text:
Low explosive pyrotechnic devices for entertainment
"Firework" redirects here. For the song by Katy Perry, see Firework (song).
For other uses, see Fireworks (disambiguation).
Fireworks over Sydney Harbour on New Year's Eve 2006–07.
Fireworks closer view at Lunar New Year celebration in New York, 2003
A fireworks display on Taipei 101, Taiwan, which in 2005 held the world's first fireworks display on a supertall skyscraper.
2013 Bastille Day fireworks over Paris, France.
Fireworks on Qatar National Day 2018 in Doha
Fireworks are a class of low explosive pyrotechnic devices used for aesthetic and entertainment purposes. The most common use of a firework is as part of a fireworks display (also called a fireworks show or pyrotechnics), a display of the effects produced by firework devices.
Fireworks take many forms to produce the four primary effects: noise, light, smoke, and floating materials (confetti for example). They may be designed to burn with colored flames and sparks including red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, and silver. Displays are common throughout the world and are the focal point of many cultural and religious celebrations.
Fireworks are generally classified as to where they perform, either as a ground or aerial firework. In the latter case they may provide their own propulsion (skyrocket) or be shot into the air by a mortar (aerial shell).
New Year fireworks
The most common feature of fireworks is a paper or pasteboard tube or casing filled with the combustible material, often pyrotechnic stars. A number of these tubes or cases are often combined so as to make when kindled, a great variety of sparkling shapes, often variously colored. A skyrocket is a common form of firework, although the first skyrockets were used in warfare. The aerial shell, however, is the backbone of today's commercial aerial display, and a smaller version for consumer use is known as the festival ball in the United States. Such rocket technology has also been used for the delivery of mail by rocket and is used as propulsion for most model rockets.[citation needed]
Fireworks were originally invented in China. Cultural events and festivities such as the Chinese New Year and the Mid-Autumn Moon Festival were and still are times when fireworks are guaranteed sights. China is the largest manufacturer and exporter of fireworks in the world.
Modern colored fireworks were invented in Europe in the 1830s.[1] Modern skyrocket fireworks have been made since the early 20th century.
2 Safety
3 Competitions
4.1 PGI annual convention
5 Halloween
6 Fireworks celebrations throughout the world
6.3 Hungary
6.6 Malta
6.7 Monte-Carlo International Fireworks Festival
6.8 Singapore
6.9 South Korea
6.11 United Kingdom
6.12 United States
7 Uses other than public displays
8 Pyrotechnic compounds
8.1 Common elements in pyrotechnics
9 Types of effects
9.1 Cake
9.2 Crossette
9.3 Chrysanthemum
9.4 Dahlia
9.5 Diadem
9.6 Fish
9.7 Horsetail
9.8 Kamuro
9.9 Mine
9.10 Multi-break shells
9.11 Noise-related effects
9.12 Palm
9.13 Peony
9.14 Ring
9.15 Roman candle
9.16 Salute
9.17 Spider
9.18 Time Rain
9.19 Willow
10 Hazards and regulation
10.2 Pollution
11 Government regulations around the world
11.1 Australia
11.2 Canada
11.3 Chile
11.4 European Union
11.4.1 Belgium
11.4.2 Finland
11.4.4 Netherlands
11.4.5 Republic of Ireland
11.4.6 Sweden
11.5 Iceland
11.6 New Zealand
11.7 Norway
11.8 United States
An illustration of a fireworks display from the 1628-1643 edition of the Ming Dynasty novel Jin Ping Mei.[2]
An etching of the Royal Fireworks display on the Thames, London, England in 1749.
An 18th-century illustration of Chinese fireworks from an English abstract of an account of China by French Jesuit Pierre Nicolas d'Incarville.[3]
A firework display for Muḥammad Sháh, portrayed seated and leaning against a bolster.
Further information: History of gunpowder and Four Great Inventions
Preparing fireworks at Sayn Castle, Germany.
Two ignited Catherine wheels spinning during a traditional Maltese feast.
A ground firework showing various technical parts mentioned in the article, such as the chain and a set of gears.
The grand finale showing also the jets that produce power. A picture taken from the back so the stars and flowers are not so clearly visible.
The earliest fireworks came from China during the Song dynasty (960–1279).[4] Fireworks were used to accompany many festivities.[5] The art and science of firework making has developed into an independent profession. In China, pyrotechnicians were respected for their knowledge of complex techniques in mounting firework displays.[6]
During the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD), people threw bamboo stems into a fire to produce an explosion with a loud sound.[7] In later times, gunpowder packed into small containers was used to mimic the sounds of burning bamboo.[7] Exploding bamboo stems and gunpowder firecrackers were interchangeable known as baozhu (爆竹) or baogan (爆竿).[7] It was during the Song dynasty that people manufactured the first firecrackers comprising tubes made from rolled sheets of paper containing gunpowder and a fuse.[8] They also strung these firecrackers together into large clusters, known as bian (lit. "whip") or bianpao (lit. "whip cannon"), so the firecrackers could be set off one by one in close sequence.[8] By the 12th and possibly the 11th century, the term baozhang (爆仗) was used to specifically refer to gunpowder firecrackers.[7]
During the Song dynasty, many of the common people could purchase various kinds of fireworks from market vendors.[9] Grand displays of fireworks were also known to be held. In 1110, a large fireworks display in a martial demonstration was held to entertain Emperor Huizong of Song (r. 1100–1125) and his court.[10] A record from 1264 states that a rocket-propelled firework went off near the Empress Dowager Gong Sheng and startled her during a feast held in her honor by her son Emperor Lizong of Song (r. 1224–1264).[11] Rocket propulsion was common in warfare, as evidenced by the Huolongjing compiled by Liu Bowen (1311–1375) and Jiao Yu (fl. c. 1350–1412).[12] In 1240 the Arabs acquired knowledge of gunpowder and its uses from China. A Syrian named Hasan al-Rammah wrote of rockets, fireworks, and other incendiaries, using terms that suggested he derived his knowledge from Chinese sources, such as his references to fireworks as "Chinese flowers".[5][13]
In regards to colored fireworks, this was derived and developed from earlier (possibly Han dynasty or soon thereafter) Chinese application of chemical substances to create colored smoke and fire.[14] Such application appears in the Huolongjing (14th century) and Wubeizhi (preface of 1621, printed 1628), which describes recipes, several of which used low-nitrate gunpowder, to create military signal smokes with various colors.[14] In the Wubei Huolongjing (武備火龍經; Ming, completed after 1628), two formulas appears for firework-like signals, the sanzhangju (三丈菊) and baizhanglian (百丈蓮), that produces silver sparkles in the smoke.[14] In the Huoxilüe (火戲略; 1753) by Zhao Xuemin (趙學敏), there are several recipes with low-nitrate gunpowder and other chemical substances to tint flames and smoke.[14] These included, for instance, arsenical sulphide for yellow, copper acetate (verdigris) for green, lead carbonate for lilac-white, and mercurous chloride (calomel) for white.[14] The Chinese pyrotechnics were described by the French author Antoine Caillot (1818): "It is certain that the variety of colours which the Chinese have the secret of giving to flame is the greatest mystery of their fireworks." or the English geographer Sir John Barrow (ca. 1797) who wrote "The diversity of colours indeed with which the Chinese have the secret of cloathing fire seems to be the chief merit of their pyrotechny."[14]
Fireworks were produced in Europe by the 14th century, becoming popular by the 17th century.[15][1][16] Lev Izmailov, ambassador of Peter the Great, once reported from China: "They make such fireworks that no one in Europe has ever seen."[16] In 1758, the Jesuit missionary Pierre Nicolas le Chéron d'Incarville, living in Beijing, wrote about the methods and composition on how to make many types of Chinese fireworks to the Paris Academy of Sciences, which revealed and published the account five years later.[17] Amédée-François Frézier published his revised work Traité des feux d'artice pour le spectacle (Treatise on Fireworks) in 1747 (originally 1706),[18] covering the recreational and ceremonial uses of fireworks, rather than their military uses. Music for the Royal Fireworks was composed by George Frideric Handel in 1749 to celebrate the Peace treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which had been declared the previous year.
"Prior to the nineteenth century and the advent of modern chemistry they [fireworks] must have been relatively dull and unexciting."[15] Bertholet in 1786 discovered that oxidations with potassium chlorate resulted in a violet emission. Subsequent developments revealed that oxidations with the chlorates of barium, strontium, copper, and sodium result in intense emission of bright colors. The isolation of metallic magnesium and aluminium marked another breakthrough as these metals burn with an intense silvery light.[15] Modern colored fireworks were invented in Europe in the 1830s.[1] Modern skyrocket fireworks have been made since the early 20th century.
Improper use of fireworks may be dangerous, both to the person operating them (risks of burns and wounds) and to bystanders; in addition, they may start fires after landing on flammable material. For this reason, the use of fireworks is generally legally restricted.[where?] Display fireworks are restricted by law[where?] for use by professionals; consumer items, available to the public, are smaller versions containing limited amounts of explosive material to reduce potential danger.
Fireworks are also a problem for animals, both domestic and wild, which can be frightened by their noise, leading to them running away, often into danger, or hurting themselves on fences or in other ways in an attempt to escape.[19][20][21]
Main article: Fireworks competitions
Pyrotechnical competitions involving fireworks are held in many countries. The most prestigious fireworks competition is the Montreal Fireworks Festival, an annual competition held in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Another magnificent competition is Le Festival d'Art Pyrotechnique held in the summer annually at the Bay of Cannes in Côte d'Azur, France. The World Pyro Olympics is an annual competition amongst the top fireworks companies in the world. It is held in Manila, Philippines. The event is one of the largest and most intense international fireworks competitions.
Enthusiasts in the United States have formed clubs which unite hobbyists and professionals. The groups provide safety instruction and organize meetings and private "shoots" at remote premises where members shoot commercial fireworks as well as fire pieces of their own manufacture. Clubs secure permission to fire items otherwise banned by state or local ordinances. Competition among members and between clubs, demonstrating everything from single shells to elaborate displays choreographed to music, are held. One of the oldest clubs is Crackerjacks, Inc.,[22] organized in 1976 in the Eastern Seaboard region of the U.S.
