It happened a few years ago. The day started out as a clear blue Saturday morning (much like it was today, actually). We joined Mark (a friend of ours) and a few others for a walk on the slopes of Table Mountain. We started walking the Pipe Track from Kloofnek Road, heading around to Camps Bay side.
Mark developed a need to go over the mountain - ascending from Camps Bay side and descending on the Cable Station side of the mountain. Kerry-Anne and I (the more sensible ones) voiced our concern at the oncoming clouds, and the distant rumble of thunder.
For reasons unknown to us now, we decided not to split from the group and instead to climb the mountain. About 100 metres from the summit we realised that the lightning (which had been moving in ever closer over the sea) was actually striking the mountain - not far from us either. We felt how the air became charged with electricity, and could smell the sulphur. At that point, everyone knew that it had probably not been a wise decision to climb the mountain. There was absolutely nowhere to take shelter; by then we were so close to the top that it was easier to just climb to the summit and descend the other side.
It was raining, and the top of the mountain was covered in cloud. The cable station was closed - naturally. We lost our way a few times on top of the mountain (it's not quite as flat as it looks in photos), but eventually found the pathway again. Our hike down the mountain was rather speedier than usual, and as I recall, the weather cleared pretty quickly as we descended.
Thank-you Mark for an unforgettable tale.
Posted in General on Sunday, 17 June, 2007 by Paul.


Malwarebytes or Avast, which antivirus software is a better option in 2019?
In the modern world, malware (short for malicious software) poses an ever-rising level of threat to everyone, not only due to the ever-increasing number of malware but also due to the nature of the threats.
The bad guys have gotten exceptionally smart, and have devised many new (and clever) ways to fool you into visiting infected websites, downloading rouge malicious programs, opening dangerous email attachments, and more.
In this comprehensive, in-depth guide, you will see what Avast and Malwarebytes have to offer and how they stack up against each other in great depth.
"What's the difference between viruses and malware?" you may ask.
Put simply, a computer virus is a specific type of malware that replicates itself by changing other computer programs, while malware is an umbrella term which is used to refer to a variety of forms of harmful or intrusive software, including viruses, worms, Trojan horses, ransomware, spyware, adware, and more.
Back in the day, the term "antivirus" made the headlines so a lot of cyber-security companies – including Avast – named their security products after it.
But that doesn't mean an "antivirus" product would only protect against viruses; in fact, most modern antivirus products protect against a wide variety of malware threats.
Malwarebytes and Avast are two slightly different type of tools; the former's specialty lies in hunting down previously unseen malware (also called zero-day malware), while the latter is a complete package that provides excellent protection against all sorts of new and old viruses, adware, spyware, ransomware, exploits, and more.
First, let's look at the different antivirus (or anti-malware) suites both companies offer and the stuff included in each one of them.
If you want the answer straightway, take a look at the summary of this ultimate comparison below and also read our short verdict to make your mind.
Avast is the winner as it offers more security-enhancing features and extra utilities in its security suites than Malwarebytes. Also, independent lab tests prove that Avast is better than Malwarebytes in terms of both malware detection and the impact on system performance.
Let's begin with the detailed comparison.
What is Included in Malwarebytes Anti-malware Suites?
Malwarebytes offers a separate lineup of products for Windows and MacOS.
First, let's see what is included in the two suites that Malwarebytes offers for Windows users: Malwarebytes Free and Malwarebytes Premium.
Unlike most of the modern free security tools, Malwarebytes' freeware is a cleanup-only product, with no real-time (or on-access) protection. In simple terms, it doesn't protect you against threats in real-time, but it can help you remove malware that has already infected your system.
It can also help you remove spyware and rootkits.
To prevent malware from sneaking into your system in the first place, you must purchase Malwarebytes Premium. It adds real-time threat monitoring capability, a powerful anti-exploit module (protects your system and other software against exploit attacks), an anti-ransomware, and protection against fake, malicious websites.
Of late, the company has started claiming its premium security product as "a next-generation antivirus replacement," but I believe the product still has a long way to go to reach that status.
For MacOS, Malwarebytes offers two similar security solutions for home-based users: Malwarebytes Free and Malwarebytes Premium.
The freeware will only help you clean your infected Mac, while the premium one provides protection against viruses, spyware, ransomware, adware, and other types of malware. Also, it will automatically update to the latest version, so you don't have to worry about updating it.
What is Included in Avast Antivirus Suites?
First, let's see what Avast offers for home-based Windows users.
Avast's freeware, popularly known as Avast Free Antivirus, is one of the best free antivirus software available in the market. It includes a lot of security-related tools and handy utilities (some of them are limited, which is expected as the software is completely free), along with great protection against all sorts of new and old malware threats.
A WiFi Inspector (scans for vulnerabilities in your home-network and exposes intruders), a limited Software Updater, and a password manager are all part of the free version.
A rescue disk option to remove deeply rooted malware infections and a silent/gaming mode feature for interruption-free experience are also included in the Avast's free offering.
Avast Online Security free browser extension safeguards your online experience by blocking websites that are fake or known to be involved in phishing/fraudulent practices, while Avast SafePrice is a price comparison and coupon finder tool that can assist you in finding the cheapest deals from around the web.
With Avast Antivirus Pro, you get everything in the free plan plus Sandbox technology (lets you test and play with dangerous files in a virtual environment), a Real Site feature to prevent hackers from hijacking your DNS (Domain Name System) settings, and premium customer support.
The next level up is Avast Internet Security. It adds an advanced firewall, an anti-spam to filter out junk, phishing emails, and also includes an extra layer of ransomware protection to wall off your private folders and photos.
Avast Premier takes things to the next level by adding a data shredder (lets you safely delete your sensitive files so they can't be recovered), an automatic software updater, and a webcam shield.
Avast Ultimate is the company's top-tier suite. It includes everything in the "Premier" plan plus Cleanup Premium (removes junk, saves disk space, and speeds up your system) and a VPN. It also includes Avast Passwords Premium, which is the same password manager that comes with the free plan but includes few advanced features.
Avast Security and Avast Security Pro are the two Avast plans that are compatible with Mac platform. The former is a freeware that, much like Avast Free Antivirus for Windows, comes with basic anti-malware security, web and email shields, and a WiFi security scanner (checks your network and connected devices for vulnerabilities).
With Avast Security Pro, you get everything in the free plan plus ransomware protection and a WiFi intruder alert feature (instantly notifies whenever someone connects to your network).
Malwarebytes vs Avast: Which is Better in Terms of Protection?
Any sample that is suspected to be dangerous is added to cloud servers and if confirmed to be malware upon further examination, it is then sent out to the users in form of latest definition updates.
Both Malwarebytes and Avast claim to protect against both all sorts of known and unknown malware (also called zero-day malware).
First, let's see how Avast performed in the recent independent lab tests conducted by AV-Test and AV-Comparatives – two respected security labs that regularly test various top antivirus products on different levels.
In the 'protection' category of the AV-Test's most recent review of Avast, they tested the product against 185 samples of zero-day malware and 10,684 samples of widespread malware in the months of November and December last year.
Avast came up with incredible results; it protected against 100% of the zero-day malware samples in both months, and 99.9% and 100% of the widespread malware samples in November and December respectively.
It received an excellent 6-star rating in the 'protection' category from the security experts at AV-Test.
To test the protection level of different antivirus products, AV-Comparatives does two major tests: Real World Protection Test and Malware Protection Test. The former aims to test the product against real-world settings as experienced by users every day, while the latter assesses the software's ability to protect the system against infections by malicious programs before, during, or after execution.
On the other hand, it's much more difficult to test the effectiveness of Malwarebytes since it doesn't take part in the independent lab testing for a lot of reasons.
The major reason being that Malwarebytes is not like a traditional antivirus product as it identifies and blocks threats based on their behavior than simple signature-based detection. Its specialty lies in whipping zero-day or zero-hour malware – a type of malware that has been recently created or found on the internet – and not the malware that had originated several years ago.
In fact, to keep the product simple, the company may remove the signature of a particular malware if it hasn't been spotted in the recent years.
So, a test that uses dated samples to gauge the product's protection level will make the product look substandard, and is one of the biggest reasons why Malwarebytes doesn't participate in the independent lab testing.
Also, Malwarebytes encourages its users to run their tool alongside another antivirus tool with stronger definitions like Avast or Bitdefender to stay protected at all times against both known and unknown malware.
Besides scanning, experts report that Malwarebytes has a great malicious URL blocking filter and an Anti-Exploit module.
All things considered, it can be easily said that Avast offers better overall protection against all types of malware threats.
Malwarebytes vs Avast: Which Offers a Better Interface?
Now, let's see which of the two software provides a better user interface.
Avast's modern-style interface follows a dark color scheme and looks nice, clean, and elegant on both Windows and MacOS. It has a vertical menu along the left edge that has the following categories: Status, Privacy, Protection, and Performance.
The Status category, which is the default window, shows a reassuring "you're protected" message with a green check mark if everything is all right. It quickly turns to red when your computer's health is in jeopardy. Just below the message is a button to which lets you run what Avast calls a 'Smart Scan'.
The other three categories — when clicked — neatly open relevant features and their settings in a horizontal roll-out manner.
At the bottom left, there's a button which takes you to the settings page, and just above is a button to get you to upgrade to a higher plan.
If you're on the free plan, you'll see many of the features that are reserved for paying customers have small padlock icons next to them, meaning they will be of no use to you. Also, it goes without saying that you'll see unobtrusive ads in the freeware.
When you download the free version of Malwarebytes, you automatically get all the premium features free of cost for 14 days.
The program's interface is immaculate and user-friendly. At first look, it may appear as a little tricky but when you get used to it, you'll see it's very straightforward. On most of the occasions, all you will do is to run a scan and look at the results.
Like Avast, there's a vertical menu on the left with the following categories: Dashboard, Scan, Quarantine, Reports, and Settings. If you're on the free plan, you'll see a 'Why Premium' button on at the bottom-left which takes you the tour of Malwarebytes Premium.
The Dashboard window is the first thing you see when you open the software. It shows your protection status and also tells you about the number of days remaining in your free trial. You can quickly run a threat scan by just clicking the 'Scan' button. On the right side, you'll see the list of modules that are currently active, your last scan status, and your protection history.
You can run different types of scans (i.e. Threats Scan, Custom Scan, and Hyper Scan) using the Scan button. The Quarantine, Reports, Settings windows are pretty much self-explanatory.
Overall, both Avast and Malwarebytes offer excellent user-experience. So it's a tie in this category.
Malwarebytes vs Avast: Which Software Costs Less?
First, let's see how much Malwarebytes costs.
Now, let's see the prices of different Avast's plans.
Malwarebytes vs Avast: Which Software is More Popular?
To figure out which software is more popular is a difficult task. I will look at the independent market share statistics, total downloads, and social media numbers to decide the winner in this category.
OPSWAT, which is an independent company, publishes monthly reports on the market share captured by the leading antivirus (or anti-malware) companies. According to their most recent report, Avast dominates the market with 19.3%, followed by ESET (4%) and Malwarebytes (12.72%).
On CNET's download.com, which is the world's most popular software download portal, Avast has far more total downloads than Malwarebytes.
If you look at the social media following, Avast once again leads the way with 4.1 million Facebook fans and over 182k Twitter followers, as opposed to the Malwarebytes' 2 million and 50k respectively.
So, it's clear that Avast is a more popular choice among users.
Avast offers more protection-related features and extra utilities in its security suites than Malwarebytes. Also, Malwarebytes specializes in hunting zero-day malware, while Avast provides top-notch protection against all kinds of malware (including zero-day malware).
Would you mind pointing out anything that I've stated incorrectly?


