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Research Article Free access | 10.1172/JCI42118
Sema3E–Plexin D1 signaling drives human cancer cell invasiveness and metastatic spreading in mice
Andrea Casazza,1 Veronica Finisguerra,2,3 Lorena Capparuccia,1 Andrea Camperi,1 Jakub M. Swiercz,4 Sabrina Rizzolio,1 Charlotte Rolny,1 Claus Christensen,5 Andrea Bertotti,1 Ivana Sarotto,1 Mauro Risio,1 Livio Trusolino,1 Jurgen Weitz,6 Martin Schneider,6 Massimilano Mazzone,2,3 Paolo M. Comoglio,1 and Luca Tamagnone1
1Institute for Cancer Research and Treatment (IRCC), University of Torino Medical School, Candiolo, Italy. 2Vesalius Research Center, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium. 3Vesalius Research Center, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium. 4Department of Pharmacology, Max-Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Bad Nauheim, Germany. 5Danish Cancer Society, Institute of Cancer Biology, Department of Cancer Genetics, Copenhagen, Denmark. 6Department of General, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.
Address correspondence to: Luca Tamagnone, IRCC, S.P. 142, 10060, Candiolo (Torino), Italy. Phone: 39.011.9933.204; Fax: 39.011.9933.225; E-mail: luca.tamagnone@ircc.it. Or to: Massimiliano Mazzone, VIB Leuven, Belgium. Phone: 32.16.34.61.76; Fax: 32.16.34.59.90; E-mail: massimiliano.mazzone@vib-kuleuven.be.
Authorship note: Veronica Finisguerra, Lorena Capparuccia, and Andrea Camperi contributed equally to this work.
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Published July 26, 2010 - More info
Published in Volume 120, Issue 8 on August 2, 2010
J Clin Invest. 2010;120(8):2684–2698. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI42118.
© 2010 The American Society for Clinical Investigation
Published July 26, 2010 - Version history
Received: December 21, 2009; Accepted: May 19, 2010
Semaphorin 3E, an exception to the rule
Michael Klagsbrun, Akio Shimizu
Class 3 semaphorins (Sema3s) regulate axon guidance, angiogenesis, tumor growth, and tumor metastasis. Neuropilins (NRPs; NRP1 and NRP2) are the cell surface receptors for the Sema3s. However, to signal, interaction of Sema3s and NRPs with plexins is obligatory. In this issue of the JCI, Casazza and colleagues report data that challenge the conventional wisdom about the role of Sema3s in tumor metastasis. As a rule, Sema3B and Sema3F, for example, are inhibitors of tumor angiogenesis, progression, and metastasis. However, Casazza et al. found that Sema3E inhibited tumor growth but atypically promoted invasiveness and metastasis. This metastatic potential was dependent on Plexin D1 expression but was independent of NRP expression. Of clinical importance, Sema3E and Plexin D1 were found to be upregulated in human colon cancer, liver metastasis, and melanoma progression.
Andrea Casazza, … , Paolo M. Comoglio, Luca Tamagnone
Andrea Casazza, Veronica Finisguerra, Lorena Capparuccia, Andrea Camperi, Jakub M. Swiercz, Sabrina Rizzolio, Charlotte Rolny, Claus Christensen, Andrea Bertotti, Ivana Sarotto, Mauro Risio, Livio Trusolino, Jurgen Weitz, Martin Schneider, Massimilano Mazzone, Paolo M. Comoglio, Luca Tamagnone
Semaphorin 3E (Sema3E) is a secreted molecule implicated in axonal path finding and inhibition of developmental and postischemic angiogenesis. Sema3E is also highly expressed in metastatic cancer cells, but its mechanistic role in tumor progression was not understood. Here we show that expression of Sema3E and its receptor Plexin D1 correlates with the metastatic progression of human tumors. Consistent with the clinical data, knocking down endogenous expression of either Sema3E or Plexin D1 in human metastatic carcinoma cells hampered their metastatic potential when injected into mice, while tumor growth was not markedly affected. Conversely, overexpression of exogenous Sema3E in cancer cells increased their invasiveness, transendothelial migration, and metastatic spreading, although it inhibited tumor vessel formation, resulting in reduced tumor growth in mice. The proinvasive and metastatic activity of Sema3E in tumor cells was dependent on transactivation of the Plexin D1–associated ErbB2/Neu oncogenic kinase. In sum, Sema3E–Plexin D1 signaling in cancer cells is crucially implicated in their metastatic behavior and may therefore be a promising target for strategies aimed at blocking tumor metastasis.
Semaphorins are secreted and membrane-bound signals, originally implicated in the control of axonal wiring (1). They comprise a wide protein family and are involved in a range of functions, from tissue morphogenesis to the immune response, to cancer progression. High-affinity semaphorin receptors are found in the families of the plexins and of the neuropilins (2). The relevance of the small cytoplasmic domain of neuropilins in semaphorin signaling is unclear; however, the intracellular domain of plexins has been characterized for controlling R-Ras and RhoA activity and hence negatively regulates integrin-mediated adhesion and cell migration (1, 3). In addition, other molecules can interact with semaphorins or semaphorin receptors on the cell surface, featuring a complex scenario of multiple potential signaling pathways. In particular, tyrosine kinase receptors may become activated in response to semaphorins (4–7). This often leads to an apparent biological paradox whenever a semaphorin, in addition to mediating inhibitory signals (e.g., cell repulsion, inhibition of cell migration, etc.), can furthermore promote cell migration and invasive growth by activating tyrosine kinases in a cell-specific manner (8).
The role of semaphorin signalling in tumor progression is currently under close scrutiny. It is known that cancer cells release semaphorins regulating their own behavior as well as that of cells in the tumor microenvironment, such as endothelial cells and recruited leukocytes (see refs. 9 and 10 for reviews). For example, semaphorin 3B (Sema3B), Sema3F, and Sema4D have been shown to differently regulate tumor growth, tumor angiogenesis, and metastatic progression (11–16). Moreover, based on scattered evidence, semaphorin expression levels might discriminate among tumor cells with different metastatic abilities (13, 17, 18). In this work, we focused on Sema3E (previously known as semaH), which was found to be overexpressed in metastatic tumor cells (17). We have previously demonstrated that, like other class 3 semaphorins, Sema3E is synthesized as a full-length precursor molecule of approximately 87 kDa (p87-Sema3E), which is then subjected to proteolytic maturation by furin proprotein-convertases (PPCs), yielding a smaller fragment of approximately 61 kDa, referred to as p61. We have further shown that this proteolytic fragment promotes lung colonization of tumor cells injected in the circulation (19), but the implicated mechanisms remained unclear.
The high-affinity functional receptor of Sema3E is Plexin D1 and not any of the neuropilins (20). Genetic evidence showed that Sema3E–Plexin D1 signaling is required in developmental angiogenesis (20, 21). Moreover, recent evidence indicates that Sema3E is implicated in regulating postischemic angiogenesis (22). Intriguingly, while Plexin D1 expression is generally low in normal adult tissues, it is elevated in endothelial cells of tumor vessels and in cancer cells (23, 24). Like other family members, Plexin D1 is able to trigger R-Ras inactivation, leading to axonal and cell repulsion in vitro (25). Moreover, it was shown that Sema3E mediates either axonal attraction or repulsion in distinct neuronal populations, depending on the coexpression of Neuropilin-1 with Plexin D1 (26). This suggests that Sema3E can mediate divergent functions in different cells, depending on the implicated receptor complexes. Intriguingly, according to a recent report, Sema3E could inhibit the survival of MDA-MB-435 tumor cells in vitro but not their growth in vivo, while the opposite was true for MDA-MB-231 carcinoma cells (27); however, the mechanisms involved could not be elucidated. In the present work, we show that Sema3E is a double-faced signal in cancer development, eliciting 2 mirror effects in tumor cells and in the endothelial cells of tumor vessels, and further elucidate the implicated signaling pathways. Moreover, we show that Sema3E expression in human primary tumors is statistically associated with their metastatic progression and demonstrate in mouse preclinical models that interfering with Sema3E signaling in primary tumors results in a striking reduction of their metastatic dissemination.
Sema3E expression correlates with the metastatic potential of human tumors. Sema3E was initially identified in mouse metastatic cancer cells (17). However, whether the expression of Sema3E or its receptor Plexin D1 in human primary tumors may be correlated with the metastatic progression has not been assessed. We analyzed gene expression in a wide series of 60 human colon carcinoma samples, for which we obtained detailed clinicopathological information (including the possible development of metastasis), as well as in a separate series of excised liver metastases (Supplemental Figure 1A; supplemental material available online with this article; doi: 10.1172/JCI42118DS1). While the expression of the receptor Plexin D1 was clearly detected in all primary tumors, Sema3E levels were above detection threshold in only a fraction of them (independently from tumor grade or stages of local invasiveness; data not shown). Interestingly, Sema3E was expressed in 88% of the cases associated with metastatic disease (M1) and in only 46% of the nonmetastatic tumors (M0). This biased distribution was statistically significant, as confirmed by Fisher's exact test (P = 0.004). Consistently, as shown in Table 1, average Sema3E expression levels were significantly higher in metastatic versus nonmetastatic primary tumors (P = 0.002). Moreover, we could invariably detect Sema3E expression in 100% of liver metastases from colon carcinomas, and average levels of Sema3E and Plexin D1 were significantly higher in metastasis compared with primary tumors. Thus, Sema3E–Plexin D1 signaling seems to correlate positively with the metastatic progression of human colon carcinomas.