PGI annual convention
The Pyrotechnics Guild International, Inc. or PGI,[23] founded in 1969, is an independent worldwide nonprofit organization of amateur and professional fireworks enthusiasts. It is notable for its large number of members, around 3,500 in total. The PGI exists solely to further the safe usage and enjoyment of both professional grade and consumer grade fireworks while both advancing the art and craft of pyrotechnics and preserving its historical aspects. Each August the PGI conducts its annual week-long convention, where some the world's biggest and best fireworks displays occur. Vendors, competitors, and club members come from around the US and from various parts of the globe to enjoy the show and to help out at this all-volunteer event. Aside from the nightly firework shows, the competition is a highlight of the convention. This is a completely unique event where individual classes of hand-built fireworks are competitively judged, ranging from simple fireworks rockets to extremely large and complex aerial shells. Some of the biggest, best, most intricate fireworks displays in the United States take place during the convention week.
Amateur and professional members can come to the convention to purchase fireworks, paper goods, novelty items, non-explosive chemical components and much more at the PGI trade show. Before the nightly fireworks displays and competitions, club members have a chance to enjoy open shooting of any and all legal consumer or professional grade fireworks, as well as testing and display of hand-built fireworks. The week ends with the Grand Public Display on Friday night, which gives the chosen display company a chance to strut their stuff in front of some of the world's biggest fireworks aficionados. The stakes are high and much planning is put into the show. In 1994 a shell of 36 inches (914 mm) in diameter was fired during the convention, more than twice as large as the largest shell usually seen in the US, and shells as large as 24 inches (610 mm) are frequently fired.
Both fireworks and firecrackers are a popular tradition during Halloween in Vancouver, although apparently this is not the custom elsewhere in Canada.[citation needed]
In the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland there are many fireworks displays, during the Halloween season. The largest are in the cities of Belfast, Derry, and Dublin. The 2010 Derry Halloween fireworks attracted an audience of over 20,000 people.[24] The sale of fireworks is strongly restricted in the Republic of Ireland, though many illegal fireworks are sold throughout October or smuggled from Northern Ireland. In the Republic the maximum punishment for possessing fireworks without a licence, or lighting fireworks in a public place, is a €10,000 fine and a five-year prison sentence.[25]
Two firework displays on All Hallows' Eve in the United States are the annual "Happy Hallowishes" show at Walt Disney World's Magic Kingdom "Mickey's Not-So-Scary Halloween Party" event, which began in 2005, and the "Halloween Screams" at Disneyland Park, which began in 2009.
Fireworks celebrations throughout the world
In Australia, fireworks displays are used in the public celebration of major events such as New Year's Eve.
A firework display by the British illustrator Ebenezer Landells. Possibly the display given by Napoleon III on Queen Victoria's 1855 visit to Paris.
In France, fireworks are traditionally displayed on the eve of Bastille day (14 July) to commemorate the French revolution and the storming of the Bastille on that same day in 1789. Every city in France lights up the sky for the occasion with a special mention to Paris that offers a spectacle around the Eiffel Tower.
Fireworks at the Danube
In Hungary fireworks are used on 20 August, which is a national celebration day [26]
See also: Chocolate bomb
Indians throughout the world celebrate with fireworks as part of their popular "festival of lights" (Diwali) in Oct-Nov every year.
Video: Extra Large Wide Starmine at the Nagaoka Festival Fireworks 2015, Japan
During the summer in Japan, fireworks festivals (花火大会, hanabi taikai) are held nearly every day someplace in the country, in total numbering more than 200 during August. The festivals consist of large fireworks shows, the largest of which use between 100,000 and 120,000 rounds (Tondabayashi, Osaka), and can attract more than 800,000 spectators. Street vendors set up stalls to sell various drinks and staple Japanese food (such as Yakisoba, Okonomiyaki, Takoyaki, Kakigōri (shaved ice), and traditionally held festival games, such as Kingyo-sukui, or Goldfish scooping.
Even today, men and women attend these events wearing the traditional Yukata, summer Kimono, or Jinbei (men only), collecting in large social circles of family or friends to sit picnic-like, eating and drinking, while watching the show.
The first fireworks festival in Japan was held in 1733.[27]
Sumidagawa Fireworks Festival is one of the many being celebrated annually throughout Japan in summer.
Fireworks at a Maltese festival in 2014
Fireworks have been used in Malta for hundreds of years. When the islands were ruled by the Order of St John, fireworks were used on special occasions such as the election of a new Grand Master, the appointment of a new Pope or the birth of a prince.[28]
Nowadays, fireworks are used in village feasts throughout the summer. The Malta International Fireworks Festival is also held annually.[29]
Monte-Carlo International Fireworks Festival
Pyrotechnics experts from around the world have competed in Monte Carlo, Monaco since 1966. The festival runs from July to August every year, and the winner returns in 18 November for the fireworks display on the night before the National Day of Monaco.[30] The event is held in Port Hercule, beginning at around 9:30pm every night, depending on the sunset.[31]
Singapore Fireworks Festival 2006, 8 August 2006
Main article: Singapore Fireworks Celebrations
The Singapore Fireworks Celebrations (previously the Singapore Fireworks Festival) is an annual event held in Singapore as part of its National Day celebrations. The festival features local and foreign teams which launch displays on different nights. While currently non-competitive in nature, the organizer has plans to introduce a competitive element in the future.
The annual festival has grown in magnitude, from 4,000 rounds used in 2004, to 6,000 in 2005, to over 9,100 in 2006.[citation needed]
See also: Busan International Fireworks Festival and Seoul International Fireworks Festival
Busan International Fireworks Festival is one of the most significant fireworks festivals in Asia.
In Switzerland fireworks are often used on 1 August, which is a national celebration day.[32]
One of the biggest occasions for fireworks in the UK is Guy Fawkes Night held each year on 5 November, to celebrate the foiling of the Catholic Gunpowder Plot on 5 November 1605, an attempt to kill King James I. The Guardian newspaper said in 2008 that Britain's biggest Guy Fawkes night events were:[33]
After Dark fireworks, Sheffield homepage
Bangers on the Beach (Holyhead Round Table charity fireworks), Holyhead homepage
Battel Bonfire in Battle, East Sussex homepage
Blackheath Fireworks, London homepage[permanent dead link]
Bught Park fireworks, Inverness homepage
Fireworks with Vikings, Tutbury, Staffordshire homepage
Flaming Tar Barrels, Ottery St Mary homepage
Glasgow Green fireworks homepage
Halloween Happening fireworks, Derry homepage[permanent dead link]
Midsummer Common, Cambridge homepage
Sparks in the Park (Cardiff Round Table charity fireworks), Cardiff homepage
The main firework celebrations in the UK are by the public who buy from many suppliers.
A long-exposure shot of the finale of the second act of IllumiNations: Reflections of Earth, the former nightly fireworks show at Epcot in Walt Disney World
America's earliest settlers brought their enthusiasm for fireworks to the United States. Fireworks and black ash were used to celebrate important events long before the American Revolutionary War.[citation needed] The very first celebration of Independence Day was in 1777, six years before Americans knew whether or not the new nation would survive the war; fireworks were a part of all festivities.[citation needed] In 1789, George Washington's inauguration was accompanied by a fireworks display.[citation needed] This early fascination with fireworks' noise and color continues today with fireworks displays commonly included in Independence Day celebrations.
In 2004, Disneyland, in Anaheim, California, pioneered the commercial use of aerial fireworks launched with compressed air rather than gunpowder. The display shell explodes in the air using an electronic timer. The advantages of compressed air launch are a reduction in fumes, and much greater accuracy in height and timing.[34] The Walt Disney Company is now the largest consumer of fireworks in the world.[35]
Uses other than public displays
Main article: Consumer fireworks
In addition to large public displays, people often buy small amounts of fireworks for their own celebrations. Fireworks on general sale are usually less powerful than professional fireworks. Types include firecrackers, rockets, cakes (multishot aerial fireworks) and smoke balls.
Fireworks can also be used in an agricultural capacity as bird scarers.
Pyrotechnic compounds
Copper compounds glow green or blue-green in a flame.
Main article: Pyrotechnic composition
Colors in fireworks are usually generated by pyrotechnic stars—usually just called stars—which produce intense light when ignited. Stars contain five basic types of ingredients.
An oxidizer—a compound that combines with the fuel to produce intense heat
Color-producing salts (when the fuel itself is not the colorant)
A binder which holds the pellet together.
Some of the more common color-producing compounds are tabulated here. The color of a compound in a firework will be the same as its color in a flame test (shown at right). Not all compounds that produce a colored flame are appropriate for coloring fireworks, however. Ideal colorants will produce a pure, intense color when present in moderate concentration.
The color of sparks is limited to red/orange, yellow/gold and white/silver. This is explained by light emission from an incandescent solid particle in contrast to the element-specific emission from the vapor phase of a flame.[36] Light emitted from a solid particle is defined by black-body radiation. Low boiling metals can form sparks with an intensively colored glowing shell surrounding the basic particle.[37] This is caused by vapor phase combustion of the metal.
Example compounds
Red Strontium (intense red)
Lithium (medium red)
SrCO3 (strontium carbonate)
Li2CO3 (lithium carbonate) LiCl (lithium chloride)
Orange Calcium CaCl2 (calcium chloride)
Yellow Sodium NaNO3 (sodium nitrate)
Green Barium BaCl2 (barium chloride)
Blue Copper halides CuCl2 (copper chloride), at low temperature
Indigo Caesium CsNO3 (caesium nitrate)
Violet Potassium
Rubidium (violet-red)
KNO3 (potassium nitrate)
RbNO3 (rubidium nitrate)
Gold Charcoal, iron, or lampblack
White Titanium, aluminium, beryllium, or magnesium powders
The brightest stars, often called Mag Stars, are fueled by aluminium. Magnesium is rarely used in the fireworks industry due to its lack of ability to form a protective oxide layer. Often an alloy of both metals called magnalium is used.
