was exacerbated by visits from his uncles, who had served in the Confederate Army during the American Civil War.

Hoover's family valued education, and since Berwick did not have any high schools, they sent him and his sister to high school in the city of Monmouth, the county seat, 12 miles away. Given his family's lack of economic means, sending two children to high school was a difficult task, for two reasons. First, it was difficult to find transportation through twelve miles or rural Illinois (in the winter it was impossible), and he and his sister used various methods before finally taking jobs as servants in Monmouth. Second, the local high school charged tuition for to students whose families did not live in Monmouth.

Hoover enrolled in Monmouth College in the Fall of 1914. He was an ardent supporter of the allied cause in World War I and, as a result, felt obliged to join the fight when the United States entered the war. Consequently, he left school in 1917. This angered his father who told him, "I remember the young men who enlisted in the Confederate Army when I was a boy in the Shenandoah Valley. They never came back. Some who waited to be conscripted did survive. If you will wait until you are drafted, I won't complain."

World War I
Hoover began his Army career as an infantry private in the Illinois National Guard. His infantry regiment, however, was quickly converted into the 123rd Field Artillery regiment.  Hoover received numerous promotions and eventually became a non-commissioned sergeant. He fought in the battles of Saint-Mihiel and Meuse-Argonne. After the war he served in Luxembourg, with the American Army of Occupation in Germany. Of his military service he said, "My army experience cured me of being a socialist."

Education
After his military service, Hoover returned to Monmouth College. He received an A.B. degree in 1922. Later that year, he began graduate work at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and studied under noted professor John R. Commons. In 1923, he accepted a position at the University of Minnesota while he finished his doctoral work at Wisconsin. In 1925, he left Minnesota and accepted the position of assistant professor of economics at Duke University.

Travel to Russia
In 1927 he was awarded a grant by the Social Science Research Council to study the Soviet banking system. Despite this limited scope, he desired to make a more complete study of the Soviet economy. He spent 1929-1930 in Moscow researching the planned economy. He found that despite several limitations, the Soviet economy was capable of consistent growth. Upon his return he was encouraged by distinguished economist John Maynard Keynes to publish his findings. In 1931, he published an in-depth account called The Economic Life of Soviet Russia.

Travel to Nazi Germany
Hoover went to Germany from 1932–1933 and witnessed the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazis. He found that Hitler's rearmament was revitalizing the German economy; reducing unemployment, improving standard of living, and stemming inflation. This was contrary to conventional thought of the day that insisted that a leader must choose between "guns and butter." He published his second book Germany Enters the Third Reich in 1933. This book sought to alert his fellow Americans to the imminent threat to the peace of Europe posed by Hitler, at a time when there was widespread reluctance to take that danger seriously.

Work for U.S. Government
In 1933 he returned to his post at Duke University. Later that year he was called into government service, where he would spend many of his next twelve years.

Agriculture Adjustment Administration (AAA)
Hoover arrived in Washington, D.C. in 1933 at the request of Assistant Secretary of Agriculture Rexford Guy Tugwell. He became the economic consultant to the Agricultural Adjustment Administration. The AAA's goal was to raise farm prices. By 1935 he was promoted to consumers' counsel to the AAA.

Office of Strategic Services (OSS)
Due to his knowledge of the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany he was called into service for the Office of Strategic Services at the outbreak of World War II. Hoover served many roles for the OSS, eventually becoming head of Northern European operations in Sweden. His group was instrumental in finding German synthetic oil plants, which led to their bombing and destruction. This grounded the Luftwaffe allowing for the Normandy Invasion.

The German Postwar Economy
After the end of World War II he was called to Berlin to oversee the German postwar economy. He was the architect of a proposal to restore German industry. Restoration was opposed by many in the United States and the Soviet Union. Many wished instead to continue the deindustrialization of Germany to a degree where she would be unable to wage war ever again. Hoover argued instead that a strong, stable German economy would help to preserve the peace.

Later life
In late 1945 he returned to Duke, where he was named James B. Duke Professor of Economics.
In 1947 he was awarded the Medal of Freedom by President Harry S. Truman.
In 1953, he was elected president of the American Economic Association. Hoover also served as the president of the Comparative Economics Association; the Southern Economic Association; and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Economic Society. He continued to teach at Duke until his retirement in 1966.

Published works
 The Economic Life of Soviet Russia. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1931.
 Germany Enters the Third Reich. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1933.
 International Trade and Domestic Employment.  New York, London, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1945.
 Economic Resources and Policies of the South. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1951.
 The Economy, Liberty, and the State.  New York, Twentieth Century Fund, 1959.
 Economic Systems of the Commonwealth.  Durham, Duke University Press, 1962.
 Memoirs of Capitalism, Communism, and Nazism.  Durham, Duke University Press, 1965.

See also
 A Report on Germany
 Industrial plans for Germany
 Restatement of Policy on Germany
 The President's Economic Mission to Germany and Austria

References

Writers about the Soviet Union
20th-century American economists
University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni
1897 births
1974 deaths
American expatriates in the Soviet Union
People of the Office of Strategic Services
Monmouth College alumni
Presidents of the American Economic Association

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Class conflict continued to find expression after the end of the Civil War. The year 1877 saw the nation deep in an economic crisis. That summer, in the hot cities where poor families lived in cellars and drank dirty water, children became sick in large numbers. That same year, railroad workers went on strike throughout the East, reacting against wage cuts, long working hours, profiteering by the railroad companies, and deaths and injuries resulting from the absence of safety precautions. The strike spread quickly, and violence escalated as the National Guard and then federal troops (withdrawn from the South) were brought in against the strikers. When the strikes were over, a hundred people were dead, one thousand had been jailed, and one hundred thousand workers had gone on strike. Here, St. Louis journalist J. A. Dacus describes the dynamic of the railway strike.
And here we find the immediate, potent cause of the Great Strikes. Depression in business, but more important still, depression in transportation rates brought about by the jealousies and hostility of each other of Thomas A. Scott, John W. Garrett, and William H. Vanderbilt, rendering it necessary to reduce operating expenses in order to "make something,"—that is ten per cent on their largely increased amount of stock. The lower orders of laborers were first to feel the weight of this curtailment of income. Meanwhile the higher grades of employe[e]s were still receiving salaries not much less than were obtained ten years ago, when the whole country was enjoying unparalleled prosperity. The higher officers of companies received higher salaries in 1876 than they obtained in 1866, notwithstanding the immense change in values which had taken place.
The reduction of ten per cent in the wages of laborers, which was made by a majority of the railway companies throughout the country during the first half of the year 1877, was sufficient to evoke the earnest protests of the men affected by the curtailment of their income. Had the reduction on all the roads which have cut the wages of their employe[e]s, taken effect at the same rime, it is probable that a general strike would have taken place earlier in the season. But the date of reduction was not the same on any considerable number of the roads. Petitions and remonstrances from employe[e]s of railroad companies were received by their employers, but were wholly disregarded. A feeling of discontent was engendered, while the burden of "hard times" weighed more heavily upon workingmen.
The mine was already prepared, a spark only was necessary to cause an explosion. That was supplied by the action of the managers of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. The pressure put upon their employe[e]s elicited the spark, and the explosion followed. Commencing at Martinsburg, West Virginia, in less than three hours the strike was fully inaugurated, and had already reached Baltimore. The line of the Baltimore and Ohio Railway was completely invested by the strikers in less than twenty hours. From the Baltimore and Ohio Railway the strikes extended first to the Connellsville branch, then to the Pennsylvania system, Pittsburgh and Fort Wayne, and other railways. In an incredibly short space of time, strikes had taken place in Maryland, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, New York, New Jersey, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, Kentucky, and Missouri. Fifteen thousand men were engaged in the strikes.
The whole country was profoundly agitated. The uprising had assumed a dangerous aspect. A feeling of alarm and dread quickly succeeded the first impulsive feeling of sympathy entertained by the masses for the strikers. The vast numbers engaged in the strikes against the railroads, their apparent determination, the general belief that they were well organized and prepared, produced a dangerous effect upon the idle and vicious classes in all the large cities. Labor unions were suddenly aroused into unwonted activity, and displayed alarming vigor. "The Workingmen's Party of the United States," which is but another name for the "International Association of Workingmen," which has caused so much anxiety to the governments of Europe, came forth from its shadowy coverts, and what had been regarded as a phantom party, assumed a realistic attitude that caused a thrill of astonishment and terror to fall upon the urban populations of the country. Nothing to compare with the demonstrations of the Internationalists in all the larger cities, by day and by night, had, at any time, been witnessed in this country.
It was the first time in the history of the country that a labor strike had become so formidable as to require the intervention of the general Government to preserve order. It was nine o'clock at night when the armed battalion of regulars filed through the streets of Washington on the way to the station of the Baltimore and Ohio Railway to embark on the train to proceed to Martinsburg. A vast concourse of people had assembled to witness their departure. The scene was not unlike some of those which characterized the early days of the year 1861. The train moved away from the station at ten o'clock in the evening, bound for the scene of the disturbance.
Meanwhile bands of strikers had taken possession of the railway stations at Cumberland, Grafton, Keyser, and other points, and refused to allow any freight trains to pass. Emissaries were dispatched from the headquarters of the strikers at Martinsburg and Wheeling, to induce the firemen and brakemen; along the Connellsville Branch, the Pennsylvania road, the Pittsburgh and Chicago, and other railroads in that section of the country to join in the strike. During the day the strikers at Wheeling made a demonstration of a rather threatening character. The single company of militia at that place paraded for action. But it was evident that it was not strong enough to effect anything, and so the citizen-soldiers allowed themselves to be quietly disarmed by the striking workingmen.
The strikers at Martinsburg received the President's proclamation with indifference or positive disrespect. No attention whatever was paid to the injunction to disperse. On the contrary, with constant accessions to their numbers, they became more demonstrative and threatening in their bearing.
During the day, a committee of strikers at Baltimore prepared and caused to be printed and circulated a statement of the causes which impelled them to pursue the course which they had adopted. They declared that they had submitted to three reductions of wages in three years; that they would have acquiesced in a moderate reduction; that they were frequently sent out on a trip to Martinsburg, and there detained four days at the discretion of the company, for which detention they were allowed pay for but two day's time; that they were compelled to pay their board during the time they were detained, which was more than the wages they received; that they had nothing left with which to support their families; that it was a question of bread with them; that when times were dull on the road they could not get more than fifteen day's work in a month; that many sober, steady, economical men became involved in debt last winter; that honest men had their wages attached because they could not meet their expenses; that by a rule of the company any man who had his wages attached should be discharged; that this was a tyranny to which no rational being should submit, and that it was utterly impossible for a man with a family to support himself and family at the reduced rate of wages.
It was formally announced chat the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company would make no further efforts to run trains on their line for the time being.
Thus, the efforts of a gigantic corporation, supplemented by the whole power of the Government to protect and aid it, were ineffective to raise a blockade on one of the great thoroughfares of the nation, when chat blockade was enforced only by a number of stokers and brakemen without financial credit or political patronage. Thus the movement had gone on until the National Government round itself powerless for the time being to suppress it. The strikers had now become a mighty power. With a purpose of revolution, with organization and leadership, it was within the grasp of the railroad employe[e]s and other classes of laborers to have taken absolute possession of every commercial center in the nation; aye! even to have overturned the Government itself!
1 J. A. Dacus, Annals of the Great Strikes in the United States (1877). In J A Dacus, Annals of the Great Strikes in the United States: A Reliable History and Graphic Description of the Causes and Thrilling Events of the Labor Strikes and Riots of 1877(St Louis: Scammell and Company, 1877), pp. 21—23, 42-43, 98-99.


