text:
title: Set of columns for placing the controls at the level of ideas
sidebar: flexberry-designer_sidebar
keywords: CASE Plugins, Flexberry ASPNET, Winforms Flexberry, plugin, performance, speaker, controls, example
summary: Placing controls in columns on the model level
toc: true
permalink: en/fd_specify-column-controls.html
lang: en
autotranslated: true
hash: 292d8802487d37ec7060858c0dc4b07c514386ccb67cf4a9fa6caf1d1250261a
---

The opportunity came at the view level to set speakers to embed controls (#);
for this in field "Path" in editovat view we need to specify the value in one of the following formats:
1. #X
2. #X(*)
3. #X(Y*)
4. #X(Z)

X - integer number колонки;
Y - column width in percent (relative), followed by the character '*';
Z - column width in pixels (absolute);

Details:
* columns with relative width are stretched automatically when you resize the form in proportion to their ширине;
* width in percent for the relative column is calculated as follows:
Wabs_i = (Wabs_global - SUM(Wabs_j)) / SUM(W*_k) * W*_i
* a description of the same columns for different attributes must be the same (i.e. it is impossible for one field to write #1(100) and for another #1);
* record #X #X is equivalent to writing(*) and is equivalent to writing #X(1*);
* if you specify one column with relative width ( % % , *) and the other with absolute, relative is taken with 100% of the remaining width

**Example**
Nickname path: #1
Delaroderie path: #2(2*)
Floors path: #2(2*)
Host path: #1
Pravica path: #3(100)

Build a form with 3 columns, the last width of 100px, the rest of the space is divided by the width in proportion 1:2

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


We support the development of management teams, virtual teams, project teams, change teams, working groups and every stage of a team's evolution, however specialised. These activities are grouped under the heading of team development.
On the individual level, managers will find space for the issues they need to address in our Executive Coaching offer.


Check out the latest news about Belle Aire Shores.
Belle Aire Shores has made a significantly positive impact on the lives of many young and mature families looking to relocate to more affordable, less congested and welcoming neighbourhoods. With Phase 1 of Belle Aire Shores' construction complete and Phase 2 progressing well, more families are quickly becoming charmed by the Town of Innisfil's quaint, prime location. Let's take a closer look at what The Town of Innisfil's Belle Aire Shores has to offer.
Innisfil provides what many overly-saturated neighbourhoods can not—residents and their families can revel in the seasonal activities that the nearby waterfronts and surrounding landscape have to offer, as well as ease in commuting to and from work.
The Belle Aire Shores community is conveniently located a stone's throw from Innisfil Beach Park, as well as neighbouring beaches including Cook's Bay and Lake Simcoe. With year-round recreational programs, local farmers' markets, endless dog trails and well-maintained parks, skating rinks and state of the art facilities, it's no wonder Innisfil's long list of appealing features trumps the congested suburbs of the GTA.
For summer and winter recreation—including fishing, swimming, boating, park festivals and more—Innisfil Beach Park's access to Lake Simcoe provides a neighbouring beach park that allows residents to experience all the fun and activities that the warm and cooler seasons have to offer without having to travel far from home. Other available activities to the community include fitness, sports parks and complexes, art and educational programs catered to ages starting from preschool to seniors, all taking place in Innisfil's multiple modern recreational facilities.
For professionals who commute to Toronto and the surrounding GTA, they'll be happy to hear the new transit updates revealing an exciting confirmed partnership with Uber, plans for the construction of a new GO Station at 6th Line (walking distance to Belle Aire Shores), as well as on/off ramp access to Highway 400 from 6th Line. Residents also have access to Barrie's South GO Station and Bradford GO Stations, all within close proximity to The Town's center.
Toronto's ever-increasing housing costs and overcrowded communities have left many longing for the quiet, safe and charming neighbourhoods we once knew and still desire to raise our families and retire in. It's near impossible to attribute these quaint qualities to any Toronto or neighbouring suburbs, however, The Town of Innisfil and Belle Aire Shores continues to provide the charm of a small town with multiple surrounding waterfronts, as well as easy access for professionals who need to commute in and out of Toronto and the GTA.