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Environmental Impact of One Paseo Mixed-Use Development is Debated
By Gabriel Circiog, Associate Editor The Carmel Valley Middle School was the center of a heated debate regarding the One Paseo mixed-use development proposed by Kilroy Realty Corporation. Residents gathered to hear the comments of the Carmel Valley Planning Board on the draft environmental impact report, according to The San Diego Union-Tribune. While most locals agree [...]
The Carmel Valley Middle School was the center of a heated debate regarding the One Paseo mixed-use development proposed by Kilroy Realty Corporation. Residents gathered to hear the comments of the Carmel Valley Planning Board on the draft environmental impact report, according to The San Diego Union-Tribune.
While most locals agree that a mixed-use development is ideal for the site, some are still concerned about the density of the project. The proposed site, at Del Mar Heights Road and El Camino, is zoned for 500,000 square feet of office space. Kilroy Realty, however, proposes a mixed-use development that would also include (in addition to the 557,000 square feet destined for offices) 270,000 square feet of retail space, 600 housing units, and a 150-room hotel accompanied by 4,000 parking spaces. The major concerns regarding the proposed development, totaling 1.8 million square feet, have to do with increased traffic congestion and the irregularity of tall buildings in the suburban setting.
The comments of the board have been submitted to the city of San Diego for review and a final environmental impact report will be issued at a later date for review. The members of the city's Planning Commission are scheduled to hold a public hearing before submitting their recommendation to the City Council.
As previously reported by Commercial Property Executive, so far this year Kilroy Realty has been focusing its attention on the healthcare sector in the San Diego market. In February the company sold a 253,676-square-foot portfolio of Class-A medical office buildings.
Illustration Courtesy of: www.kilroyrealty.com
Longfellow Real Estate Partners Acquires San Diego Office Property
San Diego Office Complex Trades for $51M
JLL Income Property Trust Pays $90M for San Diego MOB
San Diego Office Report – Spring 2019

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


The versatility of copper is astounding, the efficiency of the material makes it an attractive alternative for various applications. Over the years, copper has grown increasingly popular as its applications diversify. Various industries rely on this material for safe, reliable and efficient end-results.
The call for abstracts for the seventh biannual Emerging Water Technology Symposium (EWTS), to be held on 12–13 May 2020 in San Antonio, Texas, can now be downloaded from the EWTS website.


Hosted by the Central-Carroll Lion Pride Band Boosters and the Central-Carroll Lion Pride Bands!!!
Travel I-20 West to Villa Rica/Carrollton Exit 24. Turn left (south) onto Hwy 61. Travel approximately 12 miles to Carrollton South 166 by-pass (just past Ryan's Steak House and Richard Haney Ford dealership). Turn left onto by-pass. Just past 3rd traffic light, take the US 27 exit - Carrollton/LaGrange. Make left - cross over by-pass and take first left onto Central Road (Chick-fil-A on left). Central-Carroll HS is on your right.
Travel I-20 East to Bremen - Exit 11. Turn right (south) and follow Hwy 27 South into Carrollton Cross over the Carrollton by-pass (just beyond Target and Publix) and take first left onto Central Road (Chick-fil-A on left). Central-Carroll HS is on your right.
Travel Hwy 27 South into Carrollton - cross over the Carrollton by-pass (just beyond Target and Publix) and take first left onto Central Road (Chick-fil-A on left). Central-Carroll HS is on your right.
Travel I-85 North to Newnan - take Hwy Alt 27 North to Carrollton. Turn left (south) onto Carrollton South 166 by-pass. Take Carrollton-LaGrange exit (US 27 South) - turn left (south) - cross over by-pass and take first left onto Central Road (Chick-fil-A on left). Central-Carroll HS is on your right.


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MariaDB Raises $9 Million and Appoints Michael Howard New CEO and Monty Widenius as CTO
MariaDB lays foundation for vision and execution in open source database innovation
San Francisco and Helsinki – January 21, 2016 – MariaDB Corporation, a recognized leader in open-source relational database solutions for high availability, scalability, and performance, today announced that it has received $9 Million in equity financing to support accelerating sales and advanced technology development. The company also announced the appointment of Michael Howard as the company's chief executive officer, and Michael "Monty" Widenius as chief technology officer, effective January 1, 2016. Intel Capital and California Technology Ventures were among the investors in the $9 Million equity financing.
Howard brings decades of leadership in the enterprise software, data management, and big data industries. He is charged with scaling MariaDB to continue its steep growth and with steering the company's market-leading technology innovation in partnership with the MariaDB user community.
"Michael's proven leadership and deep operational and technology expertise will enable MariaDB to extend its position in the open source database market," said Scott Raskin, independent director on the MariaDB Board. "With his extensive experience driving growth at both private and public companies, we believe Michael's leadership will enable MariaDB to capitalize on the massive shifts and opportunities it is addressing in the data management space."
"The breadth of MariaDB's customer base and user community is strong validation that open, enterprise-grade products are the future of the database market," said Howard. "I am excited at the opportunity to work with the MariaDB team and our partners to create database products that lead the market in innovation and value."
Most recently, Howard was CEO at C9, which he transformed into one of the leading predictive analytics companies in the CRM space, ultimately leading to its acquisition by InsideSales. Previously, Howard was CMO at Greenplum (now Pivotal), the Big Data division of EMC. He was CEO at Ingrian Networks and Outerbay, and VP of the Internet Division at Veritas and of Data Warehousing at Oracle.
Monty Widenius, the creator of both MySQL and MariaDB, has joined the company as CTO. Monty has been advocating open source throughout the industry as well as serving on the boards of MariaDB Corporation and the MariaDB Foundation, the non-profit organization charged with promoting, protecting and advancing the MariaDB codebase, community, and ecosystem. Monty developed MySQL, the most widely adopted open source relational database, which was acquired by Oracle as part of the Sun Microsystems purchase in 2010. Monty remains Founder and Open Source Advocate at the MariaDB Foundation.
"MariaDB's success as an open source technology goes hand-in-hand with its growing popularity in the commercial market. As part of the MariaDB team, I will be able to create innovative data management capabilities more quickly, and ensure these are open and accessible to the global development community by continuing the close collaboration with the MariaDB Foundation," said Monty.
About MariaDB Corporation
MariaDB Corporation is a leader in open-source database solutions for SaaS, cloud, and on-premises applications that require high availability, scalability, and performance. Built by the founder and core engineering team behind MySQL, MariaDB is the "M" in LAMP, having displaced MySQL as the default database in the Red Hat and SUSE Linux distributions. MariaDB is also included in Pivotal Cloud Foundry, Rackspace and other cloud stacks, and it is the database of choice for IBM POWER8. MariaDB has over 9 million users in more than 45 countries, including global brands such as HP, Wikipedia, Virgin Mobile, and Booking.com. For more information, visit mariadb.com.


