), [ [http://www.pasteur.fr/actu/presse/press/07pesteTIGR_E.htm Researchers sound the alarm: the multidrug resistance of the plague bacillus could spread] ] but recently attributed by some to other diseases.
Bubonic plague is thought to have returned to Europe every generation with varying virulence and mortalities until the 1700s. [ [http://www.infoplease.com/cig/dangerous-diseases-epidemics/bubonic-plague.html Epidemics of the Past—Bubonic Plague] ] During this period, more than 100 plague epidemics swept across Europe. [ [http://education.guardian.co.uk/higher/artsandhumanities/story/0,12241,1218631,00.html Black Death blamed on man, not rats] ] On its return in 1603, the plague killed 38,000 Londoners. [ [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Plague Plague - LoveToKnow 1911] ] Other notable 17th century outbreaks were the Italian Plague of 1629–1631, the Great Plague of Seville (1647–1652), the Great Plague of London (1665–1666), [ [http://urbanrim.org.uk/plague%20list.htm A List of National Epidemics of Plague in England 1348–1665] ] the Great Plague of Vienna (1679). There is some controversy over the identity of the disease, but in its virulent form, after the Great Plague of Marseille in 1720–1722, [ [http://www.beyond.fr/history/plague.html Plague History Provence] ] the Great Plague of 1738 (which hit eastern Europe), and the 1771 plague in Moscow, it seems to have disappeared from Europe in the 19th century.
The 14th century eruption of the Black Death had a drastic effect on Europe's population, irrevocably changing the social structure. It was a serious blow to the Roman Catholic Church, and resulted in widespread persecution of minorities such as Jews, foreigners, beggars, and lepers. The uncertainty of daily survival created a general mood of morbidity, influencing people to "live for the moment", as illustrated by Giovanni Boccaccio in "The Decameron" (1353).
Medieval people called the 14th century catastrophe either the "Great Pestilence"' or the "Great Plague". [ Judith M. Bennett and C. Warren Hollister, Medieval Europe: A Short History" (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006), page 327cite book|title=|isbn=0072955155|oclc=56615921] Writers contemporary to the plague referred to the event as the "Great Mortality".
In Northern Europe, new technological innovations such as the heavy plough and the three-field system were not as effective in clearing new fields for harvest as they were in the Mediterranean because the north had poor, clay-like, soil. Food shortages and skyrocketing prices were a fact of life for as much as a century before the plague. Wheat, oats, hay, and consequently livestock, were all in short supply, and their scarcity resulted in hunger and malnutrition. The result was a mounting human vulnerability to disease, due to weakened immune systems.
The European economy entered a vicious circle in which hunger and chronic, low-level debilitating disease reduced the productivity of labourers, and so the grain output was reduced, causing grain prices to increase. This situation was worsened when landowners and monarchs like Edward III of England (r. 1327–1377) and Philip VI of France (r. 1328–1350), out of a fear that their comparatively high standard of living would decline, raised the fines and rents of their tenants. [ Ibid., 327. ] Standards of living then fell drastically, diets grew more limited, and Europeans as a whole experienced more health problems.
This was the economic and social situation in which the predictor of the coming disaster, a typhoid (Infected Water) epidemic, emerged. Many thousands died in populated urban centres, most significantly Ypres. In 1318 a pestilence of unknown origin, sometimes identified as anthrax, targeted the animals of Europe, notably sheep and cattle, further reducing the food supply and income of the peasantry.
The scenario that would place the first outbreak in central Asia agrees with the first reports of outbreaks in China in the early 1330s. The plague struck the Chinese province of Hubei in 1334. On the heels of the European epidemic, a more widespread disaster occurred in China during 1353–1354. Chinese accounts of this wave of the disease record a spread to eight distinct areas: Hubei, Jiangxi, Shanxi, Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Henan and Suiyuan, [Suiyuan was a historical Chinese province that now forms part of Hebei and Inner Mongolia.] throughout the Mongol and Chinese empires. Historian William McNeill noted that voluminous Chinese records on disease and social disruption survive from this period, but no one has studied these sources in depth.
It is probable that the Mongols and merchant caravans inadvertently brought the plague from central Asia to the Middle East and Europe. The plague was reported in the trading cities of Constantinople and Trebizond in 1347.
In October 1347, a fleet of Genoese trading ships fleeing Caffa reached the port of Messina in Sicily. By the time the fleet reached Messina, all the crew members were either infected or dead. It is presumed that the ships also carried infected rats and/or fleas. Some ships were found grounded on shorelines, with no one aboard remaining alive.
Looting of these lost ships also helped spread the disease. From there, the plague spread to Genoa and Venice by the turn of 1347–1348.
From Italy the disease spread northwest across Europe, striking France, Spain, Portugal and England by June 1348, then turned and spread east through Germany and Scandinavia from 1348 to 1350. It was introduced in Norway in 1349 when a ship landed at Askøy, then proceeded to spread to Bjørgvin (modern Bergen). Finally it spread to north-western Russia in 1351; however, the plague largely spared some parts of Europe, including the Kingdom of Poland and isolated parts of Belgium and The Netherlands.
The plague struck various countries in the Middle East during the pandemic, leading to serious depopulation and permanent change in both economic and social structures. As it spread to western Europe, the disease also entered the region from southern Russia. By autumn 1347, the plague reached Alexandria in Egypt, probably through the port's trade with Constantinople, and ports on the Black Sea. During 1348, the disease traveled eastward to Gaza, and north along the eastern coast to cities in Lebanon, Syria and Palestine, including Ashkelon, Acre, Jerusalem, Sidon, Damascus, Homs, and Aleppo. In 1348–49, the disease reached Antioch. The city's residents fled to the north, most of them dying during the journey, but the infection had been spread to the people of Asia Minor.
Mecca became infected in 1349. During the same year, records show the city of Mawsil (Mosul) suffered a massive epidemic, and the city of Baghdad experienced a second round of the disease. In 1351, Yemen experienced an outbreak of the plague. This coincided with the return of King Mujahid of Yemen from imprisonment in Cairo. His party may have brought the disease with them from Egypt.
During the Great Plague of 1738, the epidemic struck again, this time in Eastern Europe, spreading from Ukraine to the Adriatic Sea, then onwards by ship to infect some in Tunisia. The destruction in several cities in what is now Romania (such as Timişoara) was formidable, claiming tens of thousands of lives.
coauthors = Houhamdi, L; Raoult, D.
An interesting hypothesis about the epidemiology—the appearance, spread and especially disappearance—of plague from Europe is that the flea-bearing rodent reservoir of disease was eventually succeeded by another species. The black rat ("Rattus rattus") was originally introduced from Asia to Europe by trade, but was subsequently displaced and succeeded throughout Europe by the bigger brown rat ("Rattus norvegicus"). The brown rat was not as prone to transmit the germ-bearing fleas to humans in large die-offs due to a different rat ecology. [Appleby and Slack, secondary references.] The dynamic complexities of rat ecology, herd immunity in that reservoir, interaction with human ecology, secondary transmission routes between humans with or without fleas, human herd immunity and changes in each might explain the eruption, dissemination, and re-eruptions of plague that continued for centuries until its (even more) unexplained disappearance.
The three forms of plague brought an array of signs and symptoms to those infected. The septicaemic plague is a form of "blood poisoning," and pneumonic plague is an airborne plague that attacks the lungs before the rest of the body. The classic sign of bubonic plague was the appearance of buboes in the groin, the neck and armpits, which oozed pus and bled. Most victims died within four to seven days after infection. When the plague reached Europe, it first struck port cities and then followed the trade routes, both by sea and land.
The bubonic plague was the most commonly seen form during the Black Death, with a mortality rate of thirty to seventy-five percent and symptoms including fever of 38–41 °C (101–105 °F), headaches, painful aching joints, nausea and vomiting, and a general feeling of malaise. Of those who contracted the bubonic plague, 4 out of 5 died within eight days. [Rebecca Totaro, "Suffering in Paradise: The Bubonic Plague in English Literature from More to Milton", (Pittsburgh: Duquense University Press: 2005), p. 26.] Pneumonic plague was the second most commonly seen form during the Black Death, with a mortality rate of ninety to ninety-five percent. Symptoms included fever, cough and blood-tinged sputum. As the disease progressed, sputum became free flowing and bright red. Septicaemic plague was the least common of the three forms, with a mortality rate close to one hundred percent. Symptoms were high fevers and purple skin patches (purpura due to DIC (Disseminated intravascular coagulation)).
David Herlihy [Herlihy, "The Black Death and the Transformation of the West" (1997) Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, p. 29.] identifies another potential sign of the plague: freckle-like spots and rashes. Sources from Viterbo, Italy refer to "the signs which are vulgarly called "lenticulae", a word which bears resemblance to the Italian word for freckles, "lentiggini". These are not the swellings of buboes, but rather "darkish points or pustules which covered large areas of the body".
Although "Y. pestis" as the causitive agent of plague is widely accepted, recent scientific and historical investigations have led some researchers to doubt the long-held belief that the Black Death was an epidemic of bubonic plague. For example, in 2000, Gunnar Karlsson [Karlsson, "Iceland's 1100 Years: The History of a Marginal Society"] pointed out that the Black Death killed between half and two-thirds of the population of Iceland, although there were no rats in Iceland at this time. Rats were accidentally introduced in the nineteenth century, and have never spread beyond a small number of urban areas attached to seaports. In the fourteenth century there were no urban settlements in Iceland. Iceland was unaffected by the later plagues which are known to have been spread by rats. However, without a rodent reservoir, pneumonic plague can be transmitted from human to human by respiratory transmission, and bubonic and septicemic plague can be transmitted from human to human by human-biting fleas.
In addition, it was previously argued that tooth pulp tissue from a fourteenth-century plague cemetery in Montpellier tested positive for molecules associated with "Y. pestis". Similar findings were reported in a 2007 study, [ [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=17479906&ordinalpos=3&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum "Yersinia pestis Orientalis" in remains of ancient plague patients".] ] but other studies have yielded negative results. In September 2003, a team of researchers from Oxford University tested 121 teeth from sixty-six skeletons found in fourteenth-century mass graves. The remains showed no genetic trace of "Y. pestis".
In 2002, Samuel K. Cohn published the controversial article, "The Black Death: End of the Paradigm." [Samuel. K Cohn, "The Black Death: End of a Paradigm," The American Historical Review 107 (2002): 703–738.] In the article Cohn argues that the medieval and modern plagues were two distinct diseases differing in their symptoms, signs and epidemiologies. [Ibid., 703.] Cohn asserts that the agent causing the bubonic plague, "Yersinia pestis", "was first cultured at Hong Kong in 1894." In turn, the medieval plague that struck Europe, according to Cohn, was not the bubonic plague carried by fleas on rats as traditionally viewed by scientists and historians alike. Cohn's argument that medieval plague was not rat-based is supported by his claims that the modern and medieval plagues hit in different seasons, had unparalleled cycles of recurrence, and varied in the manner in which immunity was acquired. The modern plague reaches its peak in seasons with high humidity and a temperature of between convert|50|°F|°C and convert|78|°F|°C, as rats' fleas thrive in this climate. [Ibid., 725.] In comparison, the Black Death is recorded as hitting in periods where rats' fleas could not survive, i.e. hot Mediterranean summers above convert|78|°F|°C. In terms of recurrence, the Black Death on average did not resurface in an area for between five and fifteen years after it hit. [Ibid., 727.] Contrastingly, modern plagues often hit an affected area yearly for an average of eight to forty years. Last, Cohn presents evidence displaying that individuals gained immunity to the Black Death during the fourteenth century, unlike the modern plague. He states that in 1348 two-thirds of those suffering from plague died in comparison to one-twentieth by 1382. Statistics contrastingly display that immunity to the modern plague has not been acquired.
In 1984, Graham Twigg published "The Black Death: A Biological Reappraisal", where he argued that the climate and ecology of Europe and particularly England made it nearly impossible for rats and fleas to have transmitted bubonic plague. Combining information on the biology of "Rattus rattus", "Rattus norvegicus", and the common fleas "Xenopsylla cheopis" and "Pulex irritans" with modern studies of plague epidemiology, particularly in India, where the "R. rattus" is a native species and conditions are nearly ideal for plague to be spread, Twigg concludes that it would have been nearly impossible for "Yersinia pestis" to have been the causative agent of the plague, let alone its explosive spread across Europe. Twigg also shows that the common theory of entirely pneumonic spread does not hold up. He proposes, based on a re-examination of the evidence and symptoms, that the Black Death may actually have been an epidemic of pulmonary anthrax caused by "Bacillus anthracis".
In 2001, epidemiologists Susan Scott and Christopher Duncan from Liverpool University proposed the theory that the Black Death might have been caused by an Ebola-like virus, not a bacterium. Their rationale was that this plague spread much faster and the incubation period was much longer than other confirmed "Y.pestis"-caused plagues. A longer period of incubation will allow carriers of the infection to travel farther and infect more people than a shorter one. When the primary vector is humans, as opposed to birds, this is of great importance. Studies of English church records indicate an unusually long incubation period in excess of thirty days, which could account for the rapid spread, topping at 2 miles/day, as this was the average speed a traveler would move across the countryside. The plague also appeared in areas of Europe where rats were uncommon, areas such as Iceland. Epidemiological studies suggest the disease was transferred between humans (which happens rarely with "Yersinia pestis" and very rarely for "Bacillus anthracis"), and some genes that determine immunity to Ebola-like viruses are much more widespread in Europe than in other parts of the world. Their research and findings are thoroughly documented in "Biology of Plagues". More recently the researchers have published computer modeling [ [http://jmg.bmj.com/cgi/content/abstract/42/3/205 "Journal of Medical Genetics": March 2005] ] demonstrating how the Black Death has made around 10% of Europeans resistant to HIV.
In a similar vein, historian Norman F. Cantor, in his 2001 book "In the Wake of the Plague", suggests the Black Death might have been a combination of pandemics including a form of anthrax, a cattle murrain. He cites many forms of evidence including: reported disease symptoms not in keeping with the known effects of either bubonic or pneumonic plague, the discovery of anthrax spores in a plague pit in Scotland, and the fact that meat from infected cattle was known to have been sold in many rural English areas prior to the onset of the plague. It is notable that the means of infection varied widely, from human-to-human contact as in Iceland (rare for plague and cutaneous "Bacillus anthracis") to infection in the absence of living or recently dead humans, as in Sicily (which speaks against most viruses). Also, diseases with similar symptoms were generally not distinguished between in that period (see "murrain" above), at least not in the Christian world; Chinese and Muslim medical records can be expected to yield better information which however only pertains to the specific disease(s) which affected these areas.
Historians who believe that the Black Death was indeed caused by bubonic plague have put forth several counterarguments.
The uncharacteristically rapid spread of the plague could be due to respiratory droplet transmission, and low levels of immunity in the European population at that period. Historical examples of pandemics of other diseases in populations without previous exposure, such as smallpox and tuberculosis transmitted by aerosol amongst Native Americans, show that the first instance of an epidemic spreads faster and is far more virulent than later instances among the descendants of survivors, for whom natural selection has produced characteristics that are protective against the disease.
Herlihy examines the arguments against the Malthusian crisis, stating "if the Black Death was a response to excessive human numbers it should have arrived several decades earlier" due to the population growth of years before the outbreak of the Black Death. Herlihy also brings up other, biological factors that argue against the plague as a "reckoning" by arguing "the role of famines in affecting population movements is also problematic. The many famines preceding the Black Death, even the 'great hunger' of 1314 to 1317, did not result in any appreciable reduction in population levels". Finally Herlihy concludes the matter stating, "the medieval experience shows us not a Malthusian crisis but a stalemate, in the sense that the community was maintaining at stable levels very large numbers over a lengthy period" and states that the phenomenon should be referred to as more of a deadlock, rather than a crisis, to describe Europe before the epidemics.