For the writer Alex J. Cavanaugh featuring my blog on his Tuesday post! And especially for the Very Nice things he said. He's a wonderful writer and Person! Visit his blog and read his new book if you get the chance. It's wonderful!
For my oldest son coming home 'safely' from the Dominican Republic! He had an Amazing time, while Helping people. So Proud of him and his group!
For the help I got getting some projects done around the house!
My question: How have you 'planted' a seed of friendship before?
At any time, you can decide to change the road you're on in life, take a new direction, follow a new trail. You are the only one who really knows what you want from life and if you're on the right road for you. You are the only one who can fulfill your dreams and receive the joys and happiness that come from reaching those aspirations and goals.
Don't expect others to be responsible for your happiness and your success. You must take control and be in charge of your destiny and day-to-day situations. Take advice (most of the time it's free!) and listen to what others have to say and what concerns they have; it's important to have different points of view. But always validate those words of wisdom with your own set of standards and make sure that the advice has meaning to your sense of reality.
You must understand yourself enough to know what you want in life and what desires you believe are worthwhile for your future. You need to depend upon yourself and your talents. Appreciate others for their personal skills and abilities, but always continue to focus on your own strengths and energies. Life is much too short to spend it worrying about someone else's accomplishments or expecting someone else to be responsible for making your life better.
If you have dreams, then you have a purpose. You have something to believe in and work toward obtaining. Dedicate yourself to yourself. Promise yourself a life filled with love, and then whatever roads you travel will be the roads you want them to be.
So often we use the words above in our everyday life without really thinking about what they mean or what it would be like if all the people in the world live by them.
Let's dig deeper into the meaning of these words.
What do you think the impact on society would be if these 'words' were 'lived in daily action' by more people? I believe the impact would be less conflict and more PEACE in the world!
For having 2 of my sons home for Easter!!
My question: What are your 'Tips' for a 'Peaceful' home?
My answer: First and most important - No fighting! I had enough of that for too many years. Maturity, Communication, Kindness and Love... go a long ways to having a peaceful and happy home.
Have a Very Happy Easter Weekend, Everyone!!
Last week, the U.S. Senate unanimously approved Senate Resolution 157 declaring April 21st Power Talk 21 day, the national day for parents to start talking with their kids about alcohol. Research has shown that parents are the number one influence in their child's decisions about alcohol. So, in an effort to curb underage drinking among America's youth, Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) created the Power of Parents, It's Your Influence™ program to help parents have the sometimes difficult, but potentially life-saving, conversation about alcohol with their kids on April 21st and throughout the year.
"Senator Klobuchar and Senator Vitter are to be commended for their leadership in preventing underage drinking. MADD hopes that PowerTalk 21 day will inspire parents to talk with their teens about healthy lifestyles and smart choices — particularly in advance of prom and graduation season — and will ultimately save lives," said MADD National President Laura Dean-Mooney.
•By the time they graduate from high school, half of all teenagers report drinking alcohol regularly. One-third report binge drinking.
•The greatest increase in alcohol usage occurs between grades 6 and 10.
•Fifty-five percent of middle and high school students say it is against their values to drink alcohol while they are teenagers.
•Teen alcohol use kills about 6,000 people each year, more than all illegal drugs combined.
•Still, one in three eighth graders drinks alcohol and one in five teens binge drinks.
Developed with Pennsylvania State University's Dr. Robert Turrisi, MADD's Power of Parents handbook is based on more than two decades of underage drinking research, and has been shown to significantly reduce underage drinking behaviors, even in households with below average communication.
With prom and graduation just around the corner, the subject of alcohol is a timely one no parent can overlook. Research shows that parents are the No. 1 influence in their child's decisions about drinking, but like the birds and the bees, alcohol is a topic few children look forward to discussing with mom and dad.
However, "the talk" is a necessary evil.
For conversation starters, tips and to get the free Power of Parents handbook, visit www.madd.org/powertalk21.
About Mothers Against Drunk DrivingFounded by a mother who lost her daughter in a crash, Mothers Against Drunk Driving® (MADD) is the nation's largest nonprofit working to protect families from drunk driving and underage drinking. With the help of those who want a safer future, MADD's Campaign to Eliminate Drunk Driving® will end this danger on America's roads. PowerTalk 21™ is the national day for parents to talk with their kids about alcohol, using the proven strategies of Power of Parents, It's Your Influence™ to reduce the risk of underage drinking. And as one of the largest victim services organizations in the U.S., MADD also supports drunk driving victims and survivors at no charge, serving one person every 10 minutes at 1-877-MADD-HELP. Learn more at http://www.madd.org/ or call 1-877-ASK-MADD.
PowerTalk 21 isn't just for parents. Anyone concerned about the dangers of underage drinking can get involved.
Request. Sign up to receive a FREE copy of MADD's parent handbook for research-based guidance on starting the on-going conversation about alcohol with teens.
Download. Once you have signed up for the handbook, you can also access some quick conversation starters.
Plan. Get a game plan for starting the conversation. Choose a calm and relaxed time and location without distractions where you will have each others' undivided attention. The parent handbook offers tips on avoiding potholes and talking so teens will listen. Click here to find a free 30-minute parent workshop in your area.
Donate. Help MADD continue to provide free parent handbooks and workshops to encourage safer communities.
Download. MADD recommends that you do not wait until your parents start the conversation with you to talk with them about alcohol. Download conversation starters to guide you in communicating with your parents.
Talk. By communicating with your parents about alcohol, you open the door to building trust, to understanding the risks associated with decisions you face about drinking alcohol, and to establishing a strong support system to help you face the peer pressures that may come your way.
These changes will help you reduce stress throughout your life.
1. Ask for help: Know that you're not alone, and seek help when you need it.
2. Set boundaries: Prioritize tasks and learn how to say no to avoid being over-scheduled.
3. Take care of yourself: Don't forget to put yourself on your to-do list.
4. Give yourself time-outs: Take the time to have fun, rune a few extra miles, or do something you enjoy to clear your head.
5. Get daily pockets of peace: Keep stress levels from becoming toxic by giving yourself a little peace time every day.
Take the stress out of your relationships with these tiny changes.
6.Avoid people who stress you out: If you are constantly stressed by someone, limit your time with them or end the relationship.
7. Specifically define problems: Give your relationship problems a real name.
8. Commit to staying calm: Even when your tempers flare, make a commitment to being calm and respectful in conversations.
9. Say thanks: Be thankful for others and what you have in order to recognize your blessings.
10. Just listen: It's frustrating to feel that you're not being heard-give your partner respect and a listening ear.
Problems create stress in our lives, and although they are not avoidable, there are things you can do to cut down on their impact.
11. Practice preventative maintenance: Think and act before problems happen so they're solved before you even have to fix them.
12. Identify the cause of stress: Even if you can't fix a problem immediately or at all, giving the source of your stress a name can make it better.
13. Be honest about temporary setbacks: Remind yourself when your troubles are only temporary-but be careful not to explain away chronic problems.
14. Plan ahead: Don't let preventable stress like traffic get the better of you-plan ahead to reduce the impact of stressful situations.
15. Accept what you can't change: Follow the Serenity Prayer and learn to accept the things you can't change.
16. Stay in perspective: Consider the true importance of the event or situation you're stressed by.
Tackle your never-ending list with a fresh attitude by making these changes.
17. End procrastination: Allowing tasks to pile up will stress you out-learn how to take care of stuff right away.
18. Schedule dreaded tasks early: Instead of putting off dreaded items on your list and worrying about them, just get them out of the way early.
19. Appreciate your achievements: Each time you achieve a goal, give yourself a pat on the back.
Make these changes to take an emotional load off.
20. Laugh: Make time to laugh, and look at the humorous side of any situation to reduce stress and stress hormones.
21. Give yourself a mental spa: Take your mind on a spa treatment with a stress CD or book on tape.
22. Physically let go of stress: Cry or yell into a pillow to release anxiety and stress.
23. Pay attention to negative thinking: Observe when you are thinking negatively, and commit to replacing negative thoughts with positive ones.
24. Write a journal: Organize your thoughts and work through problems by writing them out on paper.
25. Meditate: Spend time meditating on a regular basis to cut out some of your stress.
With these changes, you can avoid letting financial stress overtake your life.
26. Talk about money: Sometimes just having a conversation about your finances can cut down on stress in a relationship.
