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Social Theory in Context: Relational Humanism
Draft copy for J. Greenwood (Ed.) (1997) The mark of the social. New York: Rowman and Littlefield. Social Theory in Context: Relational Humanism Kenn...
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Draft copy for J. Greenwood (Ed.) (1997) The mark of the social. New York: Rowman and Littlefield.
Social Theory in Context: Relational Humanism Kenneth J. Gergen What is the "the mark of the social" in contemporary theory? Or more generally, how are we to regard the demarcation of a phenomenon or a domain of scholarly inquiry? If we remain within the long honored and companionate discourses of the Enlightenment and "the scientific world view," the answers are readily forthcoming. In comprehending the world in which we live, in submitting it to rational analysis and empirical scrutiny, ontological clarity is imperative. We must carefully delineate among entities, or else thinking becomes clouded and research may become irrelevant. Clarity in such matters is also important for purposes of professional efficacy. With domains of study carefully delineated, the goals of the various professions are legitimated, we avoid redundancy of effort, and we encourage scholarship in depth. In the present context, to distinguish the social from the psychological, the interpersonal from the societal, the relational from the autonomous, then, is to lay the foundations for productive and complementary disciplines of inquiry. Yet, as scholarship has accelerated exponentially within the present century, we have also become fitfully aware of the limitations of this "rage to order." As various enclaves lay claim to territories of the real, so do they insulate themselves from the dialogues of neighboring (and typically "less important") domains. When experts from otherwise alienated encampments do attempt collaboration, their models are often ill-fitting: hypothesis testing in one domain conflicts with multi-variate modeling in another; the organismic metaphors favored by one clash with the mechanistic metaphors of the other; nativist explanations collide with environmentalist; and so on. Further, each circumscribed basis of explanation appears capable of infinite expansion, ultimately absorbing all human action in its propositional corpus (for example, tracing all action to cognitive schemata, biogenetics, micro-social process, etc.). All contending forms of explanation are reduced to the single frame and alterior argots dismissed as irrelevant or obfuscating. Finally, we have witnessed in the past decade a mushrooming of hybrid areas of scholarship Black studies, women's studies, environmental studies, cultural studies, queer studies, and more. Here and elsewhere we find a generalized restlessness with the traditional disciplinary boundaries. Urban sociology begins to converge with anthropology, social psychology with social linguistics, psychology with evolutionary biology, cultural anthropology with literary analysis, and so on. In all these adventures, demarcation on either phenomenal or explanatory grounds is obstructive. We gain most, it is argued, when "language goes on holiday." More importantly, various intellectual movements of the past thirty years raise
serious question with attempts to delineate domains of study. Quine's Word and Object raised early doubt in the possibility of tying a descriptive language unequivocally to an array of observables, and Saussurian semiotics had demonstrated the fundamentally arbitrary relationship between language and referent. Developments in both the history of science and the sociology of knowledge place in jeopardy all demarcations based on characteristics of "phenomena in themselves." As widely demonstrated, ontological commitments and their instantiations are byproducts of communal interchange; the world as it is makes no obvious demands on our forms of theorizing. With referentially based meaning thus replaced by a communal (cultural, historical) account, the particularly political and ideological components of demarcation are drawn into focus. To demand a particular arrangement of discourse, and a related domain of practices, can be seen as authoritarian, self-serving, and oppressive to all who fail to acquiesce. Developments in literary deconstruction theory lend further credibility to this view. For Derrida and others, the meaning of any utterance is not self-standing, but dependent on a vast history of language use in which this utterance is embedded. To treat the meaning of a word as transparent and trans-contextual is to deny its history, to suppress its broad web of interdependencies, and prevent its potentials for creative and variegated usage. It is against this backdrop that I wish in the present exercise to move more dialogically. I do not wish to argue against drawing any distinctions; but rather, against distinctions removed from historical and cultural context. Drawing from the above analysis, to remove distinctions threatens the destruction of community. The challenge, then, is to place distinctions into the context of ongoing interchange. Rather than determining in the abstract and in advance what constitutes the "mark of the social," my attempt here will be to enter a longstanding dialogue of broad significance, and to introduce a particular conception of the social that may press that conversation forward in interesting and potentially significant ways. The impetus then is not toward Apollonian purity, an ultimately satisfying point of respite, but a Dionysian brawl in which a catalytic clash of discourses may yield unanticipated moves in meaning. The experiment is one in which I wish to enter a specific dialogue of longstanding, introduce adversarially a preliminary and necessarily ambiguous conception of the social, and in pressing the dialogue forward move toward a richer and more pragmatically useful conception. The more elaborated view will attain its meaning within, and because of, its placement within this specific context. Social Construction in the Humanist Tradition In the halcyon years of French existentialist thought, a broad stirring developed among many French humanist thinkers. Existentialist theory did seem to embody much that was essential to the humanist. The pivotal commitment of existentialist theory was to individual agency; the theory was preeminently a celebration of human subjectivity and freedom. Yet, existentialist thought also seemed to lack a very special ingredient, any sense of moral or ethical direction. Too often, it seemed, existentialists sacrificed ethical sensibility for the "gratuitous act" - the spontaneous
burst of unencumbered action. In doing so the existential hero denied the significance of history, culture, and community - any commitment to the good of others. Sartre's little volume, Existentialism and Humanism, served as a reply to his critics, and in this volume the attempt was made to show that existentialist theory did indeed lay the groundwork for moral concern. Sartre's particular arguments were scarcely convincing. As he proposed, we are essentially responsible for our actions. But in our choices for ourselves, we "choose for all men (sic)." (p.29) We do this because we always chose what we feel is valuable, estimable, or better, "and nothing can be better for us unless it is better for all."(p. 29) Why one person's good should speak for all, what we are to do with competing goods, and how such a position can speak to any of the abiding evils of society are left unanswered. These problems not withstanding, the present offering echoes Sartre's concern with reconciling a thesis that ostensibly flies in the face of the humanist concerns with certain aims of the humanist tradition. Specifically I shall argue, as we move toward a theoretical imaginary in which the social precedes the personal, so do we undermine major tenets of the humanist intelligibility. Because many humanist ideals are deeply woven into the fabric of western tradition, and the erosion of these ideals would constitute a major loss, the "shift to the social" must be viewed with circumspection. I shall carry out this analysis from the standpoint of what may be viewed as a radical social constructionism. I am here taking constructionist texts to include all recent sources treating the manner in which language is used by persons to generate intelligibility, and the repercussions of such intelligibilities for the human condition thus including within the dialogue a substantial range of writing in the sociology of knowledge, the history of science, discourse analysis, critical theory, feminist theory, semiotics, literary theory, rhetorical analysis, communication theory, hermeneutic theory, and postmodern political theory and philosophy. These dialogues scarcely yield a univocal account of social construction; there are numerous tensions among grounding assumptions. Many contributors continue to hold fast to various forms of psychological functioning (e.g. intending, thinking, experiencing); others wish to maintain a materialist metaphysics; and still others presume the existence of macro-social institutions. A radical social construction places all these presumptions in brackets. Avoiding the objectification implied in these accounts, terms of psychology, materialism, and macro-sociology (among others) are taken to be integers within discursive practices. They owe their intelligibility to relational process, that is, forms of coordination among two or more persons. Linguistic meaning is born, then, not within the minds of single individuals, but from coordinated action - or "joint-action" in Shotter's (1993) terms. One may speak, but the meaning of the utterance is deferred until granted (temporarily) through another's mode or relationship to the utterance, the meaning of which is open to further supplementation by the speaker, and so on. In effect, from the process of coordinated actions the full array of intelligible utterances is generated, including the account of constructionism itself. The precise meaning of relatedness, then, remains
