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Home » Whiskey » Review » Old Overholt Rye
Old Overholt Rye
Cask Type
New American Charred Oak
Old Overholt Straight Rye Whiskey holds historical significance as the nation's oldest continuously distributed American rye whiskey product on the market. But for way too long, the distinct rye notes contained in each bottle were a vestige of a bygone and largely forgotten method of whiskey production in America.
During today's whiskey renaissance, even your die-hard bourbon enthusiast has an appreciation for America's rye whiskey tradition. But for a time during whiskey's dark period of the 1970s and 80s, Old Overholt was the only nationally distributed Rye whiskey available in the U.S. For that reason alone, it should hold a special place in the canon of American whiskey brands.
Today's craft movement has seen Rye whiskey grabbing the attention of whiskey nerds across the globe. And a new generation of drinkers are learning how Old Overholt's rye flavors offer a great introduction to the category at a price range that allows for experimentation — without taking a toll on your pocketbook.
So, let's dive right in and learn more about this underappreciated heritage brand.
The year was 1800, and Western Pennsylvania is the frontier of a newly forged nation. Among the early settlers to this dangerous, mountainous region was the Overhold (anglicized: Overholt) family.
The Overholts emigrated to the United States from Germany and were among the 'Pennsylvania Dutch' or Mennonite residents who plowed those first farms throughout Pennsylvania. The family's ancestral home was the Nordhausen region of Germany, which to this day is renowned for the production of Korn – aka Kornbrand or Kornbranntwein. This traditional spirit shares production techniques that reflect early whiskey production in the United States.
We digress here for a short homage to the German influence on American whiskey — an oft underappreciated source of inspiration. It's easier to celebrate the influences of Scottish and Irish immigrants on today's American whiskey traditions because both countries have well-defined, world-recognized whiskey industries. But German immigrants have had as large an impact on what Americans drink today as perhaps any other group. When you consider that most cultures harvest what they grow, and ferment whatever they harvest but can't eat, then distill what they brew and can't drink — well, it's no wonder the strong beer brewing traditions of Germany live on in our distilled spirits as well as our pilsners, dunkels, lagers and hefeweizens.
In 1803, Henry Overholt built the family's first still on their plot of land in West Overton, near modern-day Connellsville, Pennsylvania. His son, Abraham, took over operations in 1810 and over the next 50 years the family built out the distilling capacity and increased output. By 1860, the site operated one of the largest distilling operations in the country.
Old Overholt was one of the foremost examples of Monongahela rye whiskey — a forbearer of Kentucky bourbon and one of the most recognized spirit categories before Prohibition.
When Abraham Overholt died in 1870, his grandson Henry Clay Frick took over distilling operations. It is at this point our story becomes a who's who of industrialist capitalists. If the Frick name rings a bell, it is because he was one of the richest men in the country at the time. He owned one of the country's most extensive coke operations — contributing to the Pittsburgh region's rise as the world's dominant steel producer. His partner in his distilling endeavor was Andrew Mellon, another well-known historical figure who was one of the wealthiest industrialists at the time.
Frick died in 1919 — one year before the 18th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution would disrupt the production and consumption of alcohol for over a decade. Mellon remained active in the company and, in 1921, was named Secretary of Treasury under President Warren G. Harding. While most distilleries were shut down by federal agents, a lucky few were able to operate under medicinal licenses. The Old Overholt distillery was one of those lucky distilleries to remain open.
But the brand's powerful pedigree could not help it avoid the fate of most of the country's other pre-Prohibition distillers. In 1932 — one year before the repeal of Prohibition — the company was sold to National Distillers. After Prohibition ended, a new generation of drinkers had lost their appreciation of Rye whiskey. By 1960, Old Overholt was the only nationally distributed brand of American rye whiskey on the marketplace. In 1987, the brand was acquired by Jim Beam Brands, and production moved to Kentucky.
Mashbill
Unlike most bourbon brands produced by Beam Suntory, the mash bills — or list of grain ingredients — for Old Overholt and other rye whiskey brands has not been made public.
To be labeled a Rye whiskey in the United States, the product must be produced from a mash bill of at least 51 percent rye grain.
If you are new to the rye whiskey category, you might be wondering — 'What does rye whiskey taste like?' Well, the easiest way to describe rye's flavor is to contrast the spicy black pepper flavor of rye with bourbon's sweet corn profile.
Distillation & Production
Old Overholt is produced at the Jim Beam Distillery in Clermont, Kentucky, using modern column distillation techniques.
Like bourbon, American rye whiskey is required to be matured in new American charred oak barrels. As a straight rye whiskey, Old Overholt has been matured for at least two years. It does not carry an age statement. We can expect the liquid inside to be matured for about four years.
Old Overholt is produced by Beam Suntory, the third-largest distilled spirits producer on the planet. Beam Suntory was formed in 2014 when Suntory Holdings, based in Japan, acquired Beam Inc. and its portfolio of brands.
Price Point & Value
Old Overholt has a suggested retail price of about $20 for a 750mL bottle at 80-proof. Its pricing places it firmly in the standard segment tier, offering bartenders and whiskey fans an excellent opportunity to find out what rye whiskey tastes like for a very reasonable price. It is an excellent option for mixologists looking to find that classic rye spice flavor profile to use in cocktails such as the Manhattan, Sazerac and old fashioned.
In the glass, Old Overholt has a medium yellow hue, is deep copper in color and has fast legs at 80-proof with medium depth.
Rye spice with charred oak, buttery corn, vanilla and cherry.
Black pepper spice, with subtle sweet corn notes, leather, tobacco, cherries, honey, toffee and dried raisins.
Medium finish with leather, tobacco, pecans and black pepper spice.
Aaron Kendeall
Aaron joined the drinks industry in 2013. Over the decades, he has worked in nearly every capacity within the alcohol industry — including whiskey distiller, brand ambassador, marketing manager, public relations strategist and brand consultant. He's teamed up with Master Sommeliers and Master Distillers to help educate people about the science that goes into alcohol production. And he's worked with startup brands to turn local enthusiasm into national recognition. It's been a strange and complicated journey. Luckily, the booze biz is a large and dynamic industry built for people with eclectic tastes.
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The Oliver 60 series of row-crop tractors was a product line of agricultural tractors produced from 1940 to 1964 by the Oliver Farm Equipment Company. The 60 series was a four-cylinder follow-on to the six-cylinder Oliver 70. As the 70 was outsold by the less-expensive Farmall A, Allis-Chalmers Model B and John Deere Model B, Oliver introduced the 60 to compete.

The 60 was followed by the Oliver 66, Super 66 and 660, each with incremental changes and upgrades, and was produced until 1964.

Description
The Oliver 60 was introduced in 1940 as a less expensive alternative to the 70. The 60 was equipped with a four-cylinder  engine, developing , with a four-gear transmission. The 60 inherited the 70 Fleetline's styling, with fully enclosed bodywork and a swept-back radiator grille. Versions were produced for row crops with narrow front wheels, standard models with a wide front axle, and an industrial version. Engines could be obtained for gasoline or kerosene/distillate fuels. Production took place in the Oliver plant in Charles City, Iowa, selling for about $1,700 in 1948.  The Oliver 60 was sold in Canada as the Cockshutt 60.

Oliver 66

The 60 was restyled in 1954 as the Oliver 66. Engines came with gasoline, kerosene/distillate, diesel and LP gas options. The 66 introduced an option for hydraulic accessories. Gross power increased to . The 60 sold for about $2,000 in 1954.

Oliver Super 66
The Super 66 was introduced in 1954.  The Super 66 used a three-point hitch with hydraulic lift. The Super 66 introduced a diesel version, and a 12-volt electrical system. Power rose to . The engine compartment was no longer fully shrouded with bodywork. The Super 66 sold for about $3,000 in 1958.

Oliver 660
A three-number sequence was introduced in 1959 with the Oliver 660. The new line was more squared-off in appearance, retaining the green body and replacing previous models' yellow and red highlights with a green-tinged white for grilles and wheels. The engine increased in power again, to  gross power. The 660 was produced until 1964, selling that year for about $3,450.

References

60
Vehicles introduced in 1940

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Located on the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean Sea, the Dominican Republic is a unique place with a rich cultural heritage. In this text, readers will learn that the Dominican Republic has the oldest European settlement in the Western Hemisphere, is the only second largest island in the Caribbean and many more interesting elements that have shaped the culture of its people. Stunning, full-color photographs accompany the text, bringing concepts into dazzling focus. This thorough investigation of social studies topics is sure to hold reader's attention while supporting elementary curriculum.


