Taxonomic Comments: Constitutes a superspecies with I. sinensis and I. minutus (including I. novaezelandiae) (AOU 1998). The New Zealand subspecies, novaezelandiae, now considered extinct, has been treated as a separate species (Marchant and Higgins 1990) (AOU 2010). Although some debate exists, studies indicate that there are no morphological differences between the eastern and western subspecies, thus hesperis is not recognized here as a valid subspecies.
Reasons: Has probably declined over the past century, primarily due to extensive marsh habitat loss; however, still widespread over very large range (southeastern Canada to South America) and common in many areas.
Comments on COSEWIC: Reason for designation: This diminutive member of the heron family has a preference for nesting near pools of open water in relatively large marshes that are dominated by cattail and other robust emergent plants. Its breeding range extends from southeastern Canada through much of the eastern U.S. Information on the population size and exact distribution of this secretive species is somewhat limited. Nevertheless, the best available evidence indicates that the population is small (about 3000 individuals) and declining (> 30% in the last 10 years), largely owing to the loss and degradation of high-quality marsh habitats across its range.
Status history: Designated Special Concern in April 1988. Status re-examined and confirmed in April 1999. Status re-examined and designated Threatened in November 2001 and in April 2009.
Range Extent Comments: BREEDING: in western North America in southern Oregon, interior and southern coastal California, central Baja California, and southern coastal Sonora; in eastern North America from southern Manitoba, north-central U.S., southeastern Canada (Ontario and Quebec), eastern Maine, and southern New Brunswick (few records) south to western and southern Texas, Gulf Coast, Florida, and Greater Antilles; west to central Montana, Utah (Great Salt Lake, formerly), eastern Colorado, and south-central New Mexico; Middle America in Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, and elsewhere, especially Mexico; widely in South America in central Colombia, coastal Peru, and east of Andes from Venezuela and Guianas south to northern Argentina and southern Brazil (AOU 1983, Gibbs et al. 1992). NON-BREEDING: southern California, southern Texas, and northern Florida south through the breeding range in South America (AOU 1983). Largest numbers in southern Florida, Rio Grande valley, lower Colorado River between California and Arizona, Baja California, Greater Antilles, and Central America (Root 1988, Gibbs et al. 1992).
Number of Occurrences Comments: Because least bitterns are secretive their population status and trends are not well known (Sterling 2008). See Gibbs and Melvin (1992) for information on status in certain states in the northeastern U.S. See Hands et al. (1989) and Brewer et al. (1991) for information on status in the north-central U.S. In Quebec breeding bird atlas surveys (1984-1989), found in 40 atlas squares, but breeding confirmed in only 10 of these (Fragnier 1996). In Ontario breeding bird atlas surveys (1981-1985), found in 223 squares, but breeding was confirmed in only 46 (Sandilands and Campbell 1988, James 1999). See Sterling (2008) for status in California; remaining core population centers in California occur in the Sacramento Valley, the Salton Sink, and the lower Colorado River valley.
Population Size Comments: Across the North American range, breeding density estimates range from 0.4 to 15.0 territorial males or nests per ha (Gibbs et al. 1992). In Canada, Ontario population may be on the order of 1000 pairs, with all other provinces combined supporting probably fewer than 100 pairs (Sandilands and Campbell 1988).
Overall Threat Impact Comments: The primary threat to this species is the loss and degradation of its freshwater marsh habitat (Gibbs et al. 1992). Populations are jeopardized by draining, filling, and degradation of marshes and by environmental contaminants and unnaturally high densities of predators such as raccoons (Evers 1992). Climate change is a growing threat with increased frequency and intensity of droughts threatening availability of marsh habitat, and altering water levels and timing of food availability.
May be negatively impacted by high water levels in the Great Lakes (Sandilands and Campbell 1988). Palmer (1962) stated that "...unquestionably, parts of the range have been affected adversely in recent years by marsh drainage, pollution, spraying of insecticides, and other activities of man." Loss of wetland habitat is likely the greatest threat in the northeastern U.S. Palustrine emergent wetlands, including inland, freshwater and brackish wetlands, are among the most threatened wildlife habitats in the U.S., and over 4.75 million acres (1.92 million ha) were lost between the mid-1950s and mid- 1970s (Tiner 1984). Wetland losses in the northeastern states are primarily caused by draining, dredging, filling, pollution, acid rain, agricultural practices, siltation, and urbanization (Jorde et al. 1989). Pollution and environmental contaminants may impair reproductive capacity and predispose birds to disease in industrialized and agricultural portions of their range. Relatively high concentrations of dieldrin have been detected in their eggs in Louisiana (Causey and Graves 1969). Organochlorines, heavy metals, and PCBs have been found in many other species of herons, and some contaminants (DDE, dieldrin) have persisted in tissues of herons long after their use was banned in the early 1970s (Fleming et al. 1983). Although acid rain could potentially reduce food supplies, least bitterns usually occupy wetlands of circumneutral pH with dense growths of emergent vegetation that may provide chemical buffering against acidification. Siltation resulting from erosion of farmlands and run-off containing insecticides may degrade nesting habitats and reduce food supplies in agricultural areas. Threats to birds nesting in Atlantic coast tidal marshes include high mercury levels and DDT residues in marsh soils (Meanley 1985). Marshland invasion by purple loosestrife (Lythrium salicaria) and phragmites may alter and degrade habitats. Vulnerable to various generalist mammalian, avian, and reptilian predators. Sources of mortality of chicks and adults include predation by raptors, crows (Corvus spp.), raccoons (Procyon lotor), mink (Mustela vison), snakes, snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina), and bullfrogs (Rana Catesbeina) (Bent 1926, Trautman 1940, Weller 1961, Hancock and Kushlan 1984). Little is known about the effects of disease and parasites on reproduction. Friend (1987) reported that wading birds were susceptible to the following diseases: oil toxicosis (moderate), type c botulism (occasional), avian cholera (infrequent), chlamydial infections (frequent), sarcocystis (rare), and aspergillosis (infrequent). Known to host trematode worms (Font et al. 1984), two species of lice, and one species of mite (Peters 1936). Populations were thought to be reduced by an unknown disease during the nesting season at an Iowa wetland (Kent 1951). A nematode parasite, Eustrongilides, contracted from small fish, can devastate wading bird populations and thrives in waters polluted with nutrients and silt; populations at wetlands and impoundments receiving stormwater and run-off from residential and agricultural areas may be particularly vulnerable to epizootics of Eustrongylidosis (P. Frederick, pers. comm.). Seems relatively resistant to human disturbance and may persist in highly urbanized areas if wetlands remain relatively undisturbed (Bent 1926, Palmer 1962). Because they fly low to the ground, collisions with motor vehicles, barbed wire fences, and transmission lines can be a mortality factor (Forbush 1925, Guillory 1973). Collisions with airboats also kill nesting and overwintering least bitterns in the Florida Everglades; 3% of 607 least bitterns flushed by airboats were struck (Frederick et al. 1990). COMPETITION: Although both the American (Botaurus lentiginosus) and Least Bittern are diurnal and often breed at the same wetland, competition may be minimal between the two species due to differences in microhabitat used for foraging (Gibbs and Melvin 1990, Reid 1989), prey preferences (Howell 1932, Cottam and Uhler 1945), nest-site requirements (Harrison 1978), and breeding phenology (Bent 1926). Generally speaking, least bitterns prefer more densely vegetated, deeper-water habitats than do American bitterns for foraging and nesting, and take smaller prey. Also, least bitterns arrive at nesting areas about a month later than American bitterns, perhaps because least bitterns overwinter in more southerly regions (see Palmer 1962). Because least bitterns are highly insectivorous, delayed breeding also may be related to the life cycles of aquatic prey. Emergences of aquatic insects in temperate zone wetlands begin in April but peak in June (Orians 1980) when food demands of parenting least bitterns probably are highest. See also Sterling (2008) for summaries of regional threats in California.
Short-term Trend Comments: Range-wide information not available. Has declined in many areas in the eastern U.S. and adjacent Canada (Ehrlich et al. 1992, Sandilands and Campbell 1988, James 1999). Main pattern in California has been population decline and range retraction in the Central Valley and local extirpation elsewhere, especially along the southern coast. The declines have been most severe in the San Joaquin Valley due to loss of freshwater marsh habitat since 1945 (Sterling 2008).
Long-term Trend Comments: In North America, loss of marsh habitat has likely caused a substantial decline from historical numbers. Historical records suggest that declines in breeding populations may have occurred in New York, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia; however, the species probably is often overlooked and may be more common than reports indicate (see Gibbs and Melvin (1992) for status information for particular states in the northeastern U.S.). See Hands et al. (1989) and Brewer et al. (1991) for information on status in the north-central U.S., and Sterling (2008) for status and trends in California.
Inventory Needs: 1) Identify existing marsh habitat used for breeding, wintering, and dispersing; 2) Implement rangewide monitoring protocol to determine population status and monitor trends (Sterling 2008).
Protection Needs: 1) Preserve, protect, and restore shallow marsh habitat (larger than 10 ha) with dense emergent vegetation; 2) Protect existing marsh habitat used for breeding, wintering, and dispersing (Gibbs et al. 1992, Sterling 2008).
Global Range: (>2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)) BREEDING: in western North America in southern Oregon, interior and southern coastal California, central Baja California, and southern coastal Sonora; in eastern North America from southern Manitoba, north-central U.S., southeastern Canada (Ontario and Quebec), eastern Maine, and southern New Brunswick (few records) south to western and southern Texas, Gulf Coast, Florida, and Greater Antilles; west to central Montana, Utah (Great Salt Lake, formerly), eastern Colorado, and south-central New Mexico; Middle America in Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, and elsewhere, especially Mexico; widely in South America in central Colombia, coastal Peru, and east of Andes from Venezuela and Guianas south to northern Argentina and southern Brazil (AOU 1983, Gibbs et al. 1992). NON-BREEDING: southern California, southern Texas, and northern Florida south through the breeding range in South America (AOU 1983). Largest numbers in southern Florida, Rio Grande valley, lower Colorado River between California and Arizona, Baja California, Greater Antilles, and Central America (Root 1988, Gibbs et al. 1992).
