text:
We're excited to offer a 16-week online Introduction to Home Education course for homeschooling parents.
— Develop an individualized education plan for your child
— Choose and personalize your child's curriculum
— Fulfill your state's learning requirements
— Keep track of your progress and milestones.
Along the way, we'll be here to answer questions and brainstorm with you. We can't wait to see you in class, and we're excited for all you and your child will learn together!
Homeschool statute: Parents must file annual notice with the local superintendent, provide required hours of instruction in "the subjects required of public schools as a basic instructional program," and maintain attendance and immunization records. There are no parent qualification or assessment requirements.
Homeschool Statute
"A home school is the instruction by a parent of his child, stepchild or ward in his residence." See Mont. Code Ann. §§ 20-5-102(2)(e) and 20-5-109.
Notification: Parents must annually notify the county superintendent of their intent to homeschool.
Qualifications: None.
Days or hours: For grades 1, 2, and 3, 720 hours of instruction each year; for grades 4 through 12, 1,080 hours of instruction each year.
Subjects: Parents must provide "an organized course of study that includes instruction in the subjects required of public schools as a basic instructional program."
Bookkeeping: Parents must maintain attendance and immunization records and make both available for inspection by the county superintendent upon request.
Assessment: None.
Intervention: If annual notice is not provided, children will be considered truant. Failure to educate is included in the state's definition of neglect. If a family is reported to the Child & Family Services Division for educational neglect, that agency may open an investigation and involve the county superintendent. In this case, parents must demonstrate that they are providing the required hours of instruction in the required subjects of instruction.
Other: Comply with local health and safety regulations.
Services Available to Homeschooled Students
Part-time enrollment: Varies by district. In Kaptein v. Conrad School District (1997), the Montana Supreme Court ruled that school districts cannot be compelled to allow homeschooled students to take public school classes or participate in other public school programs.
Sports access: No. Homeschooled students may be allowed to participate in club sports or in public school sports during grades K-8. However, homeschooled students are not permitted to participate in public school sports governed by the Montana High School Association (MHSA).
Other extra-curriculars: Varies by district. In Kaptein v. Conrad School District (1997), the Montana Supreme Court ruled that school districts cannot be compelled to allow homeschooled students to take public school classes or participate in other public school programs.
Disabilities: Varies by district. While public schools must offer evaluations to all students with disabilities within their districts regardless of what school they attend or whether they are homeschooled, public schools in Montana have no obligation to provide additional services to homeschooled students with disabilities.
Here's how to report educational neglect. Have you reported educational neglect in this state? Please tell us about your experience.
Mont. Code Ann. § 20-5-102
Montana Homeschool Information, Office of Public Instruction
Montana, International Center for Home Education Research
Montana, State Regulation, U.S. Department of Education
This overview is for informational purposes only and does not constitute the giving of legal advice.


text:
This article is about the ethnic group. For other uses, see Sioux (disambiguation).
Očhéthi Šakówiŋ (Dakota)
Sitting Bull, a Hunkpapa Lakota chief and holy man, c. 1831 – 1890 December 15.
US: (SD, MN, NE, MT, ND, IA, WI, IL, WY)
Canada: (MB, SK)
Sioux language (Lakota, Western Dakota, Eastern Dakota), Assiniboine, Stoney, English
Christianity (incl. syncretistic forms), traditional religion
Assiniboine, Dakota, Lakota, Nakoda (Stoney), and other Siouan-speaking peoples
The Sioux (/suː/ Dakota: Očhéthi Šakówiŋ /otʃʰeːtʰi ʃakoːwĩ/) are groups of Native American tribes and First Nations peoples in North America. The term can refer to any ethnic group within the Great Sioux Nation or to any of the nation's many language dialects. The modern Sioux consist of two major divisions based on language divisions: the Dakota and Lakota.
The Santee Dakota (Isáŋyathi; "Knife") reside in the extreme east of the Dakotas, Minnesota and northern Iowa. The Yankton and Yanktonai Dakota (Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋ and Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna; "Village-at-the-end" and "Little village-at-the-end"), collectively also referred to by the endonym Wičhíyena, reside in the Minnesota River area. They are considered to be the middle Sioux, and have in the past been erroneously classified as Nakota.[2] The actual Nakota are the Assiniboine and Stoney of Western Canada and Montana. The Lakota, also called Teton (Thítȟuŋwaŋ; possibly "Dwellers on the prairie"), are the westernmost Sioux, known for their hunting and warrior culture.
Today, the Sioux maintain many separate tribal governments scattered across several reservations, communities, and reserves in North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Minnesota, and Montana in the United States; and Manitoba, southern Saskatchewan, and Alberta in Canada.
✪ Sioux Wars | 3 Minute History
✪ Sioux Indians
✪ Habla un anciano indio Sioux-Lakota
✪ Sioux Chief Speaks About Star People/White Buffalo Calf Woman 1/2
✪ Mujer Lakota Sioux Proverbios y Oración
1 Names
2 Culture
2.1 Gender roles
2.2 Leadership
2.3 Religion
2.4 Funeral practices
2.5 Music
3 Linguistics
4 Ethnic and modern geographical divisions
4.1 Isáŋyathi (Santee or Eastern Dakota)
4.2 Iháŋkthuŋwaŋ-Iháŋkthuŋwaŋna (Yankton-Yanktonai or Western Dakota)
4.3 Thítȟuŋwaŋ (Teton or Lakota)
5 Reservations and reserves
6 Historical relationships and conflicts
6.1 First contact with Europeans
6.2 Relationship with French traders
6.3 Relationship with Pawnees
6.4 Dakota War of 1862
6.5 Red Cloud's War
6.6 Great Sioux War of 1876
6.7 Wounded Knee Massacre
7 Activism
7.1 Wounded Knee incident
7.2 Republic of Lakotah
7.3 Foster care system
7.4 Protest against the Dakota Access oil pipeline
8 Notable Sioux
8.1 Historical
8.2 Contemporary
8.2.1 By individual tribe
9 In popular media
10 Legacy
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
The Sioux people refer to the Great Sioux Nation as the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ (pronounced [oˈtʃʰetʰi ʃaˈkowĩ], meaning "Seven Council Fires"). Each fire is a symbol of an oyate (people or nation). Today the seven nations that comprise the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ are the Thítȟuŋwaŋ (also known collectively as the Teton or Lakota), Bdewákaŋthuŋwaŋ, Waȟpéthuŋwaŋ, Waȟpékhute, and Sisíthuŋwaŋ (also known collectively as the Santee or Eastern Dakota) and Iháŋkthuŋwaŋ and Iháŋkthuŋwaŋna (also known collectively as the Yankton/Yanktonai or Western Dakota).[3][4] They are also referred to as the Lakota or Dakota as based upon dialect differences.[3][4] In any of the dialects, Lakota or Dakota translates to mean "friend" or "ally" referring to the alliances between the bands.[3][4]
The name "Sioux" was adopted in English by the 1760s from French. It is abbreviated from Nadouessioux, first attested by Jean Nicolet in 1640.[3] The name is sometimes said to be derived from an Ojibwe exonym for the Sioux meaning "little snakes" (compare nadowe "big snakes", used for the Iroquois).[5] The spelling in -x is due to the French plural marker.[6] The Proto-Algonquian form *na·towe·wa, meaning "Northern Iroquoian", has reflexes in several daughter languages that refer to a small rattlesnake (massasauga, Sistrurus).[7] An alternative explanation is derivation from an (Algonquian) exonym na·towe·ssiw (plural na·towe·ssiwak), from a verb *-a·towe· meaning "to speak a foreign language".[6] The current Ojibwe term for the Sioux and related groups is Bwaanag (singular Bwaan), meaning "roasters".[8][9] Presumably, this refers to the style of cooking the Sioux used in the past.