Many of the chemicals used in the manufacture of fireworks are non-toxic, while many more have some degree of toxicity, can cause skin sensitivity, or exist in dust form and are thereby inhalation hazards. Still others are poisons if directly ingested or inhaled.
Common elements in pyrotechnics
The following table lists the principal elements used in modern pyrotechnics. Some elements are used in their elemental form such as particles of titanium, aluminium, iron, zirconium, and magnesium. These elements burn in the presence of air (O2) or oxidants (perchlorate, chlorate). Most elements in pyrotechnics are in the form of salts.[15]
Fireworks Usage
Al Aluminium Aluminium metal is used to produce silver and white flames and sparks. It is a common component of sparklers.
Ba Barium Barium salts are used to create green colors in fireworks, and it can also help stabilize other volatile elements.
C Carbon Carbon is one of the main components of black powder, which is used as a propellent in fireworks. Carbon provides the fuel for a firework. Common forms include carbon black, sugar, or starch.
Cl Chlorine Chlorate and perchlorates are common oxidizers.
Cu Copper Copper compounds produce blue colors.
Fe Iron Iron powder is used to produce sparks in sparklers.
K Potassium Potassium nitrate, potassium chlorate, and potassium perchlorate are common oxidizers. The potassium content impart a faint violet color to the sparks.
Mg Magnesium Magnesium metal burns a very bright white, so it is used to add white sparks or improve the overall brilliance of a firework.
Na Sodium Sodium imparts a gold or yellow color to fireworks, however, the color is often so bright that it frequently masks other, less intense colors. Sodium lamps operate with the same optical emission.
O Oxygen Oxygen is a component of chlorate and perchlorate, common oxidizers.
S Sulfur Sulfur is a component of black powder, and as such, it is found in a propellant/fuel.
Sr Strontium Strontium salts impart a red color.
Ti Titanium Titanium metal can be burned as powder or flakes to produce silver sparks.
Zr Zirconium Zirconium, like titanium, burns to produce oxides that emit brightly. It is used in "waterfalls".
Types of effects
Main article: Cake (firework)
A cake is a cluster of individual tubes linked by fuse that fires a series of aerial effects. Tube diameters can range in size from 1⁄4–4 inches (6.4–101.6 mm), and a single cake can have over 1,000 shots. The variety of effects within individual cakes is often such that they defy descriptive titles and are instead given cryptic names such as "Bermuda Triangle", "Pyro Glyphics", "Waco Wakeup", and "Poisonous Spider", to name a few. Others are simply quantities of 2.5–4 in (64–102 mm) shells fused together in single-shot tubes.
A shell containing several large stars that travel a short distance before breaking apart into smaller stars, creating a crisscrossing grid-like effect. Strictly speaking, a crossette star should split into 4 pieces which fly off symmetrically, making a cross. Once limited to silver or gold effects, colored crossettes such as red, green, or white are now very common.
A spherical break of colored stars, similar to a peony, but with stars that leave a visible trail of sparks.
Essentially the same as a peony shell, but with fewer and larger stars. These stars travel a longer-than-usual distance from the shell break before burning out. For instance, if a 3 in (76 mm) peony shell is made with a star size designed for a 6 in (152 mm) shell, it is then considered a dahlia. Some dahlia shells are cylindrical rather than spherical to allow for larger stars.
A type of Chrysanthemum or Peony, with a center cluster of non-moving stars, normally of a contrasting color or effect.
Inserts that propel themselves rapidly away from the shell burst, often resembling fish swimming away.
Named for the shape of its break, this shell features heavy long-burning tailed stars that only travel a short distance from the shell burst before free-falling to the ground. Also known as a waterfall shell. Sometimes there is a glittering through the "waterfall".
Kamuro
A typical kamuro effect
Kamuro is a Japanese word meaning "boys haircut", which is what this shell resembles when fully exploded in the air. It is a dense burst of glittering silver or gold stars which leave a heavy glitter trail and shine bright in the night's sky.
A mine (a.k.a. pot à feu) is a ground firework that expels stars and/or other garnitures into the sky. Shot from a mortar like a shell, a mine consists of a canister with the lift charge on the bottom with the effects placed on top. Mines can project small reports, serpents, small shells, as well as just stars. Although mines up to 12 inches (305 mm) diameter appear on occasion, they are usually between 3–5 inches (76–127 mm), in diameter.
Multi-break shells
A large shell containing several smaller shells of various sizes and types. The initial burst scatters the shells across the sky before they explode. Also called a bouquet shell. When a shell contains smaller shells of the same size and type, the effect is usually referred to as "Thousands". Very large bouquet shells (up to 48 inches [1,219 mm]) are frequently used in Japan.
Noise-related effects
The bang is the most common effect in fireworks and sounds like a gunshot; technically a "report".
The firework produces a crackling sound.
Tiny tube fireworks that are ejected into the air spinning with such force that they shred their outer coating, in doing so they whizz and hum.
High pitched often very loud screaming and screeching created by the resonance of gas. This is caused by a very fast strobing (on/off burning stage) of the fuel. The rapid bursts of gas from the fuel vibrate the air many hundreds of times per second causing the familiar whistling sound. It is not, as is commonly thought, made in the conventional way that musical instruments are using specific tube shapes or apertures. Common whistle fuels contain benzoate or salicylate compounds and a suitable oxidizer such as potassium perchlorate.
A collection of palm-shell fireworks illuminating the beach of Tybee Island, Georgia
A shell containing a relatively few large comet stars arranged in such a way as to burst with large arms or tendrils, producing a palm tree-like effect. Proper palm shells feature a thick rising tail that displays as the shell ascends, thereby simulating the tree trunk to further enhance the "palm tree" effect. One might also see a burst of color inside the palm burst (given by a small insert shell) to simulate coconuts.
A spherical break of colored stars that burn without a tail effect. The peony is the most commonly seen shell type.
A shell with stars specially arranged so as to create a ring. Variations include smiley faces, hearts, and clovers.
Main article: Roman candle (firework)
A Roman candle is a long tube containing several large stars which fire at a regular interval. These are commonly arranged in fan shapes or crisscrossing shapes, at a closer proximity to the audience. Some larger Roman candles contain small shells (bombettes) rather than stars.
Main article: Salute (pyrotechnics)
A shell intended to produce a loud report rather than a visual effect. Salute shells usually contain flash powder, producing a quick flash followed by a very loud report. Titanium may be added to the flash powder mix to produce a cloud of bright sparks around the flash. Salutes are commonly used in large quantities during finales to create intense noise and brightness. They are often cylindrical in shape to allow for a larger payload of flash powder, but ball shapes are common and cheaper as well. Salutes are also called Maroons.
A typical spider effect
A shell containing a fast burning tailed or charcoal star that is burst very hard so that the stars travel in a straight and flat trajectory before slightly falling and burning out. This appears in the sky as a series of radial lines much like the legs of a spider.
Time Rain
An effect created by large, slow-burning stars within a shell that leave a trail of large glittering sparks behind and make a sizzling noise. The "time" refers to the fact that these stars burn away gradually, as opposed to the standard brocade "rain" effect where a large amount of glitter material is released at once.
Similar to a chrysanthemum, but with long-burning silver or gold stars that produce a soft, dome-shaped weeping willow-like effect.
Hazards and regulation
A firework rocket preparing its launch on the American Independence Day.
Fireworks pose risks of injury to people, and of damage, largely as a fire hazard.
Fireworks produce smoke and dust that may contain residues of heavy metals, sulfur-coal compounds and some low concentration toxic chemicals. These by-products of fireworks combustion will vary depending on the mix of ingredients of a particular firework. (The color green, for instance, may be produced by adding the various compounds and salts of barium, some of which are toxic, and some of which are not.) Some fishers have noticed and reported to environmental authorities that firework residues can hurt fish and other water-life because some may contain toxic compounds such as antimony sulfide.[citation needed] This is a subject of much debate due to the fact that large-scale pollution from other sources makes it difficult to measure the amount of pollution that comes specifically from fireworks. The possible toxicity of any fallout may also be affected by the amount of black powder used, type of oxidizer, colors produced and launch method.
Perchlorate salts, when in solid form, dissolve and move rapidly in groundwater and surface water. Even in low concentrations in drinking water supplies, perchlorate ions are known to inhibit the uptake of iodine by the thyroid gland. As of 2010, there are no federal drinking water standards for perchlorates in the United States, but the US Environmental Protection Agency has studied the impacts of perchlorates on the environment as well as drinking water.[38]
Several US states have enacted drinking water standard for perchlorates, including Massachusetts in 2006. California's legislature enacted AB 826, the Perchlorate Contamination Prevention Act of 2003, requiring California's Department of Toxic Substance Control (DTSC) to adopt regulations specifying best management practices for perchlorate-containing substances. The Perchlorate Best Management Practices were adopted on 31 December 2005 and became operative on 1 July 2006.[39] California issued drinking water standards in 2007. Several other states, including Arizona, Maryland, Nevada, New Mexico, New York, and Texas have established non-enforceable, advisory levels for perchlorates.
The courts have also taken action with regard to perchlorate contamination. For example, in 2003, a federal district court in California found that Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) applied because perchlorate is ignitable and therefore a "characteristic" hazardous waste.[40]
Pollutants from fireworks raise concerns because of potential health risks associated with hazardous by-products. For most people the effects of exposure to low levels of toxins from many sources over long periods are unknown. For persons with asthma or multiple chemical sensitivity the smoke from fireworks may aggravate existing health problems.[41] Environmental pollution is also a concern because heavy metals and other chemicals from fireworks may contaminate water supplies and because fireworks combustion gases might contribute to such things as acid rain which can cause vegetation and even property damage.[citation needed] However, gunpowder smoke and the solid residues are basic, and as such the net effect of fireworks on acid rain is debatable.[citation needed] The carbon used in fireworks is produced from wood and does not lead to more carbon dioxide in the air.[citation needed] What is not disputed is that most consumer fireworks leave behind a considerable amount of solid debris, including both readily biodegradable components as well as nondegradable plastic items. Concerns over pollution, consumer safety, and debris have restricted the sale and use of consumer fireworks in many countries. Professional displays, on the other hand, remain popular around the world.