Basic Description: A marsh bird (bittern).
General Description: In comparison to other herons, bitterns are more solitary and rely more heavily on auditory than visual communication. Bitterns also have a laterally compressed trunk, short legs, short outer toes, and long, curved toenails that enable them to travel through and grasp the dense, emergent vegetation typical of nesting habitats (Kushlan 1978, Hancock and Kushlan 1984). The smallest member of the heron family, the least bittern ranges between 28-36 cm in length, average 33 cm, and has a wingspan of 43 cm (Cramp 1977, NGS 1983). It has a straight, slender, pointed bill and a large buffy patch on the inner half of the upper side of each wing. The head is slightly crested. Whitish, highly visible lines border the scapular feathers. Sexes are similar in size, but plumage is dimorphic. The crown and back of the female is purple-chestnut, whereas those of the male are black, and the neck of the female is darkly streaked (Palmer 1962). Juvenal plumage is similar to that of the adult female, but the crown of the juvenile is paler and more brown, and the breast and throat are browner with heavier streaking. The only seasonal difference in plumage is a high gloss in spring (Weller 1961). A rare, darker morph occurs, known as "Cory's bittern," in which paler areas of typical plumage appear chestnut-colored (Palmer 1962, Hancock and Kushlan 1984). Young are covered with long, soft, ochre-colored down above and whiter down beneath (Palmer 1962, McVaugh 1975). Detailed descriptions and illustrations of the plumage development of young are provided by McVaugh (1975).
NEST: Usually built over shallow water (0.1-1.0 m deep) (Palmer 1962, Kushlan 1973, Aniskowicz 1981) and tend to be near, less than ten meters from open water (Weller 1961). A nesting platform with a canopy is made by pulling down and crimping surrounding emergent vegetation, such as cattail or bulrush (Weller 1961).
EGGS: Elliptical, pale blue or pale green, smooth and non-glossy, averaging 31 by 24 mm (Bent 1926, Harrison 1978).
VOCALIZATIONS: Quite vocal with a varied repertoire of calls. The male's advertisement call most frequently heard in spring is a dove-like cooing characterized as "uh-uh-uh-uh-uh-oo-oo-oooo-oo-ooah" (Palmer 1962). Females may respond with "ticking" calls (Hancock and Kushlan 1984). When alarmed, three calls may be uttered: a loud, shrieking "quoh," a hissing "hah," or cackling "tut-tut-tut" (Palmer 1962, Hancock and Kushlan 1984).
Diagnostic Characteristics: Small size, yellow color, and a dark crown are characteristics that distinguish least bitterns from all other bitterns and herons (Hancock and Kushlan 1984). Diagnostic field characteristics include a vivid, greenish-black crown, back, and tail; brownish and white neck, sides, and underparts; and chestnut-colored wings with conspicuous, contrasting, pale-colored wing patches. No other small heron has large buffy patches on the upper side of the otherwise dark wings.
Reproduction Comments: Nesting densities can be high (e.g. 15 nests in 0.8 ha, Wood 1951), but are often on the order of 1/hectare (Palmer 1962, Kent 1951).
In the north-central U.S., nests in June-July (Brewer et al. 1991). In southern Florida, most nesting was initiated after 18 May, with large numbers of fledglings appearing after 15 June (Frederick et al. 1990). Peak nesting (including first and second broods) occurs in the northeastern U.S. from late-May to early-July (Palmer 1962, Swift et al. 1988). Copulation occurs on the nest before and during incubation (Weller 1961). Females lay one egg daily to complete clutches of two to seven eggs, usually four to five eggs (Trautman 1940, Kent 1951, Weller 1961, Hansen 1984). Clutch-size seems to increase with latitude in North America (Palmer 1962). Early clutches, laid before mid-June, may be smaller than later clutches (Weller 1961). Incubation by both sexes begins upon deposition of the first or second egg, and lasts 17-20 days (Weller 1961, Aniskowicz 1981). The semi-altricial young hatch asynchronously over a three day period (Weller 1961, Palmer 1962). Young, brooded for several days, leave the nest after five to 15 (usually 10) days but return occasionally to be fed regurgitated food by their parents, mostly by the male (Gabrielson 1914, Weller 1961, Cogswell 1977). Hansen (1984) and Nero (1950) noted that the youngest hatchling among broods grew the slowest because it received less food. Can probably rear second broods (Kent 1951, Weller 1961). Although few data are available on territoriality and mating systems, most nest solitarily and probably form seasonal, monogamous pair-bonds (Weller 1961, Palmer 1962). Occasionally breeding colonies form near abundant food sources (Audubon 1840, Weller 1961, Palmer 1962, Kushlan 1973). Descriptions of courtship and territorial behavior are given by Weller (1961). Age of first breeding is unknown (Palmer 1962).
NESTING SUCCESS: Success of 38 nests was estimated by Weller (1961) to be 84% (nests in which one or no eggs hatched), with an average of three young hatched per nest. Kent (1951) observed that eggs in 70% of 20 nests hatched, and listed abandonment, predation, cannibalism, and disease as causes of nest loss. In Kansas, four of five nests studied by Hansen (1984) were depredated, at least one by a raccoon (PROCYON LOTOR). High water also may destroy nests (McVaugh 1975), marsh wrens (CISTOTHORUS PALUSTRIS) may puncture eggs (Bent 1926), and mink (MUSTELA VISON) may take eggs and nestlings (Hancock and Kushlan 1984).
Ecology Comments: Usually solitary, secretive. In six tidal marshes along the Hudson River in New York, Swift (1987) observed an average of up to 0.5 individuals per ha during playback surveys using tape-recorded vocalizations in 1986 and 1987. Other reports of nesting densities in North America vary widely: 15 nests per ha (n = 15 nests: Palmer 1962), one nest per ha (n = 26 nests: Palmer 1962), and one nest per ha (n = 19 nests: Kent 1951). Approximately equal numbers of males and females were observed by Frederick et al. (1990) during the breeding season in the Florida Everglades.
Mobility and Migration Comments: Arrives at nesting areas in the northeastern U.S. in early to mid-April or early May (Bent 1926); arrival may be delayed until late April in more northern states, including Maine (Palmer 1949) and New York (Swift 1987). Generally leaves northern breeding areas by September-October (Palmer 1962). Migrates apparently at night. Breeding populations south of the U.S. are mostly sedentary. North American birds migrate as far south as Colombia. Seasonal movements in Costa Rica are related to water levels (Stiles and Skutch 1989). Young may linger at nesting areas until October before beginning their southward migration (Palmer 1962).
Habitat Comments: BREEDING: Tall emergent vegetation in marshes, primarily freshwater, less commonly in coastal brackish marshes and mangrove swamps. Prefers marshes with scattered bushes or other woody growth. In the northeastern U.S., breeds mainly in wetlands along lakes, rivers, and estuaries on the coastal plain; generally absent from the Appalachian highlands and mountainous parts of New York and northern New England (Gibbs and Melvin 1992). Readily uses artificial wetlands.
Habitats vary throughout North America, but nesting usually occurs among dense, tall growths of emergent vegetation (particularly cattail (TYPHA spp.), sedge (CAREX spp.), bulrush (SCIRPUS spp.), or common reed (PHRAGMITES AUSTRALIS)), interspersed with some woody vegetation and open, fresh water (Weller 1961, Palmer 1962, Kushlan 1973, Swift 1987, Frederick et al. 1990). Both fresh and brackish marshes are used (Palmer 1962, Swift 1987, Andrle and Carroll 1988). Occurrences have been associated particularly with cattail, vegetated edges along deep, open waters (Weller 1961), and nutrient-rich microhabitats (Kushlan 1973). Nests typically 0.15-0.75 m above water near open water (Terres 1980, Harrison 1979, Brewer et al. 1991), in water typically 10-50 cm deep. Spend nearly all the diurnal period in dense, grass-like vegetation; open habitats such as mats of emergent vegetation are rarely used (Frederick et al. 1990).
Weller and Spatcher (1965) found more nests at two Iowa marshes during years when ratios of emergent vegetative cover to open water were equal (the "hemi-marsh" condition). More densely or sparsely vegetated wetlands contained fewer nests, and interspersion of water and cover may thus be an important characteristic of breeding habitats. In Wisconsin, were restricted to deep-water and shallow-water cattail habitats, apparently avoiding areas of dry cattail, river bulrush (SCIRPUS FLUVIATILIS), and sedge (Manci and Rusch 1988). Variably-sized wetlands were used in Maine, with dense, tall stands of cattail, which were often associated with relatively stable water regimes at managed impoundments and coves on lakes (Gibbs and Melvin 1990). On moist-soil impoundments in Missouri, associated with waters up to 50 cm deep and rank, dense vegetative cover bordering open water (Fredrickson and Reid 1986). Were not associated with open, sparse, or short vegetative cover or muddy openings (Fredrickson and Reid 1986).
Among six tidal marshes along the Hudson River in New York, presence was related to the extent of tall bulrush-cattail cover and site elevation (i.e., depth of tidal flooding) (Swift 1987). Favored sites had tall, dense vegetation and low-lying, "wetter" sites (peak water depths averaged 70 cm), perhaps because nests are usually placed over water or near open water (Weller 1961, Palmer 1962, Kushlan 1973, Aniskowicz 1981). In tidewater areas of Chesapeake Bay, Stewart and Robbins (1958) reported abundance in narrow-leaved cattail (TYPHA ANGUSTIFOLIA) marshes, common in other coarse marsh types and weak-stemmed brackish marsh types, but scarcity in salt marshes.
