text:
On the Connexion between the Completion of Electron Groups in an Atom with the Complex Structure of Spectra
W. PAULI
Z. Physik 31, 765ff (1925).
Especially in connexion with Millikan and Landé's observation that the alkali doublet can be represented by relativistic formulae and with results obtained in an earlier paper, it is suggested that this doublet and its anomalous Zeeman effect expresses a classically non-describable two-valuedness of the quantum theoretical properties of the optically active electron [Germ: Leuchtelektron], without any participation of the closed rare gas configuration of the atom core in the form of a core angular momentum or as the seat of the magneto-mechanical anomaly of the atom. We then attempt to pursue this point of view, taken as a temporary working hypothesis, as far as possible in its consequences also for atoms other than the alkali atoms, notwithstanding its difficulties from the point of view of principle. First of all it turns out that it is possible, in contrast to the usual ideas, to assign for the case of a strong external magnetic field, which is so strong that we can neglect the coupling between the atomic core and the optically active electrons, to those two systems, as far as the number of their stationary states, the values of their quantum numbers, and their magnetic energy is concerned, no other properties than those of the free atomic core of the optically active electron of the alkalis. On the basis of these results one is also led to a general classification of every electron in the atom by the principal quantum number n and two auxiliary quantum numbers k1 and k2 to which is added a further quantum number m1 in the presence of an external field. In conjunction with a recent paper by E. C. Stoner this classification leads to a general quantum theoretical formulation of the completion of electron groups in atoms.
1. The Permanence of Quantum Numbers (Principle of Gradual Construction [Germ: Aufbauprinzip]) in Complex Structures and the Zeeman Effect
In a previous paper1 it was emphasised that the usual ideas, according to which the inner, completed electron shells of an atom play an essential part in the complex structure of optical spectra and their anomalous Zeeman effect in the shape of core angular momenta and as the real seat of the magneto-mechanical anomaly, are subject to several serious difficulties. It seems therefore plausible to set against these ideas that especially the doublet structure of the alkali spectra and their anomalous Zeeman effect are caused by a classically undescribable two-valuedness of the quantum theoretical properties of the optically active electron. This idea is particularly based upon the results of Millikan and Landé that the optical doublets of the alkalis are similar to the relativity doublets in X-ray spectra and that their magnitude is determined by a relativistic formula.
If we now pursue this point of view, we shall assign -- as was done by Bohr and Coster for the X-ray spectra -- to the stationary states of the optically active electron involved in the emission of the alkali spectra two auxiliary quantum numbers k1 and k2 as well as the principal quantum number n. The first quantum number k1 (usually simply denoted by k) has the values 1, 2, 3, ... for the s, p, d, . . . terms and changes by unity in the allowed transition processes; it determines the magnitude of the central force interaction forces of the valence electron with the atom core. The second quantum number k2 is for the two terms of a doublet (e.g., p1 and p2) equal to k1 - 1 and k1, in the transition processes it changes by ±1 or 0 and determines the magnitude of the relativity correction (which is modified according to Landé to take into account the penetration of the optically active electron in the atom core). If we follow Sommerfeld to define the total angular momentum quantum number j of an atom in general as the maximum value of the quantum number m1 (usually simply denoted by m) which determines the component of the angular momentum along an external field, we must put j = k2 - 1 for the alkalis. The number of stationary states in a magnetic field for given k1 and k2 is 2j+ 1 = 2k2, and the number of these states for both doublet terms with given k1 is altogether 2(2k1 - 1).
If we now consider the case of strong field (Paschen-Back effect), we can introduce apart from k1 and the just mentioned quantum number m1, instead of k2 also a magnetic quantum number m2 which determines directly the energy of the atom in the magnetic field, that is, the component of the magnetic moment of the valence electron parallel to the field. For the two terms of the doublet it has, respectively, the values m1 + 1/2 [N.B one-half] and m1 - 1/2. Just as in the doublet structure of the alkali spectra the "anomaly of the relativity correction" is expressed (the magnitude of which is mainly determined by another quantum number, as is the magnitude of the central force interaction energy of the optically active electron and the atom core), so appears in the deviations of Zeeman structure from the normal Lorentz triplet the "magnetomechanical anomaly" which is similar to the other anomaly (the magnitude of the magnetic moment of the optically active electron is mainly determined by another quantum number, as is the angular momentum). Clearly, the appearance of half-odd-integral (effective) quantum numbers and the thereby formally caused value g = 2 of the splitting factor of the s-term of the alkalis is closely connected with the twofoldness of the energy level. We shall here, however, not attempt a more detailed theoretical analysis of this state of affairs and use the following considerations of the Zeeman effect of the alkalis as empirical data.
Without worrying about the difficulties encountered by our point of view, which we shall mention presently, we now try to extend this formal classification of the optically active electron by four quantum numbers n, k1, k2, m1 to atoms, more complex than the alkalis. It now turns out that we can retain completely on the basis of this classification the principle of permanence of quantum numbers (Aufbauprinzip) also for the complex structure of the spectra and the anomalous Zeeman effect in contrast to the usual ideas. This principle, due to Bohr, states that when a further electron is added to a -- possibly charged -- atom, the quantum numbers of the electrons which are already bound to the atom retain the same values as correspond to the appropriate state of the free atom core.
Let us first of all consider the alkaline earths. The spectrum consists in this case of a singlet and a triplet system. The quantum states with a well-defined value of the quantum number k1 of the optically active electron correspond then for the first system to altogether 1(2k1 - 1) and in the last system to 3(2k1 - 1) stationary states in an external magnetic field. Up to now this was interpreted as meaning that in strong fields the optically active electron in each case could take up 2k1 - 1 positions, while the atom core was able to take up in the first case one, and in the last case three positions. The number of these positions is clearly different from the number 2 of the positions of the free atom core (alkali-like s-term) in a field. Bohr2 called this state of affairs a "constraint" [Germ: Zwang] which is not analogous to the action of external fields of force. Now, however, we can simply interpret the total 4(2k1 - 1) states of the atom as meaning that the atom core always has two positions in a field, and the optically active electron as for the alkalis 2(2k1 - 1) states.
More generally, a branching rule formulated by Heisenberg and Landé3 states that a stationary state of the atom core with N states in a field leads through the addition of one more electron to two systems of terms, corresponding to altogether (N + 1)(2k1 - 1) and (N- 1)(2k1 - 1) states in a field, respectively, for a given value of the quantum number k1 of the last electron. According to our interpretation, the 2N(2k1 - 1) states of the complete atom in a strong field come about through N states of the atom core and 2(2k1 - 1) states of the optically active electron. In the present quantum theoretical classification of the electrons the term multiplicity required by the branching rule is simply a consequence of the "Auf bauprinzip". According to the ideas presented here Bohr's constraint expresses itself not in a violation of the permanence of quantum numbers when the series electron is coupled to the atom core, but only in the peculiar two-valuedness of the quantum theoretical properties of each electron in the stationary states of an atom.
We can, however, from this point of view use the "Aufbauprinzip" to calculate not only the number of stationary states, but also the energies in the case of strong fields (at least that part which is proportional to the field) additively from those of the free atom core and of the optically active electron, where the latter can be taken from the alkali spectra. Because, in this case, both the total component of the angular momentum of the atom along the field (in units [h-bar]) as well as the component of the magnetic moment of the atom in the same direction (in Bohr magnetons) are equal to the sum of the quantum numbers m1 and m2 of the single electrons:
= Sm1, = Sm2. (1)
The latter can independently run through all values corresponding to the values of the angular momentum quantum numbers k1 and k2 of the electrons in the stationary state of the atom considered. ( oh is here thus the part of the energy of the atom proportional to the field strength; o = Larmor frequency.)
Let us consider as an example the two s-terms (singlet- and triplet S-term) of the alkaline earths. To begin with it is sufficient to consider only the two valence electrons, as the contribution of the other electrons to the sums in (1) vanish when taken together. According to our general assumption we must for each of the two valence electrons take (independently of the other electron) the values m1 = - 1/2, m2 = -1 and m1 = 1/2, m2 = 1 of the s-terms of the alkalis. According to (1) we then get the following values for the quantum numbers and of the total atom:
= - 1/2 -1/2, - 1/2 +1/2, + 1/2 - 1/2, + 1/2 +1/2
= -1 -1, -1 +1, 1 -1, 1 +1,
= -1 0 1
= -2 0, 0 2
[Corresponding to one term with j = 0 and one with j = 1 in weak fields.]a To obtain the p-, d-, . . . terms of the alkaline earths, one must combine in (1) the unchanged contribution of the first valence electron (S-term) in an appropriate manner with the m1- and m1-values of the p-, d-, . . . terms of the alkalis for the second electron.
The rule (1) leads in general exactly to the procedure for calculating the energy values in strong field proposed recently by Landé4 which has been shown by this author to give correct results also in complicated cases. According to Landé this procedure leads, for instance, to the correct Zeeman terms of neon (at least in the case of strong fields) if one assumesb that in the atom core there is one active electron in a p-term (instead of in an s-term as above) and if one lets the optically active electron go through s-, p-, d-, f-, . . . terms.
This result now suggests that we characterise in general each electron in an atom not only by a principal quantum number n, but also by the two auxiliary quantum numbers k1 and k2, even when several equivalent electrons or completed electron groups are present. Moreover, we shall allow (also in the just-mentioned cases) in our thoughts such a strong magnetic field that we can assign to each electron, independently of the other electrons not only the quantum numbers n and k1, but also the two quantum numbers m1 and m2 (where the last one determines the contribution of the electron to the magnetic energy of the atom). The connexion between k2 and m2 for given k1 and m1 must be taken from the alkali spectra.
Before we apply in the next section this quantum theoretical classification of the electrons in an atom to the problem of the completion of the electron groups, we must discuss in more detail the difficulties encountered by the here-proposed ideas of the complex structure and the anomalous Zeeman effect and the limitations of the meaning of our ideas.
First of all, these ideas do not pay proper regard to the, in many respects independent, separate appearance of the different term systems (e.g., the singlet and the triplet systems of the alkaline earths), which also play a role in the position of the terms of these systems and in the Landé interval rule. Certainly, one cannot assume two different causes for the energy differences of the triplet levels of the alkaline earths, both the anomaly of the relativity correction of the optically active electron and the dependence of the interaction between the electron and the atom core on the relative orientation of these two systems.