27. Listen to suggestions: If you're fighting with your partner about money, make a point to pay attention to their ideas.
28. Prioritize: Think about what's most important in your life, and prioritize how you spend your money accordingly.
Improve your health to reduce stress by making these small changes in your life.
29. Drink black tea: Healthful compounds in black tea can help you recover from stress more effectively.
30. Eliminate caffeine: Although this may sound counterintuitive to some caffeine junkies, cutting out caffeine can help you stop experiencing nervousness, peaks, highs, and lows.
31. Prioritize sleep: Forget staying up late to finish work-make sleeping a priority so you'll be fresh and happy when you need your energy.
32. Stretch: Stretch to reduce muscle tension, with activities like air punches and other simple exercises.
These small actions can have a big impact on your stress level.
33. Talk to yourself: Try positive affirmations and intentions to keep yourself upbeat.
34. Shrug your shoulders: Release tension and pain in your shoulders with a simple shoulder shrug.
35. Spend time outside: Get out and enjoy nature at some point in your day.
36. Be creative: Spend time nurturing creativity through a hobby like art or knitting.
37. Sing: Even if you're a terrible singer, spend a little time singing to pick up your spirits.
Make these changes to ensure that your home is a stress-free environment.
38. Hire help: If you're having trouble staying on top of cleaning, hire a helper to clean on a regular basis, even if it's just once a month.
39. Get rid of clutter: Clutter is a reminder of things you have to do-get rid of clutter to find more energy and happiness.
40. Keep your home tidy: A clean home is a happy one, and open to visitors.
41. Check the emotional climate of your home: Make sure your home is a place where your family can de-stress.
42. Light a candle: Use aromatherapy candles to burn away negative energy.
Cut out stress at work by making these changes.
43. Leave work at work: When you walk out the door, don't think about work or take it home.
44. Stop multitasking: Focus on one thing at a time to avoid feeling over-committed.
45. Try to drop stressful tasks: Talk to your boss about assignments that are especially stressful.
When all else fails, take a moment to use these quick pick-me-ups for a better day.
46. Get clean: Wash your cares away with a quick shower or bath, even if you've already bathed.
47. Use aromatherapy: Sniff essential oils to quickly boost your mood.
48. Call a friend: Talk to a friend and relate with each other about the stress in your lives.
49. Call someone you Love: Check in with your mom or someone else that you love for a little bit of quick happiness.
50. Primp: Spend an extra 5 minutes making yourself look good and feel better about yourself.
A fellow blogger who is also a passionate advocate of autism research, asked me to tell my followers about Baby Sign Language. She is part of the team responsible for the creation and development of http://www.babysignlanguage.com/. Their website was launched with the vision that high quality, functional educational materials should be accessible to all regardless of their financial capacity.
Almost 4,000 strong Facebook Community (This is a wonderfully active community that has given birth to many friendships).
We both believe that baby sign language is a viable tool to open a window of communication in certain autism profiles. I have heard wonderful and encouraging stories from many parents. Every digital and downloadable resource they have created is 100% free. However they don't expect for this to be a fix-it-all, but they sincerely hope it becomes one more resource to make the journey easier for thousands of parents facing the challenges of autism.
For hearing from my oldest son 3x since he's been in the Dominican Republic. He's working hard, but also having experiencing of a life time!
For receiving my prize from winning Shanae Branham's from Triumph and Tears March contest! Thanks again to all who supported me!
My question: So what are You enthusiastic about?
These are two powerful quotes. Combined, they tell us that if we think positively, we're likely to enjoy positive results. Negative thinking, on the other hand, can lead to outcomes we don't want.
Positive and negative thoughts can become self-fulfilling prophecies: What we expect can often come true.
So are You a Positive or Negative Thinker? Take the short quiz at Stress Management from MindTools.com to determine what kind of thinker you are.
Love never promises instant gratification, only ultimate fulfillment.
Love means believing in someone, in something. It supposes a willingness to struggle, to work, to suffer, and to rejoice.
Satisfaction and ultimate fulfillment are by-products of dedicated love. They belong only to those who can reach beyond themselves; to whom giving is more important than receiving.
Love is doing everything you can to help others build whatever dreams they have.
Love involves much careful and active listening. It is doing whatever needs to be done, and saying whatever will promote the other's happiness, security, and well-being. Sometimes, love hurts.
Love is firm, but when needed it must be tender.
When others have tried and failed, love is the hand in yours in your moments of discouragement and disappointment.
Love is a choice and commitment to others' true and lasting happiness. It is dedicated to growth and fulfillment. Love is not selfish.
Love sometimes fails for lack of wisdom or abundance of weakness, but it forgives, knowing the intentions are good.
Love does not attach conditions....Genuine love is always a free gift.
Love realizes and accepts that there will be disagreements and disturbing emotions...There may be times when miles lay between, but love is a commitment. It believes and endures things.
Love encourages freedom of self. Love shares positives and negatives reactions to warm and cold feelings.
Love, intimate love, will never reject others. It is the first to encourage and the last to condemn.
Every Monday Matters - You Matter!
Today you get to pick how you want to make a difference.
You know the drill. Think of something—and go do it.
There is only one catch--the people at Every Monday Matters want to hear about it. Let them know what you did and what resulted. They will be selecting one of 'your' ideas to be one of the "Mondays" in their next book. So be creative, have fun, and make sure to let us 'all' know what you did to make today matter.
Go to EveryMondayMatters.com to learn more about the "Your Day" Contest.
Every time you took care of yourself, did something for someone else, protected the environment, gave from your heart, volunteered your time, and donated your possessions, your action had a ripple effect on your friends, neighbors, co-workers, community, city, country, and the world.
We are confident that you had an amazingly gratifying year and that you know in your heart that you really did make a difference. Every smile, every thank you, and every gesture of appreciation confirmed this for you.
Yet the work has just begun.
Now you understand just how much YOU MATTER.
For all the progress on my house this week! I'm in a 'nesting' type cleaning mood laterly! A friend told me that means I'm making room in my life for something new! Awesome!
My question: Suppose you could go back in time and talk to yourself at the age of ten. What advice would you give yourself?
April is also Stress Awareness Month!!
Did you know that April is Stress Awareness Month? Stress is a normal psychological and physical reaction to the various demands of life. Your brain is hard-wired with an alarm system for your protection, so when it perceives a threat, a burst of hormones are released to fuel your fight-or-flight response. When the threat is gone, your body returns to normal.
Unfortunately, the constant stress of every-day life means that your alarm system rarely shuts off. Proper stress management needs to be an essential part of your daily life. The more you understand the causes of stress in your life, the better you will be able to handle it. Making healthy lifestyle choices and allowing time to do things you enjoy will get you one step closer to a less stressful life.
Because stress can affect your health in many ways, stress management is great for your health and longevity. So is laughter. (Read this for more research on laughter.) If you commit yourself to stress management this month, you'll be doing something to lead to a healthier lifestyle.
Quiz: Is Your Lifestyle Stressing You?
Attend a Wretches & Jabberers "movievent." The Autism Society is proud to partner with Academy Award®-winning director Gerardine Wurzburg to release her feature length documentary Wretches & Jabberers during National Autism Awareness Month in April 2011. The film will be released through nationwide "movievents," which will include a screening of the film and a live panel discussion featuring Tracy Thresher and Larry Bissonnette, the film's featured self-advocates with autism. Check back here for tour updates and don't forget to watch the trailer at http://www.wretchesandjabberers.org/.
Visit a Carino's Italian Restaurant.
Carino's Italian Restaurant will give a portion of it's proceeds gained throughout the month of April to the Autism Society to help commemorate National Autism Awareness Month and to help families affected by autism. To learn more about Carino's Italian Restaurant, visit http://www.carinos.com/.
The above article is from the Autism Society Organization. As many of you know my youngest son has Asperger Syndrome and was not given a good prognosis. The doctors were wrong. It took another state and school system, but he did get better! The biggest obstacle in the beginning of his journey, was understanding. Awareness is the first step to Understanding... which is so important in helping anyone with Autism, Aspergers, Pervasive Developmental Disorders and those individuals on the Spectrum.
Half Full and Aloha Friday!!
That my oldest son and his classmates arrived in the Dominican Republic safely! Praying they have wonderful learning experiences while helping people!
For a very nice visit with some family last weekend!
For the fourth annual World Autism Awareness Day on Saturday April 2, 2011!
My question: How do you deal with negative people?
Much Love & Many Hugs!