In the Florida Everglades, observed from airboats at densities (birds/km) of 0.13 in canals, 0.04 in open grasslands, and 0.37 along airboat trails (Frederick et al. 1990). Most individuals were seen in mixed sawgrass (CLADIUM JAMAICENSE) and cattail (29% of birds), homogeneous sawgrass (23%), and homogeneous cattail (9%), and, within these vegetative associations, were seen twice as frequently in dense than sparse stands (Frederick et al. 1990). Open sloughs, rush prairies, mats of emergent vegetation, and burn areas were used infrequently (Frederick et al. 1990, but see Kushlan 1973). The strong association with cattail in northern regions (e.g., Weller 1961, Swift 1987, Manci and Rusch 1988, Gibbs and Melvin 1990) may occur because cattail is the most common tall plant growing in dense stands above deep water in most northern areas (Frederick et al. 1990). In South Carolina, nests frequently were associated with boat-tailed grackle colonies (Post and Seals 1993).
Sites where bitterns were flushed during spring migration in Missouri (n = 61) had a mean water depth of 23 cm, vegetation height of 64 cm, and stem density of 287 stems/meter squared (Reid 1989), and were dominated by burreed (SPARGANIUM EURYCARPUM), water smartweed (POLYGONUM COCCINEUM), and cattail. Reid (1989) observed a shift in habitat use to taller (121 cm), sparser (165 stems/meter squared) stands in fall (n = 15 flush sites). Feeding platforms (n = 52) occurred over water averaging 29 cm in depth and among stands of emergent vegetation averaging 199 stems/meter squared.
NON-BREEDING: Overwintering birds occur in brackish and saline swamps and marshes (Palmer 1962, Hancock and Kushlan 1984), but little is known about wintering habitats.
Food Comments: Eats small fishes, amphibians, leeches, slugs, snails, crustaceans, insects, and occasionally small mammals (Palmer 1962); possibly the eggs and young of marsh-nesting blackbirds. Feeds young by regurgitation. Forages in shallow water or along banks. Heavy growths of cattail, bulrush, wild rice, burreed, water smartweed, and reeds are favored feeding sites (Brewer et al. 1991). The repertoire of feeding behaviors is relatively small (Kushlan 1978), and among 28 recognized behaviors used by herons, only four are employed: standing in place; walking slowly; neck swaying (to overcome glare, to increase camouflage, or to have muscles in movement when strike begins); and wing-flicking, which involves quick, repeated extension and retraction of wings that may startle prey from hiding (Sutton 1936). The small size and highly compressed trunk enable it to move easily through dense vegetation. It forages by stalking along branches and reeds, and often clings to clumps of vegetation above water-level, aided by its short, outer toes and long, curved claws. It may build foraging platforms of bent reeds at productive feeding sites (Weller 1961, Reid 1989), and frequent these platforms during late-incubation and brood-rearing periods (Reid 1989). Clinging to emergent vegetation and constructing platforms enables it to forage at water depths as great as those of the largest North American herons (25-60 cm depth).
The small, thin bill is probably an adaptation for securing small, fast-moving prey (Kushlan 1978), an observation supported by dietary analyses. Contents of 93 stomachs from Florida included 40% fish (top minnows, mud minnows, yellow perch, and sunfish), 21% dragonflies, 12% other aquatic insects, and 10% crustaceans (mainly crayfish (Howell 1932)). Six stomachs from Pennsylvania contained small mammals, beetles, fish, a snake, and vegetable matter (Warren 1890). Nesting birds consumed damselflies, grasshoppers, other insects, and tadpoles in Iowa (Weller 1961). Also may prey on the eggs and young of yellow-headed blackbirds (XANTHOCEPHALUS XANTHOCEPHALUS) (Roberts 1936, cited in Hancock and Kushlan 1984). Other foods include frogs, lizards, mollusks, and leeches (Bent 1926).
Stewardship Overview: The Least Bittern (Ixobrychus exilis) breeds in marshes in the western United States and throughout much of the eastern United States, the Caribbean, and parts of Mexico and northern Central America (Gibbs et al. 1992). Most of the birds in the United States migrate to the neotropics for winter, but some remain in southern parts of the United States, including southern California (especially in the Salton Sink and the lower Colorado River valley), southern and coastal Texas, and the coastal plain of Maryland south to Florida (Rosenberg et al. 1991, Gibbs et al. 1992, Patten et al. 2003). Nests in freshwater wetlands with dense, tall growths of emergent vegetation interspersed with open water, and feeds predominantly on insects, crustaceans, and fish. Because the Least Bitten is a secretive marsh bird, its population status and trends are poorly understood (Gibbs et al. 1992, Sterling 2008), but population declines have likely been extensive given the widespread loss of marsh habitat across its range (Gibbs et al. 1992, Sterling 2008). The primary threat to this species is the loss and degradation of its freshwater marsh habitat (Gibbs et al. 1992).
Management and Research needs across their range include: 1) Preserve, protect, and restore shallow marsh habitat (larger than 10 ha) with dense emergent vegetation; 2) Identify and protect existing marsh habitat used for breeding, wintering, and dispersing; 3) Manage summer wetlands to increase the availability of suitable Least Bittern habitat; 4) Minimize disturbance impacts during nesting season; 5) Research breeding biology across range, and identify occurrences that support core populations and key factors that limit nest success; 6) Sample eggs at key sites to measure contaminants and effects of toxins on Least Bitterns; 7) Monitor effects of selenium, other toxins, and salts where water quality in breeding habitat has been compromised; 8) Determine the minimum patch size of suitable breeding habitat; 9) Study social structure and nest success of ?loose colonies? compared to non-colonial populations; 10) Implement rangewide monitoring protocol to determine population status and monitor trends (Gibbs et al. 1992, Sterling 2008). Census techniques for wetland birds include using tape-recorded vocalizations to elicit responses from breeding birds. Standardized techniques should be used throughout their range to monitor populations of this secretive species. Management of impoundments on federal and state wildlife areas for dense, emergent vegetation and deep water will help create suitable habitat and encourage the expansion of populations (Gibbs and Melvin 1992).
Restoration Potential: Readily use wetlands created by artificial impoundments (Andrle and Carroll 1988, Gibbs and Melvin 1990), and seem adaptable to a wide range of wetland habitats, e.g., brackish, coastal marshes, artificial impoundments, and natural freshwater, palustrine, lacustrine, and riverine emergent wetlands. These traits could facilitate restoration or expansion of populations in regions where marshland losses have been high (Connecticut, Rhode Island, central New York, New Jersey, and Maryland) or where marshlands were scarce originally (central Pennsylvania and West Virginia). Information on reproduction and population structure is too scarce, however, to state anything definitive about the potential for management to stabilize or increase populations (Gibbs and Melvin 1992).
Preserve Selection & Design Considerations: Wetland area is a consideration for preserve design because frequency of occurrence is greater on larger than on smaller wetlands (Brown and Dinsmore 1986). A minimum area of five or more hectares may be sufficient to support nesting activity (Brown and Dinsmore 1986, Gibbs and Melvin 1990). Cattail stands of at least 15 acres interspersed with open water are most suitable for breeding (Evers 1992). Gibbs and Melvin (1990), however, observed territorial birds on wetlands as small as 0.4 ha in Maine. Vegetative features of wetland preserves should include dense (> 100 stems per square meter) and tall (greater than one meter) stands of emergent vegetation (e.g., cattail or bulrush) in deep-water (10-50 cm) well-interspersed with patches of open water (Weller and Spatcher 1965, Fredrickson and Reid 1986, Reid 1989). Flooded vegetation is likely required for nesting (Weller 1961). Stable water levels will prevent nest flooding, may reduce predation, and can promote dense growth of emergents. If a dynamic wetland system is stabilized over a long period, however, productivity of a site can decline. Retaining riparian vegetation can buffer the wetland ecosystem against upland runoff that may contain silt and contaminants (Gibbs and Melvin 1992).
Management Requirements: Preservation, protection, and improvement of wetland habitats, particularly large (greater than five ha), shallow wetlands with dense growths of robust, emergent vegetation, is the most urgent management need. Wetlands used for breeding also need to be protected from chemical contamination, siltation, eutrophication, and other forms of pollution that directly harm bitterns or their food supplies. Equal ratios of cover to open water are preferred, so wetland managers may need to periodically reverse vegetative succession while maintaining suitable habitats nearby to serve as alternate nesting areas during wetland manipulations (e.g., at other wetlands in a complex).
Because bitterns occur in many states at wetlands managed by state and federal agencies for waterfowl, there is ample opportunity for making minor alterations to existing management schemes to improve nesting habitat. For example, dense stands of cattail and bulrush, often eliminated with cutting, burning, or flooding treatments to improve waterfowl habitat, can be partially retained as habitat. Maintaining stands of deep-water (10-30 cm) cattail is important because water levels at or below the base of emergent vegetation may reduce nesting activity by least bitterns (Weller 1961), which prefer foraging over deep water (10-50 cm). Where littoral vegetation is scarce, moist-soil plant management (Fredrickson and Taylor 1982) provides a cost-effective method involving water level manipulation to reestablish and promote growth of dense stands of emergent vegetation. Complete drawdowns, sometimes undertaken for waterfowl management, should be avoided so that populations of small fish and dragonfly larvae, which make up the majority of the diet, are conserved for the following season. Liming and fertilizing dikes and adjacent fields can increase the productivity and raise the pH of many nutrient-poor, acidic wetlands in the northeastern region. Infestations of purple loosestrife, which are detrimental, can be controlled with herbicides, physical removal, and burning (Gibbs and Melvin 1992).
Monitoring Requirements: Special surveys need to be developed to better determine population distribution and assess trends and responses to habitat features (Gibbs and Melvin 1992). Detected too infrequently on North American Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) routes during the period 1966-89 to assess population trends in any state or province in North America except Florida. Breed in localized habitats that usually occur away from roadsides, and their seasonal peak of vocal activity (May) usually occurs when BBS routes are not run. Extremely low sighting frequencies on Christmas Bird Counts prompted Butcher (1989) to state that a special monitoring program should be initiated immediately.