A more serious difficulty, raising a matter of principle, is however the connexion of these ideas with the correspondence principle which is well known to be a necessary means to explain the selection rules for the quantum numbers k1, j, and m and the polarisation of the Zeeman components. It is, to be sure, not necessary according to this principle to assign in a definite stationary state to each electron an orbit uniquely determined in the sense of usual kinematics; however, it is necessary that the totality of the stationary states of an atom corresponds to a collection (class) of orbits with a definite type of periodicity properties. In our case, for instance, the above-mentioned selection and polarisation rules require according to the correspondence principle a kind of motion corresponding to a central force orbit on which is superposed a precession of the orbital plane around a definite axis of the atom to which is added in weak external magnetic fields also a precession around an axis through the nucleus in the direction of the field. The dynamic explanation of this kind of motion of the optically active electron, which was based upon the assumption of deviations of the forces between the atom core and the electron from central symmetry, seems to be incompatible with the possibility to represent the alkali doublet (and thus also the magnitude of the corresponding precession frequency) by relativistic formulae. The situation with respect to the kind of motion in the case of strong fields is similar.
The difficult problem thus arises how to interpret the appearance of the kind of motion of the optically active electron which is required by the correspondence principle independently of its special dynamic interpretation which has been accepted up to now but which can hardly be retained. There also seems to be a close connexion between this problem and the question of the magnitude of the term values of the Zeeman effect (especially of the alkali spectra).
As long as this problem remains unsolved, the ideas about the complex structure and the anomalous Zeeman effect suggested here can certainly not be considered to be a sufficient physical basis for the explanation of these phenomena, especially as they were in many respects better reproduced in the usually accepted point of view. It is not impossible that in the future one will succeed in merging these two points of view. In the present state of the problem it seemed of interest to us to pursue as far as possible also the first point of view to see what its consequences are. This is the sense in which one must consider our discussions in the next section of the application of the tentative point of view, presented here to the problem of the completion of electron groups in an atom, notwithstanding the objections which can be made against it. We shall here draw conclusions only about the number of possible stationary states of an atom when several equivalent electrons are present, but not about the position and relative order of the term values.
2. On a General Quantum Theoretical Rule for the Possibility of the Occurrence of Equivalent Electrons in an Atom
It is well known that the appearance of several equivalent electrons, that is, electrons which are fully equivalent both with respect to their quantum numbers and with respect to their binding energies, in an atom is possible only under special circumstances which are closely connected with the regularities of the complex structure of spectra. For instance, the ground state of the alkaline earths in which the two valence electrons are equivalent corresponds to a singlet S-term, while in those stationary states of the atom which belong to the triplet system the valence electrons are never bound equivalently, as the lowest triplet s-term has a principal quantum number exceeding that of the ground state by unity. Let us now as second example consider the neon spectrum. This consists of two groups of terms with different series limits, corresponding to different states of the atom core. The first group, belonging to the removal of an electron with the quantum numbers k1 = 2, k2 = 1 from the atom core can be considered to be composed of a singlet and a triplet system, while the second group, belonging to the removal of an electron with k1 = k2 = 2 from the atom core, can be said to be a triplet and quintet system. The ultraviolet resonance lines of neon have not yet been observed, but there can hardly be any doubt that the ground state of a Ne-atom must be considered to be a p-term as far as its combination with the known excited states of the atom is concerned; in accordance with the unique definiteness and the diamagnetic behaviour of the inert gas configuration there can be only one such term, namely with the value j = 0.c As the only p-terms with j = 0 are the (lowest) triplet terms of the two groups, we can thus conclude that for Ne for the value 2 of the principal quantum number only those two triplet terms exist and moreover are identical for both groups of terms.
In general we can thus expect that for those values of the quantum numbers n and k1 for which already some electrons are present in the atom, certain multiplet terms of spectra are absent or coincide. The question arises what quantum theoretical rules decide this behaviour of the terms.
As is already clear from the example of the neon spectrum, this question is closely connected with the problem of the completion of electron groups in an atom, which determines the lengths 2, 8, 18, 32, . . . of the periods in the periodic table of the elements, This completion consists in that an n-quantum electron group neither through emission or absorption of radiation nor through other external influences is able to accept more than 2n2 electrons.
It is well known that Bohr in his theory of the periodic table, which contains a unified summary of spectroscopic and chemical data and especially a quantum theoretical basis for the occurrence of chemically similar elements such as the platinum and iron metals and the rare earths in the later period of the table, has introduced a subdivision of these electron groups into subgroups. By characterising each electron in the stationary states of the atom by analogy with the stationary states of a central force motion by a symbol nk with k [less than or equal to] n, he obtained in general for an electron group with a value n of the principal quantum number n subgroups. In this way Bohr was led to the scheme of the structure of the inert gases given in Table 1. He has, however, emphasised himself5 that the equality, assumed here, of the number of electrons in the different subgroups of a maingroup is highly hypothetical and that for the time being no complete and satisfying theoretical explanation of the completion of the electron groups in the atom, and especially of the period lengths 2, 8, 18, 32, . . . in the periodic table could be given.
Table 1. Original Bohr Scheme of Inert Gas Configurations
Element Atomic
number Number of nk electrons
Helium 2 2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Neon 10 2 4 4 - - - - - - - - - - - -
Argon 18 2 4 4 4 4 - - - - - - - - - -
Krypton 36 2 4 4 6 6 6 4 4 - - - - - - -
Xenon 54 2 4 4 6 6 6 6 6 6 - 4 4 - - -
Emanation 86 2 4 4 6 6 6 8 8 8 8 6 6 6 4 4
Recently essential progress was made in the problem of the completion of the electron groups in an atom by the considerations of E. C. Stoner.6 This author suggests first of all a scheme for the atomic structure of the inert gases in which in contrast to Bohr no opening of a completed subgroup is allowed by letting other electrons of the same main group be added to it, so that the number of electrons in a closed subgroup depends only on the value of k, but not on the value of n, that is, on the existence of other subgroups in the same main group. This means already a large simplification which could, moreover, be supported by several experimental data. One must here assume for k = 1 two, for k = 2 six, for k = 3 ten, and in general for a given value of k 2(2k - 1) electrons in the closed state of the corresponding subgroup to remain in agreement with the empirically known numbers of electrons in the inert gases.
Stoner remarked further that these numbers of electrons agree with the number of the stationary states of the alkali atoms in an external field for the given value of k. He therefore pushes further the analogy with the stationary states of the alkali spectra by assuming a further subdivision of the subgroups, corresponding to the complex structure of these spectra (and of the X-ray spectra), which are characterised by the two numbers k1 and k2 where k1 is the same as Bohr's k, while we must put k2 = k1 - 1 or k2 = k1 (except for k1 = 1, where in accordance with the simple nature of the s-term, k2 = 1 only). Corresponding to the number 2k2 of the stationary states into which a stationary state of an alkali atom with given values of the quantum numbers k1 and k2 decomposes in an external field, Stoner assumes 2k2 electrons in a completed part-subgroup corresponding to the quantum numbers n, k1, k2. Table 2 gives the scheme of the atomic structure of the inert gases, to which Stoner was led in this way.
Table 2. Scheme of Inert Gas Configurations According to Stoner
11 21 22, (1+2) 31 32, (1+2) 33, (2+3) 41 42, (1+2) 43, (2+3) 44, (3+4) 51 52, (1+2) 53, (2+3) 61 62, (1+2)
Neon 10 2 2 2+4 - - - - - - - - - - - -
Argon 18 2 2 2+4 2 2+4 - - - - - - - - - -
Krypton 36 2 2 2+4 2 2+4 4+6 2 2+4 - - - - - - -
Xenon 54 2 2 2+4 2 2+4 4+6 2 2+4 4+6 - 2 2+4 - - -
Emanation 86 2 2 2+4 2 2+4 4+6 2 2+4 4+6 6+8 2 2+4 4+6 2 2+4
We can now make this idea of Stoner's more precise and more general, if we apply the ideas about the complex structure of the spectra and the anomalous Zeeman effect, discussed in the previous section, to the case where equivalent electrons are present in an atom. In that case we arrived, on the basis of an attempt to retain the permanence of quantum numbers, at a characterisation of each electron in an atom by both the principal quantum number n and the two auxiliary quantum numbers k1 and k2. In strong magnetic fields also an angular momentum quantum number m1 was added to this for each electron and, furthermore, one can use apart from k1 and m1 also a magnetic moment quantum number m2, instead of k2. First of all, we see that the use of the two quantum numbers k1 and k2 for each electron is in excellent agreement of Stoner's subdivision of Bohr's subgroup.d Secondly, by considering the case of strong magnetic fields we can reduce Stoner's result, that the number of electrons in a completed subgroup is the same as the number of the corresponding terms of the Zeeman effect of the alkali spectra, to the following more general rule about the occurrence of equivalent electrons in an atom:
There can never be two or more equivalent electrons in an atom for which in strong fields the values of all quantum numbers n, k1, k2, m1 (or, equivalently, n, k1, m1, m1) are the same. If an electron is present in the atom for which these quantum numbers (in an external field) have definite values, this state is "occupied".
We must bear in mind that the principal quantum number occurs in an essential way in this rule; of course, several (not equivalent) electrons may occur in an atom which have the same values of the quantum numbers k1, k2, m1, but have different values of the principal quantum number n.
We cannot give a further justification for this rule, but it seems to be a very plausible one. It refers, as mentioned, first of all to the case of strong fields. However, from thermodynamic arguments (invariance of statistic weights under adiabatic transformations of the system)e it follows that the number of stationary states of an atom must be the same in strong and weak fields for given values of the numbers k1 and k2 of the separate electrons and a value of = Sm1 (see (1)) for the whole atom. We can therefore also in the latter case make definite statements about the number of stationary states and the corresponding values of j (for a given number of equivalent electrons belonging to different values of k1 and k2). We can thus find the number of possibilities of realising various incomplete electron shells and give an unambiguous answer to the question posed at the beginning of this section about the absence or coincidence of certain multiplet terms in spectra for values of the principal quantum number for which several equivalent electrons are present in an atom. We can, however, only say something about the number of terms and the values of their quantum numbers, but not about their magnitude and about interval relations.
We must now show that the consequences of our rule agree with experiment in the simplest cases. We must wait and see whether it will also prove itself in comparison with experiment in more complicated cases or whether it will need modifications in that case; this will become clear when complicated spectra are sorted out.
First of all, we see that Stoner's result and with it the period lengths 2, 8, 18, 32, . . . are immediately included in a natural way in our rule. Clearly, for given k1 and k2 there cannot be more equivalent electrons in an atom than the appropriate value of m1, (that is, 2k2) and in the completed group there corresponds exactly one electron to each of these values of m1.
Secondly, it turns out that our rule has an immediate consequence that the triplet s-term with the same principal quantum number as the ground state is absent for the alkaline earths. If we investigate the possibilities for the equivalent binding of two electrons in s-terms (in that case we have thus k1 = 1 and k2 can also only have the value 1), according to our rule the cases are excluded in strong fields where both electrons have m1 = 1/2 or both have m1 = -1/2; rather, we can only have m1 = 1/2 for the first electron and m1 = -1/2 for the second electron, or the other way roundf so that the quantum number = Sm1 for the total atom can only have the value 0. Therefore also in weak fields (or when there is no field) only the value j = 0 is possible (singlet S-term).