text:
#ifndef _LINUX_REISERFS_XATTR_H
#define _LINUX_REISERFS_XATTR_H
#include <linux/types.h>
#define REISERFS_XATTR_MAGIC 0x52465841
struct reiserfs_xattr_header {
  __le32 h_magic;
  __le32 h_hash;
};
struct reiserfs_security_handle {
  const char * name;
  void * value;
  size_t length;
};
#endif

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


For the Tokyo trials, see International Military Tribunal for the Far East. For the 1947 Soviet film about the trials, see Nuremberg Trials (film).
Coordinates: 49°27.2603′N 11°02.9103′E / 49.4543383°N 11.0485050°E / 49.4543383; 11.0485050 The Nuremberg trials (German: Die Nürnberger Prozesse) were a series of military tribunals held by the Allied forces under international law and the laws of war after World War II. The trials were most notable for the prosecution of prominent members of the political, military, judicial and economic leadership of Nazi Germany, who planned, carried out, or otherwise participated in the Holocaust and other war crimes. The trials were held in the city of Nuremberg, Germany, and their decisions marked a turning point between classical and contemporary international law.
The first and best known of these trials was that of the major war criminals before the International Military Tribunal (IMT). It was described as "the greatest trial in history" by Sir Norman Birkett, one of the British judges who presided over them. Held between 20 November 1945 and 1 October 1946, the Tribunal was given the task of trying 24 of the most important political and military leaders of the Third Reich – though the proceeding against Martin Bormann was tried in absentia, while another defendant, Robert Ley, committed suicide within a week of the trial's commencement.
Adolf Hitler, Wilhelm Burgdorf, Hans Krebs and Joseph Goebbels had all committed suicide in the spring of 1945 to avoid capture. Heinrich Himmler attempted to commit suicide, but was captured before he could succeed; he committed suicide one day after being arrested by British forces. Krebs and Burgdorf committed suicide two days after Hitler in the same place. Reinhard Heydrich had been assassinated by Czech partisans in 1942. Josef Terboven killed himself with dynamite in Norway in 1945. Adolf Eichmann fled to Argentina to avoid Allied capture, but was apprehended by Israel's intelligence service (Mossad) and hanged in 1962. Hermann Göring was sentenced to death, but committed suicide by consuming cyanide the night before his execution in defiance of his captors. Miklós Horthy appeared as a witness at the Ministries trial held in Nuremberg in 1948.
This article primarily deals with the first trial, which was conducted by the IMT. Further trials of lesser war criminals were conducted under Control Council Law No. 10 at the U.S. Nuremberg Military Tribunal (NMT), which included the Doctors' trial and the Judges' Trial.
There were, I suppose, three possible courses: to let the atrocities which had been committed go unpunished; to put the perpetrators to death or punish them by executive action; or to try them. Which was it to be? Was it possible to let such atrocities go unpunished? Could France, could Russia, could Holland, Belgium, Norway, Czechoslovakia, Poland or Yugoslavia be expected to consent to such a course? ... It will be remembered that after the First World War alleged criminals were handed over to be tried by Germany, and what a farce that was! The majority got off and such sentences as were inflicted were derisory and were soon remitted.
A precedent for trying those accused of war crimes had been set at the end of World War I in the Leipzig War Crimes Trials held in May to July 1921 before the Reichsgericht (German Supreme Court) in Leipzig, although these had been on a very limited scale and largely regarded as ineffectual. At the beginning of 1940, the Polish government-in-exile asked the British and French governments to condemn the German invasion of their country. The British initially declined to do so; however, in April 1940, a joint declaration was issued by the British, French and Polish. Relatively bland because of Anglo-French reservations, it proclaimed the trio's "desire to make a formal and public protest to the conscience of the world against the action of the German government whom they must hold responsible for these crimes which cannot remain unpunished."
Three-and-a-half years later, the stated intention to punish the Germans was much more trenchant. On 1 November 1943, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States published their "Declaration on German Atrocities in Occupied Europe", which gave a "full warning" that, when the Nazis were defeated, the Allies would "pursue them to the uttermost ends of the earth ... in order that justice may be done. ... The above declaration is without prejudice to the case of the major war criminals whose offences have no particular geographical location and who will be punished by a joint decision of the Government of the Allies." This intention by the Allies to dispense justice was reiterated at the Yalta Conference and at Potsdam in 1945.
British War Cabinet documents, released on 2 January 2006, showed that as early as December 1944 the Cabinet had discussed their policy for the punishment of the leading Nazis if captured. The British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, had then advocated a policy of summary execution in some circumstances, with the use of an Act of Attainder to circumvent legal obstacles, being dissuaded from this only by talks with US and Soviet leaders later in the war.
Defendants in the dock at the Nuremberg trials. The main target of the prosecution was Hermann Göring (at the left edge on the first row of benches), considered to be the most important surviving official in the Third Reich after Hitler's death.
In late 1943, during the Tripartite Dinner Meeting at the Tehran Conference, the Soviet leader, Joseph Stalin, proposed executing 50,000–100,000 German staff officers. US President Franklin D. Roosevelt joked that perhaps 49,000 would do. Churchill, believing them to be serious, denounced the idea of "the cold blooded execution of soldiers who fought for their country" and that he would rather be "taken out in the courtyard and shot" himself than partake in any such action. However, he also stated that war criminals must pay for their crimes and that, in accordance with the Moscow Document which he himself had written, they should be tried at the places where the crimes were committed. Churchill was vigorously opposed to executions "for political purposes." According to the minutes of a meeting between Roosevelt and Stalin at Yalta, on 4 February 1945, at the Livadia Palace, President Roosevelt "said that he had been very much struck by the extent of German destruction in Crimea and therefore he was more bloodthirsty in regard to the Germans than he had been a year ago, and he hoped that Marshal Stalin would again propose a toast to the execution of 50,000 officers of the German Army."
Henry Morgenthau Jr., US Secretary of the Treasury, suggested a plan for the total denazification of Germany; this was known as the Morgenthau Plan. The plan advocated the forced de-industrialisation of Germany and the summary execution of so-called "arch-criminals", i.e. the major war criminals. Roosevelt initially supported this plan, and managed to convince Churchill to support it in a less drastic form. Later, details were leaked generating widespread condemnation by the nation's newspapers[clarification needed]. Roosevelt, aware of strong public disapproval, abandoned the plan, but did not adopt an alternative position on the matter. The demise of the Morgenthau Plan created the need for an alternative method of dealing with the Nazi leadership. The plan for the "Trial of European War Criminals" was drafted by Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson and the War Department. Following Roosevelt's death in April 1945, the new president, Harry S. Truman, gave strong approval for a judicial process. After a series of negotiations between Britain, the US, Soviet Union and France, details of the trial were worked out. The trials were to commence on 20 November 1945, in the Bavarian city of Nuremberg.
On 20 April 1942, representatives from the nine countries occupied by Germany met in London to draft the "Inter-Allied Resolution on German War Crimes". At the meetings in Tehran (1943), Yalta (1945) and Potsdam (1945), the three major wartime powers, the United Kingdom, United States, and the Soviet Union, agreed on the format of punishment for those responsible for war crimes during World War II. France was also awarded a place on the tribunal. The legal basis for the trial was established by the London Charter, which was agreed upon by the four so-called Great Powers on 8 August 1945,  and which restricted the trial to "punishment of the major war criminals of the European Axis countries"
Some 200 German war crimes defendants were tried at Nuremberg, and 1,600 others were tried under the traditional channels of military justice. The legal basis for the jurisdiction of the court was that defined by the Instrument of Surrender of Germany. Political authority for Germany had been transferred to the Allied Control Council which, having sovereign power over Germany, could choose to punish violations of international law and the laws of war. Because the court was limited to violations of the laws of war, it did not have jurisdiction over crimes that took place before the outbreak of war on 1 September 1939.
The Palace of Justice was spacious and largely undamaged (one of the few buildings that had remained largely intact through extensive Allied bombing of Germany), and a large prison was also part of the complex.
Nuremberg was considered the ceremonial birthplace of the Nazi Party. It had hosted the Party's annual propaganda rallies and the Reichstag session that passed the Nuremberg Laws. Thus it was considered a fitting place to mark the Party's symbolic demise.
Most of the accused had previously been detained at Camp Ashcan, a processing station and interrogation center in Luxembourg, and were moved to Nuremberg for the trial.
Assisting Jackson were the lawyers Telford Taylor, William S. Kaplan and Thomas J. Dodd, and Richard Sonnenfeldt, a US Army interpreter. Assisting Shawcross were Major Sir David Maxwell-Fyfe and Sir John Wheeler-Bennett. Mervyn Griffith-Jones, who was later to become famous as the chief prosecutor in the Lady Chatterley's Lover obscenity trial, was also on Shawcross's team. Shawcross also recruited a young barrister, Anthony Marreco, who was the son of a friend of his, to help the British team with the heavy workload.
Tom Steyer's father Roy Henry Steyer was also a prosecutor at the Nuremberg Trials.
The vast majority of the defense attorneys were German lawyers. These included Georg Fröschmann, Heinz Fritz (Hans Fritzsche), Otto Kranzbühler (Karl Dönitz), Otto Pannenbecker (Wilhelm Frick), Alfred Thoma (Alfred Rosenberg), Kurt Kauffmann (Ernst Kaltenbrunner), Hans Laternser (general staff and high command), Franz Exner (Alfred Jodl), Alfred Seidl (Hans Frank), Otto Stahmer (Hermann Göring), Walter Ballas (Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach), Hans Flächsner (Albert Speer), Günther von Rohrscheidt (Rudolf Hess), Egon Kubuschok (Franz von Papen), Robert Servatius (Fritz Sauckel), Fritz Sauter (Joachim von Ribbentrop), Walther Funk (Baldur von Schirach), Hanns Marx (Julius Streicher), Otto Nelte (Wilhelm Keitel), and Herbert Kraus/Rudolph Dix (both working for Hjalmar Schacht). The main counsel were supported by a total of 70 assistants, clerks and lawyers. The defense witnesses included several men who took part in the war crimes during World War II, such as Rudolf Höss. The men testifying for the defense hoped to receive more lenient sentences.[clarification needed] All of the men testifying on behalf of the defense were found guilty on several counts.
The International Military Tribunal was opened on 19 November 1945 in the Palace of Justice in Nuremberg. The first session was presided over by the Soviet judge, Nikitchenko. The prosecution entered indictments against 24 major war criminals and seven organizations – the leadership of the Nazi party, the Reich Cabinet, the Schutzstaffel (SS), Sicherheitsdienst (SD), the Gestapo, the Sturmabteilung (SA) and the "General Staff and High Command", comprising several categories of senior military officers.[avalon 1] These organizations were to be declared "criminal" if found guilty.
Martin Bormann I — G G Death (in absentia) Successor to Hess as Nazi Party Secretary. Sentenced to death in absentia.[avalon 2] Remains found in Berlin in 1972 and eventually dated to 2 May 1945 (per Artur Axmann's account); thought to have been killed trying to flee Berlin in the last few days of the war.
Hans Frank I — G G Death Reich Law Leader 1933–45 and Governor-General of the General Government in occupied Poland 1939–45. Expressed repentance.[avalon 4] Hanged 16 October 1946.
Wilhelm Frick I G G G Death Hitler's Minister of the Interior 1933–43 and Reich Protector of Bohemia and Moravia 1943–45. Co-authored the Nuremberg Race Laws.[avalon 5] Hanged 16 October 1946.