Broadcast of tape-recorded calls is useful for eliciting responses from these rarely seen birds and surveying their populations (Manci and Rusch 1988, Swift et al. 1988, Gibbs and Melvin 1990, Kibbe 1989). Such surveys can be coordinated with surveys of other marshbirds (Swift 1987, Manci and Rusch 1988, Gibbs and Melvin 1990), many of which are also of management concern (e.g., pied-billed grebe (PODILYMBUS PODICEPS), American bittern, and black tern (CHLIDONIAS NIGER). If so designed, surveys can be used to evaluate population responses to habitat features in addition to assessing population trends. Surveys should initially be conducted annually (for two to three years) at many sites to provide baseline data on population distributions and abundance in a given region. Repeated surveys (e.g., once every 3-5 years) can then be used to determine population trends. Surveys should be conducted during the peak of nesting activity, which may be later than for other marsh birds, e.g., in early June (Swift et al. 1988, Frederick et al. 1990). Local populations should be exposed to no more than three surveys per year to avoid undue harassment of nesting birds. Standardization of survey methodology and coordination of state and regional surveys is necessary for results to be comparable among years and areas. Coordination of surveys might best be accomplished by having a single regional or national agency responsible for administering survey efforts (Gibbs and Melvin 1992).
Initiate standardized monitoring programs to determine abundance and distribution and to evaluate trends in populations.
Conduct studies of wetland vegetation, water levels, water quality, and minimum wetland area during nesting, migration, and over-wintering seasons.
Conduct studies on breeding biology to examine movements and patterns of habitat use, causes and rates of juvenile and adult mortality, sources of nest failure, ability to renest, juvenile dispersal patterns, mating systems and philopatry, and diet. This information could be obtained partly through radio-telemetry and banding studies. Telemetry studies are contingent upon development of appropriate capture techniques.
Identify major stop-over sites for overwintering and migrating.
Determine the effects of diseases, parasites, contaminants, and weather during breeding and overwintering.
Monitor contaminant levels in birds and their eggs in agricultural and industrialized regions.
Evaluate the effects of open-water management and mosquito-ditching programs at brackish and salt marshes.
Evaluate the effects of marshland invasion by phragmites and purple loosestrife.
Biological Research Needs: 1) Research breeding biology across range, and identify occurrences that support core populations and key factors that limit nest success; 2) Sample eggs at key sites to measure contaminants and effects of toxins on Least Bitterns; 3) Monitor effects of selenium, other toxins, and salts where water quality in breeding habitat has been compromised; 4) Determine the minimum patch size of suitable breeding habitat; 5) Study social structure and nest success of ?loose colonies? compared to non-colonial populations (Sterling 2008).
Separation Justification: Separation distance arbitrary and does not attempt to delineate populations or metapopulations. No available information on dispersal characteristics. Presumably a significant number of birds end up nesting in sites at least several kilometers from their natal area.
Management Information Acknowledgments: Parts of this abstract were originally published by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in Schneider and Pence (1992). Funding for the preparation of the original document was made possible by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Newton Corner, MA. The authors are grateful to the library staff of the Smithsonian Institution, the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service), and the Peabody Museum at Yale University for bibliographic assistance. J. Longcore and D. McAuley facilitated a bibliographic computer search and provided other logistical support. The Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife provided office space and computer access during the preparation of this report. Critical review of an earlier draft of the report was provided by P. Frederick, F. Reid, and B. Swift. K. E. and H. C. Gibbs provided much indirect support to J.P.G.
Ames, J.H. 1897. Rare birds taken in Toronto and vicinity. Auk 14:411-412.
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Bogner, H. et G. Baldassarre. 2002. Home range, movement, and nesting of leasts bitterns in western New York. The Wilson Bulletin: Vol. 114, No. 3. p. 297-308.
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Causey, M.K. and J.B. Graves. 1969. Insecticide residues in Least Bittern eggs. The Wilson Bulletin, Vol. 81, No. 3: 340-341.
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Fleming, W. J., D. R. Clar, Jr., and C. J. Henny. 1983. Organochlorine pesticides and PCB's: a continuing problem for the 1980's. Trans. N. Amer. Wildl. and Nat. Resour. Conf. 48:186-99.
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Frederick, P. C., et al. 1990. Relative abundance and habitat preferences of least bitterns (IXOBRYCHUS EXILIS) in the Everglades. Florida Field Nat. 18:1-20.
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French, J.G. 2001. Survey of Breeding Evidence for the Least Bittern, Black Tern, King Rail, and Yellow Rail in the Severn Sound Waterhshed. Unpublished report. Wye Marsh Wildlife Centre. Midland, Ontario. 21 pp.
Friend, M. 1987. Field Guide to Wildlife Diseases. Vol. 1: General Field Procedures and Diseases of Migratory Birds. Fish and Wildlife Service Resource Publication 167. 225 pp.
Gibbs, J. P., F. A. Reid, and S. M. Melvin. 1992. Least Bittern (Ixobrychus exilis). No. 17 in A. Poole, P. Stettenheim and F. Gill, editors. The Birds of North America. The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia and The American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, D.C.
Gibbs, J. P., F. A. Reid, and S. M. Melvin. 1992. Least bittern. Birds North Amer. 17: 1-12.
Gibbs, J. P., and S. M. Melvin. 1992. Least bittern, IXOBRYCHUS EXILIS. Pages 71-88 in K. J. Schneider and D. M. Pence, editors. Migratory nongame birds of management concern in the Northeast. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Newton Corner, Massachusetts. 400 pp.
Gibbs, J.P., F.A. Reid and S. Melvin. 1992. Least Bittern; The Birds of North America. Vol. 1, No. 17. American Orinithologists' Union. The Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.
Gibbs, J.P., F.A. Reid and S.M. Melvin. 1992. Least Bittern. The Birds of North America, No. 17 (A. Poole, P. Stettenheim and F. Gill, Eds.) Philadelphia: The Academy of Natural Sciences; Washington, DC: The American Ornithologists' Union. 12 pp.
Gibbs, J.P., F.A. Reid, and S.M. Melvin. 1992. Least Bittern (Ixobrychus exilis). In A. Poole, P. Stettenheim, and F. Gill, editors, The Birds of North America, No. 17. Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, and American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, DC.
Gibbs, J.P., S.M. Melvin, G. Hammerson, and D.W. Mehlman. 1992. Species Management Abstract for Least Bittern (Ixobrychus exilis). The Nature Conservancy. Arlington, VA. Unpaginated.
Gibbs, J.P., and S.M. Melvin. 1990. An assessment of wading birds and other wetlands avifauna and their habitats in Maine. Maine Department of Inland Fish. and Wildlife, Bangor, Maine. 61 pp. Unpublished report.
Godfrey, W. E. 1967. Les oiseaux du Canada.. Bulletin No 203, No 73 de la série Biologie. Musée national du Canada 506 p.
Godfrey, W.E. 1986. The Birds of Canada. Revised Edition. National Museums of Canada, National Museum of Natural Sciences, Ottawa, Ontario. 595 pp.
Guillory, H.D. 1973. Motor vehicles and barbed wire fences as major mortality factors for the least bittern in southwestern Louisiana. Inland Bird Banding News 45:176-177.
Hancock, J., and J. Kushlan. 1984. The Herons Handbook. Croom Helm, Ltd., Kent, England. 288 pp.
Hands, H. M., R. D. Drobney, and M. R. Ryan. 1989. Status of the least bittern in the northcentral United States. Missouri Coop. Fish Wildl. Res. Unit Rep. 13 pp.
Hands, H.M., et al. 1989. Status of the least bittern in the northcentral United States. Migratory Bird Office, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Twin Cities, MN. 13pp.
Hansen, S. C. 1984. Breeding of the least bittern in Pottawatomie County, Kansas. Kansas Ornithological Society Bulletin 35:37-39.
Howell, A. H. 1932. Florida bird life. Coward-McCann, New York.
James R.D. 1999. Update COSEWIC status report on Least Bittern (Ixobrychus exilis). COSEWIC Committee on the status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada.
James, R.D. 1999. Updated status report on the Least Bittern (IXOBRYCHUS EXILIS). Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC). 8 pp.
Jorde, D. G., J. R. Longcore, and P. W. Brown. 1989. Tidal and nontidal wetlands of northern Atlantic states. Pages 1-26 in L. M. Smith, R. L. Pederson, and R. M. Kaminiski (editors). Habitat management for migrating and Wintering waterfowl in North America. Texas Tech. Univ. Press, Lubbock, Texas.
Kennicott, R. 1855. Catalogue of animals observed in Cook County, Illinois. Trans. Ill. State Agr. Soc. for 1835-1855, Vol. 1: 580-591.
Kent, T. 1951. The least bitterns of Swan Lake. Iowa Bird Life 21:59-61.
Kibbe, D. 1989. Survey of Vermont's rare marshland bird species. Unpubl. report, Hoboken, New Jersey. 8 pp.
Kushlan, J. A. 1973. Least bittern nesting colonially. Auk 90:685-686.
Kushlan, J. A. 1978. Feeding ecology of wading birds. National Audubon Society Res. Rep. 7:249-98.
Létourneau, V. 2002. Petit blongios. QuébecOiseaux, vol.14, Hors série. p.32-34.
Manci, K. M., and D. H. Rusch. 1988. Indices to distribution and abundance of some inconspicuous waterbirds at Horicon Marsh. Journal of Field Ornithology 59:67-75.
Manitoba Avian Research Committee. 2003. The Birds of Manitoba. Manitoba Naturalists Society, Winnipeg, Manitoba. 504 pp.
McVaugh, W., Jr. 1975. The development of four North American herons (II). Living Bird 14:163-183.