Others argue that alleged concern over pollution from fireworks constitutes a red herring, since the amount of contamination from fireworks is minuscule in comparison to emissions from sources such as the burning of fossil fuels. In the US, some states and local governments restrict the use of fireworks in accordance with the Clean Air Act which allows laws relating to the prevention and control of outdoor air pollution to be enacted. Few governmental entities, by contrast, effectively limit pollution from burning fossil fuels such as diesel fuel or coal. Coal-fueled electricity generation alone is a much greater source of heavy metal contamination in the environment than fireworks.
Some companies within the U.S. fireworks industry claim they are working with Chinese manufacturers to reduce and ultimately hope to eliminate of the pollutant perchlorate.[42]
Government regulations around the world
Fireworks are illegal in most Australian states and territories, unless part of a display by a licensed pyrotechnician and with a permit.[43][44] However Tasmania, ACT and Northern Territory allow consumer use with a permit (dependent on calendar date and circumstances).[45] On 1 July for Territory Day you can freely use fireworks without a permit in the Northern Territory.[46]
Small novelties such as party poppers and sparklers are legal for consumers across Australia.
On 24 August 2009, the ACT Government announced a complete ban on backyard fireworks.[47]
Canada Day 2016 firework show.
The use, storage and sale of commercial-grade fireworks in Canada is licensed by Natural Resources Canada's Explosive Regulatory Division (ERD). Unlike their consumer counterpart, commercial-grade fireworks function differently, and come in a wide range of sizes from 50 mm (2 inches) up to 300 mm (11 13⁄16 inches) or more in diameter. Commercial grade fireworks require a Fireworks Operator Certificate (FOC), obtained from the ERD by completing a one-day safety course. There are two categories of FOC: one for pyrotechnics (those used on stage and in movies) and another for display fireworks (those used in dedicated fireworks shows). Each requires completion of its own course, though there are special categories of FOC which allow visiting operators to run their shows with the assistance of a Canadian supervisor.
The display fireworks FOC has 2 levels: assistant (which allows you to work under a qualified supervisor until you are familiar with the basics), and fully licensed. A fully licensed display fireworks operator can also be further endorsed for marine launch, flying saucers, and other more technically demanding fireworks displays.
The pyrotechnician FOC has 3 levels: pyrotechnician (which allows work under a supervisor), supervising pyrotechnician, and special effects pyrotechnician (which allows the fabrication of certain types of pyrotechnic devices). Additionally, a special effects pyrotechnician can be endorsed for the use of detonating cord.
Since commercial-grade fireworks are shells which are loaded into separate mortars by hand, there is danger in every stage of the setup.[48] Setup of these fireworks involves the placement and securing of mortars on wooden or wire racks; loading of the shells; and if electronically firing, wiring and testing. The mortars are generally made of FRE (fiber-reinforced epoxy) or HDPE(high-density polyethylene). Older mortars made of sheet steel have been banned by most countries due to the problem of shrapnel produced during a misfire.
Setup of mortars in Canada for an oblong firing site require that a mortar be configured at an angle of 10 to 15 degrees down-range with a safety distance of at least 200 meters (660 ft) down-range and 100 meters (330 ft) surrounding the mortars, plus distance adjustments for wind speed and direction. In June 2007, the ERD approved circular firing sites for use with vertically fired mortars with a safety distance of at least 175-meter (574 ft) radius, plus distance adjustments for wind speed and direction.[49]
Loading of shells is a delicate process, and must be done with caution, and a loader must ensure not only the mortar is clean, but also make sure that no part of their body is directly over the mortar in case of a premature fire. Wiring the shells is a painstaking process; whether the shells are being fired manually or electronically, any "chain fusing" or wiring of electrical ignitors, care must be taken to prevent the fuse (an electrical match, often incorrectly called a squib) from igniting. If the setup is wired electrically, the electrical matches are usually plugged into a "firing rail" or "breakout box" which runs back to the main firing board; from there, the Firing Board is simply hooked up to a car battery, and can proceed with firing the show when ready.
Since commercial-grade fireworks are so much larger and more powerful, setup and firing crews are always under great pressure to ensure they safely set up, fire, and clean up after a show.
In Chile, the manufacture, importation, possession and use of fireworks is prohibited to unauthorized individuals; only certified firework companies can legally use fireworks. As they are considered a type of explosive, offenders can in principle be tried before military courts, though this is unusual in practice.
Fireworks at Eurockéennes 2013 in Belfort, France, Europe.
Main article: Fireworks policy in the European Union
The European Union's policy is aimed at harmonising and standardising the EU member states' policies on the regulation of production, transportation, sale, consumption and overall safety of fireworks across Europe.[50]
Main article: Fireworks policy in Belgium
In Belgium, each municipality can decide how to regulate fireworks. During New Year's Eve, lighting fireworks without a licence is allowed in 35% of the 308 Flemish municipalities, in around 50% a permit from the burgemeester (mayor) is required, and around 14% of municipalities have banned consumer fireworks altogether.[51]
In Finland those under 18 years old haven't been allowed to buy any fireworks since 2009. Safety goggles are required. The use of fireworks is generally allowed on the evening and night of New Year's Eve, 31 December. In some municipalities of Western Finland it is allowed to use fireworks without a fire station's permission on the last weekend of August. With the fire station's permission, fireworks can be used year-round.[citation needed]
In Germany, amateurs over 18 years old are allowed to buy and ignite fireworks of Category F2 for several hours on 31 December and 1 January; each German municipality is authorised to limit the number of hours this may last locally.[52] The sale of Category F3 and F4 fireworks to consumers is prohibited.[51] Lighting fireworks is forbidden near churches, hospitals, retirement homes and wooden or thatch-roofed buildings.[51] All major German cities organise professional fireworks shows.[51]
2017 Dutch Safety Board report on fireworks risks (English subtitles).
Main article: Fireworks policy in the Netherlands
In the Netherlands, fireworks cannot be sold to anyone under the age of 16. It may only be sold during a period of three days before a new year. If one of these days is a Sunday, that day is excluded from sale and sale may commence one day earlier.[53]
Main article: Fireworks policy in the Republic of Ireland
In the Republic of Ireland, fireworks are illegal and possession is punishable by huge fines and/or prison. However, around Halloween a large amount of fireworks are set off, due to the ease of being able to purchase from Northern Ireland.
In Sweden, fireworks can only be purchased and used by people 18 or older. Fire crackers used to be banned, but are now allowed under European Union fireworks policy.
Firework display at the Jodrell Bank Observatory 2013.
Main article: Fireworks law in the United Kingdom
Fireworks in the UK have become more strictly regulated since 1997. Since 2005, the law has been gradually harmonised in accordance with other EU member states' laws.
Fireworks are mostly used in England, Scotland and Wales around Diwali, in late October or early November, and Guy Fawkes Night, 5 November. In the UK, responsibility for the safety of firework displays is shared between the Health and Safety Executive, fire brigades and local authorities. Currently, there is no national system of licensing for fireworks operators, but in order to purchase display fireworks, operators must have licensed explosives storage and public liability insurance.
Fireworks cannot be sold to people under the age of 18 and are not permitted to be set off between 11pm and 7am with exceptions only for:
Bonfire Night (5 November) (permitted until midnight)[54]
The Chinese New Year (permitted until 1am)[54]
Diwali (permitted until 1am)[54]
New Year (permitted until midnight New Year's Eve, and continuing to be permitted until 1am)[54]
The maximum legal NEC (net explosive content) of a UK firework available to the public is two kilograms. Jumping jacks, strings of firecrackers, shell firing tubes, bangers and mini-rockets were all banned during the late 1990s. In 2004, single-shot air bombs and bottle rockets were banned, and rocket sizes were limited. From March 2008 any firework with over 5% flashpowder per tube has been classified 1.3G.[clarification needed] The aim of these measures was to eliminate "pocket money" fireworks, and to limit the disruptive effects of loud bangs.[citation needed]
In Iceland, the Icelandic law states that anyone may purchase and use fireworks during a certain period around New Year's Eve. Most places that sell fireworks in Iceland make their own rules about age of buyers, usually it is around 16. The people of Reykjavík spend enormous sums of money on fireworks, most of which are fired as midnight approaches on 31 December. As a result, every New Year's Eve the city is lit up with fireworks displays.
Fireworks in New Zealand are available from 2 to 5 November, around Guy Fawkes Day, and may be purchased only by those 18 years of age and older (up from 14 years pre-2007). Despite the restriction on when fireworks may be sold, there is no restriction regarding when fireworks may be used. The types of fireworks available to the public are multi-shot "cakes", Roman candles, single shot shooters, ground and wall spinners, fountains, cones, sparklers, and various novelties, such as smoke bombs and Pharaoh's serpents. Consumer fireworks are also not allowed to be louder than 90 decibels.[55]
In Norway, fireworks can only be purchased and used by people 18 or older. Sale is restricted to a few days before New Year's Eve. Rockets are not allowed.[56]
Main article: Fireworks policy in the United States
In the United States, the laws governing fireworks vary widely from state to state, or from county to county. Federal, state, and local authorities govern the use of display fireworks in the United States. At the federal level, the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) regulates consumer fireworks through the Federal Hazardous Substances Act (FHSA). The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) sets forth a set of codes which give the minimum standards of display fireworks use and safety in the US. Both state and local jurisdictions can further add restrictions on the use and safety requirements of display fireworks. There are currently 46 states in the United States in which fireworks are legal for consumer use.[57]
Independence Day fireworks in San Diego, California
^ a b c "The Evolution of Fireworks", Smithsonian Science Education Center. ssec.si.edu.
^ Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 5: Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7: Military Technology: The Gunpowder Epic. Cambridge University Press. p. 140. ISBN 0-521-30358-3.
^ Gernet, Jacques (1962). Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250–1276. Translated by H.M. Wright. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Page 186. ISBN 0-8047-0720-0.
^ a b Temple, Robert K.G. (2007). The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention (3rd edition). London: André Deutsch, pp. 256–66. ISBN 978-0-233-00202-6
^ Hutchins, Paul (2009). The secret doorway: Beyond imagination. Imagination Publishing. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-9817123-3-8.
^ a b c d Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 5: Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7: Military Technology: The Gunpowder Epic. Cambridge University Press. p. 128–31. ISBN 0-521-30358-3.
^ a b Yuan, Haiwang (2008). "Chinese Fireworks". DLPS Faculty Publications.
^ Gernet, Jacques (1962). Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250–1276. Translated by H.M. Wright. Stanford: Stanford University Press, pp. 186. ISBN 0-8047-0720-0.
^ Kelly, Jack (2004). Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, and Pyrotechnics: The History of the Explosive that Changed the World. New York: Basic Books, Perseus Books Group, page 2.
^ Crosby, Alfred W. (2002), Throwing Fire: Projectile Technology Through History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-79158-8. pp. 100–03.
^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 489–503.
^ Kelly, Jack (2004). Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, & Pyrotechnics: The History of the Explosive that Changed the World. Basic Books, page 22. ISBN 0-465-03718-6.
^ a b c d e f Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 5: Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7: Military Technology: The Gunpowder Epic. Cambridge University Press. pp. 144–46. ISBN 0-521-30358-3.
^ a b c d T. T. Griffiths, U. Krone, R. Lancaster (2017). "Pyrotechnics". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a22_437.pub2. CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ a b Werrett, Simon (2010). Fireworks: Pyrotechnic arts and sciences in European history. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-226-89377-8.
^ Werrett, Simon (2010). Fireworks: Pyrotechnic arts and sciences in European history. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-226-89377-8.
^ Werrett, Simon (2010). Fireworks: Pyrotechnic arts and sciences in European history. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. pp. 144–45. ISBN 978-0-226-89377-8.
^ "Fireworks Frighten Animals". Animal Aid. 26 October 2007. Archived from the original on 17 September 2010. Retrieved 24 June 2010.
^ "Fireworks Thunder and Pets – Safety considerations for noise phobias". Vetmedicine.about.com. Archived from the original on 30 August 2009. Retrieved 24 June 2010.
^ "How should I care for my pets during fireworks displays?". Kb.rspca.org.au. 17 August 2009. Archived from the original on 13 November 2009. Retrieved 24 June 2010.
^ "CrackerJacks". Archived from the original on 23 May 2016. Retrieved 3 May 2016.
^ "PGI (Pyrotechnics Guild International)". Archived from the original on 17 May 2016. Retrieved 3 May 2016.
^ "Banks of the Foyle Halloween Carnival". Derry City. 2010. Archived from the original on 21 July 2006. Retrieved 5 September 2006.
^ Barry, Aoife (27 October 2013). "Warning over fireworks danger – and €10,000 fine for using them illegally". The Journal. Retrieved 8 February 2018.
^ 20. August-St. Stephen's Day https://www.budapestbylocals.com/event/august-20th/ Archived 13 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine 20170823
^ "Summer: the season of 'fire flowers'". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on 25 July 2010. Retrieved 3 May 2016.
^ "The History of Fireworks in Malta". uniqueholidaymalta.com. Archived from the original on 8 February 2015. Retrieved 8 February 2015.
^ "Festas in Malta & Gozo". malta.com. Archived from the original on 14 February 2015. Retrieved 8 February 2015.
^ "Monaco – July/August: Monte-Carlo International Fireworks Festival". www.visitmonaco.com. Archived from the original on 15 July 2011. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
^ "Monaco's International Fireworks Festival is back this July and August". Retrieved 9 November 2015.
^ "Take care around fireworks, Swiss told". The Local.ch. 26 July 2016. Retrieved 5 July 2017.
^ Wills, Dixe (30 October 2008). "10 best bonfire night celebrations in the UK". The Guardian. Retrieved 3 May 2016.
^ Walt Disney Company (28 June 2004). "Disney debuts new safer, quieter and more environmentally-friendly fireworks technology". Press Release. Archived from the original on 26 November 2004.
^ Cindy Robinson; Jon Jefferson; Les Wooten (2006). Modern Marvels - Walt Disney World (History Channel) (DVD). New York: A&E Television Networks. Event occurs at 44 minutes. ASIN B000CS461O. ISBN 9780767087896. OCLC 64282449.
^ Kenneth L. Kosanke; Bonnie J. Kosanke (1999), "Pyrotechnic Spark Generation", Journal of Pyrotechnics: 49–62, ISBN 978-1-889526-12-6
^ Lederle, Felix; Koch, Jannis; Hübner, Eike G. (21 February 2019). "Colored Sparks". European Journal of Inorganic Chemistry. 2019 (7): 928–37. doi:10.1002/ejic.201801300.
^ "Perchlorate | Drinking Water Contaminants | Safewater | Water | US EPA". Epa.gov. Archived from the original on 1 December 2006. Retrieved 24 June 2010.
^ "Perchlorate". Dtsc.ca.gov. Archived from the original on 23 August 2009. Retrieved 24 June 2010.
^ Castaic Lake Water Agency v. Whittaker, 272 F. Supp. 2d 1053, 1059-61 (C.D. Cal. 2003)
^ New Scientist – Great fireworks, shame about the toxic fallout
^ Knee, Karen. Philadelphia Inquirer. 4 Jul 2009. Pa. company works to make fireworks greener
^ "Fireworks". SafeWork NSW. 17 August 2018. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
^ "Fireworks & SFX licences". SafeWork SA. 30 June 2020. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
^ "Fireworks licences and permits". ACT Government. 29 June 2020. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
^ "Disposal of shopgoods fireworks". NT WorkSafe. 13 October 2020. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
^ "Cracker down: ACT bans fireworks". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 24 August 2009. Retrieved 24 August 2009.
^ Natural Resources Canada, Explosive Regulatory Division. Display Fireworks Manual (March 2002 Edition)
^ Natural Resources Canada Explosive Branch Bulletin #48
^ Eliza Bergman & Dirk Bayens (2 January 2014). "Wereldkampioen vuurwerk". Brandpunt Reporter (in Dutch). KRO-NCRV. Archived from the original on 26 December 2017. Retrieved 26 December 2017.
^ a b c d "Veiligheidsrisico's jaarwisseling" (PDF) (in Dutch). Dutch Safety Board. 1 December 2017. Retrieved 25 December 2017.
^ Daniela Siebert (27 December 2017). "Sicher durch die Silvesternacht". Deutschlandfunk (in German). Archived from the original on 29 December 2017. Retrieved 29 December 2017.
^ "Article 2.3.5 of the Besluit van 22 januari 2002, houdende nieuwe regels met betrekking tot consumenten- en professioneel vuurwerk (Vuurwerkbesluit) Decision of January 22, 2002, laying down new rules on consumer and professional fireworks (Fireworks Decision)". Vuurwerkbesluit (in Dutch). 22 January 2002. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2009. Google Translate Archived 22 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine
^ a b c d Statutory Instrument 2004 No. 1836 The Fireworks Regulations 2004, United Kingdom.
^ "Fireworks – Know The Rules". Epa.govt.nz. NZ Environmental Protection Agency. 2015. Archived from the original on January 26, 2016. Retrieved November 2015. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
^ "Norsk brannvernforening: Trygg bruk av fyrverkeri" (in Norwegian). Archived from the original on 21 October 2016. Retrieved 3 May 2016.
^ "46 States Where Fireworks Are Legal as July 4 Approaches". InvestorPlace. 3 July 2018. Archived from the original on 11 December 2018. Retrieved 10 December 2018.
Quote from Dave Whysall of Dave Whysall's International Fireworks located in Orton, ON. www.dwfireworks.com
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fireworks.
NOVA Online Kaboom! with pyrotechnics, anatomy of fireworks, etc
Canadian Fireworks Association ACP
Melanie Doderer-Winkler, "Magnificent Entertainments: Temporary Architecture for Georgian Festivals" (London and New Haven, Yale University Press for The Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art, December 2013). ISBN 0300186428 and ISBN 978-0300186420.
Plimpton, George (1984). Fireworks: A History and Celebration. Doubleday. ISBN 0385154143.
Brock, Alan St. Hill (1949). A History of Fireworks. George G. Harrap & Co.
Russell, Michael S (2008). The chemistry of fireworks. Royal Society of Chemistry, Great Britain. ISBN 9780854041275.
Shimizu, Takeo (1996). Fireworks: The Art, Science, and Technique. Pyrotechnica Publications. ISBN 978-0929388052.
Werrett, Simon (2010). Fireworks: Pyrotechnic Arts and Sciences in European History. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226893778.
Culture of China
Dashuhua
Nian
New Year picture
Red envelope
Reunion dinner
Nian gao
Spring pancake
Bakkwa
Buddha's delight
Fa gao
Fat choy
Yau gok
Kralan
Kuih
Pineapple tart
Squab
Taro cake
Turnip cake
CCTV New Year's Gala
Chunyun
Color in Chinese culture
San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade
Christmas and holiday season
Major industries
Natural sector
Fiber crops
Permanent crops
Apples et al.