We now investigate the case that one electron is removed from a closed shell, as will occur in X-ray spectra. Clearly when an electron is missing from one of Stoner's part-subgroups, the case is always possible that no electron is present with the value m1; we call this the "hole-value" of m1. The other electrons are then uniquely divided over the other values of m1 so that for each of those values we have one electron. The sum of these other values of m1 and thus the quantum number of the total atom is clearly in each case equal to the opposite of the hole-value of m1. If we let it go through all possible values and take into account that an electron can be removed from every part-subgroup, we see that in strong fields the multiplicity of the hole-values of m1 and thus also that of the values of is the same as that of the m1 value of a single electron. Due to the invariance of statistical weights it follows thus also for weak fields that the numbers of stationary states and of j-values of single ionised closed electron shells (X-ray spectra) are the same as in the alkali spectra, in accordance with experiment.
This is a special case of a general reciprocity law: For each arrangement of electrons there exists a conjugate arrangement in which the hole-values of m1 and the occupied values of m1 are interchanged. This interchange may refer to a single part-subgroup while the other part-subgroups are unchanged, or to a Bohr subgroup, or to the whole of a main group, since the different part-subgroups are completely independent of one another as far as possible arrangements are concerned. The electron numbers of the two conjugate arrangements add up to the number of electrons in the completed state of the group (or subgroup) considered, while the j-values of the two arrangements are the same. The latter follows from the fact that the sum of the hole-values of m1 of an arrangement always is the opposite of the sum of the occupied m1-values. Therefore, the quantum numbers of the whole atom are the opposite of one another for conjugate arrangements. As the j-values are defined as the upper limit of the set of -values, and as this set is symmetric around zero, it follows that the j-values are the same (compare the examples discussed below). Because of this periodicity law to some extent the relations at the end of a period of the periodic table reflect those at the beginning of a period. We must emphasise, however, that this for the time being refers only to the number of stationary states of the shell in question and the values of their quantum numbers, whereas we can say nothing about the magnitude of their energies or about interval relations.g
As an application of our rule we shall discuss now the special case of the gradual formation of the eight-shell (where of the principal quantum number considered no electrons with k = 2 are present in the ground state); this gives us at the same time another example of the just-derived reciprocity rule. The binding of the first two electrons in this shell has already been discussed and in what follows we shall assume for the sake of simplicity that no electron is missing from the k1 = 1 subgroup so that it is closed (compare Table 2 with Stoner's scheme). According to Stoner, for the following elements until the completion of the eight-shell (e.g., from B to Ne) the ground state will always be a p-term, in agreement with all experimental data up to now. Especially follows the alkali-like spectrum, corresponding to the binding of the third electron of the eight-shell, with the well-known absence of the s-term with the same principal quantum number as the ground state.
We can thus immediately go over to the binding of the fourth electron of the eight-shell, which appears in the not-yet analysed arc spectrum of carbon and the partially already unraffled arc spectrum of lead. According to the Landé-Heisenberg branching rule (see previous section) the corresponding spectrum should have in general the same structure as the neon spectrum, that is, consist of a singlet-triplet group and a triplet-quintet group with different series limits, corresponding to the 2p1- and the 2p2-doublet term of the ion considered. We shall show, however, that according to our rules these spectra must differ essentially, as far as the number and f-values of the p-terms of the maximum principal quantum number (n = 2 for C, n = 6 for Pb) is concerned, from the Ne-spectrum (where, as we mentioned at the beginning of this section, apart from the ground state with j = 0 no further p-term exists with principal quantum number 2); this is in contrast to the structure of the excited states which we expect to be similar.
We must distinguish three cases, according to the number of electrons in the two part-subgroups with k1 = 2, k2 = 1 and with k1 = 2, k2 = 2 over which we must distribute two electrons (we have already assumed that the first two electrons are bound in s-terms, k1 = k2 = 1).
(a) Two equivalent n21-electrons: Corresponding to the p1-term of the alkalis m1 can for this part-subgroup only take on the two values m1 = ± 1/2. It is thus closed in this case with = 0 and j = 0.
(b) One n21- and one n22-electron: For the second partsubgroup m1 can, corresponding to the p2-term of the alkalis take on the four values ± 1/2, ± 3/2 and these can be combined in all possible ways with the above-mentioned values m1 = +1/2 of the first electron, since the two electrons are in different part-subgroups and are thus not equivalent.h We have thus
= (-3/2, -1/2, 1/2, 3/2) + (-1/2, 1/2)
= ±(3/2 + 1/2), ±(3/2 - 1/2), ±(1/2 + 1/2), ±(1/2 - 1/2)
= ±2, ±1, ±1, 0, 0
From this we see immediately that the terms split in two series with [absolute value] [less than or equal to] 2 and with [less than or equal to] 1. In the field free case these correspond clearly to two terms: one with j = 2, and one with j = 1.
(c) Two equivalent n22-electrons: According to our rule the m1-values of the two electrons must be different and we find for the possible values of :
= ±(3/2 + 1/2), ±(3/2 - 1/2), (3/2 - 3/2), (1/2 - 1/2) = ±2, ±1, 0, 0.
If there is no magnetic field we find thus one term with j = 2 and one with j = 0.
Altogether we find thus for the four-shell five different p-terms with maximum principal quantum number, of which two have j = 2, one j = 1, and two j = 0.
We can say nothing about the energies or the interval relations of this group of terms. However, we can make definite statements about the Zeeman splittings of these terms to be expected.
By substituting the m2-values (taken from the Zeeman terms of the alkalis in strong fields) for the separate electrons corresponding to the given m1-values, we find from rule (1) the Zeeman splittings for the five p-terms of the four-shell in strong fields:
-2 -1 0 1 2
-3, -2 -2, -1, 0 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 1, 1, 2 2, 3
Using the same rule applied by Landé4 to higher-order multiplets, one obtains from this for the determination of the sum of the g-values for the two j = 2 terms (denoted by Sg2) and for the g-value for the j = 1 term (denoted by g1) the equations
2Sg2 = 2 + 3 = 5, Sg2 + g1 = 1 + 1 + 2 = 4,
Sg2 = 5/2, g1 = 3/2.
The earliest test of this theoretical result for the four-shell is possible for lead. Observations certainly show four p-terms, while the existence of a fifth p-term is doubtful.7 So far unpublished measurements by E. Back of a few lead lines make it, moreover, very likely that the first four p-terms have j-values 2, 2, 1, 0, and that the g-values of these terms also agree with the theoretically expected ones.
Let us now return to the discussion of the gradual construction of the eight-shell. By means of the reciprocity rule, applied to the whole of the Bohr subgroup with k = 2, which contains in its closed state six electrons, we can immediately apply the results obtained for the four-shell to the number of possibilities to realise the six-shell (from electrons with k1 = 2), which occurs, for instance, for O. The following cases of the six-shell are clearly conjugate to the cases (a), (b), and (c):
(a) Four equivalent n22-electrons (two empty spaces in the n21-group). This part-subgroup is closed; hence as before sub (a) one term with j = 0.
(b) One n21-, three equivalent n22-electrons (one empty space in the n21-, and one empty space in the n22- group). As before: one term with j = 2 and one term with j = 1.
(c) Two equivalent n21- and two equivalent n22-electrons (two empty spaces in the n22-group). The first partsubgroup is closed. As before: one term with j = 2, one term with j = 0.
We must thus also here, for instance for oxygen, expect five p-terms with the smallest principal quantum number. So far only three such terms have been observed for O and S, with j-values of 2, 1, 0.8 We must wait and see whether two more p-terms of the same principal quantum number can be found from the observations, or whether our rule must be modified in this case.
As yet there are no observations about the five-shell (3 electrons with k1 = 2) and we shall therefore give only the result of the discussion; according to our rule this shell gives rise to five p-terms, one term with j = 5/2, three terms with j = 3/2, and one term with j = 1/2. For the seven-shell, realised in x-ray spectra we get -- as we mentioned before -- terms similar to the alkalis.
We shall not discuss here further special cases, before experimental data are available, but it should be clear from the examples given that in each case our rule is able to give a unique answer to the question about the possibilities of realising the different shells for a given number of equivalent electrons. To be sure, only in the simplest cases was it possible to verify that the results obtained in this way are in agreement with experiment.
In general we may note that the discussions given here are in principle based, as far as the transition from strong to weak or vanishing fields is concerned, upon the invariance of the statistical weights of quantum states. However, on the basis of the results obtained there seem to be no reasons for a connexion between the problem of the completion of electron groups in an atom and the correspondence principle, as Bohr suspected to be the case, It is probably necessary to improve the basic principles of quantum theory before we can successfully discuss the problem of a better foundation of the general rules, suggested here, for the occurrence of equivalent electrons in an atom.
[N.B. A few footnotes have been omitted in this translation.]
a One notes that one must assign to the two cases m1 = -1/2 for the first and m2 = 1/2 for the second electron, or m1 = +1/2 for the first and m2 = -1/2 for the second electron two different terms (as far as the part of the energy independent of the field is concerned). This is perhaps a blemish of the classification given here. It will later on, however, turn out that if the inner and the outer valence electron are equivalent, these two terms are in fact identical.
b The replacement here of a seven-shell (atom core of neon) by one electron will be given a theoretical basis in the next section.
c As already indicated, the value of j is defined here and henceforth as the maximum value of the quantum number m1.
d It follows directly from Millikan and Landé's results about the relativistic doublets of the X-ray spectra that this subdivision and the question about the number of electrons in the part-subgroups also makes sense for completed electron groups. These numbers appear clearly in the expression for the energy of the whole groups as function of the order number in the shape of factors of the Moseley-Sommerfeld expressions involving definite values of the screening numbers (determined by k1) and the relativity correction (determined by k2).
e This invariance is independent of the validity of classical mechanics under the transformation.
f The second case corresponds to an interchange of the two equivalent electrons and gives us therefore here no new stationary state (compare the footnote lettered a). However, in this two-fold realisability of the quantum state considered is contained the fact that its statistical weight with respect to the exchangeability of the two electrons must be multiplied by two (compare also the discussion of statistical weights by Stoner)6.
g However, because of the equality of the number of m2-values for conjugate arrangements it follows that also in weak fields the "g-sums" (taken over terms with the same j) of the appropriate terms are the same.
h Because of this we must count the case m1 = +1/2 for the first and m1 = -1/2 for the second electron different from the case m1 = -1/2 for the first and m1 = +1/2 for the second electron. Compare the footnote lettered a.
1 W. Pauli, Z. Physik 31, 373 (1925).
2 N. Bohr, Ann. Physik 71, 228 (1923); especially p. 276.
3 W. Heisenberg and A. Landé, Z. Physik 25, 279 (1924).
4 A. Landé, Ann. Physik 76, 273 (1925); see especially section 2.
5 See N. Bohr, Drei Aufsätze über Spektren und Atombau, Brunswick, 1924.
6 E. C. Stoner, Phil. Mag. 48, 719 (1924).
7 V. Thorsen, Naturwiss. 11, 78 (1923); W. Grotrian, Z. Physik 18, 169 (1923).
8 J. J. Hopfield, Ap. J. 58, 114 (1924); O. Laporte, Naturwiss. 12, 598 (1924).