The trend of recent research is pointing to a figure more like 45% to 50% of the European population dying during a four-year period. There is a fair amount of geographic variation. In Mediterranean Europe and Italy, the South of France and Spain, where plague ran for about four years consecutively, it was probably closer to 80% to 75% of the population. In Germany and England . . . it was probably closer to 20%.
It is estimated that between one-quarter and one-third of the European population (35 million people) died from the outbreak between 1348 and 1350. [Gottfried, Robert S. (1983). The Black Death. New York: The Free Press] Contemporary observers, such as Jean Froissart, estimated the toll to be one-third—less an accurate assessment than an allusion to the Book of Revelation meant to suggest the scope of the plague. [Jean Froissart, "Chronicles" (trans. Geoffrey Brereton, Penguin, 1968, corrections 1974) pp.111] Many rural villages were depopulated, mostly the smaller communities, as the few survivors fled to larger towns and cities leaving behind abandoned villages. [Joseph Patrick Byrne (2004). "The Black Death". ISBN 0313324921 - Page 64.] The Black Death hit the culture of towns and cities disproportionately hard, although rural areas (where most of the population lived) were also significantly affected. A few rural areas, such as Eastern Poland and Lithuania, had such low populations and were so isolated that the plague made little progress. Parts of Hungary and, in modern Belgium, the Brabant region, Hainaut and Limbourg, as well as Santiago de Compostella, were unaffected for unknown reasons (some historians [ Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, "The Biggest Epidemic of History" ("La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire", in "L'Histoire" n°310, June 2006, pp.45–46] have assumed that the presence of resistant blood groups in the local population helped them resist the disease, although these regions would be touched by the second plague outbreak in 1360–63 and later during the numerous resurgences of the plague). Other areas which escaped the plague were isolated mountainous regions (e.g. the Pyrenees). Larger cities were the worst off, as population densities and close living quarters made disease transmission easier. Cities were also strikingly filthy, infested with lice, fleas and rats, and subject to diseases related to malnutrition and poor hygiene. According to journalist John Kelly, " [w] oefully inadequate sanitation made medieval urban Europe so disease-ridden, no city of any size could maintain its population without a constant influx of immigrants from the countryside".(p. 68) The influx of new citizens facilitated the movement of the plague between communities, and contributed to the longevity of the plague within larger communities.
All social classes were affected, although the lower classes, living together in unhealthy places, were most vulnerable. Alfonso XI of Castile was the only European monarch to die of the plague, but Peter IV of Aragon lost his wife, his daughter and a niece in six months. Joan of England, daughter of Edward III, died in Bordeaux on her way to Castile to marry Alfonso's son, Pedro. The Byzantine Emperor lost his son, while in the kingdom of France, Joan of Navarre, daughter of Louis X "le Hutin" and of Margaret of Burgundy, was killed by the plague, as well as Bonne of Luxembourg, the wife of the future John II of France.
Furthermore, resurgences of the plague in later years must also be counted: in 1360–62 (the "little mortality"), in 1366–69, 1374–75, 1400, 1407, etc. The plague was not eradicated until the 19th century.
The precise demographic impact of the disease in the Middle East is very difficult to calculate. Mortality was particularly high in rural areas, including significant areas of Palestine and Syria. Many surviving rural people fled, leaving their fields and crops, and entire rural provinces are recorded as being totally depopulated. Surviving records in some cities reveal a devastating number of deaths. The 1348 outbreak in Gaza left an estimated 10,000 people dead, while Aleppo recorded a death rate of 500 a day during the same year. In Damascus, at the disease's peak in September and October 1348, a thousand deaths were recorded every day, with overall mortality estimated at between 25 and 38 percent. Syria lost a total of 400,000 people by the time the epidemic subsided in March 1349. In contrast to some higher mortality estimates in Asia and Europe, scholars such as John Fields of Trinity College in Dublin believe the mortality rate in the Middle East was less than one-third of the total population, with higher rates in selected areas.
The governments of Europe had no apparent response to the crisis because no one knew its cause or how it spread. In 1348, the plague spread so rapidly that before any physicians or government authorities had time to reflect upon its origins, about a third of the European population had already perished. In crowded cities, it was not uncommon for as much as fifty percent of the population to die. Europeans living in isolated areas suffered less, and monasteries and priests were especially hard hit since they cared for the Black Death's victims. [ Judith M. Bennett and C. Warren Hollister, "Medieval Europe: A Short History" (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006), page 329cite book|title=|isbn=0072955155|oclc=56615921] Because fourteenth century healers were at a loss to explain the cause, Europeans turned to astrological forces, earthquakes, and the poisoning of wells by Jews as possible reasons for the plague's emergence. No one in the fourteenth century considered rat control a way to ward off the plague, and people began to believe only God's anger could produce such horrific displays. There were many attacks against Jewish communities. In August of 1349, the Jewish communities of Mainz and Cologne were exterminated. In February of that same year, Christians murdered two thousand Jews in Strasbourg. [ Ibid., 329–330.] Where government authorities were concerned, most monarchs instituted measures that prohibited exports of foodstuffs, condemned black market speculators, set price controls on grain, and outlawed large-scale fishing. At best, they proved mostly unenforceable, and at worst they contributed to a continent-wide downward spiral. The hardest hit lands, like England, were unable to buy grain abroad: from France because of the prohibition, and from most of the rest of the grain producers because of crop failures from shortage of labour. Any grain that could be shipped was eventually taken by pirates or looters to be sold on the black market. Meanwhile, many of the largest countries, most notably England and Scotland, had been at war, using up much of their treasury and exacerbating inflation. In 1337, on the eve of the first wave of the Black Death, England and France went to war in what would become known as the Hundred Years' War. Malnutrition, poverty, disease and hunger, coupled with war, growing inflation and other economic concerns made Europe in the mid-fourteenth century ripe for tragedy.
The plague did more than just devastate the medieval population; it caused a substantial change in economy and society in all areas of the world. Economic historians like Fernand Braudel have concluded that Black Death exacerbated a recession in the European economy that had been under way since the beginning of the century. As a consequence, social and economic change greatly accelerated during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The church's power was weakened, and in some cases, the social roles it had played were taken over by secular groups. Also the plague led to peasant uprisings in many parts of Europe, such as France (the Jacquerie rebellion), Italy (the Ciompi rebellion, which swept the city of Florence), and in England (the English Peasant Revolt).
Europe had been overpopulated before the plague, and a reduction of 30% to 50% of the population could have resulted in higher wages and more available land and food for peasants because of less competition for resources. However, for reasons that are still debated, population levels declined after the Black Death's first outbreak until around 1420 and did not begin to rise again until 1470, so the initial Black Death event on its own does not entirely provide a satisfactory explanation to this extended period of decline in prosperity. See Medieval demography for a more complete treatment of this issue and current theories on why improvements in living standards took longer to evolve.
The great population loss brought economic changes based on increased social mobility, as depopulation further eroded the peasants' already weakened obligations to remain on their traditional holdings. In the wake of the drastic population decline brought on by the plague, authorities in Western Europe worked to maintain social order through instituting wage controls. [Simon A. C. Penn and Christopher Dyer, "Wages and Earnings in Late Medieval England: Evidence from the Enforcement of the Labour Laws," The Economic History Review, New Series 43, no. 3 (Aug., 1990): 356–357. http://www.jstor.org/ (accessed 8 September 2007).] These governmental controls were set in place to ensure that workers received the same salary post-plague as they had before the onslaught of the Black Death. Within England, for example, the Ordinance of Labourers, created in 1349, and the Statute of Labourers, created in 1351, restricted both wage increases and the relocation of workers. [Ibid., 357.] If workers attempted to leave their current post, employers were given the right to have them imprisoned. The Statute was strictly enforced in some areas. For example, 7,556 people in the county of Essex were fined for deviating from the Statute in 1352. [Joseph P. Byrne, The Black Death, (London: Greenwood Predd, 2004), 65.] However, despite examples such as Essex County, the Statute quickly proved to be difficult to enforce due to the scarcity of labour.
In Western Europe, the sudden shortage of cheap labour provided an incentive for landlords to compete for peasants with wages and freedoms, an innovation that, some argue, represents the roots of capitalism, and the resulting social upheaval "caused" the Renaissance, and even the Reformation. In many ways the Black Death and its aftermath improved the situation of surviving peasants, notably by the end of the 15th century. In Western Europe, labourers gained more power and were more in demand because of the shortage of labour. In gaining more power, workers following the Black Death often moved away from annual contracts in favour of taking on successive temporary jobs that offered higher wages. [Penn and Dyer, 366.] Workers such as servants now had the opportunity to leave their current employment to seek better-paying, more attractive positions in areas previously off limits to them. Another positive aspect of the period was that there was more fertile land available to the population; however, the benefits would not be fully realized until 1470, nearly 120 years later, when overall population levels finally began to rise again.
In Eastern Europe, by contrast, renewed stringency of laws tied the remaining peasant population more tightly to the land than ever before through serfdom. Sparsely populated Eastern Europe was less affected by the Black Death and so peasant revolts were less common in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, not occurring in the east until the sixteenth through nineteenth centuries. Since it is believed to have in part caused the social upheavals of fourteenth- and fifteenth-century Western Europe, some see the Black Death as a factor in the Renaissance and even the Reformation in Western Europe. Therefore, some historians have cited Fact|date=May 2008 the smaller impact of the plague as a contributing factor in Eastern Europe's "failure" to experience either of these movements on a similar scale. Extrapolating from this, the Black Death may be seen as partly responsible for Eastern Europe's considerable lag in the move to liberalise government by restricting the power of the monarch and aristocracy. A common example is that by the mid-sixteenth century, England began the process that ultimately ended serfdom there and gave rise to representative government; meanwhile, Russia did not formally abolish serfdom until an autocratic tsar decreed so in 1861.
Furthermore, the plague's great population reduction brought cheaper land prices, more food for the average peasant, and a relatively large increase in per capita income among the peasantry, if not immediately, in the coming century. Since the plague left vast areas of farmland untended, they were made available for pasture and put more meat on the market; the consumption of meat and dairy products went up, as did the export of beef and butter from the Low Countries, Scandinavia and northern Germany. However, the upper class often attempted to stop these changes, initially in Western Europe, and more forcefully and successfully in Eastern Europe, by instituting sumptuary laws. These regulated what people (particularly of the peasant class) could wear, so that nobles could ensure that peasants did not begin to dress and act as a higher class member with their increased wealth. Another tactic was to fix prices and wages so that peasants could not demand more with increasing value. This was met with varying success depending on the amount of rebellion it inspired; such a law was one of the causes of the 1381 Peasants' Revolt in England.
Differences in cultural and lifestyle practices also led to persecution. Because Jews had a religious obligation to be ritually clean they did not use water from public wells and so were suspected of causing the plague by deliberately poisoning the wells. Typically, comparatively fewer Jews died from the Black DeathFact|date=August 2008, in part due to rabbinical laws that promoted habits that were generally cleaner than that of a typical medieval villagerFact|date=August 2008. They also were often socially isolated in Jewish ghettos and, as such, were less likely to be infected This led to lower mortality rates in the Jewish population and raised suspicions in people who had no concept of bacterial transmission.
Christian mobs attacked Jewish settlements across Europe; by 1351, sixty major and 150 smaller Jewish communities had been destroyed, and more than 350 separate massacres had occurred. This persecution reflected more than ethnic hatred. In many places, attacking Jews was a way to criticize the monarchs who protected them (Jews were under the protection of the king, and often called the "royal treasure")Fact|date=October 2007, and monarchic fiscal policies, which were often administered by Jews. An important legacy of the Black Death was to cause the eastward movement of what was left of north European Jewry to Poland and Russia, where it remained until the twentieth century.
The Black Death led to cynicism toward religious officials who could not keep their promises of curing plague victims and banishing the disease. No one, the Church included, was able to cure or accurately explain the reasons for the plague outbreaks. One theory of transmission was that it spread through air, and was referred to as "miasma", or 'bad air'. This increased doubt in the clergy's abilities. Extreme alienation with the Church culminated in either support for different religious groups such as the flagellants, which from their late 13th century beginnings grew tremendously during the opening years of the Black Death, and later to a pursuit of pleasure and hedonism. It was a common belief at the time that the plague was due to God's wrath, caused by the sins of mankind; In response, the flagellants travelled from town to town, whipping themselves in an effort to mimic the sufferings of Jesus prior to his crucifixion. Originating in Germany, several miraculous tales emerged from their efforts, such as a child being revived from the dead, and a talking cow. These stories further fuelled the belief that the flagellants were more effective than church leaders. It may have been that the flagellant's later involvement in hedonism was an effort to accelerate or absorb God's wrath, to shorten the time with which others suffered. More likely, the focus of attention and popularity of their cause contributed to a sense that the world itself was ending, and that their individual actions were of no consequence.
Sadly, the flagellants may have more likely contributed to the actual spreading of the disease, rather than its cure. Presumably, there were towns that the flagellants visited or passed through which were largely unaffected by the plague until that point, only to be infected by fleas carried either by the flagellant's followers, or the flagellants themselves. This is a common ironic theme in how individuals at the time dealt with the plague—that in nearly all cases, the methods employed to defend against the plague encouraged its spread.
The Black Death hit the monasteries very hard because of their proximity with the sick, who sought refuge there, so that there was a severe shortage of clergy after the epidemic cycle. This resulted in a mass influx of hastily-trained and inexperienced clergy members, many of whom knew little of the discipline and rigor of the veterans they replaced. This led to abuses by the clergy in years afterwards and a further deterioration of the position of the Church in the eyes of the people.
After 1350, European culture in general turned very morbid. The general mood was one of pessimism, and contemporary art turned dark with representations of death.
In retrospect, it seemed like everything the people thought to do at the time simply made the problem worse. For example, since many equated the plague with God's wrath against sin, and that cats were often considered in league with the Devil, cats were killed en masse. Had this bias toward cats not existed, local rodent populations could have been kept down, lessening the spread of plague-infected fleas from host to host.
The practice of alchemy as medicine, previously considered to be normal for most doctors, slowly began to wane as the citizenry began to realize that it seldom affected the progress of the epidemic and that some of the potions and "cures" used by many alchemists only served to worsen the condition of the sick. Liquor, originally made by alchemists, was commonly applied as a remedy for the Black Death, and, as a result, the consumption of liquor in Europe rose dramatically after the plague. The Church often tried to meet the medical need.