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Cochineal
Fur trapping
Silviculture
Tree tapping
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Palm sugar, syrup, & wine
Pine resin
Fungiculture
Mining of ores
Rare-earth metals
Dimension stone
Hatmaking
Media reproduction
Boilermaking
Builders' & household hardware
Other smithing
Other fabrication
Outdoors & sports equipment
& optical
Blank storage media
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Gun & spotting scopes
Laser construction
Lens grinding
Electrical & fiber optic cables
Coal & oil refining
Aroma compounds
Chemical & hormonal contraceptives
Liming & deliming
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Other mineral
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& Storage
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& Mass media
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ANZSIC
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& outputs
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Nationalization
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Fanaticism in association football
Music, chants and sounds
Songs dedicated to football
Viking Thunder Clap
Organised supporters
Barra brava
Church of Maradona
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Makarapa
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fireworks&oldid=1001498161"
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text:
Evolution, Time, Production and the Environment
Malte Faber
John L. R. Proops
Chapters Table of contents (12 chapters)
Pages i-xix
Malte Faber, John L. R. Proops
The Concept of Evolution
An Evolutionary Approach to Production and Innovation
Economic Analysis and Concepts of Time Irreversibility
Time in the Natural Sciences: Some Lessons for Economics
Time, Conceptual Structures and Economic Schools of Thought
An Anatomy of Surprise and Ignorance
Production and Innovation
Economy-Environment Interactions in the Long-Run
Production, Accumulation and Time: A Neo-Austrian Approach
The Neo-Austrian Approach: Extensions to the Model
A Neo-Austrian Simulation Model of Economy-Environment Interactions
Policy Implications and the Need for Interdisciplinary Research
This second edition is brought about by two factors. First, the initial printing sold out much more rapidly than we expected. Second, several colleagues have been kind enough to suggest that this book not only has a contribution to make to ecological economics, but also has relevance to economics general. Thus our OUf distinction distinction between between genotypic genotypic and phenotypic evolution may be used to characterise not only economic sectors, but also whole economies, and in particular economic schools of thought. For instance, the Austrian subjectivist school deals explicitly with ignorance and the emergence of novelty, and may therefore be used to analyse genotypic development. In contrast, neoclassical economics deals principally with phenotypic development. When Dr. Müller Muller of Springer-Verlag suggested the production of a second edition, we were therefore pleased that this book might remain available. Several readers and in particular reviewers of the first edition remarked, in one way or the other, that they had questions concerning several of our OUf concepts, concepts, such as genotype, phenotype, ignorance, surprise, sUlprise, novelty, novelty, knowledge, knowledge, predictable predictable and unpredictable processes etc. Of course, all these concepts are of importance for evolution in general and for invention and innovation of new techniques in particular. We therefore considered some modifications and extensions of the original text, but on the advice of colleagues, have restricted oUfselves ourselves to correcting mistakes that crept into the first edition and to two extensions ofthe of the text, text, one major, one smaller.
Environmental and Resource Economics Evolutionary Economics Evolutionäre Ökonomie Kapitaltheorie Umweltökonomie environment
1.Alfred-Weber-Institut für Sozial- und StaatswissenschaftenUniversität HeidelbergHeidelberg 1Germany
2.Department of Economics and Management ScienceUniversity of KeeleStaffordshireUK

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


SLU-led teams will address selected focus areas. For many focus areas, the Provost and CFO will jointly appoint two senior sponsors (one staff, one faculty), an initiative manager and team members (size will vary depending on initiative needs). Timelines and goals will vary. Leadership of focus areas that involve matters of academic programming or faculty workload will be led by the Provost.
Teams will review the current state and develop solution options. Options are compared using many criteria including financial trade-offs, implementation risks, impact on the community, interdependencies and alignment with SLU's mission. Community stakeholders provide input via focus groups, surveys, etc.
Teams will develop an implementation plan for the approved solution. Stakeholder input will be invited to maximize success and minimize unintended negative consequences during implementation.
The University will implement, track progress and ensure SLU has the infrastructure in place to sustain the improvements.
Completed. Approximately 350 people attended one of three community forums in April 2017.
Note: There are no position eliminations associated with the creation of the GO Centers, and the design has assured no incremental cost to the University.
The first GO Center, serving Arts and Sciences, Nursing, Doisy, Public Health and Social Justice, Education, Parks, Libraries and other academic units, launched in December 2017.
The Academic Reinvention Initiative Team is led by Provost Nancy Brickhouse and includes deans from academic units of the university: College of Arts & Sciences, Chaifetz School of Business, Doisy College of Health Sciences, School of Law, School of Medicine, School of Nursing, Parks College of Engineering, College for Philosophy and Letters, School for Professional Studies, College for Public Health and Social Justice, and University Libraries.
Given principles of shared governance, a modified version of the usual three-step process is employed for Academic Reinvention. Deans will prepare school-specific proposals in consultation with faculty. Proposals approved by Provost move on to implementation over a 1-3 year period. The process will also adhere to the Faculty Manual which covers key issues such as academic reorganization, program dis-establishment, notification periods for contract non-renewals. Proposed actions are developed over time (November 2016 to April 2017) with many planned discussions among Provost and Deans to: (1) assess implementation risks and (2) evaluate interdependencies and (3) build/enhance collaborations.
The team sought input from advisors, students and other stakeholders through a variety of methods, including interviews, focus groups, community forums and surveys.
Explore role of career aervices in academic advising, including how career coaching, mentoring, and placement can complement advising over a undergraduate student's time at SLU.
Denise Sleet, Ph.D., an assistant dean in the College of Arts and Sciences, has been appointed interim assistant provost of academic advising. Sleet will assemble the team that will refine and implement plans for a new advising model.
A survey of study-abroad students was conducted in the fall; survey results were reviewed by the Operational Excellence team and shared with the co-sponsors of the program.
To simplify the structure, the number of fees is being consolidated from seven down to two — a University Fee and a Student Activity Fee, which will continue to be administered by the Student Government Association.
To enhance transparency: A report will be sent to students at the end of each year summarizing how funds collected through the University Fee were spent on services that support students.
To be more responsive to student needs, a group of leaders that will include student representation will meet annually to recommend funding priorities .
The new fee structure will be reflected on student bills for the fall.
SLU is working through the transition to a new structure.
Program-specific and school-based fees were not in scope. These fees are currently being reviewed by the Provost's office.
The Industry Partnerships Initiative Team will seek broad input and expertise from key stakeholders across the institution through a variety of methods, such as interviews, focus groups, and surveys.
Having finished the largest cost savings initiatives in FY17, we are focused on revenue growth and process improvement in FY18.


text:
Carl Caspar Eder (ou Karl Kaspar) est un violoncelliste allemand né en Bavière en 1751 et mort après 1802.

Biographie
Violoncelliste virtuose, il fut l'élève de  et .

Il fut premier violoncelle de l'orchestre de l'électeur de Trèves.

Ses nombreuses tournées de concerts à travers l'Allemagne furent très courues.

Ses œuvres
2 symphonies pour grand orchestre
2 quintettes
14 concertos pour violoncelle
20 solos pour violoncelle
3 duos pour violoncelle
2 trios pour violoncelle

Violoncelliste allemand
Naissance en Bavière
Naissance en 1751
Date de décès non renseignée (XIXe siècle)

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Download free "The Confessions of Saint Augustine EasyRead Edition" by Augustine Of Hippo EPUB, MOBI, PDF, TXT, Kindle
Free Find Ebook The book was published in January 3, 2007
Publisher: ReadHowYouWant.com.
Date: January 3, 2007.
Biography & Autobiography : Religious,
Augustine Of Hippo was born in 13 November 354
Augustine was born in Thagaste (present-day Souk Ahras, Algeria), a provincial Roman city in North Africa, the son of a Catholic mother and pagan father. He was raised a Catholic, and at age of 11, he went to school at Madaurus, about 19 miles south of Thagaste. There he learned both Latin literature and pagan beliefs and practices. He returned home in 369 and stayed for about two yeras, reading Cicero's dialogue Hortensius. At age 17 he went to Carthage to continue his education in rhetoric. He decided to follow the Manichaean religion, lived a hedonistic lifestyle for a time, and took a lover who stayed with him for over thirteen years and gave birth to his son. In 373-374, Augustine taught grammar at Tagaste. In 375 he moved to Carthage to conduct a school of rhetoric. In 383 he moved to Rome to establish another school. However, he was disappointed with the Roman schools, and instead of paying their fees, his students fled. Through his friends he obtained a professorship teaching rhetoric at the imperial court at Milan in 384. The young provincial won the job and headed north to take up his position in late 384. While in Rome, he turned away from Manichaeanism in favour of the skepticism of the New Academy movement. He became engaged and left his lover, but never married the girl to whom he had been engaged. In 386, converted to Catholic Christianity, left his career in rhetoric, devoted himself to serving God. He returned to north Africa, sold his patrimony and gave the money to the poor, and converted his family house into a monastic foundation. In 391 he was ordained a priest in Hippo Regius (now Annaba, Algeria). He became a famous preacher, and in 396 he was made assistant bishop and then full bishop shortly after. He left his monastery, but continued to lead a monastic life in the episcopal residence, and he remained Bishop of Hippo until his death in 430. Augustine was one of the most prolific authors of his time in surviving works, which number more than a hundred. Of these, the most well known is his Confessiones, written in 397-398.
Would you like to download another books and editions written by Augustine Of Hippo:
The Confessions of St. Augustine
Sancti Aurelii Augustini episcopi De civ...
Commento ai salmi
The confessions of S. Augustine
On Christian doctrine.
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Detect misspellings in queries or documents using the numbers of occurrences of words and phrases.
This job extracts tail tokens (one word) and phrases (two words) and finds similarly-spelled head tokens and phrases. For example, if two queries are spelled similarly, but one leads to a lot of traffic (head) and the other leads to a little or zero traffic (tail), then it's likely that the tail query is misspelled and the head query is its correction.
If several matching head tokens are found for each tail token, the job can pick the best correction using multiple configurable criteria.
For additional background, see the blog post Advanced Spell Check with Fusion 4.
You can review, edit, deploy, or delete output from this job using the Query Rewriting UI.
