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Penguins, elephant seals star on a cruise expedition to Antarctica, South Georgia Island, Arctic waters
As travelers, we waltzed in, after the wildlife had endured arduous, dangerous migrations to breed, feed, molt, and play. They performed their basic stages of survival in a dramatic, awesome theater of nature
Macaroni penguins on the rocks, Le Lyrial at anchor at Cooper Bay, South Georgia Island (Photos by David G. Molyneaux, TravelMavenBlog.com)
Turret Point, King George Island, Antarctica
At the bottom of the earth, as the summer temperature reached a balmy mid-30s, I encountered a penguin on a mission. Each of us was walking alone on a remote beach where our paths soon would intersect — the traveler overstuffed into a red polar jacket, the black and white penguin, Adèlie in species, looking sleek and dapper.
My friend, the Adelie penguin, awaits his space in Antarctica
Water's edge was to my left. The penguin, ahead of me and to my right, was shuffling steadily toward the sea. Until, simultaneously, we stopped our progress. Did the penguin judge intentions? No question who would give way.
Before our wet landing on Zodiac inflatable boats from our cruise ship, expedition guides had explained that our role was to give the wildlife space, so as not to cause them to alter their natural behavior. Besides, penguin patience is far greater than that of humans.
Following protocol, the human retreated about two paces. Which apparently was sufficient. The penguin resumed its deliberate waddle to the water, hopped into the sea, and swam away in a series of penguinesque breaststrokes graceful beyond imagination, a style that guides call "porpoising."
"See you later," I said, smiling at the crazy thought of recognizing this penguin again. From a distance, they look pretty much the same. And their numbers, in and around Antarctica, were astonishing.
King penguins form a colony at the bottom of Heaney Glacier at St. Andrews Bay, South Georgia Island. CLICK on pictures for a larger view
Though the long journey to my seventh continent — a total of 20 days round trip from home in Ohio — was aimed primarily at observing penguins, I had no expectation that my eyes would feast on at least half a million of them. Nor that I would feel an intimate connection, even for a moment, between a pampered vacation traveler and a single creature in the wild on a life-sustaining mission to feed.
That exhilarating experience was a highlight of a trip that unfolded swimmingly in January (2022), operated by venerable luxury expedition leader Abercrombie & Kent (A&K).
My fellow travelers and I explored amazingly close to species of seals, penguins, and seabirds on South Georgia Island and in icy waters and landings on the White Continent.
Our team of travelers
An expedition team of 18 — experts in history, nature, geology, marine biology, ornithology, and photography — lectured and guided us, demonstrating daily and hourly flexibility to change exploration Plan A to Plan B whenever weather intervened.
Our small ship, Le Lyrial, chartered by A&K from the fleet of the cruise line Ponant, was comfortable and capable, especially in its French kitchen. Le Lyrial's passenger capacity is 234, but when A&K charters the ship, as the company did four times this Antarctic summer, passengers are limited to 199.
Our cruise was at 104 passengers.
A King penguin and our cruise ship Le Lyrial at Fortuna Bay, South Georgia Island
The crew and tour operator's staff followed protocols that provided calm from Covid-19 concerns, even as one passenger tested positive and was quarantined together with her husband early in the cruise, and after an increasing number of crew tested positive later in the voyage (when 40 crew members including close contacts were quarantined). We all masked inside throughout the trip. My wife and I and our fellow travelers were tested, tested, and tested again, from the moment we arrived in Buenos Aires where we spent the first two nights at a hotel, to the end of our cruise. All negative.
For seven days we were at sea in the vast Southern Ocean, our ship joined by giant petrels in the wind behind us and southern royal albatrosses soaring in the distance.
We cruised for three days to cover the 1,200 miles from our embarkation point of Ushuaia, Argentina, to South Georgia Island; two days of about 1,000 miles to the Antarctic Peninsula; and nearly two days the 600 miles back to Ushuaia across the Drake Passage, infamous for its rocky seas but which treated us kindly.
These sea days were for expedition preparation, lectures, and relaxation for which we were grateful later in the voyage as a break from exploring the remote shores — trudging over thousands of rounded rocks on beaches, hillside scree, and uneven grounds to reach breeding spots. Even in the Antarctic summer, sometimes the weather adds an element of discomfort, especially the winds.
Snorting and sneezing elephant seals at Gold Harbor, South Georgia Island
Marine biologist Rich Pagen prepared us for what we would see: penguins protecting their unborn and molting away their brown winter fur; enormous elephant seals with their harems on the beaches; seabirds swooping to steal eggs that would have produced penguins; and leopard seals that change their diet from sea krill to penguins in the autumn.
Seven days we explored among wildlife in the food chain.
Typically, we made two outings each day for about two hours each, using the ship's Zodiacs to get ashore or catch close-up views along the shoreline. We never spotted another traveler. Access to beaches in the Antarctic region often is restricted to 100 people at a time. A&K organized us into four groups to board Zodiacs, 6 to 8 passengers each for wet landings (meaning your boots will enter the water, as docks do not exist). Passengers soon became proficient at the sit-twist-and-sliding technique for entering and exiting the inflatable boats.
A parade of King penguins welcomed us to Fortuna Bay
You might think from travel brochures that South Georgia Island is just an extra stop on the way to the continent of Antarctica. Instead, it provided my biggest wow moments of the trip, from the abundance of wildlife to close encounters with creatures that usually paid us no attention — except for some ornery fur seals with bared teeth.
Remote, inhospitable South Georgia is more than 100 miles long, 20 miles wide, yet not a single human lives as a resident and only a couple dozen researchers hang out. The island is covered in ice and snow for most of the year. Terrain is steep and rocky, vegetation in summer is limited to grasses and mosses — perfect for hundreds of thousands of penguins and seals feeding and breeding. Lately, the island is again drawing millions of seabirds now that rats, once introduced by visiting whalers and other ships, have been eradicated.
Scrub those boots in the Guanomatic
Don't bring anything ashore, we were warned, as we daily washed our boots in Virkon and used the Guanomatic. We cleaned our clothing including the velcro and our pockets. We would double-scrub and double-dip before we went ashore in Antarctica — all essential parts of the concerted efforts that the human world now makes to protect and preserve the wonders of this region.
At South Georgia's Fortuna Bay, King penguins as tall as 38 inches welcomed us, parading toward the beach in a line as if they were cued on stage. Seal pups played by the water.
At a penguin colony, a King quartet performed, trumpeting. Elephant seals lay piled together in the seagrass, sneezing and snorting to alert us to their presence.
A trumpeting quartet of king penguins
Sir Shackleton's grave at Grytviken
At Grytviken, the first whaling station in Antarctic waters, we visited the cemetery that holds the body of famed explorer Sir Ernest Shackleton.
He remains a hero here, in Ireland where he was born, and in England.
While sailing toward the South Pole, his ship Endurance was crushed by fast-forming ice, and it sunk, stranding 28 men on the ice during the Antarctic winter of 1915.
When the ice began to melt, the crew used lifeboats to reach uninhabited Elephant Island.
Shackleton and five others made an 800-mile open-boat journey to reach Grytviken and mount a rescue of the men waiting on Elephant Island, bringing them home without a loss of life.
Check out the movie, The Endurance.
The Endurance 1915
This is how the ship looked before it was consumed by the ice. A team of adventurers, marine archaeologists and technicians located the wreck at the bottom of the Weddell Sea, east of the Antarctic Peninsula, using undersea drones, they announced in March 2022.
Approaching Elephant Island on Le Lyrial January 2022
As part of our cruise, we later sailed within view of bleak and rugged Elephant Island, which we were told was a rare treat.
"He bit my boot"
After rain, snow, and strong winds, Le Lyrial's captain found calm at Moltke Harbor where a Gentoo penguin rookery sat just over a hill, and guides sighted a snowy sheathbill and numerous South Georgia pipits. Seals were lounging about.
Russ Manning
While waiting offshore in a Zodiac, guide Russ Manning reported his first bite from a fur seal in 32 years of expeditions.
"It jumped into my boat, bit me in the boot and then jumped back out," said Manning. "Just another day at the office."
His assumption was that the seal may have exhibited the odd behavior because it was fleeing a hungry orca.
At St. Andrews Bay, one of world's largest gatherings of penguins stood on the beaches, up the hills, and along the rivers that flowed from two glaciers. A guide estimated their number at about 300,000, including 100,000 breeding couples, each with one chick.
Tens of thousands of penguins gather at a breeding colony at St Andrews Bay
On Zodiacs, we cruised the cacophonous colony on St. Andrews Bay, the sounds explained by our guide: chicks letting out high-pitched whistles as begging calls to their parents, adults trumpeting in courtship displays with potential mates, and skuas dramatically circling the colony in search of an opportunity to grab an egg or a chick. What a sight — and smell!
At Gold Harbor we dodged a huge pile of young elephant seals, snorting loudly and sparring with one another. A King penguin colony huddled down the beach. Northern giant petrels stalked their prey.
Macaroni penguins at Cooper Bay, fringed with swirling kelp
At Cooper Bay, Macaroni penguins porpoised in the waters and hung around the rocks that were fringed with kelp that resembled fettuccine, the strands sliding and dipping with the ocean swells like pasta on a wet plate.
Sailing toward the Antarctic Sound, we sighted whales — finback, humpback, and orcas — and crossed the Antarctic Circle at a latitude of about 66 degrees, cruising as far south as 64 degrees 09.480 minutes, reported the captain.
Hike to the Rim
At Penguin Island we spotted our first colony of Chinstrap penguins — their faces have a narrow black band from under their beak to their head — and most of us climbed at least several hundred feet toward the rim of Deacon Peak (560 feet at its highest point) to see the crater of an extinct volcano.
Energetic passengers, visible at the rim in their red jackets, hiked to the top of Deacon Peak on Penguin Island, Antarctica
At Turret Point on King George Island, southern elephant seals waded ashore for their annual molt, and I met the Adélie penguin who made my day.
Writer David Molyneaux reaches his 7th continent, the mainland of Antarctica
We anchored off Brown Bluff, for our first step on the mainland of Antarctica. The bluff, a rock formation capped by volcanic ash and cinders, is the backdrop for a large colony of Adélie and Gentoo penguins. Chicks were gathered in crèches to hide from predators, as they awaited the return of their parents who were feeding at sea.
On our last day before returning to Argentina we paused to watch spectacular glacial calvings with booms that echoed across the water at Mikkelsen Harbor.
In Cierva Cove, we cruised Zodiacs among massive tabular icebergs, spotting slumbering Weddell seals and what appeared to our guide to be a leopard seal, a dangerous creature for its hunger of penguins.
Dangerous leopard seal resting on the ice
The seal paid no attention to us, but I didn't notice any penguins swimming nearby.
Readying for a trip below the Antarctic Circle
Travel to Antarctica is neither easy, nor inexpensive, $10,000-$20,000 per person or more, depending on the length and luxury level.
Like most other touring expeditions into the wild, Antarctica will include physical activity and require some mobility; daily preparation of equipment for excursions; early morning wakeups; and a level of paying attention to procedures. For entertainment onboard, count on lectures and documentaries about nature and its creatures. As A&K's Antarctic expedition leader Marco Favero said with a chuckle: "This is not a vacation. It is an expedition. You need to follow directions." No one complained, which was not a surprise as most passengers were expedition veterans. Many had booked their trips as much as two years ahead.
Passengers on the A&K trip to Antarctica toast their final Zodiac stop at Cierva Cove
Preparation: In addition to all the paperwork about medical insurance, flying into Argentina, and whatever pandemic protocols are in force, packing is more important for cold weather clothing, worn in layers, than anything dressy at dinner. A&K makes packing easier by providing, at the ship, a polar jacket, backpack, boots, and waterproof pants; you take home the backpack and jacket, the latter of which I recommend you get laundered on the ship so you don't bring home the Antarctic odor of guano.
Getting there: Long flights from North America, at least 9 or 10 hours to Buenos Aires from such airports as Dallas and Atlanta, followed the next day by a three-hour flight (in our case a charter) to the port at Ushuaia, Argentina, to board a cruise ship for days of sailing to the White Continent. The bottom of the earth is a long way to go.
Daily exploring: For temperatures in the 30s in January (the best travel month), we dressed in three layers, typically long-underwear, a warm shirt and pants, and the polar jacket, plus a fleece sweatshirt or windbreaker in the backpack for the late afternoons or on boat rides. Each re-boarding of the ship, returning from a Zodiac wet landing ashore, we cleaned and scrubbed our boots on deck to clear them of dirt as well as the ever-present guano from wildlife. Each evening passengers would gather for a briefing about the next day. Each morning, we would start the process again.
Adelie penguins in the Antarctic sound
For me, all the efforts to visit Antarctica were appropriate — from the long journey to the serious process of preparing ourselves to arrive clean and respectfully at a place belonging to the wildlife. As travelers, we waltzed in, after they had endured arduous, dangerous migrations to breed, feed, molt, and play where their basic stages of life survival were performed in a dramatic, awesome theater of nature.
Molyneaux, editor of TheTravelMavens.com and writer for TravelMavenBlog.com, has visited more than 130 countries and sailed on about 150 cruises. This blog was published in the Napa Valley Register, Napa, Calif., The Plain Dealer of Cleveland, Ohio, and Cleveland.com.
Posted by David G. Molyneaux on February 27, 2022 in animals, CRUISING, Expeditions, Luxury travel, South America | Permalink
Tags: Antarctica, expedition, penguins, travel