A plague doctor's duties were often limited to visiting victims to verify whether they had been afflicted or not. Surviving records of contracts drawn up between cities and plague doctors often gave the plague doctor enormous latitude and heavy financial compensation, given the risk of death involved for the plague doctor himself. Most plague doctors were essentially volunteers, as qualified doctors had (usually) already fled, knowing they could do nothing for those affected.
* A wide-brimmed black hat worn close to the head. At the time, a wide-brimmed black hat would have been identified a person as a doctor, much the same as how nowadays a hat may identify chefs, soldiers, and workers. The wide-brimmed hat may have also been used as partial shielding from infection.
* A primitive gas mask in the shape of a bird's beak. A common belief at the time was that the plague was spread by birds. There may have been a belief that by dressing in a bird-like mask, the wearer could draw the plague away from the patient and onto the garment the plague doctor wore. The mask also included red glass eyepieces, which were thought to make the wearer impervious to evil. The beak of the mask was often filled with strongly aromatic herbs and spices to overpower the miasmas or "bad air" which was also thought to carry the plague. At the very least, it may have served a dual purpose of dulling the smell of unburied corpses, sputum, and ruptured bouboules in plague victims.
* A long, black overcoat. The overcoat worn by the plague doctor was tucked in behind the beak mask at the neckline to minimize skin exposure. It extended to the feet, and was often coated head to toe in suet or wax. A coating of suet may have been used with the thought that the plague could be drawn away from the flesh of the infected victim and either trapped by the suet, or repelled by the wax. The coating of wax likely served as protection against respiratory droplet contamination, but it was not known at the time if coughing carried the plague. It was likely that the overcoat was waxed to simply prevent sputum or other bodily fluids from clinging to it.
* A wooden cane. The cane was used to both direct family members to move the patient, other individuals nearby, and possibly to examine the patient with directly.
* Leather breeches. Similar to waders worn by fishermen, leather breeches were worn beneath the cloak to protect the legs and groin from infection. Since the plague often tended to manifest itself first in the lymph nodes, particular attention was paid to protecting the armpits, neck, and groin.
The plague doctor's clothing also had a secondary use: to intentionally frighten and warn onlookers. The bedside manner common to doctors of today did not exist at the time; part of the appearance of the plague doctor's clothing was meant to frighten onlookers, and to communicate that something very, very wrong was nearby, and that they too might become infected. It's not known how often or widespread plague doctors were, or how effective they were in treatment of the disease. It's likely that while offering some protection to the wearer, they may have actually contributed more to the spreading of the disease than its treatment, in that the plague doctor unknowingly served as a vector for infected fleas to move from host to host.
Although the Black Death highlighted the shortcomings of medical science in the medieval era, it also led to positive changes in the field of medicine. As described by David Herlihy in "The Black Death and the Transformation of the West," more emphasis was placed on "anatomical investigations" following the Black Death. [David Herlihy, The Black Death and the Transformation of the West, (Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1997), 72.] How individuals studied the human body notably changed, becoming a process that dealt more directly with the human body in varied states of sickness and health. Further, at this time, the importance of surgeons became more evident.
The Black Death dominated art and literature throughout the generation that experienced it. Much of the most useful manifestations of the Black Death in literature, to historians, comes from the accounts of its chroniclers; contemporary accounts are often the only real way to get a sense of the horror of living through a disaster on such a scale. A few of these chroniclers were famous writers, philosophers and rulers (like Boccaccio and Petrarch). Their writings, however, did not reach the majority of the European population. For example, Petrarch's work was read mainly by wealthy nobles and merchants of Italian city-states. He wrote hundreds of letters and vernacular poetry of great distinction and passed on to later generations a revised interpretation of courtly love. [ Judith M. Bennett and C. Warren Hollister, "Medieval Europe: A Short History" (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006), page 372cite book|title=|isbn=0072955155|oclc=56615921] There was, however, one troubadour, writing in the lyric style long out of fashion, who was active in 1348. Peire Lunel de Montech composed the sorrowful "sirventes" "Meravilhar no·s devo pas las gens" during the height of the plague in Toulouse.
Father abandoned child, wife husband, one brother another; for this illness seemed to strike through the breath and sight. And so they died. And none could be found to bury the dead for money or friendship. Members of a household brought their dead to a ditch as best they could, without priest, without divine offices ... great pits were dug and piled deep with the multitude of dead. And they died by the hundreds both day and night... And as soon as those ditches were filled more were dug ... And I, Agnolo di Tura, called the Fat, buried my five children with my own hands. And there were also those who were so sparsely covered with earth that the dogs dragged them forth and devoured many bodies throughout the city. There was no one who wept for any death, for all awaited death. And so many died that all believed it was the end of the world. This situation continued [from May] until September.
Alas! our ships enter the port, but of a thousand sailors hardly ten are spared. We reach our homes; our kindred…come from all parts to visit us. Woe to us for we cast at them the darts of death! …Going back to their homes, they in turn soon infected their whole families, who in three days succumbed, and were buried in one common grave. Priests and doctors visiting…from their duties ill, and soon were…dead. O death! cruel, bitter, impious death! …Lamenting our misery, we feared to fly, yet we dared not remain.
Then the grievous plague came to the sea coasts from Southampton, and came to Bristol, and it was as if all the strength of the town had died, as if they had been hit with sudden death, for there were few who stayed in their beds more than three days, or two days, or even one half a day.
That disease entirely stripped vills, cities, castles and towns of inhabitaints of men, so that scarcely anyone would be able to live in them. The plague was so contagious that thous touching the dead or even the sick were immediately infected and died, and the one confessing and the confessor were together led to the grave ... many died from carbuncles and from ulcers and pustles that could be seen on shins and under the armpits; some died, as if in a frenzy, from pain of the head, others from spitting blood ... In the convent of Minors of Drogheda, twenty five, and in Dublin in the same order, twenty three died ... These cities of Dublin and Drogheda were almost destroyed and wasted of inhabitants and men so that in Dublin alone, from the beginning of August right up to Christmas, fourteen thousand men died ... The pestilence gathered strength in Kilkenny during Lent, for between Christmas day and 6 March, eight Friars Preachers died. There was scarcely a house in which only one died but commonly man and wife with their children and family going one way, namely, crossing to death."
In addition to these personal accounts, many presentations of the Black Death have entered the general consciousness as great literature. For example, the major works of Boccaccio ("The Decameron"), Petrarch, Geoffrey Chaucer ("The Canterbury Tales"), and William Langland ("Piers Plowman"), which all discuss the Black Death, are generally recognized as some of the best works of their era.
" La Danse Macabre", or the "Dance of death", was a contemporary allegory, expressed as art, drama, and printed work. Its theme wasthe universality of death, expressing the common wisdom of the time: that no matter one's station in life, the dance of death united all. It consists of the personified Death leading a row of dancing figures from all walks of life to the grave – typically with an emperor, king, pope, monk, youngster, beautiful girl, all in skeleton-state. They were produced under the impact of the Black Death, reminding people of how fragile their lives were and how vain the glories of earthly life. The earliest artistic example is from the frescoed cemetery of the Church of the Holy Innocents in Paris (1424). There are also works by Konrad Witz in Basel (1440), Bernt Notke in Lübeck (1463) and woodcuts by Hans Holbein the Younger (1538). Israil Bercovici claims that the "Danse Macabre" originated among Sephardic Jews in fourteenth century Spain (Bercovici, 1992, p. 27).
The poem "The Rattle Bag" by the Welsh poet Dafydd ap Gwilym (1315–1350 or 1340–1370) has many elements that suggest that it was written as a reflection of the hardships he endured during the Black Death. It also reflects his personal belief that the Black Death was the end of humanity, the Apocalypse, as suggested by his multiple biblical references, particularly the events described in the Book of Revelation.
Thomas Nashe also wrote a sonnet about the plague entitled "A Litany in Time of Plague" which was part of "Summers last will and Testament" (1592). He made countryside visits to remove himself from London in fear of the plague.
Additionally see Aleksandr Pushkin's verse play, "Feast in the Time of the Plague".
The Black Death quickly entered common folklore in many European countries. In Northern Europe, the plague was personalized as an old, bent woman covered and hooded in black, carrying a broom and a rake. Norwegians told that if she used the rake, some of the population involved might survive, escaping through the teeth of the rake. If she on the other hand used the broom, then the entire population in the area were doomed. The Plague-hag, or "Pesta", were vividly drawn by the painter Theodor Kittelsen.
Women during and after the Black Death also benefited from the growing importance of vernacular literature because a broader cultural forum became available to them which had previously been restricted to men by the Latin church. And so, they began writing and fostering through patronage the writings and translations of others. [ Judith M. Bennett and C. Warren Hollister, "Medieval Europe: A Short History" (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006), page 366cite book|title=|isbn=0072955155|oclc=56615921] For example, in France, Christine de Pizan (1364–1430) became the first woman in Europe to support herself by writing. She wrote in many different literary forms, such as an autobiography and books of moral advice for men and women, as well as poetry on a wide range of topics. In her treatise "The Letter to the God of Love", she effectively rebutted Jean de Meun's anti-feminist diatribes found in his conclusion of "Romance of the Rose." [ Ibid., 374 ] Her rebuttal is important because it marked the first instance in European history where a woman wrote about the slanders women had long endured. It also led to a debate among de Meun and Pizan sympathizers which lasted until the sixteenth century.
The Black Plague has been used as a subject or as a setting in modern literature and also media. This may be due to the era's resounding impact on ancient and modern history, and its symbolism and connotations.
Albert Camus's novel "La Peste" deals with the coming of a plague to Algeria.
Hermann Hesse's novel "Narcissus and Goldmund" depicts two monks living during the Black Death, one of whom leaves the monastery to wander around the country, seeing the epidemic's effects firsthand.
Alessandro Manzoni's novel "The Betrothed" contains an extraordinary description of the plague that struck Milan in 1630. Although a work of fiction, Manzoni's description of the conditions and events in plague-ravaged Milan are completely historical and extensively documented from primary sources researched by Manzoni.
Roger Zelazny's novel "Nine Princes in Amber" has his protagonist abducted from his birthland and taken to plague-torn England to die.
Nobel prizewinner Sigrid Undset's novel "Kristin Lavransdatter" features the outbreak of the plague in 14th century Norway.
"Year of Wonders" by Geraldine Brooks (2001) is a NY Times and Washington Post Notable Book set in 1666 England. It chronicles the impact of the plague upon the residents of an isolated mountain village, who choose to quarantine themselves rather than contribute to the spread of the disease.
Connie Willis's Hugo Award-winning science fiction novel "Doomsday Book" imagines a future in which historians do field work by travelling into the past as observers. The protagonist, a historian, is sent to the wrong year, arriving in England just as the Black Death is starting. Also, In Michael Crichton's book "Timeline", a character is transported through time to a village that is apparently affected by the Black Death.
In Kim Stanley Robinson's alternate history novel "The Years of Rice and Salt", a Black Death with a virtually 100% mortality rate depopulates Medieval Europe; Western Christendom is utterly destroyed as a civilization and Europe plays no major role in world history.
Three novels by Ann Benson play on parallels between the Black Death and emerging diseases in the modern world. In "The Plague Tales" (1998), "Burning Road" (2000) and "The Physician's Tale" (2007), Benson shifts back and forth between the fourteenth century and a world in the near future that has been devastated by an antibiotic-resistant bacterium. She weaves in allusions to many of the contemporary sources, and even modern fiction like Geraldine Brooks' "Year of Wonders."
"Eifelheim" by Michael Flynn depicts the interactions between an isolated German village and a group of stranded extraterrestrials as the plague advances (1348–9).
"Temple of the Winds", the fourth book in the fantasy series "The Sword of Truth" by Terry Goodkind, centers around a plague that is very similar to the Black Death.
Melanie Rawn's fantasy novel, "Dragon Prince", shows how a plague-like epidemic affects nobility somewhat less than commoners.
The relatively new medium of film has given writers and film producers an opportunity to portray the plague with more visual realism. One of the best known and most expansive depictions of the black plague as art is the movie classic "The Seventh Seal", a 1957 film directed by Ingmar Bergman. The knight returns from the Crusades and finds that his home country is ravaged by the Black Death. To his dismay, but not surprise, he discovers that Death has come for him too. The final scene of "The Seventh Seal" depicts a kind of "Danse Macabre". The 1988 science fiction film "" portrays a group of 14th-century English villagers who, with the aid of a boy's clairvoyant visions, dig a tunnel to 20th-century New Zealand to escape the Black Death.
Panic in the Streets is a black and white, 96-minute film directed by Elia Kazan and released in 1950 by 20th Century Fox. It is film noir semidocumentary shot exclusively on location in New Orleans, Louisiana and featuring numerous New Orleans citizens in speaking and non-speaking roles. The film tells the story of Clinton Reed, an officer of the U.S. Public Health Service (played by Richard Widmark) and a police captain (Paul Douglas) who have only a day or two in which to prevent an epidemic of pneumonic plague after Reed determines a waterfront homicide victim is an index case. It was the film debut of Jack Palance and Zero Mostel.
The Black Metal band 1349 is named after the year the Black Death spread through Norway.
"Danse Macabre" by The Faint is a techno dance album alluding to the Black Death.
Piers Anthony's 1988 novel, "For Love of Evil", is sixth in his Incarnations of Immortality series. In this series, several major forces in mankind's existence are offices held by mortals for various lengths of time before passing to a successor. The Black Death was brought to Europe by Satan to exact revenge on the office of Nature and also discomfited the offices of Death and Fate.
Ken Follett's 2007 novel, "World Without End", deals with the lives of four children who live through the Black Death from 1327 to 1361.
The "Bring out your dead!" scene in the Monty Python movie Monty Python and the Holy Grail famously deals with the ubiquity of plague-related deaths in medieval villages, although the film is explicitly set in 932, and King Arthur would suggest an even earlier date than that.
In Garth Nix's book "Mister Monday" the main characters end up in the Black Death ridden streets. It depicts the roads as covered with piles of the dead.
In the beginning of the videogame Neverwinter Nights the player is in a city which suffers from a fictitious, epidemic disease called the "Wailing Death," which bears some resemblance to the Black Death.
* Eyam a village in England known as the "plague village"
*Lisan al-Din Ibn al-Khatib. ("A Very Useful Inquiry into the Horrible Sickness.") 1349–1352.
* Marks, Geoffrey (1971). "The Medieval Plague: The Black Death of the Middle Ages" New York; Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-00630-6.
* McNeill, William H. (1976). "Plagues and People". New York: Anchor Books. ISBN 0-385-12122-9.
* Slack, Paul. "The Disappearance of the Plague: An Alternative View." Economic History Review 34, 3 (1981) 469–476.
* Tuchman, Barbara W. (1978), "A Distant Mirror: the Calamitous 14th Century.", Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1984. ISBN 0-394-40026-7. Chilling account of the Black Death, as part of European history 1300–1450.
* [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9015473/Black-Death "Black Death"] . In "Encyclopædia Britannica" Online.
* [http://jefferson.village.virginia.edu/osheim/intro.html Plague and Public Health in Renaissance Europe] . Primary source documents and analysis.