Meanley, B. 1985. The marsh hen: a natural history of the clapper rail of the Atlantic coast salt marsh. Tidewater Publishers, Centreville, MD. 123 pp.
Orians, G. H. 1980. Some adaptations of marsh-nesting blackbirds. Princeton Univ. Press. 295 pp.
Post, W., and C.A. Seals. 1993. Nesting association of Least Bitterns and Boat-tailed Grackles. Condor 95(1):139-144.
Reid, F. A. 1989. Differential habitat use by waterbirds in a managed wetland complex. University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri. Ph.D. dissertation. 243 pp.
Ryser, F. A. 1985. Birds of the Great Plains: A Natural History. University of Nevada Press. Reno and Las Vegas, Nevada.
SWIFT, B.L., S.R. ORMAN AND J.W. OZARD. 1988. RESPONSE OF LEAST BITTERN TO TAPE-RECORDED CALLS. WILSON BULL. 100(3):496-499.
Sandilands, A. P., and C. A. Campbell. 1988. Status report on the Least Bittern, IXOBRYCHUS EXILIS. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada, Ottawa (COSEWIC), Ontario. 34 pp.
Sandilands, A.P. and C.A. Campbell. 1987. Status Report on: The Least Bittern, Ixobrychus exilis, in Canada. COSEWIC report.. 26 pp.
Sandilands, A.P. and C.A. Campbell. 1988. Status report on the Least Bittern, Ixobrychus exilis. Cosewic Report.
Sutherland, D.A, and M.J. Austen. 1999. COSSARO Candidate V,T,E Species Evaluation Form for Least Bittern (Ixobrychus exilis). Unpublished report prepared for Committee On the Status of Species At Risk in Ontario. 5 + appendices pp.
Sutherland, D.A., M. Austen, and A.E. Zammit. 2001. COSSARO Candidate V,T,E Species Evaluation Form for Least Bittern (Ixobrychus exilis). Unpublished report prepared for Committee On the Status of Species At Risk in Ontario. 5 + appendices pp.
Swift, B. L. 1987. An analysis of avian breeding habitats in Hudson river tidal marshes. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Fish and Wildlife, Delmar, New York. Unpublished report. 62 pp.
Swift, B. L., S. R. Orman, and J. W. Ozard. 1988. Response of least bitterns to tape-recorded calls. Wilson Bulletin 100:496-499.
Swift, B.L., S.R. Orman and J.W. Ozard. 1988. Response of Least Bitterns to tape-recorded calls. The Wilson Bulletin, 100(3): 496-499.
Trautman, M. B. 1940. The birds of Buckeye Lake. Misc. Publ. Zool. No. 44, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 466 pp.
U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1987. MIGRATORY NONGAME BIRDS OF MANAGEMENT CONCERN IN THE UNITED STATES: THE 1987 LIST.
Weller, M. W. 1961. Breeding biology of the least bittern. Wilson Bulletin. 73:11-35.
Weller, M. W., and C. S. Spatcher. 1965. Role of habitat in the distribution and abundance of marsh birds. Iowa State University Agricultural and Home Economics Experiment Station Special Report No. 43. Ames, Iowa. 31 pp.
Weller, M.W. 1961. Breeding biology of the Least Bittern. The Wilson Bulletin, 73(1): 11-35.
Weller, M.W. and C.S. Spatcher. 1965. Role of habitat in the distribution and abundance of marsh birds. Agricultural and Home Econ. Expt. Stn. Special Rep. No. 43. Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa.
Wood, N. A. 1951. The birds of Michigan. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Museum of Zoology Miscellaneous Publication No. 75. 559pp.


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Legalization Laws Are Forcing Employers to Rethink Cannabis Policies
Kathryn MoodyMarch 15, 2018
With medical cannabis now legal in 30 states, and adult-use legal in 9, testing employees for legal cannabis consumption suddenly makes less sense. (BENCHAMAT1234/iStock)
Editor's Note: This article, which originally appeared in HR Dive, offers insight into how cannabis is viewed in the human resources field. Leafly is posting it courtesy of HR Dive's parent company, IndustryDive.com.
WASHINGTON, D.C. — The Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) holds a panel on state and national drug law each year at its employment law and legislative conference, but this year shifts in state law — and deep tragedy — have brought the issue to the forefront.
Faced with legal medical marijuana in 30 states, what's an employer to do? Many are adapting to the new reality.
James Reidy, an attorney at Sheehan Phinney Bass & Green PA, jokingly said he's become known as the "pot lawyer" partly thanks to the wave of marijuana laws and court precedent that has forced employers to reconsider their drug and alcohol policies and testing procedures. At the same time, the opioid crisis continues to rout communities and is draining employers of talent and productivity dollars, prompting many into action.
Federal action isn't clarifying matters much. Earlier this year, U.S. Attorney General Jeff Sessions rolled back the 2013 Obama-era Cole memo that essentially relaxed federal enforcement of marijuana law on states that had legalized its use. So far, employers don't have much detail on how this newly sparked conflict between state and federal law will look.
What's an employer to do? That's the question of the day.
Social Mores Keep Evolving
On a personal level, social mores on marijuana continue their massive sea change, and in a tight labor market, its now almost a liability in some workplaces to have a zero tolerance policy on drug use, Reidy said.
In a tight labor market, it now may be a liability in some workplaces to have a zero tolerance policy for cannabis.
While CEOs still tend to opt for termination over rehabilitation for drug use, the reality is that employers may not be able to afford to do so while recruitment and retention remain a key HR concern.
During the panel, many attendees reported they mandated post-accident drug testing, reasonable suspicion testing and random testing, but Reidy noted that national numbers on all three practices were trending downward. If anything, employers may need to reconsider their drug testing and use policies — both to accommodate changing marijuana law and to reach out to those struggling with addiction.
Drug Use by the Numbers
If an HR manager hasn't dealt with a drug issue at their workplace yet, its likely they will very soon. According to stats that Reidy shared:
28.6 million people used an illicit drug in the prior month, and 24 million of those had used marijuana
71% of employers are impacted by prescription drug abuse
81% of employers lack a comprehensive drug-free workplace policy (though Reidy said he doubts that stat)
Employers are dealing with the whole spectrum of drug use, from alcohol and marijuana all the way up to heroin abuse — already a difficult issue without the myriad of state laws varying on marijuana's legal status.
Generally, employees that abuse drugs contribute to increased turnover and are less productive at work, making this a central issue of modern workplace management.
Cannabis Impairment in the Workplace: Easy to Discuss, Difficult to Detect
Current State of the Laws
Currently, 30 states and D.C. have legalized marijuana in some form, while nine states and Washington D.C. have legalized it recreationally. The federal government maintains its hardline stance against marijuana, and it remains wholly illegal at the federal level. That disconnect has prompted employers to reconsider how they respond to marijuana use outside of work, but even testing at work has come under some scrutiny.
There are currently no widely adopted tests or standards regarding how much THC in the body is acceptable.
Upon an informal poll of the room, some attendees noted that they had changed their drug policies and testing procedures to remove marijuana testing entirely from their processes.
Employers generally retain the right to discipline an employee who is impaired by drugs while at work. But while blood alcohol content is a well-accepted standard of how impaired someone is, for example, there are currently no widely adopted tests for how much THC in the body (the cannabinoids responsible for the mind-altering aspects of marijuana) is considered acceptable. And hair follicle tests can show results differently for different hair types, which could create an issue of disparate impact, Reidy said.
Identifying Impairment Isn't Easy
So who is impaired, and therefore breaking policy, while on the job, especially in states where marijuana is legal recreationally? Good luck finding out.
Beyond marijuana legalization, some states are wading into laws around employee rights and protections regarding marijuana use. Maine now prohibits employers from discriminating against workers based on their marijuana use outside of work, for example.
Will states ultimately win out over the current federal stance? "Don't bet the farm on it," Reidy said — mostly thanks to worker's compensation.
Carriers still do not pay for medical marijuana as part of an injured worker's treatment, and they rely on federal law to maintain that position. After the 2013 Cole memo, some courts began to force carriers to pay up for medical marijuana treatments due to the low risk of prosecution, Reidy said, but now that memo is no longer in play.
How long does THC stay in your system?
Opioid Crisis is Changing the Workplace
Marijuana legalization is a complex aspect of legal compliance, but opioids have forced employers to reconsider how they approach addiction. As already noted, addiction places huge drains on employer productivity — and that doesn't even account for the very human cost of addiction injury and death. One in five workplace injuries and near misses were caused by misuse of drugs, and opioid abuse alone can cost employers $12 billion each year, Reidy noted.
Forward-thinking HR people may face serious barriers in perception on this issue, however; while 71% of employers say addiction is a disease that needs treatment, 65% are likely to fire someone with an opioid addiction.
In response, Reidy suggests a two-pronged approach that includes education, especially of company supervisors, and alternative methods of pain management. HR will need to align with employee assistance programs (EAPs) and with workers' comp providers to lessen the use of opioids and get provider buy-in for the anti-opioid direction.
Employers also can work toward being more proactive in how they handle addiction by ensuring confidential access to help if asked and generally not opting for immediate termination if they can help it — though that doesn't mean employers are required to ignore drug problems. (They should, however, review any applicable disability nondiscrimination laws.)
How to Get Hired to Work in the Legal Cannabis Industry Part 3: Getting Hired as a Grower
What's a Better Work Policy?
One major theme from the panel: Adopt or update your comprehensive drug and alcohol policy now.
Currently, zero-tolerance policies (including marijuana) are still acceptable, Reidy said. But increasingly, the pressure to recruit and retain individuals are pushing HR departments to relax these policies.
Either way, policies must:
Prohibit the use, possession and sale of drugs on company premises;
Forbid showing up to work under the influence;
Reserve the right to conduct searches on workstations; and
Ensure compliance with applicable state and federal laws.