Relative gene expression levels in human colorectal tumors and metastases
Interestingly, a recent immunohistochemistry analysis showed that Plexin D1 receptor levels are increased in invasive and metastatic melanomas, compared with low-grade tumors and benign nevi (28). Previous data on Sema3E expression in melanomas were controversial; thus, we analyzed a wide series of benign nevi, low-grade melanomas, and highly invasive and metastatic melanomas, by using a polyclonal antibody previously validated for detecting all isoforms of Sema3E, including the proteolytically activated fragment p61 (19). We found that Sema3E was expressed in only a fraction of the melanocytes forming benign or dysplastic nevi as well as of the melanoma cells of low grade; in contrast, the percentage of Sema3E-positive cells increased to almost 100% in invasive and metastatic melanomas of Clark levels III and IV (Figure 1). Moreover, Sema3E expression at the single cell level seemed to be higher in malignant melanomas, compared with nevi. Thus, according to our data, also in melanoma progression, Sema3E signaling in primary tumors correlates with the potential for metastatic spreading.
Elevated Sema3E expression in invasive human melanomas. (A–F) Sema3E expression was detected by immunohistochemistry in a series of 58 nevi and melanoma human samples, representing different stages of progression. Micrographs show representative fields of Sema3E-expressing samples: (A) an intradermal nevus, (B) a dysplastic nevus, (C) a Clark III level malignant melanoma, and (D and E) 2 different Clark IV level melanomas. (F) Control staining of a Clark IV melanoma, without including the specific antibody. Scale bar: 40 μm. (G) In the graph, each case is represented by a blue bar, indicating the fraction of Sema3E-positive cells in the sample (scored as described in Methods). Black bars indicate the mean value for each of 5 groups (intradermal-junctional nevi [nevi], dysplastic nevi/melanomas in situ [dyspl.], and Clark II, Clark III, and Clark IV level melanomas).
Knocking down either Plexin D1 or Sema3E expression in cancer cells curtails metastatic spreading. We have demonstrated above that Sema3E levels directly correlate with the invasive and metastatic phenotype of human tumors of different histotype. We therefore investigated whether the genetic knockdown of either Sema3E (or its receptor Plexin D1) in validated experimental tumor models could affect the metastatic behavior. As shown in Figure 2A, we first silenced Plexin D1 expression in human metastatic carcinoma cells A549 (expressing endogenous Sema3E) and transplanted them in athymic mice to study tumor development and metastatic dissemination. Interestingly, Plexin D1–deficient tumors developed as controls (Figure 2B), suggesting that Plexin D1 expression in cancer cells do not have a major role in regulating growth or survival. In contrast, the number of lung metastases that spontaneously arose from Plexin D1–depleted primary tumors was significantly reduced (Figure 2C), indicating a pivotal role of this receptor in the invasive-metastatic process.
Plexin D1 and Sema3E knockdown in tumor cells inhibits the metastatic spreading. (A–C) A549 carcinoma cells were transduced to stably express shRNAs targeting Plexin D1 (or unrelated control sequences), and the expression knockdown was verified by Q-PCR (data not shown) and (A) Western blotting. Plexin D1–deficient and control cells were then transplanted into nude mice to establish subcutaneous tumors. Throughout the graphs, (B, E, H, and J) display the growth of primary tumors and (C, F, I, and K) the number of spontaneous lung metastases scored at the end of the experiment. Data are given as average ± SD of 6 mice for each experimental group throughout. (C) **P < 0.005. (D–F) A549 cells were transduced to stably express shRNAs targeting Sema3E (or unrelated control sequences), and gene knockdown was verified by Q-PCR (data not shown) and (D) Western blotting. **P < 0.003. The expression of a second independent shRNA targeting Sema3E yielded similar results (see Supplemental Figure 2, A and B). (G–I) Analogous experiment as above, using Sema3E-depleted 4T1 cells injected subcutaneously into syngenic Balb/c mice. **P < 0.007. (J and K) The same Sema3E-depleted 4T1 cells as above were injected orthotopically in the fat pad of Balb/c mice. Data are given as the average ± SD of 6 mice for each experimental group. **P < 0.003. (L) The same Sema3E-deficient 4T1 cells (as in G–K) were directly injected intravenously in Balb/c mice, and the number of lung metastatic colonies was evaluated as above. **P < 0.004.
In order to assess the functional relevance of endogenous Sema3E expression in tumor cells, we furthermore generated and transplanted in vivo Sema3E-deficient A549 cells (Figure 2, D–F). Analogously, we knocked down Sema3E expression in highly metastatic 4T1 breast carcinoma cells and carried out tumor transplantation experiments in syngenic mice, both subcutaneously and in the orthotopic site of mammary fat pad (Figure 2, G–L). Although the growth of the subcutaneous and orthotopic tumors was not significantly affected upon Sema3E silencing (Figure 2, H and J), their spontaneous metastatic dissemination was significantly reduced (Figure 2, I and K). Moreover, knocking down the endogenous Sema3E expression greatly reduced the metastatic potential of tumor cells injected in the systemic circulation (Figure 2L). These data were further validated using a second independent shRNA targeting the Sema3E transcript (Supplemental Figure 2, A and B). In addition, and consistent with our expression data in human tumor samples, we found that the metastatic potential of HCT-116 colon carcinoma cells was significantly reduced upon Sema3E knockdown (Supplemental Figure 2C). Altogether, our results indicate that the expression of both Sema3E and Plexin D1 is crucially involved in the metastatic spreading of diverse cancer cells.
Sema3E overexpression inhibits tumor vessel density and tumor growth but promotes metastatic spreading. Prompted by the results reported above, we questioned whether a gain of Sema3E expression could in turn enhance the metastatic potential of tumor cells. Three human cancer cell lines (i.e., HCT-116 colon carcinoma, MDA-MB-435 melanoma, and A549 lung carcinoma) were therefore transduced with lentiviral vectors encoding Sema3E or empty vector (EV) controls. Overexpressing cells contained a small amount of the full-length Sema3E precursor of approximately 87 kDa (p87-Sema3E) as well as a predominant amount of the matured fragment p61 (Supplemental Figure 3A and data not shown), indicating an efficient spontaneous proteolytic conversion. Notably, p61 was also the main species of endogenous Sema3E released by cancer cells (including those used for our gene knockdown experiments; see Supplemental Figure 3B). Moreover, we found that the p61 fragment was fully competent to bind the receptor Plexin D1 and elicit the typical collapsing response (Supplemental Figure 3, C and D). For these reasons, in many subsequent experiments, a recombinant form of the matured p61 fragment was also used.
Sema3E overexpression did not elicit morphological changes in cancer cells (data not shown), and we did not observe any significant difference in viability and proliferation in culture (Supplemental Figure 4A). Sema3E-expressing and control cells were then transplanted subcutaneously in nude mice to establish primary tumors. Remarkably, the elevated expression of Sema3E led to a significant reduction in tumor volume and weight in both models (Figure 3A and Supplemental Figure 4B). By assessing the mitotic index (with Ki-67; Figure 3B) in tumor tissue sections, we found that Sema3E expression did not significantly affect tumor cell proliferation, consistent with in vitro analysis. However, cellular apoptosis in Sema3E-expressing tumors was increased by approximately 2 fold, as revealed by TUNEL (Figure 3C) and further confirmed by the detection of the apoptotic markers cleaved caspase-9 and lamin B (Figure 3D). Notably, we found that the vascular density of Sema3E-expressing tumors was significantly reduced (Figure 3E); moreover, Sema3E had significantly induced endothelial cell apoptosis (Figure 3F). These data suggested a potential paracrine activity in the microenvironment of the semaphorin released by tumor cells.
Sema3E overexpression inhibits tumor vessel density and tumor growth. (A) Sema3E-overexpressing and EV-control cancer cells of different histotypes were transplanted subcutaneously in nude mice. The growth of primary tumors was followed by external measuring (shown in Supplemental Figure 4B). Values in the graph indicate tumor weight at the end of the experiment. Data shown represent the average ± SD of 6 mice per each experimental condition. *P < 0.01; **P < 0.005. (B) Control (EV) and Sema3E-expressing tumor sections (as indicated) were immunostained to detect Ki-67 proliferation marker. The graph indicates the percentage of KI-67–positive cells (average ± SD). (C) Tumor sections (as above) were analyzed to reveal apoptotic cells by TUNEL. Data in the graph show the percentage of TUNEL-positive cells (average ± SD). ***P < 0.001. Two representative fields of HCT-116 tumors are shown. Nuclei were visualized by hematoxylin. Scale bar: 30 μm. (D) Western blot analyses, revealing 2 different apoptotic markers in lysates of Sema3E-expressing tumors, i.e., cleaved caspase-9 and the presence of lamin B in the cytosolic fraction. (E) Tumor sections were stained with anti-CD31 to reveal endothelial cells (in red). Values in the graph indicate the vessel density (average ± SD). **P < 0.005. Scale bar: 40 μm. (F) Apoptotic endothelial cells in tumors were identified by double staining with endoglin (red) and activated caspase-3 (green) markers. *P < 0.02. Scale bar: 10 μm.