The essential oil of this mysterious plant is a direct balm for the heart and soul. He helps with mental exhaustion, relieves headaches and stimulates natural biological processes in the body.
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Patchouli essential oil is used as an aphrodisiac and effectively compensates for stress and anxiety, soothes and balances emotions. It is suitable for use in cosmetic.
Essential oil Rotterdendron has a beneficial effect on the digestive system, promotes appetite and helps with nausea. It has a beneficial effect on the condition of healthy skin and relieves pain.
Sesame oil is known for its restorative and softening properties. Due to its rich antioxidant composition, it also has antioxidant properties, making it an ideal means for caring for mature skin. Contains magnesium, iron, phosphorus, zinc, large amounts of calcium, vitamins A, B1-B3, C and D. Sesame oil is rich in essential fatty acids, such as arachino, linoleic, oleic, palmitic and stearic acids, which help to restore and soften the skin. Restores and nourishes the skin without leaving a greasy film. Used to protect from sunlight.
Application: Apply to the skin or hair in a uniform motion until completely absorbed.
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essential oil acts as a nerve tonic, helps with discomfort and anxiety. Sweet spicy aroma eliminates nausea and has a positive effect with stomach problems.
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Essential oil of nutmeg has a stimulating effect on the psyche, it helps in indecision and apathy. Supports the proper functioning of the digestive system and mildly antiseptic.
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Garnet essential oil is characterized by strong antibacterial and antiseptic effects. It supports the regenerative capacity of tissues and accelerates the healing of wounds. Easy aphrodisiac.
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Essential oil of sage has a therapeutic effect on the respiratory system, promotes digestion and helps reduce excessive sweating. Long-term improves memory and concentration.
Pure vegetable oil from carnation relieves chronic pain of muscles and joints, has strong warming effects and promotes natural skin regeneration. It also acts in the digestive and respiratory system.
Italian bitter orange has an anticonvulsant effect, releases muscle contractions and promotes stomach activity. It also has antidepressants and stabilizes the mood.
Pure natural rosemary oil works against respiratory diseases, improves brain activity and promotes concentration. This brings a good mood and increases productivity.
Valuable rose oil is obtained from the selected petals of the petals of Damascus and has excellent antidepressants and soothing effects, and is also suitable for menstrual problems or skin.
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Chamomile essential oil is universally effective for a number of problems related to the digestive system, pain, or high temperatures. The anti-inflammatory effect of chamomile, contribute to the fight against the disease.


