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Predictive Power of Parenting Styles on Children's Social Skills: A Brazilian Sample
Predictive Power of Parenting Styles on Children's Social Skills: A Brazilian Sample Bartholomeu, Daniel; Montiel, José Maria; Jr., Geraldo A. Fiamenghi,; Machado, Afonso Antonio 2016-04-13 00:00:00 The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between parenting styles and children's social skills, establishing significant correlations between those two constructs. A total of 202 children, 7 to 10 years old, male and female, attending second to fourth year of government schools in São Paulo, Brazil, were participants of this research. They collectively completed Children's Social Skills Test (THAS-C) and Parental Styles Inventory (IEP). Results suggest that positive parental styles are predictors of altruism, while negative parental styles are predictors of assertiveness, conversation, and social confidence. Regarding general social skills, variables that offered the best probable model were positive monitoring, lax discipline, moral behavior, and physical abuse (the higher the general social skill, the lesser the abusive parenting styles). As a conclusion, it seems that different social skills are related to positive and negative parenting styles, reinforcing the idea of a social skill as an attribute of behavior. Keywords parenting styles, social skills, educational practices, educational psychology, development use positive reinforcement, problem-solving skills, supervi- Introduction sion, and positive monitoring of their children (Patterson, Seminal studies in parental styles conducted by Baumrind Reid, & Dishion, 1992). Such abilities, as well as immediately and Black (1967) concluded that intellectually stimulating affecting parental relations, also tend to improve child's self- parental practices are associated with child's competence, esteem, decreasing the possibility of antisocial behaviors. calling that an authoritative pattern of parenting. That pattern Connell and Prinz (2002) suggested that parenting styles pre- also includes some tension, that is, firm discipline, punitive- dict high levels of social abilities. Structured and child-needs ness, maturity demands. However, Baumrind (1972) observed responsive' parent–children interactions were positively that fathers of Afro-American girls were authoritarian and related to school readiness, social abilities, and receptive com- mothers practiced firm enforcement. As a result, girls were munication. Engels, Dekovic, and Meeus (2002) observed that more independent, resistive, and dominant. Darling and democratic and authoritarian/restrictive styles predict chil- Steinberg (1993) proposed a model defining parenting style dren's prosocial behaviors and sociometric status. Concerning as "a constellation of attitudes toward the child that are com- maternal educational techniques, Lagacé-Séguin and Coplan municated to the child and that, taken together, create an emo- (2005) stated that mothers' emotional coaching might work as tional climate in which the parent's behaviors are expressed" a protective factor for dysregulated children, helping them to (p. 488), including goal-specific (parental practices) and non- goal directed behaviors (gestures, tone of voice, and expres- Centro Universitário Fundação Instituto para o Ensino de Osasco, sions of emotions). Osasco, Brazil Many studies in parental styles, over the years, have shown Centro de Estudos em Psicologia, Itu, Brazil differences in authoritative and authoritarian attitudes, and 3 Faculdades Atibaia, Brazil apparently, authoritative styles were related to academic Universidade Estadual Paulista, Rio Claro, Brazil achievement, psychosocial maturity, and cooperation with Corresponding Author: peers (Baumrind & Black, 1967; Steinberg, Elmen, & Mounts, Geraldo A. Fiamenghi Jr., Centro de Estudos em Psicologia, R. da 1989). Most of the studies relate the importance of parental Candelária, 29, 13300-010 Itu, São Paulo, Brazil. Email: geraldoafj@gmail.com abilities for the development of prosocial behaviors, if parents Creative Commons CC-BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License (http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage). 2 SAGE Open cope with difficulties in future peer interactions. Lengua, and mothers tend to contribute in different ways to children's Honorado, and Bush (2007), using the Social Skills Rating social development, indicating that, for fathers, parental Scale, observed that different parental variables emerged as proximity and positive monitoring were good predictors for significant predictors of social competence. Parental respon- the development of social competence in children, whereas siveness was positively related to cooperation among children, social support was for mothers. Those aspects were also veri- as shown by Landry, Smith, and Swank (2006) study. Results fied by Trommsdorff, Cole, and Heikamp (2012) and Leidy, of Aunola and Nurmi's (2005) research showed that mothers' Guerra, and Toro (2010). high level of psychological control, combined with high affec- Research in parental styles suggests the importance of tion, predicted increase in children's behavioral problems at parent–children relations to promoting socially adequate school. However, mothers' behavioral control associated with behaviors, as well as those disagreeable to people's interac- low levels of psychological control was related to lessen tion in different contexts. However, there is still a lot of con- behavioral problems. troversy concerning what sort of parental style tend to favor Chen, Chang, He, and Liu (2005) suggested that prosocial which aspect of children's social behavior. Consequently, cooperative group functioning tends to strengthen the role of this research was designed to investigate those aspects, maternal support in social and academic adjustment, whereas hypothesizing that positive parental styles will promote antisocial-destructive functioning damages the role of paren- socially adequate behaviors, opposite to negative parental tal support. Thus, peer relations provide a social context to styles. socialization and development of social behavior and moder- ate the effects of parental practices on children's social Method adjustment. Gottman, Fainsilber-Katz, and Hooven (1997) explained that social skills related to social competence Participants among peers in high school are not the same as the younger A total of 202 children, 7 to 10 years old (M = 8 years, SD = children, as there are more teachers in advanced school 0.88), from second to fourth grade primary school, male and years, as well as more opportunities to be with peers, with female (52.5% male), participated in this research. less adult scrutiny. Bornstein and Bornstein (2007) emphasized that the con- cept of what a good parenting style should be varies in differ- Instruments ent cultural and socioeconomic aspects, and show that an authoritarian and flexible style is good for the White middle- Parental Styles Inventory (IEP). There are 42 questions (Gomide, class nuclear family child, but may not be the best for chil- 2006) corresponding to two positive educational practices dren raised in other circumstances. The authors suggest that (positive monitoring and moral behavior) and five negative a balance between responsiveness and task orientation and practices (negligence, physical and psychological abuse, lax an authoritarian style tends to produce better social compe- discipline, inconsistent punition, and negative monitoring). tence in children. Again, those results may not be applicable Items were assessed by a 3-point Likert-type scale, responses to different cultures. being always (2), sometimes (1), and never (0). Therefore, Glick, Hanish, Yabiku, and Bradley (2012) assessed the each educational practice could have a maximum of 12 points influence of parental practices in social development of pre- and minimum 0, summing up the subject's responses in each school children, in a longitudinal research with immigrants. factor. Parental practices were associated to adaptation time (less Positive monitoring is understood as a group of educa- behavioral problems) and sociability levels of the children. tional practices involving attention and recognition from par- Parental responsiveness and emotional support were posi- ents to children, as well as affection and care display, mainly tively associated to sociability. However, there were evi- associated to life situations when the child needs most. dences or nonlinear coefficients for children from different Gomide (2006) defined moral behavior as the educational cultures, being lower associations in children born outside practice of values, such as honesty, generosity, justice, trans- United States (non-Hispanic Afro-American and White). mitted by parents to children, discriminating right from wrong Rinaldi and Howe (2012) study showed that self-reported through positive models, in an affectionate relationship. parental styles explained 44% of variance in children's exter- Inconsistent punition happens when parents punish or nalizing behavior, and mothers' permissive styles and fathers' reinforce their children's behaviors according with the par- authoritarian styles predicted externalizing behaviors; ents' mood states, incoherently to the children's behaviors. In authoritative styles predicted adaptive behaviors. this sense, parents' emotional states will determine educa- Taylor, Conger, Robins, and Widaman (2015) also ana- tional practices, not the child's actions. The child learns to lyzed the relationship between social support and parental discriminate the parents' mood states, and does not learn educational behaviors perceived by the parents with chil- whether the behavior was adequate or not. Negligence dren's social competence in a longitudinal design until ado- appears when parents do not attend to their children's needs, lescence in Mexican families. Results showed that fathers are absent in their responsibilities, omit help, or interact Bartholomeu et al. 3 without affect. Parental practices involving lax discipline variable control, or manipulation, and no randomization of mean that the parents' rules are not followed. They threaten sample. As a result, no causal relations are supposed to be the children, but withdraw when faced with oppositional or established, but only associations between those variables. aggressive behaviors, and the rules lose their value. Negative monitoring is defined by parents' excessive control over their Results and Discussion children's lives and great amount of repetitive instructions. Family environment is hostile and stressed, and there is no First, the associations between results of IEP and THAS-C dialogue, once children try to protect their privacy, avoiding were analyzed, using a Pearson correlation test. Results are talking to parents (Gomide, 2006). shown in Table 1. Results show that assertiveness is positively related to Children's Social Skills Test (THAS-C). There are 23 items (Bar- parental styles of inconsistent punition and negligence, sug- tholomeu, Silva, & Montiel, 2014) to be answered in a gesting that some of the children who are more assertive tend 3-point Likert-type scale, corresponding to three dimensions: to perceive their parents as having inconsistent and negligent civility and altruism, resourcefulness and self-control in educational