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Patterns of forest dynamics in a secondary old-growth beech-dominated forest in the Jizera Mountains Beech Forest Reserve, Czech Republic
Jana Lábusová (1) , C Morrissey Robert (1), Volodymyr Trotsiuk (1-2-3), Pavel Janda (1), Radek Bače (1), Vojtech Cada (1), Martin Mikoláš (1-4), Hana Mrhalová (1), S Schurman Jonathan (1), Kristýna Svobodová (1-5), Lenka Mateju (1), Michal Synek (1), Miroslav Svoboda (1)
iForest - Biogeosciences and Forestry, Volume 12, Issue 1, Pages 17-26 (2019)
Published: Jan 10, 2019 - Copyright © 2019 SISEF
Restoring the structural characteristics of secondary old-growth forests that were previously managed is increasingly debated to help increase the area of more complex forests which provide a broader array of forest services and functions. The paucity of long-term data sets in Central Europe has limited our ability to understand the ongoing ecological processes required for effective restoration programs for old-growth forests. To address this, we used repeated census data from eight permanent plots to evaluate forest structural dynamics over a 12-year period in the largest complex of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) forests in the Czech Highlands without intensive forestry intervention for almost 50 years. Our results showed that previously managed forests can exhibit structural qualities typically associated with old-growth forests after management has ceased for a period. The stand structural characteristics (e.g., density of large and old trees) is comparable with protected reserves of old-growth European beech-dominated forests. The average stand age was 196 years, but the oldest tree was 289 years old. The annual mortality rate was 0.43% for all species, and the U-shaped distribution indicating size-dependent mortality is likely an important process that is balanced by the turnover of new tree recruitment. During the study period, we detected that the diameter distribution tended towards a rotated sigmoid distribution. The lasting effects of the most recent forest management are evident in the scarcity of dead wood, and a prolonged process of dead wood accumulation has begun. Thus, the abandonment of all management activities in near-natural forest reserves, including dead wood removal, will ensure that the forests will develop characteristics typical of old-growth forests.
Dead Wood, Diameter Distribution, Fagus sylvatica, Forest Reserve, Forest Structure, Mortality, Old-growth Forest
The term "old-growth" is usually used to describe forests in a late stage of successional development that are compositionally and structurally distinct from earlier successional stages ([19]). Structural components associated with old-growth forests include multilayered canopies, large variation in tree sizes, many large and old trees, standing dead trees, and large amounts of lying dead wood ([5]). Tree diameter distribution is also a representative structural feature often used to describe old-growth forests ([36]). The reverse J-shaped form has traditionally been considered indicative of old-growth forests in a state of equilibrium ([40], [36], [8]), a condition maintained by equal mortality rates among diameter classes across the entire range of diameters ([68]). However, other studies have indicated that other forms of diameter distributions, such as a rotated sigmoid curve ([21], [38], [2]), could also be characteristic of old-growth forests. A rotated sigmoid develops from rapid growth and low mortality in trees in the mid-range diameter classes sizes, which illustrates a U-shaped mortality distribution ([38]). Effective restoration programs require a thorough understanding of forest structure. Old-growth attributes (i.e., functional and structural features associated with old-growth forests) develop naturally over time, but appropriate forest management can also facilitate their development ([5]). Active restoration entails the implementation of various management techniques, such as planting seedlings, girdling, or thinning, and passive restoration describes a situation in which no action is taken except to reduce environmental stressors, such as dead wood removals or harvesting. There is vigorous debate as to which management strategy is most suitable to implement the development of old-growth attributes. Recent studies suggest that active restoration of old-growth attributes provides alternatives to conventional even- and uneven-aged silvicultural practices ([28], [15]); however, such approaches (e.g., generating snags by girdling diseased or dying trees, cutting to a rotated sigmoid diameter distribution, and downing logs by pulling or pushing trees over) are expensive. Alternatively, passive restoration should be considered when the restoration process can be expected to achieve the desired forest structure within a feasible time period ([35]).
In Central Europe, mountain areas constitute some of the largest remnants of primary forests that have survived well into modern times ([24], [64]). Because of their inaccessibility, most were not managed until the nineteenth century. Improvements in transportation and increasing wood fuel demands for industry increased the accessibility and value of untouched forests. However, even in remote mountainous areas, the possibility of centuries of selective logging, grazing, or charcoal burning can be recognized ([50]). Large aristocratic and monastic hunting estates of the past have contributed to the protection of many untouched forests. Nowadays, forest reserves under varying protection regimes account for only 12% of the European forest area ([48]). Although the protected area network has increased substantially in the last few decades, many allow large-scale harvesting inside their boundaries and numerous areas have been illegally harvested ([31], [67]). Thus, the concepts and strategies that integrate forest habitat requirements into the management and production of other forest goods and services are mandatory for sustainable forest management and the preservation of forest biodiversity in landscape ecosystems ([5], [49]).
In the Czech Republic, conservation programs protecting forest reserves have increasingly used passive restoration methods since 2002. More than 2.000 ha of forest areas have been entirely excluded from any forest management, but that corresponds to only 0.83 % of all forests in the Czech Republic ([66]). These protected forest areas are still very small and generally consist of smaller, isolated patches, as is common in most European countries ([47]). One of those unmanaged forests is located in the Jizera Mountains Beech Forest Reserve, the largest continuous European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) forest complex in the Czech Highlands. This area provides a unique perspective on forest changes after the implementation of passive management. However, it is uncertain how quickly forest structural complexity will change and how the transition to old-growth status will develop afterwards. As a result of climate change, accelerating rates of change in structure, composition, and mortality have been reported worldwide ([3]). Quantifying the patterns and processes in developing forests is essential for conserving biodiversity and ecosystem services. We employed repeated census plot data to quantify changes in forest structure and mortality after the cessation of active forest management, and we addressed the following questions: (i) what is the current stand structure of forests in the Jizera Mountains Beech Forest Reserve after the cessation of management? Does it already have some old-growth attributes? How do selected structural characteristics compare to those of primary old-growth forests? (ii) How much have the selected structural characteristics changed over a 12-year study period? What are the rates of mortality and new tree recruitment? What are the size-mortality trends within the nature reserve? How has diameter distribution changed during the studied period?
The study area is located in the Jizera Mountains (Jizerské hory) within the Jizera Mountains Beech Forest Reserve (Jizerskohorské bučiny), Czech Republic (Fig. 1). The reserve is situated on the northern slopes along an altitudinal gradient ranging from 360 to 1006 m a.s.l. The climate is very humid because the Jizera Mountains are the first transcontinental barrier of the humid oceanic flow from the North Sea. Annual rainfall averages range between 800 and 1700 mm and the growing season lasts from 110 to 160 days ([60]). The average annual temperatures, which are strongly related to altitude, range from 3 to 7.5 °C. The uniform bedrock consists of a significant proportion of porphyric biotite granite to granodiorite, and the northwestern portion is composed of coarse-grained porphyric biotite granite. Cambisols and podzols, the most common soils in the reserve, are strongly acidic and have high contents of poor quality humus with highly variable depth profiles ([69]).
Fig. 1 - Location of the research area in Czech Republic (Jizera Mountains Beech Forest). Reserve and core zones in the reserve. Empty squares represent the study plots (A-H).
Land use history
We have records of at least 200 years of selective logging in the reserve prior to 1960, after which the most preserved sites of beech-dominated forests representative of the old-growth attributes were protected in small, dispersed reserves. In 1999, these isolated reserves became the core zones of a single protected area 27 km2 in size connected with buffer zones. Since 1960, soft active management, including selective logging, dead wood removal, banding trees, and also plantations in some portions, was conducted throughout the buffer zones; however, the 9.5 km2 of dispersed core zones were allowed to develop naturally without any management and spontaneous forest development persisted.
Natural vegetation includes mainly mountain acidic beech-dominated forests and small areas of high-elevation spruce forests. The main tree species in the reserve are F. sylvatica (79%) and Picea abies (L.) Karst. (13%). Acer pseudoplatanus L. (2.8%), Sorbus aucuparia L. (2.2%), and Betula pendula Roth (1.2%) are admixed throughout, and a few species, such as Larix decidua Mill. (0.64%), Fraxinus excelsior L. (0.19%), Abies alba Mill. (0.08%), and Acer platanoides L. (0.01%), occur only rarely ([69]).