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FREE EVERYTHING: Ayanna Pressley Claims 'Student Debt is Policy Violence'
posted by Hannity Staff - 12.19.21
Squad-member Congresswoman Ayanna Pressley urged her fellow lawmakers to cancel loans for millions of young Americans Friday; equating student debt with "policy violence."
"Today, over 43 million people in the U.S. are crushed under more than $1.7 trillion in student loan debt. This fall, the A-Team led our first ever deep canvassing efforts w/our neighbors across the #MA7 to hear how this crisis impacts our communities," posted Pressley on Twitter.
"Since October, the A-Team & our incredible volunteers have hosted 16 deep canvass trainings and phone banks, and engaged with over 100 folks across the MA-07 to advance our grassroots movement to #CancelStudentDebt," she added.
To the volunteers, the A-Team & every single person who took the time to get on the phone with us — thank you.
Because of you, we've been able to connect with our neighbors & better understand what student debt cancellation would mean for all of our communities.
— Ayanna Pressley (@AyannaPressley) December 17, 2021
Since October, the A-Team & our incredible volunteers have hosted 16 deep canvass trainings and phone banks, and engaged with over 100 folks across the MA-07 to advance our grassroots movement to #CancelStudentDebt.
Let's make it plain: student debt is policy violence.
We'll keep fighting to relieve families across the country, to make sure our policies & budgets reflect their lived experiences & that we build this grassroots movement to #CancelStudentDebt together🧵
"We've spoken to a mother from Dorchester who graduated 30 years ago & is still paying for her own debt + her 34 year old daughter's debt. A nurse from Hyde Park who can barely afford to pay rent & buy groceries, & doesn't qualify for any student loan forgiveness," claims the Democrat. "To the volunteers, the A-Team & every single person who took the time to get on the phone with us — thank you. Because of you, we've been able to connect with our neighbors & better understand what student debt cancellation would mean for all of our communities."
"Let's make it plain: student debt is policy violence. We'll keep fighting to relieve families across the country, to make sure our policies & budgets reflect their lived experiences & that we build this grassroots movement to #CancelStudentDebt together," concluded Pressley.
PRESSLEY on PROTESTS: 'It's Time for You to Pay Us What You Owe Us'
Congresswoman Ayanna Pressley weighed-in on the 'Black Lives Matter' movement sweeping the country Friday; saying "it's time, pay us what you us" from the floor of the House of Representatives.
"Black Lives Matter is a mandate from the people. It's time — pay us what you owe us. Our Black skin is not a crime. It is the beautiful robe of nation-builders," said Pressley.
Rep. Ayanna Pressley: "Black Lives Matter is a mandate from the people. It's time — pay us what you owe us. Our Black skin is not a crime. It is the beautiful robe of nation-builders." pic.twitter.com/48avufRaif
— The Hill (@thehill) June 26, 2020
President Trump ripped New York City Mayor Bill de Blasio Thursday; saying the local police force is "furious" over his plans to install a 'Black Liver Matter' mural near Trump Tower on 5th avenue in Manhattan.
"Told that @NYCMayorv Bill de Blasio wants to paint the fabled & beautiful Fifth Avenue, right in front of Trump Tower/Tiffany, with a big yellow Black Lives Matter sign. "Pigs in a Blanket, Fry 'Em Like Bacon", referring to killing Police, is their chant. NYC Police are furious!" posted Trump on Twitter.
https://twitter.com/realDonaldTrump/status/1276206200393064449?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%7Ctwcamp%5Etweetembed&ref_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.foxnews.com%2Fpolitics%2Ftrump-hits-back-at-de-blasio-plan-for-blm-mural-outside-trump-tower
Bill de Blasio pledged Tuesday to create a new task force to crackdown on his hometown's unprecedented use of illegal fireworks this week; saying a "huge sting operation" will target illegal sellers across all five boroughs.
"We're going to start a huge sting operation to go and get these illegal fireworks at the base, meaning everywhere they're being sold around New York City and even where they are being sold in surrounding states that we know are flowing into New York City," he said.
New Yorkers gathered at Mayor Bill de Blasio's residence on Monday night chanting "If we can't sleep, you won't sleep."
It comes as the city saw more than 800 complaints about fireworks filed this month. A huge increase from last year's number of just 21 complaints in June pic.twitter.com/IKbmw80hu0
— Bloomberg Quicktake (@Quicktake) June 23, 2020
"The sheriff's office, the FDNY, the NYPD have come together in an illegal fireworks task force. We will have over 40 officers from each of those three organizations, including 12 FDNY fire marshals. The NYPD intelligence bureau will be a part of this effort to help us track down where the fireworks are coming from to begin with. Deputy sheriffs will be out there addressing this at the root," he added.
PRESSLEY: 'Roots of Policing are Inextricably Linked to the Antebellum Slave Patrols of the South'
Squad-member Rep. Ayanna Pressley weighed-in Tuesday on the Democratic Party's efforts to promote Criminal Justice Reform heading into the 2020 election; saying the "roots of policing" and linked to the "antebellum south."
"The roots of policing are inextricably linked to the antebellum slave patrols of the south that led to the establishment of all white police departments," said Pressley. "Since the Fugitive Slave Act, criminal law enforcement has meant the subjugation and de-humanization of black lives."
Rep. @AyannaPressley: "The roots of policing are inextricably linked to the antebellum slave patrols of the South." pic.twitter.com/CRlFGkCjKd
Watch Pressley's comments above.
JUST IN: Fauci Wants Officials to Use the Word 'Requirement' Instead of 'Mandate'
2 MILLION ENCOUNTERS: 178K Migrant Encounters in December Brings 2021's Total Over 2 Million
NO MORE DOUBLE SHOTS: Starbucks Cancels Vaccine Mandate, 'We Respect the Court's Ruling'
CLUELESS JOE: Watch Biden Say He 'Probably Outperformed' In His First Year
MANCHIN ON DEMOCRAT THREATS: 'Bring It On'