practices. This is a curious data, and a more social situations, and assertiveness with confronting. detailed analysis from the outliers (post-regression analysis First dimension, civility and altruism involve abilities described below) revealed that the low correlation coeffi- such as thanking for praise, saying sorry, helping friends, cient is justified in more assertive children. In those cases, praising friends, expressing positive feelings to peers, and the pattern revealed in this sort of perception of parental being polite when manifesting an opinion. Resourcefulness practices in fathers was more regular, showing the found and self-control in social interaction need to have their indi- association. Hence, it is possible that more assertive children cators inverted to be assessed; negative situations suggested tend to report problems they face with their parents and also are the ones when the child is exposed to new, unknown, or observe not only positive but also negative aspects associ- threatening situations, such as being criticized, speaking in ated to parental practices and talk about them more easily front of the classroom, ending a conversation, introducing to than low assertive children. an unknown group. Finally, the third dimension, assertive- On the other hand, civility and altruism were significantly ness with confronting, includes defending own rights and and positively associated to positive monitoring, moral opinions and is a predictor of resistance to group pressure, behavior, negligence, and lax discipline, meaning that chil- stating self-esteem, even at the risk of a negative reaction dren possessing well-developed abilities of being grateful, from the other. apologizing, helping friends, expressing positive feelings, Items are specific to a given situation. Thus, some indica- being polite may have parents using positive or negative edu- tors were developed according to school contexts. cational styles. The problem of self-report is manifest again, as higher associations are observed in higher social skilled children, who tend to perceive more inadequate parental Procedures practices. There were also positive and negative correlations After principals and teachers signed a document allowing the in exposure to strangers and negative monitoring, as well as research to be conducted within the schools premises, as well exposure to strangers and moral behavior. Those results sug- as parents agreeing their children to participate in the study, gest that either a positive educational practice or a negative data were collected during class times. Aims of the study one may be associated to socially adequate behaviors. were explained to the children and any doubts about the Finally, general score in THAS-C was significantly and instruments were clarified. Children completed both the positively correlated to positive monitoring, moral behavior, THAS-C and IEP. negligence, and lax discipline, reinforcing previous correla- This research was approved by the University Ethics tions, suggesting that positive and negative parental styles Committee, process number 810/2011. may be associated to children' good behaviors. Data were collected in classrooms, after authorization by As expected, there were significant correlations between the institution and signing of consent letters by the partici- IEP and THAS-C variables, including positive as well as pants or the legally responsible of them, in periods allowed negative aspects of parenting styles. Those results indicate by the teachers. The aims of the research were explained to that socially adequate skills are not always associated to a the participants and tests were collectively completed, with positive parenting style's pattern (Lagacé-Séguin & Coplan, doubts being answered by the examiners. Information con- 2005). However, as suggested by other studies (Bornstein & cerning social skills and parental styles were collected in first Bornstein, 2007; Chen et al., 2005; Gottman et al., 1997), place. As the Test of Social Skills in Children is a simpler and other cultural aspects must be taken in consideration, such as easier instrument to be answered, it was the last one to be environmental differences and group behaviors in class- completed. rooms, all of them not controlled in this research. This research was designed as a correlational study, According to definition, social skills are learned and can be because instruments are self-reported and there was no trained. Consequently, the possibility of certain behaviors 4 SAGE Open Table 1. Pearson Correlation Coefficients Between IEP and that explain the higher independent variable variance (social THAS-C Measures. skills factors). A summary of final models presenting signifi- cant ANOVA and variance percentage on each gender is Exposure to Civility and showed in Table 2, as well as F values, significance levels, Variables Assertiveness strangers General altruism and total degrees of freedom. Table 3 shows regression coef- Inconsistent punition ficients and significance levels, as well as information on r 0.34 0.13 0.17 0.15 multicolinearity between predicting variables, obtained in p 0.01 0.31 0.19 0.24 tolerance and VIF statistic levels, meaning that the nearer n 62 64 62 62 1.00 for the first index, the better, as the second is not too Negative monitoring high. Data are adjusted, with no multicolinearity, as none r 0.19 0.33 0.18 0.09 condition index is higher than 15. p 0.13 0.01 0.16 0.48 Concerning assertiveness, the model that included nega- n 65 66 64 65 tive monitoring and physical abuse was the best to explain Positive monitoring this feature of social skill. Coefficient tendency suggests that r −0.028 0.17 0.53 0.56 physical abuse decreases children assertiveness, but negative p 0.83 0.18 0.00 0.00 monitoring increases it (negative monitoring scores tended n 59 61 59 59 to increase 0.27 in each point of Assertiveness scale). It is Moral behavior intriguing to consider that a hostile and stressed environ- r −0.038 0.26 0.50 0.48 ment, combined with an excessive parent control tend to be p 0.77 0.03 0.00 0.00 associated to assertiveness. Those results support Anthony n 64 66 64 64 et al. (2005) study. Neglect r 0.23 0.24 0.34 0.32 It must be considered that information was collected in p 0.07 0.06 0.01 0.01 children with a tendency to be more assertive. It is also inter- n 62 64 62 62 esting to note that the internal consistency of the parental Lax discipline styles self-report factors tended not be so high as in Glick r −0.011 0.08 0.27 0.30 et al. (2012) study, that showed alpha values between .5 and p 0.93 0.55 0.03 0.02 .6 for self-reports in parental styles measures. Alpha values n 61 63 62 62 in Aunola and Nurmi (2005) varied from .66 to .82 and in Abuse Lagacé-Séguin and Coplan (2005) varied between .83 and r 0.16 0.01 −0.15 −0.18 .71. Those last authors attest problems in employing mea- p 0.21 0.92 0.22 0.15 sures of self-report to assess parental styles, because although n 63 65 63 63 being useful when working with children, the amount of IEP information people report on parental styles is insufficient, r −0.35 −0.07 0.08 0.11 as they may not be concentrated in specific details and p 0.01 0.62 0.58 0.40 features. n 55 57 56 56 Literature associating parenting styles and social skills Note. IEP = Parental Styles Inventory; THAS-C = Children's Social Skills Test. varies a lot regarding children, and studies state those rela- tions, whereas others totally deny them. Those differences being learned in social interactions in schools, independent of probably stem from methodological issues, not only in gath- parenting styles, may be an explanation of the associations ering information procedures but also in cultural and socio- found in this study, although they must suffer further investi- economic aspects, as Bornstein and Bornstein (2007) gation, mainly considering that group effect tend to moderate suggested that some behaviors are means of adaptation to the relation between parenting styles and social skills (Chen environment. Some researchers such as Engels et al. (2002); et al., 2005). Another question to be raised concerns children's Engels, Finkenauer, Meeus, and Dekovic (2001); Gomide, emotional problems stemming from each parenting style, Salvo, Pinheiro, and Sabbag (2005); Pacheco, Teixeira, and mediated by social skills, according to Engels et al. (2002). Gomes (1999) employed self-report questionnaires, while Although analyses have produced important discussion other like Connell and Prinz (2002), who found positive pat- material, they do not specifically describe the predictive terns of parent–child interactions and prosocial behaviors, power of each parenting style on each social skill. used situational tasks, as assessment. Nevertheless, the pres- Consequently, after establishing correlations between instru- ent study found those patterns employing children self- ments' measures, a backward model linear regression was reports, a relatively new approach in literature. conducted, aiming to investigate which parenting style Social confidence and conversational ability were would better explain each aspect of children's social skill. explained in a better fashion by parenting styles based in This procedure has the advantage of inserting all predicting inconsistent punition and negative monitoring. However, all variables (parenting styles) in a model, keeping only the ones coefficients showed a negative relation, suggesting that, Bartholomeu et al. 5 Table 2. Summary of Meaningful Models of Linear Regression Using Backward Method. η Estimated generate Number Model R η (adjusted) standard error levels (gl) F p 1 Assertiveness × Parenting Styles .337 .113 .099 1.56830 187 7.974 .000 2 Conversation and Social Confidence × Parenting Styles .417 .174 .160 2.20205 186 13.032 .000 3 Altruism × Parenting Styles .583 .340 .318 3.69628 179 15.383 .000 4 Social Skill × Parenting Styles .542 .294 .274 4.65679 177 14.738 .000 Table 3. Linear Regression Coefficients and Statistics for Colinearity Diagnosis. Non-standard Standard coefficient coefficient Colinearity diagnosis variance inflation Model B SE β t p Tolerance factor (VIF) (Constant) 2.713 0.456 5.950 .000 Inconsistent punition 0.115 0.064 .143 1.796 .074 .750 1.333 Negative monitoring 0.217 0.057 .272 3.801 .000 .923 1.084 Physical abuse −0.150 0.055 −.212 −2.732 .007 .787 1.270 (Constant) 8.226 0.809 10.173 .000 Moral behavior 0.142 0.082 .128 1.727 .086 .810 1.234 Inconsistent punition −0.402 0.082 −.340 −4.892 .000 .922 1.084 Negative monitoring −0.240 0.088 −.207 −2.731 .007 .777 1.287 (Constant) 6.492 1.773 3.662 .000 Positive monitoring 0.594 0.159 .275 3.725 .000 .676 1.479 Moral behavior 0.660 0.165 .317 3.999 .000 .586 1.706 Neglect 0.411 0.127 .224 3.226 .001 .766 1.305 Lax discipline 0.497 0.147 .211 3.370 .001 .944 1.059 Negative monitoring −0.278 0.154 −.130 −1.800 .074 .708 1.412 Physical abuse −0.271 0.146 −.138 −1.852 .066 .668 1.498 (Constant) 16.470 2.243 7.343 .000 Positive monitoring 0.682 0.204 .256 3.352 .001 .684 1.461 Moral behavior 0.491 0.192 .194 2.551 .012 .693 1.443 Neglect 0.303 0.159 .136 1.902 .059 .781 1.280 Lax discipline 0.617 0.188 .213 3.283 .001 .944 1.060 Physical abuse −0.583 0.181 −.243 −3.227 .001 .705 1.418 opposite to assertiveness, conversational ability and social Finally, parenting styles of moral behavior, followed by confidence tend to decrease in the presence of parental styles positive