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Cymbio, which connects brands with markets, raises $7M
Kyle Wiggers@Kyle_L_Wiggers
Cymbio, a startup creating a product that connects brands with markets, today closed a $7 million series A round led by Vertex Ventures. The Tel Aviv, Israel-based company says the funds will be used to expand Cymbio's footprint across R&D, sales, and marketing.
Brands manage dozens to thousands of digital sales channels. Setting up and connecting to marketplaces while navigating retailers' systems and requirements can be a significant challenge, particularly when factoring in the uptick in ecommerce activity attributable to the pandemic. Consumer spending in Q4 2020 with U.S. merchants alone increased 32.1% year-over-year, according to U.S. Department of Commerce figures.
Founded in 2015 by childhood best friends Roy Avidor and Mor Lavi, Cymbio's platform integrates with both brands' and retailers' internal systems, leveraging automation technology to handle setup, onboarding, and daily management of product data, imagery, inventory, orders, and more. Cymbio claims to enable things like real-time, cross-platform inventory and order updates by replacing manual tasks with preconfigured rules.
Cymbio customers get a product catalog showing their products, product images, and product details relevant to their market partners. Information and pricing are automatically updated and the data is reformatted to meet a retailer's requirements. All retailers can be managed from a single hub, including marketplaces, department stores, and boutiques. And inventory is updated in real time and sent based on each retailer's formats and desired frequencies.
Cymbio also automates return, shipping, and cancelation processes. For example, it can create acceptance roles for orders or trigger refunds and notifications when returns are initiated by customers on marketplaces.
"Our AI, data, and normalization engine make it simple for brands to map data, taxonomy and product attributes and sync them with a vast variety of retailer data-structures," Avidor explained to VentureBeat via email. "One of the challenges brands, retailers, and marketplaces experience is the difference in the way they describe attributes such as centimeters and inches, different sizes, colors. A brand can look at a category as shoes, but the marketplace has a different and more detailed categorization. Cymbio's AI engine allows brands to complete this task instantly, allowing brands to get up and running across an endless number of retailers and marketplaces."
Cymbio claims to support more than 600 retailers, marketplaces, and department stores across the U.S., Canada, Europe, and the Asia-Pacific region. Shoe brand Camper, a Cymbio client, says that it notched 67% year-over-year growth in wholesale sales via drop ship (where sellers accept customer orders but don't keep goods sold in stock) and marketplaces after adopting the Cymbio platform. Melissa Shoes, another customer, says that average revenue increased by 70% while average units went up 42% as the number of assortments climbed 2.8 times.
"As retail is in its challenging moments, Cymbio brings a new approach for business partnerships between brands and retailers," Melissa founder and CEO Michele Levy said. "Their platform enables us to strengthen our sales capabilities with each of our partners while generating mutual growth with low risk."
Payoneer founder Yuval Tal also participated in 38-employee Cymbio's round, along with existing investors Udian Investments and Ron Zuckerman. It's the company's first public fundraising round to date and brings Cymbio's total raised to $10.1 million.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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Back home / News: 13 August 2021
Payments News Digest 13 August 2021
Australia: Citi sells consumer lending business to NAB, adding BNPL to product mix on the way out
In April, Citigroup announced that it would be exiting its consumer-facing businesses across 11 Asia-Pacific markets as well as Russia and Poland. Now the first of these divestments is set to take place with news that National Australia Bank (NAB) will be buying Citibank Australia for $882m. At the very least, the deal will see NAB cement its inclusion in the group of four leading credit card issuers in this market. Of particular interest to the purchaser, noted NAB chief executive Ross McEwan, is the scale and experience it will gain in credit cards and other forms of unsecured lending. The deal is a clear sign that issuers still see the credit card as a payments solution worth fighting for, even in the world's most BNPL-enthusiastic market. Intriguingly, in a move that is being touted as a first across Citi worldwide, Citibank Australia has launched a BNPL product of its own: Spot, currently open for pre-registration before its launch in October. Spot, with payments repayable over four interest-free instalments, will work at all Mastercard POS or online acceptance venues. As Verisk Financial Research's current market report for Australia points out, the bank had already dipped a toe into the BNPL sector, partnering with online retailer Kogan to let existing credit card customers switch to instalment loans at the POS.
Canada: Scotiabank offers to convert credit card repayments to fee-free instalments
That issuer strategy of allowing consumers to switch to repayments on an instalment basis is also being seen in Canada, where Scotiabank is now to allow a conversion to BNPL in the case of purchases valued at more than 100 Canadian dollars ($80) at the point of sale, whether offline or online. The Scotia SelectPay plan is accessible from the lender's mobile banking app, with no loss of rewards benefits or paperwork required. The month before last, the Toronto-headquartered bank had announced that it would be the first issuer in the country to avail of Visa's Installments functionality to offer repayment options to its cardholders. As seen elsewhere, BNPL has enjoyed an enthusiastic reception from Canadians, with adoption up by almost a third in the space of a year. Scotia issues just under a tenth of all credit cards, putting it in the top five firms for issuing. Still, its market share remains less than half that of leading player TD Bank, perhaps leading it to embrace more innovative approaches.
Singapore: Amazon slaps surcharge onto purchases by credit cardholders choosing Visa
Amazon has written to its customers in Singapore to advise them that, for transactions using Visa-branded credit cards, a surcharge of 0.5 percent is coming on many of its services in mid-September. Most purchases made on the company's dedicated Singapore site, even those fulfilled by third parties, will be subject to the measure. However, subscription fees, digital products and Amazon Fresh groceries will be untouched. Although the charge is confined to the city-state, a spokesperson for the e-commerce behemoth has told local media that Amazon sees the high cost of card payments as a global issue. "To avoid this surcharge, we encourage you to use a debit or non-Visa credit card as the default payment method in your account", the email advised. In other Amazon news, the company pays ten dollars in credit to American shoppers at its checkout-free outlets palm print data that is linked to the individual's Amazon account.
Payment news stories of interest this week...
S Korea: KakaoBank becomes largest retail lender as shares surge
UK: Spending on cards rises to 99 percent of pre-pandemic level
US: 85 percent of BofA deposits now made digitally
US: Cash Back to Crypto introduced for holders of Venmo Credit Card


Auf geht's zur 6mJI European Championship nach Brunnen, Schweiz!
Anreise und Aufbau Frisch herausgeputzt wird LILLEVI am Freitag auf unseren Truck verladen und Thomas startet am Nachmittag Richtung Schweiz… und ist bereits gegen 9:00 Uhr – gleiche Zeitzone – in Brunnen angekommen. Christof, Haui und Martina starten am Sonntag sehr früh mit dem Auto und kommen auch gut durch. Thorsten fliegt am Nachmittag und ich Montag sehr früh nach Zürich. Bei brütender Hitze wird LILLEVI ins Wasser gelassen und der Mast gestellt und natürlich perfekt vorbereitet.
Wenig Wind oder Flaute – das war die Frage… und Sonne und Hitze und Gewitter. Kurzum ein schöner Segeltag um die Havel von Spandau bis zur Pfaueninsel hoch und runter zu "segeln". Aber über 80 Teilnehmer und wir haben es getan. Haui hat den Wind aufgespürt und wir schoben uns nach vorne. Ergebnis: Zweiter im Ziel, Achter Overall und Zweiter bei den Kielyachten sowie Sieger der Meter-Yachten. Das ist doch eine super Vorlage für die EM in der Schweiz. LILLEVI kam dann auch gleich nocheinmal in die Werft um das Unterwasserschiff perfekt zu machen.
Und wieder schöne Bilder von Sören Hese.
Es geht los! Saison 2016!
LILLEVI ist wieder im Wasser! Bei kühlen Temperaturen kam sie am 15.04.2016 ins Wasser. Mast gestellt und dann in die Box im VSaW. Es wurde sehr nass. Danke an Haui – stolz an der Pinne – und Thomas und Almut.
Dieses Jahr steht die European Championship in der Schweiz, Brunnen am Vierwaldstättersee im Juli an sowie einige Regatten in Berlin. Haui, Martina, Thorsten, Christof, Lorenz, Thomas und ich freuen uns auf eine schöne Saison mit der LILLEVI.
"The International Rule, also known as the Metre Rule, was created for the measuring and rating of yachts. Prior to the ratification in 1907, countries raced yachts under their own rules and any international competition was always subject to various forms of handicapping. These were often subjective and certainly open to protest." This quote shows the importance and significance of the Rule for modern yacht racing. Alfred Benzon from Denmark initiated the idea, and in 1907 the International Yacht Racing Union (IYRU) ratified this first International Rule.
This "First Rule" led to relatively short boats with huge sail areas. These early boats had a hull length around 5.5 to 6m with long bowsprits so that the length overall was around 9.5 m. The narrow beam, about 1.75 m, and sail areas between 50 and 60 sqm in the gaff rig caused boats that were very wet to sail, with limited seaworthiness.
But even when the new Rule was in competition with the S-Rule and the Square Metre Rule in other countries, it was a big success. By 1914, 208 Six Metre boats were built to the International Rule with fleets in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, England, Italy and France.
The 6 Metre Class was chosen for the 1908 London Olympic sailing events held in the waters off Ryde on the Isle of Wight, and the 1912 Stockholm Olympics at Nynäshamn.
The second epoch of the Metre Yachts began after the first World War. Once again meetings were held in London, in October 1919. To encourage more seaworthy yachts the Rule was modified to the proposals made by designer John Anker. The "B" measurement was omitted from the rule and replaced by a minimum beam, so it was no longer possible to build a really narrow boat. The difference "d" and the Girth "G" were not penalised as much as before, but the sail area was penalised more. This was one reason for the introduction of the "genoa" in 1926, because the sail area was measured from the size of the foretriangle, rather than the actual size of the headsails. These alterations to the rule led to huge changes in the 6 Metre Class. The boats became longer and heavier, with "Marconi" (or "Bermudan") rigs with a sail area around 40 sqm. The waterline length, which was now measured at 90 mm (1.5 per cent of the 6m class rating) above the waterline, increased to 7m. The displacement went up from 3 to 4 tons. New nations like the USA, Argentina, Uruguay and India became members of the 6 Metre community, but Scandinavia remained as the centre of racing. The Scandinavian Gold Cup was inaugurated and was the forerunner of a World Championship. Again the Sixes appeared in the 1920 Antwerp Olympic sailing event held in the waters off Ostend, in the 1924 Paris event at Le Havre, in the 1928 Amsterdam event on the Zuidersee and in 1932 at Los Angeles.
As before the designers tested the rule to its limits and once again the boats started to become less seaworthy, due to narrow beams and lack of bow buoyancy. Again the IYRU reacted and 1933 the rule was simplified and changed to the rule that is still in force today. The "G" measurement was removed, which allowed designers to make the keel deeper with the ballast lower. That makes the boats more stable and seaworthy. Together with the change of the girth height at the bow, the boats became more buoyant forward. The Sixes were chosen for the 1936 Berlin Olympic games at Kiel, for the 1948 London Olympics at Torbay and for the last time 1952 in Helsinki in the waters off Harmaja.
The next big step for the class was in the years 1975 and later, when a number of new boats were built. The boats of this time started to look very different. The rudder was separated and no longer hung on the back of the keel, becaming more effective. The shape of the sterns and the bow style changed, but the biggest improvement was the keel. The legendary win of Australia's 12 Metre at the America's Cup showed the potential of the new "Wing Keels". The 6 Metre class became one of the most innovative development classes at this time. In 1973 the World Cup was presented as the trophy for the World Championships, leading to outstanding regattas with the top sailors of the world.