In recent times, some of the tribes have formally or informally reclaimed traditional names: the Rosebud Sioux Tribe is also known as the Sičháŋǧu Oyáte, and the Oglala often use the name Oglála Lakȟóta Oyáte, rather than the English "Oglala Sioux Tribe" or OST. The alternative English spelling of Ogallala is considered improper.[3]
Within the Sioux tribes, there were defined gender roles. The men in the village were tasked as the hunters, traveling outside the village.[10] The women within the village were in charge of making clothing and similar articles while also taking care of, and owning, the house.[10][11] However, even with these roles, both men and women held power in decision-making tasks and sexual preferences were flexible and allowed.[10][11] The terms winkte and berdache would refer to men who partook in traditional feminine duties while witkowin were given to women that rejected their roles as either mother or wife.[10] In the modern society, female members of the tribe were more likely to graduate from college and go on to become the major breadwinners of their households while their husbands took on a household role, such as raising the children and cooking.[12]
Historical leadership organization
Oglala Lakota Tipi
The Seven Council Fires would assemble each summer to hold council, renew kinships, decide tribal matters, and participate in the Sun Dance.[13] The seven divisions would select four leaders known as Wičháša Yatápika from among the leaders of each division.[13] Being one of the four leaders was considered the highest honor for a leader; however, the annual gathering meant the majority of tribal administration was cared for by the usual leaders of each division. The last meeting of the Seven Council Fires was in 1850.[13] The historical political organization was based on individual participation and the cooperation of many to sustain the tribe's way of life. Leaders were chosen based upon noble birth and demonstrations of chiefly virtues, such as bravery, fortitude, generosity, and wisdom.[13]
Political leaders were members of the Načá Omníčiye society and decided matters of tribal hunts, camp movements, whether to make war or peace with their neighbors, or any other community action.[14]
Societies were similar to fraternities; men joined to raise their position in the tribe. Societies were composed of smaller clans and varied in number among the seven divisions.[13] There were two types of societies: Akíčhita, for the younger men, and Načá, for elders and former leaders.[13]
Akíčhita (Warrior) societies existed to train warriors, hunters, and to police the community.[14] There were many smaller Akíčhita societies, including the Kit-Fox, Strong Heart, Elk, and so on.[14]
Leaders in the Načá societies, per Načá Omníčiye, were the tribal elders and leaders. They elected seven to ten men, depending on the division, each referred to as Wičháša Itȟáŋčhaŋ ("chief man"). Each Wičháša Itȟáŋčhaŋ interpreted and enforced the decisions of the Načá.[14]
The Wičháša Itȟáŋčhaŋ would elect two to four Shirt Wearers, who were the voice of the society. They settled quarrels among families and also foreign nations.[13] Shirt Wearers were often young men from families with hereditary claims of leadership. However, men with obscure parents who displayed outstanding leaderships skills and had earned the respect of the community might also be elected. Crazy Horse is an example of a common-born "Shirt Wearer".[13]
A Wakíčhuŋza ("Pipe Holder") ranked below the "Shirt Wearers". The Pipe Holders regulated peace ceremonies, selected camp locations, and supervised the Akíčhita societies during buffalo hunts.[14]
The Sioux tribe, like many North American tribal religions, "were performative, oral, and variable within each community as each generation drew upon its tradition in order to create its own religious forms, derived from experience".[15] "Aboriginal Indian Religions, North of Mexico, were locally produced modes of relationships between communities of associated individuals and their ultimate sources of life... wind, sun, thunderers, animals, corn, etc".[15] Sioux Nation religious beliefs revolve around the Wakan Tanka, which is synonymous with the Great Spirit. Two of their central religious ceremonies are the Sun Dance and the Ghost Dance.[16] The Sioux Nation was one of the few Native American peoples who practiced the Sun Dance and the Ghost Dance.
Funeral practices
Traditional Funeral Practices
It is a common belief amongst Siouan communities that the spirit of the deceased travels to an afterlife. In traditional beliefs, this spiritual journey was believed to start once funeral proceedings were complete and spanned over a course of four days. Mourning family and friends would take part in that four day wake inorder to accompany the spirit to its resting place.[17] In the past, bodies were not embalmed and put up on a burial scaffold for one year before a ground burial. A platform to rest the body was put up on trees or, alternately, placed on four upright poles to elevate the body from the ground.[18] The bodies would be securely wrapped in blankets and cloths, along with many of the deceased personal belongings and were always placed with their head pointed towards the south. Mourning individuals would speak to the body and offer food as if it were still alive.[19] This practice, along with the Ghost Dance helped individuals mourn and connect the spirits of the deceased with those who were alive.[20] The only time a body was buried in the ground right after their death was if the individual was murdered: the deceased would be placed in the ground with their heads towards the south, while faced down along with a piece of fat in their mouth.[20]
Contemporary Funeral Practices
According to Pat Janis, director of the Oglala Sioux Tribe's Burial Assistance Program, funeral practices of communities today are often a mix of traditions and contemporary Christian practices. While tree burials and scaffold burials are not practiced anymore, it is also now rare to see families observe a four day wake period. Instead, the families opt for one or two day wake periods which includes a funeral feast for all the community. Added to the contemporary funeral practices, it is common to see prayers conducted by a medicine man along with traditional songs often sung with a drum. One member of the family is also required to be present next to the body at all times until the burial.[17] Gifts are placed within the casket to aid with the journey into the afterworld, which is still believed to take up to four days after death.[17]
Main article: Sioux music
Main articles: Sioux language, Lakota language, and Dakota language
Chief Bone Necklace, an Oglala Lakota from the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation (1899)
The Sioux comprise three closely related language groups:
Eastern Dakota (also known as Santee-Sisseton or Dakhóta)
Santee (Isáŋyáthi: Bdewákhathuŋwaŋ, Waȟpékhute)
Sisseton (Sisíthuŋwaŋ, Waȟpéthuŋwaŋ)
Western Dakota (or Yankton-Yanktonai or Dakȟóta)
Yankton (Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋ)
Yanktonai (Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna)
Lakota (or Lakȟóta, Teton, Teton Sioux)
The earlier linguistic three-way division of the Sioux language identified Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota as dialects of a single language, where Lakota = Teton, Dakota = Santee-Sisseton and Nakota = Yankton-Yanktonai.[7] However, the latest studies[4][21] show that Yankton-Yanktonai never used the autonym Nakhóta, but pronounced their name roughly the same as the Santee (i.e. Dakȟóta).
These later studies identify Assiniboine and Stoney as two separate languages, with Sioux being the third language. Sioux has three similar dialects: Lakota, Western Dakota (Yankton-Yanktonai) and Eastern Dakota (Santee-Sisseton). Assiniboine and Stoney speakers refer to themselves as Nakhóta or Nakhóda[4] (cf. Nakota).
The term Dakota has also been applied by anthropologists and governmental departments to refer to all Sioux groups, resulting in names such as Teton Dakota, Santee Dakota, etc. This was mainly because of the misrepresented translation of the Ottawa word from which Sioux is derived.[13]
Ethnic and modern geographical divisions
Dakota, Nakota, and Lakota historic distribution
Portrait of Stella Yellow Shirt and her baby (Dakota, 1899)
Sioux cradleboard
Family members of U.S. Army Master Sgt. Woodrow Wilson Keeble attending his Medal of Honor ceremony
The Sioux are divided into three ethnic groups, the larger of which are divided into sub-groups, and further branched into bands. The earliest known European record of the Sioux identified them in Minnesota, Iowa, and Wisconsin.[7] After the introduction of the horse in the early 18th century, the Sioux dominated larger areas of land—from present day Central Canada to the Platte River, from Minnesota to the Yellowstone River, including the Powder River country.[14]
Funeral scaffold of a Sioux chief (Karl Bodmer)
The Sioux maintain many separate tribal governments scattered across several reservations and communities in North America: in the Dakotas, Minnesota, Nebraska, and Montana in the United States; and in Manitoba, southern Saskatchewan and Alberta in Canada. Today, many Sioux also live outside their reservations.
Isáŋyathi (Santee or Eastern Dakota)
Main article: Dakota people
The Santee migrated north and westward from the Southeastern United States, first into Ohio, then to Minnesota.[when?][citation needed] Some came up from the Santee River and Lake Marion, area of South Carolina.[citation needed] The Santee River was named after them, and some of their ancestors' ancient earthwork mounds have survived along the portion of the dammed-up river that forms Lake Marion.[citation needed] In the past, they were a Woodland people who thrived on hunting, fishing and farming.[22]
Migrations of Ojibwe from the east in the 17th and 18th centuries, with muskets supplied by the French and British, pushed the Dakota further into Minnesota and west and southward. The US gave the name "Dakota Territory" to the northern expanse west of the Mississippi River and up to its headwaters.[7] Today, the Santee live on reservations, reserves, and communities in Minnesota, Nebraska, South Dakota, North Dakota, and Canada. However, after the Dakota war of 1862 many Santee were sent to Crow Creek Indian Reservation and in 1864 some from the Crow Creek Reservation were sent to the Santee Sioux Reservation.