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How Judicial Interpretation Has Changed The Supreme Court
by Esam Hammoudi Miami University Apr 23, 2019
Judicial interpretation is a term that refers to the various ways in which a country's judiciary might interpret the law. It's no secret that law is complicated. At times, it may be confusing. But the most consistent fact regarding law is that since the formation of the United States, people have had different opinions. In fact, one needs to look no further than the inception of the Constitution itself to find disagreements.
The differences between disagreements at the Constitutional Convention over 200 years ago, or in Congress today, and the difference of opinion that influences the judicial system is established law. In the late 18th century, people were arguing over proposals for the Constitution. Even today, congressmen typically debate policy to be passed. But differences between Supreme Court opinions are a result of interpreting established law differently.
Rather than making proposals, each Supreme Court justice reads the established law. They then take those laws or statutes, interpret them, and apply them to a case. But how can people disagree on established law?
It all originates in legal philosophy and how one reads the law. The Supreme Court is most widely known for its interpretation of Constitutional law. That being said, how can two people read the same document and come to different legal conclusions?
Textualism: Reading the constitution as a textualist goes no further than the meaning of the text. Textualists read and interpret the Constitution for the original meaning of the text. Today, this is the "conservative" approach to assessing the Constitution.
Structuralism: This form of interpretation allows for the structural implementation of the Constitution. It is a contextual approach to interpreting the Constitution. A structuralist would evaluate the Constitution holistically rather than limiting themselves to specific provisions. They then make inferences based on the relationships established within the Constitution.
Doctrinal Approach: The doctrinal approach argues for consistency — that if the Court had previously interpreted a law one way, they should consistently rule in the same vein. If cases are highly similar, rulings should be too.
These different ways of interpreting the United States Constitution have shaped the Supreme Court for years and consistently informs their decisions. Each justice may interpret things in their own way: whether it be through one of these methods, their own personal valuation methods, or a completely different system. The way the justices read and analyze the law is ultimately what defines Supreme Court rulings for decades.
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Here's Why the Less You Have Sex, the Less You Actually Want It
"Is it true that if you don't use it, you lose it?" —The Forty-Year-Old Virgin
By Kristen Dold
Having lots and lots of sex is like that old Pringles commercial: Once you pop, the fun doesn't stop.
Meanwhile, going through a dry spell might be agonizing at first, but eventually you completely stop thinking about sex—or wanting it. Even Magic Mikehas lost his power over you. And while that's not necessarily a bad thing, we couldn't help but wonder why, exactly, you lose it when you don't use it.
Biologically speaking, regular sex boosts your blood flow down below, leading to increased lubrication (a sign you're ready to rock), says Terri Orbuch, Ph.D., a relationship expert and author of 5 Simple Steps to Take Your Marriage from Good to Great. Plus, feel-good hormones like oxytocin and endorphins are released during sex, which tap into the pleasure center of the brain and leave you craving more. So pumping the breaks on sex also puts a halt to desire and arousal, she says. Mystery solved, right?
But wait, there's more. Not thinking about sex on the reg might also mean you're focusing on stressors and pressures (you know, like deadlines, debt, work, or kids), all of which are serious lady boner killers, says Orbuch.
So here's some advice you've heard before, because you probably need a reminder anyway: Just do it. Allowing someone to get close to you can put you in the mood, even if you feel pretty meh leading up to it. Another easy fix: "Small changes in a relationship can respark sexuality along with the passion," says Orbuch. So trying something new, like taking a workout class together or testing out a new restaurant, could pull you out of the drought. #MakeItRain
All gifs courtesy of giphy.com,
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Our first trip to Eklutna Lake, summer 2017.
The cracked mud on the banks of Eklutna Lake.
before! I thought it was amazing and I was instantly intrigued. However, in contrast some areas of the bank were giant mud pits. At one point I had to abandon my shoe in the mud and come back for it later in the day. There was evidence that others had had the same problem. Yet apparently these unwary travelers hadn't been as determined to rescue their shoes as I had. Despite my shoe incidence (and breaking my walking stick while trying to rescue it) I had fallen in love with this lake! Since my first visit to Eklutna, it has easily become my all time favorite stop!
Eklutna Lake is found within the third largest state park in the United States, Chugach State park. Chugach State park encompasses much of the area surrounding where Jasper and I live. The lake is fed by a glacier bearing the same name. It is a bit of a drive to get to this lake. However, just like the lake itself, the drive is beautiful! After exiting the Glen Highway, you drive about 10 miles on windy scenic roads to reach the lake. The roads can be a bit daunting, especially in the winter. It also doesn't help that I often lose cellphone reception on my way out there, but you cant beat the view!
Each time we go, the lake has changed significantly. Sometimes it is placid and calm, others it is tortoise blue, and once it had waves comparable to the ocean! By the end of the summer the banks were no longer cracked. In late fall, the water was so high that the bank was barley visible!
Now it is the dead of winter and once again I have been drawn to this lake. It has most definitely changed again! Eklutna is frozen over and covered with snow (except where people have cleared areas for ice skating.) It's beauty is almost unbelievable!
Eklutna Lake – January 2018.
On foot we traveled out onto the frozen lake. Jasper and his friend enjoyed laying in the snow, throwing it at everyone, and sliding around on the cleared areas of ice. I feel that going on outing like this helps Jasper develop a determination and confidence that he will be carry throughout his life. Our current culture has deemed risk taking to be problematic. The outdoors offers numerous risks, and the lessons children gain from taking these risks can only help them later in life. I try my best to stand back and let Jasper take reasonable risks. While balancing on the ice he may fall. However, the worst that happens is that his knee is bruised. Yet, because I wasn't standing over him, making sure that he didn't get any bumps or bruises, he now knows that falling isn't the end of the world. He knows that he can pick himself back up, and move on. In the process, Jasper is also learning about failure. That it is OK to make a mistake and fall, because all he has to do is pick himself back up and move on. This self reliance is imperative for successful life coping skills and it is wonderful that God gave us the perfect playground to teach these lessons on!
I was a bit disappointed that we were not in sunlight while out on the lake. If you are currently residing outside of Alaska, you may not understand this disappointment. However, during the winter months Alaska lacks the normal amount of sunlight that the rest of the United States takes for granted. I could see an area of the lake, far off that was being touched by the sun. I am a poor judge of distance and believed that we might be able to reach that sunlight. However, the friends that we were with said that it was a 3+ mile walk out to that area of the lake. With a couple of two-year-olds and the temperature hovering around -15, that wasn't a real option. Nonetheless, we did walk towards it for awhile. Then, a loud eerie noise sounded across the lake. It may have been an avalanche far off, but we couldn't see any evidence of that. The friends who we were with (who have been in Alaska over 10 years, so I just assume they know more about this stuff than I do) thought it may have been the ice in the lake cracking when the sun hit it. When I got home my husband mentioned it might have been an earthquake. I looked up earthquake activity for the area around the time we were out there. Earthquakes are quite common in Alaska and we actually had a small one while I was writing this! There was a 4.3 magnitude quake a short distance from us, about the time we heard the noise. So, whatever we heard, it may have been caused by this nearby quake. Either way, I found it very interesting!
Possibly the remains of the old Eklutna Dam.
the old Eklutna Dam. Eklutna Lake supplies water to the city of Anchorage. To my knowledge, there is a new dam. However, I have never seen it. Whatever this structure is, it was awesome to get to be so close to it! The history here is amazing!
I love that I am able to take Jasper on adventures like this! Being able to explore the world around us is an amazing way to learn! I hope to foster in him a lifelong love of learning. Though I had a degree in education, and I do see the benefit of the classroom environment, I believe that hands on exploration is the best way to learn. Often hands on learning isn't easily facilitated in a traditional classroom. Being able to employ the world around us as a classroom is ideal in my mind. There is so much that the outdoors can offer to children, even those as young as Jasper. The gross motor skills alone that he was able to practice on this trip were extensive. He climbed over snow piles and up and down snow covered hills. He balanced while walking on the cleared ice of the lake. On multiple occasions he climbed into the sled and balanced himself while he was pulled over uneven terrain.
If you are planning a visit to the Anchorage area, I highly suggest a trip to Eklutna lake! Year round, it is a great destination. In addition to hiking, there is camping, biking, ATV tracks and boating activities available. If you are out here during the winter, people clear areas of the lake to skate. During this trip we even saw someone who had fixed a sled full of supplies around her waist and seemed to be traveling to the far side of the lake! There is always an adventure for us to find, even with little ones in tow!