In this KTUU-TV (Anchorage) report, Slack Davis Sanger aviation attorney Ladd Sanger comments about the November 29th crash near St. Mary's, Alaska, and the Cessna 208 Caravan's ice-protection system.
The National Transportation Safety Board is still in the early phases of its investigation into the November 29 crash of a Cessna 208 Caravan that killed four people.
But a Lower 48 law firm said the plane should not have been in the air the day it went down because it did not have an adequate de-icing system.
Ladd Sanger, an aviation lawyer who works for Texas-based Slack Davis Sanger, has been part of litigation cases involving Cessna 208 icing problems in the past.
He said based on preliminary information, Friday's crash near St. Mary's suggests the same problem occurred in the Western Alaska crash.
Sanger said Cessna changed the design of the Caravan's ice-protection system, but there are at least 5,000 planes across the country that have not been retrofitted with the safety upgrades.
According to a 2011 NTSB report, there have been 47 fatalities involving Cessna 208 Caravans that were covered in ice, including 10 from a 2001 Pen Air crash in Dillingham.
Sanger said he wonders why Cessna and Hageland Aviation services allowed that plane to fly.
Era Aviation owns Hageland and issued a statement today: "We look forward to providing pertinent information to the NTSB and all local, state and federal agencies.
Fifteen air carriers in Alaska that fly Cessna aircraft declined to comment on their own safety modifications.


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Q: How to share the android screen without root? I wonder screen-miracast between android and Window PC.
I see 'mobizen' application.
That app is running on unroot device, and connect PC for Wifi, LTE.
'How to screen share like mobizen (Wifi, LTE) without root?'
If you dont know correctly, just hint pleaze.
Thanks.

A: A much better option in this case is AirDroid, with which you can even remotely access your device's camera, over your wifi (so it goes really far).
Check it out, much better than this pompous looking Mobizen :)

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


The agapanthus flower is also known as the Lily of the Nile, even though its true home is much farther south than Egypt. In fact, the Lily of the Nile calls South Africa home and it is a beautiful blooming flower in the wild there. The agapanthus' long double-rowed stems strike up and out from the root of the plant, in orderly lines like schoolchildren awaiting their teacher. The six-leaved flowers open up to reveal the single striped teardrops that center each petal.
This striking beauty is making the agapanthus flower an increasingly popular choice for gardens. So how to do you plant one of these beauties of the southern hemisphere in your own garden?
The agapanthus flowers in the summer, so the best time to choose one is the final days of spring, when the plant is just beginning its new growths. If the nursery has done its job properly, you should be able to see the new stocks rising. A healthy agapanthus will have little discoloration and a robust feel to it. If you see some stalks wilting, this is a bad sign and may signal a bad batch. Try another nursery.
The key to having a happy, flowering agapanthus flower is planting it in the right spot. You want a place in your garden that gets lots and lots of sun, as the Lily of the Nile just loves to bask in the daylight. Despite this love of direct sunlight, the agapanthus is a relatively fragile flower, so find it a wall that faces south or a spot that doesn't get too much wind.
Make sure that water doesn't pool in this area of the garden as this can weaken the health of you agapanthus.
If you have bought already grown plants (your best bet if you want to maximize your chance of growing your agapanthus), you will want to make sure that you completely cover up their roots in the same way they were in the container from which you transplanted them. A little touch of fertilizer can help things along in this process as well, offering a bit of extra nutrition to your agapanthus during this difficult transition—but don't overdo it as you can overdose your plant on the fertilizer and lead to the opposite result than what you would prefer.
Your agapanthus flower also loves to have a bit of elbowroom, so when you plant it, be sure to space the rows so that it is a good ten to twelve inches away from its neighbors. This will give it the room to spread out as it grows.
Most of the work in taking care of the agapanthus takes place in the spring and summer during its growing season. To begin with, you want to help your agapanthus to concentrate its energies by trimming off the dead stems. This will allow your agapanthus to put its energies into new growths. To help it along, a touch of fertilizer is a good idea at the beginning of the spring. Two to three inches of compost should follow this application shortly afterwards.
If you haven't done so already or if it has deteriorated, you might also mulch the area around your agapanthus—although you want to be careful not to blanket the agapanthus itself.
Finally, during the summer you want to drench the soil of your agapanthus thoroughly about once a week. This will it give the moisture it needs until the rainy season returns.
Follow these directions and you are sure to have happy and healthy Lilies of the Nile in your garden for summers to come.


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Welcome to Dr. Weiwei Sun's homepage 孙未未欢迎您
移动数据管理实验室
Dr.Weiwei Sun
Professor, director of Mobile Data Management Laboratory, School of Computer Science, coach of ACM ICPC Team, Fudan University .
Office: Room 217,Software Building, No.825, Zhangheng Road, Pudong New District, Shanghai
Zipcode: 201203
Email: wwsun@fudan.edu.cn
Weiwei Sun was admitted to the Fudan Youth Class in June 1988 and got his bachelar's degree in Computer Science and Technology at Fudan University in June 1992. From Sept.1995 to July 1998 and Sept.1998 to Dec.2001, he received his master and Ph.D. degree respectively in Computer Software and Theory at Fudan University from his supervisor Bole Shi. Now he is a professor of the School of Computer Science at Fudan University. He went to German Konstanz University during Sept.2004 and Aug.2005 as a Visiting Scholar hosted by Prof. Marc H. Scholl. His interests focuses on spatiotemporal data management and analysis. He has published more than 50 papers and more than 10 text books.


German armor of World War II has always been the most appealing to me. Nevertheless, occasionally I venture out. I am fascinated by vehicles that got the "A-team" treatment; vehicles that were never meant to take part in the frontline fighting. Like the Land Rovers from the SAS, or the Chevrolets from the LRDG. For a long time people have been putting weapons and armor on machines that were never intended for this task.
During the war in Vietnam, the Viet Cong found the American military convoys to be easy targets, as only 1 in 5 of the trucks in a convoy had a ring mounted .50-caliber machine gun. This was too little firepower for an enemy that had a large jungle to hide in. Things had to change, so trucks were converted in such a way that they got armor and extra firepower. Armor was first bolted to the sides, and later was welded on the inside of truck bed. The last version had double spaced armor. The firepower was also improved over time. Most gun trucks first had one M-60 on each side and a .50cal to the rear. Later the M-60 was traded in for .50cals, and a double .50cal to the rear. Even mini-guns taken from wrecked helicopters were put on the trucks.
Building a gun truck in 1/72 was always something I wanted to do, and with the release of the M35A2 by ARMO, I got the chance. When I bought the kit, I was told that ARMO was planning to bring out a gun truck based on this kit, but that was two years ago now. This kit is a little gem; very delicate and like a scaled down version of the 1/35 kit from AFV Club. Some of the resin parts are so small that you have to look hard at the sprue to not miss the part. Like the AFV kit, this project is for a more modern version of the truck, which means that you have to backdate the kit. This sounds more serious than it really is. The main thing that you have to change is the indicator lights. This I took from the Willys Jeep kit from Arfix. However, this can also be done with a small piece of rod, which I did for the rear lights, because they are for the most part hidden under the body of the truck. I put a little piece of photo etched wire mesh over the exhaust. The rest of the truck was built straight out of the box.
Before I started building the model, I looked at many pictures of the real gun truck. With a bit of help from fellow modelers, I found many pictures. There are so many variations that you hardly can go wrong. However, I wanted to build one that really had existed, so a few things were important for my choice. I wanted one that had single spaced armor, and had a name on the side that I easily could paint by hand. I also wanted one that had its exhaust pipe through the fender so that I did not have to build a new exhaust system. Therefore, my eyes fell on "The Mafia".
The truck is a middle production version, with a .50cal on each side. In addition, in the rear it has a mini-gun. On top of the cabin door there were armor plates welded. The rear armor did not extend all the way to the ends, so there was some room left for spare tires, and in case of an emergency they could easily be taken out of the truck. During an ambush the tires were among the main targets. My spare tires I got from the GMC truck by Arfix. They are a little smaller than the wheels from the Armo kit, nevertheless, I hope that the difference is not too noticeable.
The cargo beds of the trucks were loaded full of .50cal ammo boxes. Buying them commercially was not an option, because there are so many. So, I made a mould of a resin one. And I pressed it in some epoxy putty. After the putty has dried, you can heat some plastic sprue and push it into the mould. But it smells bad. It is dangerous: an open flame, plastic and myself are not a good combination. Besides that, it takes a long time. Enter the hot glue gun. I made sure the glue in the gun was really hot, then I squeezed some in the mould. I waited a few minutes, so that it was dry enough to take it out. After a couple of hours, I had a whole stack of ammo boxes, all with a little blob attached to them. After removing that, I glued them to the truck. However, the result was not to my liking. The space between the boxes was too great, so I removed them all again. Plan B: Make them from styrene. So that is what I did. They were not as detailed as the one's out of the mould, but the result was better. If you are looking for a way to drive yourself crazy, this is definitely the way to do it.
The .50 caliber machine guns are from the Extratech set. They are excellent except for a few omissions. There are no rods in the kit, so every grip needs to be made from a piece of sprue that has to be stretched. Not a big problem. If you want to use the beautiful photo-etched ammo box, this box consists of five parts and looks amazing. However, you need to make a bracket for it, because this is not supplied in the kit. In addition, there is no cradle for the gun, if you want to place it on a vehicle. So, both were cut from an empty tube of putty. The kit includes a tripod to put it in a firing position on the ground. I hope Extratech will change this in the future and bring out a .50cal set especially for vehicles.
I just did not get round to making one. The gun also needs an ammo belt, and this I took from the Extratech set. There are plenty of ammo belts in this set. Goffy models have a nice range of supplies too. In their modern U.S. supply set there are a couple of ammo boxes for the minigun, which comes in very handy now.
Because gun trucks were on the road for a long time, crews carried a lot of stuff for their own well-being. Most of it came from the Goffy set: a hot food container, rucksacks and a duffle bag. I also put some empty bottles from a Preiser set in the back of the truck, just to give it some color. Crews also carried an M-60 in case one of the other guns would jam or break down. Italeri have a nice M-60 in their ex-ESCI M-113. Perfect for the back of my truck.
All gun trucks had a radio to stay in contact, because the trucks were spread out in a convoy. In addition, with so much firepower it had to be well directed. I made a radio from pieces of styrene. The dials I made from small discs cut from stretched sprue, and the antenna mount was made from lead-foil and bent in to shape. The antenna itself is also a piece of copper wire. This way it gets bent, but not broken when it is handled. As reference, I used a 1/35 radio.
All the lights were first painted silver, then I put a small amount of crystal clear over it. Now I use window color for it. It is basically the same stuff, it just comes in a bigger bottle. It looks like white glue, but when it is dry, it is transparent. Ideal for puddles of water and also lamps. I left the headlights clear, but the turn indicator and rear lights were painted with Tamiya transparent orange and red.
I kept the weathering to a minimum. Although the crews treated their trucks rough, they kept them in good condition. So, I just dry-brushed it to show the influence of the sun. To finish off I gave the truck a thick layer of dust. This was done with a mix of light colored powders.
I mostly place my models on a picture frame. In it I put a piece of psp plating from styrene, which came from a company out of the Ukraine, however, I forgot the name. It is a very thick piece of styrene and hard to cut. I had real trouble getting through it with a razor saw. At least I got a nice workout for my arms. The areas that were not covert by the psp plating I filled up with dry plaster. On the dry plaster, I dripped some water, which gave the plaster a more irregular affect once it dried.
I made some puddles of water to give the surroundings a swampy appearance, and as an excuse to use the psp plating. To give the base some vegetation I stuck some hairs of an old brush in the ground.
Before I attached the truck to the base, I sanded down its wheels just a little, to lose the roundness of the tires. Otherwise the truck looks like it is floating.
I also wanted to put a figure next to the truck to show how large this truck is (it is longer and just as tall as a Panzer 4). The figure came from Preiser, out of the modern American soldiers in a relaxed pose. I modified him a little bit, and brought him back in time, so to say. This is very simple: I just removed the spade and the gasmask container. Because of the lack of camouflage on the truck, I gave the soldier some tiger stripe pants. I did this by first painting the trousers white and then applying horizontal stripes, starting with buff, then lamp black, and finished with green.