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


So we had to go for a meeting at 12 noon for which we left well in advance, calculating the driving and parking time. Parking seems easy eh!!! Nope, it isn't. Just like the other busiest locations in the city, finding a parking today was like finding a fortune. You are rushing to a meeting and all you do is pray to the divine to find you a parking very quickly. This is where you definitely need your luck!
Finding a parking in a busy place is like, hunting an animal during wildlife safari. No, I'm not kidding. You see a man coming out of the building and think, hey this is the one! I'm gonna get his parking, oh yeah!!! Then what, you didn't know he has parked on the other side where a few cars are already waiting with their hazard lights on! Oh, you're so pissed off! Then you take rounds and rounds of that parking lot, in anticipation of getting that PARKING but nahhh, it ain't found. It's been 30 minutes already and you send a message to the client. Sir, still in the parking lot, will reach as soon as my hunt is successful!
There isn't any paid parking in the nearby and all the choice you have got is take a rollercoaster ride, round and round the garden…like a teddy bear.
Now it's been almost 1 hour and you looked around everywhere but nahhh. There you see a person scrolling through his social media and then she stands in middle, lost and confused where to go and you hate that handset for the first time. You just wish if you could only see where she was heading. With the hunger in your eyes, praying to the lord of the lords, pls get me one spot. And here, your wishes have been granted, one person arrives with some luggage in his hands but again he is taking time. You wonder what could it be, why he won't start and leave, giving me the luxury of today. Turned out, he was on his phone, 🤓 But then yes, he starts the engine and leaves the premises. You thank all your stars for granting your wish and zoom enter the space.
You rush to get the parking ticket, smiling all the way, in the flashback of how long it took you to get there, 🙂 As you walk the street to get the ticket, you see a couple of other hungry eyes guessing your direction, in anticipation of getting your "Parking Spot".
It's not limited to just one city or country, parking hassle can be seen in every other place in the world, especially in the business and entertainment destinations.
We all go through this once in a while. This is my parking story, what is yours?


asdr.exe may be a dangerous program, according to heuristic analysis. It triggers many of the "probable danger" flags detailed bellow. It is not yet known if asdr.exe is a virus or not that doesn't cause harm the computer. We advise you to be careful with this application.
Usually, this application is found in C:\Windows\System32\ASDR.exe.
The MD5 checksum for this program is 4b720cc508b4fb999a7bf0e6d84f73e1.
This exe runs as a 32-bit program. It does not use the full set of features of modern computer processors. This is quite normal because the publishers did not upgrade it to use the x64 instruction set.
The description present in the program is ASDR Application.
File version 1, 1, 0, 1.