Hans Fritzsche I I I — Acquitted Popular radio commentator; head of the news division of the Nazi Propaganda Ministry.[avalon 6] Released early in 1950. Fritzsche had made himself a career within German radio, because his voice was similar to Goebbels's. Died 27 September 1953.
imprisonment Hitler's Minister of Economics; succeeded Schacht as head of the Reichsbank. Released because of ill health on 16 May 1957.[avalon 7] Died 31 May 1960.
Alfred Jodl G G G G Death Wehrmacht Generaloberst, Keitel's subordinate and Chief of the OKW's Operations Division 1938–45. Signed orders for the summary execution of Allied commandos and Soviet commissars [avalon 10] Signed the instruments of surrender on 7 May 1945 in Reims as the representative of Karl Dönitz. Hanged 16 October 1946. Posthumously rehabilitated in 1953, which was later reversed.
Ernst Kaltenbrunner I — G G Death Highest-ranking SS leader to be tried at Nuremberg. Chief of RSHA 1943–45, the Nazi organ comprising the intelligence service (SD), Secret State Police (Gestapo) and Criminal Police (Kripo) and having overall command over the Einsatzgruppen.[avalon 11] Hanged 16 October 1946.
Wilhelm Keitel G G G G Death Head of Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW) and de facto defence minister 1938–45. Known for his unquestioning loyalty to Hitler. Signed numerous orders calling for soldiers and political prisoners to be executed. Expressed repentance.[avalon 12] Hanged 16 October 1946.
Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach I I I No decision Major industrialist. C.E.O. of Friedrich Krupp AG 1912–45. Medically unfit for trial; he had been partially paralyzed since 1941. Due to an error, Gustav, instead of his son Alfried (who ran Krupp for his father during most of the war), was selected for indictment. The prosecutors attempted to substitute his son in the indictment, but the judges rejected this due to proximity to trial. However, the charges against him remained on record in the event he should recover (he died in February 1950). Alfried was tried in a separate Nuremberg trial (the Krupp Trial) for the use of slave labour, thereby escaping worse charges and possible execution.
Robert Ley I I I I No decision Head of DAF, German Labour Front. Committed suicide on 25 October 1945, before the trial began. Indicted but neither acquitted nor found guilty as trial did not proceed.
Baron Konstantin von Neurath G G G G 15 years Minister of Foreign Affairs 1932–38, succeeded by Ribbentrop. Later, Reich Protector of Bohemia and Moravia 1939–43. On furlough since 1941, he resigned in 1943 because of a dispute with Hitler. Released (ill health) 6 November 1954[avalon 13] after suffering a heart attack. Died 14 August 1956.
Erich Raeder G G G — Life imprisonment Commander In Chief of the Kriegsmarine from 1928 until his retirement in 1943, succeeded by Dönitz. Released (ill health) 26 September 1955.[avalon 15] Died 6 November 1960.
Joachim von Ribbentrop G G G G Death Ambassador-Plenipotentiary 1935–36. Ambassador to the United Kingdom 1936–38. Minister of Foreign Affairs 1938–45.[avalon 16] Expressed repentance. Hanged 16 October 1946.
Alfred Rosenberg G G G G Death Racial theory ideologist. Later, Minister of the Eastern Occupied Territories 1941–45.[avalon 17] Hanged 16 October 1946.
Dr. Hjalmar Schacht I I — — Acquitted Prominent banker and economist. Pre-war president of the Reichsbank 1923–30 & 1933–38 and Economics Minister 1934–37. Admitted to violating the Treaty of Versailles.[avalon 19] Many at Nuremberg alleged that the British had brought about Schacht's acquittal to safeguard German industrialists and financiers; Francis Biddle revealed Geoffrey Lawrence had argued that Schacht, being a "man of character", was nothing like the other "ruffians" on trial. By 1944, he had been imprisoned in a concentration camp by the Nazis, and was outraged to be put on trial as a major war criminal.
Arthur Seyss-Inquart I G G G Death Instrumental in the Anschluss and briefly Austrian Chancellor 1938. Deputy to Frank in Poland 1939–40. Later, Reichskommissar of the occupied Netherlands 1940–45. Expressed repentance.[avalon 21] Hanged 16 October 1946.
Julius Streicher I — — G Death Gauleiter of Franconia 1922–40, when he was relieved of authority but allowed by Hitler to keep his official title. Publisher of the anti-Semitic weekly newspaper Der Stürmer.[avalon 23] Hanged 16 October 1946.
The Rorschach test was administered to the defendants, along with the Thematic Apperception Test and a German adaptation of the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Test. All were above average intelligence, several considerably so.
Throughout the trials, specifically between January and July 1946, the defendants and a number of witnesses were interviewed by American psychiatrist Leon Goldensohn. His notes detailing the demeanor and comments of the defendants survive; they were edited into book form and published in 2004. Jean Delay was the psychiatric expert for the French delegation in the trial of Rudolf Hess.
21 November 1945: Judge Robert H. Jackson opens for the prosecution with a speech lasting several hours, leaving an impression on both the court and the public.
26 November 1945: The Hossbach Memorandum (of a conference in which Hitler explained his war plans) is presented.
30 November 1945: Witness Erwin von Lahousen testifies that Keitel and von Ribbentrop gave orders for the murder of Poles, Jews, and Russian prisoners of war.
11 December 1945: The film The Nazi Plan is screened, showing long-term planning and preparations for war by the Nazis.
3 January 1946: Witness Otto Ohlendorf, former head of Einsatzgruppe D, admits to the murder of around 90,000 Jews.
3 January 1946: Witness Dieter Wisliceny describes the organisation of RSHA Department IV-B-4, in charge of the Final Solution.
7 January 1946: Witness and former SS-Obergruppenführer Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski admits to the organized mass murder of Jews and other groups in the Soviet Union.
28 January 1946: Witness Marie-Claude Vaillant-Couturier, member of the French Resistance and concentration camp survivor, testifies on the Holocaust, becoming the first Holocaust survivor to do so.
11–12 February 1946: Witness and former Field Marshal Friedrich Paulus, who had been secretly brought to Nuremberg, testifies on the question of waging a war of aggression.
14 February 1946: The Soviet prosecutors try to blame the Katyn massacre on the Germans.
19 February 1946: The film Cruelties of the German-Fascist Intruders, detailing the atrocities which took place in the extermination camps, is screened.
27 February 1946: Witness Abraham Sutzkever testifies on the murder of almost 80,000 Jews in Vilnius by the Germans occupying the city.
8 March 1946: The first witness for the defense testifies – former General Karl Bodenschatz.
13–22 March 1946: Hermann Göring takes the stand.
15 April 1946: Witness Rudolf Höss, former commandant of Auschwitz, confirms that Kaltenbrunner had never been there, but admits to having carried out mass murder.
21 May 1946: Witness Ernst von Weizsäcker explains the German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact of 1939, including its secret protocol detailing the division of Eastern Europe between Germany and the Soviet Union.
20 June 1946: Albert Speer takes the stand. He is the only defendant to take personal responsibility for his actions.
29 June 1946: The defense for Martin Bormann testifies.
2 July 1946: Admiral Chester W. Nimitz provides written testimony regarding attacks on merchant vessels without warning, admitting that Germany was not alone in these attacks, as the US did the same.
The death sentences were carried out on 16 October 1946 by hanging using the standard drop method instead of long drop. The U.S. Army denied claims that the drop length was too short which caused the condemned to die slowly from strangulation instead of quickly from a broken neck, but evidence remains that some of the condemned men died agonizingly slowly, struggling for 14 to 28 minutes before finally choking to death. The executioner was John C. Woods. The executions took place in the gymnasium of the court building (demolished in 1983).
Although the rumor has long persisted that the bodies were taken to Dachau and burned there, they were actually incinerated in a crematorium in Munich, and the ashes scattered over the river Isar. The French judges suggested that the military condemned (Göring, Keitel and Jodl) be shot by a firing squad, as is standard for military courts-martial, but this was opposed by Biddle and the Soviet judges, who argued that the military officers had violated their military ethos and were not worthy of death by being shot, which was considered to be more dignified.[citation needed] The prisoners sentenced to incarceration were transferred to Spandau Prison in 1947.
Of the 12 defendants sentenced to death by hanging, two were not hanged: Martin Bormann was convicted in absentia (he had, unknown to the Allies, died while trying to escape from Berlin in May 1945), and Hermann Göring committed suicide the night before the execution. The remaining 10 defendants sentenced to death were hanged.
The definition of what constitutes a war crime is described by the Nuremberg principles, a set of guidelines document which was created as a result of the trial. The medical experiments conducted by German doctors and prosecuted in the so-called Doctors' Trial led to the creation of the Nuremberg Code to control future trials involving human subjects, a set of research ethics principles for human experimentation.
The American authorities conducted subsequent Nuremberg Trials in their occupied zone.
Justice Robert H. Jackson played an important role in not only the trial itself, but also in the creation of the International Military Tribunal, as he led the American delegation to London that, in the summer of 1945, argued in favour of prosecuting the Nazi leadership as a criminal conspiracy. According to Airey Neave, Jackson was also the one behind the prosecution's decision to include membership in any of the six criminal organizations in the indictments at the trial, though the IMT rejected this on the grounds that it was wholly without precedent in either international law or the domestic laws of any of the Allies. Jackson also attempted to have Alfried Krupp be tried in place of his father, Gustav, and even suggested that Alfried volunteer to be tried in his father's place. Both proposals were rejected by the IMT, particularly by Lawrence and Biddle, and some sources indicate that this resulted in Jackson being viewed unfavourably by the latter.
Thomas Dodd was a prosecutor for the United States. There was an immense amount of evidence backing the prosecutors' case, especially since meticulous records of the Nazis' actions had been kept. There were records taken in by the prosecutors that had signatures from specific Nazis signing for everything from stationery supplies to Zyklon B gas, which was used to kill the inmates of the deathcamps. Thomas Dodd showed a series of pictures to the courtroom after reading through the documents of crimes committed by the defendants. The showing consisted of pictures displaying the atrocities performed by the defendants. The pictures had been gathered when the inmates were liberated from the concentration camps.
Henry F. Gerecke [de], a Lutheran pastor, and Sixtus O'Connor, a Roman Catholic priest, were sent to minister to the Nazi defendants. Photographs of the trial were taken by a team of about a dozen US Army still photographers, under the direction of chief photographer Ray D'Addario.
The Tribunal is celebrated for establishing that "[c]rimes against international law are committed by men, not by abstract entities, and only by punishing individuals who commit such crimes can the provisions of international law be enforced." The creation of the IMT was followed by trials of lesser Nazi officials and the trials of Nazi doctors, who performed experiments on people in prison camps. It served as the model for the International Military Tribunal for the Far East which tried Japanese officials for crimes against peace and against humanity. It also served as the model[citation needed] for the Eichmann trial and for present-day courts at The Hague, for trying crimes committed during the Balkan wars of the early 1990s, and at Arusha, for trying the people responsible for the genocide in Rwanda.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948.
The Convention on the Abolition of the Statute of Limitations on War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity, 1968.
The Geneva Convention on the Laws and Customs of War, 1949; its supplementary protocols, 1977.
The International Law Commission, acting on the request of the United Nations General Assembly, produced in 1950 the report Principles of International Law Recognized in the Charter of the Nürnberg Tribunal and in the Judgement of the Tribunal (Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1950, vol. II). See Nuremberg Principles.