The following list is of known buses both current and those previously operated by Apple City Tours - Orange.
ex (NT) mo 114; ex TV 1131; ex Down Under Tours (not delivered).
ex MO 8995 - Denning Landseer refront.
ex 7622 MO by 1/16; First reg 27/2/15.
ex 6810 MO by 7/17; First reg 11/3/15.
ex 8072 MO by 4/18; First reg 21/1/16.
ex MO 6768; ex Stock.
ex Cadia Roadlines (AR & EM Selwood), Orange MO 5494 1/7/11; First reg 10/6/03 ex Stock.
ex FJ & HM Bayada Pty Ltd, Blayney 5341 MO 9/13; ex MO 6771.
First reg 30/10/11 ex Stock.
Reg 9/4/14 ex Scania Australia (loaned to Driver Group Australia Pty Ltd, Mt Waverley, VIC ZCK 371 6/13-1/14).
Reg 7/2/17. Signwritten for Bathurst Coaches.


Ovary is to reproduction as __________ is to categorization.
An "ovary" is a female reproductive organ. So, an "ovary" is involved with "reproduction." What is a "phylum" involved with? Well, a "phylum" is a classification group for organizing species of animals. So, it is involved in "categorization." Additionally, an "asylum" is a sanctuary, a safe house; a "sinecure" is an easy job; "embezzle" means steal money from somewhere one works or is trusted; "doleful" means miserable and disconsolate, feeling hopeless.


Role models and mentors can truly make a difference in a girl's life, especially when it comes to inspiring her to pursue science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). In honor of National Mentoring Month, The National Girls Collaborative Project (NGCP) will showcase its innovative online collaboration tool, The FabFems Project. The webinar will feature an in-depth look at the FabFems Role Model Directory, a national database of women who are inspiring role models for young women. The directory is free and accessible to young women, parents, and girl-serving programs and organizations working to increase career awareness and interest in STEM. Participants will learn how to effectively provide role models and mentors for girls, including strategies for recruiting, retaining and recognizing professional volunteers. Experience role model stories, interactive activities and resources that will help you craft engaging experiences that dispel stereotypes and ignite girls' interest in STEM careers.
Additional role model stories and resources that support successful interactions between girls and role models will be shared throughout the day on the FabFems Facebook Page and @FabFems.


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text:
\section{HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION}\label{s:1}

In this note we present an elementary inductive proof which Euler
could have obtained, for his assertion that every prime of the form
$20n+1$ or $20n+9$ is a sum $x^2 + 5y^2$, had he refined a bit his
proof for Fermat's theorem that every prime of the form $4n+1$ is a
sum of two squares.

Here and throughout this note all letters are assumed to stand for
{\it nonnegative} integers, unless otherwise specified.
It is our pleasure to start by briefly reviewing the story told by
Cox in the nice book \cite{cox1989book}.

\vskip 3pt

Pierre de Fermat (1601--1665), who had done pioneering work on
representing primes as $x^2 + ny^2$, stated, but did not write down
a proof, that he had proved by his favorite method of infinite
descent the following:

\vskip 3pt

(i)  Every prime  $p \equiv 1 \,\,{\rm mod}\,\, 4$ is a sum $x^2 +
y^2$.

\vskip 2pt

(ii)  Every prime  $p \equiv 1, 3 \,\,{\rm mod}\,\, 8$ is a sum $x^2
+ 2y^2$.

\vskip 2pt

(iii)  Every prime $p \equiv 1 \,\,{\rm mod}\,\, 3$  is a sum $x^2 +
3y^2$.

\vskip 3pt

\noindent He also conjectured but could not prove that

\vskip 3pt

(iv)  The product of two primes, each of which is $\equiv 3, 7
\,\,{\rm mod}\,\, 20$, is a sum $x^2 + 5y^2$.

\vskip 3pt

Leonhard Euler (1707--1783) heard of Fermat's results and spent 40
years proving (i)--(iii) and considering their generalizations. This
finally led him to the discovery of the quadratic reciprocity,
although he could not provide a solid proof for it. By working out
numerous examples on representing primes as $x^2+ny^2$ for various
$n$, he discovered more patterns. Some of his discoveries which he
could not prove are:

\vskip 3pt

(v)  Every prime  $p \equiv 1, 9 \,\,{\rm mod}\,\, 20$ is a sum $x^2
+ 5y^2$.

\vskip 2pt

(vi)  For every prime  $p \equiv 3, 7 \,\,{\rm mod}\,\, 20$, $2p$ is
a sum $x^2 + 5y^2$.

\vskip 2pt

(vii)  A prime  $p=x^2 + 27y^2 $ if and only if $ p \equiv 1
\,\,{\rm mod}\,\, 3$ and 2 is a cubic residue modulo $p$.

\vskip 2pt

(viii)  A prime  $p=x^2 + 64y^2 $ if and only if $ p \equiv 1
\,\,{\rm mod}\,\, 4$ and 2 is a biquadratic residue modulo $p$.

\vskip 3pt

Joseph-Louis Lagrange (1736--1813) and Adrien-Marie Legendre
(1752--1833) later developed the form theory as well as the genus
theory to prove (iv)--(vi). Indeed, they could prove (v) and that

\vskip 3pt

(v$'$)  Every prime  $p \equiv 3, 7 \,\,{\rm mod}\,\, 20$ is a sum
$2x^2 + 2xy + 3y^2$ (where one of $x,\, y$ may be negative).

\vskip 3pt

\noindent Then (iv) and (vi) follow immediately from the following
two identities:
\begin{eqnarray*}
(2x^2 + 2xy +3y^2)(2a^2 + 2ab + 3b^2)\!\!\!\!\!&=&\!\!\!\! %
(2ax + bx +ay +3by)^2 + 5(bx - ay)^2; \\ %
2(2x^2 + 2xy +3y^2)\!\!\!\!\!&=&\!\!\!\!(2x + y)^2 + 5y^2.
\end{eqnarray*}
Both Legendre and Lagrange, however, could prove neither (vii) nor
(viii).

\vskip 3pt

It was Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777--1855) who had finally tackled
(vii) as well as (viii) using his cubic and biquadratic
reciprocities. And, years before this, it was also Gauss who gave
the first rigorous proof of the quadratic reciprocity. The
interested reader is referred to \cite{cox1989book} to enjoy the
rest of the story.

What we shall show is that in fact Euler {\it could} have proved
(iv)--(vi) had he just refined his proof of (i)--(iii), and hence
the above told story would be somewhat different.

\section{A REVIEW OF EULER'S PROOF}\label{s:2}

Let us first briefly review Euler's proof.
According to [1], a version of Euler's proof of (i) goes as follows.
For prime $p \equiv 1 \,\,{\rm mod}\,\, 4$, there is an $r < p$ such
that $pr = x^2 + 1$. For each prime factor $q$ of $r$, since $-1$ is
a quadratic residue modulo $q$, it follows that either $q \equiv 1
\,\,{\rm mod}\,\, 4 $ or $q=2$. We assume by induction that each
such $q$ is a sum of two squares. Then a cancelation lemma, Lemma
\ref{lem:1} below, enables to cancel the prime factors of $r$ one by
one. As a result, one obtains a representation of $p$ as a sum of
two squares.

By a $(1, n)$-{\it representation} we mean an expression of the from
$x^2 + ny^2$. The following lemma appears as Lemma 1.4 in
\cite{cox1989book}. Here, for the convenience of the reader, we
include the proof given in \cite{cox1989book} in a slightly
shortened form.

\begin{lem}\label{lem:1}
Suppose $p$ and $pr$ each has a $(1,n)$-representation, where $p$ is
a prime. Then $r$ has a $(1,n)$-representation.