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Yellow Fever in Old Texas
Brenham Masonic CemeteryBrenham
Washington County, Texas 3
0 11.032' N 96 24.102' W
Directions: Start at the intersection of Duprie Road and Old Masonic Cemetery Road. Go 100 yards north on Old Masonic Cemetery Road. The Brenham Masonic Cemetery is on the right (east) side of the road.
Text: Numerous gravestones dating from the early 1840s indicate this burial ground was in use well before December of 1847, when it was formally deeded to the Graham Masonic Lodge #20 by Chauncey B. Shepard (1812-1892). Brenham's citizens buried many loved ones here in latter part of 1867 as an epidemic swept through the area; the site has been commonly known as "The Yellow Fever Cemetery" ever since. Laid to rest here are: pioneers; veterans of The War of 1812, the The Texas Revolution and the Civil War; state and local lawmakers and officials; educators; and many other who formed Washington County's heritage. Yellow Fever struck the city of Houston in 1839, attacking a third of its population. Arriving with the warm weather and departing with the cold, the American Plague scourged Houston several times over the next 28 years. During those years Yellow Fever also attacked other busy port cities in Texas such as Indianola, Galveston and Corpus Christi. The Yellow Fever epidemic in 1867 was so deadly that the Masonic Cemetery in Brenham, Texas, acquired the name Yellow Fever Cemetery, based in part because of the two mass graves in the cemetery, each holding the remains of 200 plus Yellow Fever victims.
To victims, symptoms felt at first much like the flu with nausea, muscle aches, headache and of course, fever. These symptoms gave way to others that were particularly horror-inspiring. Victims felt a brief remission for two or three days during which symptoms disappeared; but this reprieve was followed by profuse bleeding from multiple body orifices, jaundice, a hideous black vomit and death.
Doctors were completely stumped by the causes of the disease and equally confused as to how to treat it. They realized that quarantine, a preventive technique, was the most effective method of fighting Yellow Fever. They tried many types of treatments, none of which worked.
Even today there is no cure for Yellow Fever. Medical professionals can address only the symptoms and attempt to relieve a patient's suffering. We know that prevention of the disease remains the best solution. We do know, however, due to the work of Dr. Walter Reed and the U. S. Army Yellow Fever Commission in the early 1900s, that the disease is spread by the Aedes aegypti mosquito rather than through direct contact between humans or their soiled clothing. The use of insecticides therefore helps to prevent the disease. Then, in 1937, a scientist named Max Theiler created the first vaccine to prevent Yellow Fever. Today outbreaks still occur but are limited to Africa and Central and South America.
Yet today scientists fear that Yellow Fever could stage a comeback. Several factors associated with global warming are conducive to the life stages of this disease. In addition, people all over the world take flights from one country to another, often landing in more than one airport per flight, allowing contagion to spread both by infected mosquitoes and by infected humans. Adding to concern, the use of DDT and other insecticides is now prohibited which has led to increasing mosquito populations. Of greatest concern, the vaccines are only made by four companies and supplies already lag behind demand.
The last known death caused by Yellow Fever in Texas occurred in March of 2002 when a man from Corpus Christi went on a fishing trip to Brazil without getting a vaccination for Yellow Fever.
Keywords: aedes aegypti, brenham yellow fever, problems today, symptoms, texas yellow fever, yellow fever cemetery
Temple Diamond T Fire Truck The Hutto WHO? If Dollar General and Super Walmart Had a Baby. A Tale of Two Medal of Honor Winners You've Heard of the Sultan of Swat. Meet the Rajah of Rude Yellow Fever in Old Texas
Diamond T Fire Truck Matthew W. Perrine Temple Texas Fire Truck hutto hutto hippos sports team mascots texas texas trivia appliances beaumont


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Home > News and events > Lonely Hearts: 24 Hours in A&E continues…
Lonely Hearts: 24 Hours in A&E continues…
68-year-old Beth is rushed to A&E after falling down a flight of stairs and breaking her ankle – her foot is hanging off and the bone is sticking out. Beth, who's originally from Canada, lives on her own after her husband died recently. "I remember losing my balance. I just remember going down, and when I landed thinking, 'Oh God! I've lost my foot'," says Beth. "I was scared, because I'm on my own. I'm not quite used to that yet."
Dr Ashley is concerned that Beth may have sustained other internal injuries. Doctors manipulate her ankle back into place and she faces emergency surgery and intensive physiotherapy. But Beth is determined to walk again. "I've got things to do and places to go. I'm not ready to lay down and die yet!" she says.
67-year-old Leigh has head injuries after being knocked off his bicycle in a hit and run incident. He was travelling at speed and wasn't wearing a helmet. Medics are worried that he has suffered a severe trauma to his head and may have further injuries to his neck and spine.
"A car came out of a side road, and he obviously didn't see me, because I hit him before I could even touch the brakes," says Leigh. "It was a horrible feeling. I just knew I was gonna crash."
Leigh was born in Southern Rhodesia, which became Zimbabwe, and doesn't have any family in the UK. He talks about how life changed in the country as pressure for independence grew and why he had to leave at short notice after being threatened with arrest for treason.
Meanwhile 26-year-old Luke comes to A&E after an accident at work involving an electric saw. He's accompanied by his twin brother, Dan. They were always close until Dan moved away and had a son with his girlfriend. Luke had a couple of run ins with the police, but now wants to find the right girl and settle down.
24 HOURS IN A&E Ep7


Standing Flip-Top Floor Ashtray which empties the ashtray at the press of a button. Leak proof inner receptacle is easy to empty. Made of heavy duty steel, with Stainless Steel flip-top blades. Chrome powder band around the base of unit and a protective rubber gasket around the bottom of the unit to protect floors. Perfect for both cigarettes and cigars. Can also be ordered with a bridge top.


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What are some opposite words for country of origin?
Antonyms for country of origin
This page is about all possible antonyms and opposite words for the term country of origin.
fatherland, homeland, motherland, mother country, country of origin, native land(noun)
the country where you were born
motherland, fatherland, homeland, native land, mother country
How to use country of origin in a sentence?
Border Protection Minister Peter Dutton:
If it is safe to do so and we have met our international obligations and we don't owe people protection, then those people will go back to their country of origin, people who seek an economic outcome are not true refugees and just because somebody is on a boat does not mean that they are a refugee.
Adam Schiff:
We know that country of origin is a poor predictor of a propensity to commit acts of terror. If it were, Pakistan has been a far more problematic source of attack planning and would be at the top of the President's list, but that country merits not even a mention in the order.
The Archdiocese of Chicago:
There is no place in American life for discriminatory rhetoric of any kind, at a time when hate crimes are on the rise, when religious believers are murdered in their places of worship, we cannot countenance any speech that dehumanizes persons on the basis of ethnicity, religious belief, economic status or country of origin.
Australian Immigration Minister Peter Dutton:
The government's position is perfectly clear and that is at some point if people don't have a protection claim then they will be returned to their country of origin or back to Nauru. We are not going to renege on that position.
Yukiya Amano:
We have received a request from Syria early this year to convert the HEU fuel to LEU fuel and to repatriate the HEU to the country of origin. We are now studying this request.
How to pronounce country of origin?
How to say country of origin in sign language?
"country of origin." Synonyms.com. STANDS4 LLC, 2021. Web. 18 Jan. 2021. <https://www.synonyms.com/antonyms/country+of+origin>.
Are we missing a good antonym for country of origin?
An antonym for "disparage"
A. blandish
B. diminish
C. minimize
D. belittle
country mile
country music association
country of nationality
country of provenance
Alternative searches for country of origin:
Search Synonyms for country of origin
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Q: sbt failure for java.sql.{Connector,DriverManager,ResultSet} I am running into an issue when I run "sbt package" on a scala program. Here are the imports that I have in my scala program
import java.sql.{Connecion,DriverManager,ResultSet}

when I run sbt package, I get the below errors.
[error] /home/SriniNN/scala_cd/ReadDJDBC/src/main/scala/ReadDJDBC.scala:8: object Connecion is not a member of package java.sql
[error] import java.sql.{Connecion,DriverManager,ResultSet}
[error]        ^
[error] /home/SriniNN/scala_cd/ReadDJDBC/src/main/scala/ReadDJDBC.scala:26: value getConnecion is not a member of object java.sql.DriverManager
[error] val jdbcRDD = new JdbcRDD(sc, () => DriverManager.getConnecion(url,username,password),

This is what I have in my build.sbt
name:= "ReadJDBC"
version:= "1.0"
scalaVersion:= "2.11.8"

libraryDependencies += "org.apache.spark" % "spark-core_2.11" % "1.6.2"

Can you please help me resolve this issue?