Critics of the Nuremberg trials argued that the charges against the defendants were only defined as "crimes" after they were committed and that therefore the trial was invalid, and thus seen as a form of "victor's justice".
Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court Harlan Fiske Stone called the Nuremberg trials a fraud. "(Chief U.S. prosecutor) Jackson is away conducting his high-grade lynching party in Nuremberg, ... I don't mind what he does to the Nazis, but I hate to see the pretense that he is running a court and proceeding according to common law. This is a little too sanctimonious a fraud to meet my old-fashioned ideas", Stone wrote.
Jackson, in a letter discussing the weaknesses of the trial, in October 1945 told U.S. President Harry S. Truman that the Allies themselves "have done or are doing some of the very things we are prosecuting the Germans for. The French are so violating the Geneva Convention in the treatment of prisoners of war that our command is taking back prisoners sent to them. We are prosecuting plunder and our Allies are practising it. We say aggressive war is a crime and one of our allies asserts sovereignty over the Baltic States based on no title except conquest."
Associate Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas charged that the Allies were guilty of "substituting power for principle" at Nuremberg. "I thought at the time and still think that the Nuremberg trials were unprincipled," he wrote. "Law was created ex post facto to suit the passion and clamor of the time."
U.S. Deputy Chief Counsel Abraham Pomerantz resigned in protest at the low caliber of the judges assigned to try the industrial war criminals such as those at I.G. Farben.
Robert A. Taft, a US Senate Majority Leader from Ohio and son of William Howard Taft, criticized the Nuremberg Trials for trying Nazi war criminals under ex post facto laws which resulted in his failure to secure the Republican nomination for President in 1948.
The Tribunal shall not require proof of facts of common knowledge but shall take judicial notice thereof. It shall also take judicial notice of official governmental documents and reports of the United [Allied] Nations, including acts and documents of the committees set up in the various allied countries for the investigation of war crimes, and the records and findings of military and other Tribunals of any of the United [Allied] Nations.
One of the charges, brought against Keitel, Jodl, and Ribbentrop, included conspiracy to commit aggression against Poland in 1939. The Secret Protocols of the German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact of 23 August 1939, proposed the partition of Poland between the Germans and the Soviets (which was subsequently executed in September 1939); however, Soviet leaders were not tried for being part of the same conspiracy.. Moreover, Allied Powers Britain and Soviet Union were not tried for preparing and conducting the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran (1941) and the Winter War (1939–1940), respectively.
Though the ICTY later held it to be "flawed in principle", the tu quoque argument, adduced by German defendants, was admitted as a valid defense during the trials, and the admirals Dönitz and Raeder were not punished for waging unrestricted submarine warfare.
Luise, the wife of Alfred Jodl, attached herself to her husband's defense team. Subsequently, interviewed by Gitta Sereny, researching her biography of Albert Speer, Luise alleged that in many instances the Allied prosecution made charges against Jodl based on documents that they refused to share with the defense. Jodl nevertheless proved some of the charges made against him were untrue, such as the charge that he helped Hitler gain control of Germany in 1933. He was in one instance aided by a GI clerk who chose to give Luise a document showing that the execution of a group of British commandos in Norway had been legitimate. The GI warned Luise that if she did not copy it immediately she would never see it again.
The main Soviet judge, Iona Nikitchenko, presided over some of the most notorious of Joseph Stalin's show trials during the Great Purges of 1936 to 1938, where he, among other things, sentenced Kamenev and Zinoviev. According to the declassified Soviet archives, 681,692 people arrested for "counter-revolutionary and state crimes" were shot in 1937 and 1938 alone–an average of over 900 executions a day.
The Soviet prosecutor, Roman Rudenko, later became commandant of NKVD special camp Nr. 7. By the time the camp closed in the spring of 1950, at least 12,000 prisoners had died due to the catastrophic prison conditions, hunger and psychological or physical exhaustion.
The Tribunal itself strongly disputed that the London Charter was ex post facto law, pointing to existing international agreements signed by Germany that made aggressive war and certain wartime actions unlawful, such as the Kellogg-Briand Pact, the Covenant of the League of Nations, and the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907.[avalon 25] In an editorial at the time The Economist, a British weekly newspaper, criticised the hypocrisy of both Britain and France for supporting the expulsion of the Soviet Union from the League of Nations over its unprovoked attack against Finland in 1939 and for six years later cooperating with the USSR as a respected equal at Nuremberg. It also criticised the allies for their own double standard at the Nuremberg Trials: "nor should the Western world console itself that the Russians alone stand condemned at the bar of the Allies' own justice. ... Among crimes against humanity stands the offence of the indiscriminate bombing of civilian populations. Can the Americans who dropped the atom bomb and the British who destroyed the cities of western Germany plead 'not guilty' on this count? Crimes against humanity also include the mass expulsion of populations. Can the Anglo-Saxon leaders who at Potsdam condoned the expulsion of millions of Germans from their homes hold themselves completely innocent? ... The nations sitting in judgement have so clearly proclaimed themselves exempt from the law which they have administered."
One criticism that was made of the IMT was that some treaties were not binding on the Axis powers because they were not signatories. This was addressed in the judgment relating to war crimes and crimes against humanity,[avalon 26] which contains an expansion of customary law: "the [Hague] Convention expressly stated that it was an attempt 'to revise the general laws and customs of war,' which it thus recognised to be then existing, but by 1939 these rules laid down in the Convention were recognised by all civilised nations, and were regarded as being declaratory of the laws and customs of war which are referred to in Article 6 (b) of the [London] Charter."
The Nuremberg Trials employed four official languages: English, French, German and Russian. In order to address the complex linguistic issues that clouded over the proceedings, interpretation and translation departments had to be established. However, it was feared that consecutive interpretation would slow down the proceedings significantly. What is therefore unique in both the Nuremberg tribunals and history of the interpretation profession was the introduction of an entirely new technique, extempore simultaneous interpretation. This technique of interpretation requires the interpreter to listen to a speaker in a source (or passive) language and orally translate that speech into another language in real time, that is, simultaneously, through headsets and microphones. Interpreters were split into four sections, one for each official language, with three interpreters per section working from the other three languages into the fourth (their mother tongue). For instance, the English booth consisted of three interpreters, one working from German into English, one working from French, and one from Russian, etc. Defendants who did not speak any of the four official languages were provided with consecutive court interpreters. Some of the languages heard over the course of the proceedings included Yiddish, Hungarian, Czech, Ukrainian, and Polish.
Interpreters were recruited and examined by the respective countries in which the official languages were spoken: the United States, United Kingdom, France, the Soviet Union, Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, as well as in special cases Belgium and the Netherlands. Many were former translators, army personnel, and linguists, some were experienced consecutive interpreters, others were ordinary individuals and even recent secondary school-graduates who led international lives in multilingual environments. It was, and still is believed[citation needed], that the qualities that made the best interpreters were not just a perfect understanding of two or more languages, but more importantly a broad sense of culture, encyclopedic knowledge, inquisitiveness, as well as a naturally calm disposition.
With the simultaneous technique being extremely new, interpreters practically trained themselves, but many could not handle the pressure or the psychological strain. Many often had to be replaced, many returned to the translation department, and many left. Serious doubts were given as to whether interpretation provided a fair trial for the defendants, particularly because of fears of mistranslation and errors made on transcripts. The translation department had to also deal with the overwhelming problem of being understaffed and overburdened with an influx of documents that could not be kept up with. More often than not, interpreters were stuck in a session without having proper documents in front of them and were relied upon to do sight translation or double translation of texts, causing further problems and extensive criticism. Other problems that arose included complaints from lawyers and other legal professionals with regard to questioning and cross-examination. Legal professionals were most often appalled at the slower speed at which they had to conduct their task because of the extended time required for interpreters to render an interpretation properly. Also, a number of interpreters protested the idea of using vulgar language, especially if it referred to Jews or the conditions of the Nazi concentration camps. Bilingual/trilingual members who attended the trials picked up quickly on this aspect of character and were equally quick to file complaints.
Yet, despite the extensive trial and error, without the interpretation system the trials would not have been possible and in turn revolutionized the way multilingual issues were addressed in tribunals and conferences. A number of the interpreters following the trials were immediately recruited into the newly formed United Nations, while others returned to their ordinary lives, pursued other careers, or worked freelance. Outside the boundaries of the trials, many interpreters continued their positions on weekends interpreting for dinners, private meetings between judges, and excursions between delegates. Others worked as investigators or editors, or aided the translation department when they could, often using it as an opportunity to sharpen their skills and to correct poor interpretations on transcripts before they were available for public record.
For further reference, a book titled The Origins of Simultaneous Interpretation: The Nuremberg Trial, written by interpreter Francesca Gaiba, was published by the University of Ottawa Press in 1998.
Today, all major international organizations, as well as any conference or government that uses more than one official language, uses extempore simultaneous interpretation. Notable bodies include the Parliament of Kosovo with three official languages, the Parliament of Canada with two official languages, the Parliament of South Africa with eleven official languages, the European Union with twenty-four official languages, and the United Nations with six official working languages.
^ Marrus 1997, p. 563.
^ Harris 2006, p. 106.
^ Editors, History com. "Himmler commits suicide". HISTORY. Retrieved 2019-01-13.
^ Cooper 2011, p. 38. "On October 6, in Berlin, the Chief Prosecutors signed the momentous Indictment setting forth the charges ... against Hermann Göring and his associates and the six organizations, named as criminal, to which they belonged."
^ "The trial of German major war criminals : proceedings of the International Military Tribunal sitting at Nuremberg Germany". avalon.law.yale.edu. Retrieved 2019-02-21.
^ Lawrence 1947, pp. 152–3. This speech by Lawrence is reprinted in Mettraux 2008, pp. 290–9.
^ Kochavi 1998, pp. 7–8.
^ Heller 2011, page 9. According to Marrus 1997, page 563, Roosevelt had already written to Rabbi Stephen Wise, president of the American Jewish Congress, in July 1942, saying: "The American people not only sympathise with all victims of Nazi crimes, but will hold the perpetrators of these crimes to strict accountability in a day of reckoning which will surely come."
^ Wright 1946, p. 74.