When looking at the metastatic spreading from these primary tumors, we found that — despite their reduced size — tumors overexpressing Sema3E gave rise to a strikingly increased number of spontaneous lung metastases (Figure 4A) expressing Sema3E (Supplemental Figure 5A), which indicated a predominant effect of the semaphorin to enhance the invasive-metastatic process. Notably, tumor xenografts overexpressing full-length processable Sema3E mainly contained mature p61 fragments (Supplemental Figure 5B), further confirming in vivo an efficient proteolytic conversion of the precursor. Moreover, the expression of a recombinant p61 fragment in tumors resulted in comparable effects in vivo, as observed with wild-type processable Sema3E undergoing spontaneous proteolytic conversion (Supplemental Figure 5, C–E, and Figure 4B).
Sema3E-p61 signaling in cancer cells enhances the metastatic spreading. (A) Superficial metastases in the lungs of mice bearing subcutaneous tumor xenografts formed by control or Sema3E-expressing HCT-116, MDA-MB-435, or A549 cells. Data on primary tumors are displayed in Figure 3 and Supplemental Figure 4B. The graph indicates average values ± SD of 6 mice per each experimental condition throughout the figure. *P < 0.04; **P < 0.005. (B) As above, we scored lung metastases in mice transplanted with MDA-MB-435 cancer cells expressing either processable Sema3E (largely converted into p61 in vivo) or the truncated recombinant p61 isoform. Data on primary tumors are shown in Supplemental Figure 5, C–E. *P < 0.02; **P < 0.005. (C–E) Plexin D1–deficient MDA-MB-435 cancer cells (or controls), either expressing p61-Sema3E or EV (expression analysis is shown on the bottom) were injected subcutaneously in nude mice to form tumor xenografts. (C) Primary tumors carrying p61-Sema3E grew significantly less compared with controls and (D) displayed a reduced vessel density, independently from the expression of Plexin D1 in cancer cells, thereby suggesting a paracrine activity of the semaphorin in the microenvironment. (E) Conversely, p61 expression could not induce the metastatic spreading of tumor cells devoid of Plexin D1. *P < 0.05; ***P < 0.0005.
To establish the functional relevance in vivo of Sema3E signaling in cancer cells, as opposed to its potential paracrine activity on endothelial cells, we knocked down the expression of the receptor Plexin D1 in MDA-MB-435 cells. Plexin D1–silenced cancer cells were viable and did not display any morphological change in culture (data not shown). Importantly, we found that Plexin D1 knockdown in cancer cells did not prevent the inhibitory effect of p61-Sema3E on tumor growth (Figure 4C), tumor vessel density (Figure 4D), or endothelial cell apoptosis (data not shown), supporting the idea that secreted Sema3E acts on the tumor endothelium in a paracrine manner. In contrast, p61-Sema3E overexpression could not induce the metastatic behavior of these Plexin D1–deficient cells (Figure 4E). Thus, the prometastatic activity of Sema3E is a tumor cell–autonomous, Plexin D1–dependent effect, independent from the paracrine activity capable of endothelial cells repulsion. These results could explain the apparent paradox observed in our experimental tumors in vivo and suggested 2 independent functions mediated by p61-Sema3E in different cell types, via the same receptor, Plexin D1.
Overall, forced overexpression of Sema3E in cancer cells upholds a paracrine antiangiogenic effect and leads to reduced tumor growth, a functional effect which was not observed with endogenous expression levels. On the other hand, both gene knockdown and overexpression experiments indicated that the Sema3E-dependent prometastatic effect depends on a distinctive signalling cascade into tumor cells, mediated by the Plexin D1 receptor.
Sema3E-dependent endothelial cell repulsion relies on Rnd2-expression and R-Ras inactivation. In an attempt to unravel the mechanisms underlying the effects of Sema3E on tumor vessels and metastasis, we performed in vitro experiments analyzing endothelial and tumor cells, respectively.
Functional assays in culture demonstrated that Sema3E (and its matured fragment p61) was capable of inhibiting the migration of HUVECs in a Plexin D1–dependent manner and eliciting their repulsion and cellular collapse (Figure 5, A and B, and Supplemental Figure 6, A and B). Moreover, in a mixed-culture experiment reminiscent of the in vivo setting, we found that Sema3E-expressing tumor cells could efficiently induce endothelial cell repulsion only if the latter contained Plexin D1 (Supplemental Figure 6B).
Molecular mechanisms of Sema3E-dependent endothelial cell repulsion. (A) The haptotactic migration of HUVECs was analyzed in the presence of 7 nM purified Sema3E (or equal concentration of Sema3A, as positive control) in the lower chamber. Migrated cells were stained with crystal violet and quantified by absorbance at 595 nm (see Methods for details). The graphs show the average ± SD of at least 2 independent experiments throughout the figure. **P < 0.005. See also Supplemental Figure 6, A and B. (B) Plexin D1 expression was knocked down in HUVECs (verified by Q-PCR), and the haptotactic migration of these cells was assayed in Transwell inserts. Both processable wild-type Sema3E (yielding a p87/p61 mix) and the recombinant p61-Sema3E fragment (7 nM each) inhibited the migration of controls but not of Plexin D1–deficient cells. Migrated cells were quantified by staining with crystal violet and measuring absorbance at 595 nm (see Methods). Data are given as average ± SD of 2 different experiments. **P < 0.005. (C) HUVEC migration assay as above, upon expression of dominant-activated R-Ras-L61 mutant (verified by Western blotting). *P < 0.02. (D) Rnd2 expression was knocked down in HUVECs by siRNA transfection (verified by Q-PCR), and cell migration was assayed as above. **P < 0.005. (E) Rnd2-depleted HUVECs (same as above) were incubated with 7 nM p61-Sema3E for 4 hours, then fixed and stained with FITC-Phalloidin. The percentage of collapsed cells (defined as having a diameter shorter than 30 μm) is indicated on the graph. Data are representative of at least 3 experiments, displaying consistent results. **P < 0.005.
It was recently shown that cell collapse and axonal repulsion mediated by Plexin D1 depend on its intrinsic R-Ras GAP activity (25). To investigate the relevance of this pathway in endothelial cells treated with Sema3E, we overexpressed a dominant-active mutant of R-Ras that cannot be regulated by Plexin D1 (25) and found that endothelial cells were no longer sensitive to p61-dependent inhibition of migration (Figure 5C). Moreover, it was reported that the GAP activity of Plexin D1 depends on the association of the small GTPase Rnd2 (25). Notably, we found that Rnd2 is abundantly expressed in HUVECs (Supplemental Figure 6C); moreover, upon knocking down Rnd2 expression, these cells became insensitive to Sema3E-mediated inhibition of migration (Figure 5D) and cellular collapse (Figure 5E). These data indicate that the inhibitory function of Sema3E in endothelial cells is dependent on the R-Ras GAP activity of Plexin D1 and on their prominent expression of Rnd2. Altogether, these data are consistent with the reported restrictive role of Sema3E in developmental and postischemic angiogenesis (20, 22) and with our in vivo data indicating inhibition of tumor vasculature.
p61-Sema3E signaling in tumor cells promotes motility and invasiveness, transendothelial migration, and extravasation in vivo. We aimed at elucidating the molecular mechanisms responsible for the prometastatic activity of p61-Sema3E. As demonstrated above in Figure 4E, our experimental evidence indicates that this function crucially depends on signaling cascades deployed into the tumor cells, which could potentially regulate their intrinsic migratory and invasive/metastatic behavior. In keeping with this hypothesis, we found that different cancer cells were induced to migrate in response to p61-Sema3E, either provided in the environment (Figure 6A) or constitutively overexpressed in autocrine manner (Figure 6B); moreover, this function was dependent on endogenous Plexin D1 receptor expression (Figure 6B). Notably, unlike HUVECs, none of the cancer cells analyzed underwent the collapsing response upon Sema3E treatment (Supplemental Figure 6A and data not shown), possibly reflecting their relatively low expression of the required mediator Rnd2 (see Supplemental Figure 6C). Moreover, knocking down Rnd2 expression did not impair Sema3E-induced cancer cell migration (Supplemental Figure 10A). Thus, cancer cells and endothelial cells respond differently to Sema3E/Plexin D1 signaling.
p61-Sema3E induces tumor cell migration and invasiveness. (A) The migration of the 4 indicated tumor cell lines was assayed in Transwell inserts in response to purified 7 nM p61-Sema3E (included in the lower chamber). Migrated cells were quantified by staining with crystal violet (see Methods). Data are given as average ± SD of at least 2 different experiments and values were normalized to respective controls. *P < 0.03; **P < 0.005. (B) MDA-MB-435 cells transduced with p61-Sema3E or EV and subjected to Plexin D1 knockdown by RNAi (the same as in Figure 4, C–E). Cell migration was assessed as above, and data were normalized to EV-shRNA control. **P < 0.005. Analogous results were obtained with HCT-116 cells (data not shown). (C) MDA-MB-435 or A549 tumor cells were added in the upper chamber of a Transwell insert coated with Matrigel and allowed to invade the matrix and migrate to the lower side of the porous membrane (quantified as above). Data shown are the average ± SD of 2 different experiments. *P < 0.05; **P < 0.005. (D) We assessed the transmigration of p61-expressing (or control) MDA-MB-435 cells (as in B) through a confluent monolayer of HUVECs (see Methods for experimental details). Tumor cells were labeled with CFDA-SE before the experiment. Transmigrated cells were detected by a fluorescence microscope and quantified using METAMORPH software. The graph shows the MFI ± SD in triplicate samples. p61-Sema3E signaling enhanced the transendothelial migration of tumor cells, whereas this effect was lost in Plexin D1–deficient cells. ***P < 0.0005.