A: You are just mis-spelling Connection. Note the t between the c and i. If you fix that typo then it should work

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


TNI Bureau:Amid tight security, Pakistan women team reached Bhubaneswar on Sunday to participate the ICC Women's Cricket World Cup and proceeded straight to Cuttack, one of the venue for the tournament.
They will be lodged in Cuttack close to the Barabati Stadium while three other teams from Australia, New Zealand and South Africa are to stay in capital city of Bhubaneswar.
Pakistani team would remain confined to Barabati Stadium. All the matches involving Pakistani players will be played at Barabati Stadium, Cuttack, while the remain matches will be held at DRIEMS Ground at Tangi, 20 km away from Cuttack city.
Pakistani team would play a practice match against Odisha Women's cricket team at Barabati Stadium today and the day after. Meanwhile, a delegation of Odisha Police led by Director General of Police (DGP) Prakash Mishra visited the Barabati Stadium and inspected the security arrangements for the Pakistani players.
However, the Odisha police took 10 activists of Utkal Bharat, including former MP Kharvel Swain, into custody as the outfit was agitating against the participation of Pakistan in the tournament.


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Map your location, track your location, import your images, and much more!. Virus Free Download GPS Map app for Android. Map your location, track your location, import your images, and much more!. .... Map your location, track your location, import your images, and much more!. Virus Free Download GPS Map app for Android. Map your location, track your location, import your images, and much more!. .
There are two versions of the USA/Canada map, the small map for 1GB devices, and the large map for 2GB+ devices. The large map has the same POI detail as the USA/Canada/Mexico map. The smal map has about half the POI.
You need to get the maps through the TomTOm HOME application. But if it is a Canadian model, it supposed to have the map of Canada. Try Settings/Preferences - Maps/Manage Maps - Switch Maps.
When finished, TomTom HOME is saved in your downloads folder. Click the Finder icon in the Dock to switch to Finder. From the Finder menu at the top of the screen, click Go and choose Downloads .


website or a mobile app. Revamp your approach in a go!
requirements and bring in your restaurant digitally live instantly!
Choose your industry, help us serve you better!
Accelerate your restaurant business by going digital with us & let your users start ordering online!


Blenheim Palace is located in the majestic old English town of Woodstock, just 8 miles north-west of Oxford on the A44 Evesham Road. Easily accessible from London and Birmingham, the Palace is signposted from Junction 9 off the M40.
Event parking for all guests is available in Hensington Car Park, situated within Blenheim Palace grounds, please bear in mind it is a 10 minute stroll from the car park to Salon Privé main entrance. Stewards will be on hand at Blenheim Palace to direct you.
Classic & Supercar Parking will once again be available in Flagstaff Car Park and along the Avenue but is very limited. If you are driving your Supercar or Classic Car to the event, and wish to park within the preferential area, please click here to register.
Nearby stations include Oxford and Bicester with direct trains running regularly from London Paddington and Marylebone respectively. Although the nearest train station to Blenheim Palace is Hanborough station, please note there isn't a taxi rank at this station so is only suitable if you are being collected by car.
For up to date train information please call 08457 484950 or visit www.firstgreatwestern.co.uk or www.chilternrailways.co.uk.
For those attending from further afield, there is the option of arriving by helicopter directly to the Palace, or indeed private jet with London Oxford Airport only 6 minutes away, making the event more accessible for both UK and overseas guests than ever before.
The nearest international airports are London Heathrow and Birmingham International. Kidlington (Oxford) Airport is situated just 2 miles from Blenheim Palace and caters for private planes and helicopters. Executive car transfers can be booked through the airport.
Blenheim Palace has made every effort to ensure disabled visitors can enjoy as much of the estate as possible. However please note the Salon Privé event is held on the lawns and therefore we do strongly recommend that disabled visitors are accompanied by a companion to assist them. Please note that the Courtyards and Formal Gardens have gravel paths requiring extra care.


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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
Home Analysis WHY I SETTLED FOR UMO ENO AS MY SUCCESSOR– GOV UDOM
WHY I SETTLED FOR UMO ENO AS MY SUCCESSOR– GOV UDOM
Akwa Ibom state governor, HE Udom Emmanuel has justified his reasons for choosing the honorable Commissioner for Lands and Water Resources, Pastor Umo Eno as his preferred Successor.
Emmanuel said his decision was based on the fact that he means well for the State.
The Governor disclosed this to newsmen while commissioning the Spectrum Television, first private cable television station in the state owned by TAF Media Group on Monday, in Uyo.
He said Umo Eno was a respectable person that has the capacity to continue with the pace of developmental strides in the state peacefully because He is God fearing.
According to the governor, "Let me say this emphatically, I mean well for this State, that is why I waited for God to show me the man who would continue with the pace of developmental strides we have started in the last six plus years and then move the needle even further.
"Pastor Umo Eno is a highly respected person; he has enormous capacity, is an epitome of humility, and is blessed with the common touch, a compelling story and is God- fearing.
"He is a successful entrepreneur who has employed our people, lifted thousands from poverty to prosperity.
"He will be coming to the office of Governor with an economic blueprint that will further guarantee employment, development, and economic prosperity for our people.
"He is a man of peace and will ensure that the peace and security of life we have enjoyed in the last six plus years will be maintained.His life story resonates with the story of most ordinary Akwa Ibom people.
"He came from the Police barracks, where, as he said during his Thanksgiving Service last year, life was dreary and hope seemed a distant ingredient. The gov stated
He added that through hard work, that Commissioner for Land summoned hope and overcame his early difficulties and ended up as one the biggest employers of labour in our State. Also stated that his story is a testament to our Dakkada philosophy; one that will inspire and motivate our youths.
The Governor stated that he never looked for a surrogate to do a third term but rather was looking for a man of exceptional capacity, of peace and humility and enjoined all peace-loving and progress-minded Akwa Ibomites to rally round and support God's choice.
"I will never use God's name in vain" the Governor stated at an interview at the Spectrum Television Studio with host, Ekaete Afia.
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Posted by Denise Brown on Monday, December 18th, 2017 at 3:48pm.
There comes a time in every Whistler parents life when their child has reached the highest level of kids ski school and can no longer attend. Since many Whistler children have skied since they could walk, this often means they are at a very young age when they have reached this milestone. What's more, ski school has the extra bonus of getting your child on the mountain more than you could alone and providing a safe environment. If your child can no longer attend, the challenge arises of how to manage your kids and skiing. We have a few tips to help your child move from the safety of ski school to skiing smartly with friends!
There are many hazards that exist on the mountain and attaching a whistle to your child's jacket could assist them in making it known that they require help. Make sure it's attached to the front zipper so it is near your child's mouth when the jacket is done up.
Trees are a hazard when skiing for a number of reasons. To name a few, the possibility does exist to collide into a stump or base of a tree and tree wells can be especially dangerous. It can put your mind at ease and decrease the hazards your child is exposed to by simply making a no tree run rule. Instead, have them stick to groomed or main runs that they are familiar with.
Whether you are a child or an adult, skiing alone is never a good idea. Make sure your child skis in a group of peers that are all at a similar level.
In the group of kids that your child is skiing with, have them each designate a buddy to watch out for. If each child is continually looking out for one another and making sure they are with the group, many negative situations such as getting separated could be avoided.
Knowing your child's friends and their personalities is a good idea when having your child ski in a group of peers. A child that is more prone to risk taking or being persuaded may benefit from having an adult present until they can make safe decisions on their own.
Keep an open line of communication about hazards and bring up problems frequently to discuss approaches to dealing with them. It also doesn't hurt to reiterate common ski etiquette such as looking uphill before cutting across as your child may have relied heavily on ski instructors to manage these interactions within the environment.
Ease into the autonomy of skiing with friends by having a designated parent available on the mountain. Set up mandatory check-in times to ensure everything is going smoothly.
When your child reaches the point of wanting to ski with friends or being required to ski on their own outside of ski school, it can be challenging as a parent to feel it is a safe decision. These tips can help make your child safer and put your mind at ease as a parent. Is it your dream to have your children grow up on the ski hill? Let's find your dream home to make that happen!


Hypnosis is a natural altered state of mental and physical awareness, which occurs when brainwave frequency slows down. It is a state that we all experience frequently, when we daydream or just before and after we sleep. Hypnosis is a safe and non-invasive way of accessing the subconscious mind, which is the source of all our behaviour.
Solution Focused Hypnotherapy uses practical, modern and well researched strategies that will help you make significant, positive change in a relatively short period of time.


text:
Archivists tackle digital heritage
By Bradley Peniston
Federal Library and Information Center Committee
"Riding the digital wave"
Agencies busily producing volumes of e-mail, Web sites and other digital documents also face the challenge and costs of storing them for a year, for a decade, for a generation -- or risk violating federal regulations.
"Information professionals believe it's about time for the federal government to acknowledge the full cost of digital preservation," said Susan Tarr, executive director of the Federal Library and Information Center Committee.
Tarr was among about 150 federal archivists, librarians, computer scientists and online services vendors gathered in Washington, D.C., Wednesday for the FLICC's 2001 Forum.
They discussed the government's scattered stabs at the problem and the Library of Congress' $100 million effort to provide a blueprint for preserving the federal government's digital heritage.
Dubbed the National Digital Information Infrastructure and Preservation Program and funded in the fiscal 2001 budget approved in December, the project will bring together the White House Office of Science and Technology, the Commerce Department, the National Archives and Records Administration and other agencies.
During the coming year, participants will begin to standardize policies and procedures for collecting, storing and indexing digital material.
Peniston is a freelance writer based in Washington, D.C.