text:
Temporal range: Late Valanginian – present, 134–0 Ma
PreꞒ
Ꞓ
Diversity of angiosperms
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Spermatophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Groups (APG IV)[1]
Basal angiosperms
Core angiosperms
Clades
magnoliids
monocots
Anthophyta Cronquist[2]
Angiospermae Lindl.
Magnoliophyta Cronquist, Takht. & W.Zimm.[3]
Magnolicae Takht.[4]
Flowering plants include multiple members of the clade Angiospermae (/ˌændʒiəˈspɜːrmiː/),[5][6] commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the Greek words angeion ('container, vessel') and sperma ('seed'), and refers to those plants that produce their seeds enclosed within a fruit. They are the most diverse group of land plants with 64 orders, 416 families, approximately 13,000 known genera and 300,000 known species.[7] Angiosperms were formerly called Magnoliophyta (/mæɡˌnoʊliˈɒfətə, -əˈfaɪtə/).[8]
Like gymnosperms, angiosperms are seed-producing plants. They are distinguished from gymnosperms by characteristics including flowers, endosperm within their seeds, and the production of fruits that contain the seeds.
The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from the common ancestor of all living gymnosperms during the Carboniferous, over 300 million years ago,[9] with the earliest record of angiosperm pollen appearing around 134 million years ago. The first remains of flowering plants are known from 125 million years ago. They diversified extensively during the Early Cretaceous, became widespread by 120 million years ago, and replaced conifers as the dominant trees from 60 to 100 million years ago.
Chamaenerion angustifolium, also known as fireweed or rosebay willowherb, is a flowering plant in the willowherb family Onagraceae.
Angiosperm derived characteristics
Angiosperms differ from other seed plants in several ways, described in the table below. These distinguishing characteristics taken together have made the angiosperms the most diverse and numerous land plants and the most commercially important group to humans.[a]
Distinctive features of angiosperms
Flowering organs Flowers, the reproductive organs of flowering plants, are the most remarkable feature distinguishing them from the other seed plants. Flowers provided angiosperms with the means to have a more species-specific breeding system, and hence a way to evolve more readily into different species without the risk of crossing back with related species. Faster speciation enabled the Angiosperms to adapt to a wider range of ecological niches. This has allowed flowering plants to largely dominate terrestrial ecosystems, comprising about 90 percent of all plant species.[10]
Stamens with two pairs of pollen sacs Stamens are much lighter than the corresponding organs of gymnosperms and have contributed to the diversification of angiosperms through time with adaptations to specialised pollination syndromes, such as particular pollinators. Stamens have also become modified through time to prevent self-fertilization, which has permitted further diversification, allowing angiosperms eventually to fill more niches.
Reduced male gametophyte, three cells The male gametophyte in angiosperms is significantly reduced in size compared to those of gymnosperm seed plants.[11] The smaller size of the pollen reduces the amount of time between pollination (the pollen grain reaching the female plant) and fertilization. In gymnosperms, fertilization can occur up to a year after pollination, whereas in angiosperms, fertilization begins very soon after pollination.[12] The shorter amount of time between pollination and fertilization allows angiosperms to produce seeds earlier after pollination than gymnosperms, providing angiosperms a distinct evolutionary advantage.
Closed carpel enclosing the ovules (carpel or carpels and accessory parts may become the fruit) The closed carpel of angiosperms also allows adaptations to specialised pollination syndromes and controls. This helps to prevent self-fertilization, thereby maintaining increased diversity. Once the ovary is fertilised, the carpel and some surrounding tissues develop into a fruit. This fruit often serves as an attractant to seed-dispersing animals. The resulting cooperative relationship presents another advantage to angiosperms in the process of dispersal.
Reduced female gametophyte, seven cells with eight nuclei The reduced female gametophyte, like the reduced male gametophyte, may be an adaptation allowing for more rapid seed set,[citation needed] eventually leading to such flowering plant adaptations as annual herbaceous life-cycles, allowing the flowering plants to fill even more niches.
Endosperm In general, endosperm formation begins after fertilization and before the first division of the zygote. Endosperm is a highly nutritive tissue that can provide food for the developing embryo, the cotyledons, and sometimes the seedling when it first appears.
Vascular anatomy
Cross-section of a stem of the angiosperm flax:
1. pith, 2. protoxylem, 3. xylem, 4. phloem, 5. sclerenchyma (bast fibre), 6. cortex, 7. epidermis
Angiosperm stems are made up of seven layers as shown on the right. The amount and complexity of tissue-formation in flowering plants exceeds that of gymnosperms.
In the dicotyledons, the vascular bundles of the stem are arranged such that the xylem and phloem form concentric rings.[13] The bundles in the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue known as cambium. By the formation of a layer of cambium between the bundles (interfascicular cambium), a complete ring is formed, and a regular periodical increase in thickness results from the development of xylem on the inside and phloem on the outside. The soft phloem becomes crushed, but the hard wood persists and forms the bulk of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Owing to differences in the character of the elements produced at the beginning and end of the season, the wood is marked out in transverse section into concentric rings, one for each season of growth, called annual rings.
Among the monocotyledons, the bundles are more numerous in the young stem and are scattered through the ground tissue. They contain no cambium and once formed the stem increases in diameter only in exceptional cases.
Reproductive anatomy
Main articles: Flower and Plant reproductive morphology
A collection of flowers forming an inflorescence.
The characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Flowers show remarkable variation in form and elaboration, and provide the most trustworthy external characteristics for establishing relationships among angiosperm species. The function of the flower is to ensure fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds.[14] The floral apparatus may arise terminally on a shoot or from the axil of a leaf (where the petiole attaches to the stem).[citation needed] Occasionally, as in violets, a flower arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf. More typically, the flower-bearing portion of the plant is sharply distinguished from the foliage-bearing or vegetative portion, and forms a more or less elaborate branch-system called an inflorescence.
There are two kinds of reproductive cells produced by flowers. Microspores, which will divide to become pollen grains, are the "male" cells and are borne in the stamens (or microsporophylls).[15] The "female" cells called megaspores, which will divide to become the egg cell (megagametogenesis), are contained in the ovule and enclosed in the carpel (or megasporophyll).[15]
The flower may consist only of these parts, as in willow, where each flower comprises only a few stamens or two carpels. Usually, other structures are present and serve to protect the sporophylls and to form an envelope attractive to pollinators. The individual members of these surrounding structures are known as sepals and petals (or tepals in flowers such as Magnolia where sepals and petals are not distinguishable from each other). The outer series (calyx of sepals) is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, especially the bud. The inner series (corolla of petals) is, in general, white or brightly colored, and is more delicate in structure. It functions to attract insect or bird pollinators. Attraction is effected by color, scent, and nectar, which may be secreted in some part of the flower. The characteristics that attract pollinators account for the popularity of flowers and flowering plants among humans.[citation needed]
While the majority of flowers are perfect or hermaphrodite (having both pollen and ovule producing parts in the same flower structure), flowering plants have developed numerous morphological and physiological mechanisms to reduce or prevent self-fertilization. Heteromorphic flowers have short carpels and long stamens, or vice versa, so animal pollinators cannot easily transfer pollen to the pistil (receptive part of the carpel). Homomorphic flowers may employ a biochemical (physiological) mechanism called self-incompatibility to discriminate between self and non-self pollen grains. Alternatively, in dioecious species, the male and female parts are morphologically separated, developing on different individual flowers.[16]
History of classification
From 1736, an illustration of Linnaean classification
The botanical term "angiosperm", from Greek words angeíon (ἀγγεῖον 'bottle, vessel') and spérma (σπέρμα 'seed'), was coined in the form "Angiospermae" by Paul Hermann in 1690, as the name of one of his primary divisions of the plant kingdom. This included flowering plants possessing seeds enclosed in capsules, distinguished from his Gymnospermae, or flowering plants with achenial or schizo-carpic fruits, the whole fruit or each of its pieces being here regarded as a seed and naked. Both the term and its antonym were maintained by Carl Linnaeus with the same sense, but with restricted application, in the names of the orders of his class Didynamia. Its use with any approach to its modern scope became possible only after 1827, when Robert Brown established the existence of truly naked ovules in the Cycadeae and Coniferae,[17] and applied to them the name Gymnosperms.[citation needed] From that time onward, as long as these Gymnosperms were, as was usual, reckoned as dicotyledonous flowering plants, the term Angiosperm was used antithetically by botanical writers, with varying scope, as a group-name for other dicotyledonous plants.
An auxanometer, a device for measuring increase or rate of growth in plants
In 1851, Hofmeister discovered the changes occurring in the embryo-sac of flowering plants, and determined the correct relationships of these to the Cryptogamia. This fixed the position of Gymnosperms as a class distinct from Dicotyledons, and the term Angiosperm then gradually came to be accepted as the suitable designation for the whole of the flowering plants other than Gymnosperms, including the classes of Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. This is the sense in which the term is used today.
In most taxonomies, the flowering plants are treated as a coherent group. The most popular descriptive name has been Angiospermae, with Anthophyta (lit. 'flower-plants') a second choice (both unranked). The Wettstein system and Engler system treated them as a subdivision (Angiospermae). The Reveal system also treated them as a subdivision (Magnoliophytina),[18] but later split it to Magnoliopsida, Liliopsida, and Rosopsida. The Takhtajan system and Cronquist system treat them as a division (Magnoliophyta).[citation needed] The Dahlgren system and Thorne system (1992) treat them as a class (Magnoliopsida). The APG system of 1998, and the later 2003[19] and 2009[20] revisions, treat the flowering plants as an unranked clade without a formal Latin name (angiosperms). A formal classification was published alongside the 2009 revision in which the flowering plants rank as a subclass (Magnoliidae).[21]
The internal classification of this group has undergone considerable revision. The Cronquist system, proposed by Arthur Cronquist in 1968 and published in its full form in 1981, is still widely used but is no longer believed to accurately reflect phylogeny. A consensus about how the flowering plants should be arranged has recently begun to emerge through the work of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG), which published an influential reclassification of the angiosperms in 1998. Updates incorporating more recent research were published as the APG II system in 2003,[19] the APG III system in 2009,[20][22] and the APG IV system in 2016.
Traditionally, the flowering plants are divided into two groups,
Dicotyledoneae or Magnoliopsida
Monocotyledoneae or Liliopsida
to which the Cronquist system ascribes the classes Magnoliopsida (from "Magnoliaceae" and Liliopsida (from "Liliaceae"). Other descriptive names allowed by Article 16 of the ICBN include Dicotyledones or Dicotyledoneae, and Monocotyledones or Monocotyledoneae, which have a long history of use. In plain English, their members may be called "dicotyledons" ("dicots") and "monocotyledons" ("monocots"). The Latin behind these names refers the observation that the dicots most often have two cotyledons, or embryonic leaves, within each seed. The monocots usually have only one, but the rule is not absolute either way. From a broad diagnostic point of view, the number of cotyledons is neither a particularly handy, nor a reliable character.[citation needed]
Recent studies, as by the APG, show that the monocots form a monophyletic group (a clade) but that the dicots are paraphyletic. Nevertheless, the majority of dicot species fall into a clade, the eudicots or tricolpates, and most of the remaining fall into another major clade, the magnoliids, containing about 9,000 species. The rest include a paraphyletic grouping of early branching taxa known collectively as the basal angiosperms, plus the families Ceratophyllaceae and Chloranthaceae.[citation needed]
Modern classification
This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (September 2021)
Monocot (left) and dicot seedlings
There are eight groups of living angiosperms:
Basal angiosperms (ANA: Amborella, Nymphaeales, Austrobaileyales)
Amborella, a single species of shrub from New Caledonia;
Nymphaeales, about 80 species,[23] water lilies and Hydatellaceae;
Austrobaileyales, about 100 species[23] of woody plants from various parts of the world
Core angiosperms (Mesangiospermae)[21]
Chloranthales, 77 known species[24] of aromatic plants with toothed leaves;
Magnoliids, about 9,000 species,[23] characterised by trimerous flowers, pollen with one pore, and usually branching-veined leaves—for example magnolias, bay laurel, and black pepper;
Monocots, about 70,000 species,[23] characterised by trimerous flowers, a single cotyledon, pollen with one pore, and usually parallel-veined leaves—for example grasses, orchids, and palms;
Ceratophyllum, about 6 species[23] of aquatic plants, perhaps most familiar as aquarium plants;
Eudicots, about 175,000 species,[23] characterised by 4- or 5-merous flowers, pollen with three pores, and usually branching-veined leaves—for example sunflowers, petunia, buttercup, apples, and oaks.
The exact relationships among these eight groups is not yet clear, although there is agreement that the first three groups to diverge from the ancestral angiosperm were Amborellales, Nymphaeales, and Austrobaileyales (basal angiosperms)[25] Of the remaining five groups (core angiosperms), the relationships among the three broadest groups remains unclear (magnoliids, monocots, and eudicots). Zeng and colleagues (Fig. 1) describe four competing schemes.[26][clarification needed]The eudicots and monocots are the largest and most diversified, with ~ 75% and 20% of angiosperm species, respectively. Some analyses make the magnoliids the first to diverge, others the monocots.[27] Ceratophyllum seems to group with the eudicots rather than with the monocots. The APG IV retained the overall higher order relationship described in APG III.[20]
1. Phylogeny of the flowering plants, as of APG III (2009).[20]
Amborella
Ceratophyllum
2. Example of alternative phylogeny (2010)[27]
3. APG IV (2016)[1]
(ANA group)
Detailed Cladogram of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) IV classification.[1]
Amborellales Melikyan, Bobrov & Zaytzeva 1999
Nymphaeales Salisbury ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Austrobaileyales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992
Mesangiosperms
Chloranthales Mart. 1835
Canellales Cronquist 1957
Piperales von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Magnoliales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Laurales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Acorales Link 1835
Alismatales Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Petrosaviales Takhtajan 1997
Dioscoreales Brown 1835
Pandanales Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Liliales Perleb 1826
Asparagales Link 1829
Commelinids
Arecales Bromhead 1840
Poales Small 1903
Zingiberales Grisebach 1854
Commelinales de Mirbel ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Ceratophyllales Link 1829
Ranunculales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Proteales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Trochodendrales Takhtajan ex Cronquist 1981
Buxales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1996
Gunnerales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992
Dilleniales de Candolle ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Superrosids
Saxifragales von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Vitales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Fabids
Zygophyllales Link 1829
Celastrales Link 1829
Oxalidales von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Malpighiales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Fabales Bromhead 1838