Santee division (Eastern Dakota) (Isáŋyathi)[4]
Mdewakantonwan (Bdewékhaŋthuŋwaŋ "Spirit Lake Village")[4]
notable persons: Little Crow
Sisseton (Sisíthuŋwaŋ, perhaps meaning "Fishing Grounds Village")
Wahpekute (Waȟpékhute, "Leaf Archers")[4]
notable persons: Inkpaduta
Wahpetonwan (Waȟpéthuŋwaŋ, "Leaf Village")[4]
Iháŋkthuŋwaŋ-Iháŋkthuŋwaŋna (Yankton-Yanktonai or Western Dakota)
The Iháŋkthuŋwaŋ-Iháŋkthuŋwaŋna, also known by the anglicized spelling Yankton (Iháŋkthuŋwaŋ: "End village") and Yanktonai (Iháŋkthuŋwaŋna: "Little end village") divisions consist of two bands or two of the seven council fires. According to Nasunatanka and Matononpa in 1880, the Yanktonai are divided into two sub-groups known as the Upper Yanktonai and the Lower Yanktonai (Hunkpatina).[7] Today, most of the Yanktons live on the Yankton Indian Reservation in southeastern South Dakota. Some Yankton live on the Lower Brule Indian Reservation and Crow Creek Indian Reservation. The Yanktonai are divided into Lower Yanktonai, who occupy the Crow Creek Reservation; and Upper Yanktonai, who live in the northern part of Standing Rock Indian Reservation, on the Spirit Lake Tribe in central North Dakota, and in the eastern half of the Fort Peck Indian Reservation in northeastern Montana. In addition, they reside at several Canadian reserves, including Birdtail, Oak Lake, and Moose Woods.[4]
They were involved in quarrying pipestone. The Yankton-Yanktonai moved into northern Minnesota. In the 18th century, they were recorded as living in the Mankato region of Minnesota.[23]
Yankton-Yanktonai division (Western Dakota) (Wičhíyena)
Yankton (Iháŋkthuŋwaŋ, "End Village")[4]
Yanktonai (Iháŋkthuŋwaŋna, "Little End Village")[4]
Upper Yanktonai
Unkpatina[24] or Lower Yanktonai
notable persons: Wanata, War Eagle
Thítȟuŋwaŋ (Teton or Lakota)
Main article: Lakota people
The Sioux likely obtained horses sometime during the seventeenth century (although some historians date the arrival of horses in South Dakota to 1720, and credit the Cheyenne with introducing horse culture to the Lakota). The Teton (Lakota) division of the Sioux emerged as a result of this introduction. Dominating the northern Great Plains with their light cavalry, the western Sioux quickly expanded their territory further to the Rocky Mountains (which they call Heska, "white mountains"). The Lakota once subsisted on the bison hunt, and on corn. They acquired corn mostly through trade with the eastern Sioux and their linguistic cousins, the Mandan and Hidatsa along the Missouri River.[7] The name Teton or Thítȟuŋwaŋ is archaic among the people, who prefer to call themselves Lakȟóta.[4] Today, the Lakota are the largest and westernmost of the three groups, occupying lands in both North and South Dakota.
Teton division (Lakota) (Thítȟuŋwaŋ,[4] perhaps meaning "Dwellers on the Prairie"):
Oglála (perhaps meaning "Those Who Scatter Their Own")
notable persons: Crazy Horse, Red Cloud, Black Elk, Blue Horse, Iron Tail, Flying Hawk and Billy Mills (Olympian)
Hunkpapa (Húŋkpapȟa,[4] meaning "Those who Camp by the Door" or "Wanderers")
notable persons: Sitting Bull
Sihasapa (Sihásapa, "Blackfoot Sioux,"[4] not to be confused with the Algonquian-speaking Piegan Blackfeet)
Miniconjou (Mnikȟówožu, "Those who Plant by Water")[4]
notable persons: Lone Horn, Touch the Clouds
Brulé (French translation of Sičháŋǧu, "Burned Thigh")[4]
Sans Arc (French translation of Itázipčho, "Those Without Bows")[4]
Two Kettles (Oóhenupa, "Two Boilings")[4]
Reservations and reserves
Location of Sioux tribes prior to 1770 (dark green) and their current reservations (orange) in the US
Great Sioux Reservation, 1888; established by Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868)
In the late 19th century, railroads wanted to build tracks through Indian lands. The railroad companies hired hunters to exterminate the bison herds, the Plains Indians' primary food supply. The Dakota and Lakota were forced to accept US-defined reservations in exchange for the rest of their lands and farming and ranching of domestic cattle, as opposed to a nomadic, hunting economy. During the first years of the Reservation Era, the Sioux people depended upon annual federal payments guaranteed by treaty for survival.
In Minnesota, the treaties of Traverse des Sioux and Mendota in 1851 left the Dakota with a reservation 20 miles (32 km) wide on each side of the Minnesota River.
Today, half of all enrolled Sioux in the United States live off reservation. Enrolled members in any of the Sioux tribes in the United States are required to have ancestry that is at least 1/4 degree Sioux (the equivalent to one grandparent).[25]
In Canada, the Canadian government recognizes the tribal community as First Nations. The land holdings of these First Nations are called Indian reserves.
Reserve/Reservation[3]
Bands residing
Fort Peck Indian Reservation Assiniboine and Sioux Tribes Hunkpapa, Upper Yanktonai (Pabaksa), Sisseton, Wahpeton, and the Hudesabina (Red Bottom), Wadopabina (Canoe Paddler), Wadopahnatonwan (Canoe Paddlers Who Live on the Prairie), Sahiyaiyeskabi (Plains Cree-Speakers), Inyantonwanbina (Stone People), and Fat Horse Band of the Assiniboine Montana, US
Spirit Lake Reservation
(Formerly Devil's Lake Reservation)
Spirit Lake Tribe
(Mni Wakan Oyate)
Wahpeton, Sisseton, Upper Yanktonai North Dakota, US
Standing Rock Indian Reservation Standing Rock Sioux Tribe Upper Yanktonai, Hunkpapa North Dakota, South Dakota, US
Lake Traverse Indian Reservation Sisseton Wahpeton Oyate Sisseton, Wahpeton South Dakota, US
Flandreau Indian Reservation Flandreau Santee Sioux Tribe Mdewakanton, Wahpekute, Wahpeton South Dakota, US
Cheyenne River Indian Reservation Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe Minneconjou, Blackfoot, Two Kettle, Sans Arc South Dakota, US
Crow Creek Indian Reservation Crow Creek Sioux Tribe Lower Yanktonai South Dakota, US
Lower Brule Indian Reservation Lower Brule Sioux Tribe Brulé South Dakota, US
Yankton Sioux Indian Reservation Yankton Sioux Tribe Yankton South Dakota, US
Pine Ridge Indian Reservation Oglala Lakota Oglala, few Brulé South Dakota, US
Rosebud Indian Reservation Rosebud Sioux Tribe (also as Sicangu Lakota or Upper Brulé Sioux Nation)
(Sičháŋǧu Oyate)
Sićangu (Brulé), few Oglala South Dakota, US
Upper Sioux Indian Reservation Upper Sioux Community
(Pejuhutazizi Oyate)
Mdewakanton, Sisseton, Wahpeton Minnesota, US
Lower Sioux Indian Reservation Lower Sioux Indian Community Mdewakanton, Wahpekute Minnesota, US
Shakopee-Mdewakanton Indian Reservation
(Formerly Prior Lake Indian Reservation)
Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community Mdewakanton, Wahpekute Minnesota, US
Prairie Island Indian Community Prairie Island Indian Community Mdewakanton, Wahpekute Minnesota, US
Santee Indian Reservation Santee Sioux Nation Mdewakanton, Wahpekute Nebraska, US
Sioux Valley Dakota Nation Reserve, Fishing Station 62A Reserve* Sioux Valley First Nation Sisseton, Mdewakanton, Wahpeton, Wahpekute Manitoba, Canada
Dakota Plains Indian Reserve 6A Dakota Plains First Nation Wahpeton, Sisseton Manitoba, Canada
Dakota Tipi 1 Reserve Dakota Tipi First Nation Wahpeton Manitoba, Canada
Birdtail Creek 57 Reserve, Birdtail Hay Lands 57A Reserve, Fishing Station 62A Reserve* Birdtail Sioux First Nation Mdewakanton, Wahpekute, Yanktonai Manitoba, Canada
Canupawakpa Dakota First Nation, Oak Lake 59A Reserve, Fishing Station 62A Reserve* Canupawakpa Dakota First Nation Wahpekute, Wahpeton, Yanktonai Manitoba, Canada
Standing Buffalo 78 Reserve Standing Buffalo Dakota First Nation Sisseton, Wahpeton Saskatchewan, Canada
Whitecap Reserve Whitecap Dakota First Nation Wahpeton, Sisseton Saskatchewan, Canada
Wood Mountain 160 Reserve, Treaty Four Reserve Grounds Indian Reserve No. 77* Wood Mountain Assiniboine (Nakota), Hunkpapa Saskatchewan, Canada
Reserves shared with other First Nations
Historical relationships and conflicts
First contact with Europeans
The Dakota are first recorded to have resided at the source of the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes during the seventeenth century.[26] They were dispersed west in 1659 due to warfare with the Iroquois. By 1700 the Dakota Sioux were living in Wisconsin and Minnesota, at this time they exterminated the Wicosawan, another Siouan people in 1710. A split of branch known as the Lakota had migrated to present-day South Dakota.[27] Late in the 17th century, the Dakota entered into an alliance with French merchants.[28] The French were trying to gain advantage in the struggle for the North American fur trade against the English, who had recently established the Hudson's Bay Company.