text:
Ekvatorialguinea är indelat i sju provinser (provincias). Provinserna är i sin tur indelade i trettio distrikt.

Se även
 ISO 3166-2:GQ, ISO 3166-2-koden för Ekvatorialguinea.

Referenser

Externa länkar
 Statoids

Ekvatorialguineas geografi
Administrativa indelningar av länder i Afrika

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text:
MARIO CAVAGLIERI
Rovigo 1887 - Peyloubère France 1969
Mario Cavaglieri was born in Rovigo, into a wealthy Jewish family whose native town was Venice. He initially studied law at Padua University but soon abandoned his studies for training as a painter and by the age of 20 he was already holding exhibitions of his work. In 1911 he went to Paris because he wanted to broaden his artistic knowledge and was very impressed with the colour themes of the Fauve artists. His use of colour increased in a very personal way. His main period of activity was between 1913 and 1920, and he was particularly active in portraiture. In 1925 Cavaglieri moved to France where he purchased the maison de Peyloubère in Pavie, only leaving for a period during the war when, as a Jew and an Italian, he felt a vulnerability which led him back to his roots and family. So he moved back to Italy, but his family was deported and forced to sell the house until his return to France in 1946. From then on Cavaglieri alternated between Paris and Pavie, holding onto the house until his death. His first retrospective was organized by the Musée des Augustins in Toulouse in 1974, whilst in 2007 his birthplace of Rovigo organized a major international retrospective at the Palazzo Roverella.
PORTRAIT OF YOUNG WOMAN WITH HAT