Misspelled terms are completely replaced by their corrected terms. To instead expand the query to include all alternative terms, see the Synonym Detection feature and set your synonyms to be bi-directional.
This job's output, and output from the Phrase Extraction job, can be used as input for the Synonym and Similar Queries Detection job.
Solr treats spelling corrections as synonyms. See the blog post Multi-Word Synonyms: Solr Adds Query-Time Support for more details.
Create a Token and Phrase Spell Correction job in the Jobs Manager.
Click Add and select the job type Token and phrase spell correction.
Configure the new job as needed. Configuration is explained in the next section.
Configure the Token and Phrase Spell Correction job.
The input collection can contain signal data or non-signal data. If it is signal data, then select Input is Signal Data (signalDataIndicator). Signals can be raw (from the _signals collection) or aggregated (from the _signals_aggr collection).
For example, if signal data follows the default Fusion setup, then count_i is the field that records the count of raw signals and aggr_count_i is the field that records the count after aggregation.
If you only have one event type, leave this parameter empty.
For example, if you specify the main event type to be click with a minimum count of 0 and the filtering event type to be query with a minimum count of 20, then the job will filter on the queries that get searched at least 20 times and check among those popular queries to see which ones didn't get clicked at all, or were only clicked a few times.
If you unselect the Input is Signal Data checkbox to indicate finding misspellings from content documents rather than signals, then you don't need to specify the following parameters: Count Field, Main Event Field, Filtering Event Type, Field Name of Signal Type, Minimum Main Event Count and Minimum Filtering Event Count.
You can upload a custom dictionary of terms that are specific to your data, and specify it using the Dictionary Collection (dictionaryCollection) and Dictionary Field (dictionaryField) parameters. For example, in an e-commerce use case, you can use the catalog terms as the custom dictionary by specifying the product catalog collection as the dictionary collection and the product description field as the dictionary field.
When you have configured the job, click Save to save the configuratiion.
Run the Token and Phrase Spell Correction job.
If you are finding spelling corrections in aggregated data, you need to run an aggregation job before running the Token and Phrase Spelling Correction job. You don't need to run a Head/Tail Analysis job. The Token and Phrase Spell Correction job does the head/tail processing it requires.
After the job finishes, misspellings and corrections are output into the query_rewrite_staging collection by default; you can change this by setting the outputCollection.
For easy evaluation, you can export the result output to a CSV file.
Put misspellings into the synonym list to perform auto-correction.
Help evaluate and guide the Solr spellcheck configuration.
In the job output, you generally only need to analyze the suggested_corrections field, which provides suggestions about using token correction or whole-phrase correction. If the confidence of the correction is not high, then the job labels the pair as "review" in this field. Pay special attention to the output records with the "review" labels.
With the output in a CSV file, you can sort by mis_string_len (descending) and edit_dist (ascending) to position more probable corrections at the top. You can also sort by the ratio of correction traffic over misspelling traffic (the corCount_misCount_ratio field) to only keep high-traffic boosting corrections.
For phrase misspellings, the misspelled tokens are separated out and put in the token_wise_correction field. If the associated token correction is already included in the one-word correction list, then the collation_check field is labeled as "token correction include." You can choose to drop those phrase misspellings to reduce duplications.
Fusion counts how many phrase corrections can be solved by the same token correction and puts the number into the token_corr_for_phrase_cnt field. For example, if both "outdoor servailance" and "servailance camera" can be solved by correcting "servailance" to "surveillance", then this number is 2, which provides some confidence for dropping such phrase corrections and further confirms that correcting "servailance" to "surveillance" is legitimate.
You might also see cases where the token-wise correction is not included in the list. For example, "xbow" to "xbox" is not included in the list because it can be dangerous to allow an edit distance of 1 in a word of length 4. But if multiple phrase corrections can be made by changing this token, then you can add this token correction to the list.
Phrase corrections with a value of 1 for token_corr_for_phrase_cnt and with collation_check labeled as "token correction not included" could be potentially-problematic corrections.
Fusion labels misspellings due to misplaced whitespaces with "combine/break words" in the correction_types field. If there is a user-provided dictionary to check against, and both spellings are in the dictionary with and without whitespace in the middle, we can treat these pairs as bi-directional synonyms ("combine/break words (bi-direction)" in the correction_types field).
The sound_match and lastChar_match fields also provide useful information.
The job's default configuration is a conservative, designed for higher accuracy and lower output. To produce a higher volume of output, you can consider giving more permissive values to the parameters below. Likewise, give them more restrictive values if you are getting too many results with low accuracy.
When tuning these values, always test the new configuration in a non-production environment before deploying it in production.
See Event types above, then adjust this value to reflect the secondary event for your search application. To query all data, set this to :.
Lower this value to include less-frequent misspellings based on the data filter query.
Raise this value to increase the number of potentially-related tokens and phrases detected.
Lower this value to include shorter misspellings (which are harder to correct accurately).
Ratio between correction occurrence count and misspelling occurrence count. Pairs with ratio less than or equal to this number will be filtered. Big number leads to shorter correction list and may have higher quality corrections.
When there are multiple possible corrections, we rank corrections based on: editDistBoost / editDist + correctionCountBoost * log(correctionCount) + lastCharMatchBoost * lastCharMatch + soundMatchBoost * soundexMatch. Big number puts more weight on count of correction string occurrences.
The count of occurrence ABOVE which the token/phrases are likely to be corrected spellings. Note that this number can be either fraction (<1.0) to denote a quantile based on count number distribution (shown in the log) or a number (>1.0) to denote the absolute count. A big number may cause performance issues.
Solr Collection containing dictionary with correct spellings. E.g., product catalog.
Solr field containing dictionary text. Multiple fields can be specified using the format: field1,field2 etc.
When there are multiple possible corrections, we rank corrections based on: editDistBoost / editDist + correctionCountBoost * log(correctionCount) + lastCharMatchBoost * lastCharMatch + soundMatchBoost * soundexMatch. Big number puts more weight on shorter edit distance.
The secondary event type (e.g. response) that can be used for filtering out rare searches.Note: In order to use this `response` default value, please make sure you have type:response in the input collection.If there is no need to filter on number of searches, please leave this parameter blank.
A scaling factor used to normalize the length of query string to compare against edit distances. The filtering is based on if edit_dist <= string_length/length_scale. A large value for this factor leads to a shorter correction list. A small value leads to a longer correction list but may add lower quality corrections.
The main signal event type (e.g. click) that the job is based on if input is signal data. E.g., if main type is click, then head and tail tokens/phrases are defined by the number of clicks.
The maximum edit distance between related token/phrases you are interested in. Large number leads to longer correction list but may add lower quality corrections.
Minimum number of filtering events (e.g. searches after aggregation) necessary for the query to be considered. The job will only analyze queries that were issued greater or equal to this number of times.
Minimum number of main events (e.g. clicks after aggregation) necessary for the query to be considered. The job will only analyze queries with clicks greater or equal to this number.
The minimum length of misspelling to check. Smaller number may lead to problematic corrections. E.g., It is hard to find the right correction for a two or three character string.
The minimum number of matches on starting characters. Note: Setting it to 0 may largely increase running time.
The count of occurrence BELOW which the token/phrases are likely to be misspellings. Note that this number can be either fraction (<1.0) to denote a quantile based on count number distribution (shown in the log) or a number (>1.0) to denote the absolute count.
Collection to store misspelling and correction pairs. Defaults to the query_rewrite_staging collection for the application.
The input dataset that the spell checker based on is signal data. If the input data is content document rather than signal, please uncheck.
The field name of signal type in the input collection.
Name of stopwords blob resource (.txt or .rtf file uploaded to the blob store). This field is marked for deprecation. Going forward, please specify the stopwords blob name as a luceneSchema property.
Solr query to additionally filter the search strings. Please let it be empty if 'type' field is unavailable in the input collection.


text:
Sat 25th Jan
PANGAEA & RE:NI
£9The price you'll pay. No surprises later.
OFF SALE
10 Marine Parade, Brighton BN2 1TL
Doors open at 11:00 PM
No smartphone? Take a look at our FAQs.
Needing no introduction, Pangaea has been at the forefront of the underground music scene for the best part of a decade, founding arguably one of the most revered labels in electronic dance music, Hessle Audio. Pangaea's production and DJ sets traverse different genres and styles making him a unique selector who we can't wait to grace Patterns booth.
This UK veteran is joined by rising-star Re:Ni - Having witnessed her deliver one of the best sets we've seen earlier this year alongside Darwin at Dekmantel, we are eager to see what she brings to the floor. As a selector, Re:Ni is drawn to off-kilter rhythms, playing an energetic blend of UK techno, breaks and electro which have placed her on line-ups alongside Objekt, A Made Up Sound, Minor Science and Bruce. Supported is provided by our esteemed residents Bacchus, Knarla and Layce.
20p from each ticket sold on DICE will be donated to The Clock Tower Sanctuary, a local day centre for 16-25-year olds who are homeless or insecurely housed.
This ticket guarantees admission before midnight, please arrive promptly to avoid disappointment & queuing. Entry remains at the discretion of management.
Presented by Materials.
This is an 18+ event (Photo ID required).
Re:ni


Almost time for the big day. Yesterday we battled a rather decent storm. Funny with the dec 21st timing. It was sort of apocalyptic out there with the high winds and blurred out down pours. Our town did lose power.
Now that that is said and done and we are still here. Happy 22nd. So Stupid. Did anyone throw any cool parties?
The first part of this post is to introduce the latest SoBo to the family. It is in a way a repro of one I did for Camp Wilder last year. There are subtle differences. I loved the use of the Vintage Japanese wool/silk blend with the organic brown denim and had to do this with the very last of it. So that's it no more. Of either. That silk and the denim.
The second part of this post is to all the ladies (and gentleman) that need a boost from yours truly.
You hold power in your hand. If you feel as though someone else holds your power, tipping the scale to your side is in your hands. It is possible. It is possible and you alone hold the capacity to do so. If you see someone getting attacked wrongfully, with unjust information stand up for them. Their voice or muscle may not be as strong as yours. If you have no muscle go to someone that does. Ask for help.