monitoring, neglect, and lax discipline, offered the perceived as inconsistent, punitive, and negative monitored. best explanation for altruism, with significant coefficients. Each score of Conversation and Social Confidence scale cor- Each score in Altruism scale increased 0.32 in Moral responds to a decrease in 0.34 in inconsistent punishment. Behavior Parenting Style scale. Those results are in accor- Apparently, parents who do not provide clear educational dance to Gomide et al. (2005) study that showed associations parameters randomly reinforce children, as well as monitor in expressions of positive feelings (a feature of altruistic and control children's activities with repetitive instructions, people) with positive monitoring and moral behavior, con- hostility and stress tend to be associated with children's firming the role of those two styles in supporting prosocial problems in conversation and social confidence. Maybe attitudes. those social skills tend to develop more positively in contexts Regarding general social skills, variables that offered the that offer clear parameters, as well as open and caring dia- best probable model were positive monitoring, lax disci- logue (Lengua et al., 2007). pline, moral behavior, and physical abuse (the higher the 6 SAGE Open general social skill, the lesser the abusive parenting styles). the development of social skills imply in analyzing what is Lax discipline is an intriguing variable predicting social socially apt in a given context. skills, but Lagacé-Séguin and Coplan (2005) showed that an It is important to note that despite the assessment of chil- open and affectionate style tend to produce an overemphasis dren's perception being necessary to have an idea of how he in children's emotional socialization. In general, positive or she characterizes his or her parents (which will have an monitoring seemed to be the style that produces more socially impact on his or her way of dealing with them and with the adequate behaviors, in accordance to Patterson et al. (1992) world), children who are more socially skilled tended to study. In fact, positive monitoring incorporates a series of express both positive and negative opinion regarding their behaviors, such as attention and affection and caring dis- parents, in accordance of self-reporting format employed in plays, being recognized by children who tend to express this study and that explains part of the results. In fact, litera- similar behaviors. ture studies in general show slightly low internal consistency It is important to highlight Aunola and Nurmi's (2005) (Aunola & Nurmi, 2005; Lagacé-Séguin & Coplan, 2005). study, as the authors revealed that parental style based in Therefore, despite the possible explanations, new studies behavioral restraint tended to produce less social problems, should be designed, particularly using a longitudinal per- related to psychological control, which in some ways was spective, trying to test the hypothesis of this research. also confirmed by this study. It must be observed that social skills are related to positive On the contrary, the extent of this educational style to and negative parenting styles, reinforcing the idea of a social favor assertiveness development must be the object of fur- skill as an attribute of behavior. Despite being related to per- ther studies. Authoritarian parental style patterns tend to be sonality, it forms a more stable trait that could be learned by associated in literature to problems of expression of personal the child in contexts other than home, such as school, for opinions, mainly in teenagers (Engels et al., 2002; Pacheco example (Bartholomeu, Carvalho, Silva, & Machado, 2011; et al., 1999). Bartholomeu, Montiel, & Pessotto, 2012). Nevertheless, it must be asserted that data in this study, Some limits of the study must be noted. The first is related although establishing a hierarchy in associating and explain- to both instruments being self-report measures. Some kind of ing those variables, do not present enough design to test observations of parent–child relations could provide other causal assumptions, and new studies with more control and clues to parenting effects. The second problem stems from manipulation of independent variables are necessary, as well parents not being assessed; their position on parenting could as a sample randomization. be of interest to compare with children's viewpoints. The third limit concerns the fact that the study is not longitudinal. Many effects of parenting styles can be better observed Final Considerations throughout childhood, more than cross-sectionally. Further Initial hypotheses were partially confirmed because positive studies should address those issues. parenting styles were only good predictors for altruism as a Nowadays, great number of children spend more and social skill. Conversational abilities were related to the more time at school, and from younger ages, leading to the absence of a negative parenting style, but not to a positive speculation that the impact of schooling is relevant to devel- one, and assertiveness was related to a negative parenting oping socially competent skills. That should be another area style. for future investigations. Data on this study question the association of certain types of negative parental styles with social skills, despite Declaration of Conflicting Interests limitations of correlational design. Despite low coefficients, The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect it seems that for some children, the perception of a parental to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. negative style of educating does does not necessarily imply that they are not developing social skills. That may be a Funding result of those skills being learnt at school, as well as at home The author(s) received no financial support for the research and/or and other social groups that children participate in. authorship of this article. 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T., & Bradley, R. H. (2012). Migration timing and parenting practices: Contributions to Author Biographies social development in preschoolers with foreign-born and Daniel Bartholomeu is a psychologist and doctor in psychological native-born mothers. Child Development, 83, 1527-1542. assessment (USF, Itatiba, Brazil). doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01789.x Gomide, P. I. C. (2006). Inventário de Estilos Parentais – IEP: José Maria Montiel is a psychologist and doctor in psychological Modelo teórico, manual de aplicação, apuração e interpreta- assessment (USF, Itatiba, Brazil). ção [Parental Styles Inventory – IEP: Theoretical framework, application, scoring and interpretation manual]. Petrópolis, Geraldo A. Fiamenghi Jr. is a psychologist and PhD in Psychology Brazil: Vozes. (The University of Edinburgh, Scotland). Gomide, P. I. C., Salvo, C. G., Pinheiro, D. P. N., & Sabbag, G. M. (2005). Correlação entre práticas educativas, depressão, Afonso Antonio Machado is a physical educator and doctor in estresse e habilidades sociais [Correlation among educational education (UNICAMP, Campinas, Brazil). http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png SAGE Open SAGE http://www.deepdyve.com/lp/sage/predictive-power-of-parenting-styles-on-children-s-social-skills-a-utkCQzkWnC
Bartholomeu, Daniel; Montiel, José Maria; Jr., Geraldo A. Fiamenghi,; Machado, Afonso Antonio
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The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between parenting styles and children's social skills, establishing significant correlations between those two constructs. A total of 202 children, 7 to 10 years old, male and female, attending second to fourth year of government schools in São Paulo, Brazil, were participants of this research. They collectively completed Children's Social Skills Test (THAS-C) and Parental Styles Inventory (IEP). Results suggest that positive parental styles are predictors of altruism, while negative parental styles are predictors of assertiveness, conversation, and social confidence. Regarding general social skills, variables that offered the best probable model were positive monitoring, lax discipline, moral behavior, and physical abuse (the higher the general social skill, the lesser the abusive parenting styles). As a conclusion, it seems that different social skills are related to positive and negative parenting styles, reinforcing the idea of a social skill as an attribute of behavior. Keywords parenting styles, social skills, educational practices, educational psychology, development use positive reinforcement, problem-solving skills, supervi- Introduction sion, and positive monitoring of their children (Patterson, Seminal studies in parental styles conducted by Baumrind Reid, & Dishion, 1992). Such abilities, as well as immediately and Black (1967) concluded that intellectually stimulating affecting parental relations, also tend to improve child's self- parental practices are associated with child's competence, esteem, decreasing the possibility of antisocial behaviors. calling that an authoritative pattern of parenting. That pattern Connell and Prinz (2002) suggested that parenting styles pre- also includes some tension, that is, firm discipline, punitive- dict high levels of social abilities. Structured and child-needs ness, maturity demands. However, Baumrind (1972) observed responsive' parent–children interactions were positively that fathers of Afro-American girls were authoritarian and related to school readiness, social abilities, and receptive com- mothers practiced firm enforcement. As a result, girls were munication. Engels, Dekovic, and Meeus (2002) observed that more independent, resistive, and dominant. Darling and democratic and authoritarian/restrictive styles predict chil- Steinberg (1993) proposed a model defining parenting style dren's prosocial behaviors and sociometric status. Concerning as "a constellation of attitudes toward the child that are com- maternal educational techniques, Lagacé-Séguin and Coplan municated to the child and that, taken together, create an emo- (2005) stated that mothers' emotional coaching might work as tional climate in which the parent's behaviors are expressed" a protective factor for dysregulated children, helping them to (p. 488), including goal-specific (parental practices) and non- goal directed behaviors (gestures, tone of voice, and expres- Centro Universitário Fundação Instituto para o Ensino de Osasco, sions of emotions). Osasco, Brazil Many studies in parental styles, over the years, have shown Centro de Estudos em Psicologia, Itu, Brazil differences in authoritative and authoritarian attitudes, and 3 Faculdades Atibaia, Brazil apparently, authoritative styles were related to academic Universidade Estadual Paulista, Rio Claro, Brazil achievement, psychosocial maturity, and cooperation with Corresponding Author: peers (Baumrind & Black, 1967; Steinberg, Elmen, & Mounts, Geraldo A. Fiamenghi Jr., Centro de Estudos em Psicologia, R. da 1989). Most of the studies relate the importance of parental Candelária, 29, 13300-010 Itu, São Paulo, Brazil. Email: geraldoafj@gmail.com abilities for the development of prosocial behaviors, if parents Creative Commons CC-BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License (http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage). 