A method for the duplication of microscopic patterns from a master to a substrate is disclosed, in which a replica of a topographic structure on a master is formed and transferred when needed onto a receiving substrate using one of a variety of printing or imprint techniques, and then dissolved. Additional processing steps can also be carried out using the replica before transfer, including the formation of nanostructures, microdevices, or portions thereof. These structures are then also transferred onto the substrate when the replica is transferred, and remain on the substrate when the replica is dissolved. This is a technique that can be applied as a complementary process or a replacement for various lithographic processing steps in the fabrication of integrated circuits and other microdevices.
This application relates to, claims the benefit of the filing date of, and incorporates by reference the United States provisional patent applications entitled "Transfer lithography printing strategy", No. 60/383,275, filed May 22, 2002, "Method and means for template manufacture", No. 60/382,690, filed May 23, 2002, "Lithographic imprint array method and means", No. 60/396,705, filed Jul. 16, 2002, "Molecular transfer lithography method and means from template", No. 60/401,158, filed Aug. 3, 2002, which are all assigned to the assignee of the present invention.
The invention was made with government support under Grant (Contract) No. N66001-01-1-8962 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The government has certain rights to this invention.
This invention relates to a new process for the replication of surface relief at the micrometer and the nanometer dimension scale. Furthermore, the process provides for the transfer of the replicated pattern from a master substrate to a second substrate. This invention describes a method of transfer lithography in which a disposable intermediate template is used. The process is also suitable for replicating and/or transferring single or multiple layers of microscopic elements that are to be used for photonic applications, metrology applications, and in the fabrication of integrated circuits and other microdevices.
Microlithographic patterning of integrated circuits has made great improvements in the recent years. Prototype devices with dimensions less than 100 nm in width have been demonstrated, and are expected to enter routine production soon.
These integrated devices are typically assembled sequentially, through a series of process steps that carry out the necessary deposition, patterning, and etching steps that result in the final device. A contemporary microdevice often comprises more than 25 distinct layers, each with its own mask to define feature dimensions, and a sequence of process steps that the entire wafer must undergo to create the desired layer.
Extremely high resolution lithography can be carried out using electron beam (or E-beam) lithography. This prior art technique for fabricating microdevices is illustrated in FIG. 1. In this example, a partially fabricated substrate 100, comprising an underlying substrate 110 with the previously fabricated layers 120 containing microstructures 112 and 122, is coated with a uniform layer 130 of the material to be processed (e.g. metal, polysilicon, etc.), and then coated with a polymer layer 150, commonly called a resist, sensitive to electron beam exposure. The sensitive layer 150 is then exposed to patterns of electron beams 160, as shown in FIG. 1 a, where the geometric arrangement and dose defines the pattern to be formed. The exposed material is then chemically processed, or developed, and, as shown in FIG. 1 b, the unexposed regions 152 are left on the substrate. These serve as protection for portions of the material to be patterned 130, so that after subsequent processing, as shown in FIG. 1 c, only the protected portions 132 of the material 130 to be processed remain.
Although E-beam lithography can produce extremely high resolution patterns, the typical throughput of an E-beam machine is very slow. Beams must be directed to each spot on the wafer in sequence, which makes the process generally slow and impractical for large numbers of microstructures. Instead, in optical lithography, the E-beams 160 are replaced by an optical image of a mask, which exposes the sensitive film 150 in parallel. However, optical imaging techniques do not have the same resolution as E-beam systems, and fabricating nanostructures (features with dimensions on the order of 100 nm or smaller) in these layers has been growing exponentially more expensive. As a result, alternative paradigms for lithography of these layers have been investigated.
One example of these novel technological patterning paradigms is nanoimprint technology. In nanoimprint techniques, a master pattern is formed by a high resolution patterning technique, such as E-beam lithography. These high resolution masters are then used to create a corresponding pattern on the IC layer without the use of an imaging step, but with some kind of stamping or printing technique. This is in principle very similar to techniques used for creating the microscopic patterns found on compact discs (CDs).
The most straightforward illustration of this was developed by Stephen Chou et. al, and is illustrated in FIG. 2. Chou's process would take the same layer to be processed 130, coated on a partially fabricated substrate 100, but coat the assembled substrate with a layer of a deformable polymer 250, as shown in FIG. 2 a. The master template 210, with patterns of indentations 212 corresponding to locations where the final structures are desired, is fabricated by high resolution lithography techniques. The template 210 is then aligned over the partially fabricated substrate 100 and as shown in FIG. 2 b, the two are pressed together. The deformable polymer 250 fills the indentations 212 in the master 210. The master is then removed, leaving a pattern of structures 252 on the partially fabricated substrate 100 as shown in FIG. 2 c. Subsequent processing, such as etching, leaves the desired result of patterns 132 formed from layer 130, defined by the locations of the remaining material 252, as shown in FIG. 2 d. Chou has demonstrated the reproduction of features as small as 10 nm using this technique.
C. Grant Willson et al. have proposed a variation on this technique as illustrated in FIG. 3. In this approach, the master 310 is transparent to ultraviolet light. This master 310 also contains indentations 312 patterned in the surface through a high resolution fabrication technique. As shown in FIG. 3 a, Willson's process takes the same layer to be processed 130, coated on a partially fabricated substrate 100, but coats the assembled substrate with a layer of a deformable polymer 350 which is also sensitive to UV exposure. The transparent master 310 is pressed against the polymer 350 on layer 130 and partially fabricated substrate 100. This layer 350 deforms, filling the indentations 312 in the master 310 with material 352., while possibly leaving a thin layer 351 still between the surface of the master and the substrate. The polymer materials 351 and 352 are then cured and hardened using UV exposure 360, as shown in FIG. 3 b. Then, as shown in FIG. 3 c, the master is removed, and leaving thicker material 352 over the portions of layer 130. Subsequent processing, such as etching, leaves the desired result of patterns 132 formed from layer 130, defined by the locations of the remaining material 352, as shown in FIG. 3 d.
A drawback to these techniques is that the master must be repeatedly used again and again in the formation of the desired material. This can lead to damage to the master through normal wear and exposure to contaminants. A common technique used to replicate diffractive structures used for gratings and other photonic devices involves the creation of replicas of a master grating. These methods involve the creation of a master from which replications are made by applying a thin vacuum deposited separation layer on the master. A metal coating is then deposited on top of the separation layer, and an epoxy coated substrate is placed on top of the layer-covered master. The combination is then cured and the process is completed when the replicated grating is separated from the master grating. This approach suffers from throughput limitations requiring vacuum depositions on the master. With this approach, the master suffers degradation only from the creation of multiple replicas; the replicas themselves are used in the actual fabrication process and are discarded when damaged.
George Whitesides et al. have developed a similar process using a replica, or template, made from poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) for applications what he calls "soft lithography". They have also developed a variation of this process using an inking technique, to minimize damage to the template. This is similar in concept to the inking of rubber stamps commonly used in other conventional printing applications.
An example of this process is illustrated in FIG. 4. The master 400 with indentations 402 itself is not used directly, but is replicated as a polymer template 410 with raised sections 412 corresponding to the indentations 402. This polymer template 410 can be used directly for imprint lithography, and discarded if damaged through reuse. To achieve the same patterns 132 from a layer to be processed 130, coated on a partially fabricated substrate 100, Whitesides' process coats the assembled substrate with a layer of a special material 450 which is selected for certain chemical characteristics. As shown in FIGS. 4 a and 4 b, the template 410 is formed from PDMS by coating the master 400 with the material, either through spin coating or by some other coating and curing technique. Then, as shown in FIG. 4 c, the template 410 is then bonded to a carrier 430 using some bonding layer 420, and removed from the master 400.
This template 410 is then "inked" with a thin layer of special chemicals 414 such that only the raised portions 412 of the template 410 are coated with the chemical 414, as shown in FIG. 4 d. The template is then aligned and placed in close contact with the partially fabricated substrate 100 with partially fabricated microdevices also coated with a layer to be processed 130 and chemical layer 450, transferring the "ink" 414 to the substrate as shown in FIG. 4 e.The material for the ink 414 and the layer 450 will be chosen to react, and leave an altered layer of material 452 in locations touched by the ink 414, as illustrated in FIG. 4 f. This altered material 452 serves as a barrier to the reactions, protecting the layer 130 below. Subsequent processing leaves the desired result of patterns 132 formed from layer 130, defined by the locations of the altered material 452, as shown in FIG. 4 g.
Some of the problems with PDMS as a template that limit its applicability include limited resolution (about 200 nm) because of the difference in thermal expansion coefficient between the PDMS and the mold material, and limited throughput because of the time needed for curing. It also suffers from material incompatibility since it will stick to large areas of clean silicon.
In all of these fabrication techniques, the imprinting technique serves as a method for pattering a layer or film directly on the final substrate, e.g. a silicon wafer. The imprint master or template is used again and again to stamp out duplicate copies of nanostructures at low cost.
There can be undesirable consequences from using these techniques. For example, the definition of a particular layer with extremely fine structures with E-beam exposure will inherently risk irradiating the underlying layers to the electron beam as well. Care must be taken to insure that the electrical structures already created in the underlying layers are not damaged. The mechanical stamping of the master or the template onto the substrate must also be precisely controlled, or the fragile structures underneath can be strained or cracked. Keeping the master or replica free of defects as it is used again and again can also present problems.