indeterminate, and dependent upon further coordinations within relationship. We cannot, then, locate relationship within language, but can through continued dialogue generate the sense of the palpable. In many respects, as constructionist dialogues have developed, grown strong, and concatenated across the humanities and social sciences they seemed for a time to be a valuable friend to the humanist. In its critique of the behavioral science rage to reduce human action to scale points, biological urges, response potentials, mental mechanisms and the host of other scrofulous metaphors with which the profession has attempted to colonize humanity, constructionist writings added a powerful new arsenal of weapons. In this sense constructionist thought played a parallel role to existentialism of earlier decades, significantly strengthening the humanist voice in the social sciences. Yet, as the dialogue has unfolded, humanist thinkers have begun to find much at fault in the constructionist expansion. On closer inspection, many conceptions and values central to the humanist tradition, seem to be abandoned or destroyed by constructionist thought. In its rampant relativism, it is said, constructionist theory lacks moral or ethical commitment; it offers no reason for rejecting the most vile and inhumane actions. Its "anything goes" mentality seems morally bankrupt, even repulsive. In the present offering my attempt is, first to examine the critical implications of a fully extended constructionism for the humanist tradition, and second to explore the potentials of such thought for engendering humane forms of cultural life. These challenges, in tandem, should succeed in extending the meaning and implications of a particular mode of defining and explaining the social. In the first instance, I will argue that humanists have generally underestimated the critical implications of constructionism for their project. "Rampant relativism" is only the beginning of what might be viewed as a wholesale slide into humanist despair. However, as I shall then endeavor to argue, one may locate within the bosom of constructionist writing an alternative horizon of understanding. And if we play out the potentials of this conception of the social, we confront the possibility of redrawing the face of humanism. We locate in a specifically relational humanism a new and significant means of realizing traditional visions of human well-being. Further, it is within this elaboration that we acquire a richer elaboration of a uniquely social account of human action. Social Constructionism: a Humanist Damage Report As a general surmise, it is my view that the forms of argument deriving from constructionist dialogues - fully extended - are fully lethal in their potential. That is, they have the capability of undermining, dissolving, or rendering suspicious - even meaningless - any form of advocacy, declaration, authority, or protest - including their own. The forms of argument developed within constructionist spheres taken together, are little short of "doomsday weapons" in the evolving generation of human meaning. If allowed full expression, there simply is nothing left to say - or do. For present purposes, I simply wish to play out some of the potentials of these dialogues,
as they apply in this case to pivotal assumptions in the humanist tradition. I will not attribute responsibility for any of these critiques to any particular individual (which itself would be problematic in light of constructionist arguments), but will simply allow the criticisms unadulterated expression relevant to several pivotal assumptions in the humanist tradition. Subjective Experience: In the humanist view individual, subjective experience is of paramount value. One's conscious experience, it is held, is indeed inseparable from one's identity as a human being. (The value of an accident victim who will never recover consciousness, but whose life can be sustained by machines, rapidly becomes marginal.) To prize the subjectivity of each individual is thus to render the project of humanity viable. But, asks the constructionist critic, what is the warrant for the preeminent presumption of private experience, a state of inner experience as against an outer reality, a psychological as opposed to a material reality? This subject-object binary cannot be substantiated by virtue of "what there is;" there are no viable philosophical justifications for the distinction. Is this metaphysical commitment not, then, a byproduct of a uniquely situated cultural history? Are there not myriad other ways of conceptualizing human consciousness? And indeed, are there not multiple characterizations of human action extant in the world that make no mention of human consciousness? And if the concept of human subjectivity is thus optional, a cultural construction of our own making, then what is to be said in support of its collective objectification? Is the concept not a justificatory device for a tradition of selfcontained individualism, in which the state of my subjectivity gains paramount importance, and in which narcissism becomes a cultural pastime? Human Agency: The concept of human agency is a close companion to that of individual subjectivity. It is within the realm of individual consciousness that responsible deliberation and choice take place. It is deliberative choice that gives consciousness its distinctive character. However, the presumption of human agency adds important dimension to the traditional humanist project, inasmuch as it places the origins of action, and thus of the good society, within the individual. Because of human agency we may chose the welfare of others, and we may desist in patterns of conduct inimical to them. However, again the pariah of constructionist criticism enters from the wings. In this case ample preparation had been made in other intellectual quarters. Already the presumption of agency had been badly damaged by 20th century science, arguing as it had that individual action is best understood in terms of its antecedent conditions, and that the concept of agency is an unfortunate and mystifying holdover from an obfuscating, medieval metaphysics. However, constructionist arguments add still further laminations of doubt. The concept of agency begins to lose gravity in our preceding deconstruction of consciousness. So fully conflated are the concepts of consciousness and agency that to dispense with one is virtually to abandon the other. (It is scarcely intelligible to say, for example, that personal agency is beyond conscious control.) Further, the constructionist questions, why should we presume that there is an originary source (a crypto-speaker or Doppelganger) lying somewhere behind and pulling the strings of
public action? Not only are there no compelling grounds for such a presumption, but to make arguments of this form is to create a double problematic - not only that of explaining the public actions themselves, but additionally, that which presumably lies beneath. This would be akin to presuming a god who directs the motions of the clouds or the eruptions of volcanoes. The presumption generates a double concern with both the natural conditions of the weather, and again, with the sentiments of the supernatural being. Must we, however, gain access to these exotic sentiments in order to predict the weather. And, the critic continues, in what sense is free and unfettered deliberation ever possible? How can I make a moral decision that is truly my own - beyond the influence of others? If I took away all the cultural language - a language of justice, moral worth, equality, and the like - on what grounds could I deliberate? If we empty the individual of culture, leaving him/her completely free to chose, would we not find ourselves with an empty vessel - unable even to conceptualize what it is to have a choice? Individual Liberty: For many humanists the concept of liberty serves as the critical component of the tradition. We must, it is extolled, value the liberty of each and every individual - endowed as we are with unique subjectivities and the capacity for free and responsible action. Oppression in any form is to deny the individual expression of his or her fundamental humanity. It is such thinking that is foundational as well to the view of inalienable human rights, universal rights of free individual action - without interference or control of others. However, with subjective experience now impugned by constructionist arguments, as well the related concept of individual agency, how are we to rationalize the concept of liberty? If conscious deliberation proves to be a cultural construction, along with the presumption of human agency, have we not undermined the concept of liberty and the associated commitment to fundamental rights of man? And, suggest many feminists, careful note should be taken of the convenient phrase, "rights of man." For has the valorization of liberty not primarily been of androcentric origin? And does it not lend justification to male liberty, in particular, which is to say, freedom from commitment, from family, from community, indeed all forms of interdependence? Of course, it may be countered, we need not view the concept of liberty as foundational; we can take a more instrumental approach in which the term and its cognates ("rights" "freedom," "justice") are essentially used to condemn oppressive conditions in society. Liberty, in this case, serves both as a term of moral evaluation and as well a battle cry of emancipation. This is certainly a reasonable rejoinder, and many would consider the gains of various activist groups (e.g.women, blacks, gays) as supportive evidence. However, this view scarcely suffices. For in a world of pluralistic moralities, oppressions can be claimed from multiple standpoints, and one group's emancipation is another's enslavement. Here we should keep in mind the incremental increase over the past decade in "claims to rights." So pervasive and vituperative are such claims that suspicious if not calloused columnists now speak of