Relationship with French traders
Main article: North American fur trade
The first recorded encounter between the Sioux and the French occurred when Radisson and Groseilliers reached what is now Wisconsin during the winter of 1659–60. Later visiting French traders and missionaries included Claude-Jean Allouez, Daniel Greysolon Duluth, and Pierre-Charles Le Sueur who wintered with Dakota bands in early 1700.[29] In 1736 a group of Sioux killed Jean Baptiste de La Vérendrye and twenty other men on an island in Lake of the Woods.[30] However, trade with the French continued until the French gave up North America in 1763.
Relationship with Pawnees
The Pawnee Indians had a long tradition of living in present-day Nebraska.[31] Their first land cession to the United States took place in 1833 when they sold land south of the Platte River.[32] The Massacre Canyon battlefield near Republican River is located within this area. Forty years and two land cessions later, the tribe lived in a small reservation on old Pawnee land, present-day Nance County. The Pawnees had kept a right to hunt buffalo on their vast, ancient range between the Loup, Platte and Republican rivers in Nebraska and south into northern Kansas, now territory of the United States. They had suffered continual attacks by the Lakota that increased violently in the early 1840s. [33] The Lakota lived north of the Pawnee. In 1868 they had entered into a treaty with the United States and agreed to live in the Great Sioux Reservation in present-day South Dakota. By Article 11 they (also) received a right to hunt along the Republican, almost 200 miles south of the reservation.[34] Both the Pawnee and the Lakota complained regularly over attacks by the other tribe.[35] An attempt to make peace in 1871 with the United States as intermediary came to nothing.[36]
The Massacre Canyon battle took place in Nebraska on August 5, 1873 near the Republican River. It was one of the last hostilities between the Pawnee and the Lakota and the last battle/massacre between Great Plains Indians in North America.[37] The massacre occurred when a large Oglala/Brulé Sioux war party of over 1,500 warriors led by Two Strike, Little Wound, and Spotted Tail attacked a band of Pawnee during their summer buffalo hunt. In the ensuing rout more than 75–100 Pawnees were killed, men with mostly women and children, the victims suffering mutilation and some set on fire.
The Pawnee were traveling along the west bank of the canyon, which runs south to the Republican River, when they were attacked. "A census taken at the Pawnee Agency in September, according [to] Agent Burgess. . ." (see "Massacre Canyon Monument" article in External Links section) found that "71 Pawnee warriors were killed, and 102 women and children killed", the victims brutally mutilated and scalped and others even set on fire"[38] although Trail Agent John Williamson's account states 156 Pawnee died (page 388). It is likely the death toll would have been higher, for Williamson noted ". . . a company of United States cavalry emerge[d] from the timber. When the Sioux saw the soldiers approaching they beat a hasty retreat." (page 387), although "Recently discovered military documents disproved the old theory" per the "Massacre Canyon Monument" article. This massacre is by some considered one of the factors that led to the Pawnees' decision to move to a reservation in Indian Territory in what is today Oklahoma.[39] The Pawnee disagree.[40]
Dakota War of 1862
Main article: Dakota War of 1862
Siege of New Ulm, August 19, 1862.
Drawing of the mass hanging of Dakota in Mankato, Minnesota
By 1862, shortly after a failed crop the year before and a winter starvation, the federal payment was late. The local traders would not issue any more credit to the Santee and one trader, Andrew Myrick, went so far as to say, "If they're hungry, let them eat grass."[41] On August 17, 1862 the Dakota War began when a few Santee men murdered a white farmer and most of his family. They inspired further attacks on white settlements along the Minnesota River. The Santee attacked the trading post. Later, settlers found Myrick among the dead with his mouth stuffed full of grass.[42]
On November 5, 1862 in Minnesota, in courts-martial, 303 Santee Sioux were found guilty of rape and murder of hundreds of American settlers. They were sentenced to be hanged. No attorneys or witnesses were allowed as a defense for the accused, and many were convicted in less than five minutes of court time with the judge.[43] President Abraham Lincoln commuted the death sentences of 284 of the warriors, while signing off on the hanging of 38 Santee men on December 26, 1862 in Mankato, Minnesota. It was the largest mass-execution in U.S. history, on US soil.[44]
Afterwards, the US suspended treaty annuities to the Dakota for four years and awarded the money to the white victims and their families. The men remanded by order of President Lincoln were sent to a prison in Iowa, where more than half died.[43]
During and after the revolt, many Santee and their kin fled Minnesota and Eastern Dakota to Canada, or settled in the James River Valley in a short-lived reservation before being forced to move to Crow Creek Reservation on the east bank of the Missouri.[43] A few joined the Yanktonai and moved further west to join with the Lakota bands to continue their struggle against the United States military.[43]
Others were able to remain in Minnesota and the east, in small reservations existing into the 21st century, including Sisseton-Wahpeton, Flandreau, and Devils Lake (Spirit Lake or Fort Totten) Reservations in the Dakotas. Some ended up in Nebraska, where the Santee Sioux Reservation today has a reservation on the south bank of the Missouri.
Those who fled to Canada now have descendants residing on nine small Dakota Reserves, five of which are located in Manitoba (Sioux Valley, Long Plain, Dakota Tipi, Birdtail Creek, and Oak Lake [Pipestone]) and the remaining four (Standing Buffalo, Moose Woods [White Cap], Round Plain [Wahpeton], and Wood Mountain) in Saskatchewan.
Red Cloud's War
Main article: Red Cloud's War
Red Cloud's War (also referred to as the Bozeman War) was an armed conflict between the Lakota and the United States Army in the Wyoming Territory and the Montana Territory from 1866 to 1868. The war was fought over control of the Powder River Country in north central Wyoming.
The war is named after Red Cloud, a prominent Sioux chief who led the war against the United States following encroachment into the area by the U.S. military. The war ended with the Treaty of Fort Laramie. The Sioux victory in the war led to their temporarily preserving their control of the Powder River country.[45]
Great Sioux War of 1876
Main article: Great Sioux War of 1876
The Great Sioux War of 1876, also known as the Black Hills War, was a series of battles and negotiations which occurred in 1876 and 1877 between the Lakota Sioux, Northern Cheyenne, and the United States. The cause of the war was the desire of the U.S. government to obtain ownership of the Black Hills. Gold had been discovered in the Black Hills, settlers began to encroach onto Native American lands, and the Sioux and Cheyenne refused to cede ownership to the U.S. Traditionally, the United States military and historians place the Lakota at the center of the story, especially given their numbers, but some Indians believe the Cheyenne were the primary target of the U.S. campaign.[46]
The earliest engagement was the Battle of Powder River, and the final battle was the Wolf Mountain. Included are the Battle of the Rosebud, Battle of Warbonnet Creek, Battle of Slim Buttes, Battle of Cedar Creek, and the Dull Knife Fight.
Among the many battles and skirmishes of the war was the Battle of the Little Bighorn, often known as Custer's Last Stand, the most storied of the many encounters between the U.S. army and mounted Plains Indians. The Battle of the Little Bighorn, known to the Lakota and other Plains Indians as the Battle of the Greasy Grass[47] and also commonly referred to as Custer's Last Stand, was an armed engagement between combined forces of the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes and the 7th Cavalry Regiment of the United States Army. The battle, which resulted in the defeat of US forces, was the most significant action of the Great Sioux War of 1876. It took place on June 25–26, 1876, along the Little Bighorn River in the Crow Indian Reservation in southeastern Montana Territory.[48]
The fight was an overwhelming victory for the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho, who were led by several major war leaders, including Crazy Horse and Chief Gall, and had been inspired by the visions of Sitting Bull (Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake). The US 7th Cavalry, a force of 700 men, suffered a major defeat while under the command of Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer (formerly a brevetted major general during the American Civil War). Five of the 7th Cavalry's twelve companies were annihilated and Custer was killed, as were two of his brothers, a nephew and a brother-in-law. The total US casualty count included 268 dead and 55 severely wounded (six died later from their wounds),[49] including four Crow Indian scouts and at least two Arikara Indian scouts. The Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument honors those who fought on both sides.
That Indian victory notwithstanding, the U.S. leveraged national resources to force the Indians to surrender, primarily by attacking and destroying their encampments and property. The Great Sioux War took place under the presidencies of Ulysses S. Grant and Rutherford B. Hayes. The Agreement of 1877 (19 Stat. 254, enacted February 28, 1877) officially annexed Sioux land and permanently established Indian reservations.
Wounded Knee Massacre
Main article: Wounded Knee Massacre
Mass grave for the dead Lakota after massacre of Wounded Knee.