Furthermore, processing the wafer itself layer by layer, although the standard fabrication technique for integrated circuits, may be less than optimal. For example, a metal or polysilicon layer may be best processed at a high temperature for the best results, but this degree of heating may damage or even melt the layers previously prepared on the substrate. Because all subsequent steps in the manufacture of the microdevice are deposited on the same substrate, however, these problems in process compatibility and their required compromises remain.
Some manufacturing processes in other industries avoid these problems by having separate manufacturing processes for different components, and then assembling these at a later stage of integration. The packaging of ICs is one example of such a dual process, in which the IC itself is prepared on a silicon wafer, and then cut from the wafer placed and bonded into a pre-prepared package. The preparation of the package and the IC follow two separate manufacturing processes until the bonding step is required.
Another example of this kind of dual processing or patterning is found in the common sticker. A pattern in ink is prepared on paper, plastic or some other substrate, and an adhesive applied that allows bonding to another substrate. Examples of this are very common, for example, as decorations in a scrapbook, as a label on filing cabinet, or as a statement on an automobile bumper. Clearly, forcing a large object such as an automobile bumper to fit through a printing and patterning process to attach a simple humorous message would be awkward and very expensive. The bumper sticker is far more flexible and far less expensive.
Likewise, the separation of substrate preparation and even the fabrication of microstructures can be commonly seen. Embossed holograms, such as those found on common credit cards, have structures with sizes on the same order of magnitude as the wavelength of visible light (400-700 nm). These are easily created using a printing or mechanical stamping process, and can also be prepared with adhesives. They are then and attached to many other substrates, such as credit cards, bumper stickers, magazine pages, etc. that could not be used directly in a holographic fabrication process themselves. Integrated circuits themselves are also finding application when attached directly on the surface of various "smart cards".
In a previous invention, described in US patent application entitled "Molecular Transfer Lithography" and assigned Ser. No. 09/898,521, we have disclosed an invention separating the preparation and imaging in lithographic materials, and the subsequent steps of processing the image and transferring the pattern into the final substrate. This was done by the formation of the required latent image in photoresist on an intermediate carrier. The photoresist containing the latent image is then mechanically aligned and transferred to the location on the final substrate where the subsequent processing is to occur.
This separation of processing steps allows an inventory of pre-processed latent images to be formed that can be used upon demand without delay. These latent images are typically formed on flat carriers under optimized imaging conditions. It also allows the preparation to be carried out on the carrier using an optimized process without concern for the immediate consequences on the substrate, since the substrate is not part of the process. The only concern would be the interaction of residues and the substrate once they are brought together.
Although the prior techniques reflect a great degree of innovation and creativity, and can offer significant cost advantages over conventional lithographic processing techniques, there is a need for a technique that has many or all of the advantages of a nanoimprint technique but does not have the problems associated with reusing a master or template. Furthermore, although the previously disclosed molecular transfer lithography technique addresses some of these issues, the latent image formed was generally flat and did not have topographic structures corresponding to the topography desired on the final wafers.
We disclose here a method of replicating microstructures or nanostructures from a master, processing the replicated structures, and transferring them using a dissolvable template. This dissolvable template is not reused to pattern several substrates, but is physically transferred to a substrate for pattern definition, and subsequently dissolved.
Furthermore, we disclose here a method for pre-processing materials on the replica which are then transferred to the substrate, instead of conducting all processing on the final substrate itself.
We also disclose a method of actually fabricating layers or portions of layers of a microdevice on the replica, and transferring these pre-assembled elements or nanostructures to the final substrate.
To implement this method, we create a master pattern using a high resolution lithographic technique, such as electron beam lithography, on a durable substrate, such as silicon or quartz. Typically, this master pattern will have some definition of the features to be created as variations in topography, and may be identical to the master patterns used in other nanoimprint lithography techniques.
The patterns on the master are then replicated by one of a variety of processes onto a template, supported by an intermediate carrier. The template can serve merely as a disposable replica of the master for subsequent use in an imprint lithography system, or can serve as the basis for the formation of the nanostructure elements themselves. These nanostructures may be created on the carrier through the suitable sequence of deposition, electroplate, coating, patterning, and/or etching steps. The selection of processing details will depend on the specific application for the final device. Aside from micro and nanostructures for electronic devices, the template may be used to fabricate a diffraction grating or other photonic device depending on the desired application. Other applications are micro electro mechanical systems (MEMS), superconducting devices, and biological applications involving selective patterning of protein and DNA sequences.
Once the template is attached to the carrier, the carrier can be stored until it is required for manufacturing. At that time, it is aligned to the final device substrate and facilitates the transfer of the pattern. The template may be adhered to the surface directly or may be applied using a form of imprint lithography. However, the key element of our invention is that the template is actually transferred to the substrate and the carrier removed, leaving the template on the substrate for subsequent processing. The template is destroyed by this subsequent processing.
With inexpensively made templates, this disposable template technique offers all the advantages of nanoimprint lithography, while eliminating the problems that occur through template reuse. Once the template is created, however, it is clear that additional processing can take place on the template prior to the transfer. This can be as simple as coating to aid in a possible subsequent transfer or nanoimplint process, or the application of coatings to allow the template itself to become a optical component such as a polarizer or fresnel lens.
However, it is also possible to carry out a more elaborate sequence of processing steps on the template, actually pre-fabricating elements of components such as nanoscale wires or contacts that can be transferred directly into the final devices. These can then be transferred along with the dissolvable template, using a direct transfer from a carrier to a substrate, as part of the manufacturing process for the final device, or can be transferred as a nanoimprint process is carried out.
FIG. 1: FIG. 1: Processing steps for pattern formation by E-Beam Lithography (Prior Art).
FIG. 2: Processing steps for pattern formation by the nanoimprint technique of Chou (Prior Art).
FIG. 4: Processing steps for the microcontact printing of Whitesides (Prior Art).
FIG. 5: Flow chart of generic process according to the invention.
FIG. 6. Processing steps for a nanoimprint process using a dissolvable template according to the invention.
FIG. 7: Representative flow chart for additional processing on the template.
FIG. 8: Representative flow chart for the creation of nanostructures on the template.
FIG. 9: Processing steps for the preparation of masters.
FIG. 10: Additional processing steps for the preparation of a multilayer master.
FIG. 11: A conventional spin coating apparatus.
FIG. 12: Processing steps for using a pre-formed disk.
FIG. 13: Process steps for sputtering onto a template and a nanoimprint process using that template.
FIG. 14: process steps for preparing patterned materials on a template and transferring the patterned materials to a substrate.
FIG. 15: Process steps for preparing nanostructures on a template and transferring the nanostructures to a substrate.
FIG. 16: Alternative processing steps for preparing patterned materials on a template and transferring the patterned materials to a substrate.
Note: All drawings in cross section are for illustration purposes only. The dimensions of the layers in these illustrations are not shown to scale, nor should any conclusion about the desired relative thickness of the layers be drawn from these illustrations.
Note: Although we have used identical numbers to represent a pre-formed partially fabricated substrate 100 and its elements, as well as layer 130 on this substrate representing the layer of material to be processed, it will be clear that any substrate with any number of preformed layers can be used with this technique.
As indicated above, this represents a manufacturing technique for integrated devices using a dissolvable template that is low cost, and can be applied to nanoimprint techniques or to the pre-fabrication of portions of microdevices that are stored until their use is required. We now present a more detailed description of the best and preferred embodiments of the invention.
FIG. 5 shows a flowchart for a manufacturing process using this technique. Initially, as shown in FIG. 5 a, step 500 creates a master pattern defining the layout of the structures to be fabricated. Step 510 represents the replication of the master in a template. Step 520 represents the transfer of the template to a carrier. In step 530, optional additional processing steps are carried out on the template. This is also the step where entire nanostructures or portions of other devices can be fabricated on the template. In step 540, the carrier and template, along with any structures fabricated on the template, are placed into storage.
In step 550, initial layers are fabricated on the substrate until the point is reached where the patterning corresponding to the pre-fabricated template is required. In step 560, the carrier/template is removed from storage, and in step 570 the carrier is aligned to the substrate. In step 580, the template is transferred to the substrate and the carrier removed. This step can comprise a nanoimprint transfer method, or can also comprise a simple mechanical transfer facilitated by adhesives. Finally, in step 590, the substrate and template undergo processing which destroys the template and leaves the desired patterns on the substrate.
FIG. 6 shows a more detailed sequence of steps for the most general form of the process as we have implemented it in our laboratory. The master pattern is created as raised portions 612 on a substrate material 600 as shown in FIG. 6 a by a precise high resolution lithographic technique, typically using E beam lithography. Typically, material for the master 600 will be a rigid material such as silicon, although transparent materials such as quartz can also be used.
The template 600 with raised structures 612 is then created by coating the master with a conforming coating 610. A typical material for this is polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). This results in a coated master, as illustrated in FIG. 6 b. This material is applied from solution by spin coating, and the resulting template 610 fills the topographic contours of the master 600 while leaving a back surface that is uniformly flat.
The template 610 is then removed from the master 600 and attached to a carrier 630, typically with a pre-formed sheet 620 to aid adhesion. The sheet 620-is connected to the carrier 630, made for example from a polyolefin sheet, with a suitable adhesive 625. The removal and attachment steps can actually be combined, by having a carrier 630 with adhesive 625 placed in contact with the back of the template 610 and removing them together.