the "rights babble." Clearly, liberty as a form of rhetoric is insufficient. Moral responsibility: As intimated above, the concepts of subjectivity and agency form close companions to the presumption of moral responsibility. While the individual is fundamentally free to chose, such choice is accompanied by a responsibility for action that will not injure or unjustifiably constrain others. Each individual may thus be held responsible for his/her actions, and may be penalized or rewarded by dint of his/her conduct toward others. The ethical or humane society thus rests on the moral responsibility of the individuals composing that society. Yet, as we have explored the problematics of consciousness, individual agency, and liberty, we also find the justification for moral responsibility rapidly dissolving. How indeed is one to be responsible to oneself, when there is no private, unaculturated self to offer guidance? How could the morally advanced individual generate a set of personal moral principles, except from the repository of cultural intelligibilities at his/her disposal? And, in matters of moral deliberation,if one does hearken to the cultural installation within, then which of the voices should be favored? For are we not all, in a Bakhtinian sense, akin to polyphonic novels, speaking in multiple voices, reflecting multiple traditions? If we inherit a pluralism of moral intelligibilities, on what grounds could we select among them - save from the standpoint of yet another inherited intelligibility? And, finally, if moral deliberation is inherently cultural, then in what sense are we justified in holding individuals responsible for the the humane society? Isn't individual blame thus a mystification of our condition of interdependence? I shall return to this issue shortly. From Individual to Relational Humanism These accumulated arguments - all common within constructionist dialogues more generally considered - erode the very foundations of traditional humanism, grounding assumptions on which many have placed our hopes for encouraging a moral, humane and solidary society. Further, there are no easy counters to such arguments - other than an ostrich-headed antipathy - inasmuch as the rebuttals stand as well to be undone on grounds of their ideological, rhetorical and constructed character. And, should we succumb to the powers of deconstructive arguments, and turn them reflexively on themselves - essentially deconstructing the deconstruction - then we simply have no room for further conversation. All dialogue terminates. But we need not conclude the present discussion in this dolorous condition. Indeed, the sense of nihilism is warranted only from within the humanist tradition itself. If for the nonce we can bracket the humanistic perspective, that is, consider it one possible account among many, we may then inquire into 1) the potential of humanist thought to engender the humane and solidary society, and 2) the positive potentials inherent in radical constructionism. In the initial case, it is not at all clear that the humanist legacy can deliver as hoped. Surely there is little evidence that beliefs in individual agency, freedom, and moral deliberation - central to the western tradition from at least the Enlightenment to the present - have contributed to the humane treatment of human beings. Massive
obliteration of peoples in western culture has not diminished markedly since the 17th century - that epoch often identified with the origins of humanist thought. Further, as we move rapidly toward conditions of a global village, it is not clear that humanistic assumptions can help us to grapple with alterity - others who are not like us in their values and beliefs. Not only does humanism eschew contrary metaphysics (e.g. materialism, constructionism), but it favors a conception of the individual as fundamentally isolated, alone within his/her subjective experience, ideally generating his/her own decisions without the intrusive influence of mere social opinion. The very best that might be hoped from such a perspective is that the coming world condition would allow for peaceful coexistence - each individual, and each cultural enclave simply persisting in its own self-determined way - independent of the others. However, world conditions no longer allow us to live in such independence; we now recognize our common existence on a ship that shows every possibility of sinking. Under such conditions, to celebrate the preeminence of the individual is to invite an ingurgitating conflict of peoples seeking to save their own skin. At this point I wish to turn the discussion in a more positive direction. Rather than ruing and retrenching, let us reconsider the constructionist arguments, and more pointedly, explore the implicative network of assumptions for more promising potentials. When we move beyond the deluge, are there implications for the creation of a humane society? Of course, there are many lines of constructionist argumentation, and there are substantial differences in their entailments. However, there is one domain of discourse which, in my opinion, harbors significant promise for humane relationships in a shrinking world. Consider in particular the emerging network of interlocking arguments regarding language. Constructionist thinkers generally abandon the view that our language about the world (or the self) functions as a mirror or map, or that it bears any transparent or necessary connection to an array of existants outside itself. In contrast, constructionists have largely favored some form of Wittgensteinian or use-based (neo-pragmatist) account of language. Here the emphasis is placed on meaning as embedded within language use, words deriving their meaning from the attempt of people to coordinate their actions within various communities. In this vein, the meaning of language originates within ongoing relations among people. The individual mind is abandoned as the originary source of meaning, and replaced by relationship. Or to extend the implications still further, our capacity to mean (to think, to be intelligible, to count ourselves as individual agents at all) is born of relationship. Relationship precedes individual existence, and not vice versa. If we can grant the preeminence of relationship in fostering human intelligibility, we are positioned to reconsider the foundational assumptions within the humanist tradition. Can we, in particular, re-vision the family of humanist concepts in terms of human relationship - altering our understanding of them such that they are rooted in relationship? And, as we attempt to reconceptualize these concepts in terms of a relational ontology, let us consider their implications for human well being: Experience as Relationally Grounded: Earlier we questioned the subject-object binary