Further elucidating the mechanisms involved in the prometastatic activity of p61-Sema3E in tumor cells, we found that it promotes the invasion of the ECM (Figure 6C). Moreover, p61 expression induced ECM degradation spots, colocalizing with actin-enriched focal structures (Supplemental Figure 7), resembling adhesive contacts called invadopodia, which are known to mediate the localized release of ECM-degrading enzymes (29). Notably, ECM degradation and invadopodia are instrumental for cancer cells slithering in and out blood vessel walls in order to metastasize. To address the potential involvement of p61-Sema3E in tumor cell extravasation, we initially exploited a transendothelial migration assay in vitro. We found that p61-expressing tumor cells, unlike controls, promptly migrated through a compact monolayer of endothelial cells (Figure 6D). Importantly, p61-induced transendothelial migration was abrogated in cancer cells lacking Plexin D1 receptor (Figure 6D).
It is known that a limited fraction of the cells released in the circulation by primary tumors forms metastases. Some of these cells die soon after entering the blood stream; others get entrapped in narrow capillary beds (e.g., in the lungs) and die in thrombotic emboli or manage to return in the circulation. A minority of circulating cancer cells will manage to extravasate, eventually forming metastatic colonies. In order to elucidate in vivo the role of Sema3E in tumor cell extravasation, we injected intravenously fluorescence-labeled MDA-MB-435 cells expressing p61 (or EV-controls) and subsequently sacrificed mice at different time points (from 15 minutes to 48 hours after injection) to quantify metastatic spreading. Initially, as expected, tumor cells accumulated in the lungs, independent from their expression of p61-Sema3E (Figure 7A) and consistent with the mechanical entrapment in the first encountered capillary bed. As expected, the number of cancer cells present in the lungs gradually decreased over time. However, by 1 hour after injection, p61-Sema3E–expressing cells were found in strikingly greater number compared with controls. At 48 hours after injection, 10-fold more p61-expressing cells were present in the lungs. This is consistent with the fact that p61- expressing cells directly injected in the circulation gave origin to a larger number of metastatic lung colonies, as scored in long term experiments (Supplemental Figure 8A). Moreover, similar experiments were performed by using Plexin D1–silenced cancer cells. In this case, p61-Sema3E could not induce the metastatic behavior (Figure 7B), thereby confirming that the proinvasive and prometastatic activity displayed by p61-Sema3E is dependent on a signaling cascade intrinsic to tumor cells.
p61-Sema3E enhances cancer cell metastatic extravasation. (A) MDA-MB-435 cancer cells expressing p61 (as in Figure 6) were fluorescently labeled and injected intravenously in nude mice. Two days later, the number of metastatic fluorescent cells was quantified in 4 lungs for each experimental group (at least 10 independent stereomicroscopic fields each) with METAMORPH software. Data are given as the mean of traced cells per field. **P < 0.005. (B) The same engineered MDA-MB-435 cancer cells shown in Figure 6D, plus 2 additional batches of Plexin D1-depleted cells (expressing an alternative shRNA sequence indicated by "#2"; see RT-PCR analysis on top) were fluorescently labeled and injected intravenously in nude mice. The number of fluorescent cells in the lungs was quantified by analyzing 4 mice for each experimental group (at least 10 independent stereomicroscopic fields each) with METAMORPH software. Data are given as mean of traced cells per field ± SD. The y-axis is in logarithmic scale. **P < 0.005.
Furthermore, we used a drug-inducible system to control semaphorin expression in tumor cells injected in vivo (see Supplemental Methods for details). Two groups of mice received cells in which p61-Sema3E expression had been induced before injection; for one group drug treatment was maintained until the end of the experiment, whereas for the other group, treatment was stopped 4 days after injection (in order to terminate p61 expression after extravasation in lungs had occurred). Other mice received untreated cells, and p61 expression began only 4 days after injection. One month later, the lungs were analyzed to score the presence of metastases. We found that p61-Sema3E expression in cancer cells, at the time of injection, resulted in a 10-fold increase in the number of metastatic colonies compared with that of controls (even if drug-induced expression was terminated soon after). On the contrary, the induction of semaphorin expression after the extravasation step only produced a negligible increase in the number of detectable lung colonies compared with that of controls (Supplemental Figure 8B). These data strongly suggested that p61-Sema3E mainly acts by promoting tumor cell extravasation.
The prometastatic activity of p61-Sema3E is mediated by the transactivation of Plexin D1–associated ErbB2. Other semaphorins, including Sema4D and Sema6D, have been shown to elicit cancer cell migration and invasive growth (4–6). Interestingly, the implicated receptors (i.e., Plexin B1 and Plexin A1) interact with receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) and trigger their distinctive signal pathways and functional outcomes. By analogy, p61-Sema3E could elicit the activation of a RTK associated with Plexin D1, putatively responsible for the observed prometastatic effect. We therefore undertook an unbiased screening approach to search for potential candidates in a low-density array, designed to simultaneously detect the tyrosine phosphorylation of 42 different RTKs in cell lysates. Interestingly, we found that ErbB2 phosphorylation was selectively increased in A549 carcinoma cells in response to p61-Sema3E (Supplemental Figure 9). ErbB2 is an oncogenic receptor often implicated in cancer invasion and metastasis; it has no cognate ligand but commonly becomes activated by forming heterodimers with other receptors of the same family (such as EGFR or ErbB3) (30–32). We have therefore individually analyzed immunopurified ErbB2 (Figure 8A) and the homologous ErbB3 and EGFR tyrosine kinases (Figure 8B) in cells treated with p61-Sema3E. In addition to that of ErbB2, we observed a minor increase in EGFR tyrosine phosphorylation induced by p61, while ErbB3 was not affected. ErbB2 phosphorylation in response to p61 was further confirmed in HeLa (Figure 8C) and MDA-MB-435 cells (data not shown). Notably, while p61 cannot bind ErbB2 (data not shown), it elicited ErbB2 phosphorylation in a Plexin D1–dependent manner, as demonstrated by receptor knockdown (Figure 8C).
p61-Sema3E elicits the activation of Plexin D1–associated tyrosine kinase ErbB2. (A) A549 tumor cells were starved for 48 hours and stimulated for 15 minutes with 7 nM p61-Sema3E or 0.2 nM Heregulin-β1 ECD (Hrg-β). ErbB2 was immunoprecipitated and analyzed by immunoblotting with anti–phospho-tyrosine (anti-pY) antibodies. The graph shows the average fold change of band intensity ± SD observed in 3 experiments (normalized to controls). (B) As above, serum-starved A549 cells were stimulated for 15 minutes with 7 nM p61 or 1 nM EGF. Then, EGFR or ErbB3 were immunoprecipitated using appropriate antibodies and analyzed with anti–phospho-tyrosine antibodies. (C) In analogy to the above experiments, ErbB2 phosphorylation in response to p61 or Hrg-β was assayed in HeLa carcinoma cells, either control or Plexin D1 depleted (verified by Western blot analysis). The graph shows the average fold change of band intensity ± SD observed in 3 experiments. (D) Plexin D1 (VSV-tagged) and ErbB2, transfected into HEK293 cells, coprecipitate in a specific complex, as revealed by immunoblotting. Analogous results were obtained upon transfection in COS cells (data not shown). The experiment was repeated 3 times with consistent results. (E) COS cells transfected with VSV-tagged Plexin D1 were preincubated with either 200 nM Lapatinib, or 250 nM PHA-665752 (PHA), or vehicle, for 3 hours. Thereafter, cells were treated for 15 minutes with 7 nM p61 or mock stimulated. Plexin D1 was immunoprecipitated and analyzed with anti–phospho-tyrosine antibodies. (F) Serum-starved A549 cancer cells, expressing endogenous Plexin D1 and ErbB2 receptors, were treated with mock or 7 nM p61-Sema3E for 10 minutes. Plexin D1 copurifying with ErbB2 was revealed by immunoblotting.
Interestingly, we could copurify Plexin D1 and ErbB2 from lysates of overexpressing cells (Figure 8D), suggesting that they can form receptor complexes on the cell surface. Moreover, Plexin D1 became tyrosine phosphorylated in this complex upon p61 stimulation (Figure 8E), and this was impaired by an ErbB2 kinase inhibitor but not upon inhibition of the unrelated RTK Met (Figure 8E). Finally, and most importantly, we found that the 2 endogenous receptors Plexin D1 and ErbB2 associated in a complex in tumor cells, upon stimulation with p61-Sema3E (Figure 8F).
We then found that p61-induced migration of cancer cells was impaired upon inhibition of ErbB2 catalytic activity (Figure 9A and Supplemental Figure 11, A and B). Moreover, p61-expressing cells were unable to give rise to lung metastatic colonies upon systemic treatment of recipient mice with ErbB2 inhibitor (Figure 9B). Furthermore, by knocking down ErbB2 expression in cancer cells with RNAi technology, we could selectively impair p61-Sema3E signaling, both in vitro and in vivo. In fact, while ErbB2-depleted cells were viable and sensitive to motogenic signals, like hepatocyte growth factor, they did not respond to p61 in migration assays (Figure 9C) or in experimental metastasis assays in vivo (Figure 9D). Taken together, these data indicated that ErbB2 plays a master role in the invasive-metastatic properties orchestrated by p61-Sema3E and its receptor.