\end{lem}

\begin{pf} Suppose $p = a^2 + nb^2$, and $pr = x^2 + ny^2$.
Then
\begin{eqnarray*}
p^{2}r = (ax \pm nby)^2 + n(ay \mp bx)^2.
\end{eqnarray*}
Note that $p \,\mid \,(ay
- bx)(ay + bx)$ since
\begin{eqnarray*}
(ay - bx)(ay + bx) = (a^2 + nb^2)y^2 - b^2(x^2 + ny^2).
\end{eqnarray*}
It follows that either $p \mid ay - bx$ or $p \mid ay + bx$;
correspondingly, $p \mid ax + nby$ or $p \mid ax - nby$.
Consequently, we have one of the following holds:
\begin{eqnarray*}
&& r = ((ax + nby)/p)^2 + n ((ay - bx)/p)^2, \\ %
&& r = ((ax - nby)/p)^2 + n ((ay + bx)/p)^2. %
\end{eqnarray*}
This proves Lemma \ref{lem:1}.
\end{pf}

It is not hard to see that Euler's proof also applies to the cases
of $x^2 + 2y^2$ and $x^2 + 3y^2$ after minor modifications. This is
because in the representation $pr = x^2 + 2$ (resp. $pr = x^2 + 3$)
all of the prime factors of $r$ (with one or two exceptions which
are easy to deal with) are of the desired type, so we can again use
Lemma \ref{lem:1} and the inductive hypothesis to cancel them one by
one.

\vskip 1pt

However, it is {\it not} the case for $x^2 + 5y^2$. Note that for
$pr = x^2 + 5$, where we may assume that $5 \nmid r$, each prime
factor $q$ of $r$ is such that either $q \equiv 1, 9, 3, 7 \,\,{\rm
mod}\,\, 20$ or $q=2$, hence  Lemma \ref{lem:1} is not enough to
cancel all prime factors $q$ of $r$; we have to deal with those $q
\equiv 3, 7 \,\,{\rm mod}\,\, 20$ and $q=2$. Indeed we {\it do} have
such a cancelation lemma (Lemma \ref{lem:2} in \S \ref{s:3}) which
enables us, with the help of a small trick, to cancel such factors
pair by pair under the inductive hypothesis that (iv)--(vi) hold for
all primes $q < p$ such that $q \equiv 1, 9, 3, 7 \,\,{\rm mod}\,\,
20$ or $q = 2$. It turns out that we must prove (iv)--(vi) {\it
simultaneously} by induction.
The rest of this note consists of the detailed statements and
proofs.

\section{A SECOND CANCELATION LEMMA}\label{s:3}

For the convenience of further exposition, we make the following
definition.

\vskip 6pt

\noindent {\bf Definition.}\, A $(1, n)$-representation is said to
be {\it nontrivial} if both of $x$ and $y$ are nonzero; it is {\it
proper} if $x$ and $y$ are relatively prime.

\vskip 6pt

\noindent {\bf Remarks.}\, The following items ({\bf a})--({\bf f})
can be easily checked.

\vskip 2pt

({\bf a}) A proper $(1, n)$-representation is automatically
nontrivial unless it equals $1$ or $n$.

\vskip 2pt

({\bf b}) A $(1, n)$-representation of a prime $p$, where $p \neq
n$, is automatically proper and nontrivial.

\vskip 2pt

({\bf c}) A nontrivial $(1, n)$-representation of the product of two
primes is always proper.

\vskip 2pt

({\bf d}) If $p$ is a prime such that $p \nmid r$ and $p \nmid  n$,
then any $(1, n)$-representation of $pr$ is nontrivial.

\vskip 2pt

({\bf e}) There is the following very useful {\it Euler identity}
which expresses the product of two $(1, n)$-representations as a
$(1, n)$-representation in two ways:
\begin{eqnarray}\label{eqn:eulerid}
(a^2 + nb^2)(x^2 + ny^2) = (ax \pm nby)^2 + n(ay \mp bx)^2.
\end{eqnarray}

\vskip 2pt

({\bf f}) If an odd $s$, where $5 \nmid s$, has a nontrivial, proper
$(1,5)$-representation $s=a^2 + 5b^2$, then
\begin{eqnarray*}
s^2 = (a^2 - 5b^2)^2 + 5(2ab)^2
\end{eqnarray*}
is a nontrivial, proper $(1,5)$-representation, since every prime
common factor of $a^2 - 5b^2$ and $2ab$ is a common factor of $a$
and $b$.

\vskip 6pt

\noindent Our second cancelation lemma, Lemma \ref{lem:2} below,
enables us to cancel $q^2$, where $q$ is an odd prime and $q^2$ has
a nontrivial $(1, n)$-representation, from a given $(1,
n)$-representation of $q^2r$ and obtain a $(1, n)$-representation of
$r$.

\begin{lem}\label{lem:2}
Suppose $q^2$ has a nontrivial $(1, n)$-representation, where $q$ is
an odd prime. If $q^2 r$ has a $(1, n)$-representation, then $r$ has
a $(1, n)$-representation. Moreover, if $q^2 r$ has a nontrivial,
proper $(1, n)$-representation and $r \neq 1,n$, then $r$ has a
nontrivial, proper $(1, n)$-representation.
\end{lem}

\begin{pf} Suppose $q^2 = a^2 + nb^2$ is
nontrivial. Then it is proper by Remark ({\bf c}). Let $q^2 r = x^2
+ ny^2$. From the Euler identity (\ref{eqn:eulerid}), we have
\begin{eqnarray*}
q^4 r = (ax \pm nby)^2 + n(ay \mp bx)^2.
\end{eqnarray*}
Then $q^2 \mid (ay - bx)(ay + bx)$ as in the proof of Lemma
\ref{lem:1}.

\vskip 1pt

First, suppose $q^2 \nmid ay - bx$ and $q^2 \nmid ay + bx $. Then we
must have $q \mid ay - bx$ and $q \mid ay + bx$. Hence $q \mid 2ay$.
Since $q$ is odd, $q \mid ay$. We then have $q \mid y$ since $q \,
\nmid \, a$ (otherwise $a = 0$, or $a = q$ and $b = 0$, a
contradiction). Similarly, $q \mid x$. Consequently, we have
$$
r = (x/q)^2 + n(y/q)^2.
$$
In this case $q^2 r = x^2 + ny^2$ is not proper.

Now we may suppose \,$q^2 \mid ay - bx$ \,or\, $q^2 \mid ay + bx$.
Then \,$q^2 \mid ax + nby$ \,or\, $q^2 \mid ax - nby$ \,accordingly.
Consequently, we have one of the following two holds:
\begin{eqnarray}
&& r = ((ax + nby)/{q^2})^2 + n ((ay - bx)/{q^2})^2, \label{eqn:case1} \\%
&& r = ((ax - nby)/{q^2})^2 + n ((ay + bx)/{q^2})^2. \label{eqn:case2} %
\end{eqnarray}

\noindent {\sc Claim I.} \ The above obtained $(1,
n)$-representation of $r$ is nontrivial and proper if so is $q^2 r =
x^2 + ny^2$.

\vskip 3pt

\noindent {\sc Proof of Claim I.} \ In the case where $q^2 \mid ay -
bx$ and $q^2 \mid ax + nby$, it follows from the identities
\begin{eqnarray*}
&&x = a ((ax + nby)/{q^2}) - nb\, ((ay - bx)/{q^2}), \\%
&&y = b\, ((ax + nby)/{q^2}) + a ((ay - bx)/{q^2}) %
\end{eqnarray*}
that $(ax + nby)/{q^2}$ and $(ay - bx)/{q^2}$ are relatively prime
since so are $x$ and $y$. Hence the $(1, n)$-representation
(\ref{eqn:case1}) is proper.

In the case where $q^2 \mid ay + bx$ and $q^2 \mid ax - nby$, it
follows from the identities
\begin{eqnarray*}
&&x = a ((ax - nby)/{q^2}) + nb\, ((ay + bx)/{q^2}), \\%
&&y = -b\, ((ax - nby)/{q^2}) + a ((ay + bx)/{q^2}) %
\end{eqnarray*}
that $(ax - nby)/{q^2}$ and $(ay + bx)/{q^2}$ are relatively prime
since so are $x$ and $y$. Hence the $(1, n)$-representation
(\ref{eqn:case2}) is proper.

Since $r \neq 1,n$, in either case the $(1, n)$-representation of
$r$ is nontrivial by Remark ({\bf a}). Claim I is thus proved.

\vskip 3pt

This completes the proof of Lemma \ref{lem:2}.
\end{pf}

\noindent The case where $q=2$ and $n=5$ is simple and is considered
in the following

\vskip 6pt

\noindent {\bf Addendum to Lemma \ref{lem:2}.}\, If $2^2r$ has a
$(1, 5)$-representation $2^2r=x^2 + 5y^2$, then $x$ and $y$ must be
both even (by a simple modulo $4$ argument), and hence $r = (x/2)^2
+ 5(y/2)^2$. Furthermore, if $x^2 + 5y^2$ is nontrivial, so is
$(x/2)^2 + 5(y/2)^2$.

\section{THE PROOF THAT EULER MISSED}\label{s:4}

For convenience of later reference, we restate the assertions
(iv)--(vi) in \S \ref{s:1} as

\vskip 6pt

\noindent {\bf Theorem.} \,\, {\it {\rm(1)} Every prime $p \equiv 1,
9 \,\,{\rm mod}\,\, 20$ has a $(1, 5)$-representation.

\vskip 1pt

{\rm(2)} For every pair of primes $q,q'$ such that $q \equiv 3,7
\,\,{\rm mod}\,\, 20$ and either $q'\equiv 3,7 \,\,{\rm mod}\,\, 20$
or $q'=2$, their product $q q'$ has a nontrivial $(1,
5)$-representation.}

\vskip 6pt

\noindent It is the following inductive proof that Euler missed.