on which the concept of a personal or subjective experience is grounded. Let us consider, then how we might abandon the binary, and attempt to reconceptualize experience in terms of relationship. Rather than holding experience to be akin to an internal mirror reflecting an exterior reality, let us consider experience as a form of relational action. Experience in this case is not a specific form of action, separate in kind from all others, but action indexed in terms of relationship - linking what we presume in western culture to be individual being and other "entities" within the conventional ontology. "To experience," then, is to engage in a relationship or a oneness - a being with. This kind of reconceptualization draws importantly from the phenomenological tradition from Husserl to Merleau-Ponty. However, unlike phenomenology, it does not recognize the subject-object unity as foundational. Rather, the very idea of experience as a relational action is itself a construction, deriving in this case from a particular tradition of dialogue. As the same time, we must expand on this conception in an important way. In particular, we must trace the character of the momentary "experience" to the broader array of relations in which one is embedded. The experiential action acquires its intelligibility within processes of relationship. On this account, to experience happiness or sadness is to manifest a particular immersion in a cultural tradition. My moment-to-moment sense of the real is premised on my history within the culture; in effect, there would be no experience of "happiness" save through a particular array of coordinated practices within the culture (Relationships, for example, in which we come to agree that happiness exists and these are the conditions in which we feel it.). Thus the phenomenal unity of experience (what we generally index as "perception" or "experience of the world") would function as an extension of relatedness. Or to put it otherwise, in significant degree, "conscious experience" is relatedness speaking through us. Relatedness furnishes the forestructure for the condition of our immediate immersion in onrushing life. If we are successful in recasting "subjective experience" as a relational process, we are no longer invited to consider our subjectivities as isolated, cut away, or alienated from others, beyond the comprehension of others. Rather, we sense ourselves as both constituted by, and constituting, the other. In a certain sense, we are each other, our conscious experience born of each other. For me to make sense here and now is in essence to duplicate you, to act as a partial replication of you. Should I fail in this duplication, I would also fail to achieve a comprehensible action. In a broad sense, I owe all that I value to my relationships, and all that I find grievous can be altered only through relationship. Individual subjectivity, then, is not a mark of differentiation, but of relatedness. To seek a better quality of life is not a narcissistic endeavor but a communal one. Agency as Relational Engagement: Rather than viewing individuals as originary sources of their own actions (an assumption that casts the individual in the image of God), let us abandon the entire voluntarism-determinism binary. To speak either of these symbiotic languages is optional, and we are not obliged either to chose between them or to sustain one pole at the expense of the other. Rather, let us consider
individual action as always already embedded within patterns of relationship. One acquires impetus (indexed as a sense of motive, consciousness of value, or desire) by virtue of the manner in which one is enmeshed in relationship. For example, why do we strive for high self-esteem if not by virtue of our particular location in western culture at a particular point in its history? We possess telos or direction in life not because of some inner possession of motive, calling, or biological proclivity, but by virtue of the forms of relationship of which we are a part. Agency, then, may be more usefully conceptualized as a form of relational engagement.(To want is to "want with," to "chose" is to reflect the condition of one's relatedness.) If we do envision the impulse toward action as a byproduct of relational engagement, we may also refigure the institutions of blame and responsibility. For if we hold single individuals responsible for their actions, we again position ourselves symbolically as God - here the supreme judge of good and evil. And in our godlike form, we effectively deny our participation in the culture, treating ourselves as the overseeing eye, suspended above the acts of mortals. In contrast, if we envision action as a relational outcome, our sensibilities are horizontally recast. Specifically, a stance of relational responsibility is invited, one in which we approach heinous and egregious action with a curiosity of context. That is, we broaden the network of participation, to consider how the relationships in which the erring individual was involved (personal, mediated, and environmental) have brought about such an end. And, as we broaden the relational context so as to include multiple others, so should we consider their relationships and how they impinge on the actions in question. And if our concern is sufficiently great, we may eventually reach the point in which we realize our own complicity in the action. Blame and responsibility are thus distributed within the community, and indeed the culture. We are all invited thereby to join together in actions that would establish more promising future. (Here, for example, we might consider our own participation in the problem of drugs, rape, homicide, and joblessness.) Liberty as Polyphonic Expression: On the traditional humanist view, the concept of liberty functions as a condition of free-floating individuality, an expression of pure and unencumbered agency. The individual may chose irrespective of, and indeed with some suspicion of, the remainder of the culture. If conditions seem oppressive, they are distended from the self - typically attributed to blameworthy others. If a marriage, a friendship, a community, or even a political condition becomes disagreeably binding, we are moved by humanistic discourse, to "free ourselves from the shackles," to liberate ourselves from social constraint, and restore the state of pure freedom or independence. As Bellah and his colleagues have argued (1985), such thinking strongly encourages the dissolution of marriages, and the avoidance of communal or political participation. "If the relationship does not benefit me, if it harms my development, then I will chose freedom." In contrast, the relational view proposes that we cannot escape the requirements of relationship to locate a condition of pure agency. We are never free of relationships. And indeed, the very sense of being an individual agent, the senses of pleasure and
anguish derived from daily interchange, and the motive to seek freedom are all premised on a history of relatedness. Invited, then, is first a diminution in the tendency to blame the other or the conditions, and an increased concern with the ways in which we participate in the conditions deemed oppressive. Further, attention is directed to the broader patterns of relationship that figure in or contribute to the present condition (e.g. economic relationships, man-machine relationships). Finally, consideration must be directed to the alternative forms of relationship into which one would be propelled should "freedom" be achieved. A condition of free and autonomous action - disconnected from the ongoing social world, simply leaves one spinning in the residues of relationships of the past - in the long run potentially incapacitating one from full participation in the unfolding of cultural life. We do not move from the pressures of engagement to freedom, but from one set of relational requirements to another. Morality as Infinite Conversation: Earlier I questioned whether several centuries of commitment to the idea of moral principles has actually contributed to humane circumstances. While it would be difficult to draw an affirmative conclusion, we could, in a very rough way view moral deliberation as superior in its effects on humankind to the force of arms. The use of moral discourse in settling complex problems of conflict and anguish represents, in this sense, a positive step in cultural evolution. However, moral principles also stand as justifications for the most brutal actions - from the crusades and the Grand Inquisition to the slaying of an abortion specialists by pro-life advocates. Further, as we move rapidly into a world in which we daily confront sub-cultures or civilizations whose moral principles differ from our own, moral principles reach their upper level of efficacy. With the clash of incommensurables, a resort to moral justification typically intensifies the conflict. The "global village" requires a new step in the evolution of cultural resources. Let us consider the contours of a relational alternative. As we have seen, the relational emphasis favored by much constructionist writing would first of all reduce the tendency to place moral judgment on the other (or the self). We are, instead, invited to spread the concern to the network of relations from which issues of conflict or wrong-doing arise. But how, on this account, are we to confront conditions of incommensurable moral traditions, cases in which groups find each others' traditions of the good intolerable? In this case, because of its emphasis on the communal construction of the real and the right, a relational view would place the strong emphasis on altering discursive forms. The problem would not be to "settle the issue" of moral superiority, or rationally to adjudicate territories, but to locate means of mingling the discourses, enabling alterior signifiers to play freely - to form new combinations, new metaphors, and ultimately new forms of interdependence. The important point here is that the relational orientation does not obliterate moral deliberation and a concern with moral principles. To do so would be to eliminate tradition, and without tradition there would be no intelligibility. Rather, the attempt is to respond to situations traditionally favoring a moral judgment, with an invitation to conversation - to a particular form of relationship. Moral principles have the ultimate