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Voluntary Carbon Offsets: Overview and Assessment
Businesses and individuals are buying carbon offsets to reduce their "carbon footprint" or to
categorize an activity as "carbon neutral." A carbon offset is a measurable avoidance, reduction,
or sequestration of carbon dioxide (CO2) or other greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Offsets
generally fall within the following four categories: biological sequestration, renewable energy,
energy efficiency, and reduction of non-CO2 emissions.
In terms of the carbon concentration in the atmosphere, an emission reduction, avoidance, or
sequestration is beneficial regardless of where or how it occurs. A credible offset equates to an
emission reduction from a direct emission source, such as a smokestack or exhaust pipe. The core
issue for carbon offset projects is: do they actually offset emissions generated elsewhere? If the
credibility of the voluntary offsets is uncertain, claims of carbon neutrality may be challenged.
Evidence suggests that not all offset projects are of equal quality, because they are developed
through a range of standards. In the voluntary market, there are no commonly accepted standards.
Although some standards are considered stringent, others are less so. At least 30 companies and
organizations (domestic and international) sell carbon offsets to individuals or groups in the
international, voluntary carbon market. Two recent studies that examined many of the offset
sellers found a general correlation between offset price and offset quality.
Due to the lack of common standards, some observers have referred to the market as the "wild
west." This does not suggest that all carbon offsets are low quality, but that the consumer must
necessarily adopt a buyer-beware mentality when purchasing carbon offsets. This places the
responsibility on consumers to judge the quality of carbon offsets.
The viability of the voluntary offset market may influence future policy decisions regarding
climate change mitigation. For example, credible offsets could play an important role, particularly
in terms of cost-effectiveness, in an emissions control regime. There is some concern that the
range in the quality of voluntary market offsets may damage the overall credibility of carbon
offsets. If this occurs, it may affect policy decisions concerning whether or not to include offsets
as an option in a mandatory reduction program.
Introduc tion ............................................................................................................................... 1
What are Carbon Offsets?.........................................................................................................1
The Size of the Voluntary Carbon Offset Market......................................................................1
Carbon Offset Integrity Issues...................................................................................................2
Additi onality ....................................................................................................................... 2
Baseline Determination.......................................................................................................3
Double Counting.................................................................................................................3
Permanence ......................................................................................................................... 3
Carbon Offset Types and Potential Integrity Concerns.............................................................4
Biological Sequestration.....................................................................................................4
Renewable Energy Projects................................................................................................5
Energy Efficiency...............................................................................................................6
Reduction of Non-CO2 Emissions from Specific Sources..................................................7
Supplementarity ........................................................................................................................ 8
Assessment of Carbon Offset Sellers........................................................................................9
Congressional Activity............................................................................................................10
Conclusions ............................................................................................................................. 10
Table 1. Estimates of the Volume and Value of the Voluntary Carbon Market...............................2
Author Contact Information...........................................................................................................11
In the United States and around the world, a growing number of businesses, interest groups, and
individuals are purchasing carbon offsets and asserting that all or part of their greenhouse gas
(GHG) emitting activities (e.g., air travel, corporate events, or personal automobile use) are
"carbon neutral" as a result. These exchanges represent a voluntary market for carbon offsets,
because there is currently no federal requirement that GHG emissions be curtailed.
The concept of purchasing carbon offsets to achieve carbon neutrality (or reduce one's "carbon
footprint") has spurred both interest and debate in recent years. This report provides an overview
of carbon offsets and examines some of the issues that are generating debate (and controversy).
Although there is some overlap of issues between voluntary carbon offsets and the offsets used to
comply with mandatory reduction regimes, this report focuses on the voluntary offsets market.
Unless otherwise stated, the carbon offsets in this report refer to those exchanged in the voluntary
A carbon offset is a measurable avoidance, reduction, or sequestration of carbon dioxide (CO2) or
other greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Offsets generally fall within the following four
categories (discussed in greater detail later in the report): biological sequestration, renewable
energy, energy efficiency, and reduction of non-CO2 emissions.
Carbon offsets are sometimes described as project-based because they typically involve specific
projects or activities that reduce, avoid, or sequester emissions. Because offset projects can 1
involve different GHGs, they are quantified and described with a standard form of measure:
either in tons of carbon-equivalents or CO2-equivalents (frequently expressed as tC-e or tCO2-e).
To be considered a credible offset, the emissions reduced, avoided, or sequestered need to be
additional to business-as-usual: i.e., what would have happened anyway. In the context of a
mandatory GHG emission reduction regime, an offset can come only from sources not covered by 2
the reduction program (i.e., outside the emissions cap). Emission reductions from regulated
sources would be required under the cap, and thus would not be additional. By comparison, a
reduction activity may be additional if it occurs from a source in a nation that does not limit the
source's GHG emissions. As more nations (or U.S. states) establish mandatory caps on emission
sources, the universe of potential carbon offsets will shrink.
There is currently no registry or tracking system that follows exchanges in the voluntary market.
For this reason, the precise size or value of the voluntary offset market is unknown. However, a
1 Six GHGs have been identified by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) as
being those of major interest: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur
hexafluorane.
2 This approach is part of the European Union's (EU) Emission Trading Scheme (ETS), which the EU members use to
meet their Kyoto Protocol commitments. For more information, see CRS Report RL34150, Climate Change and the
EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS): Kyoto and Beyond, by Larry Parker.
series of World Bank reports—The State and Trends of the Carbon Market—provides some 3
estimates for recent years. These estimates are listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Estimates of the Volume and Value of the Voluntary Carbon Market
Year Estimated Volume of Transactions Estimated Value of
(in million metric tons of Transactions
CO2-equivalents, MtCO2-e)
2004 3 MtCO2-e $6 million
2005 6 MtCO2-e $44 million
2006 10 MtCO2-e $100 million
Source: Prepared by Congressional Research Service with data from the following: 2004 estimates from World
Bank 2006, State and Trends of the Carbon Market 2006; 2005-2006 data from World Bank, 2007, State and Trends
of the Carbon Market 2007.
The estimates indicate that the size of the market has increased rapidly every year since 2004. The
World Bank report cites forecasts of increasing growth in coming years. One projection
(described as "optimistic" by the World Bank) indicates that the volume of transactions in the 4
international voluntary market will be 400 MtCO2-e by 2010. To put this figure in context, the 5
U.S. GHG emissions were approximately 7,200 MtCO2-e in 2005.
A primary concern regarding voluntary carbon offsets is their integrity. It is generally agreed that
a credible offset should equate to an emission reduction from a direct emission source, such as a
smokestack or exhaust pipe. Several criteria determine the integrity or quality of an offset project.
This is generally considered to be the most significant factor that determines the integrity of the
carbon offset. Additionality refers to whether the offset project (e.g., wind farm) would have gone
forward on its own merits (or own financial benefits) without the support of the offset market. In
other words, would the project have happened anyway? If the project would have occurred
without the financial support of the offset buyer, the emission reductions generated from the
project would not be additional.
The additionality criterion is at the crux of an offset's integrity, but additionality can be difficult
to assess in practice. The standards used to analyze a project's additionality vary, and some
groups may downplay the importance of this attribute. An offset seller who employs a more
stringent additionality analysis will likely offer "higher quality" offsets.
3 The World Bank report states that the estimates are based on an unpublished study. The authors of the study provided
the estimates to the World Bank prior to its publication. World Bank, 2007, State and Trends of the Carbon Market
2007, p. 10.
4 The 2007 World Bank (p. 41) report cites ICF, 2006, Voluntary Carbon Offsets Market: Outlook 2007.
5 U.S. EPA, 2007, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks:1990 – 2005.
To determine the amount of emissions avoided by an offset project, project managers must
establish an emissions baseline: an estimate of the "business-as-usual" scenario or the emissions
that would have occurred without the project. If project managers inaccurately estimate the
baseline, the offsets sold may not match the actual reductions achieved. For example, an
overestimated baseline (projecting more emissions than would have been emitted in the project's
absence) would generate an artificially high amount of offsets. Baseline measurement may
present technical challenges. In addition, project developers would have a financial incentive to
err on the high side of the baseline determination, because the higher the projected baseline, the
more offsets generated.
A carbon offset is meaningful if it is only counted once. To be credible, when an offset is sold, it
should be retired and not sold again or counted in other contexts. However, opportunities for
double-counting exist. For example, a U.S. buyer may purchase offsets generated through the
development of a wind farm in a country, state, or locality that has established GHG emissions
targets. The U.S. buyer will count the offsets, which may have been purchased to counter an
increase in personal air travel. In addition, the nation (state or locality), in which the wind farm is
located, may see an emissions reduction due to the wind farm. This decrease will be reflected in
the nation's GHG emissions inventory. Thus, the offset project (wind farm) may replace other
reduction activities that the nation might have taken to meet its target. A tracking system needed 6
to avoid such double-counting does not exist.
Some may argue that double-counting is less of a problem if the offset project occurs in a U.S.
state (county or city) with only a voluntary target (as opposed to a nation subject the Kyoto
Protocol). However, the impact would be the same if the state is eventually part of a federal
emissions reduction program, and the state is allowed to take credit for the earlier reductions
associated with the offset project. By taking credit for an earlier reduction, the state will need to