If you do continue to test employees for drug use, be sure to fully explain the testing procedures. Describe what happens if a test is positive or if the employee refuses to take the test. And have employees who take prescription medications that could impair performance inform the employer — though Reidy notes that this can get complicated and involve health disclosures an employee may not have wanted to make otherwise.
ADA and Other Concerns
Does the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) protect medical marijuana users? No. Not yet, anyway. Currently, while medical marijuana use is "not permitted" as a reasonable accommodation, states have their own policies on this. One case in Connecticut upheld the status of a qualified medical marijuana patient, which could signal future change in this area.
Generally, however, if your conduct and performance expectations are clear and an employee is impaired, you can still discipline them. Consistency is key.
While not many workplaces are considered 'recovery friendly' as of yet, more employers may move in that direction as the war for talent continues to heat up — and as more employers recognize the social good it can do for communities, Reidy said. Like the increased acceptance of hiring the formerly incarcerated, drug use rehabilitation at work may soon be seen as a boon for employers and employees alike.
drug testinglegalization
Kathryn Moody
Kathryn is the editor of HR Dive, part of the IndustryDive.com group of publications. This article appears courtesy of IndustryDive.com.
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Jeffrey Avery
it is amazing how, childrens health issues(((MMJ saving there lives)))doesn't affect the thinking of the big wigs/any,public or private sector(generally speaking,of coarse),,,but,,,companies start to loose a lil' money-in the form of lost productivity–and boy,they flip on a dime… it's all a matter of perseption really,,,,,,,take for instance ,my comment of "flipped on a dime"…you might say that employers are very slow to change,true when you look only at time by itself,but if you compare it to how long the fight for mmj has been going on,then you get a much different picture of things……i gladly welcome,someone/anyone to challenge me…i would like to debate this topic further,,,remember ,""more speach"" is the answer,,thank you and peace out
FlunkedAgain
I've heard of a Wall Street firm that tests for Abuse, not Use. If you can do your job nobody cares.
I've worked with Alcoholics whose intoxication wasn't obvious to the casual observer.
Either you can do the job, or you can't. That should be the deciding factor.
If you let someone go, and they go to work for your competitor, who will be hurt the most?
It sounds like the same testing methods that the military used (uses?), which was a Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) test. Essentially, if it identified any presence of THC, then the sample was further tested to see how much THC the sample contained to rule out "second hand smoke" claims — or "use vs. abuse", as in your example.
Stores in

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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Cecily Strong Leaves Saturday Night Live After 11 Seasons
Honoree Cecily Strong speaks onstage during the 21st Annual Bergh Ball hosted by the ASPCA at The Plaza Hotel in New York on April 19, 2018. (Jamie McCarthy/Getty Images for ASPCA)
After 11 seasons, Cecily Strong has said farewell to "Saturday Night Live."
A few hours before the last episode of the season Saturday, the TV show's Instagram account posted a cue card saying, "we'll miss you, Cecily." The caption read "Tonight we send off one of the best to ever do it."
A two-time Emmy nominee for her work on the show, Strong was known for characters like the Girl You Wish You Hadn't Started a Conversation With At a Party and impressions of people like Fox News host Judge Jeanine Pirro and U.S. Rep. Marjorie Taylor Green.
During Saturday's show, she gave a personal statement.
"I had a lot of fun here," she said. "And I feel really lucky that I have had so many of the best moments of my life in this place, and with these people that I love so much."
It's latest in a string of high-profile departures for "Saturday Night Live" this year, including Pete Davidson, Chris Redd, Kate McKinnon, Kyle Mooney, and Aidy Bryant. Strong joined the show in 2012, during the 38th season, and has since gone on to appear in movies, including the 2016 "Ghostbusters," and television shows, like Apple TV+'s "Schmigadoon!"
She and host Austin Butler closed out the episode with a performance of "Blue Christmas."
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Yearling cubs reclininghttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/yearling-cubs-reclining-image159055585.html
Female brown bear suckling two 1-year-old cubs (Ursus arctos arctos) in the snow in winter
Female brown bear suckling two 1-year-old cubs (Ursus arctos arctos) in the snow in winterhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-image-female-brown-bear-suckling-two-1-year-old-cubs-ursus-arctos-arctos-167406129.html
Brown bear feeding on sockeye salmon, Kamchatka, Russia.
Brown bear feeding on sockeye salmon, Kamchatka, Russia.https://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/brown-bear-feeding-on-sockeye-salmon-kamchatka-russia-image221375095.html
Brown Bears / Grizzly Bears
Brown Bears / Grizzly Bearshttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-brown-bears-grizzly-bears-38217371.html
A coastal brown bear / grizzly bear walks a meandering shoreline in search of food scraps in Katmai National Park, Alaska
A coastal brown bear / grizzly bear walks a meandering shoreline in search of food scraps in Katmai National Park, Alaskahttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-a-coastal-brown-bear-grizzly-bear-walks-a-meandering-shoreline-in-70815216.html
Brown bears, Lake Clark National Park, Alaska, USA
Brown bears, Lake Clark National Park, Alaska, USAhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/brown-bears-lake-clark-national-park-alaska-usa-image278502272.html
Brown bears feeding on salmon in river in Yuzhno Kamchatsky national nature reserve in Kamchatka in Russian Far East 2008
Brown bears feeding on salmon in river in Yuzhno Kamchatsky national nature reserve in Kamchatka in Russian Far East 2008https://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-brown-bears-feeding-on-salmon-in-river-in-yuzhno-kamchatsky-national-19329482.html
Brown bear or grizzly bear, Ursus arctos horribilis, sow sharing salmon with cub.
Brown bear or grizzly bear, Ursus arctos horribilis, sow sharing salmon with cub.https://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-brown-bear-or-grizzly-bear-ursus-arctos-horribilis-sow-sharing-salmon-25552812.html
Brown Bearshttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/brown-bears-image278150978.html
Mother and cub grizzly bears being playfully aggressive
Mother and cub grizzly bears being playfully aggressivehttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-mother-and-cub-grizzly-bears-being-playfully-aggressive-39628541.html
Family of Brown bears, Ursus arctos, in forest, Suomussalmi, Finland
Family of Brown bears, Ursus arctos, in forest, Suomussalmi, Finlandhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-family-of-brown-bears-ursus-arctos-in-forest-suomussalmi-finland-49270516.html
Brown bears (father, mother, son)
Brown bears (father, mother, son)https://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-brown-bears-father-mother-son-29919639.html
A Grizzly Bear sow with cubs Lake Clark National Park Alaska
A Grizzly Bear sow with cubs Lake Clark National Park Alaskahttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-a-grizzly-bear-sow-with-cubs-lake-clark-national-park-alaska-19456450.html
Grizzly Bear, Ursus arctos horriblis, relaxing on his back in the Brooks River, Katmai National Park, Alaska, USA
Grizzly Bear, Ursus arctos horriblis, relaxing on his back in the Brooks River, Katmai National Park, Alaska, USAhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-grizzly-bear-ursus-arctos-horriblis-relaxing-on-his-back-in-the-brooks-39958698.html
CAPTIVE Grizzly bears playing at the Alaska Wildlife Conservation Center CAPTIVE
CAPTIVE Grizzly bears playing at the Alaska Wildlife Conservation Center CAPTIVEhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-captive-grizzly-bears-playing-at-the-alaska-wildlife-conservation-32259963.html
Brown bears, Katmai National Park, Alaskahttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-brown-bears-katmai-national-park-alaska-29836108.html
two brown bears - in snow / ursus arctos
two brown bears - in snow / ursus arctoshttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/two-brown-bears-in-snow-ursus-arctos-image284056121.html
Brown bear cubs (Ursus arctos) on tidal flat in Lake Clark National Park, Alaska
Brown bear cubs (Ursus arctos) on tidal flat in Lake Clark National Park, Alaskahttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-brown-bear-cubs-ursus-arctos-on-tidal-flat-in-lake-clark-national-120451632.html
Grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) portrait with back light.
Grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) portrait with back light.https://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/grizzly-bear-ursus-arctos-horribilis-portrait-with-back-light-image67606535.html
The Three Little Bears
The Three Little Bearshttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-the-three-little-bears-41318657.html
Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) feeding on salmon, Brooks River, Katmai National Park, SW Alaska
Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) feeding on salmon, Brooks River, Katmai National Park, SW Alaskahttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-brown-bears-ursus-arctos-feeding-on-salmon-brooks-river-katmai-national-14012260.html
Brown bears, Lake Clark National Park, Alaska, USAhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/brown-bears-lake-clark-national-park-alaska-usa-image66519749.html
Brown bears in Yuzhno Kamchatsky national nature reserve in Kamchatka in Russian Far East 2008
Brown bears in Yuzhno Kamchatsky national nature reserve in Kamchatka in Russian Far East 2008https://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-brown-bears-in-yuzhno-kamchatsky-national-nature-reserve-in-kamchatka-19329122.html
Canada, Nunavut Territory, Repulse Bay, Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus) walking on rocky hilltop in Harbour Islands on overcast mor
Canada, Nunavut Territory, Repulse Bay, Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus) walking on rocky hilltop in Harbour Islands on overcast morhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-canada-nunavut-territory-repulse-bay-polar-bear-ursus-maritimus-walking-94063545.html
Brown Bearshttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-brown-bears-22395158.html
Grizzly bears fighting, playing being aggressive with each other.