effect of terminating conversation. One must ultimately lodge one's rationality in an unwarrantable declaration: "This is where I stand." "Beyond this point I cannot go." "This is right, because it is right." In effect, disconnection. In contrast, the relational view urges us as theorists, human scientists and practitioners to seek ways - multiple ways - of generating integrative conversation. For if we can but join in the construction of such cultural resources, we stand to make a contribution to the expression and peaceful interpolation of multiple voices - both in the culture and the world at large. In my view, such an imaginary is congenial with the deepest hopes of the humanistic tradition. Explicating the Social The attempt here has been to put forward a rudimentary conception of "the social" within the context of a particular discursive tradition, and from the matrix of tensions thereby created, to press this conception toward further articulation. In this way we avoid a priori and context free commitments, and set out to generate the meaning of "social" within a dialogic space. Within the dialogue we stand to open new vistas of intelligibility. We thus began with a vision of the social implicit in much social constructionist writing, one which holds meaning itself to be a byproduct of processes of communal coordination. This orienting commitment was then placed within the context of the liberal humanist tradition, in which the attempt has been to derive foundations for moral action from conceptions of individual agency. Within this context, the constructionist view seems morally vacuous. So as to explore the weaknesses of the liberal tradition, and to counter its critical assertions, a constructionist relationalism was set in motion. As we initially found, various arguments within the constructionist colloquy could satisfactorily undermine both the legitimacy and the intelligibility of moral foundations based on humanistic individualism. These critiques, in turn, closed out certain descriptive and explanatory options for what would become the contrasting account of the social. Specifically, this view of the social could not be based on traditional assumptions of individual interaction (e.g. individual, conscious, selfdetermining agents coming together to form a social world). With such forms of intelligibility now bracketed, the attempt was to begin the articulation of a relational replacement for individual humanism. In doing so, a view of the social emerged in which: - Recourse to individual beings proved necessary, owing to a tradition in which relationships are inherently made up of independent parts. The question, then, is how at once to participate within this tradition and simultaneously shed the semantic baggage which it imposes. By implication, this was done by using the concept of the individual person as a conversational indexical for physical bodies making up a relationship. However, it is simultaneously to recognize that these singular bodies are, in terms of what we take to be human action (as opposed to physical behavior) manifestations of relatedness. By tradition, we take persons to be independent entities, but it is this tradition which is placed in question. Rather, the individual actor
is essentially a relational integer, and gains meaning as an actor through the relational process. - It proved necessary to reassert a language of "experience," and by implication, the full array of mental predicates pivotal to the humanist tradition. Again, however, the attempt was to recast the meaning of experience and its cognates. This was done by de-objectification, pragmatization, and indexicalization. That is, mental terms were first cut loose from their putative objects (or referents in a specifically mental universe). Second, such terms were be cast as integers within processes of relational pragmatics. Such terms don't refer, then, to processes that generate relationships, but are constitutive of relational patterns themselves. Finally, such terms function indexically within relationships (e.g. ongoing conversation) to refer to conditions of relationship ("myself"/"my environment"). In a broad sense, we began with a conception of the social which feeds from the traditional binary of individual-social. That is, the individualist conception was essential to give meaning to the contrary alternative of a radical relationalism. Yet, as the relational theoretic was further elaborated, so did it begin to absorb the language of the individual, recasting individual attributes and processes in terms of a relational ontology. Slowly the binary moorings were cast off. At the same time, we find that the relational ontology permits neither critique nor completion. On its grounds, all critique is born of relationship, and its terms are given meaning within relationship. Critique can furnish no foundations, no transcendent rationality, or "good arguments" without collaborative assent. To deny the collaborative process would be to remove the possibility for meaning itself. At the same time, the ontology of radical relationship remains forever incomplete. This state of polymorphous contingency is essential, for to objectify and canonize its suppositions would be to remove the language from the dialogic sphere in which its meaning is born and reborn as the conversation moves on. The quest for intransumtability - immortality for the emanations of individual psyche (spirit/mind) - is to approach the void. References • • •
Bellah, R.et a.. (1985) Habits of the heart. Berkeley: University of California Press. Butler, J. (1990) Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity. New York: Routledge. Chasin, R. and Herzig, M. (1994) Creating systemic interventions for the sociopolitical arena. In B. Gould and D. H. DeMuth (Eds.) The global family therapist, integrating the personal, professional, and political. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Derrida, J. (1976) Of grammatology. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Foucault, M. 1979) Discipline and punish, The birth of the prison. New York: Random House. Gergen, K.J. (1994) Realities and relationships. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press. Gergen, K.J.(1995) Social construction and the transformation of identity politics. Paper presented at the New School for Social Research conference on Social Construction, Politics, and the Practice of Psychology. Hare-Mustin, R. and Marecek, J. (1988) The meaning of difference: gender theory, postmodernism, and psychology. American Psychologist, 43; 455464. MacIntyre, A. (1981) After virtue. Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press. McNamee, S. and Gergen, K.J. (1995) Relational responsibility. Unpublished manuscript. University of New Hampshire. Rorty, R. (1989) Contingency, irony and solidarity. New York: Cambridge University Press. Sampson, E.E. (1993) Celebrating the other. Boulder, Co.: Westview Press. Sandel, M.J. (1982) Liberalism and the limits of justice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sarbin, T. (Ed.)(1984) Narrative psychology: the storied nature of human conduct. New York: Praeger. Sartre, J.P. (1977) Existentialism and humanism. Tr. P. Mairet. Brooklyn, NY: Haskell Shotter, J. (1993) Cultural politics of everyday life. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Shotter, J. and Gergen, K.J. (1994) Social construction: knowledge, self, others, and continuing the conversation. Communication Yearbook, 17, 3-33.
© Kenneth J. Gergen. All Rights Reserved.
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The upright citizens brigade comedy improvisation manual
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Russell Blackford's website
Find Russell
Philosophy CV
Shorter Publications
The Sword of God
Lucent Carbon
Who's Afraid of the Brave New World
Singularity Shadow
Women and Physics, Philosophy and Cyberspace
Margaret Somerville and the Perils of Bioethics
Bioethics versus Liberal Society
Singer's Plea for Selflessness
The Supposed Rights of the Fetus
Genetics, Ethic and the State
Technological Meliorism
Russell Blackford — Selected Articles and Short Stories
(a select list of my shorter publications since 1996; for a more complete list see my full bibliography)
Fiction (short stories)
(Also see my full-length works of fiction in Books.)
"The Sword of God." Dream Weavers. Ed. Paul Collins. Melbourne: Penguin, 1996: 212-39.
—. reprinted, The Year's Best Australian Science Fiction and Fantasy Vol 1. Ed. Jonathan Strahan and Jeremy G. Byrne Sydney: HarperCollins, 1997: 161-82.
"Lucent Carbon." Eidolon 25/26 (October 1997): 7-27.
—. reprinted, The Year's Best Australian Science Fiction and Fantasy Vol 2. Ed. Jonathan Strahan and Jeremy G. Byrne. Sydney: HarperCollins, 1998: 401-41.
"Byzantium vs Republic of Australia." Aurealis 20/21 (December 1997/January 1998): 127-49. (short story)
"The Soldier in the Machine." Dreaming Down Under. Ed. Jack Dann and Janeen Webb. Sydney: HarperCollins, 1998: 64-85. (short story)
—. Reprinted, Centaurus: The Best of Australian Science Fiction. Ed. David G. Hartwell and Damien Broderick. New York: Tor, 1999: 388-410.
"The King with Three Daughters." Black Heart, Ivory Bones. Ed. Ellen Datlow and Terri Windling. New York: Avon, 2000: 38-59. (short story)
"Two Thousand Years." Eidolon 29/30 (Autumn 2000): 15-31.
"Smoke City." Gathering the Bones. Ed. Jack Dann, Ramsey Campbell, and Dennis Etchison. Sydney: HarperCollins, 2003: 139-55.
"The Name of the Beast was Number." Microcosms. Ed. Gregory Benford. New York: DAW, 2004.: 137-64.
"Idol." Oceans of the Mind XIII (Fall 2004): 2-8.
"Manannan's Children." Dreaming Again, ed. Jack Dann. Sydney: HarperCollins, 2008: 425-49.