The carrier 630 with template 610 is then stored until a microdevice on a partially fabricated substrate 100 is processed to the point where a layer 130, as shown in FIG. 6 d, requires patterning using the layout corresponding to the indentations 612 on the master 600.
The partially fabricated substrate 100 with layer 130 is then prepared for transfer by coating with an deformable layer 650. This layer may be fabricated from the same material used to make deformable layers 250 or 350 in other nanoimprint processes, but can also be another material. The carrier 630 with the appropriate template 610 is removed from storage and aligned with the partially fabricated substrate 100, as shown in FIG. 6 e. The carrier 630/template 610 is then pressed against the deformable layer 650 layer on the material 130 and partially fabricated substrate 100, according to normal nanoimprint techniques. The deformable material 650 deforms to fill the indentations 612 in the template 610, forming patterned material structures 652. The carrier 630 is then removed, leaving the template 610 and patterned material structures 652 behind, as shown in FIG. 6 f. The partially fabricated substrate 100 with template 610 is then processed in a manner which dissolves the template 610 and sheet 620. Typically, this is by immersion in water, which dissolves PVA. After the template 610 and the preformed sheet 620 dissolve, the patterned material structures 652 on portions of the layer 130 to be patterned remain, as shown in FIG. 6 g. Subsequent processing such as etching transfers this pattern to the material layer to be patterned, as shown in FIG. 6 h.
FIG. 7 shows a flow chart for a variation of this process, in which additional processing steps are carried out. For this example, the optional processing step 530 from FIG. 5 comprises steps 732, 734, and 736 in which a special barrier layer or layers are coated onto the surface of the template and processed. This can protect the template 610 from contamination during storage, or have other desired chemical and physical effects. One option for the formation of the barrier layer is that the surface of the template 610 is coated with a metal, such as gold, using a sputtering system, shown as step 732. Typical coating layers are on the order of 10 nm thick, although the exact thickness will vary depending on the sputtering conditions. This can further be coated with a polymer layer in step 734 for additional protection. In step 736, the polymer layer can undergo further processing, such as planarization.
It can be seen that this process, in which the deposition of a metal layer in step 732 (in this case gold) as a barrier layer, can be altered to be create thicker structures as well. The flow chart for this altered process is shown in FIG. 8. For this example, the optional processing step 530 from FIG. 5 comprises steps 832, 834, 836, and 838 in which nanostructures are formed on the surface of the template and processed. This may be especially effective if, for example, the deposited metal is copper, and of suitable layouts and dimensions to form the interconnect layers (or portions thereof) of an integrated circuit.
In step 832, a coating of material suitable for the fabrication of the nanostructures of a layer of a microdevice is deposited on the template. This would be a material for example that corresponds to the material layer 130 used in the other examples of this application. This can be a simple deposition process, or in turn may comprise many process steps, such as the initial sputtering of a seed layer, followed by the growth of a thicker film through electroplating. In step 834, additional processing can be carried out, which can include coating the metal with a polymer. In step 836, the combined materials can be further processed, e.g. with an etching or polishing process, so that certain portions of the coated metal are then exposed, while other portions are remain protected. An additional step 838 may then also be executed to protect the exposed material for storage.
Once created, these micro or nanostructures are transferred along with the dissolvable template in step 580. This step can comprise a nanoimprint transfer method, or can also comprise a simple mechanical transfer facilitated by adhesives.
We now describe each of these steps in more detail.
The initial step in this process is the creation of the original master containing the layout pattern. The essential element in the patterning of the master is that it comprises a layout of the structures to be replicated in a reproducible form. This is most simply done by forming the layout as a relief pattern on a rigid substrate. The relief pattern can be created by patterning and selectively etching a rigid material, such as a silicon wafer, or by patterning a material deposited on the rigid substrate, such as a chrome/chrome oxide layers on quartz (a conventional photomask blank). Although a disc shaped master has certain advantages for processing, masters of other shapes, such as squares, rectangles, hexagons, octagons, etc. can also be used.
The master can be fabricated using conventional microfabrication or nanofabrication techniques. The preferred method involves the use of a direct-write E-beam lithography system to expose patterns in photoresist on a silicon wafer, because of its high reliability and high resolution. This is illustrated in FIG. 9. In this process, an unpatterned material 900 (also sometimes called a "blank" is coated with a layer 910 polymer material, commonly called a resist, sensitive to electron beam exposure. The sensitive layer 910 is then exposed to patterns of electron beams 960, where the geometric arrangement and dose defines the pattern to be formed, as shown in FIG. 9 a. The exposed material of layer 910 is then chemically processed, or developed, and, the unexposed regions 912 are left on the substrate, as shown in FIG. 9 b. These serve as protection for portions of the blank 900, so that after subsequent processing, for example by etching, the protected portions remain as raised portions 602 while the rest of the material surface has been etched. This creates a master 600 with topographic structures 602 corresponding to the layout pattern of the exposure 960, as shown in FIG. 9 c.
There are alternatives to electron-beam lithography to create a master with relief for replication. For example, one could use an optical lithography system with a mask to expose the initial pattern. Other methods include EUV or x-ray lithography or nanoimprint lithography. In fact, any lithographic technique could be used to fabricate the master as long as the process had suitable resolution and accuracy.
Although silicon is a convenient material to use for the master, there are many materials that could be used for the master other than silicon. Semiconductors that have well known patterning processes such as silicon, germanium, GaAs, SiGe, Silicon-on-insulator (SOI), GaN, GaP, InP, etc. can also be used as blanks. Metals such as stainless steel, iron, copper, or aluminum could also be used as blanks. Since only the topographic structure on the substrate is transferred, one could coat any rigid material with a polymer such a photoresist, expose and develop the photoresist, and use the resulting relief pattern as the master rather than go through the subsequent etching and stripping steps for the blank material. There are many well known processes for photoresist that can leave topographic profiles of various kinds.
Another material suitable for a master are quartz or glass plates coated with chromium/chrome oxide materials that form the opaque layer of a conventional photomask. This can be especially useful if a subsequent step requires exposure through the master for UV curing. This is illustrated in FIG. 9 as well. An unpatterned material 930 coated with a layer of opaque material 940 (in this case, the combination of 930 and layer 940 is sometimes called a "blank") is coated with a layer 950 of a polymer material, commonly called a resist, sensitive to electron beam exposure. The sensitive layer 950 is then exposed to patterns of electron beams 970, where the geometric arrangement and dose defines the pattern to be formed, as shown in FIG. 9 d. The exposed material of layer 950 is then chemically processed, or developed, and the unexposed regions 952 are left on the blank, as shown in FIG. 9 e. These serve as protection for portions of the layer 940, so that after subsequent processing, for example by etching, the protected portions remain as raised portions 942 while the rest of the material surface has been etched. This is illustrated in FIG. 9 f. This creates a master 930 with topographic structures 942 in opaque material corresponding to the layout pattern of the exposure 970.
Typically, the layer 940 can be manufactured from a mixture of chrome and chrome oxides typically and sold as photomask blanks. However, other materials, such as aluminum or gold, could also be chosen as ingredients in layer 940 for their particular thermal, electrical, or chemical properties. Likewise, the underlying substrate material 930 of a photomask blank is typically quartz, but other transparent materials such as glasses, hardened polymers, or transparent crystals such as CaF2 can be used for substrate 930 as well. For situations sensitive to dimensional change from temperature control, a material with a low thermal expansion coefficient such as Zerodur can be used for the substrate 930. One could also form or coat a thin-film material on top of the relief pattern to aid in subsequent processing steps.
The relief pattern can also be created by etching the rigid substrate of a quartz master directly. This can be done using commonly used lithography techniques for photomasks, and etching procedures to create topographic structures for phase-shifting masks. Such processing steps can be based on wet etching, in which the exposed surface is selectively removed through a reaction with a liquid chemical such as the quartz etchant hydrofluoric (HF) acid, or a dry etching procedure such as reactive ion etching (RIE) in a suitable plasma chamber. Other etchants specific to various other rigid substrate materials, such as the semiconductor materials listed above, can also be used.
It may be desirable to have a multi-level master, in which the several levels of topography are defined. This is illustrated in FIG. 10. This can be accomplished through a second set of lithographic exposure and development steps. Although E-beam lithography may be the preferred technique, it is easily recognized that any lithographic patterning step that can be aligned with the initial set of structures can be employed as well.
An example of this sequence is shown in FIG. 10. For this process, the original steps shown in FIGS. 9 a-9 c are executed to create a master 600 with a set of topographic patterns 602. This master 600 is then coated with another layer of a sensitive polymer 1010, commonly called a resist, sensitive to electron beam exposure. The sensitive layer 1010 is then exposed to a second pattern of electron beams 1060 as shown in FIG. 10 a, where the geometric arrangement and dose defines the second pattern to be formed. The exposed material of layer 1010 is then processed, or developed, and the unexposed regions 1012 are left on the master 600, as shown in FIG. 10 b. These serve as protection for portions of the master 600, so that after subsequent processing, for example by etching, the protected portions 602 and protected indentations 1002 remain unaffected while the rest of the material surface has been etched. This creates a master 1000 with multi-layer topographic structures, as shown in FIG. 10 c.
Although this has illustrated only a two-step process, it will be clear that this can be applied an indefinite number of times, with an indefinite number of arbitrarily defined layouts.
Although we have practiced this invention with masters formed on rigid substrate materials, it is clear to those skilled in the art that various degrees of rigidity may be allowed for different fabrication tolerances, and that flexible substrates with topographic structures may also be prepared to form masters for certain applications.