Grizzly bears fighting, playing being aggressive with each other.https://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-grizzly-bears-fighting-playing-being-aggressive-with-each-other-39628176.html
Brown Bears / Grizzly Bears Catching Salmon
Brown Bears / Grizzly Bears Catching Salmonhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-brown-bears-grizzly-bears-catching-salmon-38179017.html
Three Grizzly Bears, Ursus arctos, mother and two Spring Cubs, running across the tidal flats of the Cook Inlet, Alaska, USA
Three Grizzly Bears, Ursus arctos, mother and two Spring Cubs, running across the tidal flats of the Cook Inlet, Alaska, USAhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-three-grizzly-bears-ursus-arctos-mother-and-two-spring-cubs-running-93889151.html
Brown bears sleeping on the beach at Kamishak Bay, McNeil River State Game Sanctuary, Southwest Alaska, Summer
Brown bears sleeping on the beach at Kamishak Bay, McNeil River State Game Sanctuary, Southwest Alaska, Summerhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-brown-bears-sleeping-on-the-beach-at-kamishak-bay-mcneil-river-state-37570756.html
CAPTIVE Grizzly bears playing at the Alaska Wildlife Conservation Center CAPTIVEhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/captive-grizzly-bears-playing-at-the-alaska-wildlife-conservation-center-captive-image277992998.html
two brown bears - in snow / ursus arctoshttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-two-brown-bears-in-snow-ursus-arctos-17792095.html
Two sub-adult grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis), Glacier National Park, Montana, United States of America, North America
Two sub-adult grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis), Glacier National Park, Montana, United States of America, North Americahttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-two-sub-adult-grizzly-bears-ursus-arctos-horribilis-glacier-national-52594913.html
Brown bear cubs (Ursus arctos) resting on beach in Lake Clark National Park, Alaska
Brown bear cubs (Ursus arctos) resting on beach in Lake Clark National Park, Alaskahttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-brown-bear-cubs-ursus-arctos-resting-on-beach-in-lake-clark-national-120452358.html
Brown Bear (Ursus arctos), Langenberg Zoo, Adliswil, Canton of Zurich, Switzerland
Brown Bear (Ursus arctos), Langenberg Zoo, Adliswil, Canton of Zurich, Switzerlandhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/brown-bear-ursus-arctos-langenberg-zoo-adliswil-canton-of-zurich-switzerland-image280378667.html
A mother coastal brown bear (grizzly bear) nurses a cub in Katmai National Park, Alaska, USA
A mother coastal brown bear (grizzly bear) nurses a cub in Katmai National Park, Alaska, USAhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-a-mother-coastal-brown-bear-grizzly-bear-nurses-a-cub-in-katmai-national-71582069.html
Playful black bear cubs
Playful black bear cubshttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-playful-black-bear-cubs-96293506.html
Canada, Nunavut Territory, Repulse Bay, Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus) snarls while swimming past melting sea ice near Harbour Isl
Canada, Nunavut Territory, Repulse Bay, Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus) snarls while swimming past melting sea ice near Harbour Islhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-canada-nunavut-territory-repulse-bay-polar-bear-ursus-maritimus-snarls-94063550.html
Grizzly Bear, young adult, three years old, crossing forest road
Grizzly Bear, young adult, three years old, crossing forest roadhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-grizzly-bear-young-adult-three-years-old-crossing-forest-road-85089615.html
Two grizzly bears aggressively play fighting
Two grizzly bears aggressively play fightinghttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-two-grizzly-bears-aggressively-play-fighting-39628003.html
A brown (or grizzly) bear in Cabarceno Nature Park, Cantabria, Spain.
A brown (or grizzly) bear in Cabarceno Nature Park, Cantabria, Spain.https://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-a-brown-or-grizzly-bear-in-cabarceno-nature-park-cantabria-spain-93276307.html
Male Brown / Grizzly Bear, Lake Clark National Park, Alaska.
Male Brown / Grizzly Bear, Lake Clark National Park, Alaska.https://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-male-brown-grizzly-bear-lake-clark-national-park-alaska-39135855.html
Cute Grizzly Bear Spring Cub, Ursus Arctos, hanging from a branch, Lake Clark National Park, Alaska, USA
Cute Grizzly Bear Spring Cub, Ursus Arctos, hanging from a branch, Lake Clark National Park, Alaska, USAhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-cute-grizzly-bear-spring-cub-ursus-arctos-hanging-from-a-branch-lake-80819077.html
CAPTIVE: Two mature Brown bears lay stretched out on a log at Alaska Wildlife Conservation Center, Southcentral Alaska, Summer
CAPTIVE: Two mature Brown bears lay stretched out on a log at Alaska Wildlife Conservation Center, Southcentral Alaska, Summerhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-captive-two-mature-brown-bears-lay-stretched-out-on-a-log-at-alaska-48108166.html
Beautiful Grizzly in Autumn
Beautiful Grizzly in Autumnhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-beautiful-grizzly-in-autumn-41318820.html
Grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) Hunting spawning sockeye salmon on a river during spawning season, Chilcotin Wilderness, British Columbia BC, Canada
Grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) Hunting spawning sockeye salmon on a river during spawning season, Chilcotin Wilderness, British Columbia BC, Canadahttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/grizzly-bear-ursus-arctos-hunting-spawning-sockeye-salmon-on-a-river-during-spawning-season-chilcotin-wilderness-british-columbia-bc-canada-image188001569.html
Brown bear, Finland, animal
Brown bear, Finland, animalhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-brown-bear-finland-animal-136949346.html
Brown bears looking out from a rocky shore in Katmai National Park, Alaska
Brown bears looking out from a rocky shore in Katmai National Park, Alaskahttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-brown-bears-looking-out-from-a-rocky-shore-in-katmai-national-park-31178156.html
Female and two one-year-old brown bear cubs (Ursus arctos arctos) leaving den in the snow in early spring
Female and two one-year-old brown bear cubs (Ursus arctos arctos) leaving den in the snow in early springhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-image-female-and-two-one-year-old-brown-bear-cubs-ursus-arctos-arctos-leaving-167406112.html
Brown Bear (Ursus arctos), Langenberg Zoo, Adliswil, Canton of Zurich, Switzerlandhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/brown-bear-ursus-arctos-langenberg-zoo-adliswil-canton-of-zurich-switzerland-image60503965.html
A coastal brown bear (grizzly bear) approaches over a ridge in Katmai National Park, Alaska
A coastal brown bear (grizzly bear) approaches over a ridge in Katmai National Park, Alaskahttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-a-coastal-brown-bear-grizzly-bear-approaches-over-a-ridge-in-katmai-34430893.html
Brown bears feed on sedge grass early in the summer season at the McNeil River State Game Sanctuary and Refuge in Alaska.
Brown bears feed on sedge grass early in the summer season at the McNeil River State Game Sanctuary and Refuge in Alaska.https://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-brown-bears-feed-on-sedge-grass-early-in-the-summer-season-at-the-33423781.html
USA, Alaska, Katmai National Park, Coastal Brown Bear and spring cub (Ursus arctos) standing along salmon spawning stream
USA, Alaska, Katmai National Park, Coastal Brown Bear and spring cub (Ursus arctos) standing along salmon spawning streamhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/usa-alaska-katmai-national-park-coastal-brown-bear-and-spring-cub-image62776967.html
A captive Brown bear (Ursus arctos) covered in snow, Bavarian Forest, Germany
A captive Brown bear (Ursus arctos) covered in snow, Bavarian Forest, Germanyhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-a-captive-brown-bear-ursus-arctos-covered-in-snow-bavarian-forest-122606782.html
Two grizzly bears walking through the wet grass at the edge of a pond
Two grizzly bears walking through the wet grass at the edge of a pondhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-two-grizzly-bears-walking-through-the-wet-grass-at-the-edge-of-a-pond-39628432.html
Alaskan Brown Bears (aka Grizzly Bears) in their natural environment in Alaska. Mother bear disciplining her cub by nipping and
Alaskan Brown Bears (aka Grizzly Bears) in their natural environment in Alaska. Mother bear disciplining her cub by nipping andhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-alaskan-brown-bears-aka-grizzly-bears-in-their-natural-environment-25646428.html
Brown bears, Brooks Falls, Katmai National Park, Alaska
Brown bears, Brooks Falls, Katmai National Park, Alaskahttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/brown-bears-brooks-falls-katmai-national-park-alaska-image283726809.html
Triplet Brown or Grizzly Bear spring cubs, Lake Clark National Park, Alaska.
Triplet Brown or Grizzly Bear spring cubs, Lake Clark National Park, Alaska.https://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-triplet-brown-or-grizzly-bear-spring-cubs-lake-clark-national-park-52142915.html
Grizzly Bear, Ursus arctos horriblis, carrying salmon out of the Brooks River, Katmai National Park, Alaska, USA
Grizzly Bear, Ursus arctos horriblis, carrying salmon out of the Brooks River, Katmai National Park, Alaska, USAhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-grizzly-bear-ursus-arctos-horriblis-carrying-salmon-out-of-the-brooks-55604587.html
CAPTIVE: Two mature Brown bears lay stretched out on a log at Alaska Wildlife Conservation Center, Southcentral Alaska, Summerhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/captive-two-mature-brown-bears-lay-stretched-out-on-a-log-at-alaska-wildlife-conservation-center-southcentral-alaska-summer-image278478452.html
North American brown bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) sow stands in field, Lake Clark National Park, Alaska, United States
North American brown bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) sow stands in field, Lake Clark National Park, Alaska, United Stateshttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-north-american-brown-bear-ursus-arctos-horribilis-sow-stands-in-field-39105560.html
Cute little Eurasian brown bear hiding from male bears behind a tree in the forest in summer
Cute little Eurasian brown bear hiding from male bears behind a tree in the forest in summerhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-image-cute-little-eurasian-brown-bear-hiding-from-male-bears-behind-a-tree-166821706.html
BROWN BEAR CUBS Ursus arctos waiting for mother Brooks River Katmai National Park ALASKA
BROWN BEAR CUBS Ursus arctos waiting for mother Brooks River Katmai National Park ALASKAhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/brown-bear-cubs-ursus-arctos-waiting-for-mother-brooks-river-katmai-image2485144.html
Brown bear cub (Ursus arctos) playing with stick in Lake Clark National Park, Alaska
Brown bear cub (Ursus arctos) playing with stick in Lake Clark National Park, Alaskahttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-brown-bear-cub-ursus-arctos-playing-with-stick-in-lake-clark-national-120452714.html
Four Eurasian brown bear / European brown bears (Ursus arctos arctos) cubs standing upright on hind legs in grassland
Four Eurasian brown bear / European brown bears (Ursus arctos arctos) cubs standing upright on hind legs in grasslandhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/four-eurasian-brown-bear-european-brown-bears-ursus-arctos-arctos-image62382603.html
Brown bear feeding her cubs sockeye salmon, Kuril Lake area, Kamchatka.