Rosales von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Cucurbitales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Fagales Engler 1892
(eurosids I)
Malvids
Geraniales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Myrtales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Crossosomatales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1993
Picramniales Doweld 2001
Sapindales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Huerteales Doweld 2001
Malvales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Brassicales Bromhead 1838
(eurosids II)
Superasterids
Berberidopsidales Doweld 2001
Santalales Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Cornales Link 1829
Ericales von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Lamiids
Icacinales Van Tieghem 1900
Metteniusales Takhtajan 1997
Garryales Mart. 1835
Gentianales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Solanales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Boraginales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Vahliales Doweld 2001
Lamiales Bromhead 1838
(euasterids I)
Campanulids
Aquifoliales Senft 1856
Escalloniales Mart. 1835
Asterales Link 1829
Bruniales Dumortier 1829
Apiales Nakai 1930
Paracryphiales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992
Dipsacales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
(euasterids II)
Evolutionary history
Further information: Evolutionary history of plants § Flowers
Fossilised spores suggest that land plants (embryophytes) have existed for at least 475 million years.[28] Early land plants reproduced sexually with flagellated, swimming sperm, like the green algae from which they evolved.[citation needed] An adaptation to terrestrialization was the development of upright meiosporangia for dispersal by spores to new habitats.[citation needed] This feature is lacking in the descendants of their nearest algal relatives, the Charophycean green algae. A later terrestrial adaptation took place with retention of the delicate, avascular sexual stage, the gametophyte, within the tissues of the vascular sporophyte.[citation needed] This occurred by spore germination within sporangia rather than spore release, as in non-seed plants. A current example of how this might have happened can be seen in the precocious spore germination in Selaginella, the spike-moss. The result for the ancestors of angiosperms was enclosing them in a case, the seed.
The apparently sudden appearance in the fossil record of nearly modern flowers, and in great diversity, initially posed such a problem for the theory of gradual evolution that Charles Darwin called it an "abominable mystery".[29] However, the fossil record has considerably grown since the time of Darwin, and recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as Archaefructus, along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps.[citation needed] Several groups of extinct gymnosperms, in particular seed ferns, have been proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants, but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing how flowers evolved, and botanists still regard it as a mystery.[30] Some older fossils, such as the upper Triassic Sanmiguelia lewisi, have been suggested.[citation needed]
The first seed bearing plants, like the ginkgo, and conifers (such as pines and firs), did not produce flowers. The pollen grains (male gametophytes) of Ginkgo and cycads produce a pair of flagellated, mobile sperm cells that "swim" down the developing pollen tube to the female and her eggs.
Oleanane, a secondary metabolite produced by many flowering plants, has been found in Permian deposits of that age together with fossils of gigantopterids.[31][32] Gigantopterids are a group of extinct seed plants that share many morphological traits with flowering plants, although they are not known to have been flowering plants themselves.[33]
Molecular evidence indicates that the ancestors of angiosperms diverged from the gymnosperms during the late Devonian, about 365 million years ago, despite only appearing in the fossil record during the Mesozoic, almost two hundred million years later.[34]
Triassic and Jurassic
Fluffy flowers of Tetradenia riparia (misty plume bush)
Flowers of Malus sylvestris (crab apple)
Flowers and leaves of Senecio angulatus (creeping groundsel)
Two bees on the composite flower head of creeping thistle, Cirsium arvense
Based on fossil evidence, some have proposed that the ancestors of the angiosperms diverged from an unknown group of gymnosperms in the Triassic period (245–202 million years ago). Fossil angiosperm-like pollen from the Middle Triassic (247.2–242.0 Ma) suggests an older date for their origin, which is further supported by genetic evidence of the ancestors of angiosperms diverging during the Devonian.[34][35] A close relationship between angiosperms and gnetophytes, proposed on the basis of morphological evidence, has more recently been disputed on the basis of molecular evidence that suggest gnetophytes are instead more closely related to other gymnosperms.[36][37]
The fossil plant species Nanjinganthus dendrostyla from Early Jurassic China seems to share many exclusively angiosperm features, such as a thickened receptacle with ovules, and thus might represent a crown-group or a stem-group angiosperm.[38] However, these have been disputed by other researchers, who contend that the structures are misinterpreted decomposed conifer cones.[39][40]
The evolution of seed plants and later angiosperms appears to be the result of two distinct rounds of whole genome duplication events.[41] These occurred at 319 million years ago and 192 million years ago. Another possible whole genome duplication event at 160 million years ago perhaps created the ancestral line that led to all modern flowering plants.[42] That event was studied by sequencing the genome of an ancient flowering plant, Amborella trichopoda,[43] and directly addresses Darwin's "abominable mystery".
One study has suggested that the early-middle Jurassic plant Schmeissneria, traditionally considered a type of ginkgo, may be the earliest known angiosperm, or at least a close relative.[44]
Whereas the earth had previously been dominated by ferns and conifers, angiosperms appeared and quickly spread during the Cretaceous. They now comprise about 90% of all plant species including most food crops.[45] It has been proposed that the swift rise of angiosperms to dominance was facilitated by a reduction in their genome size. During the early Cretaceous period, only angiosperms underwent rapid genome downsizing, while genome sizes of ferns and gymnosperms remained unchanged. Smaller genomes—and smaller nuclei—allow for faster rates of cell division and smaller cells. Thus, species with smaller genomes can pack more, smaller cells—in particular veins and stomata[46]—into a given leaf volume. Genome downsizing therefore facilitated higher rates of leaf gas exchange (transpiration and photosynthesis) and faster rates of growth. This would have countered some of the negative physiological effects of genome duplications, facilitated increased uptake of carbon dioxide despite concurrent declines in atmospheric CO2 concentrations, and allowed the flowering plants to outcompete other land plants.[47]
The oldest known fossils definitively attributable to angiosperms are reticulated monosulcate pollen from the late Valanginian (Early or Lower Cretaceous - 140 to 133 million years ago) of Italy and Israel, likely representative of the basal angiosperm grade.[39]
The earliest known macrofossil confidently identified as an angiosperm, Archaefructus liaoningensis, is dated to about 125 million years BP (the Cretaceous period),[48] whereas pollen considered to be of angiosperm origin takes the fossil record back to about 130 million years BP,[49] with Montsechia representing the earliest flower at that time.[50]
In 2013 flowers encased in amber were found and dated 100 million years before present. The amber had frozen the act of sexual reproduction in the process of taking place. Microscopic images showed tubes growing out of pollen and penetrating the flower's stigma. The pollen was sticky, suggesting it was carried by insects.[51] In August 2017, scientists presented a detailed description and 3D model image of what the first flower possibly looked like, and presented the hypothesis that it may have lived about 140 million years ago.[52][53] A Bayesian analysis of 52 angiosperm taxa suggested that the crown group of angiosperms evolved between 178 million years ago and 198 million years ago.[54]
Recent DNA analysis based on molecular systematics[55][56] showed that Amborella trichopoda, found on the Pacific island of New Caledonia, belongs to a sister group of the other flowering plants, and morphological studies[57] suggest that it has features that may have been characteristic of the earliest flowering plants. The orders Amborellales, Nymphaeales, and Austrobaileyales diverged as separate lineages from the remaining angiosperm clade at a very early stage in flowering plant evolution.[58]
The great angiosperm radiation, when a great diversity of angiosperms appears in the fossil record, occurred in the mid-Cretaceous (approximately 100 million years ago). However, a study in 2007[59] estimated that the division of the five most recent of the eight main groups occurred around 140 million years ago. (the genus Ceratophyllum, the family Chloranthaceae, the eudicots, the magnoliids, and the monocots) .
It is generally assumed that the function of flowers, from the start, was to involve mobile animals in their reproduction processes. That is, pollen can be scattered even if the flower is not brightly colored or oddly shaped in a way that attracts animals; however, by expending the energy required to create such traits, angiosperms can enlist the aid of animals and, thus, reproduce more efficiently.
Island genetics provides one proposed explanation for the sudden, fully developed appearance of flowering plants. Island genetics is believed to be a common source of speciation in general, especially when it comes to radical adaptations that seem to have required inferior transitional forms. Flowering plants may have evolved in an isolated setting like an island or island chain, where the plants bearing them were able to develop a highly specialised relationship with some specific animal (a wasp, for example). Such a relationship, with a hypothetical wasp carrying pollen from one plant to another much the way fig wasps do today, could result in the development of a high degree of specialisation in both the plant(s) and their partners. Note that the wasp example is not incidental; bees, which, it is postulated, evolved specifically due to mutualistic plant relationships, are descended from wasps.[60]
Animals are also involved in the distribution of seeds. Fruit, which is formed by the enlargement of flower parts, is frequently a seed-dispersal tool that attracts animals to eat or otherwise disturb it, incidentally scattering the seeds it contains (see frugivory). Although many such mutualistic relationships remain too fragile to survive competition and to spread widely, flowering proved to be an unusually effective means of reproduction, spreading (whatever its origin) to become the dominant form of land plant life.[citation needed]
Flower ontogeny uses a combination of genes normally responsible for forming new shoots.[61] The most primitive flowers probably had a variable number of flower parts, often separate from (but in contact with) each other. The flowers tended to grow in a spiral pattern, to be bisexual (in plants, this means both male and female parts on the same flower), and to be dominated by the ovary (female part). As flowers evolved, some variations developed parts fused together, with a much more specific number and design, and with either specific sexes per flower or plant or at least "ovary-inferior". Flower evolution continues to the present day; modern flowers have been so profoundly influenced by humans that some of them cannot be pollinated in nature. Many modern domesticated flower species were formerly simple weeds, which sprouted only when the ground was disturbed. Some of them tended to grow with human crops, perhaps already having symbiotic companion plant relationships with them, and the prettiest did not get plucked because of their beauty, developing a dependence upon and special adaptation to human affection.[62]
A few paleontologists have also proposed that flowering plants, or angiosperms, might have evolved due to interactions with dinosaurs. One of the idea's strongest proponents is Robert T. Bakker. He proposes that herbivorous dinosaurs, with their eating habits, provided a selective pressure on plants, for which adaptations either succeeded in deterring or coping with predation by herbivores.[63]
By the late Cretaceous, angiosperms appear to have dominated environments formerly occupied by ferns and cycadophytes, but large canopy-forming trees replaced conifers as the dominant trees only close to the end of the Cretaceous 66 million years ago or even later, at the beginning of the Paleogene.[64] The radiation of herbaceous angiosperms occurred much later.[65] Yet, many fossil plants recognisable as belonging to modern families (including beech, oak, maple, and magnolia) had already appeared by the late Cretaceous. Flowering plants appeared in Australia about 126 million years ago. This also pushed the age of ancient Australian vertebrates, in what was then a south polar continent, to 126-110 million years old.[50]
Gallery of photos
A poster of twelve different species of flowers of the family Asteraceae
Lupinus pilosus
Bud of a pink rose
The number of species of flowering plants is estimated to be in the range of 250,000 to 400,000.[66][67][68] This compares to around 12,000 species of moss[69] and 11,000 species of pteridophytes,[70] showing that flowering plants are much more diverse. The number of families in APG (1998) was 462. In APG II[19] (2003) it is not settled; at maximum it is 457, but within this number there are 55 optional segregates, so that the minimum number of families in this system is 402. In APG III (2009) there are 415 families.[20][71] Compared to the APG III system, the APG IV system recognizes five new orders (Boraginales, Dilleniales, Icacinales, Metteniusales and Vahliales), along with some new families, making a total of 64 angiosperm orders and 416 families.[72] The diversity of flowering plants is not evenly distributed. Nearly all species belong to the eudicot (75%), monocot (23%), and magnoliid (2%) clades. The remaining five clades contain a little over 250 species in total; i.e. less than 0.1% of flowering plant diversity, divided among nine families. The 43 most diverse of 443 families of flowering plants by species,[73] in their APG circumscriptions, are
Asteraceae or Compositae (daisy family): 22,750 species;
Orchidaceae (orchid family): 21,950;
Fabaceae or Leguminosae (bean family): 19,400;
Rubiaceae (madder family): 13,150;[74]
Poaceae or Gramineae (grass family): 10,035;
Lamiaceae or Labiatae (mint family): 7,175;
Euphorbiaceae (spurge family): 5,735;
Melastomataceae or Melastomaceae (melastome family): 5,005;
Myrtaceae (myrtle family): 4,625;
Apocynaceae (dogbane family): 4,555;
Cyperaceae (sedge family): 4,350;
Malvaceae (mallow family): 4,225;
Araceae (arum family): 4,025;
Ericaceae (heath family): 3,995;
Gesneriaceae (gesneriad family): 3,870;
Apiaceae or Umbelliferae (parsley family): 3,780;
Brassicaceae or Cruciferae (cabbage family): 3,710:
Piperaceae (pepper family): 3,600;
Bromeliaceae (bromeliad family): 3,540;
Acanthaceae (acanthus family): 3,500;
Rosaceae (rose family): 2,830;
Boraginaceae (borage family): 2,740;
Urticaceae (nettle family): 2,625;
Ranunculaceae (buttercup family): 2,525;
Lauraceae (laurel family): 2,500;
Solanaceae (nightshade family): 2,460;
Campanulaceae (bellflower family): 2,380;
Arecaceae (palm family): 2,361;
Annonaceae (custard apple family): 2,220;
Caryophyllaceae (pink family): 2,200;
Orobanchaceae (broomrape family): 2,060;
Amaranthaceae (amaranth family): 2,050;
Iridaceae (iris family): 2,025;
Aizoaceae or Ficoidaceae (ice plant family): 2,020;
Rutaceae (rue family): 1,815;
Phyllanthaceae (phyllanthus family): 1,745;
Scrophulariaceae (figwort family): 1,700;
Gentianaceae (gentian family): 1,650;
Convolvulaceae (bindweed family): 1,600;
Proteaceae (protea family): 1,600;
Sapindaceae (soapberry family): 1,580;
Cactaceae (cactus family): 1,500;
Araliaceae (Aralia or ivy family): 1,450.
Of these, the Orchidaceae, Poaceae, Cyperaceae, Araceae, Bromeliaceae, Arecaceae, and Iridaceae are monocot families; Piperaceae, Lauraceae, and Annonaceae are magnoliid dicots; the rest of the families are eudicots.
Fertilisation and embryogenesis
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Main articles: Fertilization and Plant embryogenesis
Angiosperm life cycle
Double fertilization refers to a process in which two sperm cells fertilise cells in the ovule. This process begins when a pollen grain adheres to the stigma of the pistil (female reproductive structure), germinates, and grows a long pollen tube. While this pollen tube is growing, a haploid generative cell travels down the tube behind the tube nucleus. The generative cell divides by mitosis to produce two haploid (n) sperm cells. As the pollen tube grows, it makes its way from the stigma, down the style and into the ovary. Here the pollen tube reaches the micropyle of the ovule and digests its way into one of the synergids, releasing its contents (which include the sperm cells). The synergid that the cells were released into degenerates and one sperm makes its way to fertilise the egg cell, producing a diploid (2n) zygote. The second sperm cell fuses with both central cell nuclei, producing a triploid (3n) cell. As the zygote develops into an embryo, the triploid cell develops into the endosperm, which serves as the embryo's food supply. The ovary will now develop into a fruit and the ovule will develop into a seed.