I had an el cheapo from Bunnings that was great, but because a friend with a fledgling mower business needed another mower, & offered to do my lawns free, I gave it to him.
When I moved, I had to buy a new mower. The 2000m2 block had a front lawn on about an 80° angle. My Masport made short work of the grass, and aside from the fact that it wasn't self propelled, and I actually had to push myself, as well as the mower, to get up the hill, it never skipped a beat.
My only complaint would be that if you're not careful, you can knock the air filter cover off when you fold down the handle, and they cost around $60 to replace.


text:
Acta Crystallographica Section D
Section D BIOLOGICAL CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
2. Autoindexing
3. Estimating the mosaic spread
4. Parameter refinement
5. Reflection integration
research papers\(\def\hfill{\hskip 5em}\def\hfil{\hskip 3em}\def\eqno#1{\hfil {#1}}\)
Volume 62| Part 1| January 2006| Pages 48-57
The integration of macromolecular diffraction data
Andrew G. W. Lesliea*
aMRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 2QH, England
*Correspondence e-mail: andrew@mrc-lmb.cam.ac.uk
(Received 19 May 2005; accepted 24 November 2005)
The objective of any modern data-processing program is to produce from a set of diffraction images a set of indices (hkls) with their associated intensities (and estimates of their uncertainties), together with an accurate estimate of the crystal unit-cell parameters. This procedure should not only be reliable, but should involve an absolute minimum of user intervention. The process can be conveniently divided into three stages. The first (autoindexing) determines the unit-cell parameters and the orientation of the crystal. The unit-cell parameters may indicate the likely Laue group of the crystal. The second step is to refine the initial estimate of the unit-cell parameters and also the crystal mosaicity using a procedure known as post-refinement. The third step is to integrate the images, which consists of predicting the positions of the Bragg reflections on each image and obtaining an estimate of the intensity of each reflection and its uncertainty. This is carried out while simultaneously refining various detector and crystal parameters. Basic features of the algorithms employed for each of these three separate steps are described, principally with reference to the program MOSFLM.
Keywords: data processing; autoindexing; post-refinement; integration; profile fitting.
The collection of macromolecular diffraction data has undergone dramatic advances during the last 15 years with the advent of two-dimensional area detectors such as image plates and CCDs, crystal cryocooling and the availability of intense, monochromatic and highly collimated X-ray beams from synchrotron sources. These technical developments have been accompanied by significant advances in the software used to process the resulting diffraction images. In particular, autoindexing procedures have improved the ease of data processing to the point that in many cases it can be carried out automatically without any user intervention. However, the procedure used to collect the diffraction images, the screenless rotation method, has remained essentially unchanged since it was first suggested for macromolecular crystals by Xuong et al. (1968 ) and by Arndt and coworkers and popularized by the availability of the Arndt–Wonacott oscillation camera (Arndt et al., 1973 ; Arndt & Wonacott, 1977 ). In this procedure, each diffraction image is collected while rotating the crystal by a small angle (typically between 0.2 and 2°) about a fixed axis (often referred to as the φ axis). The only development of the method has been the use of very small rotation angles per image (the so-called fine φ-slicing technique) to provide improved signal to noise for weakly diffracting samples. Since virtually all macromolecular diffraction data are collected in this way (with the exception of data collected using the Laue technique), this paper will be restricted to the fundamentals of processing images collected using this approach, commonly known as the rotation or oscillation method (the terms are used interchangeably).
The starting point for data integration will therefore be a series of such diffraction images and the desired outcome is a data set consisting of the Miller indices (hkl) of all reflections recorded on these images together with an estimate of the diffracted intensities I(hkl) and their standard uncertainties σI(hkl). This requires the prediction of which reflections occur on each image and also the precise position of each reflection on each image (note that typically most reflections will be present on several adjacent images and therefore only partially recorded on any individual image; see Fig. 1 ). For each predicted reflection, the background-subtracted diffracted intensity must be estimated. Although straightforward in principle, defects and limitations in both the sample (the crystal) and the detector can make this difficult in practice. Complicating factors include crystal splitting, anisotropic and/or very weak diffraction, high mosaicity, diffuse scattering, the presence of ice rings or spots, unresolved or overloaded spots, noise arising from cosmic rays or zingers, backstop shadows, detector blemishes, radiation damage and spatial distortion. Although these experimental factors will be important in determining the final quality of a data set, they will not be discussed here.
A typical macromolecular diffraction pattern for a strongly diffracting crystal. The original image is shown on the left, with the predicted reflections shown superposed on the right. Each reflection is shown as a box, colour-coded blue and yellow for fully recorded and partially recorded reflections, respectively, and green for reflections with a width greater than 5°.
It is convenient to subdivide the process of integrating the diffraction images into three stages. The first is the determination of the crystal parameters, in particular the crystal lattice (unit cell) and its orientation relative to a laboratory axial system (usually based on the X-ray beam direction and the rotation axis). This is usually referred to as autoindexing. Knowledge of these parameters then allows an initial estimate of the crystal mosaicity. The second step is the determination of accurate unit-cell parameters, using a procedure known as post-refinement. This requires the integration of one or more segments of data with a few images in each segment. The final step is the integration of the entire set of diffraction images, while simultaneously refining parameters associated with both the crystal and the detector. The underlying principles of these three steps are described below.
The introduction of autoindexing was one of the most significant advances in simplifying the task of data processing. Prior to this, the unit cell was normally determined by precession methods and the crystal orientation was determined from a series of still (zero oscillation angle) images recorded from a crystal whose approximate orientation was known from the crystal morphology. This process was both laborious and time-consuming.
A number of different autoindexing procedures have been described (Kim, 1989 ; Higashi, 1990 ; Kabsch, 1993 ), but the discussion here will be restricted to the method based on one-dimensional fast Fourier transforms and originally implemented in the DPS program package (Steller et al., 1997 ), but which is now used in MOSFLM (Leslie, 1992 ) and d*TREK (Pflugrath, 1999 ). A similar method but using a three-dimensional Fourier transform is implemented in DENZO and HKL2000 (Otwinowski & Minor, 2001 ). The spot positions in an oscillation image are a distorted projection of the reciprocal lattice of the crystal. Using the Ewald sphere construction (Fig. 2 ), it is straightforward to derive the scattering vector (reciprocal-lattice vector) of a reflection from the measured spot coordinates (Xd, Yd) relative to the direct-beam position,
where r = (Xd2 + Yd2 + D2)1/2 and D is the crystal-to-detector distance. Note that s is in dimensionless reciprocal-lattice units and the corresponding Ewald sphere radius is unity.
The Ewald sphere construction. The X-ray beam is along the X axis and the Z axis is the rotation axis. The origin of the reciprocal lattice lies at the point that the X-ray beam exits the Ewald sphere (Q) and the crystal is located at the centre of the sphere (O). The crystal is oriented so that the a axis lies along the X axis. The reciprocal-lattice plane h = 1 is shown. Each diffraction spot on the detector can be mapped back to the equivalent scattering vector in reciprocal space. One such scattering vector is shown as a bold line from the reciprocal-lattice origin (Q) to the surface of the Ewald sphere.
This equation holds when the centre of the reciprocal-lattice point (which has a finite size associated with the finite reflecting range; see § 4.2) lies exactly on the Ewald sphere. Different reflections will have different φ values and so it is necessary to place all the scattering vectors in a common reference frame by correcting for this.
However, when using a single image, there is no reliable way of knowing the φ values for different reflections. For example, if the oscillation image was recorded with a starting φ of 0.0° and an final φ of 1.0°, the true φ value for any individual reflection could lie anywhere between −∊/2 and 1.0 + ∊/2, where ∊ is the reflection width in φ (which will be different for different reflections). Therefore, in practice the φ values for all reflections on a given image are assigned to the midpoint of the rotation for that image (0.5° in the example above). This will introduce small errors into the derived scattering vectors. If more than one image is being used in the autoindexing, then the correction for the φ values of the different images is clearly important.
The general principle behind Fourier-based autoindexing can be understood as follows. Fig. 2 shows the Ewald sphere construction for a crystal oriented so that a principal zone axis, in this case the a axis, lies along the X-ray beam direction. The planes of reciprocal-lattice points (h = 1, h = 2, h = 3 etc.) normal to this zone axis intersect the Ewald sphere in a series of concentric circles centred on the direct-beam position. In the diffraction image, a series of concentric lunes will be seen. As described above, all the spots on the detector can be mapped back to give the corresponding scattering vectors. When these scattering vectors are projected onto the zone axis, all the spots lying within the same lune will give rise to a projected vector of the same length. Thus, the projected scattering vectors for all the spots on the image will fall into clusters, where the separation between each cluster corresponds to the vector between adjacent reciprocal-lattice planes (h = 1, h = 2, h = 3 etc.). Because of the regularity of these clusters, the Fourier transform of the projected scattering vectors will form a series of regularly spaced large maxima (Fig. 3 ), where the distance between adjacent maxima corresponds to the real cell spacing along the principal zone axis direction (the a axis in this example). If, however, the scattering vectors are projected along a direction at an angle of (say) 10° to the true zone axis direction, spots in the same lune will project to give vectors of different lengths, so the Fourier transform of the projected scattering vectors will not have a clear set of maxima. Thus, the height of the maxima in the Fourier transform can be used to identify directions that correspond to real-space zone axes, such as the a, b or c axes of the unit cell or low-order vectors such as a + b, a + c, b + c etc. Although for ease of representation it was assumed in this example that the zone axis lies along the X-ray beam direction, this is not a requirement. In addition, an oscillation image can be used for the indexing rather than a still (zero oscillation angle) image, even though this will lead to larger errors in the derived scattering vectors owing to the assumption that all reflections have the same φ value.