text:
Americas Cardroom paying Huge Prizes for 1-Year Anniversary of "The Beast"
It's been a year now and 'The Beast' has yet to be tamed at Americas Cardroom. The Beast is still going strong after paying out almost $2 million since being introduced last August. Because this monthly progressive cash race remains wildly popular, ACR has decided to celebrate the one-year anniversary by adding $51,000 to The Beast's August prize pool. Here is a look at how the extra $51k will be distributed:
Daily Leaderboards
Every day throughout August, ACR will award $1,000 to the top 10 finishers on the leaderboard. Keep in mind that the leaderboard results are reset every day, which gives players a clean slate.
Weekly Leaderboards
The 115 players who accumulate the most points on the weekly Beast leaderboard will share in $5,000. When the week is over, everything starts anew.
At the end of August, ACR will award huge cash payouts and Punta Cana Classic prize packages to the top finishers. Since The Beast is a progressive race, the amount of cash rewards and prizes packages will increase as more players enter.
Those wanting to participate in this month's festivities need to sit down at the Beast Jackpot Tables and earn beast points. These points advance you up the leaderboard and on towards bigger prizes. A small fee is taken from rake collected at Beast Jackpot Tables, and this money goes towards funding the aforementioned leaderboard races. The only difference this month is that an extra $51k will be added to the mix!
Michael Harris, who's the spokesperson for ACR, specifically discussed the added $51k. "Over the past year, one thing has been consistent," Harris said. "Once players understand how The Beast works, they all agree it is the best promotion in online poker, period. Add $51,000 to that, and The Beast will have a first anniversary worth remembering.
"Our hope is that players who want to get a feel for The Beast will participate in the daily, weekly and monthly leaderboards in August. With the additional $51,000 to the prize pool, we think that is the best-ever incentive to try taming The Beast."
Once again, The Beast has paid nearly $2 million in just one year. This means that players are collecting over $160,000 worth of prize money every month through The Beast. And you can expect much more than $160k this month!


It's another day, another blog photo challenge day! I would like to thank everyone for joining yesterday. Your participation is highly appreciated!
Note: You can link your entry here for now. Me and My Passion is temporary unavailable. Thank you for your consideration.
Today is my daughter's class picture day. She's very excited when I told her about it. You know, she loves to have her picture taken.
I am sure that Akesha's school picture will turn out beautiful as she is Mommy Dhemz. Joining and visiting #19 of BPC. Hope that you can return the visit too.
grabe ka mahal ning ilang group picture no? permi dyud ko maka ubo sa presyo. hehehe. ni andar ang pagka kuri. lol. pero masking mahal, order gihapon ko. nindot man pud remembrance sa ilang klase. im sure excited dyud imong dalagita sis Dhemz. akong anak pud excited pag picture day.
Super Jealous mode ko... lol.. kay walay anak. Super excited jud imung model sis D oi... unsa kaha feeling being a mom.. wish ko lang...lol..
Ka-exciting ana oi! Patan-aw dayon sa pictures nila Dhemz ha? Akong Triz diri wala juy class picture gakahitabo. Puro solo picture ra for being a homeschooler! Hahaha.


text:
The Toronto Maple Leafs Are Just The Worst.
Too bad "drinking beer through a brown bag" wasn't a category.
ESPN The Magazine recently released their Ultimate Team Rankings for the four major North American professional sports leagues (NFL, MLB, NBA, NHL) and ranked at the bottom in 122nd place were the Toronto Maple Leafs. They are just the worst according to ESPN. You really shouldn't take the rankings too seriously because the Phoenix Coyotes ranked first in the NHL and 6th overall in North American pro sports. While we don't know enough about the NFL, NBA, or MLB to make any arguments about the rankings as a whole, we can look at the NHL rankings for any flaws in the study.
Here are the eight categories that made up the standings:
Bang For The Buck (BNG): Wins during the past three years (regular season plus postseason) per revenues directly from fans, adjusted for league schedules.
Fan Relations (FRL): Openness and consideration toward fans by players, coaches and management.
Ownership (OWN): Honesty and loyalty to core players and local community.
Affordability (AFF): Price of tickets, parking and concessions.
Stadium Experience (STX): Quality of arena and game-day promotions as well as friendliness of environment.
Players (PLA): Effort on the field and likability off it.
Coaching (CCH): Strength of on-field leadership.
Title Track (TTR): Championships already won or expected in the lifetime of current fans.
Looking at the criteria, you can see that they put a lot of weight on subjective rankings and many of these categories can easily be affected by bias resulting in skewed results. Fan relations, honesty and loyalty, friendliness of environment, effort, and strength of on-field leadership? These are all difficult variables to measure and make for some laughable results:
Bang For The Buck
This is a pretty straightforward category and it makes sense to see the Coyotes at the top of the NHL as they've got some of the lowest ticket prices in the league and win plenty of games. At the bottom you have the Leafs; high ticket prices and no postseason games since 2004. Hard to argue this one, you spend your paycheck to go see a game and you usually leave frustrated and spend even more money after at the pub.
Fan Relations
This category was based on four things: players act professional on and off the ice, players and owners show appreciation to the fans, players accessible to fans, and provide avenue for feedback. Tampa Bay topped the NHL teams, followed closely by the Red Wings and Penguins, whereas the Islanders, Blue Jackets and Leafs rounded out the NHL teams. This is the most subjective category in the study and was weighted to 20.9% of the overall results. Some of these subcategories are hard to define as well - what constitutes accessible for fans? Players on Twitter? Can you walk into the arena on off days? The Leafs aren't too great on the ice, but I would have to say they are professional and accessible to fans.
Topping this category were the Detroit Red Wings and the Pittsburgh Penguins, while the Leafs placed 28th ahead of the Blue Jackets and Islanders. The Coyotes, a team that is owned by the NHL, placed just ahead of the Maple Leafs, while numerous teams surrounded by bankruptcy talk the past few years also finished ahead (New Jersey, Dallas). The Leafs finished last in honest ownership and 2nd last in keeping core players and showing loyalty to fans. Somehow the Flyers finished 21st despite dumping core players like Richards and Carter last season. The final subcategory was "committed to community and will not leave" and the Leafs ranked 22nd here. Now I know the Leafs do a great deal of charity and community work like other teams (especially with Brian Burke at the helm), but they sure as hell aren't going anywhere. There's a lot of teams with great community relations, but this is the Toronto Maple Leafs - one of the oldest franchises in sport. They should at least be in the top six as they are not going anywhere.
There's no arguing that the Leafs are the worst in this category. They finished dead last in the three subcategories of affordable tickets, affordable parking, and affordable concessions in all of North America. With the money you would pay to go see a game you could put your kid through hockey that year. The ticket prices are out of control, but keep being bought. The parking prices are nuts, so just take the TTC, and the concession prices are laughable so just sneak in your own.
Stadium Experience
The Minnesota Wild top the NHL list, whereas the Islanders and Nassau Coliseum finish last in the NHL. The Maple Leafs finished 27th overall. The Leafs and the Air Canada Centre finished 26th in "great stadium" and while I've only been to a handful of other rinks, there is no way that Buffalo's First Niagara Centre should be ranked higher. The Leafs not only finished last in the NHL in "fan promotions, contests and giveaways", but last in the entire study. I don't know if you've been to a Leafs game, but you get bombarded with contests and giveaways to the point you wish they didn't exist. For "fan friendly environment" the Leafs placed 27th, which is a bit surprising because it's usually so quiet in the lower bowls that you can bring your infant child with you to the game to sleep. I can't say for other teams and rinks, but you see a lot of young kids at Leafs games having the time of their lives and you rarely hear of any fights going on, unlike in Montreal.
This category was based on "likeable players" and "players always give best effort" which might be the most difficult thing to measure in this entire study. The Coyotes topped this NHL category, whereas the Leafs placed 2nd last in the NHL and the entire survey behind the Blue Jackets who finished dead last. According to this, the Leafs have the least likeable players in all the NFL, MLB, NBA, and NHL. While I scream at them during games, I wouldn't say they're the least likeable. Think of the bullies on the Bruins or the fact that New Orleans Saints players tried to injury opposing players on purpose for bounty money and this doesn't make sense. The Leafs finished behind Columbus for player effort and since there is no way to measure how hard a player is working, I'm not going to use any effort arguing this one.
The Coyotes topped this category for on-ice leadership whereas the Montreal Canadiens finished in the NHL basement. The Maple Leafs placed 25th in the NHL, which isn't bad considering Ron Wilson was the coach for most of the season. Not much to argue here, although strength of on-ice leadership is a little ambiguous and should perhaps include who the leaders on the actual team are under a category of Leadership.
Title Track
This category is based on championships won or expected to win in the lifetime of current fans and the Maple Leafs placed 29th just ahead of Columbus. This means that people expect the Stanley Cup drought in Toronto to last at least another 50 years. While the Leafs are behind many teams in this category, keep in mind they do have some depth and prospects as their farm club made it to the Calder Cup Final last season.
Overall, you should take nothing away from these Ultimate Rankings as they are pretty subjective and by the fact that the Phoenix Coyotes are the highest ranked NHL team and 6th overall in North American sports amidst ownership troubles and low attendance they are downright laughable. The Toronto Maple Leafs are bad, but they're not the worst.
Pheonix #1? Really, it takes an hour to get to the rink. Ever go to a game in Ottawa? Its so far from downtown, you can't even get a taxi after the game. No bars around the rink, nothing. A serious analysis would have looked at the location of the rink and stadium.
Fan Relations?
Leafs have to be in the top 10 with that. They hold events all year round


All kinds of dangerous looking board, and I just have bottom pair. I don't see me making this to showdown, so i decided to try something.
Villains fold to cbet, while not directly relevant, does show some indication. He folds to Cbet 54% of the time. I can't find the "fold to x/r stat in my hud".
According to Equilab, my equity on the flop was 39%.
How do i determine how much fold equity I need to make this a profitable move? I don't know how to do the actual calculation, I would appreciate if someone could walk me through it.
Heres a link to RCP's fold equity calculator.
The calculator was designed for when you shove all in, meaning you see all of the cards, so in this case when you x/r the flop you're only guaranteed to see one card so when it asks for the equity when called divide that in half.