The massacre at Wounded Knee Creek was the last major armed conflict between the Lakota and the United States. It was described as a "massacre" by General Nelson A. Miles in a letter to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs.[50]
On December 29, 1890, five hundred troops of the 7th Cavalry Regiment, supported by four Hotchkiss guns (a lightweight artillery piece capable of rapid fire), surrounded an encampment of the Lakota bands of the Miniconjou and Hunkpapa[51] with orders to escort them to the railroad for transport to Omaha, Nebraska.
By the time it was over, 25 troopers and more than 150 Lakota Sioux lay dead, including men, women, and children. It remains unknown which side was responsible for the first shot; some of the soldiers are believed to have been the victims of "friendly fire" because the shooting took place at point-blank range in chaotic conditions.[52] Around 150 Lakota are believed to have fled the chaos, many of whom may have died from hypothermia.[53]
Wounded Knee incident
Main article: Wounded Knee incident
The Wounded Knee incident began February 27, 1973 when the town of Wounded Knee, South Dakota was seized by followers of the American Indian Movement. The occupiers controlled the town for 71 days while various state and federal law enforcement agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the United States Marshals Service laid siege. Two members of A.I.M. were killed by gunfire during the incident.
Republic of Lakotah
Main article: Republic of Lakotah
The Lakota Freedom Delegation, a group of controversial Native American activists, declared on December 19, 2007 the Lakota were withdrawing from all treaties signed with the United States to regain sovereignty over their nation. One of the activists, Russell Means, claimed that the action is legal and cites natural, international and US law.[54] The group considers Lakota to be a sovereign nation, although as yet the state is generally unrecognized. The proposed borders reclaim thousands of square kilometres of North and South Dakota, Wyoming, Nebraska and Montana.[55] It is to be noted that not all leaders of the Lakota Tribal Governments support or recognize the declaration.
Foster care system
Throughout the decades, thousands of Native American children were forcibly removed from their homes and sent to boarding schools with a primary objective of assimilating Native American children and youth into Euro-American culture, while at the same time providing a basic education in Euro-American subject matters. Many children lost knowledge of their culture and languages, as well as faced physical and sexual abuse at these schools. In 1978, the government tried to put an end to these boarding schools (and placement into foster families) with the Indian Child Welfare Act (ICWA), which says except in the rarest circumstances, Native American children must be placed with their relatives or tribes. It also says states must do everything it can to keep native families together.
In 2011, the Lakota made national news when NPR's investigative series called Lost Children, Shattered Families aired.[56] It exposed what many critics consider to be the "kidnapping" of Lakota children from their homes by the state of South Dakota's Department of Social Services.[56] The NPR investigation found South Dakota has the most cases which fail to abide by the ICWA. In South Dakota, Native American children make up less than 15 percent of the child population, yet they make up more than half of the children in foster care.[56] The state receives thousands of dollars from the federal government for every child it takes from a family, and in some cases the state gets even more money if the child is Native American.[56]
Lakota activists Madonna Thunder Hawk and Chase Iron Eyes worked with the Lakota People's Law Project as they sought to end what they claimed were unlawful seizures of Native American Lakota children in South Dakota, and stop the state practice of placing these children in non-Native homes.[57] They are currently working to redirect federal funding away from the state of South Dakota's Department of Social Systems to a new tribal foster care programs.[57] In 2015, in response to the investigative reports by NPR, the Lakota People's Law Project as well as the coalition of all nine Lakota/Dakota reservations in South Dakota, the Bureau of Indian Affairs updated the ICWA guidelines to give more strength to tribes to intervene on behalf of the children, stating, "The updated guidelines establish that an Indian child, parent or Indian custodian, or tribe may petition to invalidate an action if the Act or guidelines have been violated, regardless of which party's rights were violated. This approach promotes compliance with ICWA and reflects that ICWA is intended to protect the rights of each of these parties."[58] The new guidelines also not only prevent courts from taking children away based on socioeconomic status but give a strict definition of what is to be considered harmful living conditions.[58] Previously, the state of South Dakota used "being poor" as harmful.[58]
Protest against the Dakota Access oil pipeline
Main article: Dakota Access Pipeline protests
Demonstration in support of Standing Rock to stop DAPL occurred all over the world throughout 2016 and in March 2017 in Washington, DC
In the summer of 2016, Sioux Indians and the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe began a protest against construction of the Dakota Access oil pipeline, also known as the Bakken pipeline, which, if completed, is designed to carry hydrofracked crude oil from the Bakken oil fields of North Dakota to the oil storage and transfer hub of Patoka, Illinois.[59] The pipeline travels only half a mile north of the Standing Rock Sioux reservation and is designed to pass underneath the Missouri River and upstream of the reservation, causing many concerns over the tribe's drinking water safety, environmental protection, and harmful impacts on culture.[60][61] The pipeline company claims that the pipeline will provide jobs, reduce American dependence on foreign oil and reduce the price of gas.[62]
The conflict sparked a nationwide debate and much news media coverage. Thousands of indigenous and non-indigenous supporters joined the protest, and several camp sites were set up south of the construction zone. The protest was peaceful, and alcohol, drugs and firearms were not allowed at the campsite or the protest site.[63] On August 23, Standing Rock Sioux Tribe released a list of 87 tribal governments who wrote resolutions, proclamations and letters of support stating their solidarity with Standing Rock and the Sioux people.[64] Since then, many more Native American organizations, environmental groups and civil rights groups have joined the effort in North Dakota, including the Black Lives Matter movement, Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders, the 2016 Green Party presidential candidate Jill Stein and her running mate Ajamu Baraka, and many more.[65] The Washington Post called it a "National movement for Native Americans."[66]
Notable Sioux
Chiefs Red Cloud and American Horse (1891)
Running Antelope, a Hunkpapa Lakota Chief, depicted on the US 1899 $5 silver certificate.
Šóta (Old Chief Smoke) — an original Oglala Lakota head chief
Siŋté Glešká (Spotted Tail) — Brulé chief who resisted joining Red Cloud's War
Thaóyate Dúta (Little Crow/His Red Nation) — Mdewakanton Dakota chief and warrior
Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake (Sitting Bull) — Famous Hunkpapa Lakota chief and holy man
Tȟašúŋke Witkó (Crazy Horse) — Famous Oglala Lakota warrior
Maȟpíya Ičáȟtagye (Touch the Clouds) – Minneconjou Lakota chief and warrior
Maȟpíya Lúta (Red Cloud) — Famous Oglala Lakota chief and spokesperson
Heȟáka Sápa (Black Elk) — Famous Oglala Lakota medicine and holy man
Ité Omáǧažu (Rain-in-the-Face) — Hunkpapa Lakota war chief
Tȟáȟča Hušté (Lame Deer) — Mineconju Lakota holy man and spiritual preserver
Wí Sápa (Black Moon) — Miniconjou Lakota chief
Matȟó Héȟloǧeča (Hollow Horn Bear) — Sicangu (Brulé) Lakota leader
Phizí (Gall) — Hunkpapa Lakota war chief
Ógle Lúta (Red Shirt) — Oglala Lakota warrior and chief
Inkpáduta (Scarlet Point/Red End) — Wahpekute Dakota war chief
Waŋbdí Tháŋka (Big Eagle) — Mdewakanton Dakota chief
Tamaha (One Eye/Standing Moose) — Mdewekanton Dakota chief
Óta Kté (Luther Standing Bear/Plenty Kill) — Oglala Lakota writer and actor
Núŋp Kaȟpá (Two Strike) — Sicangu Lakota chief
Čhetáŋ Sápa (Black Hawk) — Itázipčho Lakota ledger artist
Tȟatȟóka Íŋyaŋke (Running Antelope) — Hunkpapa Lakota chief
Matȟó Watȟákpe (John Grass/Charging Bear) — Sihasapa Lakota chief
Tȟatȟáŋka Ská (White Bull) — Miniconjou Lakota warrior and nephew of Sitting Bull
Waŋblí Kté (Kill Eagle) — Sihasapa Lakota warrior and leader
Šúŋkawakȟáŋ Tȟó (Blue Horse) — Oglala chief, warrior, educator and statesman
Matȟó Wayúhi (Conquering Bear) — Sičháŋǧu Lakota chief
Čhetáŋ Kiŋyáŋ (Flying Hawk) — Oglala Lakota chief, philosopher, and historian
Matȟó Wanáȟtake (Kicking Bear) — Oglala born Miniconjou Lakota warrior and chief
Uŋpȟáŋ Glešká (Spotted Elk/Big Foot) — Miniconjou Lakota chief
Hé Waŋžíča (Lone Horn) — Miniconjou Lakota chief
Kȟaŋǧí Yátapi (Crow King/Medicine Bag That Burns) — Hunkpapa Lakota war chief
Wičháša Tȟáŋkala (Little Big Man/Charging Bear) — Oglala Lakota Warrior
Šúŋka Khúčiyela (Low Dog) — Oglala Lakota chief and warrior
Wašíčuŋ Tȟašúŋke (American Horse) ("The Younger") — Oglala Lakota Chief
Wašíčuŋ Tȟašúŋke (American Horse) ("The Elder") — Oglala Lakota Chief
Tȟašúŋke Kȟokípȟapi (Young Man Afraid Of His Horses) — Oglala Lakota Chief
Ištáȟba (Sleepy Eye) — Sisseton Dakota chief
Ohíyes'a (Charles Eastman) — Author, physician and reformer
Colonel Gregory "Pappy" Boyington — World War II Fighter Ace and Medal of Honor recipient; 1/4 Sioux
Charging Thunder (1877–1929), Blackfoot Sioux chief who was part of Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show in 1903, but remained in England when the show returned to America. He married Josephine, an American horse trainer who had just given birth to their first child, Bessie, and together they settled in Darwen, before moving to Gorton. His name became George Edward Williams, after registering with the British immigration authorities to enable him to find work. Williams ended up working at the Belle Vue Zoo as an elephant keeper. He died from pneumonia on July 28, 1929. His interment was at Gorton's cemetery.