A one-dimensional Fourier transform of projected scattering vectors. With the crystal orientation as shown in Fig. 2 , the scattering vectors projected onto the X axis will consist of regularly spaced clusters corresponding to reciprocal-lattice planes h = 1, h = 2, h = 3 etc. The Fourier transform will consist of several large discrete maxima, where the spacing between adjacent maxima corresponds to the real cell spacing, in this case the a axis.
In practice, the direction of the projection axis is varied in small angular steps (e.g. 2°) for the complete hemisphere of directions centred on the X-ray beam and in each case the Fourier transform of the projected scattering vectors is calculated. Three directions are then chosen from this list that have large maxima in the Fourier transform and reasonably large inter-axial angles and the directions optimized by a fine angular search. These will define three principal zone axes and their repeats, thus defining a unit cell with which it should be possible to index all spots in the diffraction image. In general, the resulting unit cell will be a triclinic one that will not reflect the true symmetry of the lattice. The final stage is therefore to find the reduced cell from the chosen cell and then evaluate a goodness of fit (penalty score) to the 44 possible lattice types (Burzlaff et al., 1992 ). The user is presented with a list of possible solutions, each with a corresponding penalty. Typically, there will be a number of solutions with a low penalty and then further solutions with much higher penalties; usually the solution with the highest Bravais lattice symmetry in the group with low penalty scores will be correct. The unit-cell parameters are then refined (using the observed spot positions) imposing any constraints appropriate for the lattice symmetry of the chosen solution. The direct-beam parameters and (optionally) the crystal-to-detector distance are refined at the same time.
It is important to realise that there is no information available at this stage on the true crystal symmetry, which can only be determined from the diffraction intensities. The spot positions only give information about the lattice symmetry, which can be higher than the true crystal symmetry. This is particularly important when considering the strategy for data collection.
Success of the autoindexing depends critically on knowledge of experimental parameters such as the wavelength of the radiation, the crystal-to-detector distance and most importantly the direct-beam coordinates (however, see Sauter et al., 2004 for recent improvements in this respect). Accurate knowledge of the direct-beam position is particularly important when processing data from crystals with one or more large unit-cell edges, as it may not be possible to detect mis-indexing by a single index from the integration statistics (although this will be clear when the data is merged). Ideally a few hundred spots should be used for indexing, although in favourable cases as few as 50 can be sufficient. In cases where two lattices are present, it may be possible to index the stronger lattice simply by applying an intensity cutoff when selecting spots to be used in indexing; otherwise, spots from one of the lattices can be selected manually. Crystals with very high mosaicity can present difficulties if this gives rise to the overlap of spots in adjacent lunes. Because the φ values of individual reflections are not known, this will give rise to serious errors in the derived scattering vectors and a failure of the algorithm. Experience has shown that the indexing is more robust when two images are used (preferably separated by 90° in φ) and results derived from a single image can be misleading in some cases, particularly for low symmetries such as monoclinic. The absence of a clear separation in penalty score between solutions with low penalty and those with higher penalties may indicate that the true cell is triclinic, but can also arise if there are errors in the experimental parameters, such as the direct-beam position.
The final error in predicted spot positions after cell refinement is a good indicator of the success or failure of the autoindexing, but the definitive test is to compare the predicted pattern of spots with the observed diffraction image. At this stage not all spots will be predicted, because the mosaicity of the crystal is not known (and assumed to be zero), but there should be general agreement in the position of the lunes and the separation of adjacent spots. Assuming that the prediction is correct, the mosaic spread can be estimated by measuring the total intensity of all predicted spots for increasing values of the mosaicity (typically from 0 to 2° in steps of 0.2°). The total intensity should reach a maximum at the correct value of the mosaic spread, as larger values of the mosaic spread will simply predict reflections that are not present. In practice, the total intensity does not reach a constant value at the correct mosaic spread owing to diffuse scatter in the diffraction image, but it does increase much more slowly as the mosaic spread is increased further. This allows a reasonable starting estimate to be determined, which is subsequently refined by post-refinement.
Once an orientation matrix and unit-cell parameters have been derived from the autoindexing, these parameters (and others) are refined further using different algorithms. The parameters to be refined can be conveniently grouped into three classes.
(i) Crystal parameters: unit-cell parameters, crystal orientation and mosaic spread (isotropic or anisotropic).
(ii) Detector parameters: the detector position and orientation and (if appropriate) distortion parameters (e.g. the radial and tangential offsets for the MAR Research image-plate scanner).
(iii) Beam parameters: the orientation of the primary beam and beam divergence (isotropic or anisotropic).
There are two complementary sources of information that can be used in the refinement: the spot coordinates measured on the detector and the spot coordinates in φ. The latter can be estimated empirically if the oscillation angle is much smaller than the reflection width or can be estimated from the way in which the intensity for partially recorded reflections is distributed over the two (or more) images on which the reflection is recorded if the oscillation angle is comparable to, or greater than, the reflection width.
4.1. Refinement using spot coordinates measured on the detector
The parameters are refined by least-squares minimization of a positional residual,
where X and Y are the spot coordinates on the detector and ωix and ωiy are appropriate weights.
The parameters refined using spot positions are as follows.
(i) Crystal-to-detector distance.
(ii) Direct-beam position.
(iii) A relative scale factor applied to the detector Y coordinates (YSCALE).
(iv) Small rotations of the detector about a vertical and horizontal axis (TILT and TWIST).
(v) Small rotation of the detector about the X-ray beam direction.
(vi) Radial (ROFF) and tangential (TOFF) offsets for image-plate detectors with a spiral readout (e.g. MAR Research).
(vii) Unit-cell parameters (optionally).
Note that it is not possible to refine changes in crystal orientation around the rotation axis using this residual, as this parameter has no effect on the spot positions. Other parameters, such as unit-cell parameters and crystal-to-detector distance, may also be highly correlated (depending on the maximum Bragg angle).
These parameters are normally refined independently for each image (or group of images) even though, with two possible exceptions, they might be expected to remain constant during data collection. The two parameters that could change are the crystal-to-detector distance (which can vary if the crystal is not centred exactly on the rotation axis, although this variation is unlikely to be more than 0.1 mm), and the direct-beam position (which can vary for image-plate detectors with multiple image plates, although the same plate should always have the same beam position). The YSCALE parameter would be expected to be exactly 1.0 for all modern detectors (where the pixel size is the same in the X and Y directions) and should be constant. The justification for refining these parameters is that this can compensate for errors in the unit-cell parameters. This is important when the initial unit-cell parameters obtained from autoindexing are being refined (see § 4.2) and also when integrating the entire data set, as in both cases the accurate prediction of spot positions is crucial. There is now good evidence for a small but significant increase in unit-cell volume during data collection as the result of radiation damage (Murray & Garman, 2002 ; Ravelli et al., 2002 ). While in principle it is possible to refine the unit-cell parameters continuously to allow for this, in practice this is not reliable unless the symmetry is higher than orthorhombic. This is because for any given X-ray dose only data from a limited region of reciprocal space (a few images) are available to carry out the refinement and therefore not all unit-cell parameters will be well defined. Experience has shown that refinement of YSCALE and the crystal-to-detector distance compensates very well for genuine changes in unit-cell parameters and a smoothly changing decrease in the crystal-to-detector distance with increasing φ is a good indicator of a change in unit-cell parameters arising from radiation damage.
Some parameters (TILT, TWIST, ROFF, TOFF) are poorly defined for weak images (those with no strong spots in the outer regions of the detector) and can show large and random variations from one image to the next. In such cases, these parameters should be set to the average value and not refined during integration.
4.2. Refinement using φ coordinates, post-refinement
In an ideal diffraction experiment with a strictly parallel monochromatic X-ray beam and a perfect crystal, the Ewald sphere is an infinitely thin spherical shell and the reciprocal-lattice points are infinitely small, so that each Bragg reflection occurs only at a precisely defined φ value (when the reciprocal-lattice point intersects the Ewald sphere). In reality, the divergence and wavelength dispersion of the X-ray beam result in an Ewald sphere with a finite thickness, while crystal mosaicity (and intrinsic variation in unit-cell parameters between different mosaic blocks) mean that each reciprocal-lattice point has a finite size. The combination of these effects means that each reflection has a finite reflecting range (or width) in φ. In most cases, the reflecting range is determined primarily by the mosaic spread of the crystal (particularly for cryocooled crystals that often have a mosaic spread greater than 0.3°) and by geometric factors that give rise to the Lorentz correction. This correction arises because for reciprocal-lattice points of any given size the φ rotation required for them to pass entirely through the Ewald sphere is proportional to their distance from the rotation axis. The practical result of this finite reflecting range is that reflections may be recorded only on a single image (fully recorded) or on two or more images (partially recorded) depending on the mosaic spread and the rotation angle per image (Fig. 4 ).