It will also be clear that any lithographic technique amenable to multiple exposure can be employed here as well. Although we have patterned our masters using silicon wafers and conventional e-beam lithography, extremely high resolution structures (e.g. 10-100 nm in size) can be obtained using X-ray lithography, EUV lithography, and even variations of optical lithography with a suitably high NA and the application of various resolution enhancement techniques. Even nanoimprint techniques can be used to fabricate the master.
Once the master has been created, the template that replicates the structures on the master must be created. This can be done by a variety of molding techniques, most of which comprise pouring a liquid on top of the master and allow the material to dry or harden. The main requirement is that the material be able to adequately fill the nanoscale topography structures on the master without the formation of bubbles or other voids between the master and the coating. Other desired properties include the ability to smoothly detach a smooth detachment from the mold, and the ability to prevent the introduction of foreign substances, i.e contaminants such as dust, that may introduce flaws. Still other desired properties include the ability to smoothly detach the template from the mold quickly for high throughput, and the ability to dry the mold without introducing thermal or mechanical distortions as part of the drying or curing process for good yield.
Many techniques can be used for this purpose, including spin coating, spray coating, droplet injection, puddle formation, electrodeposition techniques, etc. Spin coating has proven a very effective technique for creating thin conforming films. Typical spin coating is illustrated in FIG. 11. For spin coating, the master 900 is mounted on a chuck 1120 using a vacuum system 1110. A housing 1100 containing a motor spins the chuck and the master at various speeds, typically a few thousand RPM. Liquid material or solutions 1130 of the material to be molded can be poured from a container 1140 onto the surface of the spinning master. Excess material 1150 is thrown off the spinning master by centrifugal forces, leaving only a thin layer on the surface of the master. The residual solvent in this layer quickly evaporates, leaving only a thin layer of the molding material.
Alternatively, if a liquid material is used, spin coating may be used to create a uniform conformal coating, and the casting material may be polymerized or hardened with subsequent processing, or with reactions with the oxygen or other ambient gasses.
A material we have found that works well with this technique is polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). PVA is a water soluble compound, and so solutions can be created using purified water. Typical solutions can be obtained from a distributor such as Fiberlay of Seattle, Wash., USA, and sold under the brand names of Fiberlease or Partall Film #10 manufactured by Rexall. We have found the material of Fiberlease to work exceptionally well. The concentrations of Partall Film #10 in the Rexall MSDS are water (56-61%), ethyl alcohol (31-34%), Acetic Acid Ethenyl Ester, Polymer with Ethonol (7-8%), and butyl alcohol (1-2%). The material is usually used as a release layer for molding applications.
The PVA solution is then poured onto the spinning master, using for example spin speeds of 1800 RPM and 15 seconds on a conventional spin coater. If thicker films are desired, the procedure may be repeated, or slower speeds may be used. The resulting structures conform very well to the topographic structures on our masters, even for dimensions as small as 40 nm laterally. We have found that the three-dimensionally replication ability is excellent, that is the ability to replicate the pattern in the vertical dimension replicated to within 20 nm of 100 nm steps, and perhaps better, limited by our present ability to measure. The ultimate lateral resolution we have observed is not limited by the PVA, but rather by our ability to reliably fabricate structures this small in the master. Smaller structures can clearly be created in PVA.
An additional property of the PVA film is that, while the surface in contact with the master conforms to the topography of the master, the remaining film can be thick enough that the top surface remains uniform, i.e. does not vary with the underlying topography. The thickness can be adjusted by varying the concentration of the solution, by using solvents with different vapor pressures, by changing the spin speed, or by controlling the properties of the environment in which the coating takes place. Maintaining a contaminant free environment with temperature and pressure control allowing the best solvent evaporation conditions is important for ideal replication of the structures on the master.
Once the conforming layer has been created on the master, it must be removed. For thicker PVA films, the layer can simply be peeled off. This free-standing film, however, is usually only a few tens of microns thick, and can be delicate and difficult to store control.
Consequently, we have also used pre-formed discs of PVA to assist with the removal of the spin-coated PVA from the master. Pre-formed discs of PVA are commercially available from companies such as Shercon, Inc., of Santa Fe Springs, Calif. A process using these is illustrated in FIG. 12. In FIG. 12 a, a master 600 with topographic structures 602 has been coated with a PVA film 610 by spin coating. This master is shown as being the master 600 of FIGS. 6 and 9, but can also be replaced by any master, including those shown as 1000 in FIG. 10. A pre-formed disc 1210 of PVA mounted to a carrier 1230 with a suitable adhesive 1220 is then aligned with the master. This disc 1210 can be manufactured using a casting method on a flat surface, for example. Such a disc is generally packaged with an adhesive backing 1220 connecting the disc 1210 to a clear plastic flexible sheet, which can be used as carrier 1230. This form is convenient for removal of the molded PVA from the master 900.
In this embodiment of the invention, a master 600 coated with an initial dried film of PVA 610 is again spin-coated again with an additional layer of PVA 1205. Immediately, before the solvent is completely dried from the additional layer 1205, the pre-formed PVA disk 1210 mounted to the carrier 1230 with an adhesive 1220 is placed on the master 600 coated with PVA 610, as shown in FIG. 12 b. After a drying period of a minute or more, the structures 610, 1205, and 1210 bond together, forming structure 1208. This dried structure 1208 is removed from the master, producing the result shown in FIG. 12 c. This dried structure 1208 will have topographic structures 1212, which are similar to the structures 612 in FIG.6, that correspond to the topographic structures 602 in the master 600. Dried structure 1208 would similarily correspond to the pair of structures 610 and 620 shown in FIG. 6.
More generally, the carrier 1230 need not be a polymer film, but can be any material with a flat surface of the size and shape suitable for the size and shape of the layout on the master is created. This can be made from metal, quartz, a polymer, or any other material that can be stored without contaminating the film once transfer has occurred. Any solid and/or flexible material can serve this purpose, as long as it is coated with a suitable adhesive 1220 that allows the PVA coating to be removed from the master.
Once the PVA film that replicates the topography on the master has been created and attached to a carrier, material processing on this replicated structure or template can be carried out. This can be one of a variety of steps and will depend on the application.
The requirements for the subsequent processing on PVA is that (1) no reaction occurs with the PVA film, and (2) the processing steps not exceed a thermal decomposition temperature of the PVA film, roughly 230 C. Other template materials may have other physical and environmental requirements, depending on their material properties.
In one application, the PVA film may be coated with a metal film. This may be a simple coating to protect the template from contamination or decay.
A common process operation that works well with PVA is sputtering or evaporation of metal films. This is illustrated in FIG. 13. In a sputtering system, typically in a well controlled vacuum environment 1399, a target 1390 of the material desired provides a source for atoms or particles 1392 of the material to be deposited as a layer 1302 on the surface of the template 1208, mounted to a carrier 630. This is illustrated in FIG. 13 a.
Once the film has been created, the carrier 630 with the template 1208 and film 1302 is removes, and can later be used for normal imprint lithography, as illustrated in FIGS. 13 b-e (similar to the steps shown in FIG. 6).
Sputtering tools are commonly available in processing labs, such as the Stanford University Nanofabrication Facility, or can be obtained commercially such as the sputter coater from Cressington Scientific Instruments, Inc., and distributed by Ted Pella, Inc. We have sputtered materials onto topographical PVA that include gold, copper, aluminum and chrome using simple sputtering tools. Other materials that can be sputtered or evaporated onto PVA include tungsten, Palladium, Platinum, Nickel, Nickel-Chromium. One can also evaporate materials such as Carbon. One can also perform a co-evaporation of superconductor materials such as Yttrium, Barium, and Cobolt.
Other methods of depositing films other than by evaporation/sputtering and still satisfy the requirements include chemical vapor deposition by hot filament methods. In these techniques, organic films can be deposited by passing an organic precursor vapor through a hot filament where it undergoes thermal fragmentation. The subsequent vapor products deposit in solid form on the PVA surface. With this method it is possible to keep the PVA at a low safe temperature during the film forming process. This method is commonly referred to as solventless deposition of photoresists, such as PMMA (poly methyl methacrylate).
Another method is through plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) of thin films as long as the surface temperature is below the decomposition temperature of PVA. PECVD films are oxides, nitrides, oxynitrides, polysilicon, fluropolymers, and so forth.
Spin-coating of materials onto the PVA topographical can also be performed provided that the liquid not react or dissolve the PVA structure. Hence the material selection is limited to generally hydrophobic materials such as fluorine based compounds, for example, that do not have solvents that will react with PVA.
It may also be possible desirable to perform additional processing on the template. The layer on top of the PVA relief provides a convenient coating for the further development, and aids in flexibility since the subsequent processing steps will not interact directly with the delicate PVA material.
It may be desirable, for example, to use the PVA relief structures to actually preprocess a photoresist material. This material would then be transferred, along with the template, to the final substrate. To create a planar surface, at least two approaches may be used. The first involves spin-coating or depositing using other means an organic etch-resistant material such as photoresist on the barrier layer 1302. This material can form a thick coating that may be thinned using subsequent etching techniques.