Fruit and seed
Main articles: Seed and Fruit
The fruit of Aesculus hippocastanum, the horse chestnut tree
As the development of the embryo and endosperm proceeds within the embryo sac, the sac wall enlarges and combines with the nucellus (which is likewise enlarging) and the integument to form the seed coat. The ovary wall develops to form the fruit or pericarp, whose form is closely associated with type of seed dispersal system.[75]
Frequently, the influence of fertilisation is felt beyond the ovary, and other parts of the flower take part in the formation of the fruit, e.g., the floral receptacle in the apple, strawberry, and others.[citation needed]
The character of the seed coat bears a definite relation to that of the fruit. They protect the embryo and aid in dissemination; they may also directly promote germination. Among plants with indehiscent fruits, in general, the fruit provides protection for the embryo and secures dissemination. In this case, the seed coat is only slightly developed. If the fruit is dehiscent and the seed is exposed, in general, the seed-coat is well developed and must discharge the functions otherwise executed by the fruit.[citation needed]
In some cases, like in the Asteraceae family, species have evolved to exhibit heterocarpy, or the production of different fruit morphs.[76] These fruit morphs, produced from one plant, are different in size and shape, which influence dispersal range and germination rate.[76] These fruit morphs are adapted to different environments, increasing chances for survival.[76]
Meiosis
Like all diploid multicellular organisms that use sexual reproduction, flowering plants generate gametes using a specialised type of cell division called meiosis. Meiosis takes place in the ovule—a structure within the ovary that is located within the pistil at the centre of the flower (see diagram labeled "Angiosperm lifecycle"). A diploid cell (megaspore mother cell) in the ovule undergoes meiosis (involving two successive cell divisions) to produce four cells (megaspores) with haploid nuclei.[77] It is thought that the basal chromosome number in angiosperms is n = 7.[78] One of these four cells (megaspore) then undergoes three successive mitotic divisions to produce an immature embryo sac (megagametophyte) with eight haploid nuclei. Next, these nuclei are segregated into separate cells by cytokinesis to produce three antipodal cells, two synergid cells and an egg cell. Two polar nuclei are left in the central cell of the embryo sac.[citation needed]
Pollen is also produced by meiosis in the male anther (microsporangium). During meiosis, a diploid microspore mother cell undergoes two successive meiotic divisions to produce four haploid cells (microspores or male gametes). Each of these microspores, after further mitoses, becomes a pollen grain (microgametophyte) containing two haploid generative (sperm) cells and a tube nucleus. When a pollen grain makes contact with the female stigma, the pollen grain forms a pollen tube that grows down the style into the ovary. In the act of fertilisation, a male sperm nucleus fuses with the female egg nucleus to form a diploid zygote that can then develop into an embryo within the newly forming seed. Upon germination of the seed, a new plant can grow and mature.[citation needed]
The adaptive function of meiosis is currently a matter of debate. A key event during meiosis in a diploid cell is the pairing of homologous chromosomes and homologous recombination (the exchange of genetic information) between homologous chromosomes. This process promotes the production of increased genetic diversity among progeny and the recombinational repair of damages in the DNA to be passed on to progeny. To explain the adaptive function of meiosis in flowering plants, some authors emphasise diversity[79] and others emphasise DNA repair.[80]
Apomixis
Apomixis (reproduction via asexually formed seeds) is found naturally in about 2.2% of angiosperm genera.[81] One type of apomixis, gametophytic apomixis found in a dandelion species[82] involves formation of an unreduced embryo sac due to incomplete meiosis (apomeiosis) and development of an embryo from the unreduced egg inside the embryo sac, without fertilisation (parthenogenesis).[citation needed]
Some angiosperms, including many citrus varieties, are able to produce fruits through a type of apomixis called nucellar embryony.[83]
Agriculture is almost entirely dependent on angiosperms, which provide virtually all plant-based food, and also provide a significant amount of livestock feed. Of all the families of plants, the Poaceae, or grass family (providing grains), is by far the most important, providing the bulk of all feedstocks (rice, maize, wheat, barley, rye, oats, pearl millet, sugar cane, sorghum). The Fabaceae, or legume family, comes in second place. Also of high importance are the Solanaceae, or nightshade family (potatoes, tomatoes, and peppers, among others); the Cucurbitaceae, or gourd family (including pumpkins and melons); the Brassicaceae, or mustard plant family (including rapeseed and the innumerable varieties of the cabbage species Brassica oleracea); and the Apiaceae, or parsley family. Many of our fruits come from the Rutaceae, or rue family (including oranges, lemons, grapefruits, etc.), and the Rosaceae, or rose family (including apples, pears, cherries, apricots, plums, etc.).[84][85]
In some parts of the world, certain single species assume paramount importance because of their variety of uses, for example the coconut (Cocos nucifera) on Pacific atolls, and the olive (Olea europaea) in the Mediterranean region.[86]
Flowering plants also provide economic resources in the form of wood, paper, fiber (cotton, flax, and hemp, among others), medicines (digitalis, camphor), decorative and landscaping plants, and many other uses. Coffee and cocoa are the common beverages obtained from the flowering plants. The main area in which they are surpassed by other plants—namely, coniferous trees (Pinales), which are non-flowering (gymnosperms)—is timber and paper production.[87]
List of garden plants
List of plant orders
List of plants by common name
List of systems of plant taxonomy
^ The major exception to the dominance of terrestrial ecosystems by flowering plants is the coniferous forest.
^ a b c APG 2016.
^ Cronquist 1960.
^ Reveal JL (2011) [or later]. "Indices Nominum Supragenericorum Plantarum Vascularium – M". Archived from the original on 27 August 2013. Retrieved 28 August 2017.
^ Takhtajan 1964.
^ Lindley J (1830). Introduction to the Natural System of Botany. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green. xxxvi.
^ Cantino PD, Doyle JA, Graham SW, Judd WS, Olmstead RG, Soltis DE, Soltis PS, Donoghue MJ (2007). "Towards a phylogenetic nomenclature of Tracheophyta". Taxon. 56 (3): E1–E44. doi:10.2307/25065865. JSTOR 25065865.
^ Christenhusz MJ, Byng JW (2016). "The number of known plants species in the world and its annual increase". Phytotaxa. 261 (3): 201–217. doi:10.11646/phytotaxa.261.3.1.
^ De La Torre AR, Li Z, Van de Peer Y, Ingvarsson PK (June 2017). "Contrasting Rates of Molecular Evolution and Patterns of Selection among Gymnosperms and Flowering Plants". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 34 (6): 1363–1377. doi:10.1093/molbev/msx069. PMC 5435085. PMID 28333233.
^ "Angiosperms | OpenStax Biology 2e". courses.lumenlearning.com. Retrieved 19 July 2021.
^ Raven PH, Evert RF, Eichhorn SE (2005). Biology of Plants. W. H. Freeman. pp. 376–. ISBN 978-0-7167-1007-3.
^ Williams JH (2012). "The evolution of pollen germination timing in flowering plants: Austrobaileya scandens (Austrobaileyaceae)". AoB PLANTS. 2012: pls010. doi:10.1093/aobpla/pls010. PMC 3345124. PMID 22567221.
^ "Monocots vs. Dicots". ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 28 November 2021.
^ Willson, Mary F. (1 June 1979). "Sexual Selection in Plants". The American Naturalist. 113 (6): 777–790. doi:10.1086/283437. ISSN 0003-0147. S2CID 84970789.
^ a b Salisbury, Frank B.; Parke, Robert V. (1970), Salisbury, Frank B.; Parke, Robert V. (eds.), "Sexual Reproduction", Vascular Plants: Form and Function, Fundamentals of Botany Series, London: Macmillan Education UK, pp. 185–195, doi:10.1007/978-1-349-00364-8_13, ISBN 978-1-349-00364-8, retrieved 9 November 2021
^ Ainsworth, C (August 2000). "Boys and Girls Come Out to Play: The Molecular Biology of Dioecious Plants". Annals of Botany. 86 (2): 211–221. doi:10.1006/anbo.2000.1201. ISSN 0305-7364.
^ Brown R (1827). "Character and description of Kingia, a new genus of plants found on the southwest coast of New Holland: with observations on the structure of its unimpregnated ovulum; and on the female flower of Cycadeae and Coniferae". In King PP (ed.). Narrative of a Survey of the Intertropical and Western Coasts of Australia: Performed Between the Years 1818 and 1822. J. Murray. pp. 534–565. OCLC 185517977.
^ Frohne & Jensen ex Reveal (29 April 1996). "Magnoliophytina". Phytologia. 79 (2): 70.
^ a b c d e APG 2009.
^ a b Chase & Reveal 2009.
^ "As easy as APG III - Scientists revise the system of classifying flowering plants" (Press release). The Linnean Society of London. 8 October 2009. Archived from the original on 26 November 2010. Retrieved 2 October 2009.
^ a b c d e f Palmer JD, Soltis DE, Chase MW (October 2004). "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view". American Journal of Botany. 91 (10): 1437–45. doi:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1437. PMID 21652302. , Figure 2
^ "Plants of the World: An Illustrated Encyclopedia of Vascular Plants".
^ Soltis PS, Soltis DE (October 2004). "The origin and diversification of angiosperms". American Journal of Botany. 91 (10): 1614–26. doi:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1614. PMID 21652312.
^ Zeng et al 2014.
^ a b Bell, Soltis & Soltis 2010.
^ Edwards D (June 2000). "The role of mid-palaeozoic mesofossils in the detection of early bryophytes". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 355 (1398): 733–54, discussion 754–5. doi:10.1098/rstb.2000.0613. PMC 1692787. PMID 10905607.
^ Davies TJ, Barraclough TG, Chase MW, Soltis PS, Soltis DE, Savolainen V (February 2004). "Darwin's abominable mystery: Insights from a supertree of the angiosperms". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 101 (7): 1904–9. Bibcode:2004PNAS..101.1904D. doi:10.1073/pnas.0308127100. PMC 357025. PMID 14766971.
^ Briggs H (23 January 2021). "New light shed on Darwin's 'Abominable Mystery'". BBC News.
^ Taylor DW, Li H, Dahl J, Fago FJ, Zinniker D, Moldowan JM (March 2006). "Biogeochemical evidence for the presence of the angiosperm molecular fossil oleanane in Paleozoic and Mesozoic non-angiospermous fossils". Paleobiology. 32 (2): 179–190. doi:10.1666/0094-8373(2006)32[179:BEFTPO]2.0.CO;2.
^ "Oily Fossils Provide Clues To The Evolution Of Flowers". ScienceDaily. Stanford University. 5 April 2001.
^ Glasspool, Ian J; Hilton, Jason; Collinson, Margaret E; Wang, Shi-Jun; Li-Cheng-Sen (20 March 2004). "Foliar physiognomy in Cathaysian gigantopterids and the potential to track Palaeozoic climates using an extinct plant group". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 205 (1): 69–110. Bibcode:2004PPP...205...69G. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2003.12.002. ISSN 0031-0182.
^ a b Stull, Gregory W.; Qu, Xiao-Jian; Parins-Fukuchi, Caroline; Yang, Ying-Ying; Yang, Jun-Bo; Yang, Zhi-Yun; Hu, Yi; Ma, Hong; Soltis, Pamela S.; Soltis, Douglas E.; Li, De-Zhu (19 July 2021). "Gene duplications and phylogenomic conflict underlie major pulses of phenotypic evolution in gymnosperms". Nature Plants. 7 (8): 1015–1025. doi:10.1038/s41477-021-00964-4. ISSN 2055-0278.
^ Hochuli PA, Feist-Burkhardt S (2013). "Angiosperm-like pollen and Afropollis from the Middle Triassic (Anisian) of the Germanic Basin (Northern Switzerland)". Frontiers in Plant Science. 4: 344. doi:10.3389/fpls.2013.00344. PMC 3788615. PMID 24106492.
^ Qiu YL, Li L, Wang B, Chen Z, Dombrovska O, Lee J, Kent L, Li R, Jobson RW, Hendry TA, Taylor DW (June 2007). "A Nonflowering Land Plant Phylogeny Inferred from Nucleotide Sequences of Seven Chloroplast, Mitochondrial, and Nuclear Genes". International Journal of Plant Sciences. 168 (5): 691–708. doi:10.1086/513474. S2CID 83781896.
^ Coiro M, Chomicki G, Doyle JA (30 July 2018). "Experimental signal dissection and method sensitivity analyses reaffirm the potential of fossils and morphology in the resolution of the relationship of angiosperms and Gnetales". Paleobiology. 44 (3): 490–510. doi:10.1017/pab.2018.23. S2CID 91488394.
^ Fu Q, Diez JB, Pole M, García Ávila M, Liu ZJ, Chu H, et al. (December 2018). "An unexpected noncarpellate epigynous flower from the Jurassic of China". eLife. 7: e38827. doi:10.7554/eLife.38827. PMC 6298773. PMID 30558712.
^ a b Coiro M, Doyle JA, Hilton J (July 2019). "How deep is the conflict between molecular and fossil evidence on the age of angiosperms?". The New Phytologist. 223 (1): 83–99. doi:10.1111/nph.15708. PMID 30681148.
^ Sokoloff DD, Remizowa MV, El ES, Rudall PJ, Bateman RM (October 2020). "Supposed Jurassic angiosperms lack pentamery, an important angiosperm-specific feature". The New Phytologist. 228 (2): 420–426. doi:10.1111/nph.15974. PMID 31418869.
^ Jiao Y, Wickett NJ, Ayyampalayam S, Chanderbali AS, Landherr L, Ralph PE, et al. (May 2011). "Ancestral polyploidy in seed plants and angiosperms". Nature. 473 (7345): 97–100. Bibcode:2011Natur.473...97J. doi:10.1038/nature09916. PMID 21478875. S2CID 4313258.
^ Callaway E (December 2013). "Shrub genome reveals secrets of flower power". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2013.14426. S2CID 88293665.
^ Adams K (December 2013). "Genomics. Genomic clues to the ancestral flowering plant". Science. 342 (6165): 1456–7. Bibcode:2013Sci...342.1456A. doi:10.1126/science.1248709. PMID 24357306. S2CID 206553839.
^ Wang X, Duan S, Geng B, Cui J, Yang Y (February 2007). "Schmeissneria: a missing link to angiosperms?". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 7: 14. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-7-14. PMC 1805421. PMID 17284326.
^ Briggs H (14 January 2018). "How flowering plants conquered the world". BBC News.
^ Simonin, Kevin A.; Roddy, Adam B. (11 January 2018). "Genome downsizing, physiological novelty, and the global dominance of flowering plants". PLOS Biology. 16 (1): e2003706. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.2003706. ISSN 1545-7885. PMC 5764239. PMID 29324757.
^ Simonin KA, Roddy AB (January 2018). "Genome downsizing, physiological novelty, and the global dominance of flowering plants". PLOS Biology. 16 (1): e2003706. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.2003706. PMC 5764239. PMID 29324757.
^ Sun G, Ji Q, Dilcher DL, Zheng S, Nixon KC, Wang X (May 2002). "Archaefructaceae, a new basal angiosperm family". Science. 296 (5569): 899–904. Bibcode:2002Sci...296..899S. doi:10.1126/science.1069439. PMID 11988572. S2CID 1910388.
^ Herendeen PS, Friis EM, Pedersen KR, Crane PR (March 2017). "Palaeobotanical redux: revisiting the age of the angiosperms". Nature Plants. 3 (3): 17015. doi:10.1038/nplants.2017.15. PMID 28260783. S2CID 205458714.
^ a b "When flowers reached Australia: First blooms made it to Australia 126 millions years ago". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 21 December 2019.
^ Poinar Jr GO, Chambers KL, Wunderlich J (10 December 2013). "Micropetasos, a new genus of angiosperms from mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber". J. Bot. Res. Inst. Texas. 7 (2): 745–750. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 January 2014. Lay summary (3 January 2014).
^ Gabbott S (1 August 2017). "Did the first flower look like this?". BBC News. Retrieved 1 August 2017.
^ Sauquet H, von Balthazar M, Magallón S, Doyle JA, Endress PK, Bailes EJ, et al. (August 2017). "The ancestral flower of angiosperms and its early diversification". Nature Communications. 8 (2017): 16047. Bibcode:2017NatCo...816047S. doi:10.1038/ncomms16047. PMC 5543309. PMID 28763051.
^ Foster CS, Ho SY (October 2017). "Strategies for Partitioning Clock Models in Phylogenomic Dating: Application to the Angiosperm Evolutionary Timescale". Genome Biology and Evolution. 9 (10): 2752–2763. doi:10.1093/gbe/evx198. PMC 5647803. PMID 29036288.
^ "First Flower". NOVA. PBS. 17 April 2007. Transcripts.
^ Soltis DE, Soltis PS (June 2004). "Amborella not a "basal angiosperm"? Not so fast". American Journal of Botany. 91 (6): 997–1001. doi:10.3732/ajb.91.6.997. PMID 21653455.
^ "South Pacific plant may be missing link in evolution of flowering plants". EurekAlert!. AAAS. 17 May 2006.
^ Vialette-Guiraud AC, Alaux M, Legeai F, Finet C, Chambrier P, Brown SC, et al. (September 2011). "Cabomba as a model for studies of early angiosperm evolution". Annals of Botany. 108 (4): 589–598. doi:10.1093/aob/mcr088. PMC 3170152. PMID 21486926.
^ Moore MJ, Bell CD, Soltis PS, Soltis DE (December 2007). "Using plastid genome-scale data to resolve enigmatic relationships among basal angiosperms". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 104 (49): 19363–8. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10419363M. doi:10.1073/pnas.0708072104. PMC 2148295. PMID 18048334.
^ Buchmann SL, Nabhan GP (2012). The Forgotten Pollinators. Island Press. pp. 41–42. ISBN 978-1-59726-908-7.
^ Froelich WR, Clancy S (15 June 2001). "Age-Old Question On Evolution Of Flowers Answered". UniSci.com.
^ Britt RR (26 May 2005). "Human Affection Altered Evolution of Flowers". LiveScience.
^ Bakker RT (17 August 1978). "Dinosaur Feeding Behaviour and the Origin of Flowering Plants". Nature. 274 (5672): 661–663. Bibcode:1978Natur.274..661B. doi:10.1038/274661a0. S2CID 4162574.
^ Sadava D, Heller HC, Orians GH, Purves WK, Hillis DM (December 2006). Life: the science of biology. Macmillan. pp. 477–. ISBN 978-0-7167-7674-1. Retrieved 4 August 2010.