make fewer reductions to be in compliance with the new mandatory program.
When carbon offsets are generated from a project, there should be confidence that the emission
offsets are permanent—that the emissions are not merely postponed. This characteristic is most
pertinent to biological sequestration projects, specifically forestry activities. For example, buyers
need some assurance that the land set aside for forests will not be used for a conflicting purpose
(e.g., logging or urban development) in the future. Although natural events (fires or pests) are
hard to control, human activity can be constrained through legal documents such as land
easements. In addition, an offset could come with a guarantee that it would be replaced if the
initial reduction is temporary.
6 See Anja Kollmuss, 2007, Carbon Offsets 101, World Watch.
In the voluntary market, carbon offsets can be generated from multiple economic sectors. This
report discusses carbon offsets grouped into the four categories identified above. Each category
contains a list of possible carbon offset examples. Specific integrity issues may be associated with
particular offset categories. These issues are discussed below. The potential problems highlighted
below should not necessarily rule out entire carbon offset categories. If offset project developers
can address these potential obstacles, the offsets may be credible. However, it may be difficult for
offset buyers to know if these problems were addressed (as discussed later in the report).
Trees, plants, and soils sequester carbon, thereby reducing its amount in the earth's atmosphere.7
Biological sequestration projects generally involve activities that either increase sequestration or
preserve an area's existing sequestration ability that is under threat (e.g., from logging or
development). This offset category includes sequestration that results from activities related to
agriculture and forests, and is sometimes referred to as land use, land use change and forestry
(LULUCF) projects. Example of these projects include:
• Planting trees on previously non-forested land (i.e., afforestation)
• Planting trees on formerly forested land (i.e., reforestation)
• Limiting deforestation by purchasing forested property and preserving the forests
with legal mechanisms (e.g., land easements)
• Setting aside croplands from production to avoid emissions released during crop
• Promoting practices that reduce soil disruption (e.g., conservation tillage)
Compared to the other offset categories, biological sequestration projects offer the most potential
in terms of volume (particularly forestry projects). However, this category is arguably the most
controversial, because of several integrity issues that are typically associated (or perceived to be
associated) with biological sequestration projects.
Some agricultural sequestration offsets may raise concerns of additionality: i.e., the sequestration
activity would have happened regardless of the payments received from offset buyers. For
example, farmers may be able to generate offsets by conducting no-till operations on their land,
but for the offsets to be credible, the impetus to adopt this practice should be driven by the
financial gain from the offset market. If the no-till practice was part of normal operations before
the offset market, then the offset would fail the additionality test. There is anecdotal evidence
indicating that some farmers have been using the no-till technique for years, but still received 8
compensation for the offsets. If this is the case, this would be a fairly straightforward example of
a non-additional offset. Should this bar other farmers, who have not been practicing conservation
measures (e.g., no-till farming), from receiving offsets for initiating such measures? Arguably the
measures provide some benefit on their own (e.g., less fuel use), because some farmers have been
7 For more information on these processes see CRS Report RL34059, The Carbon Cycle: Implications for Climate
Change and Congress, by Peter Folger.
8 Jeff Goodell, 2006, "Capital Pollution Solution," New York Times Magazine, July 30, 2006.
using the techniques for years. However, the offset incentive may be a primary driver at some
farms. This example demonstrates the difficulties associated with proving that a project is
additional.
Biological sequestration offset projects may present challenges in terms of measurement. This
issue is especially relevant to forestry-related offsets. The carbon cycle in trees and soils is
complex: variations across tree species, ages, and geographic locations increase the measurement 9
challenge. In addition, other variables complicate the measurement of reductions from forestry
projects. For example, a recent study in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
stated:
We find that global-scale deforestation has a net cooling influence on Earth's climate,
because the warming carbon-cycle effects of deforestation are overwhelmed by the net 1011
cooling associated with changes in albedo and evapotranspiration. Latitude-specific
deforestation experiments indicate that afforestation projects in the tropics would be clearly
beneficial in mitigating global-scale warming, but would be counterproductive if 12
implemented at high latitudes and would offer only marginal benefits in temperate regions.
As mentioned earlier, biological sequestration projects often raise questions of permanence: i.e.,
whether the activity that generates offsets will continue. Although many observers expected
biological sequestration offsets to dominate the international market, this has not been observed
in practice. Concern of permanence has been one of the issues that has hindered the development 13
of biological sequestration offsets in developing nations.
Renewable energy sources generate less GHG emissions (wind and solar energy produce zero
emissions) than fossil fuels, particularly coal. Therefore, use of renewable energy sources would
avoid emissions that would have been generated by fossil fuel combustion. These avoided
emissions could be sold as carbon offsets. Historically, renewable energy sources—wind, solar,
biomass—have been more expensive (per unit of energy delivered) than fossil fuels in most 14
applications. Sales of renewable energy offsets may provide the financial support to make a
renewable energy more economically competitive with fossil fuels. Potential renewable energy
offset projects may include:
• Constructing wind farms to generate electricity
• Installing solar panels
9 For more on these challenges, see CRS Report RL31432, Carbon Sequestration in Forests, by Ross W. Gorte.
10 Albedo refers to the reflectivity of the Earth's surface. For more on this effect, see CRS Report RL33849, Climate
Change: Science and Policy Implications, by Jane A. Leggett.
11 Evapotranspiration is the sum of evaporation and transpiration. The transpiration aspect of evapotranspiration is
essentially evaporation of water from plant leaves. For more on this issue see the U.S Geological Survey website at
http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycleevapotranspiration.html.
12 Govindasamy Bala, et al, 2007, "Combined climate and carbon-cycle effects of large-scale deforestation,"
Proceedings of the National Academy of Scieneces, 104: 6550-6555.
13 Frank Lecocq and Philippe Ambrosi, 2007, The Clean Development Mechanism: History, Status, and Prospects,
Review of Environmental Economics and Policy, Winter 2007, pp. 134-151.
14 This comparison does not account for the externalities associated with fossil fuel combustion: air pollution,
environmental degradation, and health problems linked to emissions.
• Retrofitting boilers to accommodate biomass fuels
Some renewable energy offsets may raise concerns of additionality. Several offset sellers offer
renewable energy certificates or credits (RECs) as carbon offsets. One REC represents the
creation of 1 megawatt-hour of electricity from a renewable energy source. RECs generally
convey the environmental attributes of renewable energy projects, and RECs may be sold to
promote further use of renewable energy. However, a REC does not necessarily equate with a
carbon offset. A credible offset must be additional to the status quo; RECs are not subject to the
same standard. Although some offset sellers closely scrutinize the RECs they offer for sale as 15
offsets, there is no system or standard in place to ensure that RECs are additional.
Several factors, other than CO2 emission reductions, may drive the development of a renewable
energy project. Although renewable energy has historically been more expensive, higher fossil 16
fuel prices and tax incentives have made renewable energy more competitive in recent years.
Moreover, many states have enacted or are developing Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS). An
RPS requires that a certain amount or percentage of electricity is generated from renewable 17
energy resources. Twenty-eight states have implemented or are developing some type of RPS.
Although some sellers will not issue RECs that were counted towards an RPS, it is uncertain 18
whether all sellers follow this protocol. These factors complicate the determination of
additionality regarding renewable energy offsets projects, particularly offsets based only on
RECs.
An improvement in a system's energy efficiency will require less energy to generate the same
output. Advances in energy efficiency generally require a financial investment. These capital
investments may pay off in the long run, but may be unprofitable in the short-term, particularly
for small businesses or in developing nations. Examples of possible energy efficiency offset
projects include:
• Upgrading to more efficient appliances or machines
• Supporting construction of more energy efficient buildings
• Replacing incandescent light bulbs with fluorescent bulbs
Energy efficiency improvements are sometimes described as a "no regrets" policy, because the
improvements would likely provide net benefits (e.g., cost savings) regardless of their impact on
other concerns (climate change or energy independence). Thus, the issue of additionality may be
a particular concern for energy efficiency offsets. For example, in some cases, it may be difficult
to discern if the improvements would have been made regardless of the offset market.
15 Anja Kollmuss and Benjamin Bowell, "Voluntary Offsets For Air-Travel Carbon Emissions Evaluations and
Recommendations of Voluntary Offset Companies," Tufts Climate Initiative, Revised April 5, 2007, p. 13.
16 See CRS Report RL33578, Energy Tax Policy: History and Current Issues, by Salvatore Lazzari.
17 See EPA, Summary of State Clean Energy-Environment Policy Data Table (current as of 1/1/2007), at
http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/stateandlocal/activities.htm. Additional states identified by the Pew Center on Global
Climate Change, Map: States with Renewable Portfolio Standards, at http://www.pewclimate.org.
18 See Anja Kollmuss and Benjamin Bowell, "Voluntary Offsets For Air-Travel Carbon Emissions Evaluations and
Recommendations of Voluntary Offset Companies," Tufts Climate Initiative, Revised April 5, 2007.
Offset ownership is another potential challenge regarding some energy efficiency offsets. Energy
efficiency improvements may occur at a different location than the actual reduction in emissions.
For example, a business that runs its operations with purchased electricity will use less electricity
if energy efficiency improvements are made, but the actual emission reductions will be seen at a
power plant. This may create a double-counting situation. Although the federal government has
not set a mandatory GHG emission reduction, several states and local governments have enacted 19
limits. If the state counts the emission reductions at the electricity plant towards its goal, while 20
the business sells the offsets, the reductions will be counted twice.
There are multiple GHG emissions sources, whose emissions are not generally controlled through
law or regulation. These sources—primarily, agricultural, industrial, and waste management
facilities—emit non-CO2 GHGs as by-products during normal operations. In many cases, the
individual sources emit relatively small volumes of gases, but there are a large number of
individual sources worldwide. In addition, these non-CO2 gases emitted have greater global 21
warming potentials (GWP) than carbon dioxide. Offset projects in this category could provide
funding for emission control technology to capture these GHG emissions. Examples of emission
capture opportunities include:
• Methane (CH4) emissions from landfills, livestock operations, or coal mines
(GWP = 25)
• Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from agricultural operations or specific industrial
processes (GWP = 298);
• Hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) emissions from specific industrial processes, such as