Literary Criticism and related articles
(Also see my full-length works of literary criticism in Books.)
"Jewels in Junk City: To Read Triton." Review of Contemporary Fiction 16, 3 (Fall 1996): 142-47.
(with Sean McMullen) "Prophet and Pioneer: The Science Fiction of Norma Hemming." Fantasy Annual No. 2 (Spring 1998): 65-75.
"Sean Williams: Cool Mind, Warm Heart." Introduction to Sean Williams, New Adventures in Sci-Fi. Perth: Ticonderoga, 1999.
"More Maps of Hell." The Coode Street Review of Science Fiction (September 1999): 6-11.
(ed. with Jenny Blackford) Foundation 78 (Spring 2000) (special Australian issue).
(introd. and ed.) "Symposium on Posthuman Science Fiction." Foundation 78 (Spring 2000): 83-103.
"Hammer Blows to the Ego: Greg Egan's Rational Materialism." Nova Express 5/3 (Spring/Summer 2000): 11-15.
(introd. and ed.) "Time Travel, Time Scapes and Timescape." New York Review of Science Fiction 144 (August 2000): 1, 8-15.
"Future Problematic: Reflections on The City and the Stars." Earth is But a Star: Excursions through Science Fiction to the Far Future. Ed. Damien Broderick. Perth: UWA Press, 2001: 35-46.
"Colloquium with Darko Suvin." Questions from Russell Blackford, Sylvia Kelso and Van Ikin. Science Fiction: A Review of Speculative Literature 43 (2001): 3-33.
"Technological Meliorism and the Posthuman Vision: Arthur C. Clarke and the Ultimate Future of Intelligence." New York Review of Science Fiction 159 (November 2001): 1, 10-12.
"Science Fiction, Biotechnology and the Shadow of September 11." Quadrant 383 (January-February 2002): 30-33.
"Science Fiction and Biotechnology: A Conference in Thessaloniki." New York Review of Science Fiction 165 (May 2002): 16-17.
"Beyond the Frankenscientist: Biotech and Biomedical Themes in Australian Science Fiction." Biotechnological and Medical Themes in Science Fiction. Ed. Domna Pastourmatzi. Thessaloniki: University Studio Press, 2002: 335-50.
"Stranger Than You Think: Arthur C. Clarke's Profiles of the Future." Prefiguring Cyberculture: An Intellectual History. Ed. Darren Tofts, Annemarie Jonson, and Alessio Cavellaro. Sydney: Power Publications, 2002; co-published Boston: MIT Press, 2003: 252-63.
"Smart, Sinister Strange: Houses of the Future in Science Fiction Film." Experimenta House of Tomorrow exhibition catalogue/MESH 16 (2003): 64-66.
"Try the Blue Pill: What's Wrong with Life in a Simulation?" Jacking In to the Matrix Franchise: Cultural Reception and Interpretation. Ed. Matthew Kapell and William G. Doty. New York: Continuum, 2004: 169-82.
"Reading the Ruined Cities: Heuser's Cyberpunk at the Intersection of the Postmodern and Science Fiction." Science Fiction Studies 31 (2004): 264-70.
"Australian Science Fiction: A Feast of Wonder." The Best Australian Science Fiction: A Fifty Year Collection. Ed. Rob Gerrand. Melbourne: Black Inc. 2004: xii-xx.
"Greg Egan." A Companion to Science Fiction. David Seed, ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2005: 441-51.
"Science Fiction." The Literary Encyclopedia. Published 10 November 2006.
"Australian Science Fiction." A Companion to Australian Literature Since 1900. Nicholas Birns and Rebecca McNeer, eds. Rochester, NY: Camden House, 2007: 375-86.
"Science Fiction." Books and Beyond: The Greenwood Encyclopedia of New American Reading, ed. Kenneth Womack. Westport, Conn. Greenwood Press, 2008: 805-33.
"Russell Blackford on Stranger in a Strange Land by Robert A. Heinlein." Normblog (12 May 2009). Available at http://normblog.typepad.com/normblog/2009/05/writers-choice-206-russell-blackford.html
Philosophy, law and public policy
(Also see my full-length works about Philosophy, Law and Public Policy in Books.)
"Judicial Power, Political Liberty and the Post-Industrial State", Australian Law Journal, 71 (1997): 267-93.
"Singularity Shadow." Quadrant 347 (June 1998): 24-29.
"Don't Panic: The Universities and Their Troubles." Quadrant 353 (January-February 1999): 11-17.
"The Left's Defection from Progress." Quadrant 355 (April 1999): 47-52.
"Women and Physics, Philosophy and Cyberspace." Quadrant 357 (June 1999): 46-52.
"Genetics, Ethics and the State." Quadrant 359 (September 1999): 35-40.
"Life Extension and its Enemies." Quadrant 362 (December 1999): 58-63.
"Stephen Jay Gould on Science and Religion." Quadrant 365 (April 2000): 8-14.
"The Inward Journeys of Raimond Gaita." Quadrant 369 (September 2000): 46-52.
"Free Speech and Hate Speech." Quadrant 373 (January-February 2001): 10-17.
"Margaret Somerville and the Perils of Bioethics." Quadrant 376 (May 2001): 45-52.
"Bioethics versus Liberal Society: A Reply to Margaret Somerville." Quadrant 379 (September 2001): 51-55.
"Singer's Plea for Selflessness." Quadrant 380 (October 2001): 29-35.
"Thinking about Cloning: A Reply to Judith Thomson." Journal of Law and Medicine 9 (2001): 238-50.
"Racism and Refugees." Quadrant 385 (April 2002): 7-14.
"The Supposed Rights of the Fetus." Quadrant 389 (September 2002): 11-17.
"There's madness in the Raelians' method." The Australian, 30 December 2002: 11.
"Surrogate Motherhood and Public Policy." Quadrant 394 (March 2003): 30-35.
"Is Declining Fertility a Problem?" Quadrant 394 (March 2003): 52-54.
"Who's Afraid of the Brave New World?" Quadrant 396 (May 2003): 9-15.
"Sisyphus and the Meaning of Life." Quadrant 400 (October 2003): 54-57.
"Lawrence v. Texas: A Right to Personal Freedom?" Quadrant 401 (November 2003): 34-41.
"Mutants, Cyborgs, AI & Androids." Meanjin 63, 1 (2004): 14-21.
"Liberty and Paternalism: A Reply to Tom Frame." Quadrant 407 (June 2004): 40-46.
"Should We Fear Feath? Epicurean and Modern Arguments." Immortality Institute, ed.The Scientific Conquest of Death: Essays on Infinite Lifespans. Buenos Aires: LibrosEnRed, 2004. 257-69.
"Human Cloning and 'Posthuman' Society." Monash Bioethics Review 24, 1 (January 2005): 10-26.
"Stem cell research on other worlds, or why embryos do not have a right to life." Journal of Medical Ethics 32 (2006): 177-80.
"Sinning Against Nature: The Theory of Background Conditions." Journal of Medical Ethics 32 (2006): 629-34.
"Dr. Frankenstein meets Lord Devlin: Genetic Engineering and the Principle of Intangible Harm." The Monist 89 (2006): 526-47.