ErbB2 kinase is required for p61-dependent promigratory and prometastatic function. (A) A549 cells were pretreated with 400 nM Lapatinib or 250 nM PHA-665752 for 2 hours and allowed to migrate in a Transwell insert in response to 7 nM p61-Sema3E in presence of the same inhibitors. Migrated cells were quantified by staining with crystal violet (see Methods). Data are given as average ± SD of 2 independent experiments. **P < 0.005. Analogous results were obtained by analyzing MDA-MB-435 and HeLa cancer cells (see Supplemental Figure 11, A and B). (B) A549 cells were transduced to establish an autocrine circuit of p61-Sema3E, fluorescence labeled with CFDA-SE, and injected systemically into mice treated with Lapatinib or vehicle (see Methods). Forty-eight hours after injection, metastatic fluorescent cells in the lungs were quantified (as described in Methods). The graph indicates average values ± SD of 5 mice per each experimental group. **P < 0.003. (C) The expression of ErbB2 (or Met tyrosine kinase as control) was knocked down in A549 tumor cells by RNAi (see Methods) and migration was assayed as above in response to 7 nM p61, 1 nM Hrg-β, or 1 nM HGF. Data are given as average ± SD of 2 independent experiments. Statistical significance was calculated relative to mock-treated cells in each group. *P < 0.05. (D) ErbB2-depleted A549 cells and respective controls were transduced to establish an autocrine circuit of p61-Sema3E (see expression analysis). Tumor cells were labeled with CFDA-SE before intravenous injection into nude mice. The graph shows the number of metastatic cells infiltrating the lungs after 48 hours, quantified as in B (average values ± SD of 5 mice per each experimental group). **P < 0.005. (E) Sema3E-induced migration of A549 cells was assayed as above, in the presence of DMSO (vehicle), or 2 μm U73122 (PLCγ), 10 μm PD98059 ("PD," MAPK inhibitor), or 10 μm LY294002 ("LY," PI3K inhibitor). PLCγ close to U73122; (MAPK inhibitor) close to PD98059, and (AKT inhibitor) close to LY294002. Data are given as average ± SD of 2 independent experiments. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.003.
ErbB2-mediated signaling is well characterized, and MAPK, PI3K-AKT, and PLC-γ appear to be the main players (30, 31). Interestingly, MAPK and PLC-γ cascades are typically activated in response to EGFR-ErbB2 heterodimers, while the PI3K-AKT pathway is the main mediator of ErbB2-ErbB3 complexes. We therefore analyzed the individual contribution of these signal transducers in Sema3E-induced tumor cell migration by applying the selective inhibitors LY294002, PD98059, and U-73122. As shown in Figure 9E, MAPK and PLC-γ activation appeared to be required for function, while the PI3K-AKT pathway was only marginally implicated. Moreover, our analysis of MAPK, AKT, and PLC-γ phosphorylation in tumor cells treated with Sema3E indicated a major activation of MAPK and PLC-γ (Supplemental Figure 12). Thus, our data suggest that Sema3E/Plexin D1–dependent activation of a signaling cascade downstream to ErbB2 phosphorylation, especially via MAPK and PLC-γ activation, is mainly responsible for the observed proinvasive and prometastatic function.
Semaphorins and their receptors have been implicated in a range of functions, including angiogenesis and tumor progression (9, 10). In particular, the functional relevance of Sema3E in cancer was poorly understood, and the implicated signaling mechanisms had not been elucidated. Notably, a common feature of guidance cues, including Sema3E, is their ability to act as double-faced signals. Here we found that Sema3E is able to independently regulate endothelial and tumor cells, triggering divergent functional outcomes, through the involvement of distinctive signaling pathways. When we asked about the functional relevance of Sema3E signaling in tumor development and metastatic progression, we found that Sema3E endogenously expressed in tumor cells is a major determinant of their invasive-metastatic behavior in vivo. Moreover, and relevant to the clinics, we found that Sema3E expression in human primary tumors correlates with their potential to form metastasis.
Sema3E had been initially identified in cancer cells; however, it was unclear whether its expression could impinge on tumor growth. We found that Sema3E overexpression reduced tumor burden in vivo. According to our data, this was not accounted for by direct suppression of tumor cell growth. In fact, the ectopic expression of Sema3E in different cancer cells did not inhibit their proliferation or survival in culture, including upon anchorage-independent growth in soft agar (A. Casazza and L. Tamagnone, unpublished observations). Moreover, while apoptosis was increased in Sema3E-overexpressing tumors, the proliferation index of cancer cells was not significantly reduced. In fact, the tumor suppressor effect observed in our experiments was likely accounted for by the reduced vascular density induced by sustained paracrine signaling of ectopic Sema3E released in the tumor microenvironment, consistent with the endothelial repelling function observed in developmental angiogenesis (20). Moreover, we elucidated that the endothelial-repelling and inhibitory activity of Sema3E depends on the R-Ras GAP activity of Plexin D1 and on the expression of the regulatory molecule Rnd2. It is noteworthy that the potential inhibitory activity of endogenous Sema3E levels released by tumor cells is probably overpowered in vivo by proangiogenic factors in the tumor microenvironment. Consistent with this hypothesis, we found that interfering with endogenous Sema3E expression in cancer cells did not increase tumor growth, while it significantly curbed metastatic spreading.
We have reported previously that Sema3E undergoes proteolytic cleavage by furin-like PPCs. This maturation process is strictly required to unleash the prometastatic activity of the semaphorin, since a mutated uncleavable form of full-length Sema3E has no prometastatic activity (19). In fact, PPCs are commonly expressed in tumor cell lines and human cancers, and our present data indicate that the small proteolytic fragment p61 is the main form of Sema3E found in the conditioned media of tumor cells and in experimental tumor samples. Importantly, we have shown here that the p61 fragment is fully competent to bind the functional receptor Plexin D1, and it carries an endothelial cell–repelling activity comparable with that of the full-length molecule.
In apparent contrast with its potential inhibitory function in endothelial cells, p61-Sema3E enhances the inherent invasiveness of tumor cells and their metastatic behavior. Moreover, the receptor Plexin D1 is responsible for this autocrine effect, since knocking down its expression in tumor cells abates their metastatic potential and abrogates any proinvasive and metastatic response to p61. Metastasis formation is a multistep process, starting with tumor cell invasiveness at the primary tumor site and implicating cell migration, cell survival, and matrix degradation as well as the ability to overcome tissue barriers, such as vessel walls, and ultimately leading to colonization of distant tissues (33). In our study, we found that p61-Sema3E promotes tumor cell migration and invasiveness, possibly mediated by invadopodia formation. Notably, on the basis of multiple functional experiments in vitro (including adhesion-independent growth and survival in soft agar), we have ruled out that p61 may exert an antiapoptotic activity in tumor cells, potentially impinging on their survival in the blood stream (A. Casazza and L. Tamagnone, unpublished observations). Instead, we found that the Sema3E expression levels dictate the ability of circulating cancer cells to extravasate and form metastatic colonies.
A few other semaphorins have been found to promote cell migration by transactivating plexin-associated tyrosine kinase receptors in a cell-specific manner (4–6). This suggested that an RTK could be similarly involved in Sema3E signaling, especially since we had observed Plexin D1 phosphorylation on tyrosine upon p61 stimulation. Primed by the results of a phospho-proteomic screening, we then demonstrated that ErbB2 is the tyrosine kinase receptor responsible for p61-mediated signaling, leading to the invasive-metastatic response. Notably, both the treatment with an ErbB2 inhibitor and the selective knockdown of this RTK by RNAi resulted in a dramatic reduction of p61-induced tumor cell migration and metastatic lung colonization.
ErbB2 tyrosine kinase receptor is commonly expressed in human tumors, but it has no cognate ligand, and it mainly becomes activated by transphosphorylation in association with the homologous receptors EGFR or ErbB3 (30–32). We observed a minor increase of EGFR but not ErbB3 phosphorylation in tumor cells treated with p61-Sema3E, possibly suggesting that Plexin D1 signalling impinges on the activation of ErbB2-EGFR receptor heterodimers found in cancer cells but not in endothelial cells (see our preliminary data in Supplemental Figure 13, A and B). Moreover, MAPK and PLC-γ appeared to be the main signal transducers involved in the pathway, while PI3K-AKT activation was only marginally implicated. This is consistent with that reported in literature about the predominant involvement of PLC-γ and MAPK pathways downstream to ErbB2-EGFR complexes (30, 31).
It has been shown in neurons that neuropilin-1 expression levels can dictate differential functional responses to Sema3E in different cell populations (26). Intriguingly, neuropilin-1 is expressed in HUVECs at an intermediate level between those found in the 2 tumor cell models used in our functional experiments in vivo, i.e., MDA-MB-435 and A549 cells (data not shown). Moreover, p61-Sema3E cannot interact with neuropilin-1 (data not shown). Thus, our data do not support the idea that neuropilin expression alone may account for the functional differences between Sema3E activity in endothelial and tumor cells. Interestingly, we found that the small GTPase Rnd2, associated with Plexin D1, is required for the inhibitory activity of Sema3E in endothelial cells while it is expressed at low levels and not implicated in Sema3E function in tumor cells (see Supplemental Figure 10, A and B). Conversely, tumor cells are characterized by the expression of ErbB2-EGFR heterodimers, which are involved in Sema3E-induced invasion and metastasis.