Óta Kté (Luther Standing Bear) — Author, educator, philosopher and actor
Ziŋtkála-Šá (Gertrude Simmons Bonnin) — Author, educator, musician and political activist
Woodrow Keeble, Medal of Honor recipient.
Contemporary Sioux people are listed under the tribes to which they belong.
Category:Sioux people
Assiniboine people
Lakota
Hunkpapa
Oglala
Sicangu
Dakota people
Sisseton Wahpeton Oyate of the Lake Traverse Indian Reservation
Woodrow W. Keeble
By individual tribe
Assiniboine and Sioux Tribes of the Fort Peck Indian Reservation
Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe of the Cheyenne River Reservation
Crow Creek Sioux Tribe of the Crow Creek Reservation
Flandreau Santee Sioux Tribe
Lower Brule Sioux Tribe of the Lower Brule Reservation
Rosebud Sioux Tribe of the Rosebud Indian Reservation
Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community
Sisseton Wahpeton Oyate
Standing Rock Sioux Tribe of North & South Dakota
Yankton Sioux Tribe of South Dakota
Spirit Lake Dakota Tribe
In popular media
Play media
Video clip of a dance performed by a Sioux tribe from Buffalo Bill's Wild West show. This is part of a group of films constituting the first appearance of Native Americans in motion pictures
The Richard Harris film A Man Called Horse and its two sequels are fictional accounts of Sioux people
The HBO movie Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee depicts the relocation and reservations of the people from the Sioux perspective, based on the book by Dee Brown.
The films Dances with Wolves and Thunderheart contain fictional depictions of the Sioux People.
The expansion pack Thrones and Patriots to the 2003 RTS game Rise of Nations included the Lakota as a playable nation.
The expansion pack The WarChiefs to the 2005 RTS game Age of Empires III employs the Sioux as a playable civilization.
A Manitoba Historical Plaque was erected at the Spruce Woods Provincial Park by the province to commemorate Assiniboin (Nakota) First Nation's role in Manitoba's heritage.[67]
^ Norris, Tina; Vines, Paula L.; Hoeffel, Elizabeth M. (January 2012). "The American Indian and Alaska Native Population: 2010" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. United States Department of Commerce. Retrieved 9 September 2012.
^ for a report on the long-established blunder of misnaming as "Nakota", the Yankton and the Yanktonai, see the article Nakota
^ a b c d e f Johnson, Michael (2000). The Tribes of the Sioux Nation. Osprey Publishing Oxford. ISBN 1-85532-878-X.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Ullrich, Jan (2008). New Lakota Dictionary (Incorporating the Dakota Dialects of Yankton-Yanktonai and Santee-Sisseton). Lakota Language Consortium. pp. 1–2. ISBN 0-9761082-9-1.
^ Learn about the history of the Sioux Indians. Indians.org. Retrieved on 2012-07-08.
^ a b "Sioux". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 2007-09-05.
^ a b c d e f Riggs, Stephen R. (1893). Dakota Grammar, Texts, and Ethnography. Washington Government Printing Office, Ross & Haines, Inc. ISBN 0-87018-052-5.
^ "a Dakota". The Ojibwe People's Dictionary. University of Minnesota Board of Regents. Retrieved 29 August 2015.
^ Ningewance, Patricia M. (2009). Zagataagan, A Northern Ojibwe Dictionary, Anishinaabemowin Ikidowinan gaa-niibidebii'igadegin dago gaye ewemitigoozhiibii'igaadegin, Ojibwe-English Volume 2. 61 King St. Sioux Lookout ON. Canada: Kwayaciiwin Education Resource Centre. p. 81. ISBN 978-1-897579-15-2.
^ a b c d Medicine, Beatrice (1985). "Child Socialization among Native Americans: The Lakota (Sioux) in Cultural Context". Wicazo Sa Review. 1 (2): 23. doi:10.2307/1409119.
^ a b "Plains Indian - Credo Reference". search.credoreference.com. Retrieved 2019-06-30.
^ "Encyclopedia of the Great Plains | NATIVE AMERICAN GENDER ROLES". plainshumanities.unl.edu. Retrieved 2019-06-30.
^ a b c d e f g h i Hassrick, Royal B.; Maxwell, Dorothy; Bach, Cile M. (1964). The Sioux: Life and Customs of a Warrior Society. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-0607-7.
^ a b c d e f Mails, Thomas E. (1973). Dog Soldiers, Bear Men, and Buffalo Women: A Study of the Societies and Cults of the Plains Indians. Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-217216-X.
^ a b Davis, Mary B. (1994). Native America in the Twentieth Century; an Encyclopedia. New York and London: Garland Publishing, Inc. p. 538. ISBN 0-8240-4846-6.
^ Gill, Sam D.; Sullivan, Irene F. (1992). Dictionary of Native American Mythology. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, Inc. pp. 101, 291–292. ISBN 0-87436-621-6.
^ a b c Koskan, Danie (November 15, 2014). "Native American funerals have changed but retain unique qualities". Rapid City Journal. Retrieved May 6, 2019.
^ Doyle, Susan B. (2000): Journeys to the Land of Gold. Emigrant Diaries from the Bozeman Trail, 1863-1866. Helena
^ Wood, W. Raymond and Thomas D. Thiessen (1987): Early Fur Trade on the Northern Plains. Canadian Traders Among the Mandan and Hidatsa Indians, 1738-1818. Norman and London
^ a b Mooney, James. The Ghost Dance Religion and Wounded Knee. New York: Dover Publications; 1896
^ Parks, D. R.; DeMallie, R. J. (1992). "Sioux, Assiniboine, and Stoney Dialects: a Classification". Anthropological Linguistics. 34 (1–4).
^ "Santee Sioux Nation History". Nebraska Indian Community College. Retrieved 22 November 2018.
^ OneRoad, Amos E.; Skinner, Alanson (2003). Being Dakota: Tales and Traditions of the Sisseton and Wahpeton. Minnesota Historical Society. ISBN 0-87351-453-X.
^ not to be confused with the Oglala thiyóšpaye bearing the same name, "Unkpatila", the most famous member of which was Crazy Horse
^ "Enrollment Ordinance". tribalresourcecenter.org. Archived from the original on 2007-09-28.
^ Hyde, George E. (1984). Red Cloud's Folk: A History of the Oglala Sioux Indians. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-8061-1520-3.
^ Johnson, Michael; Smith, Jonathan (2000). Tribes of the Sioux Nation. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. p. 3. ISBN 1-85532-878-X.
^ van Houten, Gerry (1991). Corporate Canada An Historical Outline. Toronto: Progress Books. pp. 6–8. ISBN 0-919396-54-2.
^ Gibbon, Guy E (2003). The Sioux: The Dakota and Lakota Nations. Blackwell. pp. 48–52. ISBN 1-55786-566-3.
^ "Where is the real Massacre Island?". Archived from the original on 2013-06-14. Retrieved 2013-04-28.
^ Ludwickson, John: Historic Indian Tribes. Ethnohistory and Archaeology. Nebraska History, Vol. 75, No. 1 (1994), pp. 132-157, p. 140.
^ Kappler, Charles J.: Indian Affairs. Laws and Treaties. Washington, 1904. Vol. 2, pp. 416-418.
^ Kappler, Charles J.: Indian Affairs. Laws and Treaties. Washington, 1904. Vol. 2, pp. 416.
^ Kappler, Charles J.: Indian Affairs. Laws and Treaties. Washington, 1904. Vol. 2, pp. 1002.
^ See e.g. Blaine, Royce Martha: Pawnee Passage, 1870-1875. Norman and London, 1990, pp. 82-142. Poole, D.C.: Among the Sioux of Dakota. Eighteen Months' Experience as an Indian Agent, 1868-1870. St. Paul, 1988, pp. 58,62 and 131.