HFC-23 emissions from production of HCFC-22 (GWP of = 14,800)
• Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6) from specific industrial activities, such as
manufacturing of semiconductors (GWP = 22,800)
This offset category is relatively broad, as it can involve many different industrial activities. As
such, there are offset types in this category that are generally considered high quality, and others
that have generated some controversy. For example, methane capture (and destruction through
flaring) from landfills or coal mines has a reputation as a high quality offset. These projects are
relatively easy to measure and verify, and in many cases would not have occurred if not for the
offset market.
Offsets involving abatement of HFC-23 emissions from production of HCFC-22 (primarily used 22
as a refrigerant) have spurred controversy. Although offsets from HFC-23 abatement are
19 See CRS Report RL33812, Climate Change: Action by States To Address Greenhouse Gas Emissions, by Jonathan L.
Ramseur.
20 One way to address this potential dilemma is to restrict energy efficiency projects to only those that reduce or avoid
on-site combustion of fossil fuels.
21 A GWP is an index of how much a GHG may, by its potency and quantity, contribute to global warming over a
period of time, typically 100 years. GWPs are used to compare a gas's potency relative to carbon dioxide, which has a
GWP of 1. For example, methane's GWP is 25, and is thus a more potent GHG than carbon dioxide by a factor of 25.
The GWPs listed in this report are from: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007, Climate Change 2007:
The Physical Science Basis, p. 212.
22 Of the CERs expected to be issued by 2012, the percentage drops to 22% (still the highest percentage by offset type).
primarily used in the compliance market (i.e., nations complying with the Kyoto Protocol or other
emission reduction obligations), the concerns highlighted by this offset type could apply to the 23
voluntary market as well.
Of the offset types certified through the Kyoto Protocol's Clean Development Mechanism
(CDM), HFC-23 offsets represent the greatest percentage: 50% of the certified emission 24
reductions (CERs) have come from HFC-23 projects. Before the formation of the carbon offset
market, facilities in the developing world, which produce about half of all HCFC-22, vented the 25
by-product (HFC-23) to the atmosphere. With the carbon market in play, facilities can generate
offsets by capturing the HFC-23 emissions. Controversy has arisen, because the HCFC-22
production facilities can potentially earn more money from the offsets (destroying HFC-23 26
emissions) than from selling the primary material (HCFC-22). This creates the perverse
incentive to produce artificially high amounts of product, in order to generate the more lucrative
by-product.
This issue is perhaps more relevant within the context of a mandatory GHG reduction program,
but it may have an analogous application in a voluntary offset market. The Kyoto Protocol states
that emissions credits (or carbon offsets) must be "supplemental to domestic actions for the
purpose of meeting quantified emission limitations and reduction commitments...." (emphasis 27
added). Proponents of supplementarity argue that carbon offsets are a means of escaping or
postponing real reductions.
This concept could also apply in the context of voluntary GHG reduction. Advocates of
supplementarity may argue that if parties (individuals or companies) want to achieve carbon
neutrality, parties should focus primarily on reducing their own emission-generating actions—
e.g., travel, vehicle choice, size of home or office, etc—instead of looking to counterbalance the 28
emissions from lifestyle choices through the purchase of offsets.
See the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Risoe Centre CDM Pipeline data, at http://cdmpipeline.org/
index.htm.
23 Moreover, HFC-23 offsets may be in the voluntary market. There is no system or registry in place to track the
exchanges in the voluntary market.
24 Regulated facilities can use CERs to meet compliance requirements under Kyoto or the European Union's Emission
Trading Scheme.
25 By comparison, major producers in the developed world continue to voluntarily capture and destroy HFC-23. See
Michael Wara, 2006, Measuring the Clean Development Mechanism's Performance and Potential, Working Paper #56,
Stanford Center for Environmental Science and Policy.
26 This calculus depends on the market price for carbon offsets. See Michael Wara, 2006, Measuring the Clean
Development Mechanism's Performance and Potential, Working Paper #56, Stanford Center for Environmental
Science and Policy.
27 Article 17, Kyoto Protocol.
28 Taking this argument a step further, some have compared carbon offsets to indulgences that were sold during
medieval times: i.e., purchasing offsets helps to assuage the guilt associated with carbon-intensive activities or
lifestyles. See e.g., Kevin Smith, 2007, The Carbon Neutral Myth, Carbon Trade Watch, at
http://www.carbontradewatch.org/pubs/carbon_neutral_myth.pdf.
At least 30 companies and organizations sell carbon offsets to individuals or groups in the
international, voluntary carbon market. The quality of the offsets may vary considerably, largely
because there are no commonly accepted standards. Some offset sellers offer offsets that comply
with standards that are generally regarded as the most stringent: e.g., the Clean Development 2930
Mechanism or the Gold Standard. These standards generally have a robust test for
additionality, as well as more substantial monitoring and verification procedures. As such, offsets
meeting these standards incur higher transaction costs, adding to the cost per ton of carbon.
Some offset sellers offer offsets that meet the seller's self-established guidelines. These self-
established protocols can vary considerably, raising questions of integrity. Are the protocols
addressing additionality concerns? Are the offsets accounted in such a way as to avoid double-
counting? Are the offset projects verified by independent third parties? Assessing the standards
can be challenging for a consumer. Moreover, some company's standards are not made public, but 31
may be considered proprietary information.
Two recent studies have examined approximately 30 companies and/or groups that sell carbon 32
offsets on the voluntary market. The following list highlights findings from the analyses:
• The prices for carbon offsets range between $5 and $25 per ton of carbon.
• Offset prices show a correlation with offset quality.
• Overhead costs can vary substantially by seller. However, this factor may not be 33
a good indicator of offset quality.
• The tax status of a seller (profit firm vs. non-profit group) was not a good
indicator of offset quality.
Arguably, the most significant finding of the two studies is the general correlation between offset
price and offset quality. This correlation is more striking, considering the range of offset prices
($5 to $25 per ton of carbon reduced).
29 The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) was developed under the Kyoto Protocol. Projects are assessed on an
individual basis and must be approved by an Executive Board. An independent third-party verifies the projects
emission reductions. For more information, see http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.
30 The Gold Standard was developed by a group of non-governmental organizations. The Gold Standard sets
requirements beyond the CDM, but only applies to renewable and energy efficiency projects. See
http://www.cdmgoldstandard.org.
31 For example, one report found it difficult to evaluate certain offset marketers, because the offset certification and
verification process was deemed proprietary. See Anja Kollmuss and Benjamin Bowell, 2007, Voluntary Offsets For
Air-Travel Carbon Emissions Evaluations and Recommendations of Voluntary Offset Companies, Tufts Climate
Initiative, Revised April 5, 2007.
32 Ibid; Clean Air-Cool Planet, 2006, A Consumer's Guide to Retail Carbon Offset Providers, prepared by Trexler
Climate + Energy Services ("Trexler Report").
33 The Trexler report stated that low overhead costs may indicate that only minimal time was spent evaluating the
quality of the project.
Several bills in the 110th Congress have the potential to impact the voluntary carbon offset
• 2007 "Farm Bill": Both the House-passed bill (H.R. 2419, H.Rept. 110-256) and
the Senate Agriculture Committee-approved (bill number forthcoming) versions
include provisions that would facilitate the development of private-sector market-
based approaches for a range of environmental goods and services (e.g., water
and air quality, carbon storage, habitat protection, etc.) involving the agriculture
and forestry sectors. The House version would, among other things, establish an
Environmental Services Standards Board chaired by the U.S. Department of
Agriculture (USDA) that would provide grants and a framework to develop
consistent standards and processes for quantifying offsets from the farm and
forestry sectors. The Senate version differs in approach but also directs USDA to
develop a framework to develop standards and procedures; however, the Senate 34
bill requires the initial focus to be on carbon markets.
• H.R. 823 (Welch): Introduced February 5, 2007, this bill would authorize federal
agencies to purchase offsets or renewable energy credits, and direct the
Department of Energy to certify whether the offsets are eligible, based on rules
developed by the Department.
Carbon offset purchases are intended to generate emission reductions that would not have
occurred otherwise. In terms of global climate change mitigation, an emission reduction,
avoidance, or sequestration is beneficial regardless of where or how it occurs. For example, a ton
of carbon reduced at a power plant will have the same atmospheric effect as a ton of carbon
reduced, avoided, or sequestered through an offset project.
The core issue for carbon offset projects is: do they actually offset emissions generated
elsewhere? If the credibility of the voluntary offsets is uncertain, claims of carbon neutrality may
lack merit. Evidence suggests that not all offset projects are of equal quality, because they are
developed through a range of standards. Although some standards are considered stringent, others
are less so. In some cases, the standards used are not even made available to the purchaser. Due to
the lack of common standards, some observers have referred to the current voluntary market as
the "wild west." This does not suggest that all carbon offsets are low quality, but that the
consumer is forced to adopt a buyer-beware mentality when purchasing carbon offsets. This
places the responsibility on consumers to judge the quality of carbon offsets.
The voluntary carbon offset market raises several issues that Congress may consider. The
viability—both actual and perceived—of the offset market may influence future policy decisions
regarding climate change. For instance, some people are concerned that the range in the quality of 35
voluntary market offsets may damage the overall credibility of carbon offsets. If this occurs, it
34 For more on this aspect of the legislation see CRS Report RL34042, Environmental Services Markets: Farm Bill
Proposals, by Renee Johnson.
35 See Trexler, Mark, and Kosloff, Laura, 2006, "Selling Carbon Neutrality," Environmental Forum, March/April 2006;
and Hayes, David J., 2007, "Bring the U.S. into the Global Carbon Market," The Environmental Forum, Vol.24, no. 4
may affect policy decisions concerning whether or not to include offsets as an option in a
mandatory reduction program. This is an important policy question for Congress. Although some
oppose the use of offsets based on supplementarity concerns (see discussion above), other argue
that credible offsets would expand the compliance alternatives and likely lower the costs of a 36
GHG emissions reduction program.
The voluntary program may inform the climate change policy debate in another manner. If
Congress were to enact a federal GHG emissions control program that included the use of offsets,
all of the integrity concerns—e.g., additionality, permanence, accounting—would need to be
addressed in some fashion. The experiences gained in the voluntary market may help
policymakers develop standards or a process by which the integrity of offset projects could be
assessed.
Jonathan L. Ramseur
Analyst in Environmental Policy
jramseur@crs.loc.gov, 7-7919
(March/April 2007).
36 Both the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Energy Information Administration (EIA) analyzed the
costs associated with S. 280 (a cap-and-trade proposal that would allow the use of offsets). See, U.S. EPA, 2007, EPA
Analysis of The Climate Stewardship and Innovation Act of 2007; and EIA, 2007, Energy Market and Economic
Impacts of S. 280, the Climate Stewardship and Innovation Act of 2007.