Brown bear feeding her cubs sockeye salmon, Kuril Lake area, Kamchatka.https://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/brown-bear-feeding-her-cubs-sockeye-salmon-kuril-lake-area-kamchatka-image221375136.html
Grizzly bear, Ursus arctos horribilis, female and adolescent bears, Alaska, USA
Grizzly bear, Ursus arctos horribilis, female and adolescent bears, Alaska, USAhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-grizzly-bear-ursus-arctos-horribilis-female-and-adolescent-bears-alaska-15177524.html
A mother coastal brown bear (grizzly bear) relaxes in a sand pit with two yearling cubs.
A mother coastal brown bear (grizzly bear) relaxes in a sand pit with two yearling cubs.https://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-a-mother-coastal-brown-bear-grizzly-bear-relaxes-in-a-sand-pit-with-71042610.html
Baby Bear Pole Dance
Baby Bear Pole Dancehttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-baby-bear-pole-dance-36526280.html
European brown bear (Ursos arctos) female and cub at the edge of a boreal forest in late evening light. Finland.
European brown bear (Ursos arctos) female and cub at the edge of a boreal forest in late evening light. Finland.https://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-european-brown-bear-ursos-arctos-female-and-cub-at-the-edge-of-a-boreal-24871615.html
Canada, Nunavut Territory, Repulse Bay, Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus) resting on rocky shoreline of Harbour Islands
Canada, Nunavut Territory, Repulse Bay, Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus) resting on rocky shoreline of Harbour Islandshttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-canada-nunavut-territory-repulse-bay-polar-bear-ursus-maritimus-resting-94063886.html
Brown bear in the nature
Brown bear in the naturehttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-brown-bear-in-the-nature-125329783.html
Two grizzly bears playing
Two grizzly bears playinghttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-two-grizzly-bears-playing-43617647.html
Alaskan brown bear grizzly grazing on tundra berries Denali National Park Alaska United States of America North America
Alaskan brown bear grizzly grazing on tundra berries Denali National Park Alaska United States of America North Americahttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-alaskan-brown-bear-grizzly-grazing-on-tundra-berries-denali-national-20585467.html
Brown bears, Brooks Falls, Katmai National Park, Alaskahttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-brown-bears-brooks-falls-katmai-national-park-alaska-29885462.html
Brown / Grizzly Bear, Lake Clark National Park, Alaska.
Brown / Grizzly Bear, Lake Clark National Park, Alaska.https://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-brown-grizzly-bear-lake-clark-national-park-alaska-39136950.html
Grizzly Bear eating salmon, Ursus arctos horriblis, Brooks River, Katmai National Park, Alaska, USA
Grizzly Bear eating salmon, Ursus arctos horriblis, Brooks River, Katmai National Park, Alaska, USAhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/grizzly-bear-eating-salmon-ursus-arctos-horriblis-brooks-river-katmai-image64181635.html
View of five brown bears fishing in Funnel Creek, Katmai National Park, Southwest Alaska, Summer
View of five brown bears fishing in Funnel Creek, Katmai National Park, Southwest Alaska, Summerhttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-view-of-five-brown-bears-fishing-in-funnel-creek-katmai-national-park-32255695.html
Male brown bear catching spawning red salmon at Brooks Falls, Katmai National Park, Alaska
Male brown bear catching spawning red salmon at Brooks Falls, Katmai National Park, Alaskahttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-male-brown-bear-catching-spawning-red-salmon-at-brooks-falls-katmai-102726436.html
Female coastal Grizzly bear searching for food at low tide on the British Columbia Mainland, Canada
Female coastal Grizzly bear searching for food at low tide on the British Columbia Mainland, Canadahttps://www.alamy.com/licenses-and-pricing/?v=1https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-female-coastal-grizzly-bear-searching-for-food-at-low-tide-on-the-41873487.html
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1) The View From Section 17 - Two Wolverines invited to Indy NFL combine. Date is set for spring football game.
2) Guest Segment: ErocWolverine from Go Blue Michigan Wolverine joins me to discuss Michigan's new defensive coaching staff.
1) The View From Section 17: David Brandon thrilled with Brady Hoke Hire.
2) Ace from The Wolverine Blog joins me for part two of our 2011 Recruiting Review.
3) Wolverine Quick Hits: The latest scores and highlights from Hoops, Hockey, and yes.....baseball & softball.
1) The View From Section 17: Coach Hoke rounds out his staff & New Recruiting Coordinator Jeff Hecklinski has a plan!
2) Guest Segment: Ace from The Wolverine Blog joins me this week to beak down Wolverine defensive committments.
3) Wolverine Quick Hits: The latest on Hoops & Hockey.
2) Wolverine Quick Hits - The latest on Michigan Hoops & Hockey.
3) Fan Feedback - Kevin from California with his thoughts on Brady Hoke.


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Published by rhtlaw at March 15, 2013
Recognised by The Legal 500 as Leading Individuals for Corporate and M&A
RHTLaw Taylor Wessing's Managing Partner Mr Tan Chong Huat, and Senior Partner Mr Rajan Menon have been recognised as "Leading Individuals" for Corporate and M&A in Singapore in the 2013 edition of The Legal 500 Asia Pacific. The Legal 500 Asia Pacific is the most comprehensive research into elite law firms across the region and is designed to provide corporate counsel with authoritative and independent research and analysis into law firms' capabilities, based upon forensic research.
One of the Top 10 largest law firms in Singapore
RHTLaw Taylor Wessing LLP has been ranked by Asian Legal Business as one of the Top 10 largest law firms in Singapore Asian Legal Business is owned by Thomson Reuters and is a leading provider of print and online legal news and information for legal professionals in Asia Pacific and the Middle East.
Published by rhtlaw at March 6, 2013
Recognised at the 10th Annual HRM Awards
RHTLaw Taylor Wessing was the only law firm to be recognised at the 10th Annual HRM Awards for its Human Resource practices. The other nominees were mainly multi-national companies, such as Google, Cisco Systems and international banks, and government ministries. The Firm was nominated for the categories of "Fair Employment Practices" and "Best Reward & Recognition Strategies", for which UBS and Unilever were the eventual winners, respectively. The event was held on 1st March 2013 at the Ritz-Carlton Hotel and was attended by over 800 HR and business leaders.
Update on the Firm's Progress
RHTLaw Taylor Wessing's Managing Partner, Mr Tan Chong Huat, published an update on the Firm's progress since it was established. Please click on the link below to view it: Managing Partner's Update – March 2013
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Christmas is fun ! If you like jolly Christmas fun, we've got some merry Xmas games that yule love ! For special Christmas fun try this interactive holiday cartoon. You may see Santa ! Ho ho ho ! What happy Christmas fun !


The first grade class is learning to be curious like Curious George. In their classroom they talked about being curious and they each wrote down something that they were curious about. In Computer Class, they used Pixie to illustrate a picture and write down something that they learned from watching video links related to their topic.


Good morning! Initialization is such a space age word that I couldn't help but use it today. Then I had to type it twice and immediately regretted my choice. I speak today of the time just after the start of something grand. Your salvation is a case in point. At first, we felt the powerful rush of the Spirit, either gradually or all at once, and then we may have felt left out to dry just a few days later. In fact, that time of 'drying out' may have all but eliminated the memory of that first rush. It's almost like we get a jump start from the Holy Spirit, but then God forgets to fill the gas tank of our little Christ1 auto. We sit in the driver's seat ready to roll, but the little car won't take us far. We get out on the freeway and there are some big rigs trying to push us off. Where oh where is that fuel station, and what do they take for payment?
We may feel the urge to just get the trip over with, so we merge into the fast lane. Immediately, a patrol car pulls up behind us, flashes its lights, and makes us go all the way back across the slow lane and stop on the shoulder. It seems that Christ1 autos are banned from life in the fast lane according to Legalist Control. The officer points to the slowest lane, one where all the dirtiest traffic is slowly moving along. How will this journey ever finish at that rate?
The longest journey begins with the first step, so we merge our little car into the trudging mass of the slow lane. The initial rush of that first love is over. The honeymoon with Christian living is done. It's time to slog it out in the slow lane. Of course, we look over and see some Christ1 autos clipping right along in the fast lane. What's up with that? Then, as we look around, we also see some Christ1's enjoying their trip in the slow lane. It seems that the first love is not exclusive to the few days after we knelt at the altar or accepted Christ in the prayer closet of our bedroom.
Every Christian faces the probability that soon after a time of close walking with Jesus, it seems that our Lord withdraws and leaves us out there in the valley of life's slow lane. Sanctification appears to go nowhere as old sins return to stay like bad renters that don't quite give sufficient cause for eviction. After the joy of initialization, we are left with a kind of trudging drudgery. We are tempted to give up, and that is just what our Adversary wants. Jesus has not gone away, but the child never learns to walk who is not let go to walk unsupported. The first steps are slow; progress may be difficult to detect. However, Jesus is right here with you and me.
His hand may be pulled back just a little for us to learn to walk and grow in faith. It is not easy, and the 'big rigs' of the demon powers want us off the highway and weeping in the gutter. Legalist Control wants us to be overwhelmed by more rules than a Christian can ever keep. Scorn is thrown at our little Christ1 from the fast lane of the world. A life given up to Christ is tough, and the dark powers of this world do not like us one bit. However, the love of Christ is sufficient to get us to the destination we now desire. Drive on in faith.
What May I Commit To?
What Does Someone See In Me?