There is a grimy - a real grimy - in the slow walk political of the Clintons. We are beyond, with the Clintons, any "greased pigs" mud as of an innocence, even an innocence lost; we are still at the greased water melons of the Clintons' courting; we are now of the grime - the dirt - the mud - the controversy - the scandals under Mrs. Clinton's nails, at least.
Mrs. Clinton has become the newest "Baghdad Bob" for the cliche politics of her's and our's defenses. She has now, as of this Monday morning, post the week of 'Hillary Clinton has/had brain damage' flushing, availed herself of her greatest defense forward while we all patiently await hearing whom of the Democrats will be joining the Benghazi Select Committee to investigate especially Mrs. Clinton quite towards concerns regarding a new low in political grime akin to Nixon's tags. Mrs. Clinton has now availed herself of a medical excuse for her Benghazi defense in coming bipartisan criminal probatives.
The Clintons are so muddy and muddied by their own sloth and trophs and how they rolled and rolled that being each others character reference is now, however grimy in their old cliche, that they have to scamper around and around Senator Harry Reid and his penned up also dirtied by the Clintons that they cannot take the "medical excuse" path nor not enter 2016 without such either and however "exit" seeming too much a pleading of guilty to criminal cover-ups of the purview at least of the still forming bipartisan & maybe bicameral Benghazi Select Committee.
Though the timing of the supposed brain damage that afflicted Mrs. Clinton did time to the post 9/11 II pressures as conveniently of an incident that kept her away from personal scrutiny when the heat was on most heavily weighing on her to struggles at standing up an explanation at least how it was that when there was a second 9/11 she was so (necessarily) it seemed to denying and denying that it could be Al Qaeda again responsible.
It is remarkable for the Clintons that they have a "black problem" like no body would want as also their 'business'! This goes beyond the rehashed of the dalliances in infidelity of her spouse in the offices of the highest office in our land as specifically of Monica Lewinsky; forward this also goes to now a dirtier tucking concern of the "The Clinton" of grimy infidelity yet to date not celebrated among the "Comeback Clinton" mud when trying to clean 'em up for 2016 and yet now when black is in how it seems historical that President William J. Clinton has not yet had an affair with a black woman.
Mrs. William Jefferson Clinton's greatest infidelity may have been to the first black President - to her duty to serve fully and wholly he and the People'd. She can not now be a "Great White Hope" unless she has been holding back all these years since the Clintons' presidency ended and was especially holding back and holding out on President Barack Hussein Obama. Mrs. William Jefferson Clinton should not have anything to offer now that is new and possibly better than that of he whom she supposed served (though a "rival") wholly and without reservations.
Mrs. William Jefferson Clinton would have us believe, as now it is that she isn't admitting herself a 'medical excuse', that she can run, though white, in 2016 with a tagging as if she is expected to be told of near and broadly as if of a potential and a legacy where she can be better that the first black president, and was a better Secretary of State than the first female black Secretary of State and to as if at least she should be politically considered to have been a better First Lady than the first black First Lady Mrs. Barack Hussein Obama.
We are of days of a new grimy and too cliche Clinton politics where a criminality is likely to be proffered as a due tag on at least Mrs. Clinton for her days, however of health and full capacity, regarding cover-ups that go to a not seen criminal basis like since she helped impeach President Richard Milhous Nixon. Mrs. Clinton has her own legacy as of a partisan politics at setting the very standards that now apply to herself as the Benghazi Select Committee, however yet not clearly bipartisan or bicameral, and to be publicly discerned in all the grime of the post 9/11 II Benghazi cover-ups. In the case of Mrs. Clinton as per real culpability she is now hardly expected to be as hard to grasp as a muddy and grimy greased pig.
Essentially Mrs. Clinton has availed herself of her best defense as a defense in limited mental capacity. Now as it seems we are of a politics, where she too must avail herself of any "not running" so to avoid seemingly to preface the due full probative, of the Select Committee to investigate her, at least for criminal cover-ups, she is shadowed with a prima facia like a pleading in GUILTY, however of "NOT." It is now that the Clintons are persisting as if a two headed new "Baghdad Bob" extant in a new grime and muddy that the "BLACK" in the house is also that her spouse supposedly hasn't (yet) had any of his celebrated infidelities with a black woman.
Her biggest "Black Problem" must though be Benghazi as at least since her own first remarks spoken were of such ignorance and incompetence when of closing with quips of her speaking to she couldn't believe such could happen in a country she had liberated — She made the first black President look innocent at least in comparison to her.
President Barack Hussein Obama may now be saved the worst fate from any Benghazi Select Committee because Mrs. Clinton helped set the very standards for "criminality" and "jail time" for politicians of any cover-up at least as bad as that figured as Nixon's. It will likely be years before the fully established Benghazi Select Committee, whence established as bipartisan and bicameral, can yet proceed to any case or issues of grime and mud specifically fitting President Barack Hussein Obama — Mr. & Mrs. Clinton have themselves kinda penned in and center ring for this committee's duty and so that it could be years of just looking at them and even the CGI as Clintons' Global Initiatives for dirty prints in a criminality of what now seems confirmed to have been at least an improper political cover-up.
By the standards for "criminality" long of the legacy celebrated of Mrs. William Jefferson Clinton due her professional work at impeaching President Richard Milhous Nixon over a "cover-up" just relating to botching a Federal Investigation into the Democrat Party as botched while probing their Watergate Headquarters it is that she a lady will go first and that her man too will need be looked at long before the first black President becomes personally also so penned and processed.
As any Benghazi probe of Mrs. Clinton, however as the first black President's "rival" is of her duty such is grimy in a new muddy for she had a spouse globally of initiatives that seem still to have inhibited her professionalism as Secretary of State. As Secretary of State, I seem to understand, she was the Obama cabinet officer whom had the People's duty to oversee all the activities of the Clintons' Global Initiatives and even as it seemed their CGI was being run as a rival executive branch by a rival like still First Couple and as if President William Jefferson Clinton was to be heralded as the first President of the World.
It seems as Mrs. William Jefferson Clinton is of her legacy of celebrating that President Richard Milhous Nixon deserved to be impeached for a cover-up of an event that was less political than her Benghazi cover-up and too was without the loss of life of her Benghazi cover-up we must consider that Mrs. William Jefferson Clinton is a criminal suspect - the primary suspect - suspect of offenses that can lead to imprisonment. It seems that President William Jefferson Clinton has to also be long ahead of President Barack Hussein Obama on any march to being orange suited too; President Clinton seemed to have so meddled in foreign affairs since leaving office in 2001 that he is of "initiatives" his spouse should have investigated while the People's Secretary as President Obama's Secretary of official duty to "oversee" such of her spouse, now even more concerning as newly her repose as also of the Clintons' Global Initiatives.
The Benghazi Select Committee has the white people to look at first - such is a real problem for Mrs. William Jefferson Clinton, at least. Unlike Watergate people died! Like Watergate politicians are known to have been of a cover-up! Unlike Watergate it is that there seems to have also have been official obstruction of justice as part of the cover-up and so sadly of a new grime and muddy politics worse than any of Nixon's supposed as of it now that Obama's white Secretary of State has to face her own lower standards now when her cover-up impeded the due Federal investigation of murdered/killed of her "house" of State.


text:
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require("w2db.php");
require("w2lib.php");

$dbType = 'postgres';

$db = new dbConnection($dbType);
$db->connect("localhost", "postgres", "kkminsk78", "crm_demo");

$fname = $_REQUEST['search'];
$lname = $_REQUEST['search'];

if (strpos($_REQUEST['search'], ' ') > 0) {
	$tmp = split(' ', $_REQUEST['search']);
	$fname = $tmp[0];
	$lname = $tmp[1];
}

// pull data from database
$sql = "SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM demo_people ORDER BY userid LIMIT 10000) as sub
		WHERE lname ILIKE '{$lname}%' OR fname ILIKE '{$fname}%' ORDER BY lname";
$res = $w2grid->getItems($sql);
foreach ($res['items'] as $key => $value) {
	$res['items'][$key]['text'] = $res['items'][$key]['fname'] . ' ' . $res['items'][$key]['lname'];
}
$w2grid->outputJSON($res);
?>

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


Our macarons are made from top quality almonds and have a low sugar content. We can offer you 16 varieties: 14 classic flavours and 2 blends of 3 flavours.
ur macarons are delivered fresh or frozen (-18°C) by road, air or sea transport under controlled temperature conditions.
Il est conseillé de sortir les macarons 20 minutes du frigo avant de les déguster.
2x35 macarons are packed in blister boxes. These boxes are placed in shock-absorbent transport crates, ideal for handling, logistics and storage. The 70-macaron blister boxes can be in a single flavour or mixed (5 different flavours).
Design your own selection or a format in the colours of your company: anything is possible. Let's talk about it!
Thanks to our logistics partners, we can deliver to Belgium and abroad quickly and under the best conditions.
If you want a personalised offer , we will get back to you as soon as possible!