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text:
Reports and stories
Corona & Iraq
Home/Opinion/Post-ISIS Nineveh "Youth with Excellence"
Post-ISIS Nineveh "Youth with Excellence"
It is not true that the remarkable administrative changes currently taking place in Mosul are the result of the parliamentary fact-finding committee's report, as some are trying to promote this idea. This committee has submitted a long list of demands that are supposed to be populism for the presidency of the House of Representatives. But for political reasons, only a few of the long list were voted on. The decision was slender and did not affect much of the lives of citizens who are eager for change.
The reality of what happened in Mosul is a pure youth uprising against injustice and corruption. An uprising in many stages coincided with the start of the war of liberation from the control of Daesh in October 2016 culminating after the sinking of a ferry in the waters of the Tigris, which killed dozens of people, including mostly women and children. Hundreds of angry youths gathered at the scene of the incident and confronted the Governor of Mosul Nofal al-Akoub and his body guards who are well know for their recklessness and abuse of civilians. The young people of Mosul expressed their true feelings and met the governor face to face with their indignation, rejection and unchangeable desire for change. The people were not afraid of the governor's threat when he held the steering wheel of the car instead of his driver and drove across the youthful human barrier after having run through three of the people, this behavior of the governor proved categorically that he was not qualified to be a governor.
The young men continued their protest and turned over to President Barham Salih, who was in the place also. In turn, the President was holding a list of the people's demands as a message to the Iraqi government and the demand for their implementation quickly. At the top of those requests and demands was the referral of all the perpetrators of the sinking of the ferry and hold them accountable together with all the corrupt officials in Nineveh State institutions to the judiciary, also making reforms and modifications in all the administrative affairs of the province.
The youth of Mosul have strengthened their peaceful protest with a wide campaign through social media, and they have given it a title: "We will not be silent" It was only a few hours before the Prime Minister submitted a request to the Iraqi Council of Representatives to dismiss the governor. The issue was settled and the governor was dismissed from his post with a rare consensus. Then come the announcement of a formation of a crisis cell for the governorate administration. It included a civilian, Muzahim al-Khayyat, President of the Nineveh University and Chief of Reconstruction Committee, and the Commander of Ninevah Operations with Chief of Police. This was followed by the integrity and swiftly dozens of employees including senior staff in the Office of the province were brought to judiciary and the heads of a number of departments such as education, municipal and real estate registration were dismissed. This was followed by the exemption of the two deputy governors from their posts and a decision was issued to arrest the governor who became a fugitive in the Kurdistan region. This was followed by the arrest of officials responsible for the mismanagement of the tourist island that witnessed the ferry disaster that drowned hundreds of people.
In the meantime, the protesting youths were very conscious and issued a statement in which they declared that their protests should be stopped so that no party would exploit them politically or sabotage their demands. In particular that the claimant had reached the highest levels of the State and they have responded immediately. The protesting young people noted in their statement that they would simply press through social networking sites.
The young people confirmed that they benefited from the sit-ins and the popular protests that political parties in Ninewa held for themselves before 2014, this created a greater rift in the security wall and this vacuum of power was taken advantage of by ISIS organization who invaded Nineveh and spread corruption.
The youth continued to contribute to changing the reality of their province and placed themselves under the influence of the Crisis Cell and became a real help and support for it. And launched a large campaign called "We have started" which contributed to the mobilization of a large public to participate in the cleanup campaign on both sides of the city of Mosul and where many young people participated themselves in this campaign. The young people supported important decisions that is affecting the lives of the people on a daily basis, as some are expecting the reducing of the wages of electricity generators, and wages of doctors, and lifting roadblocks and other procedures.
These young people themselves organized or participated in a campaign to remove rubble at the University of Mosul and held a reading festival and even though the smoke of the Liberation war had not yet been removed from the right side of the city. And a series of cultural events and activities and a campaign to remove the rubble on the right side of Mosul. They set up meetings and a gallery of books and cafes that practiced community and cultural roles. Most importantly, there is a general view that Mosul will not go back. All of this resulted in a generation breaking the old barrier of apathy and indifference. Completely independent of any political current and saturated with belonging to Iraq and rejected all calls to move away from the center (Baghdad).
This youth movement is the first of its kind in Ninewa for decades. They point to a promising future that awaits this long-suffering province because of terrorism and government corruption. Young people have demonstrated the ability to take responsibility. Including reliable names representing the people of Nineveh in the Councils of Representatives and the province and the coming areas and assume administrative positions were previously these positions were exclusive to tribalism and the partisan opportunists.
A post-ISIS phase in Nineveh can best be described as a youthful phase with excellence, their slogan is peace and their goals is the building of a new society that can accommodate all the different components and national and sectarian affiliations. It seems that the steps are broad in this direction and all we have to do is be as positive as possible to achieve what we have been deprived of in our life in the past.
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There has been a massive seal of approval on the song contest. So many people laugh at me when I say I like it, for it is oft maligned and ridiculed, but no longer. Why? People will no doubt talk about the win being "back in the west" thanks to the new voting, but really if you look at the songs, the strong ones were those that went back to basics and realised that a song contest is about a song. Sure, flashy routines help, there's no doubt about that as Svetlana (Wild Dances) and Lordi (Hard Rock Hallelujah) prove, however the basic premise of a song contest is the song. With strong competition, a bouncy flashy routine to a lacklustre song will simply wither. Ask Greece. A couple of years ago Sakis might have won it. This year, the competition was just too strong.
But that's not the seal of approval. Not even the return of the violin in practically every song (including being played by the winner).
Oh no. The seal of approval is what the Russians put out. I said in my review that the contest wouldn't be better if the Americans had done it, but I'm now beginning to doubt that. I have a niggling feeling that the Russians have outdone everybody. Really, the whole thing, from the first semi final to the final, was awesome is scale, scope, size, technical ability... you sometimes see nifty camera routines (remember that one from the mid '90s where a camera rolled right around the performer vertically?), but this year was just full of difficult shots, fluid movements, no loumas passing through the shot or anything like that. As for the interval act and those plastic pools. It was mental, and jawdropping. Oh, and did I mention that astronauts aboard the ISS started the televote? I'm not 100% sure that was live, but never mind, that it even turned up was pretty amazing. Russia put in the sort of programming that one might expect if it was the Olympic opening ceremony. I'm not kidding. In a few years, when London hosts the 2012 games, I want you to watch the opening stuff. Then dig out your videotapes or DVD-R or whathaveyou and watch the 2009 Eurovision final. I bet you'll say ESC was better.
As I write this, I am transcoding some songs for my Zen. The ones I liked. Which is a fair few as the bar was raised this year. Numerous serious songs. I guess it went about as far downhill as it possibly could when a latex chicken was on-stage ridiculing the very contest it was taking part in. I recorded it on my PVR (which seemed to suffer numerous audio hiccups, I think so much was going on that the DSP couldn't cope), VHS tape, and for the grand final, also with my computer's capture card. If I could have run two satellite receivers in parallel with a portable generator (or a UPS), I'd have done that too. There's not enough overkill when you have a great contest to watch.
Yes, a great one, in italics and everything. I liked 2002. I loved 2009. I don't think we've seen anything like it in over half a century of Eurovision history, and I really don't think we'll see anything like it again (um, unless Russia wins it again?). It was simply incredible. Incredible also that Russia could afford to do this in the middle of a massive economic screwup that nearly derailed capitalistic society. I don't want to say "incredible" too many times, but it's nearly 3am and I'm not a walking thesaurus. So instead I will simply say: Russia, respect.
You can read my full review and commentary.


Cybersecurity is not just a topic for enterprises, businesses and government agencies. Home users are just as vulnerable to malicious cyberattacks. As October is National Cyber Security Awareness Month (NSCAM), it's important that home users are routinely educated about online safety. To help, we've compiled a list of our top seven cybersecurity tips that anybody can apply in their home.
Do use strong passwords. Password123 is not a good password. Neither is monkey. Or your cat's name. In fact, don't use any of these Top 100 Passwords.
Do not share your passwords.
Do use a password manager.
Do change default passwords. Many smart devices that connect to your network, such as baby monitors, printers or thermostats, may have default passwords.
When shopping on online marketplaces like eBay, be sure to check seller reviews and reputation level before deciding to buy a product. New accounts or accounts with comments accusing the seller of being a scammer or posting fraudulent listings should be red flags.
Avoid shopping while using public computers or public Wi-Fi.
Use a credit card or payment option with online fraud protection.
Phishing emails look like legitimate company emails and are designed to steal your information. They usually contain a link to a website that will ask for your login credentials, personal information or financial details. These websites are clever fakes designed to take your information and pass it back to the cybercrooks behind the scam.
The email contains grammatical or spelling errors.
The email asks for personal information.
The email contains urgent or threatening language.
If you think you have received a phishing email, do not click on any links or open any attachments. To be sure, log directly into your relevant account to check for updates or messages or contact the company directly through their website.
Take our Phishing Quiz to see if you are able to identify phishing emails.
Be sure to monitor your bank accounts and credit card statements for suspicious activity on a weekly basis. If you spot something unfamiliar or see transactions that you are not aware of, it could be a sign that you are compromised.
Report potential fraud to your bank as soon as possible by calling your bank directly and asking to be connected to the fraud department.
Do you have files on your computer that you care about? Maybe your photos from the last five years? An extensive music library? Copies of resumes, address books, course work or other documentation?
Do you have a backup of all of that data? You should.
Ransomware is a type of malware that infects your computer, locking files or restricting your access to the infected systems. Ransomware attacks attempt to extort money by displaying an alert to victims, typically demanding that a ransom be paid in order to restore access to your system or files.
It's not just businesses that are targeted by ransomware creators. In fact, home users are often an easier target as most have no data backups, a lack of awareness and little to no cyber security education.
It all happens in a matter of seconds. You've clicked a link in an email or downloaded a malicious document. In a few seconds, all their data will be encrypted and they'll have just a few days to pay hundreds of dollars to get it back. Unless you have a backup.
Don't store important data only on your PC.
Have one or two different backups of your data. Use an external hard drive or a cloud offering.
Keep your operating system, virus protection and software up to date, including the latest security updates.
Don't open attachments or click on links in suspicious emails. Even if you know the sender, if it doesn't feel right, delete it.
Consider using an ad-blocker to avoid the threat of malicious ads.
Stay safe on public Wi-Fi. In general, don't interact with websites that require your financial or personal details while you are using public Wi-Fi. Those activities are best kept on secure home networks.
Did you receive an email from your bank asking you to log in and provide your Social Security number or date of birth in order to resolve an issue on your account? Don't click it.
PayPal emailed you warning that your account was suspended temporarily and provided you a link to update your account details? Don't click it.
Yay! Someone sent you a gift card out of the blue! Just log in to redeem it! Don't click it.
There are a lot of scams out there. But you don't need to live in fear online as many of them follow a similar pattern and can be avoided with a few safe practices. In general, if someone is offering you something for free, you should approach with suspicion and caution. For your financial or commercial accounts, do not click on links in emails, instead go to the official website and log in directly to your account to check for updates.
And check out the FBI's list of Common Fraud Schemes.
Terri O'Leary currently leads SonicWall's E-Services group, comprising of self service, knowledge management, social media and community. Terri has over ten years of experience in building self service experiences that engage and delight customers. With a background in Cyberpsychology, she is dedicated to building platforms and creating content that facilitates useful and meaningful online interactions. She also has an Australian Shepherd puppy named Zero.