Previously published data on the expression of Sema3E and its receptor in human tumors do not univocally establish a correlation with tumor progression. For instance, we have shown high Sema3E levels in mammary carcinomas (19). Moreover, others have found an elevated expression in high- versus low-grade glioblastomas (34), while the opposite was true for bladder carcinomas (35). As expected, the functional relevance of Sema3E as a master regulator of the invasive-metastatic phenotype may depend on the activity of additional tumor type–specific regulatory pathways as well as on individual genetic variability. Of note, Roodink and coworkers, in an immunohistochemistry analysis of nevi and melanoma samples, came to the puzzling conclusion that while Plexin D1 expression is positively correlated with tumor metastatic progression, Sema3E levels are regulated in the opposite manner (28). We have now analyzed a wide panel of nevi and melanoma samples, using a validated antibody proven to detect all isoforms of Sema3E, including p61 (19). Our data demonstrate a significant increase of Sema3E expression in highly invasive and metastatic melanomas, compared with that of benign nevi and noninvasive melanomas. Notably, our data are further consistent with those seen in 2 independent gene expression data sets (36, 37) and support the postulated role of Sema3E signaling in the invasive-metastatic progression of melanomas.
We have furthermore analyzed the expression of Sema3E and its receptor in a wide series of colon cancer samples, for which we obtained detailed clinicopathological information. We found that while Sema3E expression is often below the detection threshold in nonmetastatic tumors, it is almost invariably present in primary tumors, giving rise to distant metastasis. Moreover, the average expression levels of both Sema3E and Plexin D1 were significantly increased in excised metastases compared with those of primary tumors, suggesting the acquisition of a selective advantage for metastatic spreading in cell-autonomous manner. This was confirmed upon analyzing gene expression in a subset of 8 primary tumors with available matched metastatic tissue from the same patients. In fact, the levels of both Plexin D1 and Sema3E were further increased in the metastasis compared with the primary tumor in 100% and 75% of these cases, respectively (Supplemental Figure 1B). Moreover, the median expression value had a more than 6-fold increase in metastases for both genes, and this difference passed statistical significance tests for Plexin D1 (P = 0.004).
Considering our data on the involvement of ErbB2 in p61-Sema3E signaling, one would expect that metastatic human tumors expressing Sema3E and Plexin D1 should also contain ErbB2. We clearly detected ErbB2 expression in all primary colon carcinoma samples included in our panel (average of transcripts per 104 copies β-actin, 15.32 ± 2.57 ± SEM). However, there was no significant statistical correlation between ErbB2 expression levels and the metastatic or nonmetastatic behavior of these tumors (data not shown). This indicates that, not unexpectedly, the ErbB2 oncogene is not the driving force for the metastatic spreading of colon cancers, but it is widely expressed in tumors, consistent with an effector function in Sema3E–Plexin D1 signaling cascade.
We finally asked whether Sema3E expression could have any relevance as a predictor of clinical outcome in human cancers. Although providing a conclusive answer to this question is beyond the scope of this study, we looked carefully into our data on colon cancer patients. As expected, while early stage tumors (i.e., T1-T2) did not associate with metastasis, advanced stage colon cancers (i.e., T3-T4) had an overall 28% incidence of metastasis in our series (12 out of 43 cases). However, we noticed that among Sema3E-negative tumors the incidence of metastasis was only 10% (2 out of 19), whereas Sema3E-positive primary tumors had a 58% incidence of metastasis (14 out of 24). Although the size of this sample is small, Fisher's exact test confirmed that this is not a random distribution (P = 0.03), suggesting that Sema3E expression may predict the risk of metastatic progression in advanced tumors. To further assess the clinical significance of Sema3E expression in primary colorectal tumors, we analyzed a subset of patients for which the clinical outcome after 2 years of follow-up was known (Supplemental Figure 1C). Interestingly, Kaplan-Meier analysis revealed that Sema3E levels in primary tumors inversely correlated significantly with patient survival. Indeed, the overall 2-year survival rate was 94% in patients with Sema3E-negative primary tumors but only 58% in patients with Sema3E-positive tumors (P = 0.02 by log-rank test; n = 16 for Sema3E-negative tumors and n = 12 for Sema3E-positive tumors). Thus, our data strongly suggest that Sema3E expression and signaling (via Plexin D1) correlate positively with metastatic progression and poor prognosis of human colon carcinomas. Moreover, taken together, our findings indicate Sema3E as an important "modifier" signal in cancer progression, potentially active in multiple human tumors.
In conclusion, we showed that Plexin D1 stimulation by p61-Sema3E can elicit 2 independent signaling cascades and divergent functional effects in cancer cells and in endothelial cells. Moreover, we elucidated the functional relevance in vivo of Sema3E and Plexin D1 endogenously expressed in tumor cells, by showing that their partial knockdown is sufficient to abate the metastatic potential, while we ruled out that blocking endogenous Sema3E might promote tumor growth. We have furthermore provided statistical evidence in colon cancer patients that an elevated expression of Sema3E (and Plexin D1) strikingly increases the risk of metastatic progression. In sum, Sema3E autocrine signaling is crucially implicated to induce a metastatic behavior in multiple cancer cells, and it appears as a promising target for strategies aimed at blocking tumor metastasis.
Further information can be found in the Supplemental Methods.
Antibodies and other reagents. Myc-tagged and VSV-tagged proteins were detected by MoAb 9E10 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology Inc.) and P5D4 (Sigma-Aldrich), respectively. Other antibodies were as follows: anti-mouse CD31 (MEC 13.3, BD Biosciences), anti–Ki-67 (DAKO), anti-activated caspase-3 (Cell Signaling Technology), anti-endoglin (R&D Systems), anti-phosphotyrosine (4G10, Upstate), biotinylated anti-human Plexin D1 (aa 47–1271, R&D Systems), anti-ErbB2 (29D8, Cell Signaling Technology, and e2-4000, Invitrogen), anti-EGFR (LA22, Millipore), anti-ErbB3 (C-17, Santa Cruz Biotechnology Inc.), anti-Rnd2 (Proteintech Group Inc.), anti–Caspase-9 (96.1.23, Santa Cruz Biotechnology Inc.), anti-laminB (101-B7, Calbiochem), anti-actin (C-11, Santa Cruz Biotechnology Inc.), anti-HA (Y-11, Santa Cruz Biotechnology Inc.), and anti-Vinculin (V4505, Sigma-Aldrich). Antibodies to Sema3E were described previously (19). Recombinant human Heregulin-β1 Extracellular Domain (Hrg-β) and HGF were from R&D Systems. Human recombinant EGF was from Sigma-Aldrich. Lapatinib (GW572016, Tykerb) was provided by GlaxoSmithKline or purchased from Sellek Chemicals. Met inhibitor PHA665752 was from TOCRIS Bioscience. LY294002 and PD98059 were from Calbiochem, and U-73122 was from Sigma-Aldrich.
Ectopic gene expression in mammalian cells. Expression constructs encoding full-size mouse Sema3E (fused with a polyHis-Myc-epitope tag at C'-term) as well as truncated p61-Sema3E (19) were subcloned into the lentiviral transfer plasmid pRRLsin.cPPT.hCMV.GFP.Wpre, and gene transfer was performed as previously described (38). This method ensured stable gene transfer with very high efficiency, without the need to select individual cell clones. In addition, we assayed multiple independent batches of cells transduced with each construct. The ErbB2 mammalian expression construct was a gift from Thomas Diettmar (Witten/Herdecke University, Witten, Germany). A dominant-active R-Ras was provided by Dominique T. Brandt (University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany). An expression construct for Rnd2 was purchased from Missouri S&T cDNA Resource Center.
Purification of Sema3E molecules. COS cells were transduced to stably express the respective Sema3E molecules. Conditioned media were harvested from these cells in the absence of serum. Protein purification was achieved using a Nickel-loaded affinity column (GE-Pharmacia) according to the manufacturer's protocols.
Knockdown of gene expression by RNAi. The expression of Plexin D1, Sema3E, ErbB2, and Met was silenced in tumor and/or endothelial cells by expressing gene-targeted shRNA. Rnd2 expression was knocked down in HUVECs by transfection with targeted siRNA duplexes. Details on reagents, procedures, and the targeted sequences are provided in the Supplemental Methods.
Real-time quantitative PCR analysis of gene expression. Total RNA from tumor cell lines or tissues was isolated by using RNeasy Protect Mini Kit (Qiagen) according to the manufacturer's instructions. cDNA preparation was performed according to standard procedures, using M-MLV Reverse Transcriptase (Promega) and oligo-dT primers (Sigma-Aldrich). Real-time quantitative PCR (Q-PCR) analysis was performed using the Applied Biosystems 7900HT Fast Real-Time PCR System and PCR primers and TaqMan probes listed in Supplemental Methods. Gene expression in cells subjected to RNAi-mediated knockdown was quantified as relative levels versus mock-transduced cells. On the other hand, gene expression in individual human tumor samples was quantified as relative number of transcripts compared with β-actin. Informed consent was received for human samples. Care and use of human samples were approved by review boards at the University of Heidelberg (Germany), and the Institute for Cancer Research and Treatment (Candiolo, Turin, Italy).
MTT cell viability assay. Transduced tumor cells were seeded in multiple 24-well plates (5 × 104 cells/well). After 24 hours of serum starvation, the cells were cultured in DMEM medium containing 0.1% FBS. To reveal viability, the cells were incubated with 500 μl/ml of 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) dye solution (Sigma-Aldrich) for 4 hours at 37°C. The indicator product, formazan, was resuspended in DMSO and measured spectrophotometrically at 570 nm by a Titertek Multiskan reader.