In 2003, eight 50 × 50 m permanent research plots were established at the forest reserve within the core zones (Fig. 1), a minimum distance of 50 m was maintained between all plots and any core zone edges. Plots were selected based on site conditions observed in the field in a part of the reserve comprised entirely of the most well-preserved sites that were allowed to develop naturally without any extensive forest management. The plot locations were selected to reflect more complex cover textures and forest structural variability ([61]). A description of the study plots is reported in Tab. 1. Species, diameter at breast height (DBH), status based on Kraft classification ([4]), and height were recorded for all living trees ≥ 5 cm DBH. All trees, dead wood, and rocks were mapped using a compass and diameter tape. When plots were re-measured in 2015, DBH, height, and status were recorded for all trees ≥ 5 cm DBH and ≥ 20 cm tall, as well as for standing dead trees, including snags and stumps. Dead trees were defined as being physiologically dead if the crown had been completely destroyed or if the tree was completely uprooted and dead. Lying dead wood tallied included portions of trunks and large branches with a minimum length of 1 m and a minimum diameter of 6 cm. Spatial location of all trees and dead wood were recorded with Field-Map electronic and laser measuring devices linked to GIS ([27]). Topographic attributes, including slope, aspect, and altitude, were recorded for all plots (Tab. 1). For a random subsample of trees, a single increment core at breast height (1.3 m) was extracted from living trees ≥ 5 cm DBH (n = 85) of different tree species (F. sylvatica, n = 77; Acer spp., n = 5; P. abies, n= 2; S. aucuparia, n = 1). The number of cores on each plot varied depending on the live tree density.
Tab. 1 - Characteristics of the study plots (A-H).
(m a.s.l.)
A 0.30 590 35 E
B 0.25 680 30 W
C 0.25 610 35 N
D 0.25 690 24 NW
E 0.25 700 25 NW
F 0.25 580 22 NW
G 0.25 680 30 S
H 0.25 840 40 S
Increment cores were dried, cut with a core microtome, and secured on wooden mounts. The widths of the growth rings were measured according to standard dendrochronological analysis ([59]) using TSAP-Win software ([53]) and verified with CDendro software ([12]) software. We used increment cores that included or were close to the pith: 33% of all cores included the pith, 25% were within 0.5 cm of the pith, 29% were within 2 cm of the pith, and 13% were within 10 cm of the pith. The age at breast height of trees with complete cores was estimated based on the crossdated tree ring series. To determine the age of trees without the pith, a standard graphical method was applied ([17]). Only one sample did not cross-date well, and it was excluded from all further analyses.
We calculated density, basal area, mean diameter, standard deviation of diameter, species composition by basal area, and density of large trees with DBH > 50 cm and > 80 cm. Volume of living trees and standing dead trees was calculated using two-parameter (DBH and height) equations derived by Petráš & Pajtík ([51]). Lying dead wood volume was evaluated using Field-Map software ([27]). The decay stage was assessed according to Sippola & Renvall ([57]), whereby decay was primarily based on the depth of penetration of an iron spike. As indicators of spatial indices of structural diversity, we calculated the coefficient of variation and Gini coefficient based on basal area to characterize inequity in the size distribution among living trees ([20]). Annual mortality, m, was calculated based on the 12-year study period ([56] - eqn. 1):
\begin{equation} m=100 \cdot \left [1- { \left (\frac{N_{t}} {N_0} \right )} ^ {\frac{1} {t}} \right ] \end{equation}
where N0 and Nt are the numbers of living trees at the beginning and at the end of the interval, respectively, and t is the inventory interval in years. The mortality within size classes was evaluated for five classes (5-9.9 cm, 10-29.9 cm, 30-49.9 cm, 50-69.9 cm, and ≥ 70 cm DBH). To account for tree recruitment, new trees 5 to 20 cm DBH were measured during the 2015 inventory. Mean age of the oldest tree of each plot was estimated as an average of the five oldest trees on the plot. Tree recruitment patterns were visually explored using age distribution at the landscape level. The third-degree polynomial function was used to describe the age-diameter relationship of F. sylvatica (n = 76); relationships for other species were only visually explored. The diameter distribution of living trees was analyzed by fitting a nonparametric kernel estimation and third-degree polynomial function; temporal changes in the diameter distributions of living trees between inventories were also tested using a Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Finally, our results were compared with other studies from old-growth European beech-dominated forest reserves. Relevant publications were identified by searching the online database of Web of Science using the following search terms: Fagus, structure or structural, old-growth or virgin or primary. After applying the search filters, a total of nine articles were identified that reported structural biometrics directly relevant to our analyses and were located within Europe. For further comparison, the mean values of our selected variables were computed from a review of European beech-dominated forests by Burrascano et al. ([6]). All calculations were performed using R statistical software ([54]).
Current forest structure
An overview of structural characteristics is presented in Tab. 2. Across all study plots, F. sylvatica was the dominant tree species; it accounted for at least 85% of the basal area on all plots, and some plots contained only F. sylvatica. Among standing dead trees, F. sylvatica was also the dominant species (53% to 100% of the basal area), with the exception of one plot, where P. abies represented 53% of the basal area (Tab. 2). Tree density and basal area varied greatly among plots. The mean tree density was 204 trees ha-1 and 20 trees ha-1 for living and standing dead trees, respectively. On average, basal area was 35.5 m2 ha-1 and 4.9 m2 ha-1 for living and standing dead trees, respectively. Plots all had a relatively high mean DBH of living trees, with the exception of plot C, but the mean DBH of standing dead trees was slightly greater (Tab. 2). Frequency of large trees with DBH ≥ 50 cm was relatively high in all plots (Tab. 2). Density of larger living trees with DBH ≥ 80 cm varied within study plots, with an average of 17 trees ha-1. For standing dead trees, the density varied to a lesser extent, with an average of 4 trees ha-1. The Gini coefficient and coefficient of variation varied within study plots, but the highest values were calculated for plot C (Fig. 2). The mean volume was 558 m3 ha-1 for living trees and 69 m3 ha-1 for dead wood, both standing and lying dead wood. Dead wood was present in all plots, with 3 to 34% of the total volume as dead wood. Lying dead wood contributed an average of 64% of this volume, however their proportion varied among study plots and ranged from 29 to 90% (Tab. 3). All decay classes were present, however, lying dead wood in decay classes 3 and 4 represented almost 75% of the total volume of lying dead wood. The most common species among lying dead wood was F. sylvatica; the contribution of other tree species was negligible (Fig. 3).
Tab. 2 - Structural characteristics of the study plots (A-H). (1): Average value for all study plots; (2): trees with DBH ≥50 cm; (3): trees with DBH ≥80 cm; (4): mean age of five oldest trees in the plot; (5): age of the oldest tree in then plot (all oldest trees were F. sylvatica).
Status/
Avg (1)
Percentage of
Fagus sylvatica (%) Living 2015 100 92 85 100 97 100 90 91 94
Dead 62 86 77 100 53 100 47 71 75
(cm) Living 2003 48.8 61 21.6 48.1 55.7 50 49.8 39.7 46.8
2015 50.4 49.7 20.5 44.5 43.3 50.9 49.8 39.7 43.6
Dead 2015 29.3 61 46.4 58.6 43.3 38.6 40.5 51.5 46.2
STD Diameter
(cm) Living 2003 14.5 17.1 21.2 27.7 17.5 25.5 28.4 18 21.2
Dead 2015 14.3 17.9 28.7 24 15.7 5.4 22.1 25.9 19.3
Basal area
(m2 ha-1) Living 2003 29.8 33.9 31.3 36.5 29.9 40.4 40.1 29.8 34
2015 32 35 29.9 39.9 32.8 42.9 38.2 32.9 35.5
Dead 2015 1.8 5.9 9.3 6.5 1.1 0.8 6.5 7.1 4.9
Stem density
(inds ha-1) Living 2003 147 108 436 152 112 164 156 200 184
2015 147 136 484 172 156 164 152 220 204
Dead 2015 20 16 28 20 4 8 36 28 20
Large trees 50 (2)
(inds ha-1) Living 2003 83 80 52 72 80 80 68 48 70
2015 80 76 48 80 80 84 68 56 72
Dead 2015 7 16 24 24 8 0 16 16 14
(inds ha-1) Living 2003 0 20 12 20 4 20 20 4 13
2015 0 20 16 32 4 32 20 8 17
Dead 2015 0 4 8 8 0 0 4 4 4
(years) Mean (4) 2015 205 198 167 212 205 257 153 171 196
Max (5) 252 237 236 220 242 289 160 173 234
Fig. 2 - Structural diversity indices. Gini coefficient (left panel) and coefficient of variation of tree diameters (right panel) indices characterizing the study plots (A-H) in 2003 (green) and 2015 (yellow). Dark green indicates a decrease of the index value during the study period.