"Differing Vulnerabilities: The Moral Significance of Lockean Personhood." American Journal of Bioethics - AJOB Neuroscience, 7, 1 (January 2007): 70-71.
"Slippery Slopes to Slippery Slopes: Therapeutic Cloning and the Criminal Law." American Journal of Bioethics, 7, 2 (February 2007): 63-64.
"The New Atheism rocks." Australian Rationalist 77 (October 2007): 46-51.
"Embracing The Unkown Future: In Defence of New Technology." Human Futures: Art In An Age of Uncertainty, ed. Andy Miah. Liverpool, University of Liverpool Press/FACT, 2008: 24-35.
"Trite Truths About Technology: A Reply to Ted Peters." The Gobal Spiral 9, 9 (February 2009). Available at URL http://www.metanexus.net/magazine/tabid/68/id/10681/Default.aspx
(with Parijata Mackey) "What Is Transhumanism?" The Exception Magazine (March 23 2009). Available at URL http://exceptionmag.com/culture/society/000470/what-transhumanism?page=show
"Liberalism, humanism and freedom of speech: the trouble with religious vilification laws." Australian Humanist 94 (Winter 2009): 2-4.
"Moral pluralism versus the total view: why Singer is wrong about radical life extension." Journal of Medical Ethics 35 (2009): 747-52.
"Voicing our disbelief." The Philosophers' Magazine 48 (1st quarter 2010): 81-86.
"Science and the Sea of Faith." The Tangled Bank: Love, Wonder, and Evolution, ed. Chris Lynch. Tangled Bank Press, 2009: 347-62.


Zack Steffen left an elite college program for professional soccer in Germany, making a statement of intent about his future in the game. Joining MLS, he quickly became the starter for the Columbus Crew. A breakout season 2018 earned him the MLS Goalkeeper of the Year award and his first caps with the USMNT. In December, Steffen signed with Manchester City returning to the Crew on loan. Winner of the 2018 US Soccer Male Athlete of the Year award.
"It's an honor to be put with those names that have won before me and to have the respect and confidence from teammates, coaches and staff. I'm thankful for my support system. Without them I couldn't have done any of this. It gives me motivation and confidence to keep going and do bigger and better things."
2019: Started against Panama on Jan 27 and Costa Rica on Feb 2.
2018: Made his USMNT debut against Bosnia and Herzegovina on Jan 28. Started against Paraguay on Mar 27. In goal against France on June 9. Finished the year with six caps winning the US Soccer Male Athlete of the Year award.
2018: MLS Goalkeeper of the Year with the Crew playing in 29 games. Joined Manchester City on Dec 11, returning to the Crew on loan.
2017: Won the starting job in Columbus. Made 34 appearances.
2015-16: Made 14 appearances for Freiburg II in Germany's Regionalliga. Signed with the Columbus Crew in July, 2016 and joined the Pittsburgh Riverhounds on loan making nine appearances.
2014-15: Joined Freiburg in the Bundesliga.
Youth and College Soccer: Played for youth team FC Delco and the University of Maryland in 2013 and 14.


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Man charged with unprovoked attack on 91-year-old in Chinatown
CHICAGO (Sun Times Media Wire) -- A Rogers Park man is facing multiple felony charges after he allegedly attacked a 91-year-old man Tuesday afternoon in Chinatown.
An off-duty Chicago police sergeant was driving about 12:10 p.m. when he saw the 91-year-old walking north in the 2400 block of South Wentworth and a man, later identified as 45-year-old Alexander Taylor, walking south in the block, according to police.
Taylor, "without provocation," punched the older man with a closed fist, causing the man to fall to the ground, police said. The sergeant who witnessed the attack followed Taylor and took him into custody with the help of other officers.
The 91-year-old was taken to Northwestern Memorial Hospital with head injuries, police said. His condition has been stabilized.
Taylor was charged with felony counts of aggravated battery to a person older than 60, aggravated battery causing great bodily harm and aggravated battery in a public place, police said.
Taylor is being held without bond at Cook County Jail, according to the Cook County sheriff's office. His next court date was set for Tuesday.
Young trio from suburbs representing Chicago at International Blues Challenge
In Chicago and across the nation, Dr. King honored with 'Day of Service'
CNN survey: 57% say Trump did what he was impeached for
Man charged with DUI in I-55 crash that led to death of Berwyn police officer
'It's a blessing': Premature baby going home after 307 days in hospital
Missing Child Alert canceled after 2 Chipley girls found safe; mom in custody
U.S. Bank employee reportedly fired for helping stranded customer on Christmas Eve
Man dies nearly 10 years after being shot, and death is ruled a homicide


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Arthur Mitchell: Ballet's African-American trailblazer
Arthur Mitchell. Photo by Eileen Barroso.
Close your eyes for a moment, and visualize a ballerina and a danseur dancing a pas de deux. Are they black? Chances are, they're white. While there are larger cultural and psychological forces at work there, in the past and today, Arthur Mitchell – who called himself "the Jackie Robinson of ballet" – spent his career chipping away at the powerful image of ballet dancers as white. He had a mission to prove African-Americans can capably dance classical ballet, just as much as those of other races can. Mitchell passed away on September 19, 2018, at 84 years of age, from renal failure, shared his niece, Juli Mills-Ross. George Balanchine saw in Mitchell enough to disregard racist backlash to his dancing top roles for New York City Ballet (NYCB), leading him to be the first African-American principal dancer to gain international fame. He danced for NYCB from 1955 to 1968, when he branched out to tour internationally. He then soon co-created Dance Theatre of Harlem.
Arthur Mitchell. Photo by Jack Mitchell/Getty Images.
Yet, as Sarah Halzack describes in The Washington Post, Mitchell wanted to be regarded for his own ability, rather than as a "token" African-American in ballet. Jennifer Dunning of The New York Times recounts how Mitchell "displayed a dazzling presence, superlative artistry and powerful sense of self." He received numerous honors over the course of his career, including a Dance Magazine Award (1975), a Kennedy Center Honor (1993), a MacArthur "Genius" Grant (1994) and the National Medal of the Arts (1995), shares Dance Magazine.
Mitchell was born on March 27, 1934, to a father who was a building superintendent and a mother who was a homemaker. He grew up in Harlem singing in a choir, taking tap dancing lessons and learning social dance. When dancing a Fred Astaire-inspired routine at a school party, a teacher suggested that he audition for the High School for the Performing Arts in Manhattan. He worked incredibly hard there, and soon enough had reached a pre-professional level of technique and performance ability.
Mitchell turned down a chance to study at the acclaimed Bennington College modern dance department, opting to instead study at the School of American Ballet, despite being told that he didn't have the right skin color to have a successful career in ballet, shares Dunning in the Times. Defying these presumptions, "he performed in Europe and the United States with Donald McKayle, Louis Johnson, Sophie Maslow and Anna Sokolow, and he played an angel in a 1952 revival of the Virgil Thomson/Gertrude Stein opera, Four Saints in Three Acts, in New York and Paris," recounts Dunning. Mitchell was also beginning to choreograph and make his own work. While on tour in Europe with John Butler Dance Theater, he got a call that George Balanchine wanted to hire him for NYCB.