Fluorescence labeling of living cells. MDA-MB-435 cells were incubated with 10 μM CFDA SE Vybrant Cell Tracer (Molecular Probes) for 15 minutes at 37°C. Then the loading solution was replaced with fresh, prewarmed medium and the cultures were incubated for another 30 minutes at 37°C.
Cell migration and invasion assays. Cell motility was assayed using Transwell chamber inserts (Costar), with a porous polycarbonate membrane (8-μM pore size) as described previously (39). To allow haptotactic migration, the lower side of the filter was coated with 10 μg/ml fibronectin. Cells were harvested from culture dishes by treatment with 1 mM EDTA and resuspended in 0.2% BSA-containing medium. Approximately 1 × 105 cells were added in the upper chamber and allowed to migrate through the filter toward the lower chamber (including regulatory molecules, when indicated) for 6–8 hours in a cell culture incubator. Then, the cells adherent to the upper side of the filter were mechanically removed, while those that migrated to the lower side of the filter were fixed with 11% glutaraldehyde and stained with crystal violet. The dye was then solubilized in 10% acetic acid to measure absorbance at 595 nm in a microplate reader (OD values are shown in the graphs as arbitrary units). For ECM invasion assays, 5 × 105 tumor cells were added to the upper chamber of a Transwell insert coated with Matrigel (20 μg/well; Becton Dickinson) and allowed to migrate in 1% FBS-containing medium. After 16 hours of incubation, the cells adherent to the lower side of the porous membrane were fixed and analyzed as above.
Transendothelial migration of tumor cells. Approximately 1 × 105 HUVECs were added to type I collagen-coated 24-well Transwell inserts with small pore sizes (5-μm pore size; Costar) and grown to confluence for 3 days, with daily replacement of fresh culture medium, until they formed a tightly packed monolayer. Then, 7 × 105 CFDA-SE–labeled (see above) MDA-MB-435 cells, resuspended in HUVEC culture medium, were added to the upper chamber. After incubation for 16 hours, the cells were fixed with 11% glutaraldehyde, and the upper side of the membranes were gently scraped with a cotton swab to remove nonmigrated cells. Transmigrated tumor cells were quantified based on green fluorescence in 5 random fields, using METAMORPH software.
Animal model and in vivo procedures. In vivo studies were conducted in 6- to 8-week-old immunocompromised Cd1–/– nude athymic or BALB/C female mice (Charles River Laboratory). Unless otherwise indicated, in each experiment, we analyzed 6 tumors per each condition. For subcutaneous tumor models, 2 × 106 MDA-MB-435, 8 × 106 A549, or 5 × 105 4T1 cells were injected into the right posterior flank of anesthetized animals. Tumor size was measured externally every 2 days using a caliper, and tumor volume was estimated using the equation V = 4/3p × (d/2)2 × D/2, where d indicates the minor tumor axis, D indicates the major tumor axis, and V indicates volume. Mice were sacrificed after 30–60 days after transplant, and tumors were weighted after dissection. Superficial pulmonary metastases were contrasted using black India ink to infuse airways, and counted on dissected lung lobes under a stereoscopic microscope. For orthotopic injection, 1 × 106 4T1 cells resuspended in 40 μl phosphate-buffered saline were injected into the second mammary fat pad of anesthetized Balb/c mice, following exposure by a small incision. Mice were sacrificed after 25 days, and tumors and lungs were measured as mentioned above. For experimental metastasis assays, 2 × 106 MDA-MB-435, 6 × 106 A549, or 2 × 105 4T1 cells were injected into the lateral mouse tail vein; for long-term experiments, cell colonies were scored in the lung using black India ink to infuse airways, as described above. Short-term metastatic extravasation of fluorescent cancer cells in the lungs was quantified by analyzing 4 pairs of lungs for each experimental group (at least 10 independent microscopic fields each) with METAMORPH software. For experiments based on in vivo Lapatinib treatments, mice received the vehicle (0.5% hydroxypropylmethylcellulose with 0.1% Tween 80 in water) or the drug (100 mg/kg body weight) daily by oral gavage, from 3 days before to 2 days after systemic tumor cell injection. Animal procedures had been approved by the Ethical Commission of the University of Torino and by the Italian Ministry of Health.
Histological analysis. Paraffin-embedded or OCT-embedded frozen samples were cut in 10-μm thick sections and probed with primary antibodies (listed above). Streptavidin was conjugated with HRP (DAKO), while all secondary antibodies used were conjugated with Alexa Fluor 488 or Alexa Fluor 546 fluorochromes (Molecular Probes). To detect apoptotic cells in tumor sections, we used an indirect TUNEL assay, using the ApopTag Green In Situ Apoptosis Detection Kit (Chemicon). Slides were analyzed using a Leica DM IRBM microscope, and digital images were evaluated with METAMORPH software. Unless otherwise indicated, quantification was done by analyzing at least 3 sections and 10 fields per tumor (considering 6 tumors per experimental condition).
Immunoprecipitation, SDS-PAGE, and Western immunoblotting. Cellular proteins were analyzed using standard methods, as described in the Supplemental Methods, using antibodies listed above. Band intensity quantification was done with Quantity-One software.
Statistics. Statistical significance was verified using the 2-tailed Student's t test. P values of less than 0.05 were considered significant.
View Supplemental data
We gratefully acknowledge the help of E. Vigna, S. Corso, and S. Giordano (IRCC, Candiolo) and T. Diettmar (Witten/Herdecke University, Germany) and D.T. Brandt (University of Heidelberg, Germany) for generously sharing expression constructs important for this study. We thank E. Urbano, L. Palmas, and F. Sassi for skillful technical assistance; M. Galluzzo, F. Maina, T. Werdiningsih, and L. Tarditi for support with experiments in mice; F. Galimi for help with Q-PCR analysis; and S. Giordano, G. Neufeld, and C. Isella for useful discussion and suggestions. The work was supported by grants from Italian Association for Cancer Research and from Regione Piemonte (to L. Tamagnone, L. Trusolino, and P.M. Comoglio). A. Casazza is supported by a FIRC fellowship.
Conflict of interest: The authors have declared that no conflict of interests exists.
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Charlotte Rolny's present address is: University of Uppsala, Department of Genetics and Pathology, Vascular Biology Unit, Rudbeck Laboratory, Uppsala, Sweden.
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ISSN: 0021-9738 (print), 1558-8238 (online)


Who knows more about local salmon and their habitats than Alaska fishermen?
That's the impetus behind a new information-gathering project spawned by United Fishermen of Alaska, or UFA, that aims to provide useful and timely news about the health of the state's salmon runs.
The Salmon Habitat Information Program, or SHIP, launched last week with an online survey to provide commercial fishermen with a way to share their local intelligence.
Respondents to the SHIP survey are entered to win a $500 Alaska Airlines certificate and a $200 gift card from LFS Marine stores. Extra entries also will be given to people who "like" the SHIP Facebook page and share the survey socially.
Find the SHIP survey at the United Fishermen of Alaska website. Deadline to respond is Labor Day, Sept. 5.
Plans to grow more shellfish and aquatic plans are taking shape following two meetings this summer by the Alaska Mariculture Task Force. The 11-member panel, which includes reps from the Departments of Fish and Game and Commerce, Alaska Sea Grant and seven public members, was created by order of Gov. Bill Walker in February. Its mission is to provide a statewide strategy for expanding the burgeoning industry by March 1, 2018.
Mariculture could model Alaska's successful salmon enhancement program, she said, where the state backed a $100 million low interest, revolving loan to jump start the fledgling industry for several years.
"For mariculture, we have high dollar products like king crab and geoducks, abalone, sea cucumbers, sea weeds, oysters and other shellfish. There is really a lot of opportunity," she added.
While Alaska's mariculture operations to date have focused mostly on Southeast and Southcentral regions, the new vision includes broadening the industry to westward regions.
The mariculture task force wants to attract more expertise via advisory panels on investment and infrastructure, regulations, research and development, environmental impacts, public education and marketing and workforce development.
A chance discovery by farmed salmon hatchery workers has spawned a line of skin care products that help cure disorders like eczema and also keeps skin younger looking.
Scientists became curious several years ago after it was noticed that hatchery workers who spent long hours handling salmon fry in cold seawater had softer, smoother hands. Researchers at Norway's University of Science and Technology discovered the skin-softening component came from the enzyme zonase, found in the hatching fluid of salmon eggs. The enzyme's task is to digest the protein structure of the tough eggshells without harming the tiny fish.
The scientists hailed this dual ability as the secret behind the beneficial properties for human skin. Their research showed that zonase helps flake off dead skin and stimulates the growth of healthy new skin cells. It's also proved helpful in healing wounds.
Norway-based Aqua Bio Technology, which develops marine based ingredients for the personal care industry, now markets a zonase infused product under its Aquabeautine brand.
Closer to home, Chevak triplets Amy, Michelle and Cika Sparck have found success with their "land and sea" ArXotica line that uses salmon and berry infused products to promote healthy skin, hair and nails.
The ArXotica blend won first place this year in the "Beyond the Plate" category at the annual Alaska Symphony of Seafood.


What's New at Columbia Organ Leathers?
We are constantly striving to improve our products and extend the range of items that we offer. Be sure to check this page often to see what we have added or changed in our online catalogue.