\vskip 6pt

\begin{pf} Suppose by induction that (1) and (2) hold for all primes
$p, q, q'$ which are less than a certain prime $\pi$ where $\pi
\equiv 1,9,3,7 \,\,{\rm mod}\,\, 20$. We need to show that

\vskip 3pt

$(1)_{\pi}$ \ If $\pi \equiv 1,9 \,\,{\rm mod}\,\, 20$ then $\pi$
has a $(1, 5)$-representation.

$(2)_{\pi}$ \ If $\pi \equiv 3,7 \,\,{\rm mod}\,\, 20$ then for
every prime $q \le \pi$ such that $q \equiv 3,7$ $\,\,{\rm mod}\,\,
20$ or $q = 2$, $\pi q$ has a nontrivial (hence proper) $(1,
5)$-representation.

\vskip 3pt

To start, we have from the quadratic reciprocity that for a prime $p \neq 2, 5$, %
\vskip 3pt %
\centerline{$-5$ is a quadratic residue mod $p$
\quad $\Longleftrightarrow$ \quad $p \equiv 1,9,3,7 \,\,{\rm mod}\,\, 20$.} %
\vskip 3pt %
\noindent Hence there is a $(1,5)$-representation
\begin{eqnarray}\label{eqn:pir=}
\pi r =\, x^2 + 5y^2.
\end{eqnarray}
Here (\ref{eqn:pir=}) initially holds for some $x \le (\pi - 1)/2$
and $y=1$; it follows that $x^2 + 5y^2 < {\pi}^2$ and hence $r <
\pi$. After reduction if necessary, it can be assumed that $5 \nmid
r$ and that (\ref{eqn:pir=}) is a nontrivial, proper
$(1,5)$-representation.

\vskip 4pt

\noindent {\sc Claim II.}\, When $r$ in (\ref{eqn:pir=}) is
minimized, we have either $r = 1$ or $r = q'$, where $q'$ is a prime
such that either $q' \equiv 3,7 \,\,{\rm mod}\,\, 20$ or $q'= 2$.

\vskip 4pt

\noindent {\sc Proof of Claim II.}\, Since $-5$ is a quadratic
residue mod $p$, for each prime factor $q$ of $r$, we have $q< \pi$
and either $q\equiv 1,9,3,7 \,\,{\rm mod}\,\, 20$ or $q= 2$. Our
idea is to manage to cancel the prime factors of $r$ one by one for
those congruent to $1,9$ modulo $20$, and pair by pair for those
congruent to $3,7$ modulo $20$ or equal to $2$.

If $r$ has a prime factor $q$ such that $q \equiv 1,9 \,\,{\rm
mod}\,\, 20$, then, by the inductive hypothesis, $q$ has a $(1,
5)$-representation. By Lemma \ref{lem:1}, $\pi r'$, where $r' =
r/q$, has a $(1, 5)$-representation. Hence, by minimizing $r$ in
(\ref{eqn:pir=}), we may assume that $r$ has no prime factors
congruent to $1,9$ modulo $20$.

Now each prime factor $q$ of $r$ is of the form %
either $q \equiv 3,7 \,\,{\rm mod}\,\, 20$ or $q = 2$. %
If the number of such prime factors of $r$, counted  with
multiplicity, is at least $2$, let $q, q'$ be two of them and set
$r' = r/(q q')$.

If $q = q'$ then $qq'$ has a nontrivial $(1, 5)$-representation by
the inductive hypothesis, hence we can apply Lemma \ref{lem:2} and
its addendum directly to cancel $q^2$ from $\pi r=(\pi r')(q^2)$ and
obtain a $(1, 5)$-representation of $\pi r'$.

If $q \neq q'$ then $q q'$ has a nontrivial $(1, 5)$-representation
by the inductive hypothesis again. Now $q^2 (q')^2 \pi r' = (q
q')(\pi r)$ has a $(1, 5)$-representation by the Euler identity
(\ref{eqn:eulerid}), and applying Lemma \ref{lem:2} and its addendum
{\it twice} implies that $\pi r'$ has a $(1,
5)$-representation---here is the trick used.
This finishes the proof of Claim II.

\vskip 3pt

We proceed to prove the inductive step. By minimizing $r$ in
(\ref{eqn:pir=}), we are in one of the alternatives described in
Claim II.

First, we prove {$(1)_{\pi}$}. In this case $\pi \equiv 1,9 \,\,{\rm
mod}\,\, 20$. One must have $r = 1$ and hence $\pi$ has a $(1,
5)$-representation; otherwise, $r = q' \equiv 3,7 \,\,{\rm mod}\,\,
20$ or $r=q'=2$, but then $\pi q' = x^2 + 5y^2 \equiv 3,7,\pm 2
\,\,{\rm mod}\,\, 20$ and consequently $x^2 \equiv \pm 2 \,\,{\rm
mod}\,\, 5$, a contradiction. This proves {$(1)_{\pi}$}.

To prove {$(2)_{\pi}$}, suppose $\pi \equiv 3,7 \,\,{\rm mod}\,\,
20$. One must have $r = q'$ as described in Claim II; otherwise $r =
1$, which implies that $\pi r = x^2 + 5y^2 \equiv 3,7 \,\,{\rm
mod}\,\, 20$, a contradiction.
Thus $\pi q'$ has a $(1, 5)$-representation, which is automatically
nontrivial and proper, for some prime $q' < \pi$ such that either
$q'\equiv 3,7 \,\,{\rm mod}\,\, 20$ or $q'=2$. Then Remark ({\bf f})
implies that ${\pi}^2 (q')^2 = (\pi q')(\pi q')$ has a nontrivial,
proper $(1, 5)$-representation. By the inductive hypothesis, either
$q' = 2$ or $(q')^2$ has a nontrivial $(1, 5)$-representation. Lemma
\ref{lem:2} and its addendum then give a nontrivial, proper $(1,
5)$-representation of ${\pi}^2$.

To prove the remaining part of {$(2)_{\pi}$}, let $q < \pi$ be any
prime such that either $q \equiv 3,7 \,\,{\rm mod}\,\, 20$ or $q=2$.
Then either $q = q' = 2$ or, by the inductive hypothesis, $q q'$ has
a nontrivial $(1, 5)$-representation. Thus $\pi q(q')^2 = (\pi
q')(q' q)$ has a $(1, 5)$-representation by the Euler identity
(\ref{eqn:eulerid}). On the other hand, by the inductive hypothesis,
either $q' = 2$ or $(q')^2$ has a nontrivial $(1,
5)$-representation. Now Lemma \ref{lem:2} and its addendum give a
$(1, 5)$-representation for $\pi q$, which is automatically
nontrivial. This proves {$(2)_{\pi}$}.

The theorem is thus proved by induction.
\end{pf}

\noindent Note that we have proved (iv)--(vi) without reference to
(v$'$). More interesting is that in fact (v$'$) follows from (vi).
To see this, for any prime $p \equiv 3,7 \,\,{\rm mod}\,\, 20$, let
$2p = x^2 + 5y^2$. It follows that both $x$ and $y$ are odd. Hence
$x = 2x' + y$, where $x'$ may be negative. Then $p = 2{x'}^2 + 2x'y
+3y^2$ gives a desired representation.

Among many other existing elementary proofs of Fermat's theorem (i),
we cannot help but mention Zagier's beautiful ``one-sentence
proof\,'' (see \cite{zagier1990amm}, or as explained in
\cite{aigner-ziegler2004book}) to conclude this note.

\vskip 10pt

\noindent {\bf ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.} \,\, The author would like to
thank H. Y. Loke for teaching him Number Theory years ago and for
encouragement. Thanks are also due to the referees whose
constructive suggestions helped improve the exposition of this note.
The author is supported by a CNPq-TWAS postdoctoral fellowship and
partially by NSFC grant No.10671171.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


text:
Home > Guidelines > Legislation Guidelines: 2018 edition > Constitutional Issues and Recognising Rights > 4. Fundamental constitutional principles and values of New Zealand law > 4.5. Natural justice
4. Fundamental constitutional principles and values of New Zealand law
4.1. Fundamental constitutional principles and the rule of law
4.2. The spirit and principles of the Treaty of Waitangi
4.3. The principle of legality—the dignity of the individual and the presumption in favour of liberty
4.4. Respect for property
4.5. Natural justice
4.6. Access to the courts
4.7. The presumption against retrospectivity
4.9. International obligations
4.10. The clear statement principle
5. The Treaty of Waitangi, Treaty settlements, and Māori interests
6. New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990
7. Discrimination and distinguishing between different groups
8. Privacy and dealing with information about people
Chapter 4 Fundemental constitutional principles and values of New Zealand law (PDF 185 KB)
Fundamental constitutional principles and values of New Zealand law
This is a single section from Chapter 4. Read the full chapter here.
Natural justice
Legislation should be consistent with the right to natural justice.
Section 27(1) of NZBORA provides a right to the observance of natural justice in a broad range of circumstances—for example, whenever a tribunal or other public authority makes a determination in respect of a person's rights, obligations, or interests that are protected or recognised by law. The requirements of natural justice vary depending on the particular context of the case, having regard to the importance of the rights and interests involved, but its purpose is to ensure people are dealt with fairly. First, decision makers must be unbiased in respect of the matter before them. Second, decision makers must provide those affected by the decision with the opportunity to be heard. Natural justice operates at its highest level in the case of criminal trials, with strict procedural requirements; the requirements of natural justice in civil matters (for example, a licensing decision) may be less stringent. See Chapter 6 for more guidance on legislation that impacts on rights.