Do not let anyone stand in your way of that. If they do not know you for you or are a bully. Fight. Fight silently, fight loudly but fight. Do so in a matter that leaves your conscience intact. Where your grace wins over their girth. Do not harm or strike them. Only strike with honest emotion and strict fact.
I have been misjudged, misinterpreted many times. It will continue to happen. I have stood and allowed it to happen out of fear and the thought that these weak weasels are not worth my time. They will continue and keep going. It is their way. It is their only way. It is were their power comes from. Drain it. Do not fuel it.
If you do nothing it will keep happening. It always does to the best people. The people with a strong moral, a good intent will always get pushed into a corner. That love and patience you have is their meal. Fight your way out. Do not sit there being a cowardice. Get up and show the world your strength and beautiful soul. Their goal is to defeat you. To infect you then draw that dark power back into themselves for self righteous intentions. Extinguish their hate inside you with love so when it is sucked out it will plant a seed within them that will flourish to rid them of their own evil. They will weaken and go away. Leaving you proud, strong and ready to teach the next cowardice.


text:
Association of EGLN1 genetic polymorphisms with SpO 2 responses to acute hypobaric hypoxia in a Japanese cohort
Yoshiki Yasukochi, Takayuki Nishimura, Midori Motoi, Shigeki Watanuki
Physiological Anthropology
Background: Recent studies have explored various genetic and physiological factors related to high-altitude adaptation in highlander populations. However, the effects of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), influencing such adaptation, on physiological responses to hypobaric hypoxia have not been examined in lowlanders with lowlander ancestry. Thus, we aimed to investigate the association between SNPs around the EGLN1 genomic region, possibly involved in high-altitude adaptation, and physiological changes to hypobaric hypoxia exposure in a cohort of Japanese lowlanders. Methods: Physiological data were obtained from 46 healthy Japanese male students under different atmospheric pressure conditions (equivalent to sea level and altitudes of 2500 and 4000 m). Genotypes of seven SNPs around EGLN1 were determined in all subjects by PCR-direct sequencing or TaqMan SNP genotyping assay. Results: Results of the association study suggest that percutaneous arterial oxygen saturation (SpO 2 ) responses of individuals with rs12097901 and rs2790859 alleles, whose frequencies are high in highlander populations (HL alleles), may be susceptible to acute hypobaric hypoxia. SpO 2 levels of individuals with HL alleles were lower than those of individuals with non-HL alleles. At the same time, the subjects with HL alleles did not appear to have any remarkable hematological or pulmonary features that may counteract the low levels of SpO 2 . One may hypothesize that the low SpO 2 levels in HL allele carriers could be a risk factor for acute mountain sickness in Japanese population. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that rs12097901 and rs2790859 genotypes affect SpO 2 responses and may be associated with the susceptibility to acute hypobaric hypoxia in Japanese population.
Journal of physiological anthropology
Published - Feb 21 2018
Genetic Polymorphisms
Nucleotides
Alleles
Single Nucleotide Polymorphism
Physiological Adaptation
physiological factors
Association reactions
Human Factors and Ergonomics
Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health
Physiology (medical)
Yasukochi, Y., Nishimura, T., Motoi, M., & Watanuki, S. (2018). Association of EGLN1 genetic polymorphisms with SpO 2 responses to acute hypobaric hypoxia in a Japanese cohort Journal of physiological anthropology, 37(1), [9]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40101-018-0169-7
Association of EGLN1 genetic polymorphisms with SpO 2 responses to acute hypobaric hypoxia in a Japanese cohort . / Yasukochi, Yoshiki; Nishimura, Takayuki; Motoi, Midori; Watanuki, Shigeki.
In: Journal of physiological anthropology, Vol. 37, No. 1, 9, 21.02.2018.
Yasukochi, Y, Nishimura, T, Motoi, M & Watanuki, S 2018, ' Association of EGLN1 genetic polymorphisms with SpO 2 responses to acute hypobaric hypoxia in a Japanese cohort ' Journal of physiological anthropology, vol. 37, no. 1, 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40101-018-0169-7
Yasukochi Y, Nishimura T, Motoi M, Watanuki S. Association of EGLN1 genetic polymorphisms with SpO 2 responses to acute hypobaric hypoxia in a Japanese cohort Journal of physiological anthropology. 2018 Feb 21;37(1). 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40101-018-0169-7
Yasukochi, Yoshiki ; Nishimura, Takayuki ; Motoi, Midori ; Watanuki, Shigeki. / Association of EGLN1 genetic polymorphisms with SpO 2 responses to acute hypobaric hypoxia in a Japanese cohort In: Journal of physiological anthropology. 2018 ; Vol. 37, No. 1.
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title = "Association of EGLN1 genetic polymorphisms with SpO 2 responses to acute hypobaric hypoxia in a Japanese cohort",
abstract = "Background: Recent studies have explored various genetic and physiological factors related to high-altitude adaptation in highlander populations. However, the effects of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), influencing such adaptation, on physiological responses to hypobaric hypoxia have not been examined in lowlanders with lowlander ancestry. Thus, we aimed to investigate the association between SNPs around the EGLN1 genomic region, possibly involved in high-altitude adaptation, and physiological changes to hypobaric hypoxia exposure in a cohort of Japanese lowlanders. Methods: Physiological data were obtained from 46 healthy Japanese male students under different atmospheric pressure conditions (equivalent to sea level and altitudes of 2500 and 4000 m). Genotypes of seven SNPs around EGLN1 were determined in all subjects by PCR-direct sequencing or TaqMan SNP genotyping assay. Results: Results of the association study suggest that percutaneous arterial oxygen saturation (SpO 2 ) responses of individuals with rs12097901 and rs2790859 alleles, whose frequencies are high in highlander populations (HL alleles), may be susceptible to acute hypobaric hypoxia. SpO 2 levels of individuals with HL alleles were lower than those of individuals with non-HL alleles. At the same time, the subjects with HL alleles did not appear to have any remarkable hematological or pulmonary features that may counteract the low levels of SpO 2 . One may hypothesize that the low SpO 2 levels in HL allele carriers could be a risk factor for acute mountain sickness in Japanese population. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that rs12097901 and rs2790859 genotypes affect SpO 2 responses and may be associated with the susceptibility to acute hypobaric hypoxia in Japanese population.",
author = "Yoshiki Yasukochi and Takayuki Nishimura and Midori Motoi and Shigeki Watanuki",
doi = "10.1186/s40101-018-0169-7",
volume = "37",
journal = "Journal of Physiological Anthropology",
publisher = "Japan Society of Physiological Anthropology",
T1 - Association of EGLN1 genetic polymorphisms with SpO 2 responses to acute hypobaric hypoxia in a Japanese cohort
AU - Yasukochi, Yoshiki
AU - Nishimura, Takayuki
AU - Motoi, Midori
AU - Watanuki, Shigeki
N2 - Background: Recent studies have explored various genetic and physiological factors related to high-altitude adaptation in highlander populations. However, the effects of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), influencing such adaptation, on physiological responses to hypobaric hypoxia have not been examined in lowlanders with lowlander ancestry. Thus, we aimed to investigate the association between SNPs around the EGLN1 genomic region, possibly involved in high-altitude adaptation, and physiological changes to hypobaric hypoxia exposure in a cohort of Japanese lowlanders. Methods: Physiological data were obtained from 46 healthy Japanese male students under different atmospheric pressure conditions (equivalent to sea level and altitudes of 2500 and 4000 m). Genotypes of seven SNPs around EGLN1 were determined in all subjects by PCR-direct sequencing or TaqMan SNP genotyping assay. Results: Results of the association study suggest that percutaneous arterial oxygen saturation (SpO 2 ) responses of individuals with rs12097901 and rs2790859 alleles, whose frequencies are high in highlander populations (HL alleles), may be susceptible to acute hypobaric hypoxia. SpO 2 levels of individuals with HL alleles were lower than those of individuals with non-HL alleles. At the same time, the subjects with HL alleles did not appear to have any remarkable hematological or pulmonary features that may counteract the low levels of SpO 2 . One may hypothesize that the low SpO 2 levels in HL allele carriers could be a risk factor for acute mountain sickness in Japanese population. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that rs12097901 and rs2790859 genotypes affect SpO 2 responses and may be associated with the susceptibility to acute hypobaric hypoxia in Japanese population.
AB - Background: Recent studies have explored various genetic and physiological factors related to high-altitude adaptation in highlander populations. However, the effects of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), influencing such adaptation, on physiological responses to hypobaric hypoxia have not been examined in lowlanders with lowlander ancestry. Thus, we aimed to investigate the association between SNPs around the EGLN1 genomic region, possibly involved in high-altitude adaptation, and physiological changes to hypobaric hypoxia exposure in a cohort of Japanese lowlanders. Methods: Physiological data were obtained from 46 healthy Japanese male students under different atmospheric pressure conditions (equivalent to sea level and altitudes of 2500 and 4000 m). Genotypes of seven SNPs around EGLN1 were determined in all subjects by PCR-direct sequencing or TaqMan SNP genotyping assay. Results: Results of the association study suggest that percutaneous arterial oxygen saturation (SpO 2 ) responses of individuals with rs12097901 and rs2790859 alleles, whose frequencies are high in highlander populations (HL alleles), may be susceptible to acute hypobaric hypoxia. SpO 2 levels of individuals with HL alleles were lower than those of individuals with non-HL alleles. At the same time, the subjects with HL alleles did not appear to have any remarkable hematological or pulmonary features that may counteract the low levels of SpO 2 . One may hypothesize that the low SpO 2 levels in HL allele carriers could be a risk factor for acute mountain sickness in Japanese population. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that rs12097901 and rs2790859 genotypes affect SpO 2 responses and may be associated with the susceptibility to acute hypobaric hypoxia in Japanese population.
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