^ "Shooting top Nazis? The Nuremberg option wasn't apple pie either". The Guardian. 26 October 2012. Archived from the original on 2013-09-11. Retrieved 21 April 2013.
^ Senarclens 1988, pp. pp. 19–20.
^ Crossland, John (1 January 2006). "Churchill: execute Hitler without trial". The Sunday Times. Archived from the original on 11 March 2007. Retrieved 23 November 2011.
^ United States Department of State Archived 2011-04-30 at the Wayback Machine Foreign relations of the United States. Conferences at Malta and Yalta, 1945. p. 571.
^ "The original memorandum from 1944, signed by Morgenthau". Fdrlibrary.marist.edu. 2004-05-27. Archived from the original on 2009-04-29. Retrieved 2013-01-04.
^ "The original Morgenthau memorandum from 1944". Fdrlibrary.marist.edu. 2004-05-27. Archived from the original on 2009-04-29. Retrieved 2013-01-04.
^ Lawrence 1947, p. 151.
^ a b c Overy 2001, pp. 19–20.
^ Minutes of 2nd meeting of BWCE and the Representatives of the USA. Kew, London: Lord Chancellor's Office, Public Record Office. 21 June 1945.
^ a b Rough Notes Meeting with Russians. Kew, London: Lord Chancellor's Office, Public Record Office. 29 June 1945.
^ Overy 2001, p. 15.
^ Severo, Richard (1998-05-24). "Telford Taylor, Who Prosecuted Top Nazis At the Nuremberg War Trials, Is Dead at 90". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2017-02-16. Retrieved 2017-02-15.
^ "Lawyer William S. Kaplan, 76, prosecutor at Nuremberg trials". 25 March 1986. Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2015-01-07.
^ Davidson 1997, p. 30–1.
^ Evans 2008, p. 509, 724.
^ ;"God protect Germany. God have mercy on my soul. My final wish is that Germany should recover her unity and that, for the sake of peace, there should be understanding between East and West. I wish peace to the world. Last and Near-Last Words of the Famous, Infamous and Those In-Between By Joseph W. Lewis Jr. M.D., and after saying this he whispered to the chaplain, "I'll see you again"Andrus, Burton C., I Was the Nuremberg Jailor, New York: Coward-McCann, 1969, p. 195.
^ Bower 1995, p. 347.
^ Brunner 2001, p. 234.
^ Gilbert 1995, pp. 30–1. Gilbert does not provide Ley's IQ, presumably because Ley committed suicide before the tests were done, though Gilbert is not explicit on this point. Sereny 1995, p. 573, records that Speer regarded the tests as "idiotic", and so responded to them, and to the Rorschach test in particular, with "total nonsense". Coincidentally, Brunner 2001, p. 234, argues that, given the circumstances in which they were carried out, the Rorschach tests were "almost useless by present standards; one might also mention a number of other invalidating factors, such as the dated technique by which the records were generated and the use of interpreters in some of the Rorschach interviews. Moreover, in some cases no verbatim notes were taken, whereas other protocols were recorded by a psychologist who seems to have had no previous experience with the Rorschach."
^  Archived 2012-12-06 at the Wayback Machine. Nuremberg Defendants at ukmc. Retrieved 21 November 2012.
^ "Nuremberg Trial Proceedings Vol. 1: Report of Commission to Examine Defendant Hess". Lillian Goldman Law Library, Yale Law School. Archived from the original on 2016-08-20. Retrieved 11 September 2016.
^ "Germany – The Nuremberg Trials Archived 2016-04-06 at the Wayback Machine". Library of Congress Country Studies.
^ Shnayerson, Robert (October 1996). "Judgment at Nuremberg" (PDF). Smithsonian Magazine. pp. 124–141. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 April 2011. The trial removed 11 of the most despicable Nazis from life itself. In the early morning hours of Wednesday, October 16, 1946, ten men died in the courthouse gymnasium in a botched hanging that left some strangled to death for as long as 25 minutes.
^ "The Trial of the Century– and of All Time, part two". Flagpole Magazine. 17 July 2002. p. 6. Archived from the original on 2 March 2009. the experienced Army hangman, Master Sgt. John C. Woods, botched the execution. A number of the hanged Nazis died, not quickly from a broken neck as intended, but agonizingly from slow strangulation. Ribbentrop and Sauckel each took 14 minutes to choke to death, while Keitel, whose death was the most painful, struggled for 28 minutes at the end of the rope before expiring.
^ Persico 2000, p. 111.
^ a b c Persico 2000, p. 62.
^ a b Smith 1977, p. 33.
^ Smith 1977, p. 34.
^ Persico 2000, p. 396.
^ Neave 1978, p. 24.
^ Neave 1978, pp. 339–40.
^ a b Neave 1978, p. 297.
^ Service, Kimberly Winston Religion News (24 August 2014). "The Strange Story Of The American Pastor Who Ministered To Nazis". Archived from the original on 2015-04-02. Retrieved 2015-04-01.
^ Hevesi, Dennis (February 16, 2011). "Raymond D'Addario, Photographer of Nazis, Dies at 90". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 4, 2019.
"Nuremberg: The Chief Photographer's Story". Jackson Symposium, SUNY Fredonia. 2005. Archived from the original on July 9, 2006.
^ Heller 2011, p. 3.
^ "Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1950". legal.un.org. Archived from the original on 2014-10-16. Retrieved 2013-10-21.
^ "Visitor Information – Memorium Nuremberg Trials". Archived from the original on 2015-11-27. Retrieved 2015-11-30.
^ Fichtelberg 2009, p. 5.
^ Gilbert 1995, p. 36.
^ See Paper of Jonathan Graubart, San Diego State University, Political Science Department, published online Graubart Article Archived 2011-04-30 at the Wayback Machine, referring to the ex post facto nature of the charges.
^ Wright 1948, pp. 405–7.
^ a b Mason 1968, p. 716.
^ Luban 1994, pp. 360–361.
^ "The Legacy of Nuremberg". PBS Online/WGBH. 1 March 2006. Archived from the original on 2011-09-29. Retrieved 23 November 2011.
^ Kennedy, John Fitzgerald; Sorensen, Ted (1955). Profiles in Courage. Harper & Brothers. ISBN 978-0-06-095544-1.
^ "German Defense Team Clobbers Soviet Claims". Nizkor.org. 1995-08-26. Archived from the original on 2009-03-09. Retrieved 2009-04-04.
^ "The Nuremberg Judgments". Fredautley.com. Archived from the original on 2013-01-20. Retrieved 2013-01-04.
^ Davidson 1999, p. 85. US military personnel and their wives were under strict orders to destroy or otherwise render inedible their own leftover surplus so as to ensure it could not be eaten by German civilians.
^ Sereny 1995, p. 578.
^ "The Soviet special camp No.7 / No. 1 1945 – 1950". Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2015-02-22.
^ Francesca., Gaiba, (1998). The origins of simultaneous interpretation : the Nuremberg Trial. Ottawa [Ont.]: Ottawa University Press. pp. 40–50. ISBN 0776604570. OCLC 144080321.
These citations refer to documents at "The International Military Tribunal for Germany". The Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History, and Diplomacy. Yale Law School Lillian Goldman Law Library.
^ "Nuremberg Trial Proceedings Indictment: Appendix B". Archived from the original on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 2010-12-03.
^ "Bormann judgement". Archived from the original on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 2009-12-16.
^ a b "Dönitz judgement". Archived from the original on 2011-08-10. Retrieved 2009-12-16.
^ "Frank judgement". Archived from the original on 2011-05-20. Retrieved 2009-12-16.
^ "Frick judgement". Archived from the original on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 2009-12-16.
^ "Fritzsche judgement". Archived from the original on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 2009-12-16.
^ "Funk judgement". Archived from the original on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 2009-12-16.
^ "Goering judgement". Archived from the original on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 2009-12-16.
^ "Hess judgement". Archived from the original on 2015-11-25. Retrieved 2009-12-16.
^ "Jodl judgement". Archived from the original on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 2009-12-16.
^ "Kaltenbrunner judgement". Archived from the original on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 2009-12-16.
^ "Keitel judgement". Archived from the original on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 2009-12-16.
^ "Von Neurath judgement". Archived from the original on 2011-08-10. Retrieved 2009-12-16.
^ "Von Papen judgement". Archived from the original on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 2009-12-16.
^ "Raeder judgement". Archived from the original on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 2009-12-16.
^ "Von Ribbentrop judgement". Archived from the original on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 2009-12-16.
^ "Rosenberg judgement". Archived from the original on 2009-02-02. Retrieved 2009-12-16.
^ "Sauckel judgement". Archived from the original on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 2009-12-16.
^ "Schacht judgement". Archived from the original on 2009-02-02. Retrieved 2009-12-16.
^ "Von Schirach judgement". Archived from the original on 2016-08-20. Retrieved 2009-01-12.
^ "Seyss-Inquart judgement". Archived from the original on 2009-02-02. Retrieved 2009-01-12.
^ "Speer judgement". Archived from the original on 2009-01-25. Retrieved 2009-01-12.
^ "Streicher judgement". Archived from the original on 2009-02-03. Retrieved 2009-01-12.
^ "Motion adopted by all defense counsel". The Avalon Project: Nuremberg Trial Proceedings volume 1. Lillian Goldman Law Library. 19 November 1945. Archived from the original on 2011-12-01. Retrieved 23 November 2011.
^ "International Military Tribunal, Judgment of the International Military Tribunal (1946)". Archived from the original on 7 January 2015.
^ "The trial of German major war criminals : proceedings of the International Military Tribunal sitting at Nuremberg, Germany". Archived from the original on 2014-08-17. Retrieved 2016-10-06.
Biddiss, Michael (1995). "Victors' Justice? The Nuremberg Tribunal" (PDF). History Today. 45 (5).
Bower, Tom (1995) . Blind Eye to Murder: Britain, America and the Purging of Nazi Germany—A Pledge Betrayed (2nd revised ed.). London Little, Brown. ISBN 978-0-316-87668-1.
Cooper, Robert W. (2011) . The Nuremberg Trial. London: Faber & Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-27273-0.
Davidson, Eugene (1997) . The Trial of the Germans: An Account of the Twenty-Two Defendants Before the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press. ISBN 978-0-8262-1139-2.
Evans, Richard J. (2008). The Third Reich at War. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9742-2.
Gilbert, Gustave M. (1995) . Nuremberg Diary. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-80661-2.
Harris, Whitney R. (2006). "Tyranny on Trial—Trial of Major German War Criminals at Nuremberg, 1945–1946". In Herbert R. Reginbogin; Christoph J. M. Safferling. The Nuremberg Trials: International Criminal Law Since 1945 / Die Nürnberger Prozesse: Völkerstrafrecht seit 1945. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 106–114. ISBN 978-3-11-094484-6.
Heller, Kevin Jon (2011). The Nuremberg Military Tribunals and the Origins of International Criminal Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-923233-8.
Kochavi, Arieh J. (1998). Prelude to Nuremberg: Allied War Crimes Policy and the Question of Punishment. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-2433-7.
Luban, David (1994). Legal Modernism: Law, Meaning, and Violence. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-10380-5.
Marrus, Michael R. "Three Roads From Nuremberg", Tablet magazine, Nov. 20, 2015.
Mettraux, Guénaël, ed. (2008). Perspectives on the Nuremberg Trial. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-923233-8.
Neave, Airey (1978). Nuremberg: A Personal Record of the Trial of the Major Nazi War Criminals. Grafton Books.
Overy, Richard (2001). Interrogations: The Nazi Elite in Allied Hands. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9350-9.
Owen, James (2006). Nuremberg: Evil on Trial. London: Headline. ISBN 9780755315444.
Parish, Matthew (2011). Mirages of International Justice: The Elusive Pursuit of a Transnational Legal Order. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN 9780857931184.
Persico, Joseph E. (2000) . Nuremberg: Infamy on Trial. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-029815-4.
Senarclens, Pierre de (1988). Yalta. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-0-88738-152-2.
Smith, Bradley F. (1977). Reaching Judgment at Nuremberg. Basic Books.
Zolo, Danilo (2009). Victors' Justice: From Nuremberg to Baghdad. New York & London: Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-84467-317-9.
Priemel, Kim C.; Stiller, Alexa, eds. (2012). Reassessing the Nuremberg Military Tribunals: Transitional Justice, Trial Narratives, and Historiography. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-0-85745-532-1.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nuremberg Trials.
The Nuremberg Judgments, Chapter 6 from The High Cost of Vengeance, by Freda Utley, Henry Regnery Company, Chicago, (1948). Made available by "The Freda Utley Foundation"
"Nuremberg Trial Collection" The Northwestern University Special Collections archival collection amassed by Charles J. Gallagher, a court reporter at the trials.