Tab. 3 - Summary of dead wood volume on study plots (A-H) in 2015.
(m3 ha-1) Living 494 520 433 716 534 726 649 391 558
Standing dead 7 16 55 4 5 7 83 82 32
Lying dead wood 46 36 46 38 23 16 34 51 36
Total dead wood 53 52 101 42 28 23 117 133 69
Dead wood/ living ratio (%) 11 10 23 6 5 3 18 34 14
St. dead/ dead wood ratio (%) 13 31 54 10 18 30 71 62 36
Fig. 3 - Volume of lying dead wood (m3 ha-1) by decay classes, including recent dead (1) to the highly decayed wood (5), and species on study plots (A-H) in 2015. (FASY): Fagus sylvatica; (PIAB): Picea abies; (ABAL): Abies alba; (ACPS): Acer pseudoplatanus; (SOAU): Sorbus aucuparia.
The oldest tree was a 289-year old F. sylvatica (on plot F). The maximum age of A. pseudoplatanus and P. abies was estimated to be 165 and 153 years old, respectively. The average of the mean plot ages was 196 years, with a range of 153 to 257 years (Tab. 2). Tree establishment occurred irregularly throughout the last three centuries. There were four peaks observed around 1770, 1800-1810, 1850-1870, and 1960 (see Fig. S1 in Supplementary material), and relatively long periods of four decades or more with little tree establishment. The evaluation of the relationship between tree age and diameter among F. sylvatica was best described by a third polynomial regression (n = 77, R2 = 0.698 - Fig. 4).
Fig. 4 - Relationship between tree age and tree diameter from all study sites. Loess curve with the 95% confidence interval is reported for the relationship of Fagus sylvatica species. (FASY): Fagus sylvatica; (PIAB): Picea abies; (ACPS): Acer pseudoplatanus; (ACPL): Acer platanoides; (SOAU): Sorbus aucuparia.
Changes in forest structural characteristics
The most variable stand characteristic over time was the density of large trees ≥ 80 cm DBH with a mean increase of 32.0% (Tab. 2). Other structural attributes were much less variable over time; value increases were +10.6% for stem density, +4.4% for basal area, and +1.6% for density of large trees > 50 cm DBH. Standard deviation of diameter displayed a relatively sustained increase of 16.1%. No major changes in species composition were observed between the two measurements. Changes in the structural diversity indices varied greatly among study plots, whereas the overall mean increase was 13.1% for the coefficient of variation and 19.4% for the Gini coefficient (Fig. 2). The highest change of structural indices was observed on plot E. The size-mortality trend was asymmetrically U-shaped for all study sites. Annual mortality rates declined from about 0.3% in the smallest diameter class to 0.1% in the 20-cm class, and then it increased to about 0.8% in classes ≥ 70 cm DBH (Fig. 5). During the 12-year study period, the overall mortality rate was 0.43% year-1 (19 dead of 376 living trees in 2003 - see Tab. S1 in Supplementary material). Three trees were uprooted, and two trees had a broken stem, but they were still alive. The highest mortality rate was observed on plot B (0.64% year-1), and the lowest was on plot A (0.19% year-1). Mortality rates were balanced by the turnover of new tree generations. The generally high recruitment rates during the study period varied among plots; the highest observed densities were on plots C and E. The most abundant species in the recruitment layer (5 to 20 cm DBH) was F. sylvatica; P. abies, A. platanoides, and S. aucuparia were also present in low densities.
Fig. 5 - Observed annual mortality rate by size class (5-9.9 cm, 10-29.9 cm, 30-49.9 cm, 50-69.9 cm, and ≥ 70 cm) at the study plots (A-H). Numbers in white above each bar indicate the sample size (number of living trees in 2003).
Live tree diameter distribution of the study forest was dominated by F. sylvatica across all diameter classes. Most plots consisted of F. sylvatica in the upper canopy with P. abies in the mid-canopy, and other species were most common in the lower canopy. The change in the forest level diameter distribution between 2003 and 2015 reflected a convergence to a rotated sigmoid shape (Fig. 6). The plot level diameter distribution displayed a variety of structures in 2003, often with a tendency towards unimodal distributions, although the reverse J-shaped form was the best fit for study plot C. Over time, the rotated sigmoid curves were evident in most plots (B, C, D, E, F) in 2015. The other plots (A, G, H) remained stable over time and they had unimodal shapes (see Fig. S2 in Supplementary material). Moreover, the changes were not significant for any of the plots over time (Tab. S2). Size structure was adequately predicted by the third-degree polynomial function, and it proved to be a better fit than the Kernel function.
Fig. 6 - Forest level diameter distribution. Cumulative empirical diameter distributions in 2003 (left) and 2015 (right). The solid lines represent the third-degree polynomial function (red) and the Kernel function (blue) for all living trees. Individual trees are grouped into 5 cm diameter classes. (FASY): Fagus sylvatica; (PIAB): Picea abies; (ACPS): Acer pseudoplatanus; (ACPL): Acer platanoides; (SOAU): Sorbus aucuparia.
The core zones of the Jizera Mountains Beech Forest Reserve are composed of relatively structurally heterogenous forests. They contain many large and old trees, multilayered canopies, and high variation in tree size and age, all structural characteristics typically associated with old-growth forests ([5]). The structural attributes were comparable with other abandoned European beech-dominated forest reserves or primary old-growth forests in Europe (Tab. 4). With the exception of lower dead wood volumes, which are undergoing an accumulation process, the other structural parameters were within the ranges reported by other studies.
Tab. 4 - Structural data for old-growth European beech-dominated forests. (1): This study (Jizera Mountains Beech Forest); (2): [32] (Zofín); (3): [24] (Hrončecký grún); (4): [34] (Stužica); (5): [46] (Labowiec); (6): [10] (Uholka); (7): [29] (Janj); (8): [42] (Lom); (9): [10] (Sihlwald); (10): [43] (Ludrin); (11): [6] (mean for old-growth European beech-dominated forests); (12): for the study period 2001-2010; (13): standing and lying dead wood. Bedrock: (gr) granite; (an) andesite; (fl) flysch; (li) limestone. Soils: (ca) cambisols; (po) podzols; (re) rendzina. (∞): Considered as a primary forest; (Qmd): Quadratic mean diameter.