text:
F - 111 Aardvark
Read Online or Download F - 111 Aardvark PDF
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Extra info for F - 111 Aardvark
The aircraft's wingman saw only a flash on the VA-145 made its first Intruder deployment with CVW-9 in Enterprise in 1969. Here, a pair of 'Swordsmen' prepare for launch during work-ups in December 1968. BuNo 152604/NG 513 was lost with VA-52 on 28 March 1973 when the wing separated from the aircraft during a bombing run, killing both crew. BuNo 152626, which survived the war, is marked up as the commanding officer's aircraft. The tiny 'JR' to the right of the 'NG' tailcode was inspired by the CO's name, N Gooding Jnr (US Navy via Tailhook Association Collection) VA-85's fourth, and final, deployment to Vietnam was with CVW-14 and Constellation.
The Crusader pilot, Capt Larry Hubler, was killed. The following night another VMA(AW)-533 jet went down, this time while striking Hoi Lac airfield located about 20 miles northwest of Hanoi. Maj Jerry Marvel and Capt Larry Friese had flown at low level to the target, dodging SAMs and AAA en route, only to find that their computer would not allow a system delivery, so they performed a manual drop on the runway. They were hit (in BuNo 152644) by a SAM on egress, forcing both men to eject into captivity.
The 'Golden Intruders' were the west coast counterpart to VA-42, and they provided aircrew and maintenance training through to September 1995. Here, a division of their A-6As fly westbound over their home town of Oak Harbor, Washington, circa late 1967. The Naval Air Station's seaplane base, which operated SP-5B Marlins into the early 1960s, is located directly under NJ 801. The jet facility at Ault Field is located across the island about three miles away (US Navy) T H E O N LY WA R W E H AV E 'Boomer' A-6C NG 522 traps aboard America during the 1970 deployment, with a VAQ-132 EKA-3B sitting behind it.
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Batteries poised for organic revolution
(Nanowerk News) Incorporating organic materials into lithium ion batteries could lower their cost and make them more environmentally friendly, A*STAR researchers have found (Journal of Materials Chemistry A, "Hexaazatriphenylene derivatives/GO composites as organic cathodes for lithium ion batteries").
The team has developed an organic-based battery cathode that has significantly improved electrochemical performance compared to previous organic cathode materials. Crucially, the new material is also robust, remaining stable over thousands of battery charge/discharge cycles.
The cathode, the positive electrode in Li-ion batteries, is a critical component. An electron-deficient, rigid organic molecule called hexaazatrinaphthalene (HATN) was previously investigated as an organic cathode material for lithium ion batteries. However, its promising initial performance declined rapidly during use, because the molecule began to dissolve into the battery's liquid electrolyte.
A new cathode material, in which HATN was combined with graphene oxide in a bid to prevent the organic material from dissolving, has now been developed by Yugen Zhang and his colleagues from the A*STAR Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology.
Hydrogen bonds (blue) strongly attach the redox active organic molecule HATNTA (red) to a graphene oxide support (grey). (© The Royal Society of Chemistry)
In graphene oxide, a single-atom thick sheet of carbon atoms is partly covered by a layer of oxygen atoms. "Graphene oxide has excellent electronic conductivity, and surface oxygen functionality that may form hydrogen-bonding interactions with HATN," Zhang says. He explains that this made graphene oxide a promising candidate for forming a HATN-graphene oxide nanocomposite.
The nanocomposite's performance exceeded expectations. The materials combined to form core-shell nanorods in which the HATN was coated with graphene oxide. "Graphene oxide and HATN formed a very nice composite structure, which solved the dissolution issue of HATN in electrolyte and gave the cathode very good cycling stability," Zhang says. A lithium ion battery using this material as its cathode retained 80 per cent of its capacity after 2000 charge/discharge cycles.
The team saw even better performance when they combined graphene oxide with a HATN derivate called hexaazatrinaphthalene tricarboxylic acid (HATNTA). A battery made from this material retained 86 per cent of its capacity after 2,000 charge/discharge cycles. The improved performance is probably due to the polar carboxylic acid groups on the HATNTA molecule, which attached the molecule even more strongly to the graphene oxide.
The team is continuing to develop new materials to improve the performance of organic cathodes, Zhang says. Aside from investigating alternatives to graphene oxide, the team also is working on HATN-based porous polymers for use as organic cathode materials, which should enhance the flow of ions during battery charge and discharge.
Source: A*STAR


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Use 'If...Then' Statements To Reduce Back-And-Forth Emails
Emails can quickly pile up and be a distraction with their constant notifications — especially those short back-and-forth messages. Tim Ferris, author of The 4-Hour Work Week, says you should get into the habit of using "if...then" statements to reduce this kind of email clutter.
Such email ping-pong, as 99U puts it, can be distracting and more work than it deserves. The idea is actually simple, but it's about making it a habit:
Email communication should be streamlined to prevent needless back-and-forth. Thus, an email with "Can you meet at 4:00 pm?" would become "Can you meet at 4:00 pm? If not, please advise three other times that work for you."
Get into the habit of considering what "if … then" actions can be proposed in any email where you ask a question.
You are essentially anticipating problems and addressing them pre-emptively. In most cases, it's not hard to do. Consciously make an effort to do this and you'll be able to reduce your email clutter.
Avoid Playing Email Ping Pong With "If…Then" Statements [99U]


Application Note - Medical Device Inspection Archives - VISIONx, Inc.
With its patented CAD Auto-Align™ and CAD Auto-Pass/Fail™ tools, the system can inspect and measure parts completely automatically!
Because the system doesn't require any programming, it is especially well adapted for small lots & quick part changeover.
The system is not limited to the camera's field-of-view; It can compare a part to its CAD data across the entire stage travel. So even large parts can be checked at high magnification, with very fine resolution.
With its extended optical depth-of-field and Auto-Focus tool, the system is perfectly suited to deal with the challenges of orthopedic implant inspection.
Different types of adapted computer-controlled LED illumination are available to eliminate glare and make defects stand out. The system works extremely well on both metal & plastic parts!
VisionGauge® Digital Optical Comparators also work extremely well inspecting plastic parts!
The systems are also widely used in the inspection of forgings.
The VisionGauge® Digital Optical Comparator is the new standard for inspecting orthopedic implants in the medical industry.
VisionGauge® Digital Optical Comparators are the perfect solution for automatic bone screw inspection and measurement.
With its proprietary CAD Auto-Align™ and CAD Auto-Pass/Fail™ tools (Patents Pending), the system can check screws completely automatically, regardless of their orientation!
Thanks to the system's extended depth-of-field, the entire screw can be in focus even at the helix angle (no need to constantly refocus)!
With the optional rotary stage, you can automatically measure the helix angle, very accurately!
For bone screws inspection and measurement on the VisionGauge® Digital Optical Comparator, some manufacturers use horizontal configurations, while others use a vertical configuration. The decision to use one or the other is generally based on fixturing considerations. The hard chrome plated stage, made from hardened tooling steel, has industry standard dual dovetail grooves that make it compatible with existing mounting fixtures, and a drop-in replacement for traditional optical comparators. Rotary stages are also an option that can be added to these systems.