Come trade any plants or gardening supplies you have for something different or new! You are not required to bring anything to the swap but it is encouraged.
This event will be raising funds for Trees for You and Me, a worldwide tree planting conservation program, that provides grants and funding to replant deforested areas in need.
There will be Master Gardeners on site to help with any plant or gardening questions. There will also be vendors, music, raffles and the bar will be open.


The branding was executed on some 500 airport cabs in Delhi NCR, the overriding objective being to expand the Vodafone 4G customer base.
Kinetic rolled out Vodafone India's outdoor campaign in Kochi to launch its 4G network. The campaign saw a mix of traditional large format billboards, BQS and iconic building wraps at eminent locations of the city.


text:
UTSA Announces Coding Boot Camp in Partnership with Trilogy Education: Part-time professional web development program will begin Sept. 9
SAN ANTONIO, July 29, 2019 /Editorial/ — The University of Texas at San Antonio (UTSA) today announced the launch of its first coding boot camp, in partnership with leading workforce accelerator Trilogy Education, to serve adult learners and working professionals. The UTSA Coding Boot Camp will teach the front-end and back-end skills necessary for adult learners to become proficient full stack developers.
The 24-week, part-time program begins Sept. 9, 2019, with two three-hour evening classes during the week (6:30 to 9:30 p.m.) and a four-hour class on Saturdays (10 a.m. to 2 p.m.). Enrollment information is available at bootcamp.utsa.edu.
"UTSA is committed to offering opportunities for lifelong learning, and this coding boot camp will serve San Antonians who want to pursue careers in the city's rapidly growing tech sector," said Lisa Blazer, Sr. Associate Vice Provost for Academic Innovation. "By delivering this program with Trilogy Education, UTSA will expand the pipeline of highly trained developers ready to meet local workforce needs now and into the future."
With the labor market the tightest it's been in a generation, San Antonio employers are hungry for job-ready tech talent. According to research from McKinsey, web development ranks among the nation's fastest-growing professions, with demand for coding and advanced IT skills expected to grow by 90% in the next decade. According to data from Burning Glass Labor Insights, San Antonio area employers struggled to fill more than 12,600 open jobs requiring coding ability in 2018 alone.
"In San Antonio, as in other cities across Texas, employer demand for qualified tech talent far outstrips the supply of available workers," said Dan Sommer, CEO and Founder of Trilogy Education. "The University of Texas at San Antonio joins a large and growing network of top universities that share a vision to create stronger, more resilient regional economies. Together, The UTSA Coding Boot Camp and Trilogy Education will enable residents to pursue meaningful careers in the city's growing tech economy, and will attract new businesses to make new investments in the region."
UTSA graduates hundreds of technology-related majors each year and is home to the nation's top program in cybersecurity, according to a Ponemon Institute survey. By pairing UTSA's academic and research strengths with Trilogy's market-driven coding and career curriculum, students participating in the boot camp will gain both the competence and capabilities to succeed in the technology industry. The program's curriculum covers the basics of coding, algorithms, and data structure plus intensive training in HTML/CSS, JavaScript, Node.js, React and more. Boot Camp students will gain skills to develop dynamic end-to-end web applications.
Previous training or experience is not required. However, an understanding of coding basics is recommended.
In addition to classroom instruction, students will spend a minimum of 20 hours a week on outside projects, homework and experiential learning activities. They'll also build a professional project portfolio to showcase their abilities and hone their competitive edge in the employment market. Students will have access to a range of career-planning services including portfolio reviews and recruiting assistance.
Participants who successfully complete the program will receive a Certificate in Full-Stack Web Development from the University of Texas at San Antonio.
To learn more about the UTSA Coding Boot Camp, visit bootcamp.utsa.edu. You can apply online or by calling 210-944-1098.
The University of Texas at San Antonio (UTSA) is a public urban serving university specializing in health, cybersecurity, energy, sustainability, and human and social development. With more than 32,000 students, it is the largest university in the San Antonio metropolitan region. UTSA advances knowledge through research and discovery, teaching and learning, community engagement and public service. The university embraces multicultural traditions and serves as a center for intellectual and creative resources as well as a catalyst for socioeconomic development and the commercialization of intellectual property—for Texas, the nation and the world. Learn more online, on Twitter or on UTSA Today.
About Trilogy Education
Trilogy Education, a 2U, Inc. brand (NASDAQ: TWOU), is a workforce accelerator that empowers the world's leading universities to prepare professionals for high-growth careers in the digital economy. Trilogy's intensive, skills-based training programs bridge regional talent gaps in coding, data analytics, UX/UI, and cybersecurity in more than 50 markets around the globe.
About 2U, Inc. (NASDAQ: TWOU)
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text:
William Mills of Sandyford (1776–1857) was a 19th-century Scottish merchant and shipping owner who served as a Whig Lord Provost of Glasgow from 1834 to 1837.