Last management - 1960 1882 ∞ ∞ 1957 ∞ ∞ 1956 1995 1962 -
(m a.s.l.) - 671 780 890 1075 900 750 1330 1386 650 1300 -
Bedrock - gr gr an fl fl fl, li li li - li -
Soils - ca, po ca, po ca ca ca - ca, re re ca ca -
Age (years) - 196 169 - - - 150 - - 150 - -
(m2 ha-1) Living 35.5 40.9 41.8 38.2 12 36.3 38.5 66.7 47.1 30.7 45.1 39.9
Qmd (cm) Living 47.1 50.3 46.8 38.1 - 47.3 40.6 35.0 38.9 27.8 64.9
(trees ha-1) Living 204 206 243 336 - 219 516 489 259 741 447
Living 50 72 - - - 73 - 115 99 - 52 94
Living 80 17 - 6 12 - 21 42 18 - 0 -
(m3 ha-1) Living 558 695 724 560 543 770 1215 763 524 533 -
Standing dead 32 - 25 - - - 80 91 - 8 -
Lying dead 36 202 13 281 133 383 13 111 307 236 8 13 70 193 13
Dead/ living ratio (%) 14.0 22.3 - 23.7 - 13.0 - 42.9 1.4 - -
The importance of disturbances in dead wood dynamics is well documented ([9], [41], [39]). Each disturbance type has characteristic frequency and intensity patterns, which produces important differences in the spatial and temporal distribution of dead wood. Natural disturbance regimes in European temperate deciduous forests are characterized by mixed disturbance severity regimes, a combination of frequent, small-scale events, and occasional moderate to high-severity events, predominantly caused by storms and drought ([16], [62], [44]). Mixed disturbance severity regimes tend to generate irregular inputs of dead wood, with a wide range of sizes, shapes, and decay classes present ([9]). Christensen et al. ([9]) reported an average of 132 m3 ha-1 of dead wood for primary and long-established European beech-dominated forest reserves. Burrascano et al. ([6]) observed higher dead wood quantities (mean = 193 m3 ha-1) in a European dataset of old-growth forests. Other studies of European beech-dominated forests indicate a natural range of 78 to 387 m3 ha-1 (Tab. 4). In Poland, Paluch ([46]) observed more than 380 m3 ha-1 of dead wood in the Labowiec Forest Reserve, which was similar to findings from the Janj Forest Reserve in Bosnia and Herzegovina ([29]). In our study, forests with no management for more than 50 years had from 23 to 133 m3 ha-1 of dead wood, which is much lower than reported in other studies. Based on the dead to live wood ratio, the observed average value of 14% was lower than the mean ratio of 21% for recently-established mountain forest reserves ([9]). According to a review by Burrascano et al. ([6]), our plots fall in the lower part of the range (6-89%). This pattern is likely related to the more recent soft silvicultural practices (targeted tree gridling, dead wood removal, or understory thinning). On average, standing dead trees represented 36% of the dead wood recorded, but the proportion varied among plots (from 10 to 71%). This was consistent with the percentage of standing dead wood in other old-growth beech-dominated forests, which ranged from 16 to 47% ([9], [63]). The high volume of standing dead trees on plot G was likely due to the higher abundance of coniferous trees, which are generally larger and their decay slower than most deciduous trees ([50]). All dead wood decay classes were found among the study sites, but the most advanced class (5) was relatively infrequent. This is likely associated with the past silvicultural practices, which likely reduced overall mortality and dead wood inputs ([37]). Some studies have suggested that in the absence of major disturbances, dead wood accumulation in managed forests with no management is a slow process ([63], [41]). Peterken ([50]) suggested that accumulation of near natural volumes of dead wood could occur within a century. Comparing our results to dead wood stocks from primary old-growth forests or reserves abandoned for more than 100 years suggests that our studied forest reserve is at the beginning of a long process of dead wood accumulation ([33], [9], [41]). The retention of dead wood as well as artificial creation of dead wood have been identified as the key approaches to successful dead wood management in forests where the aim is to maintain biodiversity ([65]).
Living tree density and basal area were also comparable with other studies of old-growth European beech-dominated forests. According to a review by Burrascano et al. ([6]), the mean values of basal area and stem density were higher than the values reported in our study. Our plots had a higher quadratic mean diameter (47.1 cm) compared to other studies from Europe ([10], [24], [34], [42], [29], [43]); however, Burrascano et al. ([6]) reported slightly higher values (mean of 64.9 cm) within old-growth European beech-dominated forests. The presence of large trees is considered one of the most important features of old-growth forests. Large F. sylvatica trees play a unique and critical role in supporting diversity of other organisms, such as birds ([13]) and lichens ([23]). Burrascano et al. ([6]) reported a minimum threshold of large tree density for old-growth forests at a global scale (30 trees with DBH ≥ 50 cm), which was observed in our study, but the mean value for European beech-dominated forests is considerably higher. Frequency of larger trees with DBH ≥ 80 cm was similar to the values found in other old-growth European beech-dominated forests.
Tree age analysis revealed that the age distribution was multimodal (Fig. S1 in Supplementary material), a pattern commonly found in old-growth beech-dominated forests in Central Europe ([33], [62]). Four recruitment peaks were evident around 1770, 1800-1810, 1850-70, and 1960. The number of old trees in our sample was relatively low, so some of the oldest recruitment periods, such as 1770 to 1810, were difficult to interpret. The longer frequent recruitment period from 1850 to 1870 has also been observed in other Bohemian (Zofín) and Carpathian (Uholka) beech-dominated forest reserves; a higher frequency of strong windstorms has been identified during this period for the region ([62], [55]). The obvious rise in tree recruitment after 1960 can be linked to the mortality of older trees; as older cohorts begin dying, recruitment of a new generation of trees begins. Cautiously, we cannot exclude limited historical human impact in this area that may have influenced recruitment rates. The age distribution also helped explain the sigmoid form of the diameter distribution (Fig. 6); it displayed a more or less pronounced peak in the midsize diameters ([62]). At least one F. sylvatica more than 250 years old was found, but that is younger than the oldest tree (409 years old) previously reported for the Czech Republic ([7]). According to Di Filippo et al. ([14]), the maximum and mean age of the three to five oldest trees are good indicators to evaluate old-growth status. Thus, the observed plot mean age of the oldest trees (196 years) demonstrated a characteristic feature of studied old-growth forests, a period when the mean canopy age is at least half the maximum lifespan of the dominant tree species ([62]). The old-growth status of a stand can also be characterized by high variability in tree ages within a given diameter class (Fig. 4), which reflects the complex dynamics of uneven-aged forests ([52], [62], [14]).
Our study highlighted the changes of old-growth features over time since the last forest management interventions; most notably, the density of very large trees, structural diversity, and diameter structure. The U-shaped mortality pattern is characteristic of old-growth forests. Indeed, the relatively high numbers of recruited trees demonstrate the dynamics of the natural regeneration process.
The greater change over time was observed in the density of large living trees with DBH ≥ 80 cm; changes in the density of smaller trees (DBH ≥ 50 cm) did not increase as much. Variability in living stem density between measurements was twice as high as that of basal area, as indicated by the relatively high change in stem numbers observed in the lower tree layers (5 to 20 cm DBH). The increased basal area could also be interpreted as another indicator of the changes towards more natural forest structures, as harvesting activities in managed forests typically prevent stand basal area from reaching such high values ([22]). Also, average temporal changes of structural indices showed slight increases (Fig. 2). The DBH differentiation, expressed as the Gini coefficient, was similar to values observed in unmanaged forests of the Carpathians ([45]). Our results reflect the general pattern that even-aged forests are more homogenous than uneven-aged forests, as suggested by Sterba & Zingg ([58]). The highest Gini indices were found within mixed uneven-aged plots, and pure even-aged plots, which were relatively homogenous, had the lowest Gini indices. Large tree size diversity may ensure a wide range of habitats and provide higher levels of biodiversity in forest ecosystems ([45], [30]).
The diameter structure of the study forest changed over time to a typical rotated sigmoid pattern. Changes in tree numbers were most evident in the smallest diameter classes compared to 2003. The higher number of trees frequently found in the midsize diameters range elucidates a common trend towards a rotated sigmoid diameter distribution. The diameter structures of individual plots indicated variability at the beginning of the study period. Most plots converged towards a rotated sigmoid diameter distribution over time, even the plot with reverse J-shaped diameter structure. In a few plots the diameter structure did not change substantially and they reflected a unimodal structure at the end of the study period. The rotated sigmoid curve of diameter distribution is commonly observed in old-growth forests dominated by F. sylvatica ([68], [2], [62]). Various studies from North America have also reported diameter distributions of a rotated sigmoid form for various mixed-species forests ([21], [38]). Westphal et al. ([68]) indicated three main mechanisms, including infrequent disturbance events, mortality, and nonlinear diameter growth rates, which likely explain the rotated sigmoid structure. A mixed disturbance severity regime and associated regeneration can create discontinuous and unbalanced diameter structures. Non-constant mortality rates with a lower mortality rate for all trees that successfully reached the upper canopy level and increased mortality rates for very large trees results in mid-size peaks in diameter distributions. The third factor that drives the development of a rotated sigmoid curve is a positive relationship between diameter increment and stem size ([68]). The empirical diameter distributions were most precisely predicted by a third-degree polynomial function, which is commonly used to model diameter distributions ([68]).
The U-shaped mortality trend with minimum mortality rates in the midsize classes corresponded to the current diameter structure that appeared to be converging towards a rotated sigmoid curve (Fig. 6). Complete U-shaped mortality has been reported in several old-growth beech-dominated forests throughout Europe ([2], [26]). Larger trees are more susceptible than medium-sized trees to insect attacks, drought, rot, and mechanical instability during storms ([25], [26]). The mortality of small-sized trees is mostly attributed to competition, whereby smaller trees have to compete against larger trees for light, water, and nutrients ([1], [11]). Annual mortality rates for all species were 0.43% on average, but that is lower than rates (more than 1%) reported for other old-growth beech-dominated forests in Central Europe ([25], [26]). Tree mortality rates are typically low in the absence of larger disturbances ([50]). Together with observed increases in the density of large trees and basal area in our study forest, the increase in mortality is predictable given the forest age. However, the mortality rates are balanced in the turnover of new tree generations, and the stand gradually again advances to the high growth rate stage of development. Species-specific mortality has been suggested to account for contrasting life history strategies, lifespan, competitiveness, and varying responses to abiotic factors ([18], [25]).