The Lovestruck Panda is our Pet of the Month for February 2019!
Adopt the Lovestruck Panda in February , and you'll get a loot bag full of surprises and a Pet of the Month prize you can't get anywhere else!!
And don't forget—you can get the virtual version of the Lovestruck Panda at the Ganz eStore!
I may buy this one it's so cute.
My snow machine doesn't make snow. Received it today for my Lovestruck panda. Help please.
This has been broken since Webkinz X was introduced. So about 4 years, now.
Does adopting a pet-of-the-month pet extend full membership for one year?
Yes, I'm sure it does.
The Love Struck Panda Pet of the Month plush can be bought at the Ganz eStore.
Yes, @leopardlover0001, for the second month in a row. Even if Ganz has decided not to make any new plush, I would just be happy if they re-released all of the old ones in plush form, as there are so many I still want and can't find (or afford!) on Amazon.
I'm so excited! I love the first of the month when I get that e-mail with the new code in it! I told my grandson about it and that I needed a good name for her and he said, "Amanda!" Why didn't I think about that????


text:
-----------------

# tsfresh

[![Documentation Status](https://readthedocs.org/projects/tsfresh/badge/?version=latest)](https://tsfresh.readthedocs.io/en/latest/?badge=latest)
[![Build Status](https://github.com/blue-yonder/tsfresh/workflows/Test%20Default%20Branch/badge.svg)](https://github.com/blue-yonder/tsfresh/actions)
[![codecov](https://codecov.io/gh/blue-yonder/tsfresh/branch/main/graph/badge.svg)](https://codecov.io/gh/blue-yonder/tsfresh)
[![license](https://img.shields.io/github/license/mashape/apistatus.svg)](https://github.com/blue-yonder/tsfresh/blob/main/LICENSE.txt)
[![py36 status](https://img.shields.io/badge/python3.6.10-supported-green.svg)](https://github.com/blue-yonder/tsfresh/issues/8)
[![Binder](https://mybinder.org/badge.svg)](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/blue-yonder/tsfresh/main?filepath=notebooks)
[![Downloads](https://pepy.tech/badge/tsfresh)](https://pepy.tech/project/tsfresh)

This repository contains the *TSFRESH* python package. The abbreviation stands for

*"Time Series Feature extraction based on scalable hypothesis tests"*.

The package provides systematic time-series feature extraction by combining established algorithms from statistics, time-series analysis, signal processing, and nonlinear dynamics with a robust feature selection algorithm. In this context, the term *time-series* is interpreted in the broadest possible sense, such that any types of sampled data or even event sequences can be characterised.

## Spend less time on feature engineering

Data Scientists often spend most of their time either cleaning data or building features.
While we cannot change the first thing, the second can be automated.
*TSFRESH* frees your time spent on building features by extracting them automatically.
Hence, you have more time to study the newest deep learning paper, read hacker news or build better models.

## Automatic extraction of 100s of features

*TSFRESH* automatically extracts 100s of features from time series.
Those features describe basic characteristics of the time series such as the number of peaks, the average or maximal value or more complex features such as the time reversal symmetry statistic.

![The features extracted from a exemplary time series](docs/images/introduction_ts_exa_features.png)

The set of features can then be used to construct statistical or machine learning models on the time series to be used for example in regression or
classification tasks.

## Forget irrelevant features

Time series often contain noise, redundancies or irrelevant information.
As a result most of the extracted features will not be useful for the machine learning task at hand.

To avoid extracting irrelevant features, the *TSFRESH* package has a built-in filtering procedure.
This filtering procedure evaluates the explaining power and importance of each characteristic for the regression or classification tasks at hand.

It is based on the well developed theory of hypothesis testing and uses a multiple test procedure.
As a result the filtering process mathematically controls the percentage of irrelevant extracted features.

The  *TSFRESH* package is described in the following open access paper:

* Christ, M., Braun, N., Neuffer, J., and Kempa-Liehr A.W. (2018).
   _Time Series FeatuRe Extraction on basis of Scalable Hypothesis tests (tsfresh -- A Python package)._
   Neurocomputing 307, p. 72-77, [doi: 10.1016/j.neucom.2018.03.067](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neucom.2018.03.067).

The FRESH algorithm is described in the following whitepaper:

* Christ, M., Kempa-Liehr, A.W., and Feindt, M. (2017).
    _Distributed and parallel time series feature extraction for industrial big data applications._
    ArXiv e-print 1610.07717,  [https://arxiv.org/abs/1610.07717](https://arxiv.org/abs/1610.07717).

Systematic time-series feature extraction even works for unsupervised problems:

* Teh, H.Y., Wang, K.I-K., Kempa-Liehr, A.W. (2021).
    _Expect the Unexpected: Unsupervised feature selection for automated sensor anomaly detection._
    IEEE Sensors Journal 15.16, p. 18033-18046, [doi: 10.1109/JSEN.2021.3084970](https://doi.org/10.1109/JSEN.2021.3084970).

Due to the fact that tsfresh basically provides time-series feature extraction for free, you can now concentrate on engineering new time-series,
like e.g. differences of signals from synchronous measurements, which provide even better time-series features:

* Kempa-Liehr, A.W., Oram, J., Wong, A., Finch, M., Besier, T. (2020).
    _Feature engineering workflow for activity recognition from synchronized inertial measurement units._
    In: Pattern Recognition. ACPR 2019. Ed. by M. Cree et al. Vol. 1180. Communications in Computer and Information Science (CCIS).
    Singapore: Springer, p. 223–231. [doi: 10.1007/978-981-15-3651-9_20](https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3651-9_20).

* Simmons, S., Jarvis, L., Dempsey, D., Kempa-Liehr, A.W. (2021).
    _Data Mining on Extremely Long Time-Series._
    In: 2021 International Conference on Data Mining Workshops (ICDMW). Ed. by B. Xue et al.
    Los Alamitos: IEEE, p. 1057-1066. [doi: 10.1109/ICDMW53433.2021.00137](https://doi.org/10.1109/ICDMW53433.2021.00137).

Systematic time-series features engineering allows to work with time-series samples of different lengths, because every time-series is projected
into a well-defined feature space. This approach allows the design of robust machine learning algorithms in applications with missing data.

* Kennedy, A., Gemma, N., Rattenbury, N., Kempa-Liehr, A.W. (2021).
    _Modelling the projected separation of microlensing events using systematic time-series feature engineering._
    Astronomy and Computing 35.100460, p. 1–14, [doi: 10.1016/j.ascom.2021.100460](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ascom.2021.100460)

Is your time-series classification problem imbalanced? There is a good chance that undersampling of time-series feature matrices
might solve your problem:

* Dempsey, D.E., Cronin, S.J., Mei, S., Kempa-Liehr, A.W. (2020).
    _Automatic precursor recognition and real-time forecasting of sudden explosive volcanic eruptions at Whakaari, New Zealand_.
    Nature Communications 11.3562, p. 1-8, [doi: 10.1038/s41467-020-17375-2](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-17375-2).

Natural language processing of written texts is an example of applying systematic time-series feature engineering to event sequences,
which is described in the following open access paper:

* Tang, Y., Blincoe, K., Kempa-Liehr, A.W. (2020).
    _Enriching Feature Engineering for Short Text Samples by Language Time Series Analysis._
    EPJ Data Science 9.26, p. 1–59. [doi: 10.1140/epjds/s13688-020-00244-9](https://doi.org/10.1140/epjds/s13688-020-00244-9)

## Advantages of tsfresh

*TSFRESH* has several selling points, for example

1. it is field tested
2. it is unit tested
3. the filtering process is statistically/mathematically correct
4. it has a comprehensive documentation
5. it is compatible with sklearn, pandas and numpy
6. it allows anyone to easily add their favorite features
7. it both runs on your local machine or even on a cluster

## Next steps

If you are interested in the technical workings, go to see our comprehensive Read-The-Docs documentation at [http://tsfresh.readthedocs.io](http://tsfresh.readthedocs.io).

The algorithm, especially the filtering part are also described in the paper mentioned above.

If you have some questions or feedback you can find the developers in the [gitter chatroom.](https://gitter.im/tsfresh/Lobby?utm_source=share-link&utm_medium=link&utm_campaign=share-link)

We appreciate any contributions, if you are interested in helping us to make *TSFRESH* the biggest archive of feature extraction methods in python, just head over to our [How-To-Contribute](http://tsfresh.readthedocs.io/en/latest/text/how_to_contribute.html) instructions.

If you want to try out `tsfresh` quickly or if you want to integrate it into your workflow, we also have a docker image available:

    docker pull nbraun/tsfresh

## Acknowledgements

The research and development of *TSFRESH* was funded in part by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research under grant number 01IS14004 (project iPRODICT).