^ Riley, Paul D.: The Battle of Massacre Canyon. Nebraska History, Vol. 54, No. 2 (1973), pp. 221-249, p. 223.
^ The Nebraska Indian Wars reader, 1865–1877 By R. Eli Paul p.88 Publisher: University of Nebraska Press (April 1, 1998) Language: English ISBN 0-8032-8749-6
^ The Chicago Tribune, Saturday, August 30, 1873; New York Times, August 21, 1873 (reported by William Burgess, Pawnee Indian agent)
^ Massacre Along the Medicine Road: A Social History of the Indian War of 1864, p. 389, By Ronald Becher. Publisher: Caxton Press (March 1, 1999) Language: English ISBN 0-87004-387-0
^ Blaine, Garland James and Martha Royce Blaine: Pa-Re-Su A-Ri-Ra-Ke: The Hunters that were massacred. Nebraska History, Vol. 58, No. 3 (1977), pp. 342-358, pp. 356-357.
^ Dillon, Richard (1993). North American Indian Wars. City: Booksales. p. 126. ISBN 1-55521-951-9.
^ Steil, Mark; Post, Tim (2002-09-26). "Let them eat grass". Minnesota Public Radio. Retrieved 2011-09-21.
^ a b c d War for the Plains. Time-Life Books. 1994. ISBN 0-8094-9445-0.
^ Steil, Mark; Post, Tim (2002-09-26). "Execution and expulsion". Minnesota Public Radio. Retrieved 2011-10-02.
^ * Brown, Dee (1970). Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee, ch. 6. Bantam Books. ISBN 0-553-11979-6.
^ Liberty, Margot (2006). "Cheyenne Primacy: The Tribes' Perspective As Opposed To That Of The United States Army; A Possible Alternative To "The Great Sioux War Of 1876". Friends of the Little Bighorn. Retrieved January 13, 2008.
^ "The Battle of the Greasy Grass". Smithsonian. Retrieved 7 December 2014.
^ Kappler, Charles J (1904): Indian Affairs. Laws and Treaties. Vol. 2. Washington, pp. 1008-1011.
^ Scott, Douglas D; et al. (2013). Archaeological Perspectives on the Battle of the Little Bighorn. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 244. ISBN 0806132922. Archived from the original on January 17, 2017.
^ Letter: General Nelson A. Miles to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, March 13, 1917.
^ Liggett, Lorie (1998). "Wounded Knee Massacre – An Introduction". Bowling Green State University. Retrieved 2007-03-02.
^ Strom, Karen (1995). "The Massacre at Wounded Knee". hanksville.org.
^ Jackson, Joe (2016-10-25). Black Elk: The Life of an American Visionary. Macmillan. ISBN 9780374253301.
^ Descendants of Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse break away from US, Agence France-Presse news Archived 2008-08-21 at the Wayback Machine
^ Harlan, Bill (21 December 2007). "Lakota group secedes from U.S." Rapid City Journal. Archived from the original on 12 July 2009. Retrieved 2007-12-28.
^ a b c d Laura, Sullivan (2011-10-25). "Native Foster Care: Lost Children, Shattered Families". NPR. Retrieved 2018-12-11.
^ a b "Reuniting Children and Families". Lakota People's Law Project. Retrieved 2018-12-12.
^ a b c "Feds Strengthen ICWA Guidelines". Lakota People's Law Project. 2015-02-26. Retrieved 2018-12-12.
^ Healy, Jack (2016-08-23). "Occupying the Prairie: Tensions Rise as Tribes Move to Block a Pipeline". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2016-08-24.
^ "More Than A Year After Spill, Colorado's Gold King Mine Named Superfund Site". Retrieved 2016-09-08.
^ "Pipeline Spills Oil into Yellowstone River Again". 2015-01-21. Retrieved 2016-09-08.
^ "What is the benefit of the Dakota Access Pipeline? - Dakota Access Pipeline Facts". Dakota Access Pipeline Facts. Retrieved 2018-02-02.
^ Thompson, Dave (2016-08-18). "Dakota Access Pipeline construction stopped". news.prairiepublic.org.
^ "Native Nations Rally in Support of Standing Rock Sioux". Indian Country Today Media Network.com. 2016-08-23. Archived from the original on 2016-08-25. Retrieved 2016-08-24.
^ "Arrest warrants issued for Jill Stein, running mate after N.D. protest". Retrieved 2016-09-08.
^ "Showdown over oil pipeline becomes a national movement for Native Americans". Washington Post. Retrieved 2016-09-08.
^ Manitoba Plaque. Gov.mb.ca. Retrieved on 2012-07-08.
Chaky, Doreen (2014). Terrible justice: Sioux Chiefs and U.S. Soldiers on the Upper Missouri, 1854–1868. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 9780870624148.
Hassrick, Royal B (1977). The Sioux: life and customs of a warrior society. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-0607-7.
Gibbon, Guy E (2003). The Sioux: the Dakota and Lakota nations. Blackwell. ISBN 1-55786-566-3.
McLaughlin, Marie L (2010). Myths and Legends of the Sioux. BiblioBazaar. ISBN 978-1-141-80554-9.
Hyde, George E (1993). A Sioux chronicle. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-2483-0.
Standing Bear, Luther; Brininstool, E A (2006). My People the Sioux. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-9332-1.
In the Shadow of Wounded Knee August 2012 National Geographic (magazine) with Reservation map history
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sioux.
"Sioux" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). 1911.
"Sioux," Encyclopedia of the Great Plains
"Sioux," Countries and Their Cultures
Myths And Legends Of The Sioux
Lakota Sioux – Their Lands, Allies and Enemies
Russell Means on late Lakota (Sioux) History
"Dakotas" . The American Cyclopædia. 1879.
Authority control
This page was last edited on 4 July 2019, at 13:15

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Our ancestors considered the hearth as the focus point of their homes. It was where people cooked and enjoyed their food. Its fires warmed them and gave them light to read or enjoy other activities after the sun went down.
Despite the massive changes in the way we live during the last century, the kitchen remains everyone's favourite room.
People are drawn to its warmth and pleasant smells. No one has to worry about spilling something on the furniture or carpet. Children like to do their homework at the kitchen table before or after dinner. It is the room where the loudest jokes are told during a party.
The owners of a newly renovated home in the university area of the city made sure their kitchen and dining areas were inviting for family and friends to enjoy good food, fun times and to just hang out.
A brick fireplace is the anchor on the main floor. The divider between the eating and living areas, the fireplace is a focal point and a nod to the history of the home. It is one of the few things remaining from the original building, a camp built on Ramsey Lake more than 50 years ago.
The owners, Karen and Greg, have roots in Sudbury and were living in southern Ontario when they decided to come home. The couple and their two beautiful daughters enjoy outdoor sports in all seasons, so they were attracted to this prime location that has a sandy beach. In the winter, they can hop on their snowmobiles and be across the lake in minutes.
They took possession of the home—2,000 square feet of living space on the main floor and about 1,000 square feet of finished space on the lower level on a half acre property—last June.
They had definite ideas about how they wanted to transform the building including tearing out walls to make small rooms larger and to create modern open-concept spaces. Toppazini Construction did the major renovations which included removing walls, replacing windows, adding a new furnace, tearing out the kitchen, and installing whitewash hardwood flooring.
The house was ready to move into just before Thanksgiving. But there was still work to be done. Anne Marie McNamara of Chill Interiors was contacted to help make the house reflect the family's personal style.
"I work with what the clients have," to pull a room together, McNamara said.
In this case, the clients had all the basics. She looked at their furniture and accessories with fresh eyes and was able to arrange them in new ways.
For example, the owners had two tangerine faux suede couches McNamara suggested large brown satin pillows as accents to warm up the living room as well as complement the dark brown cabinetry in the kitchen. The addition of aqua accents "snap" the room together.
"Colour is the most important thing in decorating, said McNamara, who helped the owners select wall colours.
The owners selected neutral earth tones for their walls. The main living areas and hall are painted Benjamin Moore's Huntington Beige, the trim is Monterey White.
The walls on the right side of the hall were painted a lighter shade to open up the space, said McNamara.
The long narrow hall leads to the master suite, the children's bedrooms, the main bathroom, and the laundry room. Rain glass doors on bedroom and bathroom doors also allow light into the hallway.
The couple took out walls between two bedrooms to create a private spa. There are no doors on the ensuite bath but the use of glass block shower system and toilet allow for privacy, while letting the sunshine in.
The bedroom walls are painted Nantucket Grey which has a sage green tone. The colour is cool, refreshing and inviting, like the sea.
The living areas of the home on the main floor all have great views of the lake. Double glass doors lead from the kitchen/dining area to an outdoor deck.