2 SAGE Open cope with difficulties in future peer interactions. Lengua, and mothers tend to contribute in different ways to children's Honorado, and Bush (2007), using the Social Skills Rating social development, indicating that, for fathers, parental Scale, observed that different parental variables emerged as proximity and positive monitoring were good predictors for significant predictors of social competence. Parental respon- the development of social competence in children, whereas siveness was positively related to cooperation among children, social support was for mothers. Those aspects were also veri- as shown by Landry, Smith, and Swank (2006) study. Results fied by Trommsdorff, Cole, and Heikamp (2012) and Leidy, of Aunola and Nurmi's (2005) research showed that mothers' Guerra, and Toro (2010). high level of psychological control, combined with high affec- Research in parental styles suggests the importance of tion, predicted increase in children's behavioral problems at parent–children relations to promoting socially adequate school. However, mothers' behavioral control associated with behaviors, as well as those disagreeable to people's interac- low levels of psychological control was related to lessen tion in different contexts. However, there is still a lot of con- behavioral problems. troversy concerning what sort of parental style tend to favor Chen, Chang, He, and Liu (2005) suggested that prosocial which aspect of children's social behavior. Consequently, cooperative group functioning tends to strengthen the role of this research was designed to investigate those aspects, maternal support in social and academic adjustment, whereas hypothesizing that positive parental styles will promote antisocial-destructive functioning damages the role of paren- socially adequate behaviors, opposite to negative parental tal support. Thus, peer relations provide a social context to styles. socialization and development of social behavior and moder- ate the effects of parental practices on children's social Method adjustment. Gottman, Fainsilber-Katz, and Hooven (1997) explained that social skills related to social competence Participants among peers in high school are not the same as the younger A total of 202 children, 7 to 10 years old (M = 8 years, SD = children, as there are more teachers in advanced school 0.88), from second to fourth grade primary school, male and years, as well as more opportunities to be with peers, with female (52.5% male), participated in this research. less adult scrutiny. Bornstein and Bornstein (2007) emphasized that the con- cept of what a good parenting style should be varies in differ- Instruments ent cultural and socioeconomic aspects, and show that an authoritarian and flexible style is good for the White middle- Parental Styles Inventory (IEP). There are 42 questions (Gomide, class nuclear family child, but may not be the best for chil- 2006) corresponding to two positive educational practices dren raised in other circumstances. The authors suggest that (positive monitoring and moral behavior) and five negative a balance between responsiveness and task orientation and practices (negligence, physical and psychological abuse, lax an authoritarian style tends to produce better social compe- discipline, inconsistent punition, and negative monitoring). tence in children. Again, those results may not be applicable Items were assessed by a 3-point Likert-type scale, responses to different cultures. being always (2), sometimes (1), and never (0). Therefore, Glick, Hanish, Yabiku, and Bradley (2012) assessed the each educational practice could have a maximum of 12 points influence of parental practices in social development of pre- and minimum 0, summing up the subject's responses in each school children, in a longitudinal research with immigrants. factor. Parental practices were associated to adaptation time (less Positive monitoring is understood as a group of educa- behavioral problems) and sociability levels of the children. tional practices involving attention and recognition from par- Parental responsiveness and emotional support were posi- ents to children, as well as affection and care display, mainly tively associated to sociability. However, there were evi- associated to life situations when the child needs most. dences or nonlinear coefficients for children from different Gomide (2006) defined moral behavior as the educational cultures, being lower associations in children born outside practice of values, such as honesty, generosity, justice, trans- United States (non-Hispanic Afro-American and White). mitted by parents to children, discriminating right from wrong Rinaldi and Howe (2012) study showed that self-reported through positive models, in an affectionate relationship. parental styles explained 44% of variance in children's exter- Inconsistent punition happens when parents punish or nalizing behavior, and mothers' permissive styles and fathers' reinforce their children's behaviors according with the par- authoritarian styles predicted externalizing behaviors; ents' mood states, incoherently to the children's behaviors. In authoritative styles predicted adaptive behaviors. this sense, parents' emotional states will determine educa- Taylor, Conger, Robins, and Widaman (2015) also ana- tional practices, not the child's actions. The child learns to lyzed the relationship between social support and parental discriminate the parents' mood states, and does not learn educational behaviors perceived by the parents with chil- whether the behavior was adequate or not. Negligence dren's social competence in a longitudinal design until ado- appears when parents do not attend to their children's needs, lescence in Mexican families. Results showed that fathers are absent in their responsibilities, omit help, or interact Bartholomeu et al. 3 without affect. Parental practices involving lax discipline variable control, or manipulation, and no randomization of mean that the parents' rules are not followed. They threaten sample. As a result, no causal relations are supposed to be the children, but withdraw when faced with oppositional or established, but only associations between those variables. aggressive behaviors, and the rules lose their value. Negative monitoring is defined by parents' excessive control over their Results and Discussion children's lives and great amount of repetitive instructions. Family environment is hostile and stressed, and there is no First, the associations between results of IEP and THAS-C dialogue, once children try to protect their privacy, avoiding were analyzed, using a Pearson correlation test. Results are talking to parents (Gomide, 2006). shown in Table 1. Results show that assertiveness is positively related to Children's Social Skills Test (THAS-C). There are 23 items (Bar- parental styles of inconsistent punition and negligence, sug- tholomeu, Silva, & Montiel, 2014) to be answered in a gesting that some of the children who are more assertive tend 3-point Likert-type scale, corresponding to three dimensions: to perceive their parents as having inconsistent and negligent civility and altruism, resourcefulness and self-control in educational practices. This is a curious data, and a more social situations, and assertiveness with confronting. detailed analysis from the outliers (post-regression analysis First dimension, civility and altruism involve abilities described below) revealed that the low correlation coeffi- such as thanking for praise, saying sorry, helping friends, cient is justified in more assertive children. In those cases, praising friends, expressing positive feelings to peers, and the pattern revealed in this sort of perception of parental being polite when manifesting an opinion. Resourcefulness practices in fathers was more regular, showing the found and self-control in social interaction need to have their indi- association. Hence, it is possible that more assertive children cators inverted to be assessed; negative situations suggested tend to report problems they face with their parents and also are the ones when the child is exposed to new, unknown, or observe not only positive but also negative aspects associ- threatening situations, such as being criticized, speaking in ated to parental practices and talk about them more easily front of the classroom, ending a conversation, introducing to than low assertive children. an unknown group. Finally, the third dimension, assertive- On the other hand, civility and altruism were significantly ness with confronting, includes defending own rights and and positively associated to positive monitoring, moral opinions and is a predictor of resistance to group pressure, behavior, negligence, and lax discipline, meaning that chil- stating self-esteem, even at the risk of a negative reaction dren possessing well-developed abilities of being grateful, from the other. apologizing, helping friends, expressing positive feelings, Items are specific to a given situation. Thus, some indica- being polite may have parents using positive or negative edu- tors were developed according to school contexts. cational styles. The problem of self-report is manifest again, as higher associations are observed in higher social skilled children, who tend to perceive more inadequate parental Procedures practices. There were also positive and negative correlations After principals and teachers signed a document allowing the in exposure to strangers and negative monitoring, as well as research to be conducted within the schools premises, as well exposure to strangers and moral behavior. Those results sug- as parents agreeing their children to participate in the study, gest that either a positive educational practice or a negative data were collected during class times. Aims of the study one may be associated to socially adequate behaviors. were explained to the children and any doubts about the Finally, general score in THAS-C was significantly and instruments were clarified. Children completed both the positively correlated to positive monitoring, moral behavior, THAS-C and IEP. negligence, and lax discipline, reinforcing previous correla- This research was approved by the University Ethics tions, suggesting that positive and negative parental styles Committee, process number 810/2011. may be associated to children' good behaviors. Data were collected in classrooms, after authorization by As expected, there were significant correlations between the institution and signing of consent letters by the partici- IEP and THAS-C variables, including positive as well as pants or the legally responsible of them, in periods allowed negative aspects of parenting styles. Those results indicate by the teachers. The aims of the research were explained to that socially adequate skills are not always associated to a the participants and tests were collectively completed, with positive parenting style's pattern (Lagacé-Séguin & Coplan, doubts being answered by the examiners. Information con- 2005). However, as suggested by other studies (Bornstein & cerning social skills and parental styles were collected in first Bornstein, 2007; Chen et al., 2005; Gottman et al., 1997), place. As the Test of Social Skills in Children is a simpler and other cultural aspects must be taken in consideration, such as easier instrument to be answered, it was the last one to be environmental differences and group behaviors in class- completed. rooms, all of them not controlled in this research. This research was designed