text:
import logging
import os
import os.path

import rstcloth.rstcloth
from typing import Any, Dict, List

import mut
import mut.config
import mut.state
import mut.util

__all__ = ['PREFIXES', 'run']

PREFIXES = ['release']

logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

class ReleaseInputError(mut.MutInputError):
    @property
    def plugin_name(self) -> str:
        return 'release'

class ReleaseConfig:
    def __init__(self, root_config: mut.config.RootConfig) -> None:
        self.root_config = root_config
        self.entries = {}  # type: Dict[str, ReleaseEntry]
        self.final_entries = []  # type: List[ReleaseEntry]

    def register(self, entry: 'ReleaseEntry') -> None:
        self.entries[entry.ref] = entry

        if not entry.ref.startswith('_'):
            self.final_entries.append(entry)

    def get(self, ref: str) -> 'ReleaseEntry':
        return self.entries[ref]

    def output(self) -> None:
        try:
            os.makedirs(self.output_path)
        except FileExistsError:
            pass

        for entry in self.final_entries:
            entry.output()

    @property
    def output_path(self) -> str:
        return os.path.join(self.root_config.output_path, 'source', 'includes', 'release')

class ReleaseEntryState(mut.state.State):
    def __init__(self, ref: str) -> None:
        self._replacements = {
            'version': '1.0',
            'branch': '1.0',
            'stable': '1.0',
        }

        self._ref = ref
        self.pre = ''
        self.language = None  # type: str
        self.code = ''
        self.content = ''
        self.post = ''

    @property
    def replacements(self) -> Dict[str, str]:
        """Return a dictionary mapping template replacements."""
        return self._replacements

    @property
    def ref(self) -> str:
        """Return a string uniquely identifying this element."""
        return self._ref

    @property
    def keys(self) -> List[str]:
        """Return a list of attributes in this Release entry that will inherit
           from a parent object."""
        return ['pre', 'language', 'code', 'content', 'post']

class ReleaseEntry:
    def __init__(self,
                 ref: str,
                 state: ReleaseEntryState,
                 path: str,
                 config: ReleaseConfig) -> None:
        self.path = os.path.splitext(os.path.basename(path))[0]
        self.ref = ref
        self._inherit = None  # type: str

        self.state = state

        self.config = config
        config.register(self)

    def output(self):
        if self._inherit is not None:
            self.inherit()

        indent = 0
        cloth = rstcloth.rstcloth.RstCloth()
        if self.state.pre:
            cloth.content(content=self.state.pre,
                          indent=indent,
                          wrap=False)
            cloth.newline()

        if self.state.code:
            cloth.directive(name='code-block',
                            arg=self.state.language,
                            indent=indent,
                            wrap=False)
            cloth.newline()
            cloth.content(self.state.code, wrap=False, indent=indent + 3)

        if self.state.content:
            cloth.content(content=self.state.content,
                          indent=indent,
                          wrap=False)
            cloth.newline()

        if self.state.post:
            cloth.content(content=self.state.post,
                          indent=indent,
                          wrap=False)
            cloth.newline()

        try:
            contents = mut.util.substitute_rstcloth(cloth, self.state.replacements)
        except KeyError as error:
            raise ReleaseInputError(self.path,
                                    self.ref,
                                    'Failed to substitute {}'.format(str(error))) from error

        mut.util.save_if_changed(contents, self.output_path)

    @property
    def parent(self) -> 'ReleaseEntry':
        if self._inherit is None:
            return None

        try:
            return self.config.get(self._inherit)
        except KeyError:
            msg = 'Could not inherit "{}" from "{}"'.format(self._inherit, self.path)
            raise ReleaseInputError(self.path, self.ref, msg)

    def inherit(self) -> None:
        parent = self.parent
        if parent is None:
            return

        parent.inherit()
        self.state.inherit(parent.state)
        self._inherit = None

    @property
    def output_path(self) -> str:
        return os.path.join(self.config.output_path, self.ref) + '.rst'

    @classmethod
    def load(cls, value: Dict[str, Any], path: str, config: ReleaseConfig) -> 'ReleaseEntry':
        ref = mut.util.withdraw(value, 'ref', str)
        state = ReleaseEntryState(ref)
        entry = cls(ref, state, path, config)  # type: ReleaseEntry

        entry.state.pre = mut.util.withdraw(value, 'pre', str)
        entry.state.language = mut.util.withdraw(value, 'language', str)
        entry.state.code = mut.util.withdraw(value, 'code', str)
        entry.state.content = mut.util.withdraw(value, 'content', str)
        entry.state.post = mut.util.withdraw(value, 'post', str)

        if 'source' in value:
            entry._inherit = mut.util.withdraw(value, 'source', mut.util.str_dict)['ref']

        replacements = mut.util.withdraw(value, 'replacement', mut.util.str_dict)
        if replacements:
            for src, dest in replacements.items():
                entry.state.replacements[src] = dest

        return entry

def run(root_config: mut.config.RootConfig, paths: List[str]):
    logger.info('Release')
    config = ReleaseConfig(root_config)
    for path in paths:
        raw_entries = mut.util.load_yaml(path)
        [ReleaseEntry.load(e, path, config) for e in raw_entries]

    config.output()


text:
20 Years of G20
From Global Cooperation to Building Consensus
by Rajat Kathuria & Prateek Kukreja
Publisher: Springer Singapore
The book discusses contemporary issues such as global financial architecture and regulatory practices, trade, investment and the multilateral process, the future of work, the role of technology for adaptation and mitigation of climate change, and financing infrastructure for sustainable development.
With increasing global connectivity, events in one part of the world immediately affect or spread to the other parts. In this context, G20 has proved to be an effective forum, particularly after the Asian financial crises. Furthermore, over recent decades, G20 has been instrumental in managing financial crises and international conflicts by deploying global cooperation as a functional tool. As a body responding to crises, the G20 has played a central role in providing the political momentum for the strong international cooperation that ensured greater policy coherence and helped ease situations that could otherwise have been decidedly worse. The G20's agendas have encompassed short-term but critical issues of economic recovery, the sovereign crisis of Europe, high unemployment and financial sector regulation. But since moderate stabilization in the global economic environment, the focus of the group has also embraced long-term areas of governance and development. For emerging economies, such as India, the G20 has been an important platform framework to promote an inclusive global economic architecture that seeks to achieve equitable outcomes.
This book reviews the past 20 years of the G20, since it was conceptualized as a replacement for the G-7. While issues such as global financial order have been a constant area of discussion, one of the failures has been not recognizing and acknowledging the importance of issues like trade, climate change and future of work. Featuring academic papers by experts in the area, this book provides a platform for the necessary discourse on these issues.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Kornellväxter (Cornaceae) är en familj i ordningen Cornales och innehåller endast två släkten, kornellsläktet (Cornus) och Alangium med tillsammans cirka 85 arter. Tidigare räknades davidiasläktet (Davidia) och lyckoträdssläktet (Camptotheca) till kornellväxterna, men dessa släkten förs numera till andra familjer.

Externa länkar
 Angiosperm Phylogeny Website

Cornales
Ko Växtindex


The toxicology report from Amy Winehouse's autopsy is in.
Amy's dad Mitch has often said the British soul singer had long since cleaned up the illegal drug habit that derailed her career, but that she still had a serious drinking problem at the time of her death.
Winehouse, the Grammy Award-winning songstress known for hits such as 'Rehab,' died in her London home on July 23. She was 27 years old.