This is illustrated in FIG. 14. In this FIGURE, a barrier layer 1302 is created from a sputtering source 1390 on a carrier 630 with a template 610 having indentations 612 as previously described, as shown in FIG. 14 a. After the deposition of the barrier layer 1302, the carrier is then mounted on a spin coating apparatus and coated with an additional layer 1440 of a polymer photoresist, with the result shown in FIG. 14 b. This is then partially etched so that the indentations in the template 612 are now uniformly filled with the remaining portions of the photoresist 1442, while the metal layer 1302 is exposed on the regions of the template that correspond to the etched portions of the master 600, as illustrated in FIG. 14 c.
In subsequent processing steps, the carrier 630 with these photoresist portions 1442 filling indentations 612 in the template 610 is aligned with a substrate 100 that has been partially manufactured and coated with a layer of material 130 to be patterned, as shown in FIG. 14 d. These are then brought together in close proximity and pressed together. Layer 130 may be coated with an additional layer of material 1462 to promote adhesion. The carrier is then removed, with the result shown in FIG. 14 e.
The partially fabricated substrate 100 with layer 130 and template 610 is then processed in such a manner that the template dissolves, leaving only the portions of the photoresist 1442 on the surface of the layer 130 to be processed, as shown in FIG. 14 f. This acts just as the portions of resist 652 in the previously described embodiments of the invention for the subsequent processing of the partially fabricated substrate 100, to produce the result shown in FIG. 14 g, where portions 132 of the layer 130 remain.
It is clear that this additional processing can also comprise the creation of entire portions of nanostructures for microdevices, as long as a suitably reliable transfer mechanism is developed. In this case, the material deposited can be a much thicker layer, and additional processing steps can also be carried out as well.
Although such a layer can be fabricated entirely by sputtering techniques, another approach is to use a thin layer of sputtered metal as a seed layer, and then perform electroplating techniques to create a uniform film. Such electroplating techniques are useful with copper, aluminum, and gold seed layers.
One advantage that this technique has over other fabrication techniques for layers of microdevices is that the creation of this individual layer is independent of the layers that normally precede it in the fabrication process. This allows additional processing of this layer, and especially processing that might be incompatable with previous processing steps for the device, to be an option at this point.
Such optional processing can comprise an annealing step for a metal, sputtering of material mixtures for specific properties, creation of multiple layers with dimensions controlled for their anti-reflective optical properties, or the creation of a sequence of proteins for a biochip array. With the suitable choice of template and carrier material, processing at temperatures or under conditions not tolerated by the previously fabricated device layers can be done with impunity, as long as the process is compatible with the disposable template material.
This is illustrated in FIG. 15. In this case, if patterns equivalent to the master 600 of the previous example is to be achieved, the template 1510 must actually be inverted, that is, having raised areas 1512 corresponding to the indentations 612 of the previous templates 610.
A thin layer 1501 of the material to be processed is created from by sputtering from a target 1590 made from that material, as shown in FIG. 15 a. This is subsequently electroplated to form the thicker layer 1502 shown in FIG. 15 b. Additional processing steps can also be used to obtain a suitable deposit of the desired material.
Typically, this is then coated with a layer of a polymer 1540, which is then processed by etching or polishing to expose only the raised portions 1512 of the film 1502, while leaving leftover material 1542 from the polymer film 1540 in the indentations, with the result shown in FIG. 15 c. The structures 1512 are essentially pre-fabricated layer of nanostructures that would normally have been created as the structures 132 on a partially fabricated substrate 100. This prefabricated structure is then stored until needed.
After a partially fabricated substrate 100 has reached the point in its manufacture where this layer is required, the template 1510 with nanostructures 1512 and carrier 630 is removed from storage and aligned with the partially fabricated substrate 100, as shown in FIG. 15 d. An adhesive coating 1562 on the partially fabricated substrate 100 may be used for better attachment of the nanostructures 1512 on the template. The carrier and template 1510 are then brought into close proximity and pressed together, as shown in FIG. 15 e. The carrier is then removed, with the result shown in FIG. 15 f.
The template is then dissolved, leaving only the polymer and the metal. Subsequent processing can also remove the polymer material and the excess portion of layer 1502, leaving only the portions 1532 of that correspond to the nanostructures desired in the device. These would, for example, correspond in size and shape to the structures 132 shown in the other figures.
An alternative process is shown in FIG. 16. Here, a thin layer 1601 of the material to be processed is created from by sputtering from a target 1590 made from that material, as shown in FIG. 16 a. This is subsequently electroplated to form the thicker layer 1602 and coated with a polymer 1642 to fill the indentations 612 as shown in FIG. 16 b. This filling can be achieved by overfilling and etching or polishing the film, although other planarization techniques will be known to those skilled in the art. Additional processing steps can also be used to obtain a suitable deposit of the desired material.
This structure can then be further polished or etched to remove all but the portions 1632 of film 1602 that filled indentations 612, with the result shown in FIG. 16 c. The structures 1632 are essentially pre-fabricated layer of nanostructures that would normally have been created as the structures 132 on a partially fabricated substrate 100. This prefabricated structure is then stored until needed.
After a partially fabricated substrate 100 has reached the point in its manufacture where this layer is required, the template 610 with nanostructures 1632 and carrier 630 is removed from storage and aligned with the partially fabricated substrate 100, as shown in FIG. 16 d. An adhesive coating 1660 on the partially fabricated substrate 100 may be used for better attachment of the nanostructures 1632. The carrier 630 and template 610 are then brought into close proximity and pressed together. The carrier 630 is then removed, with the result shown in FIG. 15 e.
As a final step, the partially fabricated substrate 100 and template 610 with nanostructures 1632 are processed so that the template 610 dissolves, leaving only the nanostructures 1632 in specific locations on the partially fabricated substrate 100. This corresponds to the structures 132 formed on the partially fabricated substrate 100 in other processing sequences disclosed in this application.
Although we have originally conceived this as a technique for the prefabrication of layers or nanostructures for integrated circuits, this can apply to any technology which requires a patterning or lithographic technique. For integrated optical applications, certain dopants for altering fused silica waveguides may be pre-patterned and placed on the template. For biochip applications, certain proteins or DNA strands with specific sequences may be attached to the template and stored.
Once the material structure of the layer has been created on the template, it can be stored until it is needed. Although this may be only a few minutes, creating inventories of prefabricated device layers can avoid the queuing problems associated with "traffic jams" in wafer fabrication, and template and carrier properties, as well as the storage environment, should be chosen for chemical stability, as well as to minimize contamination from outgassing, to reduce physical deformation from temperature fluctuations, and to generally preserve the material on the template and carrier indefinitely.
Typically, the template will be enclosed in a sealed container, with controls for temperature, humidity, atmospheric content and pressure, and other variables controlled with the goal of maintaining mechanical and chemical integrity of the template and the structures fabricated on it.
The template or replicated structure may also be adhered, frontside down, to a glass or silicon disc as part of the storage process. The disc provides a more rigid support and can be utilized within a typical bonding or aligning tool as part of the transfer process. The adhesive in this case may be a water soluble glue, for example, such as polyvinyl alcohol. This adhesive would permit the effect separation of the replicated pattern from the hard support during the transfer procedure. The solid structure may then be placed into the solid container for transportation.
The template or replicated structure may also be adhered, backside down, to a glass or silicon disc as part of the storage process. This would allow the components to be faceside up during the transfer process.
It may also be desirable to dice the template into individual components or chips as part of the storage procedure. The dicing process enables more precise placement of the fabricated piece during the transfer to the final substrate.
Transfer of the Nanostructures to the Substrate.
Once there is a substrate that requires the transfer of the particular pattern replicated on the carrier, the suitable carrier is removed from storage. The surface of the substrate is prepared, if necessary, with a suitable adhesion promoter layer 1462 or 1562 made from a suitable material such as cyanoacrylate ester. This can be done using a simple deposition technique, such as applying drops of liquid onto the surface from a nozzle, or using a more uniform spin coating technique. Other adhesive materials, such as epoxies, acrylics, polyurathanes, photoresist, polyimides, low-k dielectrics, silicon dioxide, aluminum oxide, PZT, P(L)ZT, Ruthenium oxide, barium titanate, barium strontium titanate, cadmium oxide, hafnium oxide, indium tin oxide, lead titanate, lead zirconate, tantalum pentoxide, titanium oxide, tungstun oxide, zinc oxide, FSG, HSQ, HOSP, SILK, FEARE, PAE-2, probromide, paralene, PTFE, xero-gel, nano glass, and bizbenzocyclobutane, can also be used. When transferring nanostructures themselves instead of a pattern, some residue of this adhesion layer will typically remain between the substrate and the nanostructures, so care must be taken to insure that this residue is compatible with the material being transferred, and that the desired properties (e.g. electrical contact, etc.) of the interface be maintained.
Actual transfer of the patterned layer, or of the nanostructures themselves from the carrier to the substrate can occur in a number of ways. Pressure can be uniformly applied from one side, or pressure can start from one corner and be successively applied over the surface to insure air bubbles are not trapped between the carrier and substrate. Pressure can be intermediate or pressure can be applied and held for some period of time. High pressure may be required to insure good contact and uniformity. Adhesives that bind with pressure can be used, with the suitable application of pressure. Adhesives that bind with heat can be used, with the suitable application of heat. Adhesives that bind with UV photoexposure or curing can be used, along with the suitable application of UV exposure.
Once this step is finished, the template will adhere to the substrate, and the carrier itself can be removed. Because the patterning material (e.g. gold and polymer for our example) remains attached, the template can now be removed, leaving these other atructures attached to the substrate. For our example of PVA as a template material, this can be accomplished by simply dissolving the PVA from the surface with purified water. For other template materials, other solvents may be suitable. Additional steps of mild abrasion or wiping may also be used to selectively remove the template material, while leaving behind the metal and polymer combination.