as a correlational study, According to definition, social skills are learned and can be because instruments are self-reported and there was no trained. Consequently, the possibility of certain behaviors 4 SAGE Open Table 1. Pearson Correlation Coefficients Between IEP and that explain the higher independent variable variance (social THAS-C Measures. skills factors). A summary of final models presenting signifi- cant ANOVA and variance percentage on each gender is Exposure to Civility and showed in Table 2, as well as F values, significance levels, Variables Assertiveness strangers General altruism and total degrees of freedom. Table 3 shows regression coef- Inconsistent punition ficients and significance levels, as well as information on r 0.34 0.13 0.17 0.15 multicolinearity between predicting variables, obtained in p 0.01 0.31 0.19 0.24 tolerance and VIF statistic levels, meaning that the nearer n 62 64 62 62 1.00 for the first index, the better, as the second is not too Negative monitoring high. Data are adjusted, with no multicolinearity, as none r 0.19 0.33 0.18 0.09 condition index is higher than 15. p 0.13 0.01 0.16 0.48 Concerning assertiveness, the model that included nega- n 65 66 64 65 tive monitoring and physical abuse was the best to explain Positive monitoring this feature of social skill. Coefficient tendency suggests that r −0.028 0.17 0.53 0.56 physical abuse decreases children assertiveness, but negative p 0.83 0.18 0.00 0.00 monitoring increases it (negative monitoring scores tended n 59 61 59 59 to increase 0.27 in each point of Assertiveness scale). It is Moral behavior intriguing to consider that a hostile and stressed environ- r −0.038 0.26 0.50 0.48 ment, combined with an excessive parent control tend to be p 0.77 0.03 0.00 0.00 associated to assertiveness. Those results support Anthony n 64 66 64 64 et al. (2005) study. Neglect r 0.23 0.24 0.34 0.32 It must be considered that information was collected in p 0.07 0.06 0.01 0.01 children with a tendency to be more assertive. It is also inter- n 62 64 62 62 esting to note that the internal consistency of the parental Lax discipline styles self-report factors tended not be so high as in Glick r −0.011 0.08 0.27 0.30 et al. (2012) study, that showed alpha values between .5 and p 0.93 0.55 0.03 0.02 .6 for self-reports in parental styles measures. Alpha values n 61 63 62 62 in Aunola and Nurmi (2005) varied from .66 to .82 and in Abuse Lagacé-Séguin and Coplan (2005) varied between .83 and r 0.16 0.01 −0.15 −0.18 .71. Those last authors attest problems in employing mea- p 0.21 0.92 0.22 0.15 sures of self-report to assess parental styles, because although n 63 65 63 63 being useful when working with children, the amount of IEP information people report on parental styles is insufficient, r −0.35 −0.07 0.08 0.11 as they may not be concentrated in specific details and p 0.01 0.62 0.58 0.40 features. n 55 57 56 56 Literature associating parenting styles and social skills Note. IEP = Parental Styles Inventory; THAS-C = Children's Social Skills Test. varies a lot regarding children, and studies state those rela- tions, whereas others totally deny them. Those differences being learned in social interactions in schools, independent of probably stem from methodological issues, not only in gath- parenting styles, may be an explanation of the associations ering information procedures but also in cultural and socio- found in this study, although they must suffer further investi- economic aspects, as Bornstein and Bornstein (2007) gation, mainly considering that group effect tend to moderate suggested that some behaviors are means of adaptation to the relation between parenting styles and social skills (Chen environment. Some researchers such as Engels et al. (2002); et al., 2005). Another question to be raised concerns children's Engels, Finkenauer, Meeus, and Dekovic (2001); Gomide, emotional problems stemming from each parenting style, Salvo, Pinheiro, and Sabbag (2005); Pacheco, Teixeira, and mediated by social skills, according to Engels et al. (2002). Gomes (1999) employed self-report questionnaires, while Although analyses have produced important discussion other like Connell and Prinz (2002), who found positive pat- material, they do not specifically describe the predictive terns of parent–child interactions and prosocial behaviors, power of each parenting style on each social skill. used situational tasks, as assessment. Nevertheless, the pres- Consequently, after establishing correlations between instru- ent study found those patterns employing children self- ments' measures, a backward model linear regression was reports, a relatively new approach in literature. conducted, aiming to investigate which parenting style Social confidence and conversational ability were would better explain each aspect of children's social skill. explained in a better fashion by parenting styles based in This procedure has the advantage of inserting all predicting inconsistent punition and negative monitoring. However, all variables (parenting styles) in a model, keeping only the ones coefficients showed a negative relation, suggesting that, Bartholomeu et al. 5 Table 2. Summary of Meaningful Models of Linear Regression Using Backward Method. η Estimated generate Number Model R η (adjusted) standard error levels (gl) F p 1 Assertiveness × Parenting Styles .337 .113 .099 1.56830 187 7.974 .000 2 Conversation and Social Confidence × Parenting Styles .417 .174 .160 2.20205 186 13.032 .000 3 Altruism × Parenting Styles .583 .340 .318 3.69628 179 15.383 .000 4 Social Skill × Parenting Styles .542 .294 .274 4.65679 177 14.738 .000 Table 3. Linear Regression Coefficients and Statistics for Colinearity Diagnosis. Non-standard Standard coefficient coefficient Colinearity diagnosis variance inflation Model B SE β t p Tolerance factor (VIF) (Constant) 2.713 0.456 5.950 .000 Inconsistent punition 0.115 0.064 .143 1.796 .074 .750 1.333 Negative monitoring 0.217 0.057 .272 3.801 .000 .923 1.084 Physical abuse −0.150 0.055 −.212 −2.732 .007 .787 1.270 (Constant) 8.226 0.809 10.173 .000 Moral behavior 0.142 0.082 .128 1.727 .086 .810 1.234 Inconsistent punition −0.402 0.082 −.340 −4.892 .000 .922 1.084 Negative monitoring −0.240 0.088 −.207 −2.731 .007 .777 1.287 (Constant) 6.492 1.773 3.662 .000 Positive monitoring 0.594 0.159 .275 3.725 .000 .676 1.479 Moral behavior 0.660 0.165 .317 3.999 .000 .586 1.706 Neglect 0.411 0.127 .224 3.226 .001 .766 1.305 Lax discipline 0.497 0.147 .211 3.370 .001 .944 1.059 Negative monitoring −0.278 0.154 −.130 −1.800 .074 .708 1.412 Physical abuse −0.271 0.146 −.138 −1.852 .066 .668 1.498 (Constant) 16.470 2.243 7.343 .000 Positive monitoring 0.682 0.204 .256 3.352 .001 .684 1.461 Moral behavior 0.491 0.192 .194 2.551 .012 .693 1.443 Neglect 0.303 0.159 .136 1.902 .059 .781 1.280 Lax discipline 0.617 0.188 .213 3.283 .001 .944 1.060 Physical abuse −0.583 0.181 −.243 −3.227 .001 .705 1.418 opposite to assertiveness, conversational ability and social Finally, parenting styles of moral behavior, followed by confidence tend to decrease in the presence of parental styles positive monitoring, neglect, and lax discipline, offered the perceived as inconsistent, punitive, and negative monitored. best explanation for altruism, with significant coefficients. Each score of Conversation and Social Confidence scale cor- Each score in Altruism scale increased 0.32 in Moral responds to a decrease in 0.34 in inconsistent punishment. Behavior Parenting Style scale. Those results are in accor- Apparently, parents who do not provide clear educational dance to Gomide et al. (2005) study that showed associations parameters randomly reinforce children, as well as monitor in expressions of positive feelings (a feature of altruistic and control children's activities with repetitive instructions, people) with positive monitoring and moral behavior, con- hostility and stress tend to be associated with children's firming the role of those two styles in supporting prosocial problems in conversation and social confidence. Maybe attitudes. those social skills tend to develop more positively in contexts Regarding general social skills, variables that offered the that offer clear parameters, as well as open and caring dia- best probable model were positive monitoring, lax disci- logue (Lengua et al., 2007). pline, moral behavior, and physical abuse (the higher the 6 SAGE Open general social skill, the lesser the abusive parenting styles). the development of social skills imply in analyzing what is Lax discipline is an intriguing variable predicting social socially apt in a given context. skills, but Lagacé-Séguin and Coplan (2005) showed that an It is important to note that despite the assessment of chil- open and affectionate style tend to produce an overemphasis dren's perception being necessary to have an idea of how he in children's emotional socialization. In general, positive or she characterizes his or her parents (which will have an monitoring seemed to be the style that produces more socially impact on his or her way of dealing with them and with the adequate behaviors, in accordance to Patterson et al. (1992) world), children who are more socially skilled tended to study. In fact, positive monitoring incorporates a series of express both positive and negative opinion regarding their behaviors, such as attention and affection and caring dis- parents, in accordance of self-reporting format employed in plays, being recognized by children who tend to express this study and that explains part of the results. In fact, litera- similar behaviors. ture studies in general show slightly low internal consistency It is important to highlight Aunola and Nurmi's (2005) (Aunola & Nurmi, 2005; Lagacé-Séguin & Coplan, 2005). study, as the authors revealed that parental style based in Therefore, despite the possible explanations, new studies behavioral restraint tended to produce less social problems, should be designed, particularly using a longitudinal per- related to psychological control, which in some ways was spective, trying to test the hypothesis of this research. also confirmed by this study. It must be observed that social skills are related to positive On the contrary, the extent of this educational style to and negative parenting styles, reinforcing the idea of a social favor assertiveness development must be the object of fur- skill as an attribute of behavior. Despite being related to per- ther studies. Authoritarian parental style patterns tend to be sonality, it forms a more stable trait that could be learned by associated in literature to problems of expression of personal the child in contexts other than home, such as school, for opinions, mainly in teenagers (Engels et al., 2002; Pacheco example (Bartholomeu, Carvalho, Silva, & Machado, 2011; et al., 1999). Bartholomeu, Montiel, & Pessotto, 2012). Nevertheless, it must be asserted that data in this study, Some limits of the study must be noted. The first is related although establishing a hierarchy in associating and explain- to both instruments being self-report measures. Some kind of ing those variables, do not present enough design to test observations of parent–child relations could provide other causal assumptions, and new studies with more control and clues to parenting effects. The second problem stems from manipulation of independent variables are necessary, as well parents not being assessed; their position on