His first major role in the company was replacing Jacques d'Amboise in Western Symphony. Mitchell reported that he heard many gasps, and at least one racist comment, when he stepped out on to the stage for the role for the first time. Balanchine was soon making works on Mitchell, including his signature roles of Puck in Midsummer Night's Dream (1962) and the principal male role in Agon (1957), despite these racially-based reactions. With the latter, he danced a duet with a white woman – an incredibly provocative creative choice at a time of incredibly high racial tension in America. Dunning (at the Times) described how the pared-down aesthetic of black and white costumes, those shades intersecting in the lines of movement, reinforced the provocative (at the time) nature of the duet. Balanchine himself got several letters taking issue with Mitchell in such roles. The iconic dancemaker persisted in giving Mitchell the roles he had the talent to dance.
Apart from a lovely and unique aesthetic as a dancer, Mitchell was a commendably hard worker and quick study at picking up roles. Mitchell once said that it wasn't about what role he would dance; rather, he would say, "What would you like me to do? Use me." He left NYCB in 1968 to make work, and work toward making companies, in Italy and Brazil. That was all until – again, while touring – Mitchell learned of the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., in 1969. It inspired him to do the most he could do to realize Dr. King's "dream" – to create a dance company that would nurture and spotlight African-American dancers.
Mitchell once said that at that point, he thought, "I could wait for others to change things for black Americans. Here I am running around the world doing all these things — why not do them at home? I believe in helping people the best way you can; my way is through art." As such, Mitchell formed the school and company of Dance Theatre of Harlem (DTH) with his mentor, Karel Shook. It all began modestly, with two students in a garage. Within months, however, he had over 400 students. Some called him "the pied piper of dance" because of how he could draw students in to his classes, despite a reputation for being quite a strict teacher.
Arthur Mitchell.
The performance company of DTH grew to have international acclaim. Dunning shares how "in a review of a 1970 performance, New York Times dance critic Anna Kisselgoff called the company 'one of dance's most promising ventures' and wrote, 'No young company has made such progress in so short a time.'" Big names, including Balanchine and Jerome Robbins, contributed to DTH's early repertoire. The company toured in Italy, the Netherlands, the Soviet Union, South Africa and England. Its first full seasons were in New York City and London in 1974. Mitchell shifted away from choreography, to focus on assembling a diverse repertoire, including classical and contemporary work, as the company grew.
Despite public and critical acclaim, from 1990 to years after that, DTH faced financial trouble. Corporate sponsors pulling out and government fiscal support led to the company having to lay off dancers and staff, in 1990 and in 1995. "In 1997, dancers went on strike, and more fiscal woes followed in 2004, when the company rang up a $2.5 million deficit," recounts Halzack (WaPo). Through all of that difficulty and a brief shut down (for restructuring), DTH is still carrying out its mission and vision. The company has been under the direction of Virginia Johnson since 2009, and will celebrate its 50th anniversary next year, shares Courtney Escoyne at Dance Magazine. Today, DTH is still a predominantly African-American company but does include dancers of all races.
Mitchell stepped down as the company's artistic director, becoming artistic director emeritus, in 2011. Still, DTH has gone forth in the spirit of its mission, a spark that Mitchell set. This past January, Dance Magazine asked Mitchell if he thought his dreams for the dance world had come to fruition. His response – "Name all the companies in America. How many have a leading African-American ballerina? There's only one in a major company, that's Misty Copeland in American Ballet Theatre. There's still work to be done." Yet it seems like the viability and accessibility of the arts, race aside, was also incredibly important to Mitchell; "anyone living without the arts in their lives is living in a desert," he once said. His life's work undoubtedly allowed many people – many African Americans, but many of other races as well – to come to an oasis of experiencing the art of dance.
By Kathryn Boland of Dance Informa.
Related Items:Agon, American Ballet Theatre, Anna Kisselgoff, Anna Sokolow, Arthur Mitchell, Bennington College, Dance Magazine Award, Dance Theatre of Harlem, Donald McKayle, George Balanchine, Gertrude Stein, High School for the Performing Arts, Jacques d'Amboise, Jerome Robbins, John Butler Dance Theater, Karel Shook, Kennedy Center Honor, Louis Johnson, MacArthur Genius Grant, male dancer, Midsummer Night's Dream, Misty Copeland, National Medal of the Arts, New York City Ballet, NYCB, School of American Ballet, Sophie Maslow, Virgil Thomson, Virginia Johnson, Western Symphony
Ballethnic: 30 years of creating access and opportunity for African-Americans in dance
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From scenic delights to famous racing events, luxury personified to fine dining and plenty of fun and adventure thrown in for good measure, Phillip Island in Victoria's eastern region is an island loaded with plenty of things to see and do. Phillip Island is ideal for a family break by the sea, a winter escape to cosy up with your loved one, adventure seekers paradise with plenty to get the blood pumping and a haven for lovers of nature and wildlife as Phillip Island is known as the Galapagos Island of Australia. Located around 140 kilometres from Melbourne, Phillip Island is easily accessible for the ultimate getaway!
Watch the daily procession of the famous penguin parade; grab a spot on the hill to watch the Phillip Island Grand Prix every October or join one of the many tours to experience the variety of wildlife that calls this island home. From your accommodation that you book onto Phillip Island whether it be a self contained apartment, hotel, bed and breakfast, caravan park, cabin, cottage or holiday house by the sea, just to name a few, you will never be far from all of the action. Enjoy the pristine beaches, cruises and charters, spend your days exploring the stunning coastline and cycling tracks around the island, sample some of the wine made at the local wineries or indulge your taste buds with some sumptuous dining from breakfast, lunch or dinner in a variety of cafes, eateries, take away outlets, al fresco restaurants and fine dining establishments.
Phillip Island is a holiday destination where you can explore deep caves and go caving for something really exciting, join a helicopter ride for views from up above, go horse riding or soak up the history and heritage of the island within the National Vietnam Veterans Museum that dates back to the Vietnam War. You can do hot laps in a racing car, enjoy go karting and ten pin bowling, have a picnic in beautiful landscape gardens and parklands, walk through the Koala Conservation Park, Wildlife parks and enjoy countless walking tracks where you will get up close and personal with a variety of animal. From water fun and exploring the land there are so many wonderful attractions and activities that you can fill up your days with while holiday on Philip Island.
Browse through the small towns on the island where you will find plenty of interesting retail shops and outlets, dine in top notch restaurants for lunch and cap off the day with an afternoon at the beach with the kids. Phillip Island can be your romantic getaway, ideal location for the perfect wedding, venue for a corporate gathering or meeting, destination for the ultimate holiday with the kids or honeymooner's paradise as it is an island loaded with extras. No matter the type of holiday you wish to enjoy, what you want to experience and discover, the type of holiday accommodation you wish to stay in and how much you are willing to spend, Phillip Island is ideal for all types of vacations. Bounding in scenic delights, endless amounts of wildlife, action, adventure, family fun, plenty of day and night entertainment, beautiful beaches and numerous tours and events to fill up your days with while holidaying here, it will be hard to find anywhere else that beats Phillip Island.
Discover a small slice of paradise off the coast of Victoria that is easily accessible by travelling over the connecting bridge from the mainland and find a spot that still remains barely untouched from the outside world and large developments.