text:
Procrastination is the avoidance of doing a task that needs to be accomplished by a certain deadline.[1] It could be further stated as a habitual or intentional delay of starting or finishing a task despite knowing it might have negative consequences.[2] It is a common human experience involving delay in everyday chores or even putting off salient tasks such as attending an appointment, submitting a job report or academic assignment, or broaching a stressful issue with a partner. Although typically perceived as a negative trait due to its hindering effect on one's productivity often associated with depression, low self-esteem, guilt and inadequacy;[3] it can also be considered a wise response to certain demands that could present risky or negative outcomes or require waiting for new information to arrive.[4]
From a cultural perspective, students from both Western and non-Western cultures are found to exhibit academic procrastination, but for different reasons. Students from Western cultures tend to procrastinate in order to avoid doing worse than they have done before or from failing to learn as much as they should have, whereas students from non-Western cultures tend to procrastinate in order to avoid looking incompetent, or to avoid demonstrating a lack of ability in front of their peers.[5] It is also important to consider how different cultural perspectives of time management can impact procrastination. For example, in cultures that have a multi-active view of time, people tend to place a higher value on making sure a job is done accurately before finishing. In cultures with a linear view of time, people tend to designate a certain amount of time on a task and stop once the allotted time has expired.[6]
Various types of procrastination (such as academic/non-academic or behavioural/indecisive) have their own underlying causes and effects. The most prominent explanation in present literature draws upon "Intemporal discounting, task averseness and certain personality traits such as indecisiveness and distractibility" as the common causes of procrastination.
A study of behavioral patterns of pigeons through delayed reward suggests that procrastination is not unique to humans, but can also be observed in some other animals.[7] There are experiments finding clear evidence for "procrastination" among pigeons, which show that pigeons tend to choose a complex but delayed task rather than an easy but hurry-up one.[8]
Latin: procrastinare, pro-, 'forward', with -crastinus, 'till next day' from "cras", 'tomorrow'.
In a study of academic procrastination from the University of Vermont, published in 1984, 46% of the subjects reported that they "always" or "nearly always" procrastinate writing papers, while approximately 30% reported procrastinating studying for exams and reading weekly assignments (by 28% and 30% respectively). Nearly a quarter of the subjects reported that procrastination was a problem for them regarding the same tasks. However, as many as 65% indicated that they would like to reduce their procrastination when writing papers, and approximately 62% indicated the same for studying for exams and 55% for reading weekly assignments.[9]
A 1992 study showed that "52% of surveyed students indicated having a moderate to high need for help concerning procrastination."[10] It is estimated that 80–95% of college students engage in procrastination, and approximately 75% consider themselves procrastinators.
A study done in 2004 shows that 70% of university students categorized themselves as procrastinators while a 1984 study showed that 50% of the students would procrastinate consistently and considered it a major problem in their lives.[11]
In a study performed on university students, procrastination was shown to be greater on tasks that were perceived as unpleasant or as impositions than on tasks for which the student believed they lacked the required skills for accomplishing the task.[12]
Another point of relevance is that of procrastination in industry. A study: The Impact of Organizational and Personal Factors on Procrastination in Employees of a Modern Russian Industrial Enterprise published in the Psychology in Russia: State of the Art journal, helped to identify the many factors that affected employees' procrastination habits. Some of which include intensity of performance evaluations, importance of their duty within a company, and their perception and opinions on management and/or upper level decisions.[13]
Behavioral criteria of academic procrastination
Gregory Schraw, Theresa Wadkins, and Lori Olafson in 2007 proposed three criteria for a behavior to be classified as academic procrastination: it must be counterproductive, needless, and delaying.[14] Steel reviewed all previous attempts to define procrastination, and concluded in a 2007 study that procrastination is "to voluntarily delay an intended course of action despite expecting to be worse off for the delay."[15] Sabini & Silver argued that postponement and irrationality are the two key features of procrastination. Delaying a task is not deemed as procrastination, they argue, if there are rational reasons behind the delay.
An approach that integrates several core theories of motivation as well as meta-analytic research on procrastination is the temporal motivation theory. It summarizes key predictors of procrastination (expectancy, value, and impulsiveness) into a mathematical equation.[15]
Psychological perspective
The pleasure principle may be responsible for procrastination; one may prefer to avoid negative emotions by delaying stressful tasks. As the deadline for their target of procrastination grows closer, they are more stressed and may, thus, decide to procrastinate more to avoid this stress.[16] Some psychologists cite such behavior as a mechanism for coping with the anxiety associated with starting or completing any task or decision.[17] Piers Steel indicated in 2010 that anxiety is just as likely to induce people to start working early as late, and that the focus of studies on procrastination should be impulsiveness. That is, anxiety will cause people to delay only if they are impulsive.[18]
Coping responses
Negative coping responses of procrastination tend to be avoidant or emotional rather than task-oriented or focused on problem-solving. Emotional and avoidant coping is employed to reduce stress (and cognitive dissonance) associated with delaying intended and important personal goals. This option provides immediate pleasure and is consequently very attractive to impulsive procrastinators, at the point of discovery of the achievable goals at hand.[19][20] There are several emotion-oriented strategies, similar to Freudian defense mechanisms, coping styles and self-handicapping.
Coping responses of procrastinators include the following.
Avoidance: Avoiding the location or situation where the task takes place (e.g. a graduate student avoiding driving into the university).
Denial and trivialization: Pretending that procrastinatory behavior is not actually procrastinating, but rather a task which is more important than the avoided one, or that the essential task that should be done is not of immediate importance.
Distraction: Engaging or immersing in other behaviors or actions to prevent awareness of the task (e.g. intensive video game playing or web browsing). The subject is very sensitive to instant gratification and becomes absorbed in coping behaviors beyond self-restraint.
Descending counterfactuality: Comparing consequences of one's procrastinatory behavior with others' worse situations (e.g. "Yes, I procrastinated and got a B− in the course, but I didn't fail like one other student did.")
Valorisation: Pointing in satisfaction to what one achieved in the meantime while one should have been doing something else.
Blaming: Delusional attributions to external factors, such as rationalizing that the procrastination is due to external forces beyond one's control (e.g. "I'm not procrastinating, but this assignment is tough.")
Mocking: Using humor to validate one's procrastination. The person uses slapstick or slipshod methods to criticize and ridicule others' striving towards the goal.
Task- or problem-solving measures are taxing from a procrastinator's outlook. If such measures are pursued, it is less likely the procrastinator would remain a procrastinator. However, pursuing such measures requires actively changing one's behavior or situation to prevent and minimize the re-occurrence of procrastination.
In 2006, it was suggested that neuroticism has no direct links to procrastination and that any relationship is fully mediated by conscientiousness.[21] In 1982, it had been suggested that irrationality was an inherent feature of procrastination. "Putting things off even until the last moment isn't procrastination if there is a reason to believe that they will take only that moment".[22] Steel et al. explained in 2001, "actions must be postponed and this postponement must represent poor, inadequate, or inefficient planning".[23]
Cultural perspective
According to Holly McGregor & Andrew Elliot (2002); Christopher Wolters (2003), academic procrastination among portions of undergraduate students has been correlated to performance-avoidance orientation which is one factor of the four factor model of achievement orientation.[5] Andrew Elliot and Judith Harackiewicz (1996) showed that students with a performance-avoidance orientation tend to be concerned with comparisons to their peers. These students procrastinate as a result of not wanting to look incompetent, or to avoid demonstrating a lack of ability and adopt a facade of competence for a task in front of their peers.[5]
Gregory Arief Liem and Youyan Nie (2008) found that cultural characteristics are shown to have a direct influence on achievement orientation because it is closely aligned with most students cultural values and beliefs.[5] Sonja Dekker and Ronald Fischer's (2008) meta-analysis across thirteen different societies revealed that students from Western cultures tend to be motivated more by mastery-approach orientation because the degree of incentive value for individual achievement is strongly reflective of the values of Western culture. By contrast, most students from Eastern cultures have been found to be performance-avoidance orientated. They often make efforts to maintain a positive image of their abilities, which they display while in front of their peers.[5] In addition, Hazel Rose Markus and Shinobu Kitayama (1991) showed that in non-Western cultures, rather than standing out through their achievements, people tend to be motivated to become part of various interpersonal relationships and to fit in with those that are relevant to them.[5]
Research by Sushila Niles (1998) with Australian (Western) students and Sri Lankan (Eastern) students confirm these differences, revealing that Australian students often pursued more individual goals, whereas Sri Lankan students usually desired more collaborative and social goals.[5] Multiple studies by Kuo-Shu Yang and An-Bang Yu (1987, 1988, 1990) have indicated that individual achievement among most Chinese and Japanese students are measured by a fulfillment of their obligation and responsibility to their family network, not to an individual accomplishment.[5] Yang and Yu (1987) have also shown that Collectivism and Confucianism are very strong motivators for achievement in many non-Western cultures because of their emphasis on cooperation in the family unit and community.[5] Guided by these cultural values, it is believed that the individual intuitively senses the degree of pressure that differentiates his or her factor of achievement orientation.[5]
Health perspective
To a certain degree it is normal to procrastinate and it can be regarded as a useful way to prioritize between tasks, due to a lower tendency of procrastination on truly valued tasks (for most people).[24] On the other hand, excessive procrastination can become a problem and impede normal functioning. When this happens, procrastination has been found to result in health problems, stress,[25] anxiety, sense of guilt and crisis as well as loss of personal productivity and social disapproval for not meeting responsibilities or commitments. Together these feelings may promote further procrastination and for some individuals procrastination becomes almost chronic. Such procrastinators may have difficulties seeking support due to procrastination itself, but also social stigma and the belief that task-aversion is caused by laziness, lack of willpower or low ambition. In some cases problematic procrastination might be a sign of some underlying psychological disorder, but not necessarily.[15]
Research on the physiological roots of procrastination have been concerned with the role of the prefrontal cortex,[26] the area of the brain that is responsible for executive brain functions such as impulse control, attention and planning. This is consistent with the notion that procrastination is strongly related to such functions, or a lack thereof. The prefrontal cortex also acts as a filter, decreasing distracting stimuli from other brain regions. Damage or low activation in this area can reduce one's ability to avert diversions, which results in poorer organization, a loss of attention, and increased procrastination. This is similar to the prefrontal lobe's role in ADHD, where it is commonly underactivated.[27]