Now that a patterned structure has been placed on the surface of the substrate, subsequent processing steps of deposition, etching, doping, or other chemical treatments can take place just as they would in any other printing technique.
Additional methods of adhesion can be deployed from the area of wafer bonding. Some methods include the thermal fusion of metal to metal or anodic bonding. In the case of gold barrier layer contacting the silicon surface. An initial adhesion of the PVA-metal layer is achieved by long-range forces. After the PVA is dissolved, the material structure may then be heated to high temperature to form a eutectic bond between the metal and silicon surface.
Another method involves directly heating a metallic interface between the template and substrate using an energetic laser beam. This forms a weld between the template and substrate upon cooling.
When the nanostructure itself has been fabricated on the template and transferred the adhesive layer on the substrate must be carefully chosen so that electrical properties are not impaired and good electrical contact with the substrate is achieved. Care must also be taken to align all the overlapping structures exactly. Although the alignment and transfer of several thousand or even millions of pre-fabricated metal nanostructure wires may be hard to achieve with good repeatability, there are applications (the repair of a single IC, for example), where the placement of a single nanowire can add value for an IC.
It will also be understood that the metal coated template or polymer coated template can also be used as a master itself in subsequent processes, including those found in the prior art nanoimprint techniques. In this case, the template is not destroyed, but again replicated, and the replicas can be used and destroyed without damage to the template.
To align and transfer the smooth template onto the substrate, standard wafer aligners and bonders are useful. Examples of commercially available aligner equipment that can be used to transfer the pattern onto the substrate include the EVG620 sold by the EV Group of Austria. Bonding equipment that can be coupled include the EVG520 bonder sold also by the EV Group. In this approach, alignment marks are recorded of the template. The gold or organic coating relief image creates sufficient contrast to determine the position of the template relative to the substrate. After recording the relative positions, servos manipulate the substrate to align and contact the template. A vacuum assisted bond helps to remove air bubbles between the template and substrate.
Further processing steps may be added to the above sequence to form specialized structures. It is possible to form a latent image on top of the PVA contoured metal surface replica prior to removal from the master surface.
It is also possible to develop the latent image pattern on the contoured metal surface. Subsequently, additional PVA solution may be spin-coated onto the developed pattern to form a multilayer structure of metal and organic material. The combined structure may then be removed from the surface of the master using the aforementioned techniques. The structure may then be transferred onto a second substrate or used directly.
While specific materials, coatings, carriers, substrates, and process steps have been set forth to describe and exemplify this invention and its preferred embodiment, such descriptions are not intended to be limiting. Modifications and changes may be apparent to those skilled in the art, and it is intended that this invention be limited only by the scope of the appended claims.
destroying the replica while it is in contact with the substrate.
the step of destroying comprises dissolving the replica in said solvent.
the solvent is an aqueous solution.
the step of destroying comprises etching the replica.
the step of creating the replica comprises spin coating of the replica material from a solution onto the master.
the step of creating the replica comprises casting a liquid polymer on the master.
the step of creating the replica also comprises drying the liquid polymer.
the step of creating the replica also comprises UV curing of the polymer.
the step of creating the replica also comprises heating the polymer.
attaching the replica to a carrier.
the carrier is coated with a material to promote adhesion to the replica.
the replica is coated with a material to promote adhesion to the carrier.
the adhesion promotion material comprises polyvinyl alcohol (PVA).
the adhesion promotion material comprises the same material as the replica.
storing the replica and carrier.
the storage environment is controlled for temperature.
the storage environment is controlled for humidity.
the storage environment is controlled for pressure.
the atmosphere of the storage environment is controlled for chemical composition.
the replica is inserted into a protective package during storage.
the step of transferring comprises aligning the carrier to the substrate.
the step of transferring comprises touching the replica against the substrate.
the step of transferring comprises pressing the replica against the substrate.
the substrate is coated with a material to promote adhesion of the replica.
25. The method of claim 24, in which the adhesion promotion material comprises a cyanoacrylate ester.
the substrate is coated with a deformable material.
the deformable material is a polymer.
the deformable material is a photoresist.
the deformable polymer is the material to be patterned.
dissolving the polymer film while it is attached to the substrate.
the polymer used to form the polymer film is polyvinyl alcohol.
storing the carrier with polymer film for some time before transferring the replica to the substrate.
forming a barrier layer on the replica after the replica is removed from the master.
the material for the barrier layer comprises gold.
the step of forming the barrier layer comprises deposition of gold on the replica using a sputtering process.
forming an additional barrier layer of polymer on the replica.
the polymer barrier layer is subsequently etched.
transferring the solid materials from said certain portions on the polymer film to the substrate.
the sequence of steps that leave solid materials comprises sputtering a material.
40. The method of claim 39, in which the composition of the material to be sputtered is selected from the group containing gold, platinum, palladium, copper, aluminum, chromium, nickel, silicon, germanium, tungsten, silver, yttrium, barium, cobalt, and carbon.
the sequence of steps that leave solid materials comprises electroplating.
such that the dimensions of the layer of material increase.
the sequence of steps that leave solid materials comprises spin coating a second polymer.
the second polymer is a photoresist.
the sequence of steps that leave solid materials additionally comprises exposure to ultraviolet light.
the sequence of steps that leave solid materials additionally comprises developing the photoresist.
the sequence of steps that leave solid materials comprises an etch process.
Babak Heidari, Ivan Maximov, Eva-Lena Sarwe, & Lars Montelius, "Large scale nanolithography using nanoimprint lithography", Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B vol. 17(6), Nov./Dec. 1999 pp. 2962-2964, USA.
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We joined forces with the Joseph Rowntree Theatre, to launch our new book of Five Rowntree Walks, and to screen our archive films in the main theatre alongside a number of exhibitions on our most recent work, to go alongside the displays on the history of the Joseph Rowntree Theatre.
Bootham School's Georgian Recital Room was the venue for an event that showcased our Heritage Lottery funded "York Remembers Rowntree" project.
Penn House was opened to the public for the first time over the weekend. 2,000 visitors attended and enjoyed rooms full of exhibitions. The event was second only to York Minster in terms of popularity during the Festival weekend! See Galleries/events for pictures.


text:
San Diego Free Press
Grassroots News & Progressive Views
The Starting Line –GOP Voter Registration Fraud Program Continues to Unfold; Is There a San Diego Connection?
October 1, 2012 by Doug Porter
Does anybody remember the Fox News generated story about voter fraud allegedly perpetrated by ACORN during the 2008 election cycle? The sum total of their evidence was that individuals were attempting to scam the voter registration system by turning in falsified forms. No monies from the Democratic Party were ever tied to ACORN, nor was there proof that any of the fake voters actually attempted to vote.
It should be noted that actual voter fraud (where somebody casts an illegal vote), despite regular histrionics by right wing zealots, is exceedingly rare. A study released in August of this year funded by the Carnegie and Knight Foundations went through "5,000 court documents, official reports, and media reports" involving VOTER FRAUD since 2000. Three substantive findings of the study are:
1) Any kind of election fraud is exceptionally rare. Among 600 MILLION votes cast, 2,068 cases of "election fraud" were alleged: this is a .000003 incidence of alleged election fraud.
2) Voter fraud is even rarer. Only 30.6% of the "election fraud" cases involved "voter fraud". That's 633 cases in 600,000,000. Translation: that's a .000001 incidence of all voter fraud.
3) IN-PERSON voter fraud is, according to the report, "virtually non-existent". With 600 MILLION votes cast, there were 10, yes 10, cases of alleged in-person voter fraud: this is a.000000001 incidence of alleged in-person voter fraud, the purported reason that Voter ID laws have been implemented in so many states. (h/t Daily Kos)
Now there is a nation-wide voter registration scandal unfolding involving companies directly funded by both State and National Republican Party groups, and over at Fox News there's not a peep to be heard. From The Nation:
…Nathan Sproul, the infamous voter suppression operative from 2004, accused of running an operation in several states that destroyed voter registration forms signed by Democrats, had been secretly paid by Republicans this year on another multimillion-dollar contract for voter registration in swing states.
He's now in hot water because his firm was caught turning in faked voter registration forms in Palm Beach County and nine other counties in Florida. Within a day of The Nation's reporting the story, officials with the national Republican Party cut ties with Sproul, whose firm has already received $3.1 million for work in Virginia, Florida, Nevada, North Carolina and Colorado. Although the payments were made by state party committees, its now clear that the Romney campaign and the national GOP coordinated the effort.
But here's confirmation of another wrinkle in the story—the Los Angeles Times reports that Republicans were so concerned with the many scandals surrounding Sproul and his previous work, they indeed asked him to set up a shell corporation to hide the payments. Here's what Matea Gold and her colleagues reported today: "But his reputation is such that when Sproul was tapped by the RNC to do field work this year, officials requested that he set up a new firm to avoid being publicly linked to the past allegations." The shell is called "Strategic Allied Consulting," but Sproul's real firm carries the name "Sproul and Associates" and "Lincoln Strategy Group."