Schematic representation of the effect of the finite size of reciprocal-lattice points on the diffraction images. The black ellipse represents a reciprocal-lattice point of finite size that results from the combination of crystal mosaicity, beam divergence, wavelength dispersion and variability in unit-cell parameters. The arcs represent the positions of the Ewald sphere at the beginning and end of one or more images. When the oscillation angle is large compared with the angular width of the reciprocal-lattice point (left), the entire reciprocal-lattice point lies between the two arcs and all the intensity is recorded on a single image (a fully recorded reflection). If the oscillation angle per image is halved (centre), the total intensity is distributed over two images (partially recorded reflections). If the oscillation angle is significantly less than the reflecting range, the intensity is distributed over several images (right), resulting in fine φ-slicing. Figure after Elspeth Garman.
Post-refinement (Winkler et al., 1979 ; Rossmann et al., 1979 ) uses the observed distribution of intensity of partially recorded reflections over adjacent images, together with a model of the rocking curve, to determine the exact φ value at which a given reciprocal-lattice point lies exactly on the Ewald sphere. It is called post-refinement because it can only be carried out after the images have been integrated. An absolute minimum of two images (adjacent in φ) is required to provide the necessary data.
The residual minimized in post-refinement is
where Ricalc and Riobs are the calculated and observed distances of the reciprocal-lattice point di* from the centre of the Ewald sphere (OP and OP′ in Fig. 5 ), respectively, and again wi is a weighting term. This represents the angle subtended by the points P, P′ at the reciprocal-lattice origin (denoted δ in Fig. 5 ). Ricalc is determined from the current values for the unit-cell parameters and crystal orientation. Riobs is obtained from the φ centroid if fine φ-slices have been used. For coarse φ-slices, the position in φ of partially recorded reflections is estimated from the degree of partiality of the reflection [i.e. the way in which the total intensity is distributed between the two (or more) abutting images]. This latter approach requires a model for the rocking curve and permits refinement of either crystal mosaicity or beam divergence. Note that this residual can be used to refine crystal unit-cell parameters, orientation and mosaic spread, but cannot be used to refine the detector parameters.
The model for post-refinement in MOSFLM. The large circle represents a cross-section of the Ewald sphere. A reciprocal-lattice point is shown as a shaded circle centred on P′, representing its position at the end of the first of two images on which this reflection is recorded. The reciprocal-lattice point rotates clockwise during data collection, so the intensity recorded on the first image will be proportional to that part of the shaded circle that lies outside the Ewald sphere. P represents the calculated position of this reciprocal-lattice point using the current crystal parameters. The angle subtended by the points P, P′ at the origin of the reciprocal lattice is minimized during post-refinement of the crystal parameters.
Consider a reflection that spans two adjacent images. The position of the reciprocal-lattice point (which is rotating clockwise during data collection) is shown at the end of the first of the two images in Fig. 5 . The reciprocal-lattice point can be modelled as a sphere with a radius given by
where γ is the combined mosaic spread and beam divergence, d* is the reciprocal-lattice spacing and θ is the Bragg angle. The distance of the reciprocal-lattice point from the Ewald sphere, Δr, is related to the fraction P of the total intensity for this reflection that is recorded on the first image by a rocking curve model such as
and I1 and I2 are the intensities recorded on the two images. Knowing P from the measured intensities, Δr can be calculated and Robs can be determined. Rocking-curve models other than the simple sine function have also been used (e.g. Rossmann et al., 1979 ). Because ∊ depends on the combined mosaic spread and beam divergence, this parameter can also be refined. (For fine φ-slices the combined mosaic spread and beam divergence is estimated from the observed reflection width in φ.)
Typically, a few degrees of data in two segments widely separated in φ (ideally 90°) are required and refinement will provide unit-cell parameters that are accurate to within a few parts in 10 000 (for data that extend to at least 2.8 Å resolution). The crystal orientation will be correct to within a few hundredths of a degree for a mosaic spread less than 1.0° and is better determined for smaller values of the mosaic spread. For cubic symmetry a single segment of data is sufficient and this is also the case for trigonal, tetragonal or hexagonal crystals providing the unique axis lies close to the plane of the detector in the chosen segment. For monoclinic or triclinic crystals three (or four) segments of data (e.g. at Φ = 0, 45 and 90°) may be required to obtain accurate estimates of all unit-cell parameters.
In most cases post-refinement is not effective in refining the unit-cell parameters if the data only extend to low resolution (lower than 3.5 Å) and in such cases refinement using the spot positions will give more reliable results.
4.3. Refinement strategy
The refinement strategy can depend on how the data have been collected. If fine φ-slices have been used, accurate φ centroids and coordinates (X, Y) are available for most strong reflections (excluding those very close to the rotation axis) and both residuals (Ω1, Ω2) can be minimized simultaneously using a suitable selection of reflections (strong and evenly distributed over the detector and in φ). Problems arising owing to correlations of different parameters can be avoided either by fixing some parameters or by the use of eigenvalue filtering. These problems can be particularly serious for low-resolution data, where there is a strong correlation between crystal-to-detector distance and the unit-cell parameters, or for an offset detector where there is a high correlation between the detector swing angle and the (horizontal) direct-beam coordinate. If only a narrow φ range of reflections is used in the refinement, then some unit-cell parameters will be poorly defined and may be correlated with the crystal setting angles and there will also be a strong correlation between the detector orientation around the X-ray beam and the crystal setting angle around the beam. In such circumstances the refined parameters may assume physically unrealistic values, but this will not necessarily reduce the accuracy of the prediction of reflection positions and widths.
When the data is collected with coarse φ-slices, accurate φ centroids can only be determined for partially recorded reflections. In MOSFLM the two residuals are currently minimized independently. Only the detector parameters are refined when minimizing the positional residual and only cell, orientation and mosaic spread parameters are refined by post-refinement. This approach does have the advantage that the accuracy of the refined unit-cell parameters does not depend on the accuracy of the crystal-to-detector distance or direct-beam position, providing these are known sufficiently well to allow correct indexing of the reflections. The unit-cell parameters are refined prior to integrating the images using two or more segments of data as described above and then fixed during integration. The effect of any inaccuracies in the refined cell, or changes in the cell owing to radiation damage, will be minimized by refinement of the crystal-to-detector distance and YSCALE.
Once accurate values for the crystal unit-cell parameters and orientation have been obtained, the images can be integrated. Stated in the simplest way, this procedure involves predicting the position in the digitized image of each Bragg reflection present on that image and then estimating its intensity (after subtracting the X-ray background) and an error estimate of the intensity. In practice, this apparently simple task is quite complex.
5.1. Predicting reflection positions
A knowledge of the crystal cell and orientation will allow the prediction of spot positions on a virtual detector; that is, a detector whose position and orientation are exactly known. These positions must then be mapped onto the digitized image and this mapping must take into account any spatial distortions introduced by the detector, either using a pre-determined calibration table or by refining the distortion parameters for each image. Accuracy in the prediction of spot positions is crucial, as any errors will introduce systematic errors in the integrated intensities, particularly for profile fitting. Ideally, unit-cell parameters should be known to an accuracy of better than 0.1%.
Typically, the detector parameters, crystal orientation and mosaic spread will be refined during the integration, but the unit-cell parameters will be fixed. The crystal orientation quite often changes during data collection, even with cryocooled crystals. This may be a consequence of the rapid acceleration/deceleration of the crystal at the start and end of each image, especially on high-intensity synchrotron beamlines with exposure times of less than 1 s. In addition, if the processing software assumes that the rotation axis is exactly orthogonal to the X-ray beam direction and this is not actually true, then the crystal orientation will appear to change smoothly with rotation angle with a period of 360°. Providing the changes in crystal orientation are gradual and are less than one-tenth of the mosaic spread between adjacent images, this will have no noticeable effect on data quality. Refining the mosaic spread during integration will allow for either anisotropy in the mosaic spread or an increase in mosaic spread arising from radiation damage.
5.2. Two-dimensional and three-dimensional integration, coarse and fine φ-slicing
There are two distinct procedures for integrating spot intensities, known as two-dimensional and three-dimensional integration, that are available in different software packages; for example, MOSFLM (Leslie, 1992 ) and HKL (Otwinowski & Minor, 1997 ) use two-dimensional methods, while d*TREK (Pflugrath, 1999 ) and XDS (Kabsch, 1988 ) use the three-dimensional approach. These procedures differ in the way that the intensities of partially recorded reflections are derived. When using two-dimensional integration, the intensities of the different components of a partially recorded reflection (on different but adjacent images) are evaluated independently by two-dimensional profile fitting and only summed to give the total intensity when the data are merged and scaled. By contrast, when using three-dimensional integration the different components are assembled by the integration software and a three-dimensional profile is used to evaluate the total intensity.
Coarse and fine φ-slicing refer to different ways of collecting the images. Coarse φ-slicing describes the situation when the rotation angle per image is comparable to or greater than the mosaic spread (plus the beam divergence), so that the images will contain both fully recorded and partially recorded reflections. Fine φ-slicing corresponds to using a rotation angle per image that is significantly less than the mosaic spread, so that all reflections are partially recorded.
Data collected using fine φ-slicing can be processed using either two-dimensional or three-dimensional integration software. In principle, three-dimensional integration should give improved data quality, although in practice the difference between using two-dimensional and three-dimensional integration is marginal. Although three-dimensional integration programs are designed to process fine φ-sliced data, they can also be used to integrate coarse-sliced data effectively.