In a 2014 U.S. study surveying procrastination and impulsiveness in fraternal- and identical twin pairs, both traits were found to be "moderately heritable". The two traits were not separable at the genetic level (rgenetic = 1.0), meaning no unique genetic influences of either trait alone was found.[28] The authors confirmed three constructs developed from the evolutionary hypothesis that procrastination arose as a by-product of impulsivity: "(a) Procrastination is heritable, (b) the two traits share considerable genetic variation, and (c) goal-management ability is an important component of this shared variation."[28]
Psychologist William J. Knaus estimated that more than 90% of college students procrastinate.[29] Of these students, 25% are chronic procrastinators and typically abandon higher education (college dropouts).
Perfectionism is a prime cause for procrastination[30] because pursuing unattainable goals (perfection) usually results in failure. Unrealistic expectations destroy self-esteem and lead to self-repudiation, self-contempt, and widespread unhappiness. To overcome procrastination, it is essential to recognize and accept the power of failure without condemning,[31] to stop focusing on faults and flaws and to set goals that are easier to achieve.
Behaviors and practices that reduce procrastination:
Awareness of habits and thoughts that lead to procrastinating.
Seeking help for self-defeating problems such as fear, anxiety, difficulty in concentrating, poor time management, indecisiveness, and perfectionism.
Fair evaluation of personal goals, strengths, weaknesses, and priorities.
Realistic goals and personal positive links between the tasks and the concrete, meaningful goals.[32]
Structuring and organization of daily activities.[32]
Modification of one's environment for that newly gained perspective: the elimination or minimization of noise or distraction; investing effort into relevant matters; and ceasing day-dreaming.[32]
Disciplining oneself to set priorities.[32]
Motivation with enjoyable activities, socializing and constructive hobbies.
Approaching issues in small blocks of time, instead of attempting whole problems at once and risking intimidation.
To prevent relapse, reinforce pre-set goals based on needs and allow yourself to be rewarded in a balanced way for accomplished tasks.
Making a plan to complete tasks in a rigid schedule format might not work for everyone. There is no hard-and-fast rule to follow such a process if it turns out to be counter-productive. Instead of scheduling, it may be better to execute tasks in a flexible, unstructured schedule which has time slots for only necessary activities.[33]
Piers Steel suggests[34] that better time management is a key to overcoming procrastination, including being aware of and using one's "power hours" (being a "morning person" or "night owl"). A good approach is to creatively utilize one's internal circadian rhythms that are best suited for the most challenging and productive work. Steel states that it is essential to have realistic goals, to tackle one problem at a time and to cherish the "small successes". Brian O'Leary supports that "finding a work-life balance...may actually help us find ways to be more productive", suggesting that dedicating leisure activities as motivation can increase one's efficiency at handling tasks.[35] Procrastination is not a lifelong trait. Those likely to worry can learn to let go, those who procrastinate can find different methods and strategies to help focus and avoid impulses.[36]
After contemplating his own procrastination habits, philosopher John Perry authored an essay entitled "Structured Procrastination",[37] wherein he proposes a "cheat" method as a safer approach for tackling procrastination: using a pyramid scheme to reinforce the unpleasant tasks needed to be completed in a quasi-prioritized order.
Severe and negative impact
For some people, procrastination can be persistent and tremendously disruptive to everyday life. For these individuals, procrastination may be symptomatic of a psychological disorder. Procrastination has been linked to a number of negative associations, such as depression, irrational behaviour, low self-esteem, anxiety and neurological disorders such as ADHD. Others have found relationships with guilt[38] and stress.[25] Therefore, it is important for people whose procrastination has become chronic and is perceived to be debilitating to seek out a trained therapist or psychiatrist to investigate whether an underlying mental health issue may be present.[39]
With a distant deadline, procrastinators report significantly less stress and physical illness than do non-procrastinators. However, as the deadline approaches, this relationship is reversed. Procrastinators report more stress, more symptoms of physical illness, and more medical visits,[25] to the extent that, overall, procrastinators suffer more stress and health problems. Procrastination also has the ability to increase perfectionism and neuroticism, while decreasing conscientiousness and optimism.[11]
Correlates
Procrastination has been linked to the complex arrangement of cognitive, affective and behavioral relationships from task desirability to low self esteem and anxiety to depression.[9] A study found that procrastinators were less future-oriented than their non-procrastinator counterparts. This result was hypothesized to be in association with hedonistic perspectives on the present; instead it was found procrastination was better predicted by a fatalistic and hopeless attitude towards life.[40]
A correlation between procrastination and eveningness was observed where individuals who had later sleeping and waking patterns were more likely to procrastinate. It has been shown that Morningness increases across lifespan and procrastination decreases with age.,[15][41]
Main article: Perfectionism (psychology)
Traditionally, procrastination has been associated with perfectionism: a tendency to negatively evaluate outcomes and one's own performance, intense fear and avoidance of evaluation of one's abilities by others, heightened social self-consciousness and anxiety, recurrent low mood, and "workaholism". However, adaptive perfectionists—egosyntonic perfectionism—were less likely to procrastinate than non-perfectionists, while maladaptive perfectionists, who saw their perfectionism as a problem—egodystonic perfectionism—had high levels of procrastination and anxiety.[42] In a regression analysis study of Steel, from 2007, it is found that mild to moderate perfectionists typically procrastinate slightly less than others, with "the exception being perfectionists who were also seeking clinical counseling".[15]
According to an Educational Science Professor, Hatice Odaci, academic procrastination is a significant problem during college years in part because many college students lack efficient time management skills in using the Internet. Also, Odaci notes that most colleges provide free and fast twenty-four-hour Internet service which some students are not usually accustomed to, and as a result of irresponsible use or lack of firewalls these students become engulfed in distractions, and thus in procrastination.[43]
"Student syndrome" refers to the phenomenon where a student will begin to fully apply themself to a task only immediately before a deadline. This negates the usefulness of any buffers built into individual task duration estimates. Results from a 2002 study indicate that many students are aware of procrastination and accordingly set binding deadlines long before the date for which a task is due. These self-imposed binding deadlines are correlated with a better performance than without binding deadlines though performance is best for evenly spaced external binding deadlines. Finally, students have difficulties optimally setting self-imposed deadlines, with results suggesting a lack of spacing before the date at which results are due.[44] In one experiment, participation in online exercises was found to be five times higher in the final week before a deadline than in the summed total of the first three weeks for which the exercises were available. Procrastinators end up being the ones doing most of the work in the final week before a deadline.[23]
Other reasons cited on why students procrastinate include fear of failure and success, perfectionist expectations, as well as legitimate activities that may take precedence over school work, such as a job.[45]
Procrastinators have been found to receive worse grades than non-procrastinators. Tice et al. (1997) report that more than one-third of the variation in final exam scores could be attributed to procrastination. The negative association between procrastination and academic performance is recurring and consistent. The students in the study not only received poor academic grades, but they also reported high levels of stress and poor self-health. Howell et al. (2006) found that, though scores on two widely used procrastination scales[9][46] were not significantly associated with the grade received for an assignment, self-report measures of procrastination on the assessment itself were negatively associated with grade.[47]
In 2005, a study conducted by Angela Chu and Jin Nam Choi and published in the Journal of Social Psychology intended to understand task performance among procrastinators with the definition of procrastination as the absence of self-regulated performance, from the 1977 work of Ellis & Knaus. In their study they identified two types of procrastination: the traditional procrastination which they denote as passive, and active procrastination where the person finds enjoyment of a goal-oriented activity only under pressure. The study calls this active procrastination positive procrastination, as it is a functioning state in a self-handicapping environment. In addition, it was observed that active procrastinators have more realistic perceptions of time and perceive more control over their time than passive procrastinators, which is considered a major differentiator between the two types. Due to this observation, active procrastinators are much more similar to non-procrastinators as they have a better sense of purpose in their time use and possess efficient time-structuring behaviors. But surprisingly, active and passive procrastinators showed similar levels of academic performance. The population of the study was college students and the majority of the sample size were women and Asian in origin. Comparisons with chronic pathological procrastination traits were avoided.[48]
Different findings emerge when observed and self-reported procrastination are compared. Steel et al. constructed their own scales based on Silver and Sabini's "irrational" and "postponement" criteria. They also sought to measure this behavior objectively.[23] During a course, students could complete exam practice computer exercises at their own pace, and during the supervised class time could also complete chapter quizzes. A weighted average of the times at which each chapter quiz was finished formed the measure of observed procrastination, whilst observed irrationality was quantified with the number of practice exercises that were left uncompleted. Researchers found that there was only a moderate correlation between observed and self-reported procrastination (r = 0.35). There was a very strong inverse relationship between the number of exercises completed and the measure of postponement (r = −0.78). Observed procrastination was very strongly negatively correlated with course grade (r = −0.87), as was self-reported procrastination (though less so, r = −0.36). As such, self-reported measures of procrastination, on which the majority of the literature is based, may not be the most appropriate measure to use in all cases. It was also found that procrastination itself may not have contributed significantly to poorer grades. Steel et al. noted that those students who completed all of the practice exercises "tended to perform well on the final exam no matter how much they delayed."
Procrastination is considerably more widespread in students than in the general population, with over 70 percent of students reporting procrastination for assignments at some point.[49] A 2014 panel study from Germany among several thousand university students found that increasing academic procrastination increases the frequency of seven different forms of academic misconduct, i.e., using fraudulent excuses, plagiarism, copying from someone else in exams, using forbidden means in exams, carrying forbidden means into exams, copying parts of homework from others, fabrication or falsification of data and the variety of academic misconduct. This study argues that academic misconduct can be seen as a means to cope with the negative consequences of academic procrastination such as performance impairment.[50]
Attention economy
Attention management
Avoidance coping
Distributed Practice
Dunning–Kruger effect
Egosyntonic and egodystonic
Emotional self-regulation
Empathy gap
Law of triviality
Passive-aggressive behavior
Postponement of affect
Resistance (creativity)
Restraint bias
Tardiness (vice)
Temporal motivation theory
Time perception
Trait theory
Work aversion
Zeigarnik effect
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