The Nation has also uncovered evidence that Sproul, operating under the name "Grass Roots Outreach, LLC" is under contract to the Republican Party of California. The State GOP has made $430,840 in payments to that group (which shares the same office address with a known Sproul affiliate and is running the same verbatim ads on Craigslist for workers) during the current election cycle for voter registration efforts. From California Watch:
In a complaint filed last week with the county registrar of voters, the [Riverside County] Democrats presented affidavits from 133 Democratic voters who said they had been re-registered as Republicans without their consent after they encountered petition circulators outside welfare offices and stores
One voter complained that his registration was changed to Republican after he signed what he thought was a petition to legalize marijuana. Another said he was told he was signing a petition to lower the price of gasoline, according to the affidavits. Others said they were offered free cigarettes or a "job at the polls" if they signed some paperwork.
Also among the Democrats who said they were involuntarily re-registered as Republicans: two aides to retired U.S. Air Force Maj. Gen. Richard Roth, a Democrat locked in a tight race with Republican Assemblyman Jeff Miller for a state Senate seat. Many of the complainants were Latino or African American.
While Republican registrations in California are on the decline, they hold the upper hand in total voters in 31 of the 58 counties in the State. Republicans in those mostly inland counties are seeking to increase their advantage, hoping for a bump in fundraising because prospective donors will view local races as more winnable.
Re-registering Democrats as Republicans also interferes with Democratic get-out-the-vote efforts because the party won't contact a voter who is listed as a Republican. The Riverside County GOP reports a nearly 35,000-voter surge in registrations this year, and records show that the voter participation project has paid more than $200,000 to the firms that have been conducting GOP voter registration locally.
There's bound to be a San Diego angle to this California Watch story, as the county, once a stronghold for Republicans, is now the most evenly divided county in the state.
The people associated with "True the Vote" (led by a known Tea Party advocate) are holding training sessions throughout San Diego, as part of a nation-wide effort to place one million "watchers" in polling places come November. Critics have charged that the group is a part of an effort to intimidate minority voters on Election Day.
We at the San Diego Free Press do know (we have inside info, story coming soon) that the local effort is motivated by fears of the kinds of stories about ACORN spread by Fox News. Meanwhile, news reports this morning say that the GOP has cancelled all swing state voter registration efforts. Hmmmm….
Desalination Plant is Not a Done Deal
If you didn't pay close attention to the details of the story, it is quite possible that you assumed that the deal to open up a privately held desalination plant in Carlsbad was made last week. But that's not true. What was done was that the terms of an agreement were released by the SD County Water Authority. Nothing has been signed yet.
There are upcoming public workshops this week:
**6:30 p.m. Tuesday, Oct. 2 at the Water Authority's headquarters, 4677 Overland Ave., Kearny Mesa.
**6:30 p.m. Wednesday, Oct. 10 at the city of Carlsbad's Faraday Center, 1635 Faraday Ave., Carlsbad.
A copy of the tentative agreement can be accessed via the County Water Authority's news release here.
While desalination has certainly been used effectively in the Middle East, there are a host of legitimate questions that have been raised regarding the impact that such projects have on the environment. One study that examines desalination projects vis a vis global warming ishere. Here's another article that explores what other locales in California have discovered about desalination from the Fresno Bee.
Down in the Old West Texas Town of El Paso They're Tearing Down City Hall to Make Way for the Padres
El Paso, Texas is on the verge of approving a deal that will raze its City Hall building to made way for a publicly funded downtown stadium housing a privately owned minor league farm team associated with the San Diego Padres. The proposal will demolish City Hall early in 2013 and erect a 7,000 to 9,000-seat stadium in time for the spring 2014 season, with city services split over three buildings around El Paso. See if any of this sounds vaguely familiar: (from NMSU's Frontera NorteSur):
The local press has published photos of concocted public comment cards turned in by pro-downtown development campaigners, run stories on inflated estimates of property values for a new, three-legged city hall and reported on unsuccessful citizen attempts to get the matter on November's ballot.
While proponents maintain that a new stadium will spring a sleepy downtown to life and usher in a brighter economic future, opponents charge that the project is a hasty, costly venture hatched in typical backroom fashion without adequate study and public input.
The deal is linked to a proposed sale of the Tucson Padres, a Triple-A farm team associated with our own Padres to the MountainStar Sports Group. The fact that El Paso already hosts an independent league team, the Diablos, which averaged a daily seasonal attendance of 3,696 fans at their already existing ballpark is not apparently relevant.
The DougChester Rules the Roost
Today's the day that local media mogul/developer Doug Manchester will officially gain control of the North County Times. Long time Editor Kent Davy has already been shunted aside, and CEO John Lynch granted an interview that appeared in yesterday's UT-San Diego saying that they hoped "to keep the total amount layoffs to under 100 employees."
Operations for the NC Times will consolidated into their Escondido building, which will be refurbished "as only Papa Doug can", which means a small TV studio and signage for the UT/UT-TV entities out front. Although Lynch indicated that both newspapers would continue to operate "as is" for the time being, he also mentioned the combined circulation of the two papers as being an important factor. Asked about news coverage, he cited NC Times reportage on prep footfall as a key element worth keeping.
It's obvious that the grand plan is to submerge the NC Times identity, perhaps as a regional section inside the UT-San Diego. Their marketing plan, as defined by Lynch, will be "you go out and touch people, allow them to know that it's very likely that the North County Times would have gone out of business and we're saving it." Goodbye, NC Times. It was nice while it lasted.
Welcome to Banned Books Week
Well here we are: It's Banned Books Week thru Sunday. It's hard to believe that this sort of thing is even necessary, but the facts say otherwise. Whether it's Dante's The Divine Comedy (burned in 1497 on religious grounds), Martin Luther's translation of The Bible (burned in 1624 by Papal authority), Steinbeck's Of Mice and Men , or J.K. Rowling's Harry Potter series it would seem as though there's always some dolt somewhere who's looking to justify their theological or political stance by denying people access to literature.
So we have Banned Books Week. Librarians, booksellers, publishers, journalists, teachers, and readers of all types come together (led by the American Library Association) in shared support of the freedom to seek and to express ideas, even those some consider unorthodox or unpopular. By focusing on efforts across the country to remove or restrict access to books, Banned Books Week draws national attention to the harms of censorship. Check out the frequently challenged books section of the official website to explore the issues and controversies around book challenges and book banning.
This year the local response to 30th Annual Banned Books Week will focus on those books banished from the schools in Arizona. On Wednesday, October 3, at the Malcolm X Library (5148 Market Street, San Diego), local students will read passages from books banned by the Tucson School District. There will be music by Mariachi Garibaldi, refreshments, and a discussion of Latino literature. More info: 619-527-3405.
San Diego's Central Library (820 E Street, downtown San Diego) will feature a program called 'Librarians Read Banned Books' on Thursday,October 4, from 10AM-5PM. It's an All-Day Read-Aloud Reading Marathon to help raise awareness regarding the censorship of books, featuring librarian readers and special guests: Poet and Broadway lyricist Reg E. Gaines and poet, blogger and San Diego State University lecturer Delores Fisher.
The San Diego City College International Book Fair will be presenting "Banned Book Saturday" on October 6, with a screening and discussion of the documentary Precious Knowledge. Also planned are talks on history of banned books in the U.S.; readings and discussion of excerpts from banned books by City College faculty and staff members. For more information: 619-388-3596.
Authors banned in Arizona include: Rudy Acuña (Occupied America, Anything But Mexican, Corridors of Migration); Matt de la Peña (Mexican White Boy, Ball Don't Lie, We Were Here); Herbert Sigüenza (Culture Clash: Life, Death and Revolutionary Comedy).
It's Law-O-Rama Time in Sacramento
Gov. Jerry Brown signed a boatload of new laws over the weekend, most of which we as citizens will never hear about. Hell, there's a good chance that the legislators that voted on these laws don't know what they voted for. As far as I can tell, no laws were passed about keeping labor leaders from beating baby pandas, but I'm not 100% sure.
Here's few high/low lights of what did or didn't get signed:
**Brown signed a bill barring a controversial therapy that claims to reverse homosexuality in minors. This law is considered a victory for gay rights advocates; they say so-called conversion therapy, also called reparative therapy, has no medical basis because homosexuality is not a disorder. It was supported by the California Psychological Association and the California Board of Behavioral Sciences, among others. The psychiatrist who pioneered the therapy, Dr. Robert Spitzer, has since renounced it and has apologized to the gay and lesbian community.
**He okay'd legislation that will allow hundreds of thousands of young people covered under the Obama administration's plan to allow children of undocumented immigrants to stay in the country to obtain driver's licenses.
**He signed off on a law that restricted the right of gun owners to carry rifles and shotguns in public places. (I have no doubt the NRA is out there as you read this raising funds off this decision.)
**He vetoed another law that would have restricted sheriffs from helping federal authorities detain undocumented Californians for potential deportation.
** He also vetoed legislation that would have provided overtime pay, meal breaks and other labor protections to an estimated 200,000 caregivers, nannies and house cleaners in California. Household workers and agricultural laborers were left out of the 1935 National Labor Relations Act that established basic labor protections so the legislation would win support from Southern lawmakers.
On This Day: In 1908 the Model T automobile was introduced by Henry Ford. The purchase price of the car was $850. In 1933 Babe Ruth made his final pitching appearance. He pitched all nine innings and hit a home run in the 5th inning. In 1964 the Free Speech Movement was started at the University of California at Berkeley.