parenting could as a sample randomization. be of interest to compare with children's viewpoints. The third limit concerns the fact that the study is not longitudinal. Many effects of parenting styles can be better observed Final Considerations throughout childhood, more than cross-sectionally. Further Initial hypotheses were partially confirmed because positive studies should address those issues. parenting styles were only good predictors for altruism as a Nowadays, great number of children spend more and social skill. Conversational abilities were related to the more time at school, and from younger ages, leading to the absence of a negative parenting style, but not to a positive speculation that the impact of schooling is relevant to devel- one, and assertiveness was related to a negative parenting oping socially competent skills. That should be another area style. for future investigations. Data on this study question the association of certain types of negative parental styles with social skills, despite Declaration of Conflicting Interests limitations of correlational design. Despite low coefficients, The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect it seems that for some children, the perception of a parental to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. negative style of educating does does not necessarily imply that they are not developing social skills. That may be a Funding result of those skills being learnt at school, as well as at home The author(s) received no financial support for the research and/or and other social groups that children participate in. authorship of this article. Consequently, new investigations must be conducted aiming to explore the effect and role of each of the children's social References groups (such as the family, the school, peer groups) on their Anthony, L. G., Anthony, B. J., Glanville, D. N., Naiman, D. Q., social skills, testifying the interactive role of those skills, as Waanders, C., & Shaffer, S. (2005). The relationships between they only have meaning when expressed in agreement to a parenting stress, parenting behavior and preschoolers social specific context's demands. And, at the same time, it rein- competence and behavior problems in the classroom. Infant forces the most expressive and adaptive feature of social and Child Development, 14, 133-154. behavior. Bornstein and Bornstein (2007) explained that Aunola, K., & Nurmi, J. E. (2005). The role of parenting styles positive parental styles not being associated with good social in children's problem behavior. Child Development, 76, skills in children may not be constant in different cultures, as 1144-1159. Bartholomeu et al. 7 Bartholomeu, D., Carvalho, L. F., Silva, M. C. R., & Machado, practices, depression, stress and social skills]. Psico-USF, 10, A. A. (2011). Aceitação e rejeição entre pares e habilidades 169-178. sociais em universitários [Acceptance and rejection in peers Gottman, J., Fainsilber-Katz, L., & Hooven, C. (1997). Meta- and social skills in college students]. Estudos de Psicologia emotion: How families communicate emotionally. Mahwah, (UFRN), 16, 155-162. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Bartholomeu, D., Montiel, J. M., & Pessotto, F. (2012). Sociometria Lagacé-Séguin, D., & Coplan, R. (2005). Maternal emotional styles e habilidades sociais em estudantes do ensino médio [Sociomety and child social adjustment: Assessment, correlates, outcomes and social skills in high school children]. Estudos interdisci- and goodness of fit in early childhood. Social Development, plinares em Psicologia, 2, 211-228. 14, 614-636. Bartholomeu, D., Silva, M. C. R., & Montiel, J. M. (2014). Teste de Landry, S. H., Smith, K. E., & Swank, P. R. (2006). Responsive Habilidades Sociais para Crianças e Adolescentes em Situação parenting: Establishing early foundations for social communi- Escolar: THAS-C [Test of Social Skills for Children and cation, and independent problem-solving skills. Developmental Teenagers in School Settings: THAS-C]. São Paulo: Memnon. Psychology, 42, 627-642. Baumrind, D. (1972). An exploratory study of socialization effects Leidy, M. S., Guerra, N. G., & Toro, R. I. (2010). Positive par- on black children: Some black-white comparisons. Child enting, family cohesion, and child social competence among Development, 43, 261-267. immigrant Latino families. Journal of Family Psychology, 24, Baumrind, D., & Black, A. (1967). Socialization practices associ- 252-260. ated with dimensions of competence in preschool boys and Lengua, L. J., Honorado, E., & Bush, N. R. (2007). Contextual girls. Child Development, 38, 291-327. risk and parenting as predictors of effortful control and Bornstein, L., & Bornstein, M. H. (2007). Parenting styles and child social competence in preschool children. Journal of Applied social development. In R. E. Tremblay, M. Boivin, & R. D. V. Developmental Psychology, 28, 40-55. Peters (Eds.), Encyclopedia on early childhood development Pacheco, J. T. B., Teixeira, M. A. P., & Gomes, W. B. (1999). (pp. 1-4). Montreal, Quebec, Canada: Centre of Excellence Estilos parentais e desenvolvimento de habilidades sociais na for Early Childhood Development and Strategic Knowledge adolescência [Parental styles and development of social skills Cluster on Early Child Development. Available from http:// in adolescence]. Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa, 15, 117-126. www.child-encyclopedia.com Patterson, G. R., Reid, J. B., & Dishion, T. J. (1992). Antisocial Chen, X., Chang, L., He, Y., & Liu, H. (2005). The peer group as a boys. Eugene, OR: Castalia. context: Moderating effects on relations between maternal par- Rinaldi, C. M., & Howe, N. (2012). Mothers' and fathers' parent- enting and social and school adjustment in Chinese children. ing styles and associations with toddlers' externalizing, inter- Child Development, 76, 417-434. nalizing, and adaptive behaviors. Early Childhood Research Connell, C. M., & Prinz, R. J. (2002). The impact of childcare and Quarterly, 27, 266-273. parent-child interactions on school readiness and social skills Steinberg, L., Elmen, J. D., & Mounts, N. S. (1989). Authoritative development for low-income African American children. parenting, psychosocial maturity, and academic success among Journal of School Psychology, 40, 177-193. adolescents. Child Development, 60, 1424-1436. Darling, N., & Steinberg, L. (1993). Parenting style as context: An Taylor, Z. E., Conger, R. D., Robins, R. W., & Widaman, K. F. integrative model. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 487-496. (2015). Parenting practices and perceived social support: Engels, R. C. M. E., Dekovic, M., & Meeus, W. (2002). Parenting Longitudinal relations with the social competence of Mexican- practices, social skills and peer relationships in adolescence. origin children. Journal of Latina/o Psychology, 3, 193-208. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, doi:10.1037/lat0000038 30(1), 3-17. Trommsdorff, G., Cole, P. M., & Heikamp, T. (2012). Cultural Engels, R. C. M. E., Finkenauer, C., Meeus, W., & Dekovic, M. variations in mothers' intuitive theories: A preliminary report (2001). Parental attachment and adolescents emotional adjust- on interviewing mothers from five nations about their social- ment: The associations with social skills and relational compe- ization of children's emotions. Global Studies of Childhood, tence. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 48, 428-439. 2, 158-169. Glick, J. E., Hanish, L. D., Yabiku, S. T., & Bradley, R. H. (2012). Migration timing and parenting practices: Contributions to Author Biographies social development in preschoolers with foreign-born and Daniel Bartholomeu is a psychologist and doctor in psychological native-born mothers. Child Development, 83, 1527-1542. assessment (USF, Itatiba, Brazil). doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01789.x Gomide, P. I. C. (2006). Inventário de Estilos Parentais – IEP: José Maria Montiel is a psychologist and doctor in psychological Modelo teórico, manual de aplicação, apuração e interpreta- assessment (USF, Itatiba, Brazil). ção [Parental Styles Inventory – IEP: Theoretical framework, application, scoring and interpretation manual]. Petrópolis, Geraldo A. Fiamenghi Jr. is a psychologist and PhD in Psychology Brazil: Vozes. (The University of Edinburgh, Scotland). Gomide, P. I. C., Salvo, C. G., Pinheiro, D. P. N., & Sabbag, G. M. (2005). Correlação entre práticas educativas, depressão, Afonso Antonio Machado is a physical educator and doctor in estresse e habilidades sociais [Correlation among educational education (UNICAMP, Campinas, Brazil).
SAGE Open – SAGE
Keywords: parenting styles; social skills; educational practices; educational psychology; development
The relationships between parenting stress, parenting behavior and preschoolers social competence and behavior problems in the classroom
The role of parenting styles in children's problem behavior
Aceitação e rejeição entre pares e habilidades sociais em universitários
Sociometria e habilidades sociais em estudantes do ensino médio
An exploratory study of socialization effects on black children: Some black-white comparisons
Socialization practices associated with dimensions of competence in preschool boys and girls
Parenting styles and child social development
The peer group as a context: Moderating effects on relations between maternal parenting and social and school adjustment in Chinese children
The impact of childcare and parent-child interactions on school readiness and social skills development for low-income African American children
Parenting style as context: An integrative model
Parenting practices, social skills and peer relationships in adolescence
Parental attachment and adolescents emotional adjustment: The associations with social skills and relational competence
Migration timing and parenting practices: Contributions to social development in preschoolers with foreign-born and native-born mothers
Correlação entre práticas educativas, depressão, estresse e habilidades sociais
Maternal emotional styles and child social adjustment: Assessment, correlates, outcomes and goodness of fit in early childhood
Responsive parenting: Establishing early foundations for social communication, and independent problem-solving skills
Positive parenting, family cohesion, and child social competence among immigrant Latino families
Contextual risk and parenting as predictors of effortful control and social competence in preschool children
Estilos parentais e desenvolvimento de habilidades sociais na adolescência
Mothers' and fathers' parenting styles and associations with toddlers' externalizing, internalizing, and adaptive behaviors
Authoritative parenting, psychosocial maturity, and academic success among adolescents
Parenting practices and perceived social support: Longitudinal relations with the social competence of Mexican-origin children
Cultural variations in mothers' intuitive theories: A preliminary report on interviewing mothers from five nations about their socialization of children's emotions
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What is ADA compliance and how does it relate to your business website? In 2018 there were 2,000+ lawsuits filed in Federal Court – up 181% from 2017. If your business or organization receives federal funding or you provide public access to your business you should make sure your website is ADA compliant!