A door leads from the kitchen to the garage where the family enjoys barbecuing throughout the year. The garage currently serves as the "mud room," and there is a large built-in closet in the kitchen to hold coats and boots.
Chocolate brown kitchen cabinets and a large granite covered island with cooktop, built-in microwave and dishwasher were custom built by a St. Charles cabinet maker. Stainless steel appliances balance the dark cabinetry.
The family eats many meals at the island, but they also have a formal dining table that is used for special meals and entertaining. A large floor-to-ceiling mirror is placed against the backside of the fireplace and it defines the dining space.
McNamara helped to select a contemporary chandelier hung by hydraulic cable.
The owners of this impressive property are still working on their plans. McNamara will be consulted on window treatments.
"If I don't have it in my store, we sometimes go shopping," said McNamara.
Many of the discussions she has with the owners about plans for the home's decor take place in the kitchen, the gathering place of this modern home.


https://holidaycheapest.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/united-states-of-america-u-s-a-t.jpg 360 480 admin admin2019-04-18 15:52:502019-04-18 15:52:50United States of America (U.S.A.) Top 10 Travel Destinations 2019.
Best Beaches of America.. Travel Destinations..
https://holidaycheapest.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/best-beaches-of-america-travel-d.jpg 360 480 admin admin2019-03-04 12:39:282019-03-04 12:39:28Best Beaches of America.. Travel Destinations..
The 10 Safest States In America For 2018.
https://holidaycheapest.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/the-10-safest-states-in-america.jpg 360 480 admin admin2019-03-03 12:34:282019-03-03 12:34:28The 10 Safest States In America For 2018.
https://holidaycheapest.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/13-easiest-countries-for-america.jpg 720 1280 admin admin2019-02-26 12:17:192019-02-26 12:17:1913 Easiest Countries For Americans To Move To!


text:
Bergens Skillingsbank was a Norwegian bank based in Bergen, Norway. It was established as a savings bank in 1857, but converted to a commercial bank in 1919. In 1993 it took over Norges Hypotekinstitutt. In 1997 it changed its name to Bergensbanken, the same year as the company upgraded its offices. In 1999 it was bought by Handelsbanken and amalgamated.

References

Defunct banks of Norway
Companies based in Bergen
1999 disestablishments in Norway
Banks established in 1857
Banks disestablished in 1999
Mutual savings banks in Norway
Norwegian companies established in 1857

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Нотура Дарвіна (Nothura darwinii) — птах, що належить до родини тинамо́вих (Tinamidae). Зазвичай зустрічається на високогірних луках у південних Андах у Південній Америці.

Етимологія
Свою видову назву darwinii птах отримав на честь видатного англійського натураліста Чарлза Дарвіна.

Поширення
Поширений на території таких країн Південної Америки, як Перу, Болівія та Аргентина.

Примітки

Птахи, описані 1867
Птахи Південної Америки
Тинамуподібні
Птахи Аргентини
Птахи Болівії
Птахи Перу


text:
Mundo Azteca
The Back Page
The Daily Aztec
El Alma
Senior Farewell: Jocelyn Moran
Kelly Smiley
by Jocelyn Moran, Managing Editor
Crying in my bed in my dorm room the first two weeks of my freshman year because of how homesick I was doesn't feel like too long ago. But then I think about who I am right now, and then it begins to feel like it was hella long ago.
People always tell you "you're going to find yourself in college," and I didn't really understand what that meant. I don't feel like "I found myself," but I do feel like I gained a sense of purpose and an identity I am proud of.
I am proud to say I am Latina, a journalist and a daughter of immigrants, and that is something I would not have been able to say when I stepped onto campus four years ago.
If I went through all the ups and downs of college these past four years to be able to say I am proud to be all of that, it sure was worth it. The last four years by no means was easy. It was a lot of stress, anxiety and crying, but all of that showed me what I was capable of.
And one thing is for sure. If it wasn't for the opportunities The Daily Aztec offered me and the friendships I made through this newspaper, I don't think I would have been able to get through all of it.
Covering protests, political events and stories within marginalized communities showed me why I chose journalism, it showed me the power the capability to tell one's story has.
I remember walking in The Daily Aztec office my freshman year and feeling my heart beat so fast. I wasn't very independent growing up, so going to an office, knocking on the door and talking to an editor was a big deal for me.
Patrick Carr, thank you for editing all those horrible first articles I wrote. Your leadership skills and your willingness to help me influenced the kind of editor I wanted to be one day.
Emely and Kayla, y'all definitely pushed me my sophomore year. Writing two stories a week on top of tests and homework revealed to me how much I loved to write because if I didn't, I sure wouldn't have been staying up until 3 a.m. to get those articles in.
Andrew, Andrea, thank you for believing in me to take on Mundo Azteca when I wasn't so sure I could do it myself.
Being the editor of the Spanish section gave me a new responsibility: leading a group of writers in representing the Latinx community through their stories.
Through this section and the National Association of Hispanic Journalists SDSU chapter, I was able to build a community of Latinx student journalists whose goal was to make a difference through their stories and who was determined to advocate for more diversity in newsrooms.
Which leads me to the next person I for sure have to thank: Dr. Nate. I don't think you realize how much our weekly conversations helped me these past two years at SDSU.
You believed in me when I didn't believe in myself, and you never told me the kind of leader I should be, rather you gave me the resources and guidance I needed to figure that out for myself. And for that, I am forever thankful.
Nicole Vargas, you tore apart my resume, but I never walked away from your office discouraged. You gave me the pep talks to go after my first internships. And even though you weren't at SDSU this past year, you've been there to offer me advice.
Jay, thanks for letting me come into your office to freak out about jobs after college.
To the future student journalists of The Daily Aztec, there is power in journalism. The stories you tell matter, and you have the power to make a difference.
I will forever be grateful for the friendships I made at The Daily Aztec.
Jasmine Bermudez, gosh, I have no idea how we didn't become friends before, but I sure don't want to think about what my life would be without our daily conversations about what makes us laugh, mad or sad. I can't wait for you to be the madrina of my children.
Emely, your kind heart and your advice got me through some of the most stressful times.
Kemi, I will always appreciate the conversations we were able to have this last year. You light up the room, and I can't wait to see all the amazing things you do.
Tristi, you're going to be a badass sports reporter. David, I can't wait to see you on camera. And Will, I really could not stand you always tryna steal my stories our freshman and sophomore years.
But even through the many, many (it was a lot) arguments, I have appreciated working with you the last couple of years. You have already created change through your stories, and I know you will continue to put those in power in check, I can't wait to read all of it.
The Daily Aztec, I will miss you more than I thought I would.
Alejandra, Diane, I know you are both capable of leading NAHJ and Mundo Azteca, I'll be here if you need anything.
Kyle Betz, I'll be rooting for you. You and Aaron will make one heck of a team.
Bella, you are going to be a great leader.
And most importantly, my family. Thanks mom and dad, you put your faith in me, and you helped me along the way. Your love and guidance led me to this point.
Tía Bremely, Tía Dunia, your texts from eight hours away reminded me of why I was here. To my familia, los quiero mucho.
Lo hice. I can, and I did.
Tags: Jocelyn Moran, Senior Farewell
Commenting on our site is a privilege. We want our readers to add their point of view to every story but ask that they keep their comments relevant to the topic at hand. We will remove comments and possibly ban users who do the following: (1) Use vulgar or racist language, (2) Threaten harm of any sort to staff, commenters or the subject of an article, and (3) Leave spam in their comment. If you have questions about these rules, please contact our Editor in Chief at: editor@thedailyaztec.com
SDSU selects contractor for Mission Valley campus expansion
No, 'toxic masculinity' does not exist
State audit: SDSU students paying more for parking despite fewer spaces
University announces $250 million contract for new stadium
Drone food delivery tested at SDSU prior to city-wide launch
Senior Farewell: Will Fritz
Senior Farewell: Kemi Giwa
Senior Farewell: David Santillan
Senior Farewell: Abraham Jewett
Senior Farewell: Julianna Ress
Senior Farewell: Lauren J. Mapp
Senior Farewell: Tristi Rodriguez
A guide to San Diego's summer concerts
Senior Farewell: Stephan Early
SDSU's graduating seniors plan their next steps


When I download files (PDF's for example) the files try to open after they are finished downloading. Is there a reason for this, or preferably a way I can stop this from happening?
I am running Fetch 4.0.2 and OS X.
To stop that from happening, disable the relevant Post-processing action (choose "Post-processing..." from the Customize menu to bring up the list of actions and enable/disable them).


This is a really tasty hummus with a delightful rich colour. Hummus is a great way of adding protein, fiber, and calcium to your day. It gives long-lasting energy and prevents blood sugar spikes. It's naturally gluten-free, dairy-free and nut free, and incredibly versatile. Use it in sandwiches, wraps, or as a dip.