On This Day: Eat Fresh! Today's Farmers' Markets: Escondido (Welk Resort 8860 Lawrence Welk Drive) 1pm –Sunset
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I read the Daily Fishwrap(s) so you don't have to… Catch "the Starting Line" Monday thru Friday right here at San Diego Free Press (dot) org. Send your hate mail and ideas to DougPorter@SanDiegoFreePress.Org Check us out on Facebook and Twitter.
Doug Porter
Doug Porter was active in the early days of the alternative press in San Diego, contributing to the OB Liberator, the print version of the OB Rag, the San Diego Door, and the San Diego Street Journal. He went on to have a 35-year career in the Hospitality business and decided to go back into raising hell when he retired. He won numerous awards for his columns from the Society of Professional Journalists in 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016 and 2017. Doug is a cancer survivor (sans vocal chords) and lives in North Park.
Latest posts by Doug Porter (see all)
Last Call. Last Column. - December 14, 2018
Which Presidential Candidate Will You Support in 2020? - December 13, 2018
Mounting the Assault on Big Gay and Other Drivel From SDSU's Minimum Wage Scrooge - December 12, 2018
Filed Under: Activism, Books & Poetry, Columns, Editor's Picks, Government, Politics, The Starting Line
« California Prisons, a Profitable Industry
Mexico by the Numbers »
Rohinton Irani says
Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney made a misstep when he described 47 percent of Americans as feeling entitled to government aid, his vice presidential running mate, Paul Ryan, said.
Story Link :
Yeah….Mr Ayn Rand Jr…..
Telling 47% of Hard Working/TAX PAYING CITIZENS to go F**K THEMSELVES !
IS NOT MIS-SPEAKING !….Paul.
It's YOUR Boss TELLING His ILK….How he REALLY FEELS !
4 MORE YEARS !
WILLARD ROMNEY:
" Well, there are 47% of the people who will vote for the president no matter what. All right? There are 47% who are with him. Who are dependent upon government, who believe that– that they are victims, who believe that government has a responsibility to care for them, who believe that they're entitled to healthcare, to food, to housing, to you name it. But that's– it's an entitlement. And the government should give it to them. And they will vote for this president no matter what. "
" And– and so MY JOB IS NOT TO WORRY ABOUT THOSE PEOPLE !. I'll never convince them that they should take personal responsibility and care for for their lives. What I have to do is convince the 5% to 10% in the center that are independents, that are thoughtful, that look at voting one way or the other depending upon in some cases emotion. Whether they like the guy or not. "
Dave Francis says
Whether it's allegedly true on not of voter fraud from the GOP, they only have to check under voter fraud that the Democrats have provided on a GRAND SCALE. Have American citizens already forgotten the criminal enterprise called ACORN, which was held accountable in eleven states for Voter fraud—and they are still out there under a different name? That's why I am voting for Mitt Romney, so that more TEA PARTY leaders can be absorbed into the most corrupt parties for years. I neither trust the Republicans or Democrats, but more in harmony with the moderate Conservatives not the GOP elites or the Liberal Marxist Socialist, which are out to turn our beloved sovereign nation over to the United Nations in accord with Obama ideology. The UN is as rotten as the two parties and not satisfied with the 10 billion dollars, but wants a global tax on every country. Incidentally-the TEA PARTY "the Peoples Party" will be out in force in November election, to watch for irregularities in the voting precincts and be checking absentee ballots that arrive in the election stations.
Doug Porter says
Apparently you can't read – no evidence, no indictments and only TEN confirmed cases of voter fraud since 2000.
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The Sacha is a neo-round 41 x 41 corner shower with seat. Includes bottle shelves. Shower stall can be ordered in two pieces for easier access. Available options include fan with light, glass doors with lateral or central sliding opening. Door frame is chrome. Glass is 10mm tempered and can be clear or fogged.


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The manager of the future? They're a designer - Politecnico di Milano School of Management Politecnico di Milano School of Management
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15 December 2021 Share
design innovation transformation
The manager of the future? They're a designer
Designers who become managers, managers who learn the tools of design. The "contamination" between these professionals is one of the answers to growing complexity. And it is at the centre of the Master in Strategic Design for Innovation and Transformation, as Claudio Dell'Era and Cabirio Cautela explain
Until a few years ago we were (or we thought we were) able to understand the world by relying on an analytical approach, that is based on well-defined methodologies, logic and categories. Today this is no longer the case. Growing complexity requires a change of pace, with the involvement of new abilities like intuitiveness and creativity. «It is the reason today's managers can benefit from the adoption of skills offered by design», explains Professor Claudio Dell'Era, who together with Professor Cabirio Cautela is co-director of the Master in Strategic design for Innovation and Transformation at MIP Politecnico di Milano. «Indeed, the challenges of the world of work require a strengthened managerial figure, more contemporary and increasingly in demand».
The evolution of designers
At the same time, during the last twenty years designers themselves have seen their role gradually evolve. «On one hand they have gone from being technical figures to increasingly become managers. Just think of automotive, for example, with Chris Bangle in BMW and Walter De Silva in Audi, and then in all those sectors in which the language of the product, its structure, its meaning have an important impact on positioning» explains Cautela. «On the other hand, designers have started to become increasingly present in the marketing departments of companies, becoming fundamental not so much in product design, as in new offer solutions, that is the integrated process between product, service, communication and distribution».
Humans at the centre
The reason a company regulated on the principles of design ends up having a competitive advantage is the centrality of the human element. «Design presupposes a bottom-up involvement of employees. Only in this way is it possible to give meaning to one's work, putting human values before more functional and technical ones», explains Dell'Era. «This is an increasingly indispensable dynamic, a necessity more than a choice». The repercussions are also positive for users: «The new recipe for innovation must push us to create products, services and solutions that make peoples' life experiences more pleasing. They are the people that we must put at the centre of our reflections».
Good design sells better
A point of view that is also echoed in the considerations of Cautela: «Good design makes you sell more, but above all it makes you sell better. Because it starts from a vision of people, and not a corporate one, because it puts at the centre change, emerging cultural models, relations. Business is a consequence, not the end». And the workers involved also benefit from this: «Employee engagement is greater if it is tied to a deep motivation, to a purpose. That is not the profit, or a higher salary. The design leader must convey precisely this concept: the aim is to change peoples' lives in a certain way. An approach that allows to retain human resources who truly believe in the corporate purpose, giving them an opportunity to enhance their creativity».
The master's degree
These are the issues and the challenges which the Master in Strategic Design for Innovation and Transformation tries to address, offering training to managers who want to acquire design tools and to designers that instead feel a need for stronger managerial training. «The question we started from is: who is the design leader?», explains Cautela. «The answer is that it is not someone who only has an ability to proactively offer solutions, but who also instils new values in the organization. To define this role, we used four thematic blocks: the first involves design as a lens with which to approach innovation, to give value to the products also for the meaning they embody. The second theme is that of leadership and engagement, as we have said. The third is that of data supporting creativity: not big data, but "thick" data, qualitative (feelings, reactions) data that provides information on individuals dealings with objects. Lastly, the fourth block involves the issue of the integration of creativity in organizations. How can it be done? It is a question that is often faced in big corporations, because the integration of new creative processes is always complex. But, if done well, it can lead to big benefits».
Master in Strategic Design for Innovatio ...


text:
The Overstory
Author: Richard Powers
Series: 14 Nature books that celebrate the great outdoors
ASIN: B073VX7HT4
Barbara Kingsolver, in The New York Times Book Review (cover review) calls this, "Monumental…The Overstory accomplishes what few living writers from either camp, art or science, could attempt. More subtly developed than the human purview that we gain glimpses of a vast, primordial sensibility, while watching our own kind get whittled down to size." From the publisher: "The Overstory unfolds in concentric rings of interlocking fables that range from antebellum New York to the late twentieth-century Timber Wars of the Pacific Northwest and beyond, exploring the essential conflict on this planet: the one taking place between humans and nonhumans. There is a world alongside ours—vast, slow, interconnected, resourceful, magnificently inventive, and almost invisible to us."
Publisher's description:
A monumental novel about reimagining our place in the living world, by one of our most "prodigiously talented" novelists (New York Times Book Review).
The Overstory unfolds in concentric rings of interlocking fable that range from antebellum New York to the late 20th-century Timber Wars of the Pacific Northwest and beyond.
An air force loadmaster in the Vietnam War is shot out of the sky, then saved by falling into a banyan. An artist inherits 100 years of photographic portraits, all of the same doomed American chestnut. A hard-partying undergraduate in the late 1980s electrocutes herself, dies, and is sent back into life by creatures of air and light. A hearing- and speech-impaired scientist discovers that trees are communicating with one another.
These and five other strangers, each summoned in different ways by trees, are brought together in a last and violent stand to save the continent's few remaining acres of virgin forest. There is a world alongside ours – vast, slow, interconnected, resourceful, magnificently inventive, and almost invisible to us. This is the story of a handful of people who learn how to see that world and who are drawn up into its unfolding catastrophe.
Other books in "14 Nature books that celebrate the great outdoors"
The Signature of All Things
Harry's Trees
Leave Only Footprints: My Acadia-to-Zion Journey Through Every National Park
End of the Rope: Mountains, Marriage, and Motherhood
Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge, and the Teaching of Plants
Working the Roots: Over 400 Years of Traditional African American Healing
The Wild Trees: A Story of Passion and Daring
Underland: A Deep Time Journey
Trace: Memory, History, Race and the American Landscape
14 books about nature to inspire your next outdoor adventure
What I've been reading lately: the new and the notable