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Explore Vatnajökull and Jökulsárlón in Iceland with Glacier Lagoon tour
Iceland, Leisure, Travel
2:12 pm February 6, 2012
The Iceland travel and tour provider, Bustravel will be offering daily tours to Europe's biggest glacier, Vatnajökull and the glacier lagoon, Jökulsárlón this summer as part of its services.
The Glacier Lagoon Tour is ideal for those wishing to visit and experience some of Iceland's most impressive sights. The tour provides a day full of glaciers, icebergs, and waterfalls and allows you to experience Iceland's magnificent Vatnajökull glacier and its breathtaking glacier lagoon.
The Bustravel tour takes you alongside other giant glaciers such as Eyjafjallajökull and Mýrdalsjökull and then on to Vík, a small village on the south coast of Iceland. From Vík, the coach travels through black deserts and lava fields to the Öræfajökull glacier.
Following this, the tour arrives at Vatnajökull and Jökulsárlón in the south east of Iceland. In addition, the tour stops off at Skógafoss and Seljalandsfoss, two of the country's most amazing waterfalls.
With over 50 years of experience, Bustravel offers high quality bus trips across Iceland as well as professional guided coach tours and airport transfers. The company has always believed in providing great services at affordable prices and still continues to do so to this day.
Departure for the Glacier Lagoon Tour is at 08:00 on Mondays, Thursdays, and Saturdays.
For more details on Bustravel's Glacier Lagoon Tour, and to make bookings, check out www.bustravel.is or call +354 511 2600. Furthermore, for daily updates, follow the company on Facebook.
Glacier Lagoon
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Jokulsarlon Tour
vatnajokull
Vatnajokull Iceland
Vatnajokull Tour
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


The Royal United Hospital (RUH) Bath NHS Trust serves a population of approximately half a million people. It is a medium to large district hospital offering a comprehensive prostate cancer service through the urology and oncology departments. Although it is not a cancer centre, the RUH is able to offer most treatments on-site; including laparoscopic radical prostatectomy, brachytherapy, and conformal external beam radiotherapy.
The majority of Uro-oncology Clinical Nurse Specialist (CNS) roles have developed from surgical need. Whilst the majority of newly diagnosed patients at the RUH will meet a CNS and all men who have surgery or brachytherapy will be seen regularly for follow up appointments in a nurse led clinic, it became apparent that men having external beam radiotherapy were not exposed to the same level of intervention from the CNS. It was felt that this patient group would benefit from the same style of clinic, as often patients felt lost between ending their treatment and being seen by a Doctor in the oncology setting. This could be up to four months. It was also felt that there were more ways in which the patient experience could be enhanced with a nurse specialising in the care of men with prostate cancer.
We funded a CNS (Band 6, 1.0 FTE) to deliver the project.
A nurse led clinic that provided follow-up support, including the completion of Holistic Needs Assessments, for all patients who receive radical radiotherapy.
A telephone clinic to support men who underwent surgery or brachytherapy at home 2-3 days after discharge from hospital.
These services ensured men could access advice and support in a timely manner which is appropriate to their patient journey.
To assess effectiveness of the new service, the project initially involved completing an audit of the existing service and undertaking a postal survey of men who had undergone external beam radiotherapy from April 2012 - March 2013. A regular CNS clinic was then set up for patients who were six weeks post treatment. Each appointment was scheduled for 30 minutes and an oncologist was available for advice if needed. After six months the new service was audited.
It is vital to have a constructive and supported orientation programme to ensure post holders become a part of the established CNS team, who are able to advise and support the development of the post.
If possible, have project posts as supernumerary during their orientation and the project scoping phase.
Work closely with urology and oncology teams to undertake service provision evaluation and make subsequent recommendations regarding future utilisation of a CNS post.
Advanced communication courses for specialist nurses are essential.
The increased use of chemotherapy drugs for those with advanced prostate cancer will provide an opportunity to expand the role and provision of CNS services within the oncology settings.
Following completion of the pilot, the role became a substantive post through RUH funding. The services and support provided by the CNS will continue to be assessed to ensure they meet the needs of the men.


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Arctiocossus impeditus is a moth in the family Cossidae. It is found in South Africa.

References

Natural History Museum Lepidoptera generic names catalog

Endemic moths of South Africa
Cossinae
Moths described in 1865
Moths of Africa

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Oriental porcelain jar in a rectangular shape with a removable lid. Finished with a blue under glaze design on a white china background, accented by a delicately antiqued ice crackle over glaze. Features a detailed floral pattern. Display as a useful center piece filled with candies or other small items on a coffee table, hearth, or credenza.
NOTE: This jar was photographed with the stand for display purposes; all stands sold separately. If you would like to purchase a fitted stand for this jar, please choose our 6" x 4" Rosewood Rectangular Stand.
I love the size of this little pot but the lid doesn't fit well at all. You can see the unglazed edge of the pot top. I'd also like to buy the wood stand it sits on. Which piece is that?
I like this box very much, however it came with a chip out of it. I can deal with it though, with the lid on, it doesnt' show.


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Homeamazon bestsellers
Spare - The Book of Prince Harry
byDerya • 11 January
The book of Prince Harry of England Spare, which attracted great attention and sound even before it took its place on the bookshelves, is finally on sale. Those who wondered if Prince Harry would throw out the dirty laundry of the palace immediately entered the queue to acquire one.
What's in Prince Harry's book?
So, does Harry actually tell us things we don't know in the book? Of course, almost everyone knows that apart from special memories that we do not know, the function of the royal family is actually an embassy for England. Every meeting they attend, wearing elegant and expensive clothes like Hollywood stars, is widely covered in the press. And if they do some outreach work, they're polishing the image of England.
However, they have set such rules that it is very difficult to withstand both themselves and those who join the family. Already in the pictures, it is clear how nervous and stressed they are. For example, Megan looked like she had a cramp while she was at the palace, and now her bright eyes are shining. Honestly, I was also quite surprised that the conservative royal family accepted her when they got married. Although the Palast took steps towards modernization, it was quite a radical event for them to accept a half-black woman. The British press also slammed Megan, whom she praised at first, over time. They didn't even hesitate to seize and publish a letter she sent to her father.
For those who can't wait or don't want to read it all, here are the highlights from Harry's book:
What Prince Harry has to say about his brother William being the groomsman
We saw Prince Harry's brother, Prince William, as the groomsman at the wedding to Kate in 2011. However, Harry writes in his book that he was forced to play a game and only pretended to be the groomsman in front of the press because his brother's two best friends didn't want to be seen. The traditional groomsman speech at the wedding reception was given by William's friends James Meade and Thomas van Straubenzee. According to Harry, just hours before his wedding, Prince William was quite drunk and he told his brother that he smelled of alcohol.
Prince Harry escalates tensions with William
During an argument, Prince Harry was smashed on the floor by the shards of a broken dog bowl after being pushed violently by William. At least, this is how the 38-year-old prince describes what was probably the most violent conflict ever known between himself and his brother. "It all happened so fast. So fast. He grabbed my collar, tore off my necklace, and threw me to the ground." Prince William, 40, is said to have previously described Harry's wife, Meghan, as "difficult" and "rude", and then accused Harry's brother of adopting the British tabloids' narrative.
Was Prince Harry "Spare"?
The rivalry with the older brother is already reflected in the title of the book: Spare. According to reports, Harry claims that his father said so about him after he was born. The brothers, once considered inseparable and affectionately known as "Willy" and "Harold", have long faced each other in a fierce rivalry. In the book, Harry refers to William as "a dear brother" but also as an "enemy".
From his narration style, I got the impression that he was also jealous of his older brother. Of course, this is my personal opinion.
Prince Harry and the beard fight
Before Harry and Meghan's wedding, the two brothers were even said to have argued over Harry's beards. "At one point he ordered me to shave - stating that he was the future heir to the throne -" Prince Harry writes, according to a report by "Mirror" magazine about his brother. He says even the queen gave him consent to marry him with a beard. He accuses William of thinking that Harry shouldn't be enjoying something he can't do himself.
Prince Harry and "evil stepmother" Camilla
Harry writes that Camilla was recognized by him as his father's "other woman" at an early age. According to media reports, he says he fears she may become a "bad stepmother" after his mother's death. He accepted her into the family because it made Charles happy.
Although the two brothers told their father not to remarry, today's new king did not take this into account. As you know, Charles and Camilla got married in 2005. She is now the king's wife. Harry accuses her of secretly giving information to the press, like other royals.