Skin Sizes – The skin sizes of many of our leathers sometimes change with each new batch of leather we receive. Certain times of the year, younger animals are harvested and the skins will run a bit smaller than usual. At other times, the older animals are taken and the skins will be big. Check our Leather Skins Page regularly to see the average sizes of the skins we have in stock now.
None of the leathers that we sell come from animals killed solely for their skins. All of the products that we offer are made from the skins of animals that were raised or killed for food. The skins are a byproduct. We do not sell skins from any endangered species.
August 10, 2016 – Kangaroo available again at a much lower price – Thanks to the strength of the US dollar and a new supplier, we are able to offer Kangaroo skins once again. Pneumatic Leather is available in a single thickness ranging from .012″ to .015″ and our super strong Kangaroo Gusset leather is approximately .025″ thick. Both are now priced at $14.95 per square foot.
November 5, 2014 – New Price List takes effect on November 15, 2014 – Our new price list will become effective on November 15th. Items ordered after November 14th will be charged at the new rates.
July 6, 2009 – New Shipment of Kangaroo has arrived!
May 8, 2009 – Kangaroo Leather is Out of Stock – A huge order of Kangaroo Leather has cleaned out our supply of this product. More has been ordered but it is not expected to arrive until Mid-July of this year.
February 15, 2009 – New Price List takes effect. – As with most things, the price of leather fluctuates on the world market. As the cost of raw skins, tanning chemicals and freight increases, so does the cost of our products. We held our prices steady during 2008 in spite of significant increases in our material costs. Unfortunately, we must now pass some of those increases along to our customers.
February 13, 2009 – Tan Pneumatic Leather (Chrome Tanned) – This leather is very similar to our Æolian / Morton style leather. The pores have been sealed and the leather has been dyed tan for projects where a tan colored leather is preferred. Prices are the same as our new CML™ Leathers. Like all of our leathers, this product is Chrome Tanned for the longest possible life.
September 8, 2008 – Maroon "Aeolian-Morton" Style Leather available – Click Here to learn more about our new, Maroon colored "Morton" style leather which has undergone a special process to seal the pores in the skins.
January 1, 2008 – New Price List – Our new prices will go into effect today. If you have not received your new price list in the mail, call or e-mail us or use the prices on this website.
October 12-17, 2007 – AIO Convention – Please visit our exhibit booth at the upcoming convention of the American Institute of Organ Builders in King of Prussia (Philadelphia), Pennsylvania.
Limited Supply of Kangaroo Leather is in stock! – We have about 300 square feet of kangaroo leather left. Place your order before it is all gone. At the present time, we only have medium thickness.
July 14, 2006 – Kangaroo Bounces Back – We will be receiving a limited quantity of high-quality Kangaroo skins the end of August. Place your order now to reserve these skins before they are all sold.
June 13, 2006 – Flap Valve Leather Now Available – Due to multiple requests, we are not pleased to offer Chrome Tanned Flap Valve Leather for Reed Organs, Player Pianos and any instrument with pumps that require flap valves. Since these skins are so large, we are offering to sell this item pre-cut to your specifications and priced by the square inch. Click here for more information.
May 1, 2006 – Austin Organs Open for Business. – Now that Austin Organs Inc., is once again making and releathering their own actions, we are providing them with our leathers. If you need components for an Austin Organ, visit their website www.austinorgans.com.
January 15, 2006 – New Price Lists go out this week. – Our new price list for 2006 will go in the mail this week, via First Class Mail, to all active customers. The new prices will take effect on February 1, 2006. If yours does not arrive by then, let us know.
June 27, 2005 – Kangaroo Leather Out of Stock. – Due to poor weather conditions in Australia, it has become all but impossible to find supplies of the high-grade kangaroo leather that we usually purchase. Furthermore, when the leather becomes available again, expect a huge price increase (in the $24.00 per square foot range). Visit this page for future updates on the price and availability of Kangaroo Leather.
March 14, 2005 – Austin Pneumatic Releathering Components Available! – We are pleased to be able to offer the industry pre-cut components for releathering Austin Pneumatics. We use the same chrome tanned leather that Austin Organs, Inc. has used since 1989 and we guarantee you will be pleased. If you would rather not releather these complicated pneumatic motors yourself, why not have us do it for you! Click Here to learn more about our solutions for Austin Organ Pneumatics.
September 1, 2004 – New Catalogue & Price List Available! – After months of planning and assembly, we are now taking orders for our greatly expanded Catalogue of Leather Samples. This new catalogue has samples of every leather we sell in every available thickness. There are also samples of all of our standard Assembled Pneumatic Note Pouches plus a whole lot more. Established customers will be mailed a new price list along with a catalogue request form the first week of September. If you are not already a customer, use our Catalogue Request Form to get yours!
May 3, 2004 – Price of Kangaroo Leather Climbs! – Due to a 30% drop in the value of the US dollar against the Australian dollar, our cost for our very high-quality Kangaroo skins has increased significantly. We apologize that we must pass this increase along to our customers.
April 22, 2004 – Oval Pouches for Schantz Organs! – We are pleased to offer oval pouches for Schantz Pipe Organs. Please see our Pneumatic Pouches Page.
July 13, 2003 – Saxophone Valve Leather – Due to numerous requests, we have developed what we believe to be the finest leather on the market for use in the covering of Saxophone and other reed instrument valve pads. The skins are made of very strong, top-grade African Hairsheep and are dyed and coated with a moisture resistant finish. Although we have a few hundred square feet of this material in stock, it is generally made to order. Prices depend on quantity ordered. Call or e-mail us today for a quote!
May 30, 2003 – Kangaroo Skins are here! – The much-anticipated shipment of Kangaroo Skins has arrived and they are ready to ship!
May 21, 2003 – Kangaroo Leather is on the way! – We received word today that our first production shipment of Kangaroo Skins have been shipped to us from Australia! These are absolutely the finest quality Kangaroo Skins we have ever seen (and we have seen everything on the market today). These skins are full Chrome Tanned and will be tested by an independent laboratory for Chrome Content and Tensile Strength. We are now taking orders for Kangaroo Skins to be shipped in Mid-June. We do have sample swatches of our CKL™ leather available now. Call or E-Mail us for a free sample swatch. Kangaroo is the strongest leather in the world. Now that you can be assured of receiving full Chrome Tanned skins, you can be confident that your next leathering project will last for a lifetime or more.
May 20, 2003 – Osborne Arch Punches at 10% off list price! – We are now able to offer all arch punches and other Osborne Leather Working tools at 10% off of list price. If you know what you want, call us or order online. We will have our new Osborne pages online late this summer!
April 22, 2003 – New Products Added! – We are pleased to add two new types of Chrome Tanned Leather to our product line! Black Cowhide (CCLtm Black) – is now available in the two thicknesses for use as ribbing, on suction pump motors, swell shade engines, Modern Casavant Reservoir Gussets and anywhere a strong black leather is desired. Our second new product is the return of our CCLtm Gusset in White Cowhide. This leather is available at approximately .050″ and has a lovely white finish. It does have some stretch for forming gussets and is also excellent for use on large motors and swell shade engines. It has a bright white finish like our CPL Gusset and is sold in 1/2 hides. Please see our Leather Skins Page for more information.
March 28, 2003 – New Product Added! – We have had numerous requests from hobbyists and craftspeople to provide small pieces of leather for small projects. We are now offering both our traditional white and our new black CPL™ Pneumatic Leathers in 6″ x 12″ strips. These are available in all of the thicknesses that we offer and the details can be found on our Leather Skins Page.
January 13, 2003 – Contract Splitting Services Offered! – We have begun offering custom splitting services to other companies. Please see our Splitting & Buffing Services Page for more information. Our new band knife splitter along with our Spanish made Soft Roll Leather Buffing Machine have made these services possible.
November 19, 2002 – New Splitting Machine Arrives! – Several months ago we ordered a new, precision band knife leather splitter. The machine was built in Europe and shipped to the United States where we had it modified to split leathers as thin as .005″ or .125mm thick (that is about 1/4 ounce in leather tannery jargon). As far as we know, this is the only such leather splitter in the United States capable of splitting whole skins with an accuracy of approximately +/- .002″. This will soon allow us to provide most of our leather products in "made to order" thicknesses. If you have a need for a special type or thickness of leather that is not listed in our online products pages, contact us to see if we can make it for you.
September 3, 2002 – Width of Gummed Paper Changes – The company that makes our gummed paper has informed us they will no longer make the product in 36″ wide rolls. From this point on, our gummed paper will be available only in 30″ width. The price per linear foot remains the same.


A petition signed by 6,500 people against plans to close some of Stoke-on-Trent's children's centres has been handed in.
The city council has proposed closing seven of its 16 Sure Start centres as part of wider plans to save £33m.
The petition was handed in at the Civic Centre and received by Mohammed Pervez, the Labour council leader.
The authority has said it does not want to close the centres but has to make cuts.
The petition was handed in by about 30 people.
Campaigners were lobbying the last full council meeting before Christmas.
Melissa Beydilli, from the new Save our Children's Centres campaign, said: "People are devastated.
"I've had people crying on radio stations this morning, because they don't think they can cope if their children's centre is taken away."
Mr Pervez said: "We're listening loud and clear.
"Children's centres we knew were going to be very important to people and this is clear evidence that we were right.
"People are really genuinely concerned about losing children's centres and we have to take that on board now."
Final decisions will not be made until early next year.
Unions opposed to public sector job cuts and students against plans to raise tuition fees joined protests outside the Civic Centre.
The council is run by a coalition led by the Labour group.


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