Life
He was born at Lessudden House near St. Boswells in Roxburghshire in 1776.

In the 1790s he appears to have travelled to the United States and established various cotton plantations there.

In earlier life he appears as a merchant at 127 Trongate House in the Clyde Buildings.

From 1819 he also began investing in steamships, at first travelling between Greenock on the River Clyde and River Mersey. His first ship was the SS Robert Bruce. He increased his fleet with the SS Superb, the SS Majestic and the SS City of Glasgow. It is unclear if the latter is the famous ship of that name, but it seems to predate it.

In 1826, in co-operation with others, built the larger SS United Kingdom, which traded between Edinburgh and London.

Later, still as a merchant, he had premises with his younger brother Thomas Mills at 107 Buchanan Street. Whilst Lord Provost he lived at Sandyford Place off Sauchiehall Street.

As a politician he first served as a Bailie representing the Gorbals then became a Bailie of Glasgow and Chief Magistrate. He was elected Lord Provost in 1834. In 1837 he was succeeded as Lord Provost by Henry Dunlop of Craigton in 1837.

He died at 7 Woodside Terrace in the Sandyford district of Glasgow on 8 November 1857.
He is buried in the family vault in the Glasgow Necropolis.

Family
He was father to the Glasgow shipbuilder George Mills (1808-1881).

Artistic Recognition
He was portrayed in office in the style of Henry Raeburn.

References

1776 births
1857 deaths
People from the Scottish Borders
Lord Provosts of Glasgow
Scottish slave owners
Burials at the Glasgow Necropolis

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Overhauls several of Skyrim's spellcasting sounds.
-Majority of spells have been heavily tweaked or overhauled.
-Restoration now has 4 different variants to choose from.
-Firebolt has an alternate sound option.
-Shout spell sounds have been overhauled.
NOTE: This is a modular version of just the magic changes from Immersive Sounds - Compendium. For more in depth information please refer to Compendium's description page.
DESTRUCTION - Destruction is split up between the 3 different elements, so we'll go over those respectively.
Fire spells in vanilla have a lot of sharp crackling in them, as if it was firewood being burnt in a brazier or something. Since you are conjuring up flames from the ether, this didn't sound quite right to me. So fire spells now have a much smoother, windy quality to them.
Shock spells I believe suffered much from very cliché-sounding electric buzzing. This is a problem in many, many games since they all seem to pull from the same old tired stock sounds. I have tried to downplay this aspect in many of the shock spells and instead emphasize rumbling thunder.
Frost spells were IMO the least problematic of the three and didn't need as much work. A lot of people have complained about icicle/icy spear being a bit harsh on the ears, so that has been replaced with something that is hopefully more pleasant sounding.
CONJURATION - In addition to the main conjuration sounds being reworked, this school also suffered from simply using the fire sounds for charging and casting so they have been replaced with new unique sounds. The overall theme for conjuration sounds is to be more rythmic than the others, and have a sort of dark and menacing aspect to them, since you're dealing with powerful Daedric forces here.
ILLUSION - Likewise there were a lot of generic fire sounds being used here, so Illusion has been given a unique makeover just like conjuration. I wanted it to sound more otherwordly and mysterious, with a lot of dissonant droning to it. The exceptions here are the fury and fear-based spells, which have a more aggressive quality to them.
ALTERATION - This is sort of like Illusion in that I wanted it to sound kind of otherworldly, but with less of a dissonant characteristic. And since Alteration is more about the manipulation of physical things, rather than the mind like Illusion, I have also tried to reflect this in some of the spells. Oakflesh, Stoneflesh, Ironflesh now all use different casting sounds true to their names.
RESTORATION - I wanted Restoration to differ itself by somehow sounding more benevolent than the other schools. By default IS gives Restoration spells a sort of ethereal, harmonic vibe. I know from experience with users though that people can be quite picky over how their Restoration sounds like. So for this school there are multiple choices of sounds you can choose from in the installer. One is from an earlier version of my mod, which is reminiscent of classic RPG healing, the other is sort of inspired by the Templar healing sounds in TESO, or you could simply choose to opt out of any custom sounds and use the vanilla ones.
VAMPIRIC - Shock sounds have been removed from Vampiric Drain effects and replaced with new unique sounds more suited to creatures that go bump in the night.
SHOUTS - Many of Skyrim's shout spell sounds (not the voices) with the same intention as the magic portion: to provide more variety and emphasize the differences between the shouts, instead of being mostly just thunder sounds with a hint of some other element.


text:
Naturally, seismology provides the answer.
Coasting Laurels
Deodor-Hat-Erizor
Disposable Baseball Cap Liners
Drone Parasol
Handkerchiefs With Extended Corners
Hat dress
Hat in the Hood
hats w/ bangs
Helm of Fuþark
fashion:hat
(+16, -4) [vote for,
Handkerchiefs With Extended Corners are exactly that which the name suggests. ie handkerchiefs that, instead of being perfectly square, have a slightly extended point on each of their vertices.
The purpose is simple: to provide a modicum of extra material at each apex, thus making it easier to tie more elegant versions of the four otherwise standard knots, needed to convert the handkerchief into that of a simple summer hat.
— xenzag, Oct 26 2009
Example http://www.bbc.co.u...notted_hanky170.jpg
a great British tradition [xenzag, Oct 26 2009]
[z_t]'s reference. http://www.youtube....mNc&feature=related
[shudderprose, Oct 28 2009]
all kinds of permutations would be possible with these - rabbit ears being a personal favourite.
— po, Oct 26 2009
You knot rabbit ears ? Don't the rabbits object ?
Why knot?
— normzone, Oct 26 2009
Misterrr.... Gumby!!!
— wagster, Oct 26 2009
In these frugal times, I suggest instead that we make the centre of the handkerchief smaller, rather than corners larger.
I suppose a version could have dangling corks.
...and cricket.
... and (friction) matches
— vincevincevince, Oct 27 2009
...and railways
...and queueing.
— kaz, Oct 27 2009
//I sympathise with any foreign culture that wants to commit acts of terrorism against the British for wearing snotrags on their heads //
You mean the sorts of cultures that wear J-cloths on their heads? <Grins, ducks and dives for cover> [+]
— coprocephalous, Oct 27 2009
//This...habit makes the wearer look like an absolute knob//
Gets my vote then.
— DrBob, Oct 27 2009
// Britain also gave the world Morris Dancing //
Technically, no. It was forced on the Rest of the World at gunpoint - they didn't seem to be keen on it for some odd reason.
// Do we need to dig this hole any deper? //
Yes, keep digging. If you're very very lucky, you may dig right through to Good Old England. If you're very unlucky, and your aim is off a trifle, you may end up in Wales. If the Gods hate you, you'll end up in france.
I'm with Unabubba on this one, people do not need any more help looking stupid. We seem to do fine now. I was hoping this idea was about suit pocket handkerchiefs, which I have never worn, but at least can understand the attraction there. (-)
— MisterQED, Oct 27 2009
// boorish, pusillanimous//
Point of language, old chap. Shirley one can't be both?
I realise that your race has existed in (fully deserved) isolation for some considerable time now, only allowed back into polite society to lend a hand when there's some serious global unpleasantness on, but that's no reason to forget the Mother Tongue.
//Do we need to dig this hole any deper?//
Well...*apart* from abolition of the slave trade, industrialisation, mashed potato, global telecommunications, radio, television, longitude, the introduction of parliamentary democracy, cricket, deck-chairs, stable intercontinental trade, Pimms, tea, evolution, universal suffrage, an independent judiciary, a common language, Marmite, the civil service, fish & chips, cucumber sandwiches, the post office, tonic water, railways, football, Australia, New Zealand, The United States and Canada, women's rights and the treatment of previously incurable diseases...What have the British ever done for us?
— zen_tom, Oct 27 2009
+ Stephen Fry & the Beatles...
oh and David Attenborough and Terry Pratchett ...
//I realise that your race has existed.....//
Oi! Lay off the Aussies. I get sick of everybody making fun of them and patronising them (that means talking down to them, Ubie).
They're a remarkable nation, having risen from the lowest of the low to become....well, they've risen, anyway. As a developing nation, they're really rather promising, and they need all the encouragement they can get as they take the first tentative steps on the road to civilisation.
Sensing a double-standard: isn't wearing them on your heads rather standard fashion for pirates? Don't we approve of high pirate fashion?
And the desperados would definitely appreciate this. Especially those with beards.
[21 Quest], why do you want to encourage vagrancy?
Yes, I must go with the objectors on this. If people insist on tying these things to their heads, they could do us a favor and cover their faces with them, so as to increase the likelihood of wandering into traffic.
— tatterdemalion, Oct 27 2009
The wearing of the knotted handkerchief is a fine, warm tradition in the UK, and naturally finds little understanding in the harsh peripheries of the colonies. It is therefore happily uncool, and everything that is the opposite of fashionable.
Just add it to the list of everything that Britain has selflessly provided the world with over a very long period of time. Railways, cricket and dangling corks have been acknowledged. I think that Tartan devised by Burberry, and Gravity invented by Sir Issac Newton should not be forgotten.
Be a have knot! Travel far and wear your knots with pride!
I just wasted the better part of an hour searching through old books and magazines looking for a photo of Einstein wearing a corner tied hanky while on a boat. I read that it was his preferred head dress when not in public.
//absolute knob// indeed.
Google images turned up a blank but I will not relent in my search and when I prevail then...
...you will rue the day you ever mocked the corner tied hanky my friends.
RUE THE DAY!!!
The Boy Scout uniform, at least in the US, includes as an option (though very common) a neckerchief with two corners extended for specifically this reason. It's triangular rather than square, but is intended to serve multiple functions including headgear and a sling and others.
— MechE, Oct 28 2009
[zentom], I will give you all but tea. The Orient had the English by several hundred years, maybe thousands. That's like saying the Italians created pasta.
The US part is also a little dubious. A case could be made that that honor/shame belongs to the French for de-colonializing us. But I'll give you the nod for giving us Thomas Paine.
// Gravity invented by Sir Issac Newton should not be forgotten. //
Don't forget he invented light as well....... and Sir Walter Raleigh, who not only invented the bicycle but also discovered tobacco, thus spawning a multi-bilion dollar legal industry.
o.k. high tea then - with milk, sugar and cake!
Ah, High Tea! Beloved of vicars everywhere. Which reminds me. We also invented the Church of England which, in true English fashion, we currently seem to be selling off to the Pope. We also invented selling everything that isn't nailed down, by the way. Oh, and telling lies with a straight face.
What was the idea again?
did we invent the mini-skirt? seems to back in vogue again.
[+] but only because I think they can be tessellated. Otherwise, I wouldn't like the cloth wasted by cutting them out.
— VaquitaTim, Oct 28 2009
And Richard Branson, who invented the balloon, the music industry, the railway, the airline and the pickle.
Of course the English, in turn, were invented by castaways from the French...
...further demonstrating that great British trait of making the best of a bad thing.
Did the English too invent (the oxymoronically named) Industrial "Action"?
No, that definitely was the french.