For weakly diffracting samples, a noticeable improvement in data quality can be obtained by collecting the images with moderately fine φ-slicing (rotation angle per image approximately one-third of the mosaic spread) compared with coarse φ-slicing. This is because the background included in each spot is minimized by using finer φ-slices, giving an improved signal to noise for weak reflections. However, the use of very fine φ-slices is counterproductive, because of the intrinsic noise associated with each image (detector-readout noise) and because of systematic errors arising from difficulties in exactly synchronizing shutter movements with the spindle rotation. These issues have been discussed by Pflugrath (1999 ).
5.3. Defining the peak/background mask
Because it is physically impossible to measure the X-ray background actually under the diffraction spot (which is strictly what is required to obtain the background-subtracted intensity), the background is measured in a region around the spot either in two dimensions (X, Y; the detector coordinates) for coarse φ-slices or in three dimensions (X, Y and φ) for fine φ-slices. A background plane is fitted to these background pixels and this plane is then used to estimate the background under the spot. To do this it is necessary to define a pixel mask which, when centred on the predicted position of the spot, will define which pixels are to be considered as part of the spot (the peak pixels) and which are to be used to determine the background (Fig. 6 ).
The peak/background mask definition used by MOSFLM. The overall size of the mask (in pixels) is defined by NX and NY and the background region is defined by a background rim in X and Y (NRX and NRY pixels) and a corner cutoff (NC pixels).
The mask can be defined manually after visual inspection of the spot shapes, but MOSFLM will automatically optimize the peak/background definition. It is clearly important that pixels are not misclassified, as this can lead to systematic errors in the integrated intensity. The presence of strong diffuse scattering, which is quite commonly observed with data collected at a synchrotron, can lead to difficulties in differentiating between peak and background pixels. Unfortunately there is no simple way of dealing with this problem, although corrections can be applied when the data is scaled and merged (Evans, 2006 ).
5.4. Summation integration and profile fitting
Having determined the background plane, the simplest way to obtain an estimate of the integrated intensity is to sum the pixel values of all pixels in the peak area of the mask and then subtract the sum of the background values for the same pixels calculated from the background plane. This is known as summation integration and if the background level is very low compared with the intensity of the spot and the spots are well resolved, this will give as accurate an estimate of the intensity as it is possible to obtain. (In such cases the accuracy is determined by counting statistics, so for a total count of N photons the standard deviation is N1/2.)
For weaker reflections, it is possible to obtain a more accurate estimate of the integrated intensity by using a procedure known as profile fitting (Diamond, 1969 ; Ford, 1974 ; Rossmann, 1979 ; Leslie, 1999 ). In this procedure, it is assumed that the shape or profile (in two or three dimensions) of the spots is known. The background plane is determined in the same way as for summation integration, but the intensity is derived by determining the scale factor which, when applied to the known spot profile, gives the best fit to the observed spot profile. This scale factor is then proportional to the profile-fitted intensity for the reflection. In practice, the fitting is performed by least-squares methods to minimize the residual
where Xi is the background-subtracted intensity at pixel i, Pi is the value of the standard profile at the corresponding pixel, wi is a weight derived from the expected variance of Xi and K is the scale factor to be determined
The improvement obtained by profile fitting rather than summation integration depends on the spot intensity relative to background and the spot shape, but typically it can provide a reduction in variance by a factor of 2.0 (1.4 in the standard deviation) for weak reflections. It can be shown that for weak reflections the use of profile fitting effectively weights down the peripheral peak pixels where the signal to noise is lowest (Leslie, 1999 ). This can also be an advantage when adjacent spots are not completely resolved. All modern software packages employ profile fitting, although the implementation differs in detail.
The procedure assumes that the true reflection profile is known. In practice, this is determined from the observed reflection profiles of a number of reflections in the immediate vicinity of the reflection being integrated. An appropriate weighted sum of the individual profiles is used to form the true or standard profile. The reflection shape will vary with position on the detector (owing to changes in the obliquity of incidence and other factors) and it is important to allow for this. MOSFLM determines a standard profile for several predefined areas on the detector, using all reflections that lie on typically 5–10 adjacent images, to ensure that a significant number of reflections contribute to each profile. The inclusion of several images also means that the different components of partially recorded reflections will be included for the majority of the reflections. For the integration step, the best profile for each reflection is calculated as a weighted mean of the closest standard profiles. In HKL (Otwinowski & Minor, 1997 ), all spots that lie within a defined distance of the reflection being integrated on the current image are included in forming the profile. It should be noted that when using two-dimensional integration methods, it is not strictly correct to use a standard profile derived from fully recorded reflections to evaluate the intensity of partially recorded reflections, as the latter may have a different spot shape, but in practice this does not seem to have a noticeable effect on data quality. In the three-dimensional profile fitting employed by XDS, the profiles of individual spots are mapped back to a new coordinate frame based on the scattering vector for each spot (Kabsch, 1988 ). This elegant procedure eliminates the wide variation in the widths of different reflections in the φ direction, simplifying the tasks of both forming the standard profiles and fitting these to individual reflections. The same approach has been adopted in d*TREK (Pflugrath, 1999 ).
Profile fitting is a powerful technique for reducing the random error in weak diffraction data, but an error in determining the standard profiles or in fitting these to individual reflections will lead to systematic errors in all measured intensities (discussed in detail in Leslie, 1987 ). Modern software packages go to some lengths to minimize the magnitude of the systematic errors introduced by the use of non-ideal standard profiles. The most commonly observed problem affects the intensities of the strongest reflections when the spot size is very small (e.g. five pixels in width or smaller). In such cases the merging statistics can be better for the summation integration intensities than for the profile-fitted intensities. This is because the systematic errors arising from errors in the standard profile or in fitting this profile to an individual reflection are proportional to the reflection intensity (Leslie, 1987 ) and are the major determinant of the error in the profile-fitted intensity for strong reflections. In addition, the errors owing to artificial broadening of the standard profile or positional errors when fitting this profile to an individual reflection are proportionately greater for very small spots. As most integration programs output both the profile-fitted and summation integration estimates, the merging statistics can be compared and the appropriate estimate used when scaling and merging the data. Profile fitting will also introduce systematic errors if the spot shape is highly variable across the detector and this variation is smoothed out when forming the standard profiles. This can happen if the crystal is slightly split or if the crystal is physically bent as is sometimes the case for very thin crystals. In such cases it may be worthwhile to separately merge the summation integration and the profile-fitted estimates and compare the statistics for the downstream stages (phasing or refinement) using the two data sets.
5.5. Standard deviation estimates
It is important to obtain reasonable estimates of the standard deviations of the integrated intensities, since these are used as weights when merging multiple observations and in subsequent steps of the structure determination (e.g. identification of heavy-atom sites, heavy-atom parameter refinement and model refinement). For summation integration and profile fitting of partially recorded reflections, a standard deviation can be obtained based on Poisson statistics, while for profile-fitted fully recorded reflections the goodness of fit of the scaled standard profile to the true reflection profile can be used (see Leslie, 1999 , for a full derivation). In a total of N recorded X-ray photons, Poisson statistics states that the standard deviation is simply N1/2. To be able to apply Poisson statistics, it is necessary to convert the numbers in the digitized diffraction image to the equivalent number of X-ray photons (this conversion factor is referred to as the gain of the detector in documentation for the MOSFLM program). The gain is generally constant for a given make of detector and can be estimated by examining the variation in the counts within a small region of a diffraction image that does not include any diffraction spots, but corresponds only to the X-ray background. However, this estimate is only valid if all pixels are strictly independent of each other, an assumption that is not valid for commonly used image-plate and CCD detectors. In addition, variations in the sensitivity of different regions of the detector mean that it is an approximation to assume a single value for the gain. In spite of these difficulties, standard deviations based on Poisson statistics give reasonable estimates of the errors for weak and medium-intensity reflections, as judged by the agreement of the intensities of symmetry-related reflections. However, the situation is different for stronger reflections, where the difference between symmetry-related intensities is generally far greater than the estimated standard deviations. This is largely because the Poisson-based standard deviations only allow for random errors of measurement, while for strong reflections the systematic errors arising from absorption, beam instability, detector non-linearity or errors in non-uniformity corrections are far greater than the random errors. In MOSFLM, an additional contribution to the standard deviation is added to that based on Poisson statistics to try to model the systematic errors (Leslie, 1999 ). In spite of this, it is still generally necessary to modify the initial standard deviation estimates when the data are merged using the observed agreement between multiple observations (see Evans, 2006 ).
The author wishes to thank Alan Wonacott, Peter Brick, Phil Evans, Jim Pflugrath and Harry Powell for many useful discussions relating to data processing. Work on the MOSFLM program is supported by CCP4.
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