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


Math on the Beach – Shape Analysis Workshop in Foxton Beach, New Zealand, 2013.
Math in the Mine – Shape Analysis Workshop in Tende, France, 2016.
Math in the Countryside – Shape Analysis Workshop in Skrunda, Latvia, 2017.
Proceedings of the workshop are available on arXiv.
Informal and short presentations: 1 flip chart (back & front) per person, no slides, 20 minutes.
Research questions are preferred to solved problems.
Plenty of time for collaboration.
This is a self-catering accommodation.
If you volunteer for being the chef for one of the dinners, please say so.
Breakfast and lunch will be kept simple.
Let us know of any dietary restrictions.
Dinner at Raimartihof (45 minutes walking, 100m altitude difference).
Klas Modin cannot join us this time, unfortunately, but together with Stephen Marsland he is sharing with us a problem challenge.
Try to be at the hut on Monday July 16 before noon. It might be nice to spend Sunday evening together in Freiburg.
Try not to leave the hut before Sunday July 22 at noon.


text:
Q: Regular Expression for string replace I have input string as below
("abc xyz" OR "def") AND (ghi OR jkl)  AND ("mno poe" OR stu)
i want it to replace with
(myfun("abc xyz") OR myfun("def")) AND (myfun(ghi) OR myfun(jkl))  AND (myfun("mno poe") OR myfun(stu))
i want that string with in double quotation mark or single word get replace with myfun(<string matched>)
can any body help me , how can i set this using regular expression ?
Thanks
Meghana

A: The following C# quoted expression matches quoted strings and words that are not AND or OR:
@"(""(?:[^\\""]+|\\.)*""|\b(?!(?:AND|OR)\b)\w+\b)"

Replace it with:
"myfun($1)"

If all upper case words are operators, you can use this expression instead:
@"(""(?:[^\\""]+|\\.)*""|\b(?![A-Z]+\b)\w+\b)"

Updated to meet OPs new requirements the expression would look like:
@"(?i)(""(?:[^\\""]+|\\.)*""|\b(?!(?:and|or|not|near)\b)\w+\b)"

Added (?i) to make it case insensitive and completed the list of operator tokens.

A: Replace
(".+?"|\b\w+?\b)(?<!(OR|AND))

with
myfun($1)

A:     [Test]
    public void Test2()
    {
        string input = "(\"abc xyz\" OR \"def\") AND (ghi OR jkl) AND (\"mno poe\" OR stu)";
        string expected = "(myfun(\"abc xyz\") OR myfun(\"def\")) AND (myfun(ghi) OR myfun(jkl)) AND (myfun(\"mno poe\") OR myfun(stu))";
        string actual = Regex.Replace(input, @"([\""\']).*?(\1)|\b(?!AND|OR)\w+\b", ReplaceWord);
        Assert.AreEqual(expected, actual);
    }

    private static string ReplaceWord(Match m)
    {
        return string.Format("myfun({0})", m.Value);
    }

A: List<string> reservedWords = new List<string>() { "AND","OR","NEAR","NOT" };
var rep = Regex.Replace(
            inputString,
            @"([\""][\w ]+[\""])|(\w+)",
            m=> reservedWords.Contains(m.Value) ? m.Value : "myfun(" + m.Value + ")"
          );

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Zumba is a Latin inspired dance fitness programme. The Latin and international music and dance movements create an addictive, dynamic, exciting, exhilarating and effective fitness system.
Zumba is designed for everyone. Non-dancers and dancers alike can easily master a Zumba class because previous dance experience is not necessary. The classes are enjoyable because of the party-like atmosphere and the fact that all participants can just 'go with the flow'.
Why not come and join the Zumba party? It's at blast! It's different! It's easy! It's effective!


text:
Tag Archives: Therapeutic attributes of Linalool
Linalool is seen in over 200 species of plants especially in the ones of the Botanical family, Lamiaceae, which includes scented herbs and mints. This is a very commonly seen terpene alcohol chemical which is present in spice plants that find many commercial applications.
They are also seen in Rutaceae plant family (citrus fruits), and the Lauraceae family (laurels, cinnamon, rosewood) families that are found in the tropical to boreal climate zones.
Linalool has also been found in some fungi and cannabis. They have a pleasant scent similar to a floral fragrance, with a touch of spiciness. Linalool also goes by other names such as β-linalool, p-linalool, linalyl alcohol, linalyl oxide, 3,7-dimethyl-1,6-octadien-3-ol, and allo-ocimenol.
Therapeutic attributes of Linalool:
Anti-inflammatory:
Linalool is seen to reduce inflammation. It is one of the major constituent seen in most essential oils, and exhibits the properties and characteristics of an anti-inflammatory agent.
A 2002 from the Journal of Phytomedicine suggests "The results obtained indicate that linalool and the corresponding acetate play a major role in the anti-inflammatory activity displayed by the essential oils containing them, and provide further evidence suggesting that linalool and linalyl acetate-producing species are potentially anti-inflammatory agents." This seems to indicate that it would be acting to decrease the inflammation.
Anti-epileptic:
Linalool is seen to reduce seizures and convulsions. The study on Anticonvulsant activity of the linalool of 2010 concludes that linalool was efficient in the prevention of tonic convulsions provoked by transcorneal electroshock in the experimented animals and linalool was proved to be very powerful than phenytoin in its anticonvulsant quality.
Sedative and anxiolytic:
It helps promotes sleep. A study in 2008 was unsuccessful in proving the anxiolytic effects of linalool. Instead, it provided strong support for evidence of its sedative qualities.
It suggests that linalool an extract of lavender has been known for its sedating and its calming effects and it's interaction with the GABA receptor. The study raised desire to further investigate the chemical to identify its role as an anesthetic in future.
Analgesic:
According to a study in 2002, Linalool helps relieve pain. It first proved to be an anti-inflammatory and in 2003 it proved to be an analgesic as well. The study claimed that being a monoterpene compound, Linalool is a major constituent in various essential oils that are extracted from sweet-smelling plant species.
Most of which are employed in different complementary and alternative medicinal practices, especially for its analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties.
"The more pronounced effect of (-)-linalool on the writhing test with respect to the hot plate test is consistent with the observation that (-)-linalool possesses anti-inflammatory activity."
Besides these, Linalool is also found to be an antidepressant, antipsychotic, and anxiolytic.
Other uses of Linalool:
Linalool is also used as a chemical intermediate and has found its usage as a scent in 60–80% of perfumed hygiene products and cleaning agents including detergents, soaps, shampoos, and lotions. Linalool is used by pest professionals as an insecticide against fleas, fruit flies and cockroaches.
It is also used as a mosquito-repellent in certain products, but the EPA notes that "a preliminary screen of labels for products containing linalool indicates that efficacy data on file with the Agency may not support certain claims to repel mosquitoes."
Linalool by Wikipedia
Linalool by leaf online
Investigation of the Anxiolytic effects of Linalool, a Lavender extract, in the Male Sprague-Dawley Rat, published in the AANA (American Association of Nurse Anesthetists) Journal.
(-)-Linalool produces antinociception in two experimental models of pain, published in PubMed
Posted in Ayurvedic Essential Oils | Tagged general uses of Linalool, health benefits of linalool, Linalool, Linalool therapeutic uses, Therapeutic attributes of Linalool


Olympus registered a camera for Bluetooth certification and it's Name is Olympus E-PL 9. In past Olympus registered a product for Wi-Fi certification, and its code-name was IM008. We have suspected that it maybe Olympus em5 Mark II.
But now confirmation and leak suggest that IM008 camera was actually Olympus E-PL 9.


text:
Home › Joan Carroll Cruz › The Incorruptibles
The Incorruptibles
Author: Joan Carroll Cruz
Publisher: TAN Books
$ 16.95 $ 15.95 $ 15.95
Save $ 1 (5%)
Availability: Temporarily Out of Stock
The Incorruptibles is an invaluable and authoritative resource from the world-renowned author on a unique phenomenon unseen in the modern world. The book offers a comprehensive look at mummification, both natural and artificial, which can't explain the incorruption of saints' bodies that have existed uninterrupted for centuries.
The Incorruptibles details 102 canonized Saints, blessed, and venerables throughout history who have experienced this physical state beyond science. This great life-changing phenomenon transcends all boundaries and opens us up to an entirely new realm of possibilities. Readers will be given crucial insight into these miraculous occurrences that accompany many of these figures as they not only bring comfort but also serve as an extraordinary reminder of God's power through their indisputable victories over death.
Take this precious opportunity to explore the steeped history and countless accounts from those who continue to inspire us through their exemplary courage and unwavering faith even in the face of certain death. Join the generations before us in exploring the enigmatic mysteries surrounding "The Incorruptibles" with this invaluable resource offering comfort and consolation as we remember Christ's undeclinable victory over death every day.
Joan Carroll Cruz:
Joan Carroll Cruz was a native of New Orleans and was the educational product of the School Sisters of Notre Dame. She attended grade school, high school and college under their tutelage. Mrs. Cruz was a tertiary in the Discalced Carmelite Secular Order (Third Order) since 1968; for eight years she served as Mistress of Formation (Novice Mistress). For her non-fiction books, Joan Carroll Cruz depended heavily on information received from foreign shrines, churches, convents and monasteries.