^ Stewart WN, Rothwell GW (1993). Paleobotany and the evolution of plants (2nd ed.). Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 498. ISBN 978-0-521-23315-6.
^ Thorne RF (2002). "How many species of seed plants are there?". Taxon. 51 (3): 511–522. doi:10.2307/1554864. JSTOR 1554864.
^ Scotland RW, Wortley AH (2003). "How many species of seed plants are there?". Taxon. 52 (1): 101–104. doi:10.2307/3647306. JSTOR 3647306.
^ Govaerts R (2003). "How many species of seed plants are there? – a response". Taxon. 52 (3): 583–584. doi:10.2307/3647457. JSTOR 3647457. [dead link]
^ Goffinet B, Buck WR (2004). "Systematics of the Bryophyta (Mosses): From molecules to a revised classification". Monographs in Systematic Botany. 98: 205–239.
^ Raven PH, Evert RF, Eichhorn SE (2005). Biology of Plants (7th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-1007-2.
^ Rhodes HF (1 January 1974). Evolution. Golden Press. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-307-64360-5.
^ APG (2016). "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 181 (1): 1–20. doi:10.1111/boj.12385.
^ Stevens PF (2011). "Angiosperm Phylogeny Website (at Missouri Botanical Garden)".
^ "Kew Scientist 30 (October2006)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2007.
^ Eriksson O (2008). "Evolution of Seed Size and Biotic Seed Dispersal in Angiosperms: Paleoecological and Neoecological Evidence". International Journal of Plant Sciences. 169 (7): 863–870. doi:10.1086/589888. S2CID 52905335.
^ a b c Gardocki, M. E., Zablocki, H., El-Keblawy, A., & Freeman, D. C. (2000). Heterocarpy in Calendula micrantha (Asteraceae): The effects of competition and availability of water on the performance of offspring from different fruit morphs. Evolutionary Ecology Research. 2(6):701-718
^ Snustad DP, Simmons MJ (2008). Principles of Genetics (5th ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-38825-9.
^ Ehrendorfer F, Krendl F, Habeler E, Sauer W (1 August 1968). "Chromosome Numbers and Evolution in Primitive Angiosperms". Taxon. 17 (4): 337–353. doi:10.2307/1217392. JSTOR 1217392.
^ Harrison CJ, Alvey E, Henderson IR (June 2010). "Meiosis in flowering plants and other green organisms". Journal of Experimental Botany. 61 (11): 2863–75. doi:10.1093/jxb/erq191. PMID 20576791.
^ Mirzaghaderi G, Hörandl E (September 2016). "The evolution of meiotic sex and its alternatives". Proceedings. Biological Sciences. 283 (1838): 20161221. doi:10.1098/rspb.2016.1221. PMC 5031655. PMID 27605505.
^ Hojsgaard D, Klatt S, Baier R, Carman JG, Hörandl E (September 2014). "Taxonomy and Biogeography of Apomixis in Angiosperms and Associated Biodiversity Characteristics". Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences. 33 (5): 414–427. doi:10.1080/07352689.2014.898488. PMC 4786830. PMID 27019547.
^ van Baarlen P, van Dijk PJ, Hoekstra RF, de Jong JH (October 2000). "Meiotic recombination in sexual diploid and apomictic triploid dandelions (Taraxacum officinale L.)". Genome. 43 (5): 827–35. doi:10.1139/gen-43-5-827. PMID 11081973.
^ Gentile A (18 March 2020). The Citrus Genome. Springer Nature. p. 171. ISBN 978-3-030-15308-3.
^ Zhang, Shu-Dong; Jin, Jian-Jun; Chen, Si-Yun; Chase, Mark W.; Soltis, Douglas E.; Li, Hong-Tao; Yang, Jun-Bo; Li, De-Zhu; Yi, Ting-Shuang (2017). "Diversification of Rosaceae since the Late Cretaceous based on plastid phylogenomics". New Phytologist. 214 (3): 1355–1367. doi:10.1111/nph.14461. ISSN 1469-8137. PMID 28186635.
^ "RUTACEAE". Botanical Dermatology Database. Archived from the original on 19 July 2019.
^ Loumou A, Giourga C (2003). "Olive groves: 'The life and identity of the Mediterranean'". Agriculture and Human Values. 20 (1): 87–95. doi:10.1023/a:1022444005336. S2CID 154378090.
^ Dilcher et al 2016.
Articles, books and chapters
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Angiosperms". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
APG (2003). "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 141 (4): 399–436. doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339.2003.t01-1-00158.x.
APG (2009). "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 161 (2): 105–121. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x.
Becker KM (February 1973). "A Comparison of Angiosperm Classification Systems". Taxon. 22 (1): 19–50. doi:10.2307/1218032. JSTOR 1218032.
Bell AD (2008) [1991]. Plant Form. An Illustrated Guide to Flowering Plant Morphology. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press. ISBN 978-0-88192-850-1.
1st edition published by Oxford University Press in 1991 ISBN 978-0-19854-219-3
Bell CD, Soltis DE, Soltis PS (August 2010). "The age and diversification of the angiosperms re-revisited". American Journal of Botany. 97 (8): 1296–303. doi:10.3732/ajb.0900346. PMID 21616882.
Chase MW, Reveal JL (2009). "A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 161 (2): 122–127. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.01002.x.
Cromie, William J. (December 16, 1999). "Oldest Known Flowering Plants Identified By Genes". Harvard University Gazette.
Cronquist A (October 1960). "The divisions and classes of plants". The Botanical Review. 26 (4): 425–482. doi:10.1007/BF02940572. S2CID 43144314.
Cronquist A (1981). An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants. New York: Columbia Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-231-03880-5.
Dahlgren RM (February 1980). "A revised system of classification of the angiosperms". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 80 (2): 91–124. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.1980.tb01661.x.
Dahlgren RM (February 1983). "General aspects of angiosperm evolution and macrosystematics". Nordic Journal of Botany. 3 (1): 119–149. doi:10.1111/j.1756-1051.1983.tb01448.x.
Dilcher D (June 2000). "Toward a new synthesis: major evolutionary trends in the angiosperm fossil record". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 97 (13): 7030–6. Bibcode:2000PNAS...97.7030D. doi:10.1073/pnas.97.13.7030. PMC 34380. PMID 10860967.
Dilcher DL, Cronquist A, Zimmermann, Huldrych H, Stevens P, Stevenson DW, Berry PE (8 March 2016). "Angiosperm". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 31 January 2017.
Heywood VH, Brummitt RK, Culham A, Seberg O (2007). Flowering Plant Families of the World. Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada: Firefly Books. ISBN 978-1-55407-206-4.
Hill C, Crane P (January 1982). "Evolutionary Cladistics and the origin of Angiosperms". In Joysey KA, Friday AE (eds.). Problems of Phylogenetic Reconstruction. Special Volumes. 21. London: Systematics Association. pp. 269–361. ISBN 978-0-12-391250-3.
Lersten NR (2004). Flowering plant embryology with emphasis on economic species. Ames, Iowa: Blackwell Pub. ISBN 9780470752678.
Pooja (2004). Angiosperms. New Delhi: Discovery. ISBN 9788171417889. Retrieved 7 January 2016.
Raven PH, Evert RF, Eichhorn SE (2004). Biology of Plants (7th ed.). W.H. Freeman.
Sattler R (1973). Organogenesis of Flowers. A Photographic Text-Atlas. University of Toronto Press.
Simpson MG (2010). Plant Systematics (2nd ed.). Academic Press. ISBN 9780080922089.
Soltis PS, Soltis DE (April 2016). "Ancient WGD events as drivers of key innovations in angiosperms". Current Opinion in Plant Biology. 30: 159–65. doi:10.1016/j.pbi.2016.03.015. PMID 27064530.
Takhtajan A (June 1964). "The Taxa of the Higher Plants above the Rank of Order". Taxon. 13 (5): 160–164. doi:10.2307/1216134. JSTOR 1216134.
Takhtajan A (July–September 1980). "Outline of the Classification of Flowering Plants (Magnoliophyta)". Botanical Review. 46 (3): 225–359. doi:10.1007/bf02861558. JSTOR 4353970. S2CID 30764910.
Zeng L, Zhang Q, Sun R, Kong H, Zhang N, Ma H (September 2014). "Resolution of deep angiosperm phylogeny using conserved nuclear genes and estimates of early divergence times". Nature Communications. 5 (4956): 4956. Bibcode:2014NatCo...5.4956Z. doi:10.1038/ncomms5956. PMC 4200517. PMID 25249442.
Cole TC, Hilger HH, Stevens PF (2017). "Angiosperm Phylogeny Poster – Flowering Plant Systematics" (PDF).
Watson L, Dallwitz MJ (1992). "The Families of Flowering Plants: Descriptions, Illustrations, Identification, and Information Retrieval". 14 December 2000. Archived from the original on 2 August 2014.
"Flowering plant" at the Encyclopedia of Life
Media related to Angiosperms at Wikimedia Commons
Data related to Magnoliophyta at Wikispecies
Magnoliophyta at Wikibooks
Classification of Archaeplastida or Plantae s.l.
(Supergroup
Hacrobia
Heterokont
Alveolata
Rhizaria
Amoebozoa
Opisthokonta
Fungi)
Archaeplastida
Rhodelphidia
Rhodelphidea
Rhodophyta
(red algae)
Cyanidiophyceae
Porphyridiophyceae
Stylonematophyceae
Compsopogonophyceae
Rhodellophyceae
Bangiophyceae
Florideophyceae
Glaucophyta
Glaucocystophyceae
incertae sedis
Algospongia
Viridiplantae
or Plantae s.s.
(green algae &
land plants)
Prasinodermatophyta
Prasinodermatophyceae
Palmophyllophyceae
Chlorophyta
Prasinophytina
Mamiellophyceae
Pyramimonadophyceae
Chlorophytina
Nephroselmidophyceae
Picocystophyceae
Chloropicophyceae
Pedinophyceae
Chlorodendrophyceae
UTC clade
Ulvophyceae
Chlorophyceae
Streptophyta
Chlorokybophytina
Mesostigmatophyceae
Chlorokybophyceae
Spirotaenia
Klebsormidiophytina
Klebsormidiophyceae
Phragmoplastophytes
Charophyceae
Coleochaetophyceae
Zygnematophyceae
(land plants)
(see below↓)
Embryophytes or Plantae sensu strictissimo
Marchantiophyta
(liverworts)
Haplomitriopsida
Marchantiopsida
Jungermanniopsida
Anthocerotophyta
(hornworts)
Leiosporocerotopsida
Anthocerotopsida
(mosses)
Oedipodiopsida
Tetraphidopsida
Polysporangiophytes
Protracheophytes
†Horneophytopsida
†Aglaophyton
Tracheophytes
(vascular plants)
Paratracheophytes
†Rhyniopsida
Eutracheophytes
Lycophytes
†Zosterophyllopsida
Lycopodiopsida (clubmosses, spikemosses & quillworts)
Euphyllophytes
†Eophyllophytopsida
†Trimerophytopsida
Moniliformopses
†Cladoxylopsida
Polypodiopsida (ferns and horsetails)
Lignophytes
†Progymnosperms
†Noeggerathiopsida
†Aneurophytopsida
†Archaeopteridopsida
Spermatophytes
(seed plants)
†Pteridosperms
(seed ferns)
†Arberiopsida
†Moresnetiopsida
†Lyginopteridopsida
†Pachytestopsida
†Caytoniales
†Callistophytales
†Calamopityales
†Peltaspermopsida
†Umkomasiales
†Axelrodiales
†Phasmatocycadopsida
†Pentoxylales
†Dictyopteridiopsida
†Cycadeoideopsida
Acrogymnospermae
(living gymnosperms)
†Pityopsida
Cycadopsida (cycads)
Ginkgoopsida (Ginkgo)
Pinopsida (conifers)
Gnetopsida
(flowering plants)
† = extinct
Current definitions of Plantae
History of botany
Archaeobotany
Astrobotany
Bryology
Dendrology
Phytochemistry
Phytogeography
Geobotany
Plant anatomy
Plant ecology
Plant groups
Non-vascular plants
Pteridophyte
Angiosperm
(glossary)
Plant cells
Phragmoplast
Plastid
Plasmodesma
Vacuole
Ground tissue
Mesophyll
Meristem
Storage organs
Vascular tissue
Vascular bundle
Vegetative
Rhizoid
Cataphyll
Petiole
Sessility
(Flower)
Archegonium
Androecium
Stamen
Staminode
Tapetum
Aestivation
Flower development
Floral diagram
Floral formula
Floral symmetry
Whorl
Pyrena
Dispersal
Endosperm
Gametophyte
Gynandrium
Gynoecium
Locule
Hypanthium (Floral cup)
Bract
Pedicellate
Raceme
Umbel
Perianth
Tepal
Sepal
Plant embryo
Sporophyll
Sporophyte
Surface structures
Cuticle
Epicuticular wax
Thorns, spines, and prickles
Trichome
Aleurone
Bulk flow
Phytomelanin
Plant hormones
Turgor pressure
Plant growth
and habit
Cushion plants
Prostrate shrubs
Subshrubs
Lianas
Secondary growth
Woody plants
Alternation of generations
Double fertilization
Evolutionary development
Pollen tube
Sporangium
Microsporangia
Microspore
Megasporangium
Megaspore
Botanical nomenclature
International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)
ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
Cultivated plant taxonomy
Citrus taxonomy
Cultigen
History of plant systematics
Plant taxonomy systems
Taxonomic rank
Botanical terms
by author abbreviation
Botanical expedition
Orders of flowering plants (APG IV)
Clade: Embryophytes
Amborellales¹
Nymphaeales¹
Austrobaileyales¹
Acorales²
Alismatales²
Petrosaviales³
Dioscoreales³
Pandanales³
Liliales³
Asparagales³
¹Basal angiosperms
²Alismatids
³Lilioids
Families of flowering plants (APG IV)
Hydatellaceae
Cabombaceae
Austrobaileyaceae
Trimeniaceae
Schisandraceae
Mesangiospermae
Canellaceae
Winteraceae
Calycanthaceae
Siparunaceae
Gomortegaceae
Atherospermataceae
Hernandiaceae
Monimiaceae
Lauraceae
Myristicaceae
Magnoliaceae
Degeneriaceae
Himantandraceae
Eupomatiaceae
Annonaceae
Saururaceae
Piperaceae
Chloranthaceae
Acoraceae
Tofieldiaceae
Alismataceae
Butomaceae
Hydrocharitaceae
Scheuchzeriaceae
Aponogetonaceae
Juncaginaceae
Maundiaceae
Zosteraceae
Potamogetonaceae
Posidoniaceae
Ruppiaceae
Cymodoceaceae
Dasypogonaceae
Arecaceae
Boryaceae
Blandfordiaceae
Asteliaceae
Lanariaceae
Hypoxidaceae
Doryanthaceae
Ixioliriaceae
Tecophilaeaceae
Xeronemataceae
Hanguanaceae
Commelinaceae
Philydraceae
Pontederiaceae
Haemodoraceae
Nartheciaceae
Burmanniaceae
Dioscoreaceae
Campynemataceae
Corsiaceae
Melanthiaceae
Petermanniaceae
Alstroemeriaceae
Philesiaceae
Ripogonaceae
Smilacaceae
Velloziaceae
Stemonaceae
Cyclanthaceae
Pandanaceae
Petrosaviaceae
Typhaceae
Rapateaceae
Xyridaceae
Eriocaulaceae
Mayacaceae
Thurniaceae
Juncaceae
Restionaceae
Flagellariaceae
Joinvilleaceae
Ecdeiocoleaceae
Strelitziaceae
Lowiaceae
Heliconiaceae
Musaceae
Cannaceae
Marantaceae
Costaceae
Sabiaceae
Nelumbonaceae
Platanaceae
Eupteleaceae
Papaveraceae
Circaeasteraceae
Lardizabalaceae
Trochodendraceae
Myrothamnaceae
Gunneraceae
Peridiscaceae
Paeoniaceae
Hamamelidaceae
Cercidiphyllaceae
Daphniphyllaceae
Iteaceae
Grossulariaceae
Aphanopetalaceae
Tetracarpaeaceae
Penthoraceae
Haloragaceae
Cynomoriaceae
Vitaceae
Apodanthaceae
Anisophylleaceae
Corynocarpaceae
Coriariaceae
Cucurbitaceae
Tetramelaceae
Datiscaceae
Begoniaceae
Quillajaceae
Surianaceae
Nothofagaceae
Myricaceae
Juglandaceae
Casuarinaceae
Ticodendraceae
Barbeyaceae
Dirachmaceae
Elaeagnaceae
Rhamnaceae
Ulmaceae
Moraceae
Urticaceae
Krameriaceae
Zygophyllaceae
Lepidobotryaceae
Pandaceae
Irvingiaceae
Ctenolophonaceae
Rhizophoraceae
Erythroxylaceae
Ochnaceae
Bonnetiaceae
Clusiaceae
Calophyllaceae
Podostemaceae
Hypericaceae
Caryocaraceae
Lophopyxidaceae
Putranjivaceae
Centroplacaceae
Elatinaceae
Malpighiaceae
Balanopaceae
Trigoniaceae
Dichapetalaceae
Euphroniaceae
Chrysobalanaceae
Humiriaceae
Achariaceae
Violaceae
Goupiaceae
Passifloraceae
Lacistemataceae
Peraceae
Rafflesiaceae
Linaceae
Ixonanthaceae
Picrodendraceae
Phyllanthaceae
Connaraceae
Oxalidaceae
Cunoniaceae
Elaeocarpaceae
Cephalotaceae
Brunelliaceae
Akaniaceae
Tropaeolaceae
Moringaceae
Caricaceae
Limnanthaceae
Setchellanthaceae
Koeberliniaceae
Bataceae
Salvadoraceae
Emblingiaceae
Tovariaceae
Pentadiplandraceae
Gyrostemonaceae
Resedaceae
Capparaceae
Cleomaceae
Aphloiaceae
Geissolomataceae
Strasburgeriaceae
Staphyleaceae
Guamatelaceae
Stachyuraceae
Crossosomataceae
Geraniaceae
Francoaceae
Gerrardinaceae
Petenaeaceae
Tapisciaceae
Dipentodontaceae
Cytinaceae
Muntingiaceae
Neuradaceae
Malvaceae
Sphaerosepalaceae
Bixaceae
Cistaceae
Sarcolaenaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Lythraceae
Vochysiaceae
Melastomataceae
Crypteroniaceae
Alzateaceae
Penaeaceae
Biebersteiniaceae
Nitrariaceae
Kirkiaceae
Burseraceae
Anacardiaceae
Sapindaceae
Rutaceae
Simaroubaceae
Meliaceae
Aextoxicaceae
Berberidopsidaceae
Frankeniaceae
Tamaricaceae
Plumbaginaceae
Polygonaceae
Droseraceae
Nepenthaceae
Drosophyllaceae
Dioncophyllaceae
Ancistrocladaceae
Rhabdodendraceae
Simmondsiaceae
Physenaceae
Asteropeiaceae
Macarthuriaceae
Microteaceae
Achatocarpaceae
Stegnospermataceae
Limeaceae
Lophiocarpaceae
Kewaceae
Barbeuiaceae
Gisekiaceae
Phytolaccaceae
Petiveriaceae
Sarcobataceae
Molluginaceae
Didiereaceae
Basellaceae
Halophytaceae
Talinaceae
Olacaceae
Balanophoraceae
Santalaceae
Misodendraceae
Schoepfiaceae
Nyssaceae
Hydrostachyaceae
Hydrangeaceae
Loasaceae
Curtisiaceae
Grubbiaceae
Cornaceae
Balsaminaceae
Marcgraviaceae
Tetrameristaceae
Fouquieriaceae
Lecythidaceae
Sladeniaceae
Pentaphylacaceae
Ebenaceae
Primulaceae
Theaceae
Symplocaceae
Diapensiaceae
Styracaceae
Sarraceniaceae
Roridulaceae
Actinidiaceae
Clethraceae
Cyrillaceae
Mitrastemonaceae
Oncothecaceae
Icacinaceae
Metteniusaceae
Eucommiaceae
Garryaceae
Loganiaceae
Gelsemiaceae
Vahliaceae
Montiniaceae
Sphenocleaceae
Hydroleaceae
Plocospermataceae
Carlemanniaceae
Oleaceae
Tetrachondraceae
Calceolariaceae
Gesneriaceae
Plantaginaceae
Stilbaceae
Linderniaceae
Byblidaceae
Martyniaceae
Pedaliaceae
Lentibulariaceae
Schlegeliaceae
Thomandersiaceae
Verbenaceae
Mazaceae
Phrymaceae
Paulowniaceae
Pennantiaceae
Torricelliaceae
Griseliniaceae
Araliaceae
Myodocarpaceae
Stemonuraceae
Cardiopteridaceae
Phyllonomaceae
Helwingiaceae
Columelliaceae
Escalloniaceae
Paracryphiaceae
Ceratophyllales (Ceratophyllaceae, probable sister)
Extant life phyla/divisions by domain
Acidobacteria
Actinobacteria
Aquificae
Bacteroidetes
Chlamydiae
Chlorobi
Chrysiogenetes
Deferribacteres
Deinococcus–Thermus
Dictyoglomi
Fibrobacteres
Firmicutes
Fusobacteria
Gemmatimonadetes
Nitrospirae
Planctomycetes
Proteobacteria
Spirochaetes
Thermodesulfobacteria
Thermomicrobia
Thermotogae
Verrucomicrobia
Korarchaeota
Nanoarchaeota
Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms
Eukaryote
Protist
Chromista:
Heterokontophyta
Haptophyta
Cryptophyta
Ciliophora
Apicomplexa
Dinoflagellata
Radiolaria
Foraminifera
Cercozoa
Excavata:
Euglenozoa
Jakobea
Chytridiomycota
Blastocladiomycota
Neocallimastigomycota
Glomeromycota
Zygomycota
Ascomycota
Basidiomycota
Charophyta
Cycadophyta
Ginkgophyta
Gnetophyta
Ctenophora
Placozoa
Xenacoelomorpha
Chordate
Hemichordate
Chaetognatha
Kinorhyncha
Loricifera
Priapulida
Nematoda
Nematomorpha
Onychophora
Orthonectida
Dicyemida
Rotifera
Acanthocephala
Gnathostomulida
Micrognathozoa
Cycliophora
Nemertea
Phoronid
Entoprocta
Annelida
Sipuncula
Parakaryon
Taxon identifiers
Wikidata: Q25314
Wikispecies: Magnoliopsida
EoL: 58969176
EPPO: 1ANGC
PPE: angiosperma-parasites
Plant sexuality

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Purple Urkle True to name exhibit Dark Purple Dense Big buds. The fruity nose that will excite your senses will almost be forgotten by the onset of a blanket of relaxation over taking the body. Very Nice Relaxing Indica strain. Enjoy this wonderful flower for a night cap before floating off to wonderland. Enjoy.
Frutti Pebbles is all organic greenhouse grown Hybrid strain produced in the interior of British Columbia. A nice mild Hybrid strain this flower is great for subtle relaxation enhancement throughout the day. Great for stress and anxiety relief as well as not such a heavy feeling.
Tutti Frutti provides a blast of fruit flavour that sativa lovers will flock to. With genetic traits from Blue Haze, Green Haze, Thai, and others, then mixed in a fast-finishing ruderalis to create an automatic flowering strain that provides potent euphoric effects. The effects are known to come on slow, so be patient with these uplifting buds.
Agent Orange a Sativa dominant hybrid combines unique flavors and aromas which excite the senses. A cross between strains Jack The Ripper and Orange Velvet a perfectly balanced uplifting. Unlike a heavy indicia the sativa dominant hybrid can be used a motivational tool as it has uplifting, mood enhancing effects. Aside from it beautifully scented orange citrus smells the very orange hairs make this flower definitely stand out from the rest.
Sweet Skunk is the supposed cross of Northern Lights and Skunk. This pairing of opposites creates a potent hybrid strain with a strong cerebral bent while offering mid-level body effects. The aroma is a mixture of pine, spice, citrus, and a chemically aftertaste that speaks to the strain's name. Due to the Sweet Skunk's powerful head high, consumers of all experience levels should mind their dosage.
The mostly indica Nuken is a Canadian strain bred by combining genetics from Kish (a cross of two Shishkaberry parents) and God Bud. Her even-keeled effects are delivered alongside a sweet, earthy aroma of fresh herbs and grass. While undeniably strong, Nuken typically leaves you functional enough to still enjoy hobbies and the company of friends. Nuken blooms with rounded, dense buds covered in a blanket of crystal resin veiling its sage hues.
Black Diamond is a nice strong Indica known for it's high potency, yet still allows it's users to be active and sociable at the same time. With Very Nice THC coverage and a beautiful Purplish hue in coloring this Indica favourite will have you relaxed but not down and out.
OG Kush is infamous for being the heavy hitting pure Indica strain that has flourished throughout the West Coast. The various Kush types are most popular for having extremely high THC levels. With trichomes littering the buds surface this flower is quite sticky and dense. Kush fans describe the OG high as slow and uplifting followed by a more body relaxing effect while stimulating the mind as the finisher. For these reasons it is said best to ease stress, treat chronic pain and help with depression.
Death Star is the potent cross of Sensi Star and Sour Diesel and has the shared sativa and indica effects of its parents. It has a mixed taste that combines sweet, skunk, and fuel aromas into a very potent fragrance that isn't easy to hide. This strain may not have the ability to destroy planets, but it does have quite the powerful buzz. Effects can be slow to onset, but once they do, Death Star takes away all cares and replaces them with a state of relaxed euphoria. Great for daytime or nighttime use, this Ohio native now has fans throughout the galaxy.
Pinks also known as The Pinks is a danky Kush Hybrid. This Crop is not the largest buds or very dense but does have a nice abundance of Crystal which provides a nice potent effect.
Sweet Kush is A Hybrid Kush strain with almost a sweet smell to her and very nice heavy kush effects will have you very relaxed in no time.


There's the reason why "The Simpsons" remains on Fox after so yrs. The characters may be stuck industry warp, cong ty xu ly chat thai tai binh duong - https://www.congtyxulychatthaibinhduong.com - around the other hand cong ty xu ly chat thai binh duong cong ty xu ly chat thai binh duong xu ly chat thai tai binh duong has always stayed in tune with what's coming about in the planet around regarding. It also defies the nature of animation by a person forget it is an animated show. The characters are liable to exist more in reality with a few exceptions every now and then. We care known as to these characters, even more walks . doesn't matter just how dumb Homer gets, as well as his stupidity is neverending!


text:
Q: Android libgdx swipe left and right detection using gesture listener I have  displayed a image at the center of the screen with libgdx. If i swipe left the image should move left and if i swipe right image should move right.
Subsequent swipes to the left should move the image left. The same should happen for right.  I used GestureListener.
It works to some extent in the sense if i swipe left first image moves left. But after that if i try to swipe right the image still moves left.
So how do i overcome this in libgdx??
    class MyGestureListener implements GestureListener {

        @Override
        public boolean fling(float arg0, float arg1, int arg2) {
            // TODO Auto-generated method stub

              if(arg0>0)
               iX += 20;
              else
             // else if(arg0*100>iX)
                  iX-=20;
               System.out.println("Hello..............."+iX);
            return true;
        }

   Gdx.input.setInputProcessor(new GestureDetector(0.0f, 0.0f,0.0f, 5f,new MyGestureListener()));

   batch.draw(splashTexture, iX, iY);

A: I used the example in this link. https://github.com/libgdx/libgdx/blob/master/tests/gdx-tests/src/com/badlogic/gdx/tests/GestureDetectorTest.java.
   @Override
   public boolean fling(float velocityX, float velocityY, int button) {
       if(Math.abs(velocityX)>Math.abs(velocityY)){
               if(velocityX>0){
                       iX+=20;//x cordinate
               }else if (velocityX<0){
                      iX-=20;
               } else {
                 // Do nothing.
               }
       }else{

          // Ignore the input, because we don't care about up/down swipes.
       }
 return true;
}

A:     public class Test extends Activity{

private GestureDetector gesturedetector = null;

View layout;

@Override

public void onCreate(Bundle savedInstanceState) {

super.onCreate(savedInstanceState);

setContentView(R.layout.test);

layout = (LinearLayout)findViewById(R.id.container);

gesturedetector = new GestureDetector(new MyGestureListener());

layout.setOnTouchListener(new OnTouchListener() {

@Override

public boolean onTouch(View v, MotionEvent event) {

gesturedetector.onTouchEvent(event);

return true;

}

});

}

public boolean dispatchTouchEvent(MotionEvent ev){

super.dispatchTouchEvent(ev);

return gesturedetector.onTouchEvent(ev);

}

class MyGestureListener extends GestureDetector.SimpleOnGestureListener{

private static final int SWIPE_MIN_DISTANCE = 150;

private static final int SWIPE_MAX_OFF_PATH = 100;

private static final int SWIPE_THRESHOLD_VELOCITY = 100;

@Override

public boolean onFling(MotionEvent e1, MotionEvent e2, float velocityX,

float velocityY) {

float dX = e2.getX()-e1.getX();

float dY = e1.getY()-e2.getY();

if (Math.abs(dY)<SWIPE_MAX_OFF_PATH &&

Math.abs(velocityX)>=SWIPE_THRESHOLD_VELOCITY &&

Math.abs(dX)>=SWIPE_MIN_DISTANCE ) {

if (dX>0) {

Toast.makeText(getApplicationContext(), "Right Swipe", Toast.LENGTH_SHORT).show();

} else {

Toast.makeText(getApplicationContext(), "Left Swipe", Toast.LENGTH_SHORT).show();

}

return true;

} else if (Math.abs(dX)<SWIPE_MAX_OFF_PATH &&

Math.abs(velocityY)>=SWIPE_THRESHOLD_VELOCITY &&

Math.abs(dY)>=SWIPE_MIN_DISTANCE ) {

if (dY>0) {

Toast.makeText(getApplicationContext(), "Up Swipe", Toast.LENGTH_SHORT).show();

} else {

Toast.makeText(getApplicationContext(), "Down Swipe", Toast.LENGTH_SHORT).show();

}

return true;

}

return false;

}

}

}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Here are five ways to experience Singapore like a seasoned local.
When in season, the spiky shell, strong smelling "king of fruits" is sold in Chinatown and Geylang. The D24, Mao Shan Wang (Cat Mountain King) and XO varieties are the most expensive and popular. Prices can range from as low as $5 per fruit for the lowest grade to over $30 per kg for Mao Shan Wang, so confirm the price beforehand to avoid being overcharged.
Get an ice cream sandwich from a mobile ice-cream vendor for about $1.50. Try a local flavour like red bean, sweet corn, mango or durian which is not as pungent as the fruit itself, or the standard chocolate, vanilla, strawberry or mint flavours. The ice cream is served on a slice of soft, rainbow bread. Fold the bread and eat it like a hot dog!
Get your caffeine fix at a local coffee shop or kopitiam instead of a western coffee chain. Every neighbourhood has a kopitiam which serves kopi (coffee with condensed milk), kopi-si (coffee with evaporated milk and sugar), kopi-o (coffee with sugar but without milk), kopi-si-kosong (coffee with evaporated milk and no sugar) and kopi-siu dai (coffee with condensed milk and less sugar), priced from 90 cents per cup.
I don't like chocolate lah!
So paiseh, I forgot your name.
That char kway teow was so shiok!
Walao, how can she just cut the queue?
Reserve or chope a seat with a packet of tissue paper, umbrella, water bottle, book or bag at a hawker centre or food court. It is common practice to reserve a seat this way especially during peak hours so look out for these items and do the same to chope your place before buying your food.


text:
Peace Officer's "Provocation" Does Not Make Reasonable Use of Force Unreasonable
A peace officer's reasonable use of force no longer may be challenged by claiming that the officer provoked the violent confrontation that included the use of force. The United States Supreme Court overturned the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeal's "provocation rule." The Supreme Court held that after "a use of force is deemed reasonable" under the proper framework for analyzing excessive force claims, the use of force "may not be found unreasonable by reference to some separate constitutional violation," which had been the interpretation of the Ninth Circuit.
Under the "provocation rule," a peace officer's otherwise reasonable use of force would be deemed unreasonable if the officer 1) "intentionally or recklessly provokes a violent confrontation" and 2) "the provocation is an independent Fourth Amendment violation." In County of Los Angeles v. Mendez, however, the Supreme Court held that the Fourth Amendment provides no basis for the "provocation rule." The Court overturned the Ninth Circuit's rule because "it uses another constitutional violation to manufacture an excessive force claim where one would not otherwise exist."
The operative question in excessive force cases therefore remains "whether the totality of the circumstances justifie[s] a particular sort of search or seizure." Tennessee v. Garner, 471 U.S. 1, 8-9 (1985). To the extent a plaintiff has other Fourth Amendment claims, they must be analyzed separately. Courts may no longer look back in time to see if there was a different Fourth Amendment violation that was somehow tied to the officer's eventual use of force in order to evaluate the reasonableness of the force used.
For further information about this decision or other law enforcement issues, please contact Jennifer Petrusis.


This entry was posted on Monday, April 19th, 2010 at 4:14 PM and is filed under Peak Cycles Bicycle Shop, Videos.	You can follow any responses to this entry through the RSS 2.0 feed. You can leave a response, or trackback from your own site.


text:
Performers and fans are like owners and pets – but I'm not sure which is which
At a Carrie Brownstein reading, I was reminded again how alike performers and fans can be. It's hard to tell who belongs to who.
By Tracey Thorn
Follow @@tracey_thorn
Astrid Stawiarz/Getty Images
After a recent party drought that found me at home every evening with a book, last week I actually left the house three times after dark, much to the children's astonishment. Not for parties as such, but for performances, two literary and one musical. As usual, they got me thinking about performers and audiences, and how they reflect each other.
First, on the Monday night, I went to Damian Barr's literary salon to watch and listen to Diana Athill read from her latest book, Alive, Alive Oh! (and what a great title that is). Silver-haired and elegant in a flamboyant blouse, which she confessed to having bought in one of her frequent catalogue sprees, she decamped for the evening from her residential home in Highgate, north London, to the rooftop bar of the Mondrian Hotel, with sparkling views down the river as far as the London Eye, and inside the room an audience of lit-up literary London.
Onstage in her wheelchair, she looked utterly at home. In unwavering old-fashioned tones, she read aloud for twenty minutes, a description of her first Club Med holiday to Greece in the 1950s. She made it sound idyllic, and hilarious, and we hung on every word. You could have heard a pin drop, but behind that you could hear us all thinking: "I hope I'm that good at her age. I hope I'm that good now." Or, "I wish my mother were still alive."
Two nights later I went to see Carrie Brownstein at Rough Trade East being interviewed to promote her new book, Hunger Makes Me a Modern Girl. This was a reading in disguise as an indie gig – the audience of two hundred or so, mostly women in their thirties, packed into the far end of the shop. They clutched coffees and beers. I noticed I was older than most of them, and the only one holding a glass of wine. As the lights went down, complete silence fell like a spell, settling on us, stilling us. Instead of songs we got talk, thoughtful and witty, as Brownstein chatted to the entirely converted. She had pre-signed the books – a signing afterwards would have taken too long – but still each guest strove to make a personal connection for a second. One handed her a drawing, one asked her about the latest Sleater-Kinney tour, and another asked, rather brilliantly, whether she thought her book would be stocked in the Portlandia Feminist Bookstore. Her crowd was as charming as she was, and I thought again how performers and audiences can be so like each other, like owners and their pets. Though I'm not sure which is which.
The following night I went to see John Grant at the Eventim Apollo (still the Hammersmith Odeon to my old mind), the room full of beards and plaid shirts, a mirror once again seemingly set up between the stage and the crowd. I took Damian Barr with me and we were given centre seats in row A of the circle, which felt like the royal box. "Look at where we are!" I said. "They might as well have set up two thrones for us."
So we rattled our jewellery and looked down at the beards on the dance floor below, and John's baritone filled the room, his warmth filled the stage, and we blubbed through "Glacier", his heartfelt and defiant protest song. It felt like being hugged from the stage.
Afterwards we went backstage hoping to give him an actual hug but, as I suspected, he avoided the Gaumont Bar where we all gathered, trying not to look over each other's shoulders to see if he'd come into the room. He didn't and I don't blame him. Reappearing as yourself, in company, only moments after you've been performing – revealed and exposed as your Public Self – can be excruciating. You don't know how to be, what to say, and nor does anybody else.
Even more of a nightmare is being the friend who goes backstage after a disastrous show. On this occasion there wouldn't have been any problem (we loved the gig) but what to say when you don't? A friend of mine has the perfect solution – you simply sweep up to the performer, throw your arms wide and declare, "You've done it AGAIN!"
› How African boys are trafficked to Europe for football trials
Tracey Thorn is a musician and writer, best known as one half of Everything but the Girl. She writes the fortnightly "Off the Record" column for the New Statesman. Her books include Naked at the Albert Hall, Bedsit Disco Queen and, most recently, Another Planet: A Teenager in Suburbia
This article appears in the 03 December 2015 issue of the New Statesman, Syria and the impossible war
Investing in the UK for 20 years
"Music should be generous": the Big Moon on mixing down-to-earth lyrics with dancefloor fun
How Michael Bublé became the soundtrack to Christmas


Milwaukee Brewers vs. St. Louis Cardinals is an event that takes place from May 29 - May 29, 2018 and may cause room availability issues or hotel rates to increase. Hotels near Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center and hotels close to West Allis are listed below. Search for cheap and discount hotel rates near the Milwaukee Brewers vs. St. Louis Cardinals West Allis, WI for individual or group travel.


(2017) The words 'Viñedo Centenario' on the label tell you that this blend of 67% Cabernet Sauvignon and 33% Malbec comes from vineyards planted over 100 years ago in Chile's Colchagua Valley. There's a beautifully light touch to this wine, both in colour and aroma, which along with the modest alcohol indicates a gently and carefully made wine that respects these ancient vines. There is black fruit - cherry and blackcurrant - but also a little herbal and briar note, spice and pepper, and some of Malbec's floral lift. In the mouth there's a lovely balance of savoury and sweet, with a sour cherry tang to the acidity, gentle but very tannins and the finish showing fruit and savoury spices. Watch the video for more details.