Our study of the Jizera Mountains Beech Forest Reserve core area over a 12-year period found persistent transition of the forest towards natural states after more than five decades without management. The study area displayed a variety of old-growth characteristics (e.g., density of large, old trees, structural heterogeneity, diameter distribution, and mortality), which is consistent with previously reported studies on primary old-growth forests or reserves that had never been managed or unmanaged for even longer time periods. The impacts of past management are still visible in the low amounts of dead wood, but the reserve is at the beginning of a long process of dead wood accumulation. As forest development progresses, the death of old trees allows for higher recruitment into the understory and it enhances the growth rates of the surviving trees; this pulse in recruitment cycles and dead wood accumulation will continue in the absence of disturbance or management. Although our study is based on a repeated census dataset covering 12 years, this time span is still very short relative to both the longevity of trees and forest succession. The monitoring of secondary old-growth forest reserves and maintaining forest ecosystem services will help ensure responsible stewardship for integrative forest management that aims to address ecological, economic, and social issues across entire forests over time.
This study was supported by IGA project (B0917) financed by the Internal Grant Agency of FFWS CULS in Prague, institutional project "EVA4.0" (CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_019/0000803) and project INTER-COST (LTC17055) financed by Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of Czech Republic. We especially thank to J. Trešnák for providing all data from his diploma thesis. We would like to thank P. Uzel, M. Trčka, J. Hanousek, M. Matouš, D. Hetešová, F. Chrapan, and S. Komín for assistance in the field. We would also like to thank the Jizera Mountains Protection Landscape Area authorities, especially V. Vršovský, for administrative support. Also, thanks to the anonymous reviewers for their helpful and constructive reviews.
JL designed the methods, carried out surveys, measurement and analysis, coordinated the research team, developed and wrote the manuscript, RCM performed the language revision and helped to draft the manuscript, VT helped with data analysis, PJ, RB, VC, MM, HM and JSS helped with writing the manuscript, KS, LM, MS helped with the laboratory measurement, MS conceived the study and helped to draft the manuscript.
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Tab. S1 - Annualized tree mortality and natality rates over 12-year period (2003-2015) for all species and study plots (A-H).
Tab. S2 - Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests for differences in the plot (A-H) diameter structure between 2003 and 2015.
Fig. S1 - Decadal age structure of living trees and tree species for all study plots in 2015.
Fig. S2 - Empirical diameter distributions of the study plots (panels A-H) in 2003 (left) and 2015 (right).
Jana Lábusová
C Morrissey Robert
Volodymyr Trotsiuk
Pavel Janda
Radek Bače
Vojtech Cada
Martin Mikoláš
Hana Mrhalová
S Schurman Jonathan
Kristýna Svobodová
Lenka Mateju
Michal Synek
Miroslav Svoboda
Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Kamyeckae 129, Praha 6, Suchdol 16521 (Czech Republic)
Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL, Zuercherstrasse 111, 8903 Birmensdorf (Switzerland)
ETH Zurich, Department of Environmental Systems Science, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, 8092 Zurich (Switzerland)
PRALES, o.z., Odtrnovie 563, Rosina, 03122 (Slovakia)
Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, Prague 6, 165 21 (Czech Republic)
labusova@fld.czu.cz
Lábusová J, Morrissey Robert C, Trotsiuk V, Janda P, Bače R, Cada V, Mikoláš M, Mrhalová H, Schurman Jonathan S, Svobodová K, Mateju L, Synek M, Svoboda M (2019). Patterns of forest dynamics in a secondary old-growth beech-dominated forest in the Jizera Mountains Beech Forest Reserve, Czech Republic. iForest 12: 17-26. - doi: 10.3832/ifor2702-011
Gianluca Piovesan
Received: Nov 30, 2017
Accepted: Oct 26, 2018
First online: Jan 10, 2019
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Dead Wood
Diameter Distribution
Forest Reserve
Forest Structure
Old-growth Forest
Page Top Introduction Methods - Study area - Land use history - Data collection - Data processing - Data analyses Results - Current forest structure - Changes in forest structural characteristics Discussion - Current forest structure - Changes in forest structural characteristics Conclusions Acknowledgements References
Fig. 1 - Location of the research area in Czech Republic (Jizera Mountains Beech Forest). Reserve and core zones in the reserve. Empty squares represent the study plots (A-H). Fig. 2 - Structural diversity indices. Gini coefficient (left panel) and coefficient of variation of tree diameters (right panel) indices characterizing the study plots (A-H) in 2003 (green) and 2015 (yellow). Dark green indicates a decrease of the index value during the study period. Fig. 3 - Volume of lying dead wood (m3 ha-1) by decay classes, including recent dead (1) to the highly decayed wood (5), and species on study plots (A-H) in 2015. (FASY): Fagus sylvatica; (PIAB): Picea abies; (ABAL): Abies alba; (ACPS): Acer pseudoplatanus; (SOAU): Sorbus aucuparia. Fig. 4 - Relationship between tree age and tree diameter from all study sites. Loess curve with the 95% confidence interval is reported for the relationship of Fagus sylvatica species. (FASY): Fagus sylvatica; (PIAB): Picea abies; (ACPS): Acer pseudoplatanus; (ACPL): Acer platanoides; (SOAU): Sorbus aucuparia. Fig. 5 - Observed annual mortality rate by size class (5-9.9 cm, 10-29.9 cm, 30-49.9 cm, 50-69.9 cm, and ≥ 70 cm) at the study plots (A-H). Numbers in white above each bar indicate the sample size (number of living trees in 2003). Fig. 6 - Forest level diameter distribution. Cumulative empirical diameter distributions in 2003 (left) and 2015 (right). The solid lines represent the third-degree polynomial function (red) and the Kernel function (blue) for all living trees. Individual trees are grouped into 5 cm diameter classes. (FASY): Fagus sylvatica; (PIAB): Picea abies; (ACPS): Acer pseudoplatanus; (ACPL): Acer platanoides; (SOAU): Sorbus aucuparia.
Tab. 1 - Characteristics of the study plots (A-H). Tab. 2 - Structural characteristics of the study plots (A-H). (1): Average value for all study plots; (2): trees with DBH ≥50 cm; (3): trees with DBH ≥80 cm; (4): mean age of five oldest trees in the plot; (5): age of the oldest tree in then plot (all oldest trees were F. sylvatica). Tab. 3 - Summary of dead wood volume on study plots (A-H) in 2015. Tab. 4 - Structural data for old-growth European beech-dominated forests. (1): This study (Jizera Mountains Beech Forest); (2): Král et al. 2010 (Zofín); (3): Holeksa et al. 2009 (Hrončecký grún); (4): Kucbel et al. 2010 (Stužica); (5): Paluch 2007 (Labowiec); (6): Commarmot et al. 2005 (Uholka); (7): Keren et al. 2014 (Janj); (8): Motta et al. 2011 (Lom); (9): Commarmot et al. 2005 (Sihlwald); (10): Motta et al. 2015 (Ludrin); (11): Burrascano et al. 2013 (mean for old-growth European beech-dominated forests); (12): for the study period 2001-2010; (13): standing and lying dead wood. Bedrock: (gr) granite; (an) andesite; (fl) flysch; (li) limestone. Soils: (ca) cambisols; (po) podzols; (re) rendzina. (∞): Considered as a primary forest; (Qmd): Quadratic mean diameter.
Tab. S1 - Annualized tree mortality and natality rates over 12-year period (2003-2015) for all species and study plots (A-H).Tab. S2 - Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests for differences in the plot (A-H) diameter structure between 2003 and 2015.Fig. S1 - Decadal age structure of living trees and tree species for all study plots in 2015.Fig. S2 - Empirical diameter distributions of the study plots (panels A-H) in 2003 (left) and 2015 (right).
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Lábusová et al. (2019). iForest 12: 17-26. - doi: 10.3832/ifor2702-011
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"You must know, moreover, that the corruption which had set in was not external to the body but established within it. The need, therefore, was that life should cleave to it in corruption's place, so that, just as death was brought into being in the body, life might also be engendered in it. But if death was within the body, woven into its very substance and dominating it as though completely one with it, the need was for Life to be woven into it instead, so that the body by thus enduing itself with life might cast corruption off" (Athanasius,. St. Athanasius On The Incarnation. 1st ed. Crestwood, N.Y.: St. Vladimir's Orthodox Theological Seminary, 1953, 80-81.).
Christmas may be many things; simple is not one of them. In preparing for preaching this season, I've some across so much advice to just "keep it simple" and to "let the story tell itself." Perhaps that might be good advice for the sermon; simplicity in preaching is certainly a virtue to be cultivated. But the incarnation as a choice of God is not simple. Nor is it easy.
Athanasius reminds us that the enfleshment of God is not a simple matter of God becoming one of us; the point of this move by God is not to simply give us a way to become more like God. No easy equivalence is reached in the manger. What God is doing at Christmas is simple as reversing corruption, unrotting the meaty heart of humanity. Have you ever un-turned spoiled flesh? Simple, right?
Christmas is simple like chemo is simple; here is the chair, the needle, the bag. All obvious. But beneath the camouflage of skin real work ensues: "Life..woven" into our flesh. God with us, raging with us against the dying of the light.
For Athanasius, God is incarnate in Christ, and more: God is insinuate, from the latin in + sinuare = to bend, wind, curve into. While he does not use this term, insinuation sounds like a more apt description than incarnation. Tendrils unfurl from the stump of Jesse and wind their sinews into all our foul stuff. And gradually, lovingly, often painfully relieving us of the Death of which our physical death is but one token. The incarnation is not a happy bridge that, once built from God's side of the chasm, provides the transport that I simply could not build before. No. Christ has insinuated himself into my marrow; I surely did lack the Way. But I lacked so much more than a possible itinerary. I lacked the will to walk it or any desire to greet my Lover on the other side.
For the past several years, life has been engendered in me in rooms of recovery: twelve simple steps. I and my fellows have loved them, hated them, prayed and screamed over them, kicked against their goads, rested our faces against their cool calculus. At times we have left program thinking, there must be another way to sobriety. Many of us have come back to the rooms for the only answer that seemed to both promise and fulfill. We found that the words had insinuated themselves into our flesh: "I can't. God can. I think I'll let God." Simple, right? Simple like surrender is simple. Like casting out the demonic.
The insinuate God is pushing into, twisting through, and climbing over all our preferences for death. This is apparently the incarnation God chooses in Christ. Like when I laid eyes on my children for the first time and many other times. My children crept into me by windings and curvings, then grippings, and then, by God, I was owned and pwned. They insinuated themselves into me. I can barely remember that former man whose corrupt self-focus has now been squeezed nearly to death. Nearly.
What God seems to be about in the incarnation is not just sharing our life or even emptying himself into human form. For Athanasius, the "Magic" of Christmas is simple. Like exorcism is simple.


I am not someone who misses people. Maybe my dog from time to time but even he slips my mind most of the time. It's so easy to get caught up in life and forget it's normal to check in on people. I'm one of those people who believes relationships can stay the same even without daily communication. Maintaining relationships with high school friends through text is definitely not my strong suit but even worse, calling home almost never happens. I am an only child and my hard working mom is home alone with the dog for almost a year now. It's time I become an adult and learn to pick up the phone. How often do you call home?
This is a big one. Our generation has shown a significant increase in the importance work has in our lives. I have experienced extreme work overload on behalf of pressure from management but mainly from myself. Yes, work is important. It is what puts food in our mouth and it takes up the majority of our time which is why it is so hard to disassociate work from life. Working is not your life, but a part of it. Learning to maintain a challenging work environment and a fulfilling life after 5pm will be this year's challenge. Try to stay organized and prioritize important deadlines so you don't feel obligated to work overtime allowing you to tend to hobbies and extracurriculars.
I am 100% guilty of the mentality that more is better. We waste so much money on buying the new it cream or the new it dry shampoo. The industry tricks us into thinking we need newer, better all the time by repackaging, releasing limited edition products or adding free gifts with your purchase. As a hoarder, I understand the appeal of fully stocked drawers of beauty products only tested once or twice. I recently threw out hundreds of dollars worth of makeup and skincare I have accumulated throughout the last three years of internships and jobs because everything had expired. I have been using the same eyeshadow and contour palettes for almost two years now and repurchase the same liquid eyeliner every time it runs dry, so why do I need all that other sh*t? 2019 will be a year of minimalistic beauty habits.
Piggybacking off the last resolution, 2019 should be the year you really take a good look around. Instead of adding to the problem, become a solution. I never really thought it was important to recycle or support green initiatives until I moved to the city and saw everyone doing their part. And not in that, "I am giving food to the homeless so I can post about it on Facebook or make a YouTube video about it" way. Every time I go to the grocery store I see people with reusable bags. More and more I am seeing people bring their own reusable travel mugs to Starbucks and the list goes on. Small actions like these may seem like they do nothing but as a whole, we are helping the environment one reusable bag at a time. Just under 25% of plastic is recycled a year. In order to contribute to the solution, my goal for this year is to begin using metal straws (as I drink absolutely everything through a plastic straw). What can you do or have been doing to become part of the solution? Share tips with me so I can incorporate into my lifestyle too!
Roughly six months ago, I finally took the plunge and followed my dreams across the river and moved to New York City. Although I have been working in the city almost three years now, my group of friends (acquaintances) was almost non-existance. High School friends either stayed local or moved cross country and between 10 hour work days and two-hour commutes, time certainly didn't permit for extensive friend search parties. Everyone I met was always a one-night bar crawl type of friend who loves to text back "we should hang out again soon!" never to make concrete plans. Well, I have had enough and desperate times call for desperate measures.
On October 22nd, I joined Bumble BFF. You may be more familiar with Bumble as a dating app where women make the first move – a concept I was never really behind but luckily I've been in a loving relationship for four years now and don't have to worry about openers, or so I thought. The whole idea of choosing your friends feels a bit deranged. When looking for suitable partners, of course, it's easy to choose based on looks. I know I like brown hair and won't settle for someone with poor dental hygiene but would that matter in a friend? I wouldn't be kissing my friend so who cares if her teeth aren't perfectly straight or white, right?
Before I began exercising my thumbs, a profile upgrade was in order. Anxiety washed over me. Women are far more judgmental than men so the pictures I choose really have to tell a story. Do I emphasize my love of frozen margaritas or do I underline the importance of culture? Disclaimer: throughout my time on the app, I adjusted my photos and bio multiple times. Here's my current profile.
I opted for pictures that showed my interest in fashion.. and alcohol since I can never pass up a good cocktail. I also connected my Instagram for easy stalking and Spotify for music comparability. While I love all music, a girl who can get down to Korean rap as much as Migos is okay in my book.
Now for the swiping. I blindly began skimming through girls in my area. I set my preferences of age for 23-28 since I'd love to find girls my age because, well, relatability? I quickly realized a common thread among the majority of the profiles – brunch, wine, soulcycle, and the Bachelor. No hate towards any of those but how can I pick between 10 profiles who are basically the same person. I knew I had to dive deeper, find meaning in their pictures, harness my inner Nicholas Cage in National Treasure.
Profiles with solely bikini pics and snapchat filter edited photos i.e. puppy ears were a quick swipe left. That is not my personality and I know we wouldn't mesh well in person. I tended to always swipe right on profiles with careers similar to mine since we would have common ground to talk about. In terms of looks, I have to say my choices surprised me. 80% of my matches looked exactly like me. Who knew I loved myself so much? But it's true – who better to get along with than yourself? That doesn't mean every girl was a 5'11 blonde-haired, blue-eyed polish girl but a majority of the time they were Caucasian, with natural-looking makeup, trendy clothing with a well thought out bio.
In the beginning, my matches were quite frequent because I spent a good deal of time on the app. Unfortunately, the more matches I had, the worse the conversations were. Let's be honest, it's awkward finding friends through an app, there's no doubt about that, but what's even more awkward is trying to pick up a girl to hang out with you.. on an app. What do you even say, hi? How original. Every conversation would start the same – "hey, hi, how are you, great, where are you from, how long have you been in the city, where do you live, cool" – like clockwork.
Eventually, I got fed up with one-liners and struggling to think of openers to catch the other person's attention so I changed my bio to be direct and it worked! Girls started messaging me their numbers and we made plans to meet up before even sharing any information about ourselves. This is what worked, this method made me two new friends.
We went to the Polynesian, a bar I had been DYING to go to. These "dates" were the perfect excuse to try out new bars and restaurants that had been on my radar. Disclaimer: drinks at this place are very overpriced but definitely delicious! Victoria works at Conde Nast so we definitely had things to talk about work-wise. The conversation was great but I wasn't sure we would ever hang out again. Before parting ways, we made indefinite plans to hang out again but I thought of it as a polite goodbye rather than a genuine attempt at friendship. Roughly two weeks went by with no communication until I received a text asking to hang out again. I was definitely caught off guard and nicely surprised. Since then, we have hung out twice and even text every now and then.
Mallory and I really hit it off. We went to Fonda which was cozy and quaint, almost romantic which made us laugh. She too works in public relations so our work experiences were extremely similar giving us a great topic to start out with. We ended up chatting for hours about work, music, hobbies, family, relationships and just about everything. For the first time, I felt as though I found someone I could truly see myself becoming close with. When ordering drinks, we even ordered the same thing without consulting each other – Love me a spicy margarita sister! She even offered to pay for half my uber ride since my apartment was a bit away from the restaurant. I would have never expected that from friends I've had for years, let alone someone I met three hours prior. Before parting ways, we made concrete plans to hang out again – and sure enough, we did!
What I learned: Making friends is hard. Really hard. Just like dating, it may take a few people for you to find someone you really get along with. I was naive to think friends would simply find me. Life isn't a scripted movie and as much as we'd like to think best friends just happen, sometimes they don't. In fact, for most people they don't. I was ashamed for not having many friends and decided to do something about it. My initial perception of the app was that it would be filled with girls who are a bit shy and maybe struggle to fit in but I was completely wrong. There are people just like you looking for friends either because they moved or their friends moved or they simply don't have the time to put themselves out there. The internet is a beautiful thing. Put yourself out there because only good can come out of it.
As you know, we're always on a budget here, so all the below pieces are from Nastygal.com where there's always a 50% off sale. Not only do I have your #ootd game in mind, but I'm thinking of your wallet too.
Animal print by far, has taken over the fashion scene this fall. I have never really been a fan of leopard print because I felt it looked cheap. But my new found adventurous fashion self has come to truly appreciate the trend and incorporate it into everyday wear (see my latest post on realisation par skirt dupes). And while leopard print is hot on the scene, you don't have to wear it head to toe. Let's be mindful of how we style our spots. And let's not forget, leopard is not the only animal print out there. The highly disregarded, and my personal favorite, the snake skin is also a great option when trying to achieve this trend. I have pieced together a few chic (and affordable) options for you to play with this fall including leopard, snake and dalmatian!
Another trend I have been noticing at just about every store is the use of primary colors. The reds, blues and yellows really take me back to the finger painting days. Primary colors make me think of basics but these bold hues can really make an outfit pop. Try finding pieces with texture or added details like buttons to elevate the look and really make it a stand out piece.
Finally, I saved the best for last. My all-time favorite article of clothing, the trouser. I like to think my style is best defined as "business casual meets street" which most often means I'm wearing a pair of cool trousers and sneakers. And i'm not just talking about any trouser, but of course, the tapered leg trouser. The ultimate article of clothing that's flattering on almost every body type. Whether we're talking paperbag waist, high waisted or as I like to call them, slouchy crotch, they are the must-have pant in everyone's wardrobe.
Leave me a comment and let me know which trend you like the most and which you'll be adding to your fall wardrobe.
Scrolling through Instagram I have seen the same skirt pop up countless times. It seems as though every fashion blogger owns the same leopard print satin midi skirt – which I desperately want. The cut is flattering on every body type and while it is an animal print, it's not so "in your face" as you would imagine. With some digging (not much tbh) I found the original seller to be a brand called, Realisation Par. Their philosophy revolves around creating unique individual pieces rather than collections, something I feel is a little bit out of the norm for a higher end designer. Alexandra Spencer and Teale Talbot wanted to create special items missing from your everyday wardrobe – and I am definitely missing this skirt from mine. But at a price point of $180, I don't have it in me – or my bank account to buy the original Naomi – Wild Things. If you are anything like me and struggle with justifying spending that much cash money on a skirt, here are a few options to save you the $$ but not the look.
We chose to stay in an airbnb about 40 minutes from Reykjavik and 20 minutes from the Blue Lagoon. I was immediately drawn to this airbnb in the listing because of its cozy cabin charm and rustic Icelandic decor. Our host met us on the first day to show us where everything was and explain how to use the hot water etc. He was truly such a nice man and he even stocked the fridge with some bread, cheese and tomatoes so we had something to eat before we were able to go food shopping. The house was a cozy two bedroom with a kitchen, bathroom and the living room had a flat screen tv with netflix and hulu for us to watch. It was nice to live in the more rural area of Iceland rather than in a hotel in town. I would definitely recommend looking into an airbnb somewhere along the beach like we did.
On our first day, we wanted to stay close to home and chose to explore what our local town had to offer. We drove to a supermarket and picked up some essentials (bread, bananas and nutella) among other things.. Then we took our map and explored southern Iceland where we found two amazing light houses, a beautiful cliff over looking the water and a small geyser. The geyser ended up being one of my highlights of the trip because of the multiple rainbows I saw. I even saw a rainbow form a complete circle. One of the craziest and most beautiful sites I ever witnessed. All through our trip, I can honestly say I saw at least two rainbows every single day and from the picture below, you can get a sense of how vivid they all were.
Besides the many many rainbows I saw, the animals were maybe my favorite part. I love farm animals, always have. It may stem from my farming culture back in Poland, but every time I saw sheep or horses, I nearly lost my mind. The animals were all very friendly and for the most part did not run away. One time though, we did spot sheep that seemed a bit confrontational but they were only protecting their young. We came at a great time because we got to see so many babies! Sheep, horses, cows, you name it. Safe to say I had more than one photo shoot on the side of the road with various animals. Here is one of my favorite shots. On our second day, we went to the Blue Lagoon. I had my reservations about the lagoon because it seemed to be the number one tourist attraction and from my experience, the more touristy, the worse. But to my surprise, the lagoon was just the opposite. The lagoon was not crowded and the facility was very well kept and clean. Some of the staff could be a bit nicer but when working with tourists, I understand it can get frustrating. We ended up staying at the lagoon for 3 hours which flew by! The comfort package (the cheapest package) comes with admission, a drink in the lagoon and a silica mask. I heard one of the employees telling another tourist to put conditioner in their hair before entering the pool but I chose not to do so. BIG MISTAKE. My hair turned hard as a rock and drier than hay. I had terrible hair for majority of our trip no matter how many times I washed it and how many bottles of conditioner I used. So, my advice, drown your hair in conditioner before going into the lagoon. Your hair will thank you.
The next day we planned an all day trip to three more widely popular attractions; Skogafoss, the airplane and the Black Sand Beach. The drive down to these locations was about three hours but once we got there, all three were within a half hour drive of each other. Skogafoss is one of the biggest waterfalls in Iceland and is widely photographed on the internet. The waterfall is surrounded by beautiful grassy mountains with hundreds of sheep frolicking in flower fields. Our of our six day stay, this day was without a doubt the sunniest and warmest. Not the best day to wear my thick nordic sweater. To get to the top you have to climb about 300 steps. In that heat, my back was drenched. If I learned anything from our trip to Skogafoss, it was to always layer. Our second stop was the famous plain wreckage. From pictures online, it looked as if the plane was just off the shore but boy were we wrong. To get to the plane its a two hour round-trip walk on a harsh gravel path. We managed to walk to the trail in only two hours but the sign at the beginning says it's four hours round trip. If you have long legs like us, you can definitely cut the time down but do be careful because the trail is extremely rocky. That being said, the plane itself was very cool and totally worth the walk. Because it takes a while for people to get to the plane, there were very few people there at a time which made it easy to take pictures. Our last stop of the day was the Black Sand Beach. The name is slightly deceiving because there was no sand. The "sand" was more like tiny black pebbles mixed in with bigger smooth looking stones. By this time, the wind had picked up making the beach weather a bit harsh. Definitely not bikini appropriate but then again, I don't think anyone expects to wear a bikini there. The beach also has these amazing rock formations that you can climb, perfect for a photo-opp. Overall, the beach was very serene and almost romantic if it weren't for all the screaming children running around. My third favorite part about Iceland were the flower fields. Everywhere you went, you could see these purple and sometimes blue flowers. They grew in fields and in small bunches on the side of the road and even on rocky mountain tops like this one. One afternoon we went for a hike not expecting anything to find the most beautiful field of flowers growing at the very top. There must have been miles and miles of these flowers. Now here is a little secret I want to share with you. All across Iceland you can find "secret" hot springs that mainly locals know about but somehow word of a few of them has gotten out. We took a swim in this one nestled between two volcanoes. In order to get to it, you have to drive to hidden valley and hike 20 minutes. The water was filled with moss and the bottom of the pool was so slimey you could barely walk but the temperature was nice and the surroundings simply took your breath away. The little building featured has rooms where you can change in and out of your baithing suit but I recommend keeping your belongings somewhere you can keep an eye on them rather than in the rooms. If you want more information on how to get to this secret hot spring, let me know! Finally, I will leave you with my thoughts on our visit to Reykjavik. Let me preface that I have been to European cities many times so I am familiar with this kind of city feel. We chose to spend one day in the city for that reason. And while the city had its charm, any more than a day seemed like a waste. The restaurants were extremely expensive and the alcohol cost even more. We did however, want to try some traditional Iceland food so we chose to splurge on a meal and stopped into the Icelandic Barrin for some meat soup. The smell was a little off putting but the overall taste was good. Keep in mind the meat in the stew is lamb. A few other places we visited were Braud & Co which is known for their cinnamon rolls. We bought two and I am still day dreaming about them. We also visited the Whale museum and stopped into the Chuck Norris Cafe to see what it was. We saw the famous church and the whale statue and of course, browsed all the gift shops. Overall, we had fun in Reykjavik but we preferred seeing the natural beauty of the island rather than spending time shopping. My takeaways from our Icelandic adventure were that no material objects can make you feel the way a mountain can. While we are not "outdorsey" people, there is something about standing in a valley looking up at a beautiful sunset that makes you want to be. If you are thinking about traveling to Iceland but are on the fence because of price, I think you should really go. I have memories to last a lifetime.


The federal government has announced the $2 billion Australian Business Securitisation Fund which aims to improve access to funds for small business. The fund has been established to overcome some of the hurdles small businesses face in obtaining finance other than on a secured basis and the high costs that often come with accessing finance. The Australian Business Securitisation Fund will invest up to $2 billion in the securitisation market, providing significant additional funding to smaller banks and nonbank lenders to on-lend to small businesses on more competitive terms. The Australian Business Securitisation Fund, which is expected to be operating by 2019, will be administered by the Australian Office of Financial Management (AOFM).


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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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« Evaluation of Liverpool 'wet centre' for street drinkers | Main | IAS Alert June 2016: alcohol as a drug, Forumla One Heineken deal, minimum pricing & more »
Evaluation of Reduce The Strength schemes in two London Boroughs
In recent years a growing number of off-licenses have been reportedly agreeing to adopt 'Reducing The Strength' (RtS) initiatives, whereby shops agree not to sell beer or cider of 6.5% ABV or above.
In 2014 we reported on these schemes which were being said to have positive impacts on street drinking and other issues, despite sections of the trade raising concerns or suggesting the opposite effect in some areas.
Camden and Islington Public Health team and the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine (LSHTM) teamed up to evaluate a Reduce The Strength scheme in two London boroughs (Camden & Islington). In their paper (available here), published in BMC Public Health journal they asked whether and why retailers choose or refuse to self-impose restrictions on alcohol sales in this way. Compliance rates and the cheapest available unit of alcohol at each store were assessed. Qualitative interviews with retailer managers and staff explored attitudes towards the intervention and perceptions of its impacts.
The projects were designed and implemented by licensing teams in partnership with police and public health leads. Visits were Initially made to off licenses to advocate for voluntary participation on grounds of social responsibility, and a launch event helped to raise the profile. Retailers were re-visited 3 and 6 months after the scheme started, for follow up interviews. The researchers explored retailers' views on the scheme, reasons for (not) participating in RtS, and views on how the scheme impacted on purchasing amongst the target population as well as broader impacts on the retailer and community. Due to the short time span between implementation and evaluation no efforts were made to assess the wider impact of the scheme on levels of drinking, health harms or anti-social behaviour.
Key Findings included:
Overall there was a significant reduction over the time period in availability of high strength alcohol from off-licenses. Pre-intervention 55% out of 141 retailers stocked high strength drinks, compared with 18% post-intervention.
Researchers found relatively high rates of participation by off-licences in the intervention areas
There was an increase in the price of the cheapest alcohol unit available in 17 of the 33 shops surveyed (52%). Of the shops that took part in RtS (n = 22), 85% saw an increase in the price of the cheapest available unit and the median cheapest available unit across all participating shops rose from £0.33 to £0.43.
Reasons for joining RtS centred on a desire to co-operate with the licensing authorities and wanting to "keep the council happy" by participating. Some retailers understood the positive effect that a reduction in ASB associated with street drinking could have on the community. Across the sample, different perspectives of what constituted 'voluntary' emerged, with some believing that the intervention was not voluntary.
Reasons for not participating in the scheme included the perception of loss of profits and unfair competition if not all retailers complied. Some believed that nothing short of an outright ban on high strength drinks would result in 100% compliance.
There was a widely held belief among interviewees that the majority of customers were now going elsewhere to buy super-strength beers and ciders.
The evaluation provides some demonstrable initial positive outcomes from the schemes, however because of the short timescales of the follow up they were unable to demonstrate any longer term outcomes such as reduced crime, anti-social behaviour, acute health harms or improved long-term health.
It remains to be seen whether retailers continue to comply with the RtS schemes after the evaluation stage and whether the reduction in availability of high strength beer and cider can be sustained. Furthermore from the local authority's perspective, organising retailers to voluntarily participate in RtS may be considered a resource intensive way of achieving outcomes that health advocates argue would be more effectively delivered by a national Minimum Unit Price.
Guidance from the LGA on establishing RtS schemes also demonstrates the need for careful consideration and development in order to ensure legal compliance.
Posted by Fizz Annand on Wednesday, June 22, 2016 at 02:40 AM | Permalink


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Landlord cancels rent for hundreds of tenants so they can afford food – I think he deserves our recognition
With all the trouble and uncertainty in the world at the moment, it's important we celebrate those people who are showing themselves to be true heroes of society.
During the coronavirus pandemic people are living in what seems to be a constant state of fear, if not for their physical well being, and that of their loved ones, but for the financial ramifications this virus could have.
Well, one Brooklyn landlord is looking to take the latter weight off a few people, by canceling this month's rent for hundreds of tenants to ensure they have enough money to see them through.
This Brooklyn landlord, Mario Salerno, is also the owner of the local car mechanic "Salerno's Autobody" in my Brooklyn neighborhood. Truly one of the kindest people I've ever met. He & his family make everyone feel like family. This is not surprising. https://t.co/Bs34tZeecZ
— Scott Hechinger (@ScottHech) April 3, 2020
As per reports, on March 30 Mario Salerno placed a sign on the front doors of his apartment buildings announcing that he would be waiving rent payments for April.
The 59-year-old is said to own around 80 apartments, with 200 tenants across the areas of Williamsburg and Greenpoint. Salerno decided to waive the rent after hearing of several tenants who were struggling to make ends meet.
Is this the best landlord in New York? Mario Salerno tells his 200 tenants that they don't have to pay rent for April! pic.twitter.com/UC8y0S3VC2
— Colm Flynn (@ColmFlynn1) April 5, 2020
"Please note I am waiving rent for the month of April 2020. Stay safe, help your neighbours and wash your hands!!!" the notice read.
In a subsequent interview with NBC New York, Mario said his chief concern is the health and well-being of his tenants.
"I want everybody to be healthy," he said. "That's the whole thing. For me, it was more important for people's health and worrying about who could put food on whose table. I say don't worry about paying me, worry about your neighbour and worry about your family."
What a truly remarkable gesture for a landlord to make, and one that will hopefully prompt others to follow suit and help people in any way they can.
Mario, you're a true New York City hero, and indeed an inspiration for people who are going through tough times at the moment.
Please help us shed some light on this wonderfully kind man. Share this article on Facebook so that the world learns Mario's name.
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