Moving into a salon suite can make all the difference in your success.
Since you've started your career as a nail tech, you've likely been working for someone else either as an hourly employee or on commission.
Either way, you know it's time to move on.
You feel confident now that you can do it on your own, and there is no better way to get started than to rent a salon suite.
Renting a salon suite is a big move for a nail tech. You finally become your own boss and putting yourself out there comes with some enormous benefits!
Clients love the one-on-one personal attention they get from their manicurist in a closed, private environment and you are free to make your space your own!
Here are some reasons and benefits that nail techs should consider when thinking about making the switch from employee to salon suite entrepreneur.
Running a salon suite is the same as running a small business and if it is your desire to do so, it should be your first step toward future salon ownership – it's a great training ground for bigger endeavors.
When you decide to step out there you are in control of everything from answering the phone to scheduling to ordering products.
Although it can be challenging at times, the reward is so much greater because you have the freedom to choose your own products, make your own schedule and collect all the revenue.
No more commission splits or hourly pay – it's all yours!
You are an entrepreneur now and in total control of your destiny.
Another benefit of renting a salon suite is having a dedicated personal space just for you.
You don't have to be out in the open, sharing space with other techs or waiting for equipment like pedicure chairs to become available on busy days.
You have everything you need in one small, manageable space to perform services for your clients only.
One of the greatest things about having a salon suite is the time you get to enjoy with your clients in private. Many times, you will need to discuss concerns with your client that you don't necessarily want others to hear.
In a salon suite, you don't have that issue and clients will feel more comfortable and relaxed in an environment that you've created just for their comfort.
They are more likely to follow you and retention rates are higher when you provide a comfortable, private space with your personal touch.
In many salon suites, the owner will provide basic furnishings and equipment to get you started in your new suite.
You will have your own sink, manicuring station, chairs and sometimes pedicure chairs included in the cost of your rent.
If you choose to forego what is being provided you can also bring in your own furnishings and equipment.
This is a great option if you are just getting started and want to hit the ground running.
The options you have for amenities are great when it comes to renting a salon suite.
Some amenities come with the cost of your suite and some you can pay extra for as a tenant of the building.
Salon suites offer a variety of conveniences for suite renters including free Wi-Fi, towel laundering, cleaning services, front desk and concierge services, just to name a few.
Depending on where you rent and how much you want to pay, you can get as little or as much support as you need to run your nail business from a salon suite.
Another great benefit of being in a salon suite is the 24-hour access.
When renting a chair in a salon, you typically must work the schedule that you set for yourself during the salon's hours; and when salon closes, you too must close!
Not so in a salon suite. You have access to the building and your suite whenever you want.
If you want to start taking clients at 5 am, it's your prerogative to do so without limits or time constraints.
There are many benefits to starting a nail business in a salon suite.
Evaluate what you need, and what works for you then choose accordingly.
Check out lots of places in your area to see what they offer before you make a decision and negotiate your necessities to make your business a success!


text:
Q: Definite integral word problem with trig. Check setup? Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by the given curves about the specified line. Sketch the region, the solid, and a typical disk or washer.
$y = \sin x$, $y = \cos x$, $0 < x < \frac{\pi}{4}$; rotated about the line $y = -1$
So...
outer radius: $1 + \cos x$
inner radius: $1 + \sin x$
So here's my setup:
$$\pi \int_0^\frac{\pi}{4} (1 + \cos x)^2 - (1 + \sin x)^2 \, dx$$
$$\pi \int_0^\frac{\pi}{4} 1 + 2 \cos x + \cos^2x - ( 1 + 2 \sin x + \sin^2 x ) \, dx$$
Is this setup right?
But then I'm stuck here on the next step:
$$\pi \int_0^{\frac{\pi}{4}} (2 \cos x - 2 \sin x + \cos^2 x + \sin^2 x
\,) dx$$
From here, I need to find the antiderivatives. but what are the antiderivatives of $\cos^2 x$?
Also, how do I draw this graph using mathjax?

A: Hint
As pointed out in the comments you have:
$$\cos^2(x)-\sin^2(x)=\cos(2x)$$
In all generality when you have $\cos^2$ or $\sin^2$ you can use the formulas:
$$\cos^2(x)=\frac{1+\cos(2x)}{2}$$
$$\sin^2(x)=\frac{1-\cos(2x)}{2}$$
from where it is easy to compute anti derivatives.

For the graph I don't think there is a easy way to fraw graph using mathjax but in LaTeX you can use pgfplots:
\documentclass{standalone}
\usepackage{pgfplots}

\usepgfplotslibrary{fillbetween}
\usetikzlibrary{patterns}

\begin{document}

\begin{tikzpicture}
\begin{axis}[axis lines=middle,
            xlabel=$x$,
            ylabel=$y$,
            enlargelimits,
            ytick=\empty,
            xtick={0.785},
            xticklabels={$\pi/4$}]
\addplot[name path=S,blue,domain={0:pi/4}] {sin(deg(x))} node[pos=0.5, below]{$y=\sin(x)$};

\addplot[name path=C,red,domain={0:pi/4}] {cos(deg(x))}node[pos=0.5, above]{$y=\cos(x)$};

\addplot[pattern=north west lines, pattern color=black!20]fill between[of=S and C]
;

\end{axis}
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{document}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Mathematical and numerical analysis and numerical solution of fluid flows belong to the most often studied problems of the theory of partial differential equations and their numerical solution. During the last decades, a big progress has been achieved in these fields which enables us to study models of complex fluids including the possibility to consider their dependence on temperature. This project is focused on the study of such models of fluid thermodynamics and mechanics with the aim to extend the knowledge in the field of the theoretical analysis of the corresponding systems of partial differential equations and numerical analysis of the methods for their solution. Computational simulations using specific numerical methods will be performed to support the analytical results concerning the well-posedness of the model problems and qualitative properties of their solutions. The proposed projects assumes a tight collaboration of specialists in these fields which is an important prerequisite for further development of mathematical and computational fluid thermodynamics.