Prince Harry and the jealous Charles
Prince Harry reportedly accused Charles of being jealous of his wife, Meghan. It is said that his father feared that the "young and bright" actress might steal the limelight from him. Referring to the popularity of his late mother, Princess Diana, Harry wrote, "his father had experienced this before and was afraid it would happen to him again." Charles is also said to be jealous of the public's interest in William and Kate.
In an interview, Megan also said that they advised her to dress more simply to avoid stealing a role from Kate. As you can see, there is competition between all of them :)
Death of his mother Diana
The tragic circumstances surrounding the death of his mother, Diana, who died in an accident in Paris while fleeing the paparazzi in 1997, keep Harry busy to this day. He does not believe the result of the official investigation. He accuses the royal family of not allowing William and himself to publicly request the reopening of the investigation. He talks about his father's emotional coldness. According to the Sun newspaper, Harry complains that he did not hug him when he gave the shocking news of the accident. According to "People" magazine, the prince passed through the same tunnel at the speed of his mother's car and determined that the accident could not have happened at that speed.
Prince Harry and his first sexual experience
Harry also admits to using cocaine to "feel different" when he was 17. Later, he had other experiences with drugs. He claims he had his first sexual experience as a teenager with a much older woman in the field behind a bar. This section was also found unnecessary by critics and was highly criticized.
Prince Harry and his Nazi costume
Harry partly blames William and his wife Kate (40) for the biggest misstep in his teenage years. They are said to have encouraged him to attend a costume party dressed in a Nazi costume in 2005 – photos of Harry in this costume soon went viral, triggering a scandal. Harry had to apologize in front of everyone.
Prince Harry and 25 dead Taliban
On the other hand, he has no regrets about killing 25 Taliban fighters during his military service as a helicopter pilot in Afghanistan. "It didn't satisfy me, but I wasn't embarrassed," Harry wrote in Sky News. A senior Taliban member later accused Harry of war crimes. "The ones you killed were people, not pawns; They had families awaiting their return. said.
However, Harry defended himself by preventing the Taliban from killing innocent people.
Reactions from the royal family to the "Spare"
Despite having exposed the royal family in their dirty laundry, Harry said in an interview broadcast by ITV that he still believes in the monarchy, although he doesn't know if it will play a role for him in the future. At the same time, he emphasized that he wanted to "reconcile" with his family. But to do this, he added, it must first be clarified who contributed to the conflict and how.
Buckingham Palace, meanwhile, remains silent on the flood of claims and disclosures. In the British media, statements from the circle of Harry's older brother and father are increasingly taking place.
A friend of the two brothers told the Sunday Times that William, the 40-year-old, was "anxious and upset" and was boiling inside, but "will not reciprocate".
Harry's father was also "injured", according to media reports. According to the Sunday Telegraph, King Charles III. sees reconciliation with his youngest son as "the only way out of the mess". Accordingly, Harry and his wife are expected to be invited to the 74-year-old king's coronation on May 6.
This article has some affiliate links. This means we receive a small commission if you buy but you don't have to pay more.
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Tags: amazon bestsellers amazon books book books Duke of Sussex lifestyle Prince Harry Spare
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Dr. Munaf Shamji was featured on PBS TV series American Health Journal in July 2013.
Dr. Kupferwasser was featured on KABC Radio Show "The Medical Show" in February 2014.
The Heart Medical Group successfully achieved National Accrediation for Nuclear Cardiac Imaging.
The Heart Medical Group successfully achieved National Accrediation for Echocardiography and Stress Echocardiography.
The Heart Medical Group now offers a Home Sleep Study Device permitting convenient diagnosis of Obstructive Sleep Apnea at home.
The Heart Medical Group now offers a Patient Portal allowing for digital access to the office and the physicians via email.
© 2019 The Heart Medical Group and MedNet Technologies, Inc.


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Fu Manchu Marchandise
Southern California's Fu Manchu began crafting heavy, psychedelic-tinged rock in 1990 with their debut single, "Kept Between Trees." Throughout the early '90s the group honed their sound on similarly intense singles, and released their debut album, No One Rides for Free, in 1994 on Bong Load Records. Daredevil, also on Bong Load, followed in 1995. The group switched to Mammoth Records for their 1996 album In Search Of...; the next year, founding members Scott Hill (vocals, guitars) and Brad Davis (bass, vocals) added lead guitarist Bob Balch and former Kyuss drummer Brant Bjork to their lineup, and they released their second album for Mammoth, The Action Is Go. During this time the group gained a reputation as a powerful live act, supporting like-minded groups like the Melvins, Kyuss, White Zombie, Monster Magnet, and Clutch in the States, and Corrosion of Conformity, the Hellacopters, and Marilyn Manson in Europe. 1998 saw the release of Return to Earth, which collected their early singles, and the Eatin' Dust EP, which was released by Frank Kozik's Man's Ruin label. Fu Manchu released their fifth full-length album, King of the Road, in early 2000, following it up with a lengthy tour of the United States. They took time off to work on new material, emerging in the spring of 2001 with California Crossing. As their live show neared perfection, they took an opportunity to showcase their stoner rock stage skill with 2003's Go for It...Live! The following year they released two new studio discs, Start the Machine and (Godzilla's) Eatin' Dust. And in 2007 the band returned with an angrier but typically heavy album titled We Must Obey, a sarcastic rebuttal directed toward anyone with the gall to try and push them around.


There's no denying the timeless appeal of Tod's iconic driving shoes but come winter, you'll want something a little sturdier. That's where these chukka boots come in. They've been crafted in Italy from black suede and lined with shearling for warmth. The rubber soles are dotted with the brand's signature gommino studs. Shown here with Etro coat, Etro sweater, Loro Piana trousers, Etro shirt.


- In case bookings have been made separately, you may be assigned to be on separate tour buses.
Our guide is Sonoe. She speaks good english and overall the tour is very organized. We were lucky to see mt fuji clearly that day. Lunch provided was good too. However the time allocated at each stop could be longer.
Excellent day out. Great informative guide, stunning scenery. Good lunch.
We were fortunate enough to have a perfect day of clear blue skies to experience the majestic Mt Fuji.
I am glad to book this trip as it's time saving and the guide, Harumi was wonderful and the bus driver was also very accommodating to stop for picture perfect spot for the photo shoot. Whole trip was very pleasant!
adequate breaks for refreshments and toilet.
Our guide was amazing! She was always very helpful, polite and organised everyone very well. The tour itself doesn't give much for the time that is spent ( a whole day). Seeing mt. Fuji from afar is better.. the best part of the tour was the Japanese lunch and the photos taken of mt Fuji from afar..
This tour was exactly what I needed for my last day in Tokyo. It was very laid back and relaxing. We spent a lot more time on the bus than I expected but our tour guide was very informative and shared a lot of info about Japan. Lunch was not good but if I hadn't chosen that option there was no other choice. Seeing beautiful Hakone was my favorite part. Could have skipped the Fuji summit. Overall it was a good day.


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Historical fiction (Children's / Teenage)
I, Coriander
A stunning story set in seventeenth-century London and the fairy world, from a CARNEGIE MEDAL and COSTA-prizewinning author.
The story is told by Coriander, daughter of a silk merchant in 1650s London. Her idyllic childhood ends when her mother dies and her father goes away, leaving Coriander with her stepmother, a widow who is in cahoots with a fundamentalist Puritan preacher. She is shut away in a chest and left to die, but emerges into the fairy world from which her mother came, and where time has no meaning. When she returns, charged with a task that will transform her life, she is seventeen.
This is a book filled with enchantments -- a pair of silver shoes, a fairy shadow, a prince transformed into a fox - that contrast with the heartbreaking loss and cruelty of Coriander's life in the real world. With its brilliantly realised setting of old London Bridge, and underpinned by the conflict between Royalists and Puritans, it is a terrific page-turner, involving kidnapping, murder and romance, and an abundance of vivid characters.
Sally Gardner is a multi-award-winning novelist whose work has been translated into more than twenty-two languages.
Her novel Maggot Moon (Hot Key Books) won both the Costa Children's Book Prize and the Carnegie Medal 2013.
Sally's genre-defying novel The Double Shadow (Orion) received great critical acclaim and was also longlisted for the Carnegie Medal 2013.
The Red Necklace (shortlisted for 2007 Guardian Book Prize) and The Silver Blade are set during the French Revolution, the film rights for which have been purchased by Dominic West. Sally also won the 2005 Nestle Children's Book Prize for her debut novel I, Coriander.
She is currently writing the popular Wings & CO Fairy Detective Agency Series (Orion) for 7-11 year olds hailed as 'Agatha Christie for kids' and has recently released her latest Young Adult fiction novel, which is a modern gothic tale called Tinder, illustrated by David Roberts (Orion).
Be the first to review I.


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package com.tle.web.htmleditor.tinymce.addon.tle.guice;

import com.google.inject.name.Names;
import com.tle.web.htmleditor.tinymce.addon.tle.selection.FileUploadSection;
import com.tle.web.sections.equella.guice.SectionsModule;

public class TinyMCEModule extends SectionsModule {
  @SuppressWarnings("nls")
  @Override
  protected void configure() {
    bind(Object.class)
        .annotatedWith(Names.named("com.tle.web.htmleditor.tinymce.addon.tle.FileUpload"))
        .toProvider(node(FileUploadSection.class));
  }
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub