text:
THE

BOTANICAL

ILLUSTRATOR'S

HANDBOOK

_Sally Pinhey_

THE CROWOOD PRESS
First published in 2014 by

The Crowood Press Ltd

Ramsbury, Marlborough

Wiltshire SN8 2HR

**www.crowood.com**

This e-book first published in 2014

© Sally Pinhey 2014

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

**British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data**
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978 1 84797 718 2

Frontispiece: Semillon grape.

Contents page: _Parochetus communis_.

**Dedication**

To all my students past and present who asked the questions.

**Acknowledgements**

Many thanks to the following people who have helped in producing this book. My husband Roger Pinhey for domestic forbearance, proof-reading and support; Dr Tom Cope, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for checking the Latin; Simon Champion for technical advice and support; Paul Lunberg for computer help; Margaret Tebbs for her advice and support; Peter Berry for information on the Grenfell Medal; Rosemary Thompson of Rosemary's Brushes for information on brushes; Jim Patterson of 2 Rivers Paper for information on paper; Maggy Clarke, Nigel Hewish.
CONTENTS

_Introduction_

**1.** | UNDERSTANDING YOUR MATERIALS

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**2.** | MAGNIFICATION – SEEING IS BELIEVING

**3.** | USING PERSPECTIVE TO CREATE DEPTH

**4.** | THE TROUBLEWITH GREENS

**5.** | STEMS, LEAF JOINS AND HAIRS

**6.** | FIBONACCI AND OTHER MATHEMATICAL MODELS

**7.** | COMPLEX STRUCTURES ANDWHITE FLOWERS

**8.** | EPHEMERAL FLOWERS

**9.** | FIELDWORK

**10.** | UNDERSTANDING PLANT NAMES IN LATIN

**11.** | PROTECTING AND EXHIBITING YOURWORK

_Appendix A – Plant Conservation Organizations and Useful Contacts_

_Appendix B – Latinate Words used in Plant Names_

_Bibliography_

_Glossary_

_Index_

Lychees.

INTRODUCTION

'I don't know why you bother. I could do that in a hundredth of a second with my camera' and 'You have wasted your paper' are among the most deflating remarks that can be made to a botanical artist. Yet we do bother more and more. It is true that photography is a quicker and therefore much cheaper means of illustration. Cameras and digital enhancement also improve so fast that every year it is possible to achieve more with them. Yet the artist's eye sees in a different way to the camera; the artist can analyse and isolate and show flower parts more clearly and with greater charm. The artist can also show stages of development and different seasons in one illustration so that it contains a more useful body of plant information.

While photography may have robbed botanical illustrators of some of their markets, it has also contributed to some of their techniques, helping to capture fleeting information on fragile structures. In the same way that improvements in optical instruments since the eighteenth century promoted botanical interest and discovery, so time-lapse photography has aided plant understanding for both scientists and illustrators. Where a painting has invested a flower with a glacial china-like stillness, however, I tend to think that the source photograph for it might have served equally well.

Go to any specialist botanical art exhibition in a city or country area and you will see a breath-taking selection of meticulously-painted flowers and plants. The strength and depth of botanical art skill in many countries are a source of wonder and delight. These artists have practised for years and reached the point where work of a high quality can be shown. For someone who teaches the subject, as I do, the popularity of this art form is most gratifying. The work on show gives little hint of any underlying weaknesses. Yet talk to the artists and ask why they chose that particular subject to paint and another view of the range of skills may emerge.

Naturally artists have their preferred subject matter. This may be influenced by personal attraction to colour or shape, academic interest, what grows in their garden, or by process of elimination what they choose not to paint because it is outside their comfort zone.

How often has an artist longed to paint a flower and found it has wilted before even the first drawing is complete? How many paintings on display show an uncharacteristically reduced amount of foliage? How many flowers are shown only face on or in profile to avoid the difficulty of a three-quarter view?

A love of plants is a given for botanical artists, and a love of colour will draw many to the blowsy garden varieties. Yet most plants are worthy of attention and description, and many are quite challenging in terms of composition and pictorial qualities.

While the botanist's description and botanical key will serve to identify a plant, the old adage 'A picture is worth a thousand words' holds true, especially if the picture is accurate. Botanical artists may yet hold the key to public plant awareness and conservation at a time when animals hold centre stage in research funding.

This book aims to deal with the difficulties that limit the choice of the artist's subject. It should challenge and extend the perimeters of comfort zones, making the artist confident and versatile so that there is no plant that presents insuperable difficulties for botanical illustrating.

• | Recurring questions about the labelling and quality of papers, pencils and brushes are answered.

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• | The use of perspective in flower drawing and composition are addressed, so that the position of the plant on the paper need not be adjusted to cover for lack of foreshortening skills.

• | Formulae for tackling complex structures are shown.

• | Ideas for coping with short lived (ephemeral) plants are given together with when to use a camera, the purpose of sketches and plant care.

• | Painting in the field, and tricky details such as hairs are addressed.

• | The use and knowledge of botanical terms and Latin names are also explained, and what we can pick and if we can copy.

• | Finally, there is a chapter on self-promotion, copyright care and mounting an exhibition. Some chapters are packed with straight information, others with personal experience and advice. The difference should be clear.

Bananas.

Much of the technique and comment here applies equally to all media, though the reader will notice the strong bias towards watercolour techniques. The main difference in approach is that watercolour is always painted from light to dark and for other media such as coloured pencil and acrylics the reverse is the case and highlights can be superimposed. I make no apology for thinking mainly in terms of watercolour. It is my speciality. For botanical illustration it is a tried and tested medium with all the versatility and delicacy necessary for our beautiful subjects. Nevertheless many of the concepts in the following chapters are applicable to most media.

Where standard English vocabulary describes a plant part or function perfectly well, it is used. Where special vocabulary is required, it is explained. The glossary covers both botanical terms and Latin names.

In order that the illustrations exactly explain the text, they are mostly my own. The few that are not are either archival examples or shown with the name of the artist beneath. In a few instances similar illustrations are shown side by side in a 'spot the difference' quiz style. Given the reduced scale of the illustrations for publication, the differences are very slight, yet they are still worth finding both to illustrate the concept in the text and to highlight the minute differences that make a good work a better one.

You may well ask how I have travelled to this point myself. Is anyone born with a head start in botanical art?

My earliest memory is listening to the 'skritch, skritch' of _Cotoneaster horizontalis_ on the outside of the frosted glass of the stoop where my pram was put. I can remember the flavour and texture of the chewed off Rexine of the pram cover on which I pulled myself up, and then sucked. I have no idea how old I was, but I knew the plant as a friend and was later able to put a name to it.

Identifying plant families from shared characteristics has always come easily and yet there are always surprises in store and masses more to learn.

I do know I was seven when my grandmother took me to the RHS gardens at Wisley. (She was one of their earliest members, and I have since placed a memorial to her there.) The lilac was in bloom and I deduced from the shape of its leaves that they were lilac bushes that surrounded the tennis court of a home which I saw only on alternate summers, and had never seen them in flower. Many years later I learned from a cousin visiting from Canada that Kashmiri plant illustrations by another cousin, Dr Marion Smyth, were stored at the Kew Herbarium, and I went to see them. These illustrations, done in the field in note books during World War 2, were all carefully annotated for exact time and place, giving today's scientists useful ecological information. Was this an indication of inherited interests that would shape the course my life? By means of constantly exercising choices and making small daily decisions and greater ones less often, we adjust the courses of our lives.

Early training and career in social work heightened my awareness of the importance of art as a therapy. Later, married life took me to Italy where for three busy and formative years I travelled, painted and exhibited. Later opportunities to travel permitted indulgence in my concerns over forestation and land use. Exhibiting regularly in RHS shows offered access to seeing the best, and fostered respect for an organization instrumental in defining excellence. Eighteen years as a serving magistrate gave me training and habits in balanced evaluation and fair judging. A lifelong interest in plants and ecology directed my paintings and studies, exploring the parallel world of plants.

My teaching was initially student-led. In the broad art field if someone wanted to know something, I studied and worked out the answers for them. Being to this extent self-educated, I was aware of which insights were really helpful and what delivered the 'eureka moment'. It was only after teaching for over twenty years that I qualified formally, and now spurred on by regulations, college requirements and anxiety to do the best for my students, hope to go on improving.

This book addresses all those unfinished or would-be paintings in portfolios or on wish lists. For the person with all the skill to observe, compose a picture, draw and apply colour well, there may still be some new territory to conquer.

Colour chart.

CHAPTER 1

UNDERSTANDING YOUR MATERIALS

_'He who has begun his task has half done it'_

Horace 65-8BC Epistles

In the artists' search for the magic sword that will solve all their problems at a stroke, the most lively talk among them is often discussion of the latest piece of kit or colour available. Many groups have among them a kit junkie who will buy and try out all the latest bits of kit. Such a person is your friend. I hope this chapter will amplify and give some background to his or her discoveries. If we understand the organic nature of our materials and the procedures through which they become available to us, we can make better informed choices for our own requirements.

Paper

Paper is the most important of all materials. Even with the best quality paint and brushes it is hard to achieve anything on unsuitable paper. Good quality paper is expensive because it has been specially made for your medium in a complex process.

While the Western world was still using papyrus and parchment, over two thousand years ago the Chinese were developing paper, and by the second century were producing it commercially. There is evidence of pulp mills in Samarkand in the eighth century, and manufacture was taking place in Italy in 1220. Paper was in common use in Germany by 1400, coinciding with and enabling the new printing techniques. Leonardo da Vinci was very careful with it, wasting nothing.

Paper is usually made from wood pulp, but the higher the percentage of other fibres – for example cotton, linen, flax, recycled rag or hemp – the better the quality. It will be stronger, and less acid. First the fibres are made into a slurry, which is thoroughly beaten and mixed. It is then spread and dried, and as the water content is reduced it becomes thinner. Then it is pressed.

_**Thou hast most traitorously corrupted the youth of the realm in erecting a grammar school: and whereas, before, our forefathers had no other books but the score and the tally, thou hast caused printing to be used; and contrary to the king, his crown and dignity, thou hast built a paper mill.**_ Shakespeare, _Henry V1,_ Part2

Since the nineteenth century in Europe paper has been made in a continuous roll using the Fourdrinier machine. It is this process that gives us some of the expressions used today. The paper is run between the rollers to give it a harder surface, and sized with gelatine or modified starches to bind the surface. A cylinder mould mimics hand manufacture by lifting the sheet out of the slurry slowly. The fibre direction is more random, but the slowness of the procedure makes it more expensive.

Wood-pulp paper contains acid, is volatile, and does not keep. Also the action of the rollers in conjunction with the short fibres makes it wrinkle more in one direction than the other when wet. Paper for printing is made hard in order to take the printing inks, while that intended for watercolour is softer but more heavily sized to regulate the absorbency. Some good papers are both internally and externally sized. Hand-made or top quality papers are still set on wire screens to dry in a box frame called a deckle. The process makes one sheet at a time and leaves an uneven edge called a 'deckle edge', while the wire screen leaves an imprint called the 'laid lines', a feature of the best laid paper. The watermark imprint is made by weaving a design into the wires. Papers intended for watercolour are sized to give a smooth glaze, and a whitening agent may also be added into the finish. Internal sizing improves paper quality and makes it less absorbent. Acid-free paper is made with a chalk filler and has the active acid pulp removed during manufacture. It creates an archival quality of paper for artwork that can be preserved for long periods.

Cold press paper is run through the rollers while they are cold.

'Not' paper is the same as cold press, and the 'not' stands simply for 'not hot'. Hot press paper is made once the rollers have heated up because of the length of time they have been running. The effect is to iron the paper and give it a hard, smooth, glossy finish that can resist heavy washes, blending and colour lifting. Hot press paper, even at a magnification of ×35 on the surface, shows no features on its surface.

Cold press or Not paper × 35.

Bristol board is prepared to take pen, pencil and airbrush. It can take a light colour wash, but has not got a suitable finish for successful watercolour painting. The weight of paper also needs some clarification, and it does not help that there are two ways of measuring the thickness of paper. Gsm or g/m squared actually measures the weight of a square metre of paper, which is helpful. The weight of paper measured in pounds (lb) is less clear, in that the weight refers to a ream, which is 500 sheets of imperial-sized paper. Most paper manufacturers now give both weights, which, with small variations for the makes, equate as below:

80lb = 170 gsm

90lb = 185 gsm

140lb = 300 gsm

300lb = 638 gsm

Imperial size is 30 × 20in, half imperial 22 × 15in, and a quarter imperial 15 × 11 in. To paint watercolour with underlying washes without stretching your paper, 140lb, 300 gsm is the minimum weight. Even so, if you know you have some large, broad leaves to do, or a large area over which you will apply an initial wash, it is advisable to stretch your paper. Lighter weights need stretching anyway, unless your medium is a dry one, such as pencil. Some artists favour blocks with sealed edges, which are intended not to cockle. If wet washes are used on them, however, the cockling will go through the entire block and be much worse, so this course is only advisable if you paint quite dry. If you work by transferring your initial sketches on to good paper using a lightbox, you can transfer the drawing first and then stretch the paper with the drawing already on it.

Hot press paper × 35.

The procedure for paper stretching is as follows:

• | Pass your sheet of paper through a container of clean, cold water, free of any soap products.

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• | Hold it up to let the excess water run off it, then lay it on a board.

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MDF boards have a good finish with about the right amount of absorbency. Shiny boards will not hold the tape needed to anchor the paper (see next point below).

• | While the paper continues to absorb the moisture, cut four strips of brown paper parcel tape the length of the sides of the paper. Draw the gummed side of the strips quickly over some clean water.

When the gum is just evenly moist, lay the strips down the edges of the paper, covering between ½ and ¼in of the paper and the rest on the board, starting with the short sides first.

Bigger pieces of paper will exert more pull on the gummed strip, so you need more tape on the paper. Smaller sheets of paper exert less pull, but the maximum area should be left for the image. The paper will look quite cockled. Pull it gently from the ends to be sure that the brown paper tape will lie flat enough to stick evenly.

Take care not to touch the surface of the paper unnecessarily.

Wetting the paper.

Letting the excess water run off it.

• | Blot any excess surface moisture lightly with a piece of paper towel. The paper must then dry slowly and flat (overnight is good) to give a nice taut surface that will not cockle when wet.

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• | Fast or uneven drying will produce a warp, as will a gap between the brown tapes in a corner. Equally, excess water seeping under the edge of the tape will wash the gum off the brown paper and lift it.

Laying it on the board.

Wetting the strips of brown paper parcel tape.

Laying the first gummed strip down a short edge of the paper.

Gently pulling the paper.

Laying down the side strips.

The paper will look quite cockled.

The paper is now dry and flat.

Warped paper is unusable, and the sized surface is unlikely to survive a second stretching. While the current fashion is to have no evidence of paper cockle at all on paintings, it is possible that this will alter in the future. As the difference between prints and originals becomes harder to tell, it could be that the natural organic response of paper to watercolour could become a prized hallmark of the authenticity of the original.

Brushes

It comes as no surprise that the best brushes are said to be made of 'sable' – but are they? It is not the sable of nobles and kings or the dowry of Genghis Khan. Sable for fur garments comes from the Siberian sable marten _(Martes zibellina),_ a forest-dwelling, northern Eurasian marten, much prized for the fineness of its fur. This animal is now commonly farmed for ease of collection of pelts. Fine art brushes are made from the tail hair of the Kolinsky sable, or red sable, which is in fact a Siberian weasel, _Musleta siberica._ The best hair comes from the tail of the male, and the proportion of male hair to female hair will affect the spring and durability of the brush. Unfortunately the animal does not thrive in captivity, so the collection of hair is made by trapping wild animals. Artists will pay a fortune for Kolinsky fur (more per ounce than gold), and the reason that it makes such a good brush is that the tips of the fur are so fine that a minutely fine and even point to a brush can be achieved, together with a substantial belly to the brush, which is where the liquid is held. Artificial brushes, while good and hard wearing, cannot compete with these qualities.

For larger brushes – say, size 6 and upwards – the performance of an artificial hair brush is acceptable, because the size of the brush ensures that it holds liquid well. Below this size, a hair brush is advisable.

The good news is that small Kolinsky brushes cost a great deal less than large ones, but the bad news is that they wear out more quickly. Excessive wear can be avoided by using cheaper brushes for mixing and lifting, and by not using best brushes on rough paper or in cheap paint. Hair conditioner can be used to revive tired brushes, and they should be stored upright out of direct sunlight. Try to keep the handles dry. When travelling or storing brushes, a bamboo roll is one of the best ways of making sure that they will not be bent or damaged. Use your magnifying lens from time to time to check your brush for wear, and if necessary buy the size you use most in pairs so that you always have a new one in reserve if you notice deterioration in the middle of a painting.

Sable brushes in a bamboo roll.

No. 3 'spotter' brush.

Choosing your Brushes

It does not take long to assess the relative qualities, sizes and usefulness of brushes, and artists generally have favourites, which are well worth taking care of to prolong their life. The shorter the brush hair, and the stronger the 'snap', the more control you can have over it, and so long as the point is very fine, it does not matter how big the brush is. In fact, the bigger the better, as the brush holds more and one does not have to keep replenishing it. This is especially important for watercolour painting of strap leaves and stem edges where continuous lines are required. Lifting the brush from the paper will always leave a mark so continuous flow of paint is important. I do much of this kind of work with a number 3 Kolinsky sable spotter, which has a good belly and a point so fine it can achieve almost the same detail as a 10 × 0 brush.

When choosing your brush in a shop, check the evenness and fineness of the point. Also, check where the belly comes: it should be quite close to the ferrule. If it has not been dressed with a soluble starch to protect it in transit, you will also be able to check the 'snap', which is the spring in the hair, and the length of time it takes to return to its shape after being bent. You will be looking for a brush with a high snap, and a perfectly symmetrical and fine point. Better value in brushes will be obtainable by mail order. True, you cannot try them out, but in most shops you will not be able to try them properly, either. Experience and use will reveal whether you have bought a good brush or not. Looking for a bargain is unlikely to be successful. New brushes will shed a little hair to start with, so this is not an indication that you have bought unwisely. Sizes do vary from one make to another, so the sizing is only an approximate guide unless you are familiar with the brand.

Paint

_For those colours which you wish to be beautiful,
always prepare a pure white ground._

Leonardo da Vinci

We are lucky to live in an age when we can take both colour and ready-made paint for granted, so the artist can now concentrate on painting, and not have to be an alchemist as well. However, it is only since the nineteenth century that paint has been available in tubes, and it was this innovation that enabled the Impressionist movement to flourish, as outdoor painting became feasible for the first time.

Until then, paints had to be made in the studio with the various animal, vegetable and mineral substances from which colour could be obtained. Raw or powdered pigment would be mixed by hand with a carrier substance to make it usable. In the case of watercolour the pigment was mixed with gum Arabic, which gave it both adhesive and translucent qualities. Oil paint was mixed with linseed oil to keep it flexible, tempera was mixed with egg yolk, and gouache with chalk. Many of the names of paints still point to the original source of the colour. Some of the mineral elements were highly toxic.

Today, many of the old colours are replicated by artificial means, making the colours cheaper, easier to use, and nontoxic. Colour fastness might also be improved, though sometimes the vibrancy of the natural pigment is lost. Paints continue to vary in price and quality as they are still made of different substances, some of which are more costly than others. It is the difference in the basic substances that gives the variation in behaviours of the different colours. Keen artists are quick to discover the advantage of good quality paints. At this juncture, if there are still any student's colours lurking in your box, discard them with a flourish.

A prepared palette.

Beginners often ask whether I recommend pans or tubes for watercolour. This is a personal preference, so I merely say what I do and why. I prefer tubes for studio painting because I can work the paint to a flowing consistency more quickly. Since watercolour technique is always a matter of catching the paint at exactly the right degree of dampness to get it to do what you want, speed becomes important. If the wash into which you want to drop more colour dries up while you are still trying to work the colour off the pan, then you will have to wet the area once more and start again – and every time this is done, something is lost in the immediacy and lightness of the painting. For field work, I prefer pans: the kit is more compact, and there is no need to worry about losing the lids of tubes in long grass. Sometimes for short trips with a very specific task, I will prepare a palette with tube paint on it beforehand.

Range of Colours

Most early tuition involves painting with a very limited palette of colours because it is quicker to learn colour mixing with relatively few variables and combinations. There are, however, a few colours that botanical artists cannot manage without. One is a good violet, as the standard mix of red and blue to make a violet is seldom satisfactory. Magenta also comes into this category, as does opera, or opera rose, depending on the make. Opera is to reds what viridian is to greens: it will give the colour a sharpness and brightness unobtainable in any other way. Choose pure colours, and not the ones with the word 'hue' after them as the colour may have some additional material in it. Pure colour is likely to give cleaner, more translucent mixes.

Because of the importance of getting a colour exact, it is vital to know all your colours well. If there is any doubt about this, make a chart with all your colours on it and name them, as shown at the beginning of this chapter, then make a two-way triangular graph with all the colours you possess.

This could be a good moment to discover the differences between yellow ochre and raw sienna, for instance, and light red and burnt sienna. Some colours are interchangeable in terms of palette variety, but have different mixing qualities, being made of different substances. It is helpful to be aware of these and to use the colour that gives the best results for you.

Pencils

For a convenient, cheap, correctable and non-spillable writing instrument, the pencil continues to outsell other writing instruments, even the biro. Van Gogh used only Faber pencils, saying they were 'superior to carpenter's pencils, a capital black and most agreeable'. Like paint, we take pencils very much for granted, and like paint also, they have been developed gradually as a sound commercial prospect for our convenience.

The Greeks and Romans used lead to make faint marks on papyrus. Leonardo da Vinci used the best quality of charcoal for his cartoon sketches, and a pen for much of his anatomical work and note-taking. In about 1565, however, a soft black 'lead' discovered at Borrowdale in the Lake District, UK, was found to make a much darker mark. It was cut into strips and bound with twine to strengthen it and make a handle. This was the first pencil, which quickly became popular. Less than a century later a way of encasing the 'lead' in wood was developed in Germany. Towards the end of the 1700s scientists established that the black lead was not lead at all, but pure carbon, the same substance as coal and diamonds. They called it 'graphite' from the Greekword 'write'.When European politics interfered with the supply of graphite from Borrowdale, a French pencil maker, Conte, discovered that graphite mixed with clay not only went further, but could produce a variety of grades of pencil depending on the mixture. The wood for pencils similarly underwent refinement of process. The wood needs to be fine grained and not liable to splinter or warp. Faber-Castell own 27,000 acres of Brazilian forest to provide the wood for their pencils. Pencils are made with the wood in two halves with a groove down the middle, in long strips on a conveyor belt; the graphite mixture is laid down the groove, and the halves are then glued together. This is then cut into pencil lengths and painted. The hexagonal shape is to stop them from rolling off your work surface.

Good pencil manufacturers make twenty grades of pencil, from 9H to 9B with two medium grades in the middle. B stands for black, and they are the softest. They are 9B, 8B, 7B, 6B, 5B, 4B, 3B, 2B and B. HB, the pencil most commonly used in schools, stands for hard black and has been made to give the most visible marks consistent with a good hard-wearing point. This is still the best pencil to make your sketchbook notes in the field.

'F' stands for'fine' and is a hard graphite that can maintain its point.

'H' stands for 'hard', and these are the pencils that will keep their points and shed least graphite into your washes. They range from H, which is a medium-grade pencil, through 2H, 3H, 4H, 5H, 6H, 7H, 8H to 9H. You may have to go to a specialist dealer for pencils at the extreme ends of the range, but, like brushes, they are light and easy to send.

Propelling pencils were developed to produce a pencil that does not need sharpening. The finest of these are made for technical drawing and are suitable for botanical work. Unlike lead, graphite if ingested is not toxic. When pencils were painted with a paint containing lead, however, they were harmful if sucked. Modern pencils are coated with a non-toxic material. Water-soluble graphite pencils are versatile and fun. They are the only tools suitable for making notes on damp paper, and are therefore well suited to field work. Various grades are available, but not in such a wide range as non-soluble pencils. Areas of shading can be blended with a damp brush to give a smooth finish, and the graphite can be used like a pigment.

These pencils are not really suitable for using with watercolour, however, as delicate lines will be lost in the first wash, and any stronger lines give a greyness to the pigment. For a graphite shading under watercolour, only the very hardest pencils will not shed graphite into the pigment. Staedtler 4-8H are best.

Colour graph.

Coloured Pencils

The popularity of doing botanical work with coloured pencils has followed the improvement in their quality; there are now over seventy colours available. Ordinary coloured crayons contain a waxy substance and are permanent colour. Others designed for use with watercolour techniques contain almost no graphite but a mixture of pigment, clay and gum, which can either give sharp bold lines or can be blended with a damp brush like a watercolour pigment. Because the components of the 'lead' are not translucent, light colours can be superimposed over dark ones.

The medium suits those who find it easier to work from dark to light, rather than vice versa, as with watercolour. There is also no reason why coloured pencil may not be used in conjunction with other media for final additional highlights or repair work, bearing in mind it will not take watercolour over it.

Coloured pencil, like graphite pencil, needs to be protected with paper and/or fixed with a fixative when it is finished, or it smudges and loses the sharp clarity the artist has been as such pains to achieve. Some artists find that the greater degree of control available with this medium suits their way of working. Techniques using a masking guard and indenting the paper can be experimented with to give greater detail, and to compensate for the fact that however sharp a point may be achieved on the pencil, it will never be as fine as the tip of a fine sable brush.

Pencil range.

Pencil drawing using water soluble graphite: Halls Giant cobnut.

_Ranuculus ficaria:_ Lesser celandine with scale bars.

CHAPTER 2

MAGNIFICATION – SEEING IS BELIEVING

_His powerful logic would surprise, Amuse and much delight,
He proved that dimness of the eyes, Was hurtful to the sight_

Gilles Menage 1613–92, _The Happy Man_

Until anyone has tried looking at their work with a magnifier of at least ×2.5 they will have no idea how their work will be seen and judged by those who have. They are in the same position as the sight-impaired driver who thinks he can see everything, but has no way of knowing what he cannot see, until some calamity happens. Fortunately in painting, the calamity should not be too dire. Anyone without the magnifying effect of short sight will probably benefit from extra help with magnification. In sighted human beings the dominant sense is sight. Information received by our eyes overrides information absorbed in other ways, and also our memories. Every artist's sight is unique to his or her self, as is their interpretation of what he or she sees. These differences, coupled with our dexterity and style in handling the medium, are what make our work special and distinctive to ourselves. Botanical artists have in the past been advised that their illustrations should be so accurate to the plant that there should be no difference between the work of different artists. While there was a point to this in the pre-photographic era, there is not so much value in it today. Accuracy and detail are qualities that have been appreciated more with every advance in magnification and printing techniques. Follow and compare, for example, a fifteenth-century woodcut illustration with an eighteenth-century engraving. Then look at comparisons of a twentieth-century four-colour plate print, and a twenty-first-century digital reproduction.

**REDOUTÉ TAKES THE LEAD**

Redouté enhanced his reputation when he learned stipple engraving from Banks on visiting Banks' London home in Soho. The difference that this technique, which offered finer shading and softer curves, made to colour printing of botanical work was immense, and gave Redouté a lead in his field.

A giclée print (from the French 'to spray', describing the way in which the inks are applied) is done with a top quality scanner on to art paper with colour-fast printing inks, and is then colour-corrected to match the original. A very high degree of fidelity can be obtained in this way, though as with earlier printing methods, there are variations, depending on the skill of the printer.

With every advance in printing the detail is more faithful, and there is more point in the artist capturing the smallest detail in plant structure. Also improvements in microscopes have made us more aware of the detail in plants.

In the digital age, it is possible that in spite of the artist's efforts to prevent it, a user of an image may enlarge it to fit a required space. The result is something we are not proud to see, because it exposes all the untidiness and flaws in our work. Conversely, it is always a comfort to know when our images will be reproduced half size, because everything then looks neater and sharper as both the lines and the spaces in the image are reduced. This has the same effect as working with magnification, and knowing that the average viewer will be seeing it without that benefit.

So what kind of magnification?

_Iris pseudacorus_ woodcut from the German herbarius 1485.

Line engraving by Ehret 1748.

Stipple engraving by Redouté, 1847.

Four colour plate print of a black Homburg grape, 1990.

Digitally reproduced giclée print of pinot noir grape, 2010.

Magnifying Glasses

The first and most obvious is a hand-held lens. Since we usually paint with only one hand, this is not a problem, as the lens can easily be passed over areas of the painting, particularly those with fine detail such as the centre of a flower, and over all edges for the final tidying-up operation. There are two disadvantages to this, however. The first is that if the magnification had been used from the start, the tidying up would not be necessary. The second is that the artist sees the plant a different size to the size of the painting and is constantly having to make adjustments. This is tiring and permits distortions, and artists have enough to think about while they are working without having to make constant size adjustments.

Craft shops sell a variety of magnification aids. Very fine needlework is sometimes done with a magnifying light on a sprung adjustable stand: this can be moved over the work at a height that allows pencils and brushes to pass beneath it.

One method could be to use magnification to understand the structure of the flower initially, and then do the drawing life-size without magnification. Complex areas that need to be painted larger than life size in order to fit in the detail clearly, can be marked with a circle. A corresponding circle with a scale beside it, painted to one side, can contain the enlarged detail and be both attractive and informative, especially if it is part of the planned composition, as shown in the drawing of a Hemlock plant.

A magnifying light on a sprung adjustable stand.

**LIGHT**

Every artist has his or her preferred light for working in, and the tradition of a studio with a north light is tried and tested and a delight to work in. Further, a roof light or 'Velux' will give more light than a vertical window. Some artists prefer daylight bulbs, but I believe that the intensity of light is more important than the particular type, for clarity of vision. Daylight on a fine day will probably give you the best intensity. The addition of a desk lamp situated on the side away from the working hand will both give a good directional light for shadows on the subject, and add an element of constancy to the natural daylight.

Microscopes

A microscope is a particular help in understanding the plant. The world of organisms seen through a microscope is an exciting and enticing one. Enlargements ×10 can reveal the secrets of scales, sticky surfaces, indumentum and other details that we can only receive and give an impression of with the naked eye. A microscope is hard to draw from, however: it is necessary to remember well, and look, and refocus often. There are two types of microscope: a stereo microscope and a compound microscope. A stereo microscope views the subject in 3D, shows it the right way up, magnifies from ×10 to ×40, and can show solid specimens. A compound microscope shows flat subjects which must be prepared by sectioning and staining, shows them upside down, and magnifies from ×40 to ×1,000. Both types can have one or two eye pieces. A stereo microscope is likely to be the most useful to the botanical artist. If buying second-hand, check that it is the kind you want.

Hemlock, pen and ink with enlargements.

How to Use a Microscope

First, isolate the specimen to be placed under the microscope and put it on a clean plastic or glass dish. For convenience and scale, put a piece of millimetre graph paper underneath the specimen. Place it on the 'stage'. Using the rotary knob that raises and lowers the lens, move the lens down close to the specimen, making sure that it does not touch it. Then raise the lens until the specimen comes completely into focus.

For fine tuning, adjust the rack-and-pinion movement. For specimens with depth, you will only be able to get part of it in focus at any one time. Eye tubes also have adjustment to allow for individual differences. Move them in or out until the space between the eye tubes is correct for you. One eye tube has adjustment, the other does not. Close the eye where there is no adjustment system, and turn the adjustment on the other eye until the focus is sharp. Then using only the eye that was first closed, rotate the focus ring until the image is clear again. You should then have a balanced vision for your eyes. To calculate the magnification, multiply the magnification of the objective lens with the magnification of the eye lens. This gives you the information with which to calculate your scale bar.

Where to buy microscopes is listed in the Appendix. Other useful bits of equipment are pointed tweezers, callipers or a wire prod, glass or plastic slides and dishes, and a pipette to drop water or glycerine on to the specimen to stop it from drying up. You will also need a cutting mat and scalpels.

It is possible to get a digital microscope, which, if linked to software on a computer, will display the image on the computer screen. This is a great deal easier to draw from as it does not need constant head movements. If the software allows the image to be stored, then a photograph of the detail can be saved for later. The particular advantage of this is that if work is interrupted, one does not have to start all over again with a fresh specimen – but the equipment is not of research standard, and the image is not as good as with a microscope. Details can be found in Appendix A at the back of the book.

Veho digital microscope.

Jeweller's glasses.

Magnifying Spectacles

If you can get accustomed to them, magnifying spectacles attached to your face offer the best solutions. They do not have to be held, and you see the subject and your work in the same scale. There are differing ways this can be done. Non-spectacle wearers can buy a simple pair of glasses with a moderate magnification – jeweller's glasses, if obtainable, are a brilliant solution. Worn on the head with an internal light, you can comfortably spend hours in a miniature world. It is difficult to obtain these from a supplier without a trade account, but they may be found second-hand on the internet.

Spectacle wearers can wear an attachment, which can be a clip-on like sun glasses clip-ons. Magnifying clip-ons can be bought at some opticians.

Some clip-ons have a longer space between the prescription lens and the magnifying lens. These are sold in craft shops and give good magnification, but the distance between the prescription lens and the magnification lens means that the wearer has to keep their head very still, and must always be the same small distance from the work. Some people find it hard to get used to this, and at the beginning suffer a sensation of nausea. However, keeping one's head really still while drawing has other advantages, so glasses that encourage one to do just that are worth persevering with. The brain is a wonderful organ and sorts it out for the wearer eventually.

Be careful if you have to work much closer to your paper with these glasses than you are accustomed to working. Adjust the height of your chair and table easel so that you do not have to maintain a stooped position in your upper vertebrae. A kneeling stool allows you to bend from the hips rather than curve the back. Side-to-side movement and ease of fidgeting helps to prevent a permanent curve caused by long hours at a drawing board.

Clip-on magnifiers.

Attached magnifiers.

A kneeling stool.

Scale Bars

When you enlarge or reduce a subject in size it is important to show the scale. Tradition has it that it is not necessary to put a scale bar if the illustration is life size, however nowadays, when scale can be altered on a photocopier almost unknowingly, it makes sense to put a scale bar on everything. The scale bar is the only way to show scale that will be true however the size of the illustration is altered. For one-to-one scale that is life size, all you need to do is to draw one centimetre close to the image and label it '1cm'. If your enlarged plant part illustration is ×2, then double the length of your scale bar: thus a 2cm-length scale bar now represents 1cm. Should you wish to keep all your scale bars small and the same size, then put on a 1cm scale bar and label it 0.5cm. By this means, if the illustration is enlarged or reduced, the scale bar is as well, but the information contained on it remains the same.

Complications arise when your enlargement is an odd figure. For this you will need a more mathematical approach to labelling the scale bar, together with a calculator and ruler.

A useful formula is calling the _specimen_ length _'x_ mm', and the _drawing_ length _'y_ mm'. Measure an easily measured corresponding feature of both. If you are using a microscope, the millimetre scale beneath your specimen will make things easier. Divide _y_ by _x:_ the answer = n. Draw a scale bar representing a round number (say, 5mm) close to your drawing. The figure that goes beside it is 5 × n mm. For example, say the part of the specimen to be measured is 1.6mm, and the same part on the drawing is 2.1 mm. Then _x =_ 1.6 and _y =_ 2.1. _n=_ 2.1 ÷1.6 = 1.31. The scale-bar length should therefore be labelled 5 × 1.31 = 6.55mm.

To be any use at all a scale bar must be close to the drawing to which it relates. If you have constructed a plate with a lot of plant information on it you will have a number of scale bars to position. These will be an essential part of your composition in the same way that your signature is, so they need to be carefully positioned in order not to dominate the composition. Unless the whole plate is done in ink, a pencil would be the best medium for subtlety.

Acorns with scale bars.

'The Devil is in the Detail'

Magnification helps you to understand what it is you are trying to show. If in doubt about understanding the form of what you see, try an enlarged sketch of it before committing your observations to the major work. If it is multiple stamens for instance, show the stamens at the front of the cluster. Very sharp pencils will help in this. Take care that you do not have any lines that serve two purposes. For instance if two structures are parallel, make a slight gap between them so that the edge of each one has its own line. Shared lines can sow confusion.

Try to keep the complex parts against a clear, contrasting background. You are the judge of whether something is too small for you to paint. When you know you cannot do it justice, it is time to do an enlargement of a small area on the side, carefully labelled and with a scale. This may be a suitable treatment for hairs. Take out all remaining pencil lines bit by bit, replacing them only where necessary with a finer line of paint. If some of your edges appear a little rough under magnification, tidy them up with the help of a lens, a fine good brush, and paint that is only just wet enough to flow through the tip of the brush. If you need to add a highlight to make the structure clearer, then do so at this point using gouache. (See the illustration of a teasel in Chapter 7.) Finally, if you cannot make a detail fine enough with the vision and equipment at your disposal, then it is better to leave it out altogether. Clumsy or out-of-scale veins or flower parts can destroy the credibility of an otherwise carefully drawn specimen.

Stamens with and without shared lines.

_Fore_ shortened _Clivia nobilis._

CHAPTER 3

USING PERSPECTIVE TO CREATE DEPTH

_Our England is a garden that is full of stately views, Of borders, beds and shrubberies and lawns and avenues, With statues on the terraces and peacocks strutting by; But the glory of the garden lies in more than meets the eye._

Rudyard Kipling, 1865–1936, _The Glory of the Garden_

There is a school of thought that perspective is no help when your subject matter has a real depth of not more than 4in (10cm). In fact any tricks of perspective that you can use to give your subject the appearance of depth are well worth using. It is true that you cannot employ the perspective principles in the broad sense that you would in, for instance, a street scene, but the principles are the same, and it is because of the very small spatial depth that we have to play with that it is more, not less, important to use them. We always have some foreshortening to deal with, and a thorough understanding of how this works in terms of perspective is a great help. An understanding of perspective will help you to keep those important spaces in your composition that indicate three-dimensionality. The basic principles of receding horizontals can be remembered in a few short lines. The most useful points to remember at the right moment are as follows:

• | Verticals are always vertical

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• | Same-sized objects are larger in the foreground than they are in the background

• | Receding horizontal lines above eye level descend to the eye level

• | Receding horizontal lines below eye level rise to the eye level

We will consider these points one at a time.

**Verticals are always vertical**

Anything else may alter in its appearance depending on the viewpoint, but verticals do not. This is a useful and comforting universal truth. Whatever else may be coming towards you or going away from you, the vertical is always vertical and is easy to understand and draw accurately. Drawn in first, it can be used as a measure to space other items in the composition. Keeping your head absolutely still, measure the terminal points of a receding leaf, against the vertical stem. Mark them in on your drawing of the vertical stem.

Drawing the vertical and placing the extremities of the foreshortened leaves.

Once you have the points at which the leaf starts and finishes you know the foreshortened length of it, and the rest is easy. You may be surprised at how short and fat the leaf appears and distrust your measurements. But trust those measurements and draw the leaf into the space you observed, and you will be rewarded by a strikingly three-dimensional plant.

**Same-sized objects are larger in the foreground than they are in the background**

This observation is also simple and obvious. While the actual difference in size at such close observation is tiny, the brain knows the principle, and anything that reverses it is confusing to the onlooker. The essential thing is to remember this at the critical moment, and not put the small or scaled-down objects in the foreground of a painting because to do so results in a visual fight between the foreground and the background, where the certain outcome is a spatial flattening of the painting. In the painting of _brassica oleracea_ below, the whole plant on a reduced scale, for information purposes, overlies the life-size painting of the leaf. No amount of cast shadow can save it from the flattening effect of having the reduced size plant in the foreground. There is a fight going on in the painting.

Drawing in the foreshortened leaves.

Completing the Illustration.

In addition, the reverse side of the background leaf is the underneath leaf at the top, but in order to show its cut end in the bottom foreground, it makes a curve and thrusts itself forwards. This joins the back and the front of the picture in one move and effectively demolishes any illusion of depth. As a simple example, compare the two outlines of a pair of apples. In the second one there is space between the two apples, and the smaller one sits behind comfortably with room for its roundness. The perspective gives the desired three-dimensional effect.

In contrast to the brassica, look at the illustration of _Wellingtonia sequioadendron giganteum,_ where the whole plant is placed in the background on a reduced scale. This illustration, while appearing to be much the same technique, has achieved spatial depth by putting the cone very large in the foreground and the clearly reduced whole tree and the figures beneath it in the background. The reason this works here is due to the appearance of space between the cone and the foot of the tree.

_Brassica oleracea._

Two apples with the smaller one in front.

Two apples with the smaller one behind.

Ellipse proportions.

_Wellingtonia sequoiadendron giganteum_

King protea flower head.

It is not only things that get smaller as they go away from you: spaces do as well, and so do the halves of an ellipse. It is well worth remembering this when drawing a flower centre. Whatever the proportions of an ellipse, the front half will be larger than the back half, and the line joining the furthest points of the ellipse will not cut through the centre of it, but be further towards the back. Look at the illustration of the King protea flower head: the centre of the flower is nearer the back of the ellipse, and this is also accentuated by the humped shape of it. The difference on a small scale may be imperceptible, but it is there, and acknowledgement of it will give the flower more convincing depth.

**Receding horizontal lines above eye level descend to eye level**

This premise rightly indicates that it is important to know where your eye level is. On most paintings it is pretty much in the middle, but if you have changed your viewpoint from the centre of the plant, establish where it is. Once you know where your eye level is, you can make sure that flat lines going away from you above eye level descend towards eye level.

**Receding horizontal lines below eye level rise to eye level**

Once again in this assumption, the hypothetical line between two points may represent an important space. You may be surprised where receding horizontal lines might be found. Sometimes it is as simple as a hypothetical line joining two points. Returning to the Wellingtonia illustration, if a line were made between the cone and the foot of the tree it would be a receding horizontal line below eye level rising towards the eye level. In this case the hypothetical line represents a space. Since getting depth into your painting is as much about measuring the spaces that represent recession, then space is just as important as line. If you intend there to be space between items in your painting, it must show. A helpful thing to remember while thinking about space in compositions is never to weave foreground and background material in a composition. If there are several items in a composition partially superimposed on each other, keep them completely separate. For instance, if drawing a fibrous root with fibres both behind and in front, take care that none of the background roots cross over the foreground ones. Weaving of foreground and background material will instantly cancel out any efforts you have made to show depth between the front and back of the picture, as in the painting of brassica.

**EXPLAINING YOUR VIEW**

It is possible that you have taken a less usual view from above or below in order to show a flower in its true growing habit, or to foreshorten an ungainly stem and improve a composition. Such courage deserves to be rewarded, but it will only work if the perspective of a changed angle is understood. Even if your observation and drawing are so good that you have it all exactly 'right', it will probably be necessary to add in a little more information somewhere so that your viewpoint is clear. Reluctantly it must be admitted that sometimes a retreat is in order as a certain view is so unlikely to be understood with two-dimensional data that it is better not attempted.

In the two illustrations of _Passiflora antioquiensis,_ the first shows the flattening effect of having the flower positioned half behind and half in front of a leaf. The second shows the improvement with the flower entirely in front of the leaf. Some depth has been restored.

Aerial Perspective

Aerial perspective is the term sometimes given to changes in colour and tone that occur with recession. In a landscape the diminishing of tone and sharpness of detail in the distance is evident. It is not so evident in a subject that fits on the width of a table, but the principles are the same. Because of the longer light rays associated with red, red is the colour we see first, and so it will always be the colour that registers as the nearest in our brain. By the same token, blue has the shortest associated light rays and is therefore the colour that is seen last, and will indicate distance to our pre-programmed minds. It is all very well to use this as a technique in garden design or an ordinary still life, but we cannot be so free with colour variation in botanical illustration ... or can we? True, we must be absolutely faithful to colour as in the main body of colour of the subject, but we still have the highlights and shadows where we can use some variation, and also it is up to us where we put our red and blue flowers when we design the composition. A simple way to try this out is to use an underlying blue wash on the background leaves, and an underlying warm yellow wash on foreground leaves before applying the main body of colour. The underlying wash should give a slight tint to the finished colour that will make all the difference between foreground and background leaves. In addition to this you can add a little red to your shadow colours in the foreground, and a little blue to the shadows in the background.

Roots woven.

Roots separated.

_Passiflora antioquiensis_ with flower partly behind a leaf.

_Passiflora antioquiensis_ with flower entirely in front of the leaf.

Underlying washes for aerial perspective on a ginkgo leaf.

**QUALITY OF LIGHT**

Some artists swear by daylight bulbs or daylight to work to the most accurate colour. I find that matching the colour exactly to the specimen works well, whatever light it is painted or viewed in. If two colours are identical they will look identical in any light. Strength of light is probably more important than the type of light, and bright daylight will give the best clarity of vision if you can cope with the glare on white paper.

Be careful not to strengthen the contrast too much in the background. If the subject allows, try to keep the greater contrasts and stronger lines in the foreground. If doing a many-layered painting, it makes the process easier to start at the back with the pale tones and to work forwards over them successively towards the foreground, washing out any cross-over lines as you go. (There will be more of this in Chapter 7 on complex structures.) While one does not want to lose too much detail in background material for fear of the plant looking unfinished, it is possible to run a damp brush over the background to blur the outlines of the detail so as to stop the back from competing with the front. Sometimes this can also be done with a little blue on the brush. Cobalt, being the greyer of the blues, is ideal for this.

When shading your specimen for drawing it is normal to illuminate it from only one side to give maximum appearance of three-dimensionality. The desk lamp is an important piece of kit for this reason.Artificial light is also constant and will not change as much as even the most inspiring and revealing north daylight.

If you turn your painting for ease of working, remember where the light is supposed to be coming from. If you end up with parts of the plant with light coming from one side and parts with light coming from the other, the effect of the dual light sources will be to flatten the entire painting.

The Fourth Dimension

Let us not forget that there is such a thing as a fourth dimension, and that is time. Garden designers work with it constantly. They need to remember the effects of the passage of time on the material with which they are working. Differing rates of growth make garden design a complex calculation. Most garden designs are planned to look their best in about five years from planting – although Capability Brown, who was often working with forest trees and hard landscape, took the longer view. We also work with specimens that are subject to the effects of time, and attempt to slow it down by means of plant conditioning and temperature control. The only way that we can indicate it in two dimensions in our pictures is with sequenced images showing development. In truth we are as much at the mercy of time as our specimens, as it is only by careful management of our own time that we can attempt to do them justice.

Tulip lit evenly.

Tulip lit mainly from the left-hand side.

Stagshorn fern.

CHAPTER 4

THE TROUBLE WITH GREENS

_Often on a work of grave purpose and high promises is tacked a purple patch or two to give an effect of colour._

Horace, 65-8BC _Ars poetica_

What is the problem with greens? Pick any of the following:

• | They are difficult to get accurate

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• | They are difficult to keep consistent

• | The pigment shifts

• | Greens get too dark and heavy

• | There is just too much of it for the composition

• | The areas of large leaves are hard to manage

• | Green gets boring

Let us look at these problems one at a time.

**FISON'S GREEN**

When I taught landscape painting, it was a treat to be able to take the group to a nature reserve to paint because the greens were so much softer, greyer, yellower and more varied than those on cultivated land. Modern farming practice using artificial fertilizers produces what I call 'Fison's' green. A field of it is certainly eye-catching, but it is harsh, and the same is true of the individual plant. Like the landscape, you may think that you have matched the green, but it will look hard and unnatural -sometimes because it is.

Greens are Difficult to get Accurate

First we need to define what is accurate. This requires a good knowledge of the plant, its normal colour, and the seasonal colour changes it experiences as it is affected by its growing conditions, soil, the weather, and so on. This may seem a tall order, but they are all the things that affect the greens. Plants grown under intensive horticultural conditions tend to have a fleshier, sappier green than wild plants on unimproved soils.

Every landscape artist has their own way of coping with hard and unnatural greens, some of it evasive. They paint preferably in winter, autumn, and sometimes spring. They avoid large expanses of green by lowering the horizon or looking out to sea. They change the greens to browns, greys and yellows that are easier on the eye. Constable may have done this deliberately for artistic purposes, but greens were also probably much softer in his day. While the botanical artist does not have the full range of artistic licence, they do, however, have evasive techniques. It is sometimes a good plan both compositionally, and for clear information, to do an expanse of green leaf in pencil. But although the artist may diminish the number of leaves to simplify the composition and minimize the green, nevertheless the correct information must be given both in terms of the green and the quantity of foliage.

There is no escape, no alternative to learning greens so thoroughly that matching them ceases to be a problem. There is no limit to the number of greens mixing exercises that can be done, and for the most part they are easy and fun. Even for the experienced artist, playing with greens can be absorbing and relaxing. The learning is subtle but continuous, without the stress of worrying that you might ruin a promising painting.

Greens with ultramarine.

Greens with cobalt.

Greens with cerulean blue.

Greens with Prussian blue.

Greens with viridian.

The greens exercises illustrated are some of the most helpful. They can be done with all the blues, yellows and greens at your disposal. The finished chart gives a good range of greens for matching, and the edges of the colour shapes stay as a reminder of the intensity of each component needed to make that particular colour. Artists also have their own favourite yellows. I find that new gamboge gives a useful green, and a touch of viridian is also what is sometimes needed for the underside of a young leaf. Windsor and Newton sell greens in packs, which looks like a possible solution to the greens problem, but in a class where some students used ready-mixed greens and some mixed their own, the results spoke for themselves. The finished work of those mixing their own greens was much more interesting and vibrant. The judging of greens for awards continues to be an unresolved problem, in spite of the efforts of the RHS to regulate it. But as with the judging of all colour, it is not possible for someone to judge a colour match of two items when they have only seen one of them. The only thing the artist can do is to be sure the plant is as good a specimen as possible, grown in suitable soil for its habitat, and then be wholly faithful to that green.

Keeping Greens Consistent

The first and most obvious method of keeping greens consistent is to mix all you need of the basic underlying colour before starting to paint. However, there are circumstances when this is not always possible – an interruption in work time, for instance, may result in the palette drying up, so that colours have to be mixed again. If you were methodical and made a careful note of the colours used for the green, then reproducing it may not be so difficult. Nevertheless a small amount of variation will also add liveliness to your painting. A simple method to reach this balance is to decide first which blue or yellow will be the dominant unifying colour. For example, for carnations, lavender or willow, a cobalt blue would be a good base to get the greyness of the green, and this can then be varied by adding different yellows to get the variation in the fronts and backs of the leaves. For a dahlia or buttercup, sap green might be used as the base colour, and ultramarine and lemon yellow added in varying quantities to get the variation. For bay or ivy, ultramarine might be chosen as the underlying colour, and different yellows added. The dominant colour in the mix will run through all the variations including sheen and shadow, so that your plant looks natural.

Coping with Shifting Pigment

Green is the watercolour pigment that shifts most easily, especially on a hot press paper surface. This inescapable fact, so irritating to beginners who might struggle with puddles of moving green, can nevertheless, when fully understood, also be a main method of working. When working with washes, to prevent your first wash of green from shifting, lay it into water that has already sunk partially into the surface of the paper. To do this, first wet the area to be painted: by holding your paper up to eye level you can see when the water starts to penetrate the paper surface. The sheen on the water begins to diminish, and at this point, quickly drop your first wash into the damp area to be painted.

Try small areas at first, and do one half of a leaf at a time, using the mid-rib as a natural division. Leave it to dry. Then do the second part of the leaf in the same way. The water that started to penetrate the paper takes the pigment with it and sets it into the paper itself, making it more permanent.

Leave this wash to dry thoroughly overnight before doing another. If the longevity of your specimen permits, the longer you leave it, the better the green will harden into the page.

When you continue with the second wash, run a damp brush over the first wash immediately before you paint it. This tests the permanency of the green and also helps to give an even flow of the paint for the next layer of green. Leave the paint to harden again before proceeding further.

Artists less confident with using washes can avoid green puddles by painting with thicker, dryer paint, and laying the paint on in parallel brush strokes. This is quite laborious, however, and will look overworked if the strokes are not fine enough. As much thicker pigment is applied, green shifting is more likely to occur and adjustments are more difficult. Also, any build-up of pigments caused by alterations may start to make the leaf look heavy and unnatural.

The advantage of painting dryer is that details such as veins and hairs can be incorporated in the painting from the start, and not added as detail later. Lighter areas of sheen can be done in a single process and do not have to be planned from the start, painted, and then preserved as light areas amongst the rest of the detail.

The real magic of shifting green is the ability to reposition it. This is such an enjoyable process that once mastered, the danger is to overdo the quilting and make leaves look even more warty than they actually are. Take, for instance, a rosebud. The illustrations later in this chapter show the flat green wash, then the moistening of the green pigment and pushing it to the edges, and the finished bud.

In the illustration of _Brassica oleracea_ 'Nero de Toscana', the leaf really is as quilted as shown. In this case, on each area between the veins, the pigment was moistened and pushed to the edges.

Managing Dark and Heavy Greens

As explained in the preceding section, sometimes heaviness is due to putting paint on too thickly. It is much easier to keep the lightness in a leaf if the green is layered in thin washes, especially if the areas where there is sheen are carefully preserved during the process. Also, achieving the desired overall finished tone of the leaf is easier to manage if the artist understands the concept of 'tonal space'. Tonal space (my own term for it) is the distance in graded tones between the lightest and darkest objects. If the detail of dark veins or shadows between the veins on a leaf will have the effect of darkening the impression of the leaf, then this must be taken into account in the planning, and the whole leaf must be painted lighter in order to leave the tonal space for the detail on the leaf. Otherwise the added tone of the detail will leave the leaf looking darker than was intended.

Green washes on ivy leaves.

Leaf painted with dry brush strokes, ginkgo.

Rosebuds.

Shadows along leaf veins.

When putting veins on to a leaf be sure that you know before you start whether the dark lines that you see are actually (a) the vein, (b) the shadow cast by the vein, or (c) the shadow of the groove in which the vein sits. Careful study in different lights will show what it is on the leaf that causes the darkness, and the artist's own understanding of this, and their application of paint accordingly, will make all the difference.

We know that to put shadow in green we need a touch of the opposite, or complimentary colour, which is red – but which red, and how much? The answer is to look to your colour opposites on a colour wheel. Thus a yellowish green will need a violetish red, and a bluish green will need a red on the orange side. Be careful not to use too much or the colours will cancel each other out and produce a grey. Good greys can also be achieved in this way.

Small part of _Brassica oleraceae_.

Fatsia leaf – leaving tonal space.

Finding shadow colours for greens.

Coping with Too Much Green

Plants are much more leaf than flower. The flower is for reproduction, while the leaf is its food factory and contains the chlorophyll for photosynthesis, which provides its basic food needs. The leaf is therefore more important than the flower: as in animals, survival and growth comes before reproduction. Leaf quantity and quality will vary according to the season and quantity of rainfall, but it is important not to diminish it. Also leaf arrangements and patterns of development are central to identification. Therefore while it is acceptable to show leaves cut in order to reveal other botanical features, it is not acceptable to reduce the foliage to the extent that it is no longer representative of the plant. How, then, do we cope with an excess of green artistically? Like the landscape artist, we may choose to take some evasive action, and do the very large, perhaps the basal leaves, in pencil as a background to the main composition. This is a good idea.

The leaves on the flowering stems will give the greens and the leaf arrangement pattern, and the information required for the basal leaf can be given in the pencil drawing. If the artist wishes to connect and complete the information, a scaled-down habit drawing of the entire plant could be fitted into the composition. Further evasive action may be taken by only painting fruits and seeds. As these present few difficulties, it is possible to reach a high standard of painting with them. But like this the paintings will never tell the full botanical story, and will remain incomplete for information purposes. Unlike the landscape artist, the botanical artist cannot paint the leaves a different green to give relief to the painting. Leaf colour is particular to species and plant varieties, so the botanical artist must be faithful to it. However, certain tricks can be adopted; for instance, where there is sheen on a leaf it can be used to the full, and placed where it is most needed or most effective in the composition.

Note in the illustration how the sheen has been placed on the ends of the leaves so there is less dark to contrast with the whiteness of the paper, and also to take the eye out of the edge of the picture. Shadow can also be used to the full to give variation and relief in an expanse of green, and to push the contrasting colour forwards. Whether you make the leaf shadows warm (reddish) or cool (bluish) will also affect whether the green becomes dominant or recessive in the painting. _(See_ Chapter 3 on using perspective.)

The green and the work involved doing it can be reduced a certain amount by overlapping the leaves. Overlapping also helps to give depth to the painting, makes opportunities to vary the greens by using sheen and shadow techniques, and also gets a good number of leaves into the painting without overwhelming the painting with green.

The Challenge of Boring Greens

This could mean two things: boring to look at, or boring to do. Boring to look at has been dealt with in the foregoing sections, and a variety of ways given whereby interest and variety might be achieved. Boring to do is another matter, but like any challenge, once you are 'on the case' and feel you are winning, boredom becomes a thing of the past. The thrill of being able to do exactly what you want with a plant illustration will replace the boredom of skirting the issue and still being dissatisfied with the result.

_Arisaema griffithianum_ : doing a large area of green in pencil.

Camelia without highlights in the right place.

Camelia with highlights in the right place.

Buddleia with overlapping leaves.

Variation in greens using sheen in the composition: _Guzmania bismarkii_ painted for its discoverer, Klaus Von Bismark.

_Geranium maderense._

CHAPTER 5

STEMS, LEAF JOINS AND HAIRS

_Art is a jealous mistress._

Ralph Waldo Emerson 1803–1882, _Conduct of Life_

Stems and leaf joins are an important part of plant identification, but they pose their own problems. We touch on patterns of growth (phyllotaxy) in Chapter 6 on Fibonacci, but the subject is worth detailed attention. The stem and pattern of leaf emergence are specific to a plant and are a part of the identification procedure. In temperate or arid tropical climates, there may be times of year when the bare stem is all that is available for identification. The distances between leaf joins varies little in plant species and the pattern of leaf arrangement hardly at all. It is therefore important to represent the stem faithfully.

Features to be Considered

Stem Surface

Artists are usually brilliant at noting the texture and colour of a stem, and lenticels and hairs are often all in a day's work. So much the better if there is a little lichen or some leaf scars to lighten the uninteresting plain brown stem. It also keeps obligingly still.

Stem Shape

A tidy cross-section of the stem reveals the shape beyond doubt. Some plant families have square stems, some strongly ridged, some oval, and so on. Some are hollow. Much of the shape can be conveyed by shading and detail on the stem itself, but a clearly visible cross-section at the cut end can support the information.

Shape of the Leaf Join

Most plants have a swelling at the leaf join, which provides extra plant structure to bear the weight of the leaf. As in architecture, there are also many other ways for the structure to support the leaf, and these are shown in the illustration of leaf joins. While it is not necessary for artists to know the names of all these leaf joins, early identification of the type helps them to be aware of the features that must be shown. It is possible, even likely, that a plant will not fall neatly into a category, and will appear to be a cross between two. This is where the artist can do what botanical vocabulary cannot: that is, describe it exactly.

Pattern of Leaf Arrangements

Plants use their leaves to make their food from the light in the process of photosynthesis. They therefore arrange their leaves to maximum advantage so that as far as possible the upper leaves do not shade the lower ones. Each plant species has its own arrangement for maximum light advantage. Some are spiral, some alternate, some are simply random.

Leaf arrangements.

The illustration shows a selection of leaf arrangements. Again, it may not be necessary to know all the names, but a careful study of the plant's habit before you start painting generally pays off.

Problems and Solutions

The problems posed by showing the stem and leaf joins are largely compositional. If it is necessary to show a leaf join, then the plant must be arranged in a way that shows it without distorting its natural habit. If all else fails, then it may be necessary to cut a leaf (and show the cut edge) to allow a clear view of a join. If the stem is dark it may take the eye with too much contrast on the white paper. Too much stem is as destructive to your composition as too little. If you need to reduce the tone of the stem in order that it should not take over the picture, then look for any highlights or sheen that could serve the purpose.

**THE SHAPES OF PLANTS**

Trees particularly form their shape to maximize the use of the sun. Pine trees near the equator have flat tops to make the most of the overhead sun, while northern hemisphere conifers are not just triangular in shape to shed snow, their conical shape also makes the most of the oblique sun's rays in the northern climes. Some plants track the sun and can change the angle of their leaves in a matter of hours. If you do not want your plant to change direction while you are painting it, keep a light on it, if possible, from the same direction as the natural light while it was growing.

Some plants have a very upright habit. If this is the case, a single central stem on the page should be avoided if possible. As in the field study sketches, observation of the natural posture of the specimen before it is picked is very helpful. Showing leaves at the correct angle tests the artist's ability to foreshorten. If the arrangement on the stem is spiral or opposite decussate, then some leaves will be easy and go from side to side, and some will be coming forwards and some going back, and be very foreshortened. Some may be at an oblique angle and be partly foreshortened. A simple way to depict this is shown in Chapter 3 on perspective. It is possible that the stem is too long to fit comfortably on your page, or you may wish to shorten it to have the flowers in the best possible position in the composition. If the stem is shortened it must be shown as such, otherwise it is not a true illustration of the plant. It will be necessary in your design to have a place clear of other information where the cut stem can be shown. A section of an illustration of the orchid _Laelia superbiens_ is shown here. It flowered some four feet from its foliage. The stem cut into four pieces has two pieces in pencil placed in the background and two parts with the basal leaves and the flower in colour in the foreground. The cuts in the stem are shown so that the information is clear and complete.

Depicting Hairs

_Fair tresses man's imperial race ensnare, And beauty draws us with a single hair._

Alexander Pope 1688–1744, _The Rape of the Lock_

Depicting hairs is considered by some to be the ultimate demonstration of technical skill. Certainly they require careful attention, and a quick scrub with a dry brush seldom improves an illustration. What appears to be just an area of fuzz to the naked eye may in fact be a very particular feature of the plant's survival strategy. Check that you have a good specimen and that the hairs are in good condition and typical.

_Laelia superbiens._

White hairs in watercolour: _Bergenia ciliata_ leaves.

Deciding your Approach

How you choose to depict the hair on your specimen will depend on the colour of the hair, the medium you are using, and the size of the hairs.

WHITE HAIRS

If the hairs are white you will only have the places where a stem or leaf overlaps another, and where there is a dark background, to show the hair. In your first plan for composition make sure you have included in the design areas where white hairs will show up on a dark background. You may have to overlap leaves to ensure you have enough of these areas. The hairs can be done either with white paint if the scale and the hairs are large enough, or by painting in the background and leaving tiny strips of white where the hairs are. Where the hair is over the white paper a pencil or a thin grey painted line will describe it adequately as long as it is the right size and character.

However, don't forget that you will be drawing something that is white with a dark pencil. If you draw each hair even with a fine single line, in a dark pencil, the more you put on, the less white it will become. You must therefore shade the shapes of the spaces as they occur naturally between the clumps of hairs, not the hairs themselves. This is also true of watercolour, and can be seen on the Stachys leaf.

COLOURED HAIRS

If the hair is any other colour than white, for example brown or red, you will be able to show it on the white ground, and establish enough visual information in those areas to be able to show the general effect of the hair on the coloured ground, rather than each individual hair. If you are using pen and ink or pencil you have no problems, as a single line depicting each hair – as in the cleavers in the illustration – will suffice. For a pencil drawing, a single line where the hair is shown against white is good. For a general furry surface, such as on the stachys leaf illustrated at the beginning of this section, you can grade the tones to show the nature of the surface. The size of the hairs will also influence your approach. If the hair is only visible with a magnifier and you are drawing life size, then it would not be right to show each one, as they would be quite out of scale. Instead, indicate the hairiness by illustrating the appearance of the surface of the leaf, as in the stachys. If the purpose of your illustration requires full detail of the hairs, then show an enlargement on the side so that the nature of the hairs can be seen, as in the depiction of a Borage leaf here.

Hairs on stachys, cleavers and comfrey.

General Pitfalls and Reminders

Before you start, look carefully at the hairs with a lens or microscope. Relate them to your knowledge of hair types so that you are sure of the form that they take. Be sure that they are the correct denseness on the leaf and come from the right place. Note that in the poppy, the hairs come from the veins and ribs on the underside of the leaf and the stem.

Be sure that the hairs are all joined to the plant and there is no gap. The ends of hairs drawn with two lines should finish neatly and not cross at the tip. Be sure that they point in the right direction for the plant; for instance, they may be different on the surface to the underside of the leaf – on the cleavers the hairs point downwards on the stem and straight out on the leaf. Small differences that do not seem important to the naked eye are very particular to each individual plant and give it its characteristic appearance. Finally, if you cannot get the hairs small enough to be in the right scale to the plant, then it would be better to give a general impression on the plant and an enlargement to one side. Hair painting is time-consuming, and as far as I know there is no quick way to do it that is satisfactory. Nevertheless, there is much satisfaction to be gained from a faithful representation, and once mastered, there are few plants that are beyond the scope of one's ability.

Some hair types.

Borage leaf.

Ferns: _Asplenium bulbiferum and Rumohra adiantiformis._

CHAPTER 6

FIBONACCI AND OTHER
MATHEMATICAL MODELS

_Auream quisquis mediocritatem diligit (Whoso loves well the golden mean)_

Horace 65–68BC, Odes

Phyllotaxis

Phyllotaxis is the study of repeats in plant forms. Phyllotaxy is the spatial pattern of the arrangement of leaves. The relationship between phyllotaxis and mathematics is close and interrelated. Modern computer models both aid the study and benefit from it in the development of computer graphics.

Fibonacci

Arguably the most popular and fascinating of the mathematical models for plant development is the Fibonacci sequence. There is plenty of information about the Fibonacci sequence to be found on the internet and elsewhere, and we can easily discover that Fibonacci, or Leonardo of Pisa, lived in Pisa at the turn of the twelfth century, and that he was a mathematician well grounded in the Indian and Arabic maths traditions of his time. He applied the Fibonacci sequence to the rate at which rabbits bred, and this formula also turned out to be true of the ways in which many natural things expand, and frequently results in a spiral formation.

The Sequence in a Straight Line

The maths are as follows: that each sequential number is the sum of the previous two, so starting at zero, the sequence is 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 377 610, and so on. If each number is divided by the number before it, for instance 8/5 = 1.6, the answer is consistent within a small tolerance. If each number is divided by the number after it, for instance 5/8 = 0.625, then the ratio is inversed, consistently making a similar figure. The larger the number, the more accurate it is to the decimal place, arriving at 1.618 and 0.618 respectively. This is called the Golden Ratio. The Golden Ratio described in a straight line is depicted in the illustration.

Vertical section of a nautilus shell.

The Sequence in Two Dimensions

The Golden Ratio is a pleasing proportion and is used frequently in design and architecture. Rectangles of the same proportion can be made by drawing a square and placing a dot half way along the bottom line. If a diagonal line is then drawn from the dot to the top right-hand corner, and the length of it used as the arc of a compass, a line the same length can be laid along an extension to the bottom line. This then becomes the short end of the smaller rectangle.

_Eryngium maritimum._

Golden ratio.

The Golden Angle is achieved by multiplying the ratio by 360; thus 0.618×360 = 222.5. 222.5 subtracted from 360 reaches the angle of 137.5. This angle can be found in spirals constructed in the Fibonacci sequence. It happens in plants that new florets on a flower head grow 137.5 degrees away from the last one as it is pushed by preceding growth tips into the available space. Maths professor Helmut Vogel from Munich established in 1979 that if the Golden Angle differed by as little as half a degree, the pattern produced gaps and overlaps that are not seen in a natural spiral.

Plants multiply in the ratio of the sequence, but they do not necessarily do it in a straight line. For economy of space and strength, plants growing from a central point fill in the spaces as they go. This results in a spiral, typically, in an asteraceae flower head, of thirty-four spirals clockwise and fifty-five anticlockwise. A spiral can be drawn geometrically by placing the rectangles so that they all relate to each other in the Golden Ratio proportion, and then drawing an arc through the diagonally opposite corners.

The system of paper sizes works in the same way, though not strictly to the same formula, in that each paper size is exactly half that of the next largest. It is extremely convenient, and also a pleasing proportion. We do well to respect the paper sizes, and where suitable, to use the shape already provided for us. As with all compositions, however, our first concerns will be the habit of the plant being described and the purpose of the illustration.

A natural spiral, _verbascum thapsus_.

**GOLDEN RECTANGLES AND SPIRALS**

_This diagram shows how the golden spiral works. If arcs are drawn through the corners of the adjacent squares, a spiral results. Typically a sunflower will have 34 clockwise spirals and 55 anti clockwise_.

**PASCAL HEDGES HIS BETS ON THE EXISTENCE OF GOD**

Blaise Pascal (1623–62) was profoundly religious; he was also interested in gambling, and he laid the foundations of the theory of probability: 'If God does not exist, one will lose nothing by believing in him, while if he does exist we will lose everything by not believing.We are compelled to gamble.'

The Sequence in Three Dimensions

In 1648 Pascal, a brilliant young French mathematician, worked out the relationship between a cone built of Fibonacci sequence numbers and a spiral that is consistent in three dimensions when wrapped around a cylinder. Pascal's pyramid constructed of hexagons or squares also reveals the Fibonacci numbers. In tightly packed formation each building block is equal to the sum of the two blocks directly above it. There are many different mathematical patterns to be found within the triangle. Some of these repeat in self-similarity and provide the foundation for a fractal pattern.

Not only do pineapples, cones, artichokes and similar formations show spirals, but many plants also produce leaves up the stem in a spiral formation. This ensures that leaves do not shade each other and are exposed to the maximum amount of light for photosynthesis. A growth spiral can also be seen to follow a Fibonacci sequence.

Pascal's triangle.

Fibonacci numbers in Pascal's triangle.

So great is our wonder at the neatness and apparently universal application of the Fibonacci sequence that it is easy to be carried away with it and assume that it is the 'answer to the universe and everything'. It is not, of course. Ferns branch using a fractal pattern of growth, and maize seeds grow in rows, not spirals. Aloes, some orchids, and clivia are distichous, with their leaves in two rows. Other phyllotaxy patterns are decussate, opposite, alternate and whorled. Further, some developments are completely random and follow no pattern at all; all these are looked at in Chapter 5.

Is the Fibonacci sequence, in the immortal words of Douglas Adams, 'The Answer to Life, the Universe and Everything'? The Fibonacci sequence is not a law but an interesting tendency. It describes an optimal method of growth, permitting steady exponential and a compact and efficient layout which can come from a central point. It is robust, corrects itself, and does not break down with an irregularity. Many plants simply find this a useful means of development.

Using Fibonacci

So where, apart from a renewed state of admiration for the plant, does all this maths leave the artist? Is it really a help to know the number of opposing spirals and the angles between them? Yes and no. Rather like perspective, it is useful to know the fundamental function and formulas as an aid to understanding. As far as drawing two opposing spirals in a flower centre is concerned, it is not necessary to know the maths to be able to observe it. Observation remains the key. If our flower is drawn at an interesting angle that shows habit and other features of the plant, then not all the spirals in the centre will be seen. Also, because flower centres open gradually over a period of time, often opening from the outside edges first, the spiral is often obscured by the additional complexity of the developing flower centre.

_Campanula discolor_ showing spiral arrangement of leaf attachments.

Once all the tiny flowers in the centre of a composite flower are open, the form of the spiral disappears completely in a mass of tiny petals. The time when it is most visible is when the flowers are all in bud, forming a jewelled plate of little spheres.

So often we cannot rely on the geometrical pattern of Fibonacci to make the painting easy for us, but the flower does look right when the visible part of the spiral is clear. The perspective of the flower head will change the appearance of the spiral, but it still helps when examining the flower in detail to be aware of, and to look for the spirals. Importantly the number of flowers or buds in the spiral is highly relevant, for this will give you your proportion of the size of the buds in relation to the whole.

When drawing opposing spirals in three dimensions, there is the added complication of the perspective of the form. Pinecones pose additional problems, because with the hexagonal shape of the segments, three lines of spirals may be formed.

As in cones, pineapples, and a solid cylindrical head of flowers such as a hyacinth, for instance, no two flowers look the same, as the perspective on each one is different. Further, if a cone is wide open, and each bract on it is seen at a different angle, it would be easy to lose the appearance of the spiral construction in the drawing. However, by starting with a light pencil drawing and noting the position of the spirals and the number and position of each woody bract in each line of the spiral, you can greatly simplify a difficult drawing – but more of this in Chapter 7 on complex structures.

Fractal Development

As stated earlier, ferns develop in a 'fractal' pattern. The term was first used by the French/American mathematician Benoit Mandelbrot in 1975, who was one of the most influential scientists of the last fifty years. He used it to extend the concept of fractional dimensions to geometrical patterns in nature, for which there is no universally applicable mathematical formula. It describes the pattern of self-similarity. As in some fern leaves, any fractal pattern enlarged repeats itself in the detail, and goes on doing so the larger it gets. The pattern is always the same. The illustration of ferns at the beginning of this chapter shows that _Asplenium bulbiferum_ and _Rumohra adiantiformis_ develop in a self-repeating pattern. Fractal development features not only in plant and animal life, such as veins and branches, but also in geological phenomena such as rivers, crystals and snowflakes. In the illustration the Romanesco cauliflower exhibits both a Fibonacci and a fractal pattern, as each cone of spirals consists of spirals of cones, and so on.

Not all the spirals in the centre will be seen.

Process of illustrating an open pinecone.

Process of illustrating a closed pine cone.

Finished open cone.

Finished closed cone.

Half-done pineapple showing underlying wash.

CHAPTER 7

COMPLEX STRUCTURES AND
WHITE FLOWERS

_A sweet disorder in the dress..._

_Do more bewitch me than when Art_

_Is too precise in every part_

Robert Herrick 1591–1674, _Hesperides, Delight in Disorder_

Now that we have explored the different manifestations of the Fibonacci sequence, we can use it to help us draw and paint complex structures. On the whole, the solid ones are less complex than the ones you can see through. A closed cone, a pineapple or a teasel will only present one face to you, whereas if painting an umbellifer or open cone, not only do you have to cope with the overall outline shape, but also the structures of each umbel, the changed perspective on each umbel, and the back view of the rest of the inflorescence as seen between the stalks and petals in the foreground. For good measure the added problem of painting a white flower on a white background is likely to add to the number of hazards to be considered. In all these enterprises, the order in which one does things is critical. I will take the artist through the procedures one at a time, first through a solid specimen, and then through an insubstantial one.

Solid Shapes

The first thing to do with any specimen is to draw the outline, taking care to place it on the paper where it will sit in the planned composition. In the case of the teasel it is both solid in the centre and insubstantial on the edges. Mark both areas; you can work on the solid area in the middle in washes initially, but the edge spikes will have to be done separately with a dryish brush. The solid area can be painted next, with a wash describing the shape of it.

I call this the primary shape, and it is the initial shape on which all the other shapes, the secondary shapes, will be superimposed. By doing the detailed drawing over the first wash, the three-dimensional appearance given by the shading in the wash makes it easier to draw in the perspective of the detail. It is also easier to erase the pencil marks later on.

Keep the light direction simple and the light source strong, and remember to reorientate yourself if you rotate the painting for ease of working. When your wash is dry and the shape looks three-dimensional, draw in the spirals lightly, taking care with the correct number and angles of them. Then count the number of secondary shapes visible within the spiral. Allow for diminishing width of the shapes towards the edges: they foreshorten as the shapes go round the curve away from you. In the case of a teasel the shapes may simply be dark apertures.

**USING AN INITIAL WASH TO DESCRIBE SHAPE**

With almost any specimen, even something as simple as an apple, the shape can be described first in light and shade with a tinted wash and the detail added later. All the other shapes on a solid object will be subject to the same light direction and can be safely superimposed. The highlights on each part, no matter which side of the shape it is, are then automatically correct and credible as a part of the whole.It saves a great deal of thinking and work, and unifies the composition.

Dandelion clock.

Make sure the size is correct so that the number sits exactly within the space drawn: if the size is right, everything else will flow easily.

Now draw the detail, keeping your head extremely still so as not to change the perspective of the secondary shapes. The shapes down the centre of the specimen will be seen almost in plan, while those towards the edges will become narrower and much less distinct, especially if the view is obstructed by spines or bracts. Once it is drawn, it is safe to paint. This part of the project will take some time and will be most enjoyed by artists who prefer to paint dry. Keep your magnification aids constant so as not to confuse yourself with extra scale adjustments, and trust your observation. The result should be gratifyingly spectacular. If necessary at the end use a little white gouache for highlight and contrast on papery spines or bracts, and intensify the shadow. Remove the pencil little by little, substituting a fine watercolour line if it seems that the definition of the pencil was necessary. In the case of defining an edge that would otherwise be lost on white paper, the effect of the flat line can be diminished by dragging the inside edge of the line with a damp brush into the body colour of the structure. (This technique is shown in the picture of the bearded iris at the beginning of Chapter 8.)

Insubstantial Shapes

Lacy structures do not feature much in watercolour exhibitions. While the structure itself can be described well with a pen, or coloured pencils on a tinted paper, a watercolour illustration needs a different approach. Whatever the medium, the drawing is most successful done in a planned way. Once you have planned your composition and the place and perspective of the lacy structures in it, very lightly draw the outline area that defines the edge of the inflorescence. In the case of an umbel-lifer, also draw the areas of the smaller umbels lightly.

Drawing of a teasel with initial washes.

First washes on a Romanesco cauliflower.

Next, with a sharp, hard pencil, draw the detail of the umbels facing you, starting with the centre ones and working to the edges. Make sure that all the umbel stalks centre in the same place. In an umbel everything radiates from one point at the top of the main stalk, the pedicel. When the front is done, put in the stalks of the umbels facing away from you. Keep your head very still as you do this, as any movement will alter your view of it. Draw right through the lines you have already drawn of the front-facing umbels to keep the continuity of line, and then with a fine sliver of eraser, take out the lines that go over the front-facing structures.

Depending on how solid the structure of the flowers is, you may or may not decide to do an underwash in a carefully chosen grey to define the overall globular shape of it. I would be inclined to do it if at all possible. If you are using a very highly sized paper which gives you a few minutes before the wash soaks in, you could do a quick overall wash, and then with a piece of paper towel, equally quickly lift the wash from the areas that will be white paper. When it is dry, do the same again individually on each of the smaller umbels. You will now have a three-dimensional primary shape as a basis for working on, with three-dimensional secondary shapes superimposed, and with the details lightly drawn.

It remains to enjoy the detail of the flowers on the shapes with a much dryer brush. This time, instead of working from the front towards the back as you did while drawing, when using watercolour, work on the back detail first and then the front afterwards. There will be quite a bit of green to see in the back of the little umbels, and this can be used to advantage to throw up the white of the petals of the front ones. To keep a nice, continuous, easy line on the stalks, do the whole stalk with one stroke and immediately lift the paint from the areas reserved for white flowers facing the front. Finally for the details of the front-facing flowers, the process will be mainly that of tucking shadow into the areas behind the petals to define their edges. All the light areas are already done with the initial washes.

Finished teasel.

Romanesco cauliflower.

_METHOD FOR DRAWING A LACEY STRUCTURE_

_The pedicels (flower stalks) that are blocked in are those for the umbels facing forwards. The dotted lines for the back umbels are put in afterwards._

Umbel head.

Drawing of hemlock water dropwort ( _Oenanthe crocata_ ) with the first wash.

Finished hemlock water dropwort ( _Oenanthe crocata_ ).

White Flowers on a White Background

Painting white flowers on a white background is not as tricky as some people imagine – on the contrary, it can be quick and easy, and is very economical with paint. Some white flowers definitely need a background. Snowdrops are a case in point. If this is so, the composition must be very carefully designed. Many white flowers carry their flowerheads well above the foliage, so it is not possible to do a simple view of the plant. It is well worth studying the solutions other artists have brought to the problem. Partial scraps of foliage behind a flower can go a long way. There is no need to slavishly outline a shape with heavy foliage. A little sparse foliage can be used to best advantage on the light side of the specimen, allowing full range of opportunity for shadows on the darker side.

Whatever the structure of the flower you are painting, the beginning procedure is the same: to define the overall shape of the flower using shadow. This will need a pale grey. There are as many pale greys as there are other colours, and your choice of pale grey is important. Study the flower. It may be a yellowy, green or violet grey, or it may reflect the colour of the stamens or other surrounding parts. Greys can be pretty or ugly, and can be composed of almost any combination of colours. Try a few. Opposites on the colour spectrum give good shadow colours or soft greys. A colour on the warm side needs a cool complimentary colour as its opposite. Look at the illustration of daffodils: the shadow colour is the mix of (a) a mid violet and a mid yellow on the colour wheel; (b) is a warm red and a cool green, giving a soft grey, and vice versa; (c) is a warm blue and a cool orange; (d) is a warm green and a cool red; and (e) is warm red and cool green.

_Syringa oblongata._

Shadow in yellow daffodils.

Making greys and shadow colours.

White pansy

Convolvulus outlined.

Convolvulus partially outlined.

The process of defining the flower shape with shadow is exactly the same as with a strongly coloured flower, the only difference being that it needs much less paint. As soon as the initial wash is dry, the flower is ready for the detail. Observe all the lights and shades carefully, especially at the edges. If there are little pleats in the edges of the petals, make the most of them. Some flowers, such as clematis, have prominent ridges and veins: make the most of those.

You may be tempted to outline some of the edges, but this can be counter-productive in that it flattens the drawing and reduces it to two dimensions. An idea as to where a line is useful, and where it is not, will be given by your view of the plant. If the line defines the edge of a petal, a line may be appropriate, but if the edge defined by the line is a perceived edge (that is, if you change the view, the outline will change), then a line is not appropriate. If the definition of a perceived edge is needed, a touch of shadow fading into the overall petal area works well. Because it is an area of shadow and not a line, the effect is not so flattening.

Finally, as with the teasel, remove your pencil lines by degrees, replacing them where necessary with either a very thin, faint line of paint, or a narrow area of shadow blended into the body tone of the petal. It is not necessary to have all the edges very clearly defined: if the flower looks convincingly real, the observer's eye will conclude the detail.

_Coelogyne christata._

Bearded iris, with withered flower.

CHAPTER 8

EPHEMERAL FLOWERS

_Gather ye rosebuds while ye may, Old time is still a-flying, blooms today, And this same flower that blooms today, Tomorrow will be dying._

Robert Herrick 1591–1674, _To virgins to make much of time_

Ephemeral or Short-lived Flowers

Desiccated, tough and long-lasting plants, such as limonium and orchids and flowers readily available year-round in a florist, make wonderful subjects when we are learning and still slow. They enable us to take all the time we need to reach the desired level of perfection. We can work in studio conditions and use all our favourite equipment. Blowsy, delicate and fleeting summer blooms, such as poppies and peonies and plants with a very short flowering season, are too often either rejected as unsuitable subjects, or left unfinished because our painting techniques are geared towards slow and laborious work. Roses, peonies, poppies, ipomaea, hemerocallis and many other raving summer beauties go unpainted with a sigh for what might have been. What we need for these is a different approach.

Anyone who has attempted to draw animals and has worked out a technique for this has a head start. Each animal is a new subject to be studied in its own right, and perfecting it could be a life work. Seen by comparison a flower that moves only slightly throughout the day must be easy, but the approach can be the same. That is to study the subject at all stages, in all positions, and get to know it so well that you can finish a work from your notes and knowledge. The keys to painting ephemeral plants are careful preparation, making sketches, taking photographs, having a continuous supply of specimens, and trusting in a reliable drawing.

Preparation

First study your plant carefully without picking it. This could take the whole of the flowering season for the first year. Do sketches of it growing: this gives you the habit and angle of growth so that you will know if it has drooped when it has been picked. Study the colour changes throughout the day. Flowers that bloom for a day sometimes change colour throughout the day. Many get darker, a few get lighter, some just change colour. Fill your sketchbook with quick studies, some from the morning, some from the afternoon. Study the changes. See which part of the plant droops first. Make some thumbnail sketches so that you have a choice of compositions when the time comes. If the flowering season is short, make a careful note for your calendar when it will flower next year, and be ready for it with some available time.

Some plants have a flowering pattern where they change shape as the buds develop, for example wisteria racemes and campanula cymes, and the whole shape of the inflorescence changes as the flowering time progresses. Ideally you want to have your specimen at its optimum shape with some flowers fully out and some buds still to come.

Occasionally it may be right to include a withered flower that has been fertilized, but only do this if it has aesthetic qualities. If required for botanical information it can be shown as an offset detail, rather than giving your specimen a dying or scruffy appearance. In all probability this will be an instinctive decision on the artist's part. It is necessary to watch the plant carefully as flowering time approaches because it will not always occur in exactly the same week of the year. When the bloom is right you will have done all you can, and will be ready for it.

Sketches and photos for dragon lily _Dracunculus vulgaris_.

Sketchbook page for morning glory _Ipomea hederacea_.

Finished morning glory _Ipomoea hederacea_.

A Photographic Record

Now take photographs of the growing plant from every angle. This information is in addition to the information in your sketchbook, but serves the same purpose. Prepare a method for keeping the specimen moist and also at the angle at which it grows. This may require some ingenuity. Orchid phials from a florist are useful, as is oasis, and water-retaining crystals in a small self-sealing polythene bag. An earlier practice run enables you to be quicker when the master specimen is picked. The advantage that the crystals, or gel, have over other plant conditioners is that you can put them at any angle you wish, even completely flat, without water being spilt on your drawing board.

Only when your paper, board and apparatus are completely ready, and you can be sure of an undisturbed few hours, pick the specimen, taking care to find one that accords with your choice of composition. If you can, and if you are working some distance from the plant, take a few spare specimens and put them in a sealed plastic container in the fridge at 6°C. Some buds continue to open under these conditions, but if the container is sealed to prevent fertilization, they will last much longer.

Once the flower is picked, every minute is precious. Photograph it again from the exact angle you have chosen to paint it. This is the photograph you will probably use for information for the finishing stages. One good one in clear enough focus to bear enlargement will have a great deal of information on it.

The Importance of Drawing

The key to everything is your drawing, which must now be executed quickly and precisely before the specimen wilts, which could be any time between ten minutes and a couple of hours. This drawing is your main point of reference. Whatever else happens to the specimen, or if you change the specimen, trust the drawing and work to it; do not try to change it. Your first drawing done with fresh observation on the fresh specimen will probably be the best you can do. Any loss of self-confidence, and efforts to change it, are likely to end up with a mismatch of viewpoints that will sacrifice its credibility. Only use the back-up information to put detail on your drawing. Do not draw detail at this stage, but be sure that the drawing is correct in proportion and perspective, checking as usual that it is clear where all the parts come from and go to, and that stem and flower joins are in all the correct places. For complex flower centres, leave a space: stigmas and stamens can be done from a different specimen later, taking care that the viewing angle is the same. Early sketch studies will have indicated which part of the plant wilts most quickly. As a rule it is the flower, though occasionally it is the leaf. The obvious and golden rule for any drawing is to draw first the part that wilts most quickly. Depending on the size and complexity of the plant and the speed at which you draw, the specimen may already be changing by the time you finish drawing. If it is, select a new one from the plant or cool store – you do not want to start painting from a faded specimen.

All the preparation done in the sketchbook earlier now pays off: not only is the colour palette familiar and prepared, but it will be quite clear from the morning and afternoon sketches whether the colour has faded or not.

Flower in polythene bag full of polyacrylamide gel.

Finished dragon _lily Dranunculus vulgaris_ , from sketches and photos.

**PROLONGING THE LIFE OF THE CUT PLANT**

Plants differ in their needs for water and temperature. Florists' flowers are bred for a long shelf life, and indeed several days may already have passed before they arrive at the florist. Unlike ephemeral flowers, as subjects for a composition they offer the artist both longevity and the possibility of renewal. Some of the procedures employed by the trade for ensuring a long shelf life for cut plants are also useful when taking specimens from the garden or the wild – though an ephemeral flower is just that, and no treatment will change it. Nevertheless good care habits enable the flower to go on taking up water.

Damage the stem as little as possible when you take it: use a very sharp, clean knife and slice through the stem at an angle. The angle gives a greater surface for water absorption, and lack of damage minimizes the trauma and the possibility for infection setting in.

Take a water container with you, and put the cut flower stem directly and carefully into deep water containing cut flower food from the florist. The 'flower food' contains a decay inhibitor. If possible, once indoors immerse the stems in water and cut them again with a sharp knife while they are submerged: this will help to prevent air bubbles forming in the vascular bundles, which inhibits water absorption. Keep the flower as cool as possible, which means not too close to your work lamp. Working in an air-conditioned room is ideal.

Colour

Speed is now of the essence, and artists used to working with washes have an advantage. Pigment can be dropped into a wash continuously until the right depth of colour is achieved, and then more for the lightening effect of drying. Care can also be taken to intensify the pigment on the shaded areas of the petal, and leave white space where there are any details left undrawn. At this point the first rush is over, and a well earned rest and some refreshment help change the pace for the slower and more detailed work. Using the specimen if you still have one, and your sketches and photographs, continue by drawing in the remainder of the details, perhaps the flower centre or bracts that were too detailed to do in a hurry, and secondary and perhaps tertiary veins on the leaves. What remains to be done now can be done in much the same way as any other botanical painting in terms of care and detail. The only difference will be your reference material if you no longer have a live specimen. However, because of your care in study and planning, your first drawing will have captured the liveliness and fleeting beauty of the ephemeral flower.

Painting from Photographs

What is wrong with painting from a photograph? There are several issues associated with painting from photographs. The old masters sometimes painted over camera obscura projections, and in so doing they were effectively, as craftsmen, doing what photographers could do later with chemicals in a dark room. This kind of craft is no longer required, and artists now fulfil the role of creators. Creativity, in the sense of producing something original, is what is most prized in a work of art, and modern technology now plays a part in this. Storing data and sketches can be done digitally when it is convenient and helpful. The perfect example is for ephemeral flowers and rare plants, for which no second specimen is available.

Copyright is sometimes an issue with the use of a photograph, and artists should take the photograph themselves. If not, permission from the photographer should be sought, and if necessary an agreement for use of the photograph reached. Photographers need to be just as careful about their copyright as artists need to be. _(See_ Chapter 11 on copyright.) So if it is acceptable to photograph a flower and use that information to complete a painting, why might it be frowned upon to paint purely from the photograph? The answer is simply that it will not be so good. Paintings done from photographs look like paintings done from photographs: the camera sees differently to the human eye, and the sense of contact through personal observation is lost. Your own interpretation of what you see gives an immediacy to the work. Also if the photograph is perfectly good and cannot be improved upon, there is no point in attempting to copy it.

Finished red mangrove.

CHAPTER 9

FIELDWORK

_My only merit is to have painted directly from nature, seeking to put down my impressions of the most transitory effects, and I am sorry to have been the cause of giving a name to a group of whom most had nothing impressionist about them._

Claude Monet 1840–1926

The Impressionists were the first school of artists, aided by the invention of the painttube, to paintout of doors. While not noted for detailed attention to plants, the vibrancy of their work due to the immediacy of sensations and awareness of seasons and light brought an exciting freshness to a period in art history. Like painting ephemeral flowers, fieldwork demands a different approach to studio work and a slightly different set of skills. A great deal of success will depend on preparation, organization and personal adaptability. If we are to paint 'on the hoof, so to speak, we also need some adapted equipment.

You should know in advance which flowers it is permitted to pick, and which are forbidden. This may involve consulting the Red List issued by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), or, if you are abroad, communication with CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) for their lists of endangered species. The Food and Environment Research Agency (FERA) is helpful and gives lists of plant material which you can take with you when you return from holiday. Details are in Appendix A. Apart from one's duty to plants and the environment, exhibitions of paintings of plants rare in the wild could be controversial unless sponsored. If what you want is available commercially, the best way to obtain a specimen for painting is still to grow it yourself in a pot: like that you don't have to pick it at all, and can lift it up into your comfortable field of vision for painting. This way, however, does not invalidate the importance of seeing it in its own habitat and sketching its habit there. It may be taken as given that we know what plants we are looking for when we set out: it is probably the purpose of the journey and has already been researched. The trip is likely to be less successful if we just set out with the intention of painting the plants that catch our eye. Even in quite wild places there are many imported garden flowers and hybrid escapees that will catch the eye but are just that: garden imports. Even so, they may be hard to authenticate, and will not be in the book of local flora in which you will have thoughtfully invested.

**BOTANICAL GARDENS**

I have often found botanical gardens in tropical places to be disappointing. While the plants may be fine and well labelled, the collections are more to do with what interesting and prestigious plants have been collected from elsewhere, than what is indigenous to the locality. The local flora sometimes seems to be regarded as commonplace and not worth recording. To find those commonplace weeds I have still had to search uncultivated corners and struggle with identification. Singapore Botanical Gardens are an exception, where local tropical rainforest plants are well represented and labelled.

Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, Botanical Gardens, Mauritius; popularly known as the Pamplemousses Gardens.

Preparation for Day Trips

The key to preparation is to know what facilities, conditions and time will be available on the expedition for painting. For a simple day-time trip a camera, sketchbook, paintbox, a vasculum and packed lunchmay be all that is needed. A plant guide is also worth its weight in the luggage, and a botanist's magnifying glass takes no space at all and can hang round your neck.

Camera

Buy the best camera you can afford, preferably one with a good zoom lens on it, and with a viewing screen that is visible in bright light. If you have to hold the viewfinder close to your face, you have to get much closer to the plant. In the case of ditches, bogs and thorny bushes this is not always possible. It is best to keep the camera in a readily accessible place such as a pocket or on a belt, but not hanging round the neck where it may get damaged or be a nuisance if you need both hands to climb or collect.

Sketchbook

An A5 hard-backed spiral-bound sketchbook with paper of good enough quality to take your preferred medium is ideal. The hard back preserves it in the rucksack and enables the artist to work standing.

Working standing.

Coloured Pencils

Even if you are unshakably attached to watercolours, coloured pencils are very convenient and light for days in the field. They have the added advantages of not needing to use water, and not drying too fast on hot days. You can also use a lighter weight unstretched paper which is more convenient. The dilemma is which colours to take with you – once in the field the chances are that you will have come without the one you really need. Watercolour, on the other hand, gives you the full range of colour from a small box.

Field Paintbox

Good quality field paintboxes are available in specialist art shops. A small box can contain as many as twelve to fourteen artist's quality half pans. Even if you normally prefer tubes, pans are the best option for a field paintbox. To get your own preferred range of colours it is possible to buy the paints separately or change them around. Most boxes have a thumb ring so that the apparatus can be held at the same time and in the same hand as the sketchbook. Flip-out palettes and a small hook-on water container complete the design to enable you to hold all you need in one hand and leave the working hand free for painting. Brushes supplied with the boxes are usually about size 3, with a cover that converts to a handle. I adapted my box to take an extra small palette and a pencil and eraser. If you might be working in extremes of temperature, a plastic box and palettes are better than metal. Metal freezes the watercolour in sub-zero temperatures, and dries the paint up far too fast in the heat.

Field paintbox.

A Vasculum

The word 'vasculum' describes a receptacle for plants. Scientific establishments may have similar jars that class as scientific instruments. I usually use adapted spaghetti jars. Plastic spaghetti jars with tight-fitting lids and cable ties supporting a loop fixed to the top can be either hung on a belt or suspended from the outside of a rucksack.

Where extra vasculi are required at short notice, they can be made of plastic 1 litre water bottles. Cut round the bottle about an inch from the top shoulder. If the bottle is horizontally ridged, it may be possible to cut it in such a place that if a small section is taken out, the top will fit neatly back over the bottom and close firmly. This is obviously more fragile than a spaghetti jar, but works quite well tucked into the side pocket of a rucksack.

Plant container (vasculum) on a rucksack.

There need be very little water at the bottom of the vasculum, just enough to stop the cut stems from drying out. Plants do very well in this environment, and I have found that even tropical ones last several days of high temperatures. They may go on growing and opening. Flowers picked in bud and kept in an airtight container cannot be fertilized by insects, so they will last longer. This is invaluable if you are on the move all day and only have the evenings to paint.

Scissors

A pair of small, light, sharp and strong scissors, or a very sharp knife, will save a lot of time and damage in securing specimens. Keep them in a pocket with a few readily accessible antiseptic moist wipes. It is a good habit for all plants people to keep cutting apparatus spotless so that no pest or disease can be carried from one plant to another.

Rucksack

If you can find a day rucksack square enough at the top to accommodate an A3 pad for longer expeditions, that would be excellent. Rucksacks usually inconveniently taper at the top. I like one with a frame to hold the bag away from the back in hot weather, and a belt to take the weight on the hips. A chest strap also helps to keep it in position. None of these features is wasted even if the rucksack is half empty. It is a treat to be able to walk and be scarcely aware of what one is carrying.

**WORKING IN EXTREME CONDITIONS**

It can be very disappointing fighting against the fading light with frozen hands to find that the paint has frozen and cannot be applied except in crystal form. At the other end of the temperature scale, if it is very hot, add extra water to your colour mix and be sure to work on wetted areas of paper. This will give you an additional few seconds before the paint hardens irredeemably into the paper surface.

Snowdrops in snow.

Clothes and Boots

Everyone has their favourite day out kit, and modern clothing is both light and good. If buying a new coat, get one with large pockets. Boots need to be water-tight. A brimmed hat and fingerless mittens are also invaluable, but probably not in the same place on the same day. It is good to keep fingerless mittens permanently available. Cold towards the end of a day can take a stationary artist by surprise, and numb fingers can destroy your work. If you want to make colour notes of the plants you will need colour pencils or a field watercolour set, as described above. Set out with the paints clean, the pencils sharp, and a small supply of paint water in a reliably watertight plastic screw-topped pot. There may not be a suitable water source close by, and the time that might be spent fetching it is too precious. Do not forget pieces of paper towel.

**REPLACEABLE LIFE SYSTEM**

Observation sometimes provides an answer. I was delighted to find one little epiphytic orchid, _Pleione humilis,_ in Nepal growing in such thick moss in the crook of a tree that I could remove the whole life system intact without disturbing it and replace it afterwards. In my own little orchard in France where an orchid grows I can dig out a whole square of turf and replace it afterwards.

Preparation for Longer Trips

Inevitably longer trips will take more preparation. There are still many parts of the world inaccessible by road, and these are, of course, the parts where indigenous plants will be found in greater numbers in their natural surroundings. Mangrove swamps are a perfect case in point, where roads and paths seldom exist and the only access is by boat. While the rewards of this kind of trip are great, it does demand the extra effort of self-management. If you are happy walking, possibly uphill, for six hours at a time, and if you can manage without the comforts of western plumbing, then I recommend a botanical trek. A good guide on a botanical trek will advise as to what can be picked and what cannot. Unguided travellers will still need the same information from somewhere. In countries signed up to the CITES agreement, all wild orchids are off limits for picking. It is possible that the local people are not fully aware of this, and where the plants proliferate like weeds they might be treated as such. This evidence of plenty might indicate that the species is not endangered, and where they are prolific, clumps of perfectly healthy plants may be found scattered or dumped on the ground. CITES is strictly concerned with international trade, however, and one specimen taken privately for education purposes is not going to excite anyone unless it is listed as endangered. Seed of most plants can be taken, and also a flower, but digging up a root is both pointless and destructive as it is most unlikely to survive the trauma of transfer. _See_ Appendix A on Plant Protection Organizations. Plant hunters put their collected seeds into quarantine in the UK. Contacts to clarify imports of small quantities of personally collected seed or plant parts are given in Appendix A.

For pure botanical delight it is possible to find more plants further away from civilization, which will necessitate taking a larger team of porters, and camping. This is generally my preferred option, provided painting time can be built into the programme. It is important that the team is cohesive, however. Everyone is dependent on each other and resources are limited. I recall Roy Lancaster being stranded by porters melting away to their villages. Language can be a problem, but expectations of pay and tips at the end concentrate the mind wonderfully. Camp cooks can be very inventive and clever, and a certain amount of provisioning and bartering can usually be done en route. The cook has a vested interest in keeping you well and getting you home safely, which is not necessarily the case in a tea house.

Extra Kit for Longer Trips

**FLOWER PRESS**

If your kit weight allows, a flower press is a good way to preserve specimens. It can be bought in different sizes, or easily made with layers of plywood and four long bolts through the corners with wing nuts that can be tightened. Each layer of plywood should be lined with clean, acid-free paper for better preservation of the specimen. If your weight limit does not allow this luxury, your identification book will make a makeshift press for small pieces of plant with leaves of clean paper between the pages.

Take small and large sealable polythene bags as well for anything that may need to be isolated or quarantined. Any seeds collected should be sealed into polythene bags and labelled once they are completely dry. While clearly a trip up the Amazon will need less warm gear, the list below is an example of the kind of thought that needs to go into a prolonged stay far from a shop.

A flower press.

SAMPLE MOUNTAIN TREK KIT LIST

Trekking socks ×3 (1,000 mile socks have two layers and do not blister)

1 pairworn-in walking boots

1 pair trainers

2 shortsleeved T-shirt type vests

Other underwear, comfortable and washable

1 set of thermal underwear

1 towel

1 pair pyjamas

4 T-shirts

2 sweat shirts

1 fleece

1 warm jacket

Rainproofs

2 trousers

2 shorts

2 sets of casual wear to be left at he hotel, including another pair of shoes

1 bathing costume

1 day rucksack

1 soft bag for porterage of gear on trek

1 lockable suitcase to leave at the hotel

1 head torch

1 pair fingerless gloves

Set of zip-seal poly bags to keep clean clothes separate and dry in your luggage

1 pillow slip (to put jacket in to make a pillow)

Toilet paper, packets of tissues, and baby wipes

Piece of string

Antibacterial hand gel

Insect repellent

First aid kit

**MISS NORTH ON LOCATION**

No one can be a more complete example of dedication to painting on location than Marianne North. Travelling almost continuously between 1871 and 1885 with quantities of art materials but only one personal portmanteau, she painted all day on her chosen subjects. She had the intention of building a gallery in Kew to give a collection of significant world plant paintings to the nation. The Ranee of Sarawak, Lady Margaret Brooke, where she stayed for six weeks around 1877, described her as noble, intelligent and kind, introducing her hostess not only to painting, but to pitcher plants, orchids and ferns.

Kew accepted Miss North's offer and the gallery was opened in 1882, a valuable resource in the days before colour photography. To this day it remains the only permanent one-woman exhibition.

_Arisaema nepenthoides._

You may be able to hire warm sleeping bags and liners, and down coats in the town of departure, though a silk liner of your own is more comfortable.

I will not attempt travel advice here, only to say that a travel agent may save trouble in the long run; also be sure to check all angles of visas, insurance and medical inoculations, climate, and flowering seasons.

Painting on Trek

What are the changes in technique required for 'wild' painting? A glance at Margaret Mee's beautiful work done in the Amazon Basin shows that even while working quickly in uncomfortable surroundings, it is possible to produce something that is detailed, informative and charming. Many of the considerations in the chapter on ephemeral plants are applicable on trek. The extra limitations of an itinerant situation are the lack of time and daylight. Daylight is critical where there is no electricity. To that may also be added the limitations of the kit that you have carefully selected for the trip. Everything you wish to paint must fit on the size paper you have brought. It may be necessary to foreshorten a plant or dismember it to fit the necessary information on a certain sized page.

Habit sketch red mangrove.

Habit sketch black mangrove.

Finished black mangrove.

You may have to select certain parts of the plant to show, superimpose one part over another, or have parts truncated by the edge of the page. This will require very careful composition. As it is for ephemeral plants, your sketches and photographs will be key information. Try to get as much information on your sketch as possible working quickly while the plant is fresh.

Any moment that you are not on the move needs to be painting time. The head torch is invaluable for extending the usable daylight. I have also found a solar-powered LED torch to be very useful. It recharges itself daily in a net pocket on the back of the rucksack and has a very bright light.

Depending on the robustness of the plant you have been carrying with you, you may decide to do sketches capturing the colour and habit of the plant, rather than try to do a finished painting straightaway. If you have managed to get a photograph or sketches of the growing plant on the way, you just need to check that you have all the information you need to make an illustration later under studio conditions. Having done that, you can press the plant firmly in your flower press or between the leaves of your identification book to take the information home with you.

For robust plants with the promise of reasonable longevity, it may be worth starting a fine illustration, using a quick thumbnail sketch to establish the best composition first, and making sure that you have some photographs of the plant to fall back on. It is a mistake to think that if a plant has been plentiful on the route to date that it will continue to be so. Any changes in altitude or weather can demolish chances of finding further specimens. If you have set out with a specific object in mind, and you find the exact plant, this is the moment to alter any itinerary to ensure that you can paint the plant there and then. As with studio work, personal comfort and cleanliness of the surroundings will affect the outcome of your efforts. If you have the luxury of a chair and table and protection from the weather and insects, the prospects are good. If portraying the live specimen involves doing so up a tree or lying in a bog, you may decide that even after travelling thousands of miles to this point, the picture could still best be done from sketches and photographs. Work quickly on your initial pencil outline, and if using watercolour, get the shapes and three-dimensionality of the plant with your first washes. The excitement and immediacy of what you are doing should carry you along and show in the work, giving it a vitality that eclipses paintings done in the organized comfort of home.

_Pseudodrynaria coronans_ from the forest canopy in Nepal.

_Paeonia suffruticosa_ 'Hana-kisoi'. _Paeonia_ is the family name, _suffructicosa_ means 'somewhat shrubby', and 'Hana-kisoi' is the cultivar name.

CHAPTER 10

UNDERSTANDING PLANT NAMES IN LATIN

_**And though thou hadst small Latin and less Greek.**_

Ben Jonson 1573–1637, _to the Memory of my Beloved, Mr William Shakespeare_

The Historical Setting

If Shakespeare got by quite well without Latin, why can't we?

Let us start by going back to the first century AD. Romans ruled the then known world, and Pliny the elder was compiling his _Historia Naturalis._ Latin was the first language for the ruling élite and the second language of anyone else lucky enough to have two, and speaking it was the key to progress, in the same way that English is today. Further, in the same way that no language remains pure, the Greek influence of ideas and philosophy meant that Latin already incorporated many Greek words – stylus, a pole, and calyx, a cup, for instance.

Pliny the Elder was well aware of the limitations of drawings to describe plants, especially with the continuous hand copying and incorporation of mistakes. So he described the plants in words as fully as he could, noting the stages of growth. He used his own native language, and the common knowledge of the form of well-known things to describe plants and plant parts. Thus we get such enduring terms as petiole, meaning little foot, reticulum, meaning small net, axilla, meaning armpit, and pollen meaning fine flour. He made no attempt at classification.

Dioscorides was writing _De Materia Medica_ simultaneously, but independently, in Greek, and this work was first translated into Latin in 250AD. Translations were made at intervals in the following centuries, and Dioscorides' work ensured the continuing use of Greek names in botany. Both Pliny and Dioscorides drew heavily on both the drawings and writings of Theophrastus, who was a colleague of Aristotle, and Krateuas, who was doctor to King Mithridates VI of Pontus. Classification for these works followed Dioscorides' pharmaceutical plan, and plants were listed in groups according to the afflictions they were purported to cure.

During the Middle Ages learning was largely in the hands of monasteries; Latin remained the language of scholarship and was guarded as an exclusive form of knowledge and power.

Then in the early sixteenth century, fired by voyages of discovery, a new awareness of the extent of world plants inspired the study, description and listing of plants, and the revival of botany gradually gained momentum. Helped by the advance of printing, botanists returned to the study of Theophrastus, Krateuas, Pliny and Dioscorides, Theophrastus and Krateuas being most helpful, with a sound understanding of plants and an orderly scientific approach.

**LEONARDO AND LATIN**

Leonardo da Vinci spoke and wrote the vernacular Italian of his day. As the illegitimate son of a lawyer, he did not have the same education as his half brothers, and his adult attempts at learning Latin were not successful enough for scientific study. Had he been able to discourse with the learned men of his day, it is likely that his scientific drawings would have contributed to medical knowledge in his own lifetime.

Clearly there was a need for a systematic listing, description and naming of plants, and this was first done by Valerius Cordus, graduate of Ferrara University in the fifteen twenties. Academics throughout Europe were studying both ancient and new material in the universal language of Latin, which with its characteristic of declensions was both precise and short. Work written in any other language was likely to pass unappreciated. Influential above all Renaissance botanists, and considered the father of botany, was Andrea Cesalpino, doctor and botanist at Pisa. In 1583 he published De Plantis libri XVI, in which he classified plants according to their characteristics, noting particularly the seed, though he still retained the old Aristotelian notion of trees, shrubs and herbs. He was the link between the ancients and Linnaeus, who revered him and built on his work, recognizing that he was the first to produce a system.

_Selaginella tassellata_. Engraving by George Schneider 1894.

Linnaeus

Born to a pastor and his wife in Stenbrohult, Sweden, in 1707, Carolus Linnaeus showed an early interest in plants. He was taught Latin at home where it was the language of conversation. By the time he wentto university he was already familiarwith the great botanical works of his predecessors. He studied medicine at Uppsala University, where the run-down faculty curriculum included the study of medicinal plants. There he listed plants and organized botany trips to Lapland, writing the _Flora Lapponica._ Later he finished his studies in Holland, conducting robust correspondence with other leading botanists, and publishing his first pamphlet on classification, _Systema Naturae._

From Holland in 1736 he visited England and the Chelsea Physic Garden, converting Miller, its curator, to his classification system. He was not so convincing with Johann Dillen at the Oxford Botanical Garden, however. Returning to Sweden, in 1739 Linnaeus married Sara Moreae, and they raised four children to adulthood. He later became professor at Uppsala University, restored the botanical garden there, and sent his promising students on plant-hunting expeditions. Some died in the attempt, others became famous in their own right, two went on voyages with Cooke, and most brought back a continuing supply of new plants and seeds to Linnaeus, who preferred not to travel himself. Linnaeus was popular with his students and taught them to think for themselves, and to do their own research. Linnaeus was devout, and thought that the earth's creation was the glory of God as seen from the works of nature by man alone: 'Creationis tellunis est gloria Dei ex opere Naturae per Hominem solum.' His task was to construct a classification system that would show the order of the universe.

Spurred on by improvements in magnification, he studied flower parts and counted them. The study of flower parts took on a major role in botany. He used the number of the sexual parts of the flower as his basis for classification, which for the most part worked, though it shocked some and had its critics. He defended his work, however, in various ways: one of his critics, Johann Siegesbeck, found that an insignificant weed was named after him, _siegsbeckia._

Linneaus' classification system has since been improved, but the system of giving every plant two names has not. His main legacies were the methods of hierarchical classification and binomial nomenclature – that is to say, grouping plants in a graded way, and naming every plant with a combination of two names. He wrote rules for the naming of plants: for example, names should not be long. They should not be completely made up, but should come from a word with a Latin root. Greek words should be written in the Latin alphabet. Using Aristotle's notion of 'genus' – that is, naming the type of plant for the first name – he then defined 'differentia specifica', the specific difference for the second. This provided a much needed stability in botany.

**AN OPEN-MINDED FREE THINKER**

As a forerunner to Darwin, Linnaeus was open-minded, up to a point. He noticed that plants changed with hybridization, and called the struggle for survival a 'war of all against all'. As his main work was cataloguing and classification he did not always draw new conclusions from his observations. He was, however, the first person to classify human beings as an animal, giving him the name _Homo sapiens_ in his 1758 edition of _Systema Naturae._

Until Linnaeus introduced his system, naming plants was a matter for individual botanists who might choose any Latin description for the plant and change it at will. There was much duplication, and it was hard to differentiate plants. Then in 1753 Linnaeus published his _Species Plantarum,_ which, with over 7,300 different plant descriptions, each formally named, provided the basis for the evolving study of botany.

Among other works he continued to work on his _Systema Naturae,_ revising it and enlarging it in sequential editions. In 1757 he was ennobled, taking the title Carl von Linne. Thereafter his illustrious contacts increased and his work was more widely applauded. From 1772 declining health slowed down his activities, and he died in 1778 after a series of strokes. When his son, Carl, died five years later, Sara sold some of his collection to James Edward Smith, who then founded the Linnean Society in London with it.

**A UNIVERSAL SYSTEM**

The use of Latin for names meant that Linnaeus' system was accepted and useful throughout the academic world. Like plants that know no political boundaries, and music and food cultures that transcend national barriers, Linnaeus' system for naming plants was universal.

What Linnaeus did For Us

Linnaeus' legacy for botanical Latin was immense and lasting. He drew from conversational and literary Latin a vocabulary with universal and precise meanings that could be dropped into any other language. By using the words always in the same context to mean the same thing, the words acquired a precision in terminology. He described plants always in the same way and the same order. The flower parts were always described from the outside, working in towards the centre. This methodical approach made comparison easy and was useful for writing and research.

The Ancients described plants in terms of their development as they unfolded around them. Most of the plants that Linnaeus described were dried specimens, so the language became much more static. Stripped of the grammar of activity, the words used were mainly nouns and adjectives, albeit with the endings of their grammatical declensions. It was to be simplified later by Lindley, and we will see more how it works below.

As the brief synopsis of his life's work shows, the volume of work Linnaeus accomplished during his lifetime was formidable. The number of publications alone might well have been the work of ten lesser men, but his contributions to botany were in his own lifetime a popularization of the interest in plants, and the system by which study might be undertaken and recorded. He stated that the foundation of nomenclature was classification, and his work demonstrated it unambiguously.

Linnaeus. Watercolour after Alexander Roslin.

Front page of _Systema Naturae_.

Lindley

Born twenty-one years after the death of Linneaus, in 1799, Lindley was to carry on his work and refine it. He was elected to the Linnean Society at the early age of twenty-one. Like Linnaeus, he had a huge capacity for work fired both by his love of plants and the necessity to earn money. Like Linnaeus, he held down a university professorship and the directorship of a garden while writing and researching. Like Linneaus, he was a good teacher. Like Linnaeus also, he married a Sarah, a person of independent means, as soon as he could afford it. His family comprised a son and two daughters, all of whom became distinguished in their own fields. His son became Lord Lindley.

Lindley after Eddis RA.

Leaf margins after Lindley.

The Lindley family home after a sketch by one of his daughters.

Lindley's father was a struggling nurseryman in Norwich, and it was there that he learned his local wild flowers and gained a knowledge of horticulture. When he left grammar school he went to work in Belgium as an agent for a seed merchant. William Hooker had heard about the young John Lindley, a self-educated botanist with artistic ability, and he often invited Lindley to visit him. He also introduced Lindley to Joseph Banks, for whom Lindley worked in his herbarium specifically on roses and foxgloves until Banks' death in 1820. After that he worked for William Cattley, naming, painting and classifying orchids. He named a genus after his boss, Cattleya, and published the _Collectanea Botanica._

At the age of twenty-three he was appointed assistant secretary to the Horticultural Society at Chiswick Gardens. Five years later his duties were enlarged to cover the London offices as well, and he became involved in identifying collectors' imported plants. At this time he also started the London flower shows at Chiswick, with competitive classes. Lindley was on good terms with Darwin, and a close associate of his contemporary Joseph Paxton, of glasshouse fame, with whom he shared many professional and business interests – and the habit of overwork.

Lindley was competent in Latin, French and German, and while he had never been to university himself, he made a good professor at the London University and was considered an able teacher. Concise in his writing and direct in his speech, he made his views clear, and defended them without fear of unpopularity. As an artist himself, Lindley was often in touch with botanical artists in other countries, where a new attitude concerning detail was emerging. The continuing development of microscopes and hand lenses was focusing attention on plant structures. Efforts to make a more natural system of classification than Linnaeus' somewhat arbitrary criteria turned attention to which plant parts were the important ones. Artists and botanists alike were looking for patterns. Botanical art abounded in diagrams, sections and dissections.

What Lindley did For Us

Lindley produced four versions of a 'natural' system of classification, and by means of continuous revisions, established a system of natural orders that included many criteria, resulting in a branched system. He said: 'It is impossible from the nature of things that any arrangements should exist which shall represent the natural relations of plants in a consecutive series.' His branched format was later developed by Darwin, showing the evolutionary tree of life.

Lindley achieved the first classification of orchids, and his works _Introduction to Botany and Elements of Botany_ are lasting classics. Among the most useful and lasting benefits to artists and botanists is his glossary, in which he gives specific meanings to Latin descriptive words and names for plant parts with the English equivalent. He simplified botanical language, and binned those words which were of doubtful use. From his simplification we were given proven useful words such as 'conifer' and 'orchid'.

In his _Philosphia Botanica_ Lindley described leaf shapes, margins, surfaces, divisions and veining, and gave them appropriate Latin names so that plants could be properly described without drawings. Now for the artist, it is useful to be able to understand the botanist's description of a plant to make sure that all the diagnostic features of it have been correctly shown in the illustration, and to check that the specimen to be drawn is not only the correct one for the assigned name, but also a representative specimen. Ideally a drawing of a plant should describe it so exactly that a botanist has no difficulty in identifying it. How disappointing it could be if the artist were to omit the only diagnostic feature that distinguishes one species from another.

It is the modern form of Lindley's flower shows that awards medals for botanical illustrations bearing his name. These awards, together with the Grenfell awards, named after Field Marshall Grenfell, have become the international yardstick for excellence in botanical illustration.

Naming our Plants

**_What's in a name? That which we call a rose
By any other name would smell as sweet._**

William Shakespeare 1564–1616, Romeo and Juliet

Lindley medal.

Leaf shapes after Lindley.

We know that the correct names for plants are the Latinate ones, and that we must name our botanical paintings in the right script and the right order in Latin. Often we do it by means of studying labels, or identifying the plant in a horticultural book. Both writing and remembering plant names is much easier if we know what the words mean, and once we start to look at the names and relate them to words in our own language with Latin and Greek roots, it all starts to make sense. It is easier to understand what the parts of the plant name are if we understand the system of nomenclature and how the overall system of classification works.

Looking at the list of groups on the classification chart below, we see that each heading encompasses all the headings below it. This is called a nested hierarchy. When naming plants we usually take the first five categories as understood, and the categories that comprise the name are the genus and species.

**THE GRENFELL MEDALS**

Field Marshall Francis Wallace Grenfell, much distinguished in military and diplomatic fields, was president of the RHS during the years of World War I when he founded the Church Lads Brigade in 1914 as an offshoot of the 16th Service Battalion London Volunteer Rifle Regiments. This accounts for the military cap badge design on the medals named in his honour in 1919, and now awarded for botanical illustration and flower arranging at the RHS shows where art is exhibited.

Grenfell medal.

Suffixes for Genus Names

* | The suffix _-a_ or _-um_ is often added to the root word for the genus name

---|---

* | The suffix _-aceae_ is added to the root of the genus name to form a family name: for example, _Ros/a_ – _Ros/aceae._ The root is _Ros-_

* | The suffix _-ales_ is added to the root to indicate the order: for example, _Ros/aceae, Ros/ales_

Botanical Latin for descriptions has developed its present form to serve a purpose. Stripped of conversational grammar, the remaining vocabulary of nouns and adjectives, liberally interspersed with Greek words in Latin script, provides a wealth of botanical descriptive words that could confound the classical Latin scholar. They provide a wealth of vocabulary for names which must be Latinate in structure. A few recognizable features of Latin declensions and conjugations survive and give a useful indication of the meaning of a descriptive name.

**CLASS, CLASSIFICATION AND NAMES**

A class or taxon is a group of things sharing common characteristics. Classification (taxonomy) is the process of dividing the things into groups with similar characteristics. This is done by studying the plant characteristics and naming them correctly. The first part of the name places the plant within its group, and the second part describes it specifically so it is less likely to be confused with anything else.

Nouns for Genus Names

Nouns in botany are usually in the nominative singular case. That is, they are the subject of the sentence, so the most helpful simplification for non-linguists is to note how a noun ending in its singular form changes in the plural:

_Singular_ | _Plural_

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-al | -alia

-ar | -aria

-tas | -ates

-ax | -aces

-abile | -abilia

-amen | -amina

-er | -era

-es | -tes

-is | -es

-ix | -ices

-ma | -mata

-pis | -pides

-us | -era

These are by no means all there are, but some familiarity with them should help to explain the different endings in names. As in many languages, the adjectival ending should agree with the noun it is qualifying both in gender – masculine, feminine or neuter – and in person – whether singular or plural. The genders of plants are fairly random. For example:

_Stenocactus coptonogonus_ (masculine singular)

_Mammillaria microhelia_ (feminine singular)

_Rhombophyllum rhomboideum_ (neuter singular)

Classification and naming of plants.

**RULES FOR NAMING PLANTS**

The International Code of Nomenclature lays down the rules for naming plants. The three most important are as follows:

• | A plant name is fixed on one representative sample, which is a preserved herbarium specimen called the'type'

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• | The rule of 'priority' governs the name in cases where a plant has been named more than once. Plants must be given the first name registered starting from 1753, the publication date of Linnaeus' _Species Plantarum._ There can be some exceptions to this rule

• | Ideally each plant should have only one correct name, but there are exceptions. The International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants covers cultivars, and states that cultivar names can no longer be in Latin.

Adjectives for Specific Names

The ending adds to the meaning of the descriptive word, the variations being masculine, feminine and neuter.

_The following endings indicate resemblance to something:_

-aceus-a-um, e.g. lavandulacea

-atus-a-um, e.g. divaricatus, variegata, plicatum

-ius-a-um, e.g. acerifolius, salicifolia, crataegifolium

-oides, Greek, e.g. jasminoides

_The following endings indicate pertaining or belonging to:_

-alis-is-e, e.g. vernalis, horizontalis, orientale

-aris-is-e, e.g. rivularis

-utus-a-um

_The following endings indicate looking like a material or colour:_

-aneus-a-um, e.g. makoyana, hippocastrum

-eus-a-um, e.g. gramineus

-inus-a-um, e.g. balsamina

_The following endings indicate position or possession by something:_

-arius-a-um, e.g. scoparium

-anus-a-um, e.g. platanus

_The following endings indicate the process of becoming something:_

-escens, e.g . arborescens

-icans

-izans, e.g. graecizans, geometrizans

_The following endings indicate the place where found, i.e. habitat:_

-aticus-a-um, e.g. aurantica

-ensis-is-e, e.g. canadensis, sinensis

-estris-is-e, e.g. sylvestris

_The following endings indicate the ability to do something:_

bilis-is-e, e.g. variabilis

_The following endings indicate action, the process of doing something:_

-bundus-a-um, e.g. floribunda

-idus-a-um, e.g. pallidus

_The following endings mean 'slightly':_

-cellus-a-um

-cillus-a-um

-culus-a-um, e.g. lupulus, pendula, pendulum

-ellus-a-um

-illus-a-um, e.g microphylla

_The following endings are equal to the English suffix 'ful':_

-cundus-a-um, e.g.fecundus

-usus-a-um

-elentus-a-um

_The following endings are equal to the English superlative 'the most':_

-issimus-a-um, e.g. elegantissima, fragrantissimum

_The following endings indicate function or usefulness:_

-orius-a-um, e.g. tinctoria

_The following endings indicate marked development:_

-osus-a-um, e.g. farinosus, fructicosa, speciosum

_Discovered by or named in honour of someone:_

-i -ii- -ae, e.g. palmeri, banksii, banksiae (Mrs Banks)

ianus-iana, e.g. tomasinianus, daigremontiana.

Plants named after people used to be spelt with a capital letter, but the modern style is now always to use lower case for the specific name for uniformity and clarity. A person's name does nothing to describe a plant. If you know the relationships between the plant hunters and their colleagues after whom they may have named a plant, then you could have a clue as to its country of origin and preferred climate, that is all.

For a glossary of the roots of Latin plant names, _see_ Appendix B.

Cultivar Names

Only old cultivar names are Latin. Since 1959 cultivar names have been written in lower case starting with a capital and in inverted commas. Cultivar names can describe the plant, name the breeder or be named after someone. Crosses between parents are indicated with a multiplication sign. So the plant name of a modern cultivar rose might be written thus: _Rosa moschata_ 'Autumn delight'.

Roses are frequently named by just their cultivar name, the genus and specific names being omitted. Cultivars sometimes have a trade designation name as well, which may be used in catalogues. This is for patent protection of the plant breeder's rights, and may appear in inverted commas and brackets after the variety name used for marketing, written in upper case: for example, _Rosa_ LOVELY LADY ('Dicjubel'). Most cultivated roses are crosses, and the parentage is usually omitted. Hybrids are crosses between plants of different genera and are often marked with a multiplication sign between the parents. A hybrid forsythia might be written _Forsythia x intermedia_ 'Beatrix Farrand'.

Cultivated rose.

Wild Species

Wild species of the same family or genus may interbreed, and they are often used to breed other varieties. Wild species forming their own variant in an area might be marked thus: (subsp.), or a variant of it marked 'var.'. There may be other initials after a name to indicate the naming authority: thus something named by Linnaeus will have an 'L.' after it, for example _Caltha palustris_ L. _var. himalensis_ (D.Don) Muckerjee MARSH MARIGOLD. The names or initials following the plant variant name are the names of the botanists who sought valid publication of the name (the rules for valid publication are complex, and outside the scope or purpose of this book).

Name Changes

We have noticed that plant names change, and once we have learned the name of a plant we much prefer it if they stay the same. We may be more approving of name changes, however, if it is understood why they are changed. Botanists working throughout the world are using modern techniques to try to make sure that there is only one name for each plant. Most plants have local names in the vernacular, and the same plants have many different names in many different regions. Many plants have synonyms and have been left with two or more names, as it is not clear which name was registered first. As more is discovered about the evolutionary development of plants it is revealed that some plants have been classified in the wrong families or genera.

Horticultural name label.

Now that we have instant communication between scientific establishments and the ability to test DNA, these matters can be decided without doubt. Names may be changed, therefore, if it is found that a species has been placed in the wrong genus, or if two or more people have discovered the same plant, in which case the first to satisfy the rules for valid publication will be the one who names the plant. Classification is devised by man for the convenience of studying and listing plants. But the plants have their own agenda, so it is unlikely ever to be absolute or uncontroversial. While there are still some misgivings in academia, the new classification system of APG III ( _see_ below) is gaining ground, and arguably offers the best informed classification system currently available.

**APG III Classification System**

APG stands for 'Angiosperm Phylogeny Group', the group of people who are researching the evolution of plants through their DNA. This should lead to a more precise classification of plant families, by showing the ways and times that plants evolved.

• | Angiosperm: A flower whose seed is enclosed in a carpel which is part of the flower

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• | Phylogeny: History of development

• | Group: Body of people. Angiosperms are distinct from gymnosperms, which means 'naked seed'; gymnosperms are mainly conifers. Angiosperms (seed plants) are now divided as can be seen in this table:

This is the basis of the APG classification system.

It was previously thought that angiosperms were either monocots or dicots and they were classified as one or the other. It is now known that there are some older plants that have more in common with monocots than they do with the previously designated dicots. Modern books should reflect this new knowledge, but it will not alter the classification of most garden plants, which are now known as eudicots.

Picture with superimposed watermark.

CHAPTER 11

PROTECTING AND EXHIBITING
YOUR WORK

_It is a custom more honour'd in the breach than the observance._

William Shakespeare 1564-1616, _Hamlet_ 1.iv.14

It is essential to know the basics of copyright law, both to be sure that you infringe no one else's copyright, and to be sure that no one infringes yours. Hopefully it is common knowledge that an artist automatically owns the copyright of their own original work without having to register it in any way. A small © in the corner of the work may serve to remind the public that the artist treasures this right. A signature, preferably readable, on every work is also essential. The long-term result of an absence of signature may be loss of copyright. The short-term result, for my students anyway, is the inescapable and immediate subjection to a lecture on copyright. The principles of the copyright law in the UK were formed from a concept in common law, which was passed as formal law by the Statute of Anne in 1709. Most of the law in use today is enshrined in the Copyright Designs and Patents Act of 1988. Clearly technology has moved on. What was obvious and appropriate when copies were made by hand, is not so nowadays when copying anything in colour is as easy and commonplace as going to a supermarket.

Your Rights

The law gives artists the right to control the way in which their work is used, to be identified as the artist, and to object to any distortions of the work. The exception to the rule of owning your own copyright is if you produce work for your employer in the course of your employment. This is why it is important as a freelance artist to establish the terms under which you accept a commission before you start.

**HELPFUL MAXIMS**

_**'Copyright is the bedrock of the creator's productive environment' 'If you do not have your own integrity as an artist, you have nothing.'**_

Ringing generalizations such as these added gravitas to my student essays, never failing to elicit a plaintive 'Quote your sources' from my tutor. While he doubted my authorship of them, he never questioned the truth of them, and they do make good maxims. Quote me if you wish.

You may, if you wish, sell your copyright with an assignment in writing, or license limited use of it, also in writing. These rights are separate from owning the actual work of art and should not be confused. Selling an original does not include the right to copy it unless you specifically sell that right with the original.

These are your economic rights. Your moral rights are the right not to be wrongly named as the creator of another person's work, and the right to be identified as the creator of your own work. This latter must be specified in writing and be included in any contract. Importantly, you also have the right to object to derogatory treatment of your work, which could include adaptations and alterations, bad cropping, resizing, or bad colour printing, which in any way distorts it. Botanical artists are particularly sensitive to this type of mistreatment because the quality of the work is traditionally measured by the accuracy of detail and colour.

Copyright lasts for seventy years after the artist's death.

A work must be original and show the input of judgement, labour and skill in order to qualify for the protection of the law. This applies only to the work created – that is, the picture and not to the idea behind it. Repeating the idea of a subject matter, or using someone else's style of composition, while possibly annoying to the originator, is not a breach of copyright.

Protecting your Copyright

While the symbol c in a circle, ©, together with the name and date of creation, is a useful reminder that you are aware of your ownership of copyright, this is not proof of ownership. Some artists send themselves a copy of the work by recorded delivery and keep it unopened. It can be retained in that form as proof and date of creation and ownership. Nowadays, a more practical recourse would be to photograph the work at stages in its completion and store them digitally with the dates included.

A simple way to make it difficult to erase your signature digitally is to sign across a background varied in tone and colour. While not impossible, it is harder to erase without leaving evidence of alteration. Some creators may incorporate a deliberate error that will be repeated in a copy.

If putting work on a website, the normal course for photographers is to make the images small and indistinct to prevent copying. Unfortunately for botanical artists, this also destroys the purpose and beauty of the work and does no credit to the artist. A remedy is to incorporate a watermark into the image. It involves superimposing one image, the one of the watermark, over the art work. This way the clarity and detail of the painting can still be appreciated, but only copied with the watermark of ownership in it. When commissioned to do a piece of work, the most secure way you can protect yourself is the contract you make when you accept the commission. It is best to sell only the reproduction rights for a limited length of time and use, and not the copyright if you can help it. Some large companies insist on a complete rights buy-out and are prepared to pay extra for it. Normally a client or agent buying printing rights will return originals, but it is a good idea to make it clear in the contract that you need them to be returned. Most agents are insured against loss of original art work. Some agencies will send you their own form to complete. Check it against your list of requirements, and anyway send your own commission acceptance form. In the case of both parties having a contract form, make a formal note of any discrepancies. The agreement will need to state clearly:

• | Who they are

---|---

• | Who you are

• | What is to be provided

• | The purpose of it

• | The extent of the reproduction rights in terms of time – that is, the number of years for which the licence will last

• | Use (i.e. book, cards, household ware)

• | Area (i.e. UK, US, or world wide)

• | If the rights are exclusive or not (that is, if anyone else has use of the same image)

• | The price inclusive of any VAT

• | Any additional allowable expenses

• | The date work is to be delivered

• | The date any roughs are to be delivered

• | Whether or not a credit for the work is to be given

• | Who owns the originals and when they should be returned

• | The number of printed copies of the work to be given to the artist

Photograph of work in progress for copyright purposes.

Signature across painted background.

A monogram prepared for a watermark.

A standard agreement should also make clear the time in which the payment should be made, and fees for cancellation or rejection or changes. This is normally 25 per cent if cancellation takes place before the delivery of the roughs, 33 per cent if it is at the roughs stage, and 100 per cent if it is cancelled on delivery of the art work, in which case all ownership of the work reverts to the artist. In case of non-response from the client or agent, it is a good idea to state on the form that the absence of immediate objection or queries is deemed acceptance of the terms. In practice the time offered for making contracts is often short or nonexistent, but do not be tempted to start work until you have an agreement. Make up your own form on your own headed paper for professional and repeated uses.

Businesses looking for designs can use either old work that is out of copyright, or copyright-free material from a copyright-free library, and unless the requirement is specific, they may do this before even considering commissioning a design. The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, the RHS, the Chelsea Physic Garden, the Eden Project, and other botanical establishments have large archives of original work of which the copyright or printing rights have been gifted, so there is little requirement for them to commission new work.

Copyright Outside the UK

Copyright law in the EEC is the same as in the UK and generally respected. In America the principles are largely the same, but the law is more lenient with business users. The situation was largely clarified by the Orphan Works Act in 2008, as to the extent to which they are required to make an effort to trace the copyright ownership of a work. As an artist it is in your interests to be logged into an American data base of artists so that you can be traced. Broadly generalizing, the rest of the world tends to be a free-for-all. Further, given the global nature of both business and the internet, the rest of the world is very relevant. It may be small comfort to the botanical artist to know that the situation in the music and film industries, where more money is at stake, not to mention counterfeiting branded products, is very much worse.

Infringements

The artist is in danger of infringing someone else's copyright when they use reference material unless it is significantly altered. This can be a grey area, however, so it is best to stick to one's own original work and to out-of-copyright reference material. Every time you photocopy something that is not your own creation you are in danger of infringing a copyright. Copy shops should have notices with this warning; in practice they are often hard to spot.

Exceptions to this protection are for private study or education. Hand copies may be made for the purpose of instruction if done by the instructor or the student. Colleges and libraries buy a copyright licence permitting them a limited extent of copying for teaching purposes. The money collected by the Copyright Licensing Agency is then distributed between artists with registered published works.

When it comes to having one's own copyright infringed, most artists are at a disadvantage financially in the business world. Recourse to law is stressful, time-consuming and expensive for one person. All the above precautions with regard to contracts are in the spirit of prevention being better than cure. If an artist does notice an unauthorized use of their work, the first step would be a letter to the infringer pointing this out, and putting them 'on notice' to cease the infringement. A fee might be suggested to cover for damages or equate to what might have been charged for use of the work in the first place. If the use has turned out to be a great commercial success then this could also betaken into consideration.

If the infringement was inadvertent, the business might welcome the opportunity to regularize the use of your design. On the whole a business prefers to settle rather than enter litigation. If none of this works within a short time, legal proceedings should follow. In any event, should you wish to take action, legal advice must be taken. The creator may also be entitled to the collection and destruction of the remaining infringing items. Nothing written in this book constitutes legal advice. There is a list of useful contacts in Appendix A.

Exhibiting Your Work

**_Paying for publicity is a matter of organization. Free
publicity is a matter of ingenuity._**

Ron Karley, Fungus artist, 2012

If any person or organization offers to mount an exhibition for you, accept quickly and think about it afterwards. Professional exhibition organizers may seem expensive but they will get the best prices for your work, enhance your reputation, and give you much more time for painting. It will just be left for you to provide all the information they ask for and to deliver the paintings in perfect order. If this does not happen, however, you may wish to mount your own exhibition, in which case the following checklist may be helpful:

Mixture of two and three dimensional work – same subject, mixed media. Pots by Maggie Cooke.

Choosing a Running Mate; Choosing a Venue; Footfall; Display Space; Cost Organization; Stewarding; Access; Add-ons; Timescale; Preparing the Work; Publicity; Hanging and Signs; Catalogue; Private View; Catering.

Choosing a Running Mate

You can halve the work and expense by sharing an exhibition with the right person. The reverse is also true. Exhibitions are best shared with an artist specializing in the same subject matter but different medium and style; this way you will appeal to the same interest group of the public, but not compete with each other for sales. Garden sculpture, for instance, makes a perfect mix with botanical paintings. Not only are you not competing for sales, but you are also not competing for display space. Three-dimensional artwork sets off paintings beautifully, and two-dimensional work will do the same for the sculpture. Hopefully you will have help. However, as this might come in differing guises, the points set out below simply list all the basic responsibilities, options and activities.

Choosing a Venue

The waiting time for a good venue booking may well be about three years. This is also happily quite a good preparation time for an exhibition of botanical artwork. You may have your own list of requirements for a venue, but like choosing a house, not all will be available in the same one. Write your list in order of your priorities, as the following sections suggest, and the venue that gets you furthest down the list is the best one.

Footfall

The number of people who might visit a venue, and the prestige that it enjoys, are both important, and should be considered:

• | Quality: Do the visiting public go to look at art there or for some other purpose? Do people expect to spend money there?

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• | Quantity: Is it a busy place with a high number of regular visitors?

• | Prestige: Is it a well known venue with a career-enhancing name?

Sculpture and two-dimensional work mixed.

Display Space

When considering display space you will need to investigate whether the proposed venue supplies the following requirements:

• | Is the size right for the amount of work you will be able to produce?

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• | Is the lighting good?

• | Are the walls in good condition?

• | Is there a hanging system in place?

If you have makeover skills the last facility might go to the bottom of your priority list. If an _in situ_ hanging system is not a requirement it will also open up a whole new range of possibilities, including village halls, foyers and warehouses.

You might also consider the possibility of hiring professional display screens. They come expensive, but will give the space a smart and very professional appearance, and may allow you to take a cheaper venue. _(See_ contact details in Appendix A.)

Professional display screens.

The Sherborne Art Club.

Suitable exhibition space.

Exhibition space adapted.

Cost

Make sure the venue is good value: some venues charge just rent, some a percentage of the takings, and a few will charge both. High charges can be weighed against quality and quantity of footfall, publicity included, and likely sales.

Organization

Find out if the organization is accommodating, efficient and helpful. Will there be affordable arrangements for a preview? Does it have its own publicity machine?

Stewarding

Find out if the venue will manage sales for you, or if you have to steward the exhibition entirely yourself. This can also be weighed against the cost and length of the exhibition, and if it will be possible for you to work there. A demonstration or work in progress is an added attraction for visitors and often enhances interest and sales.

Access and Parking

Check that the venue has the following facilities:

• | Is it easy to find?

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• | Is it easy and reasonable to park?

• | Is there public transport?

• | Is there disabled access?

Add-ons

There may be ancillary events that will make a particular venue more attractive; for example:

• | Is there another function or attraction nearby which will make the venue a specially desirable place to visit?

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• | Could it be part of an arts festival?

• | Might you share a musical event in the same space?

Time Scale

Other factors that should be considered are:

• | How long will you have to wait to get a booking at a suitable time of year?

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• | How long should the exhibition last?

This may be dictated by the venue, or you may have some choice; somewhere between a weekend and a month is a wide choice. On the whole, a good weekend is better than a bad month. Since probably more than half your sales will occur on opening night, a short exhibition is good value, but it does mean that you must have all your publicity in hand well in advance. You cannot rely on word of mouth to promote you within a week.

Choosing a venue may be a time-consuming exercise, but visiting places and seeing how they run, and comparing costs, will provide a fund of helpful information and ideas to make your exhibition as successful as possible.

Preparing your Work

From the time of booking onwards, the exhibition potential of everything you paint should be considered. Perhaps you have already chosen a theme. The very best work should be saved and not sold. Have scans taken, and a few really good prints of each that you can use as a colour match for any future printing from the scan. Photographs taken of the best work will be useful for publicity. The venue size dictates how many pictures must be shown. Earmark a figure for framing and go to the best framer you can afford.

Publicity

Four months beforehand notify quarterly magazines. Send pictures and text either as a press release, or prepared text for an advertisement at the magazine rates, or both. 'Paying for publicity is a matter of organization. Free publicity is a matter of ingenuity.' So says Ron Karley. What kind of ingenuity? You need a good story that will appeal to the public. If it is your first exhibition, or you have recently won an award, the local press may be interested in your story – and if they don't send round a journalist and photographer, you can write it yourself and send photos. A personal contact with the columnist is a great help. You might be cunning and link your exhibition to a controversial issue, such as recording plants in an area shortly to be developed, or painting plants with a story of their own, relating to a place or a political or educational topic. If you are using a venue with its own programme of events, give them all the details and make sure that you don't miss insertion in the appropriate handouts. Posters and handbills still have a place in a digital age. An A6 handout is quite cheap to produce in quantity, and can be taken away as a reminder. The down side to this is that it will be time-consuming finding suitable places to place them, and also keeping them topped up and visible in busy outlets. Tourist information centres can be helpful. Posters are probably most effective at the venue itself if it has regular visitors. Traffic signs can be obtained from the AA at a cost, though for a long exhibition it may be worth it.

Temporary directional signs or pavement boards as permitted by local bylaws may be helpful, or even essential. They also advertise the quality of your work, so must be smart and professional, and large enough to see from a moving car.

Hanging Paintings and Signs

There is not much that needs to be said about hanging paintings and signs. It goes without saying that paintings need to be secure and straight, and gleaming spotlessly. The labels need to be neat and uniform, fixed to the wall beside the painting if possible, with the Latin botanical names in italics (see Chapter 10). The price of a painting will be on its label, which should also have room on it for the red dot meaning 'sold.' If an exhibit is a print it should say so clearly, together with what type of print it is. Pricing is the hardest thing – far harder than actually painting! If you know what prices your work fetches, that is great; if not, be sure not to sell cheaply. Like good framing, you must have confidence in your own work and price accordingly. Even the cheapest one looking like a bargain should be no less than twice the value of the frame. To give the exhibition a more memorable shape and story, it is a good idea to group the work so that paintings that relate to each other are together.

Catalogue

Whether you have a catalogue or not is up to you. For a long exhibition that people might revisit it is a good idea, but it does mean that all the paintings must be numbered and hung accordingly. This naturally takes much longer and reduces your hanging options. There are so many variables in the hanging procedure that it is impossible to advise. I usually allow a day and have the preview the same evening. The key is to be really well prepared so that you do not need to take time out to go shopping for props or make major alterations to your plan.

Private View

If you possibly can, have a private view the evening before the exhibition opens to the public. Invitations should go out two weeks to ten days beforehand; this is not an event people will arrange their holidays around. You can send invitations by post or email: both have their points. Your invitation list can scarcely be too long, since probably fewer than half the invitees will come. Putting RSVP on the invitation makes very little difference. You need enough people to fill the room comfortably, but still have room to circulate and see the paintings. An early sale and a few red dots may engender a slight sense of panic and stimulate sales. Alcohol is also a help and it is worth being generous; treating the viewing principally as an opportunity to entertain is likely to create the most productive atmosphere.

Catering

Your venue may want to use their own facilities and do the catering for you. This will be more expensive, but will free you up to concentrate on the business of hosting your guests. You may have no choice, but if you do it will probably depend on how much help you have on the day. Red and white wine (on sale or return) with glasses on loan from the same outlet, is currently the most common arrangement. There are eight standard glasses in a bottle. Soft drinks should also be available. Mulled wine goes down well at a winter exhibition, and a chilled fruit wine cup for a summer one if you have the facilities and time to manage it. Often simplicity is the preferred option, giving you the best opportunity to circulate and handle sales. For canapés, allow four pieces per person, but you will not know how many to cater for, so the ubiquitous peanuts and crisps can take up the slack.

Good Luck!

Having done all this and planned everything to the last detail, you will be hopeful of a good outcome, or at the very least to cover costs. Yet still there are pitfalls: bad or exceptionally hot weather, transport strikes, road works, other large events, riots and natural disasters, economics and national mood, can all affect the outcome of your show.

There is no joy in poor attention to your work, but if you are proud of your achievement and happy to stand by it, that is a true measure of success. The long-term benefits may take several years to accrue, but your work will be out there for all to see.

APPENDIX A – PLANT PROTECTION
ORGANIZATIONS AND USEFUL
CONTACTS

_For all that nature by her mother wit Could frame in earth_

Edmund Spenser 1532–1599, _The Faerie Queen_

Plant Protection Organizations

**CITES** stands for the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora. The aim of the Convention is to protect wild populations of species under threat as a result of over-exploitation from international trade. It was established not to ban trade, but to monitor and regulate trade to make sure that it takes place at sustainable levels.

**FERA** stands for Food and Environment Research Agency. It is a branch of DEFRA, The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. While DEFRA is responsible for tree and plant health policies, FERA aims to control the import of plant pests.

**IUCN** stands for the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. Like CITES and DEFRA, it covers both plants and animals. By using the best scientific information available and working with Global Species Assessment Projects, it compiles and publishes lists of endangered species, and provides scientific information on biodiversity and influences policy.

CITES

CITES was established in 1973 as a result of an IUCN initiative. Because CITES is an international treaty, only countries may become party to it. At present there are over 150 countries that are party to the Convention. Each party is required to operate at least one Management Authority and appoint at least one Scientific Authority. The CITES headquarters is based in Switzerland, and oversees all the parties to the Convention, helping them to make the Convention work.

In the UK, the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, acts as the Scientific Authority for plants. It advises the Management Authority on a variety of matters, including applications for permits, and whether the export or import of plants into the UK will be detrimental to the survival of the species in the wild.

Over 25,000 plant species are included on the Convention, almost five times the number of animal species listed. These plants are categorized in three Appendices.

**Appendix I:** Lists plants threatened with extinction, which are, or may be affected by trade. More than 300 plants are included in this Appendix. The commercial trade in specimens of Appendix I plants taken from the wild is effectively prohibited. Trade in AP (artificially propagated) specimens is allowed, but permits are needed. As well as the plants themselves, all parts and derivatives are subject to CITES controls. This includes material such as herbarium specimens.

**Appendix II:** Lists plants, which, although not necessarily threatened at the moment, may become so if the trade is not regulated. Over 25,000 species are included in this Appendix. For Appendix II plants, commercial trade in both wild and AP plants is allowed, but requires permits. In the same way as Appendix I, parts and derivatives are also controlled under the Convention, although in a few cases some are specifically excluded. For example, the majority of seeds and spores from Appendix II/Annex B plants are exempt from controls.

**Appendix III:** Lists plants subject to controls in some of the member countries, and for which the co-operation of other parties is needed to prevent or restrict their exploitation. Approximately twenty-five plants are included in this Appendix. For Appendix III plants, trade in both wild and AP plants is allowed, but they need CITES documents.

Tulips showing their wild origins.

To obtain a certificate for export, it is necessary for the Management Authority of the country to state that the removal of the plant does not endanger its sustainability in the wild, and that it is packed in a viable state for travel. An exemption for Appendix II plants is for 'donation or exchange between scientists or scientific institutions registered by a Management Authority', and carrying a label issued by that authority. All artificially propagated plants are also exempt.

The reason why there are so many plants included in the appendices is that there are several large and horticulturally important groups, as described here below.

**Orchidaceae:** The Orchid family is the largest group to be included on the Appendices, and the whole family is listed under Appendix II. This is because unless a plant is flowering it may be very hard to identify correctly. In addition, a number of orchid species and genera are included in Appendix I. An example is the Asian Slipper Orchid, _Paphiopedilum javanicum._

**Cactaceae:** The Cactaceae family are also included under Appendix II as a family listing, and about ninety species are included on Appendix 1. Ruthless collectors will sometimes destroy the entire populations of plants to prevent competition.

**Carnivorous plants:** Carnivorous plants are also controlled. In most cases they are easy to propagate from seed and rhizomes, yet they are still collected from the wild. There are three bulbous genera included under the Convention: _Galanthus, Cyclamen_ and _Sternbergia._ All three genera are included under Appendix II. Succulent plants such as Aloe species and some Euphorbia species are also controlled.

Propagating orchids artificially in nutritious gel.

**Trees:** In terms of tree species, there are over twenty-five species controlled. Brazilian Rosewood _(Dalbergia nigra)_ is listed in Appendix 1. It is not yet possible to propagate Brazilian rosewood artificially, so all material in trade is of wild origin. As this is an Appendix I species, trade in all plants is prohibited. In situations where antique furniture is made out of this species, a pre-Convention certificate may be issued. However, this is only the case if the plant material has been legally acquired before the Convention came into force or before the species was listed.

**Medicinal products:** There has been a recent increase in demand for medicinal plants. Many are cultivated, but people have more faith in the wild plants and think them more effective: this can mean that wild populations are under threat.

Plants that are found being imported to the UK without the required permits are confiscated and sent to a plant rescue centre at Kew.

As the lists are negative (in that they list the plants that cannot be traded without documentation, rather than those that can), it is possible for a little known and rare plant to escape being listed. Also the lists are so long that it is not always possible to train people to administer effective controls. Many plants look alike and can be mislabelled. Thus there is an argument for banning all trade and making a list of plants that can be traded.

The Scientific Authority team at Kew advises, influences, researches and communicates. It advises DEFRA on CITES licensing, and Customs and Excise on inspections, and provides the best available scientific information for formulating. DEFRA are also responsible for co-ordinating public bodies and forming policy with regard to biodiversity in England and Wales. The Scientific Authority for plants at Kew provides the best scientific information, which can then be used to formulate CITES policy.

FERA

FERA aims to control the import of plant pests based on the scientific assessment of risks. FERA's Plant Health and Seed Inspectorate (PHSI) regulates plant health rules for DEFRA, and works with the European Commission to co-ordinate and implement them. They offer a range of services to the public, which could include identifying a pest or disease. Particular concerns are wholesale imports of plants for monoculture, and they are strengthening regulations governing the imports of trees.

Suspected diseases should be reported to the PHSI, and they also offer a commercial diagnostic service through their plant clinic. They can advise on the legal status and safety of any plant material you have brought back from a trip abroad.

IUCN

IUCN was founded over forty years ago in response to concern about loss of biodiversity. It provides scientifically based information on the conservation status of flora and fauna. The red list of endangered species highlights the relative risk of extinction, 'critically endangered' being the species at highest risk. The lists are graded according to the level of danger of extinction. They are: Least concern; Near threatened; Vulnerable; Endangered; Critically endangered; Extinct in the wild; and Extinct.

Initially the IUCN concentrated on endangered species to determine the relative risk of extinction, but it now also publishes lists of species of least concern, which provides a balance of comparison.

In addition to the straight lists, information as to the specific threats to the species is also listed. There are twelve threats listed. They are:

Residential and commercial development

Agriculture

Energy production and mining

Transportation

Biological resource use

Human intrusions

Natural systems modifications

Invasive species

Pollution

Geological events

Climate change

Other

Identifying the threats is a significant step forward in influencing conservation policies. All this information is easily accessible on their very user-friendly website www.IUCN.org/redlist, into which you simply type the name of the plant to start.

The information is used world-wide to influence development programmes, but for botanical artists on a more fundamental level it sharpens our awareness of the amount of work that goes into trying to protect plant diversity, and of our part in that.

Useful Contacts

Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 020130-3500.USA. www.arbore-tum.harvard.edu; e-mail: abweb@anarb.harvard.edu

Art Display Screens. Visit www.artdisplayscreens.co.uk

The Association of Illustrators, Somerset House, Strand, London WC2R 1LA Copyright Licensing Agency, Safron House, 610 Kirby St, London EC1N 8TS

Brunel Microscopes Ltd, Unit 2, Vincients Rd, Bumpers Farm Industrial Est, Chippenham, Wilts SN14 6NQ. www.brunel microscopes.co.uk; e-mail: mail@brunelmicroscopes.co.uk

Cambridge University Botanic Gardens, Bateman St Cambridge CB2 1JF UK www.botanic.cam.ac.uk; e-mail: enquiries@botanic.cam.ac.uk

Chelsea Physic Garden, _66_ Royal Hospital Road, London SW3 4HS UK www.chelseaphysicgarden.co.uk; e-mail: enquiries@chelseaphysicgarden.co.uk

CITES, International Environment House, Chemin des Anemones, CH-1219 Chatelaine, Geneva, Switzerland. www.cites.org; e-mail: cites@unep.ch

Cult Pens, The SQL workshop, Unit 5 Tiverton Trade Centre, Lowman Way, Tiverton EX16 6SR

Designers and Artists Copyright Society, 33 Great Sutton Street, London EC1V 0DX

Eden Project, Bodelva, St Austell Cornwall PL24 2SG UK www.edenproject.com; e-mail: info@edenproject.com

Food and Environment Research Agency, Fera's Plant Health and Seed Inspectorate <http://www.fera.defra.gov.uk/plants/plantHealth/imports/index.cfm>

IUCN, The World Conservatio Union, Rue Mauverney 28, Gland, 1196, Switzerland. www.iucn.org; e-mail: mail@iucn.org

Jewellers magnifiers www.Cooksongold.com

Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden, Rhodes Drive, Newlands, Capetown, SA. www.nbi.ac.za; e-mail: info@nbict.nbi.ac.za

The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York 10458, USA. www.nybg.org

Royal Botanic Gardens Edinburgh, 20A Inverleith Row, Edinburgh, EH3 5LR. www.rbge.org; e-mail: info@rbge.org.uk

Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, Richmond, Surrey, TW9 3AB. UK. www.Rbgkew.org.uk; e-mail: info@kew.org

Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney, Mrs Macquaries Road, Sydney, NSW. 2000 Australia www.rbgyd.gov.au; e-mail: rbg@rbgsyd.gov.au

Royal Botanic Gardens, Wakehurst Place, Ardingly RH17 6TN. UK www.edenproject.com; e-mail: info@edenproject.com

Royal Horticultural Society, 80 Vincent Square, London SW1P 2PE. UK www.rhs.org; e-mail: info@rhs.org.uk

Singapore Botanic Gardens, Cluny Road, Singapore 259 569 www.nparks.gov.sg; e-mail: nparks_mailbox@nparks.gov.sg

University of Oxford Botanic Gardens and Harcourt Arboretum, Rose Lane, Oxford OX1 4AX. UK www.botanic-garden.ox.ac.uk; e-mail: postmaster@botanic-garden.ox.ac.uk

Veho USB microscopes www.veho-world.com

Writers' and Artists' Year Book, A & C Black Publishers Ltd, 37 Soho Square, London W1F OBJ

APPENDIX B – LATINATE WORDS
USED IN PLANT NAMES

**G = Greek, L = Latin, A = Arabic, P = Persian**

A (G) | Against

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Acaulis (L) | Stemless, e.g. _Gentiana acaulis_

Acer (L) | Sharp

Aestivus (L) | Summer, e.g. _leucojum aestivum_

Agrestis (L) | Of fields, e.g. _Eucalyptus aggregate_

Akis (G) | Sharp point, e.g. _Acacia_

Albus (L) | White, e.g. _Salix, alba_

Alpinus (L) | Alpine, e.g. _Clematis alpine_

Amabilis (L) | Lovely, e.g. _Kolwitzia amabilis_

Anemos (G) | Wind, e.g. _Anemone_

Anthos (G) | Flower, e.g. _Polyanthus_

Anti (G) | Like, e.g. _Antirrhinum_

Aquaticus (L) | Of water, e.g. _Mentha aquatica_

Aquile (L) | Eagle, e.g. _Aquilegia_

Arboreus (L) | Tree-like, e.g. _Lupinus arboreus_

Argentea (L) | Silvery, e.g. _Artemesia argentea_

Arvensis (L) | Farmland, e.g. _Myosotis arvensis_ ,

Aster (G) | Star, e.g. _Aster_

Aurantiaca (L) | Orange, e.g. _Alstroemeria aurantica_

Aurea (L) | Golden, e.g. _Crocus aureaus_

Auriculatus (L) | Eared, e.g. _Scrophularia auriculatus_

Azaleos (G) | Dry, e.g. _Azalea_

Barbatus (L) | Bearded, e.g. _Dianthus barbatus_

Bellus (L) | Pretty

Bicolor (L) | Two-coloured, e.g. _Dietes bicolor_

Caerulea (L) | Blue, e.g. _Passiflora caerulea_

Calcarius (L) | Chalk, e.g. _Polygala calcarea_

Calceolus (L) | Slipper, e.g. _Calceolaria_

Calendae (L) | First day of the month, e.g. _Calendula_

Campana (L) | Bell, e.g. _Campanula_

Campestris (L) | Of fields, e.g. _Acer campestre_

Carnea (L) | Flesh-coloured, e.g. _Erica carnea_

Cephalus (G) | Head

Cheir (G) | Chair, e.g. _Cheirianthus_

Cinerea (G) | Grey, e.g. _Cineraria_ (Now Pericallis)

Coccinea (L) | Scarlet red, e.g. _Haemanthus coccineus_

Compacta (L) | Compressed, e.g. _Deutzia compacta_

Concolor (L) | Of the same colour, e.g. _Abies concolor_

Conica (L) | Cone-shaped, e.g. _Carex conica_

Contorta (L) | Twisted, e.g. _Corylus avellana_ 'Contorta'

Cordata (L) | Heart-shaped, e.g. _Alnus cordata_

Cornu (L) | Wood, e.g. _Cornus_

Cuneata (L) | Wedge-shaped, e.g. _Prostanthera cuneata_

Decumbens (L) | Lying down, e.g. _Hebe decumbens_

Delphis (G) | Dolphin, e.g. _Delphinium_

Dendron (G) | Tree, e.g. _Rhododendron_

Dentata (L) | Toothed, e.g. _Lavandula dentata_

Depressa (L) | Flattened, e.g. _Gentiana depressa_

Diffusus (L) | Loose, e.g. _Ranunculus diffusues_

Dios (G) | Divine, e.g. _Dianthus_

Discolour (G) | Two-coloured, e.g. _Aquilegia discolor_

Elata (G) | Tall, e.g. _Coelogyne elata_

Elegans (L) | Graceful, e.g. _Liatris elegans_

Eriko (G) | I break, e.g. _Erica_

Esca (G) | Nourishment, e.g. _Aesculus_

Eus (G) | Good, e.g. _Euonymus_

Fragilis (L) | Brittle, e.g. _Salix fragilis_

Frango (L) | To break, e.g. _Saxifrage_

Fritillus (L) | Dicebox, e.g. _Fritillaria_

Fruticosa (L) | Bushy, e.g. _Penstemon fruticosus_

Gala (G) | Milk, e.g. _Galanthus_

Glaber (L) | Smooth, e.g. _Penstemon glaber_

Gladius (L) | Sword, e.g. _Gladiolus_

Gracilis (L) | Slender, e.g. _Deutzia gracilis_

Grandis (L) | Large

Griseus (L) | Grey, e.g. _Acer griseum_

Helios (L) | Sun, e.g. _Helianthus_

Hemera (G) | Day, e.g. _Hemerocallis_

Heterophylla (G) | Differing leaves, e.g. _Penstemon heterophyllus_

Hirsuta (G) | Hairy, e.g. _Penstemon hirsutus_

Horizontalis (L) | Prostrate, e.g. _Cotoneaster horizontalis_

Hortensis (L) | Of gardens, e.g. _Atriplex hortensis_

Humilis (L) | Small, e.g. _Penstemon humilis_

Kalluno (G) | I clean, e.g. _Calluna_

Kalos (G) | Beautiful, e.g. _Calla_

Kapto (G) | I bite, e.g. _Capsicum_

Kedros (A) | Power, e.g. _Cedrus_

Klema (G) | Vine branch, e.g. _Clematis_

Kratos (G) | Strength, e.g. _Crataegus_

Lactus (L) | Milk, e.g. _Lactuca_

Lanata (L) | Woolly, e.g. _Salix lanata_

Lanceolata (L) | Spear-shaped, e.g. _Coreopsis lanceolata_

Lupus (L) | Wolf, e.g. _Lupinus_

Luteus (L) | Yellow, e.g. _Corydalis lutea_

Lyssum (G) | Madness, e.g. _Alyssum_

Macrocarpa (G) | Large-fruited, e.g. _Quercus macrocarpa_

Maculata (L) | Spotted, e.g. _Phlox maculata_

Maritima (L) | Coastal, e.g. _Eryngium maritimum_

Mollis (L) | Soft, e.g. _Alchimella mollis_

Montanus (L) | Of mountains, e.g. _Lathyrus montanus_

Nervosa (G) | Veined, e.g. _Mahonia nervosa_

Nigra (L) | Black, e.g. _Helleborus niger_

Nitida (L) | Shiny, e.g. _Lonicera nitida_

Niveus (L) | Snowy white, e.g. _Galanthus nivalis_

Nutans (L) | Nodding, e.g. _Allium nutans_

Onoma (G) | Name, e.g. _Euonymus_

Orkhis (G) | Testicle, e.g. _Orchis_

Palustris (L) | Of marshes, e.g. _Pinus palustris_

Phago (G) | I eat, e.g. _Fagus_

Phainoma (G) | Appear, e.g. _Raphanus_ , (radish)

Phileo (G) | I love, e.g. _Philodendron_

Phlox (G) | Flame

Phyllus (G) | Leaf, e.g. _Carex phyllocephala_

Plicata (L) | Folding, e.g. _Viburnum plicatum_

Plumosa (L) | Feathered, e.g. _Dianthus plumarius_

Primus (L) | First, e.g. _Primula_

Pubescens (L) | Downy, e.g. _Betula pubescens_

Purpurea (L) | Purple, e.g. _Echinacea purpurea_

Pyre (G) | Fire, e.g. _Pyracantha_

Ra (G) | Quick, e.g. _Raphanus_

Racemosa (L) | Flowering in racemes, e.g. _Sambucus racemosus_

Ramosa (L) | Branching, e.g. _Asphodelus ramosus_

Repens (L) | Creeping, e.g. _Ranunculus repens_

Reticulata (L) | Netted, e.g. _Iris reticulata_

Rhis (G) | Snout, e.g. _Antirrhinum_

Rhodos (G) | Red, e.g. _Rhododendron_

Rosea (L) | Red, e.g. _Alcea rosea_

Rupestris (L) | Rock-loving, e.g. _Potentilla rupestris_

Saxum (L) | A rock, e.g. _Saxifrage_

Scandens (L) | Climbing, e.g. _Cobaea scandens_

Sedo (L) | I sit, e.g. _Sedum_

Semervirens (L) | Evergreen, e.g. _Buxus sempervirens_

Striatus (L) | Striped, e.g. _Geranium sanguineum_ var. _striatum_

Sulphureus (L) | Yellow, e.g. _Epimedium x versicolor_ 'Sulphureum'

Sylvatica (L) | Of forest, e.g. _Fagus sylvatica_

Thoulyban (P) | Turban, e.g. _Tulip_

Tinctoria (L) | Used in dyeing, e.g. _Genista tinctoria_

Tormentosa (L) | Woolly, e.g. _Pelargonium tormentosum_

Vernalis (L) | Spring, e.g. _Hamamelis vernalis_

Violacea (L) | Violet, e.g. _Tulipa violacea_

Viridis (L) | Green, e.g. _Aquilegia viridiflora_

Xanthia (G) | Yellow, e.g. _Rosa xanthina_

This list is by no means exhaustive. It aims to explain some of the plant names that the artist is most likely to come across in the course of painting. It does not include any words that indicate the country of origin, such as chinensis or sinensis (China), hibernica (Ireland), or japonica (Japan). It does not include any people's names that have been used for a plant.

A few of the most commonly recurring people's names in plant nomenclature are: Banks, Clark, Dahl, David, Douglas, Forsyth, Fortune, Fuchs, Hooker, Linnaeus, North, Thomson,Thunberg, Wilson and Veitch.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Blunt, W. & Stearn, W. _The Art of Botanical Illustration_

(Antique Collectors' Club 1995).

Clayton, M. & Philo, R _. Leonardo da Vinci, Anatomist_ (Royal

Collection Enterprises Ltd 2012).

Finlay, V. _Buried Treasure_ (Sceptre, 2006).

Finlay, V. _Colour_ (Sceptre, 2002).

Gordon, S. _Plant Names Explained_ (David and Charles, 2007).

Gribben, M. & J. _Flower Hunters_ (OUP, 2008).

Hockney, D. _Secret Knowledge_ (Thames and Hudson, 2001).

Kipling, R. _'Inclusive Edition'_ Hodder and Stoughton 1929.

Kress, W. J. & Sherwood, S. _The Art of Plant Evolution_ (Kew, 2009).

Lancaster, R. _A Plantsman in Nepal_ (Antique Collectors Club, 1995).

Marinelli, J. _Plant_ (DK & RBG Kew, 2004).

Morton, A. G. _History of Botanical Science_ (Academic Press, 1981).

Oliver, F. W. _Makers of British Botany_ (Cambridge University Press, 1912).

Polunin, O. & Stainton, A. _Flowers of the Himalaya_ (OUP, 2003).

RHS _New Encyclopaedia of Plants and Flowers_ (Dorling Kindersley, 1999).

Robinson, J. _Unsuitable for Ladies_ (OUP by 1994).

Sherwood, S. _Contemporary Botanical Artists_ (Cross River Press 1996).

Stearn, W. _Botanical Latin_ (David and Charles, 2004).

Stearn, _W.John Lindley_ (The Antique Collector's Club, 1999).

Tudge, C. _The Secret Life of Trees_ (Penguin Books, 2006).

Usher, G. _Dictionary of Botany_ (Wordsworth Reference, 1966).

GLOSSARY

alternate | Leaves arranged singly at different heights.

---|---

angiosperm | Flowering plant with covered seeds.

axilliary | In the axil of the leaf join.

belly | Fullness of a brush where the liquid is held.

binomial | Having two names.

calyx | Outer ring of 'petals' protecting the bud.

chlorophyll | Green pigment of the leaf cells responsible for photosynthesis.

cotyledon | First leaf produced on germination of seed.

cyme | Inflorescence opening from the top.

decussate | Opposite pairs of leaves at right angles to each other.

distichous | Arranged in two vertical rows.

ellipse | Oval shape.

ephemeral | Lasting for a day.

eudicot | A plant with two cotyledons, and reticulate leaf veins.

ferrule | Metal band round a wooden handle or stick.

foreshortening | Perspective applied to a single object.

fractal development | Development featuring self-repeating patterns.

glaucus | Grey-coated.

gymnosperm | A plant producing uncoated seeds.

hybrid | A cross between two species of the same genus.

imbricate | Overlapping.

indumentum | A hairy covering.

inflorescence | A flowering shoot bearing more than one flower.

internode | Space between the points of leaf joins on a stem.

lenticels | A pore in a woody stem for gas exchange.

monocot | A plant with a single cotyledon, and parallel leaf veins.

node | Point at which a leaf joins the stem.

opposite decussate | Leaves in pairs alternately at right-angles up the stem.

pedicel | The stalk of an individual flower.

perceived edge | The observed contour of a threedimensional object.

phloem | Conducting tissue for photosynthesized plant foods.

photosynthesis | Process of turning light, carbon dioxide and water into starch.

phyllotaxis | Arrangement of leaves on a stem.

phylogeny | History of development of a species.

polyacrymalide gel | Moisture-retaining crystals.

raceme | Flower spike opening from the bottom.

ream | Move to a more distant place.

reticulate | With netted pattern of leaf veining.

rexine | Impervious material of plastic coating bonded to cotton.

self-similarity | Repeat patterns of itself.

sessile | Stalkless.

slurry | Thick liquid mixture.

snap | Strength in retaining or reforming brush shape.

ternate | A compound leaf with three leaflets.

umbel | A raceme in which the pedicels arise from the same point.

umbelliferae | Flower family featuring umbels. Now called Apiaceae.

vascular bundles | Strands of conducting cells, mainly xylem and phloem.

whorled | With different organs arising from the same level.

xylem | Conducting tissue for water and minerals.

INDEX

access ,

add-ons ,

aerial perspective

Banks, Joseph ,

blue ,

Brown, Lancelot 'Capability'

brushes

artificial

kolinsky ,

sable ,

Cattley, William

CITES , ,

classification 101-106

cobalt , , ,

colours , , , ,

colour lifting ,

coloured pencils ,

complex structures 69-73

composition , , , , , , , , ,

Constable

contrast

copyright , 111-114

Cordus

cross sections

Darwin ,

deckle ,

DEFRA

Dioscorides

display spac e ,

edges

perceived edges

ellipse , ,

ephemeral plants 79-85,

exhibiting 114-117

FERA , ,

Fibonacci 61-72

flower press

foliage , ,

footfall ,

foreshortening , ,

Foudrinier machine

fractal development , ,

genus ,

golden angle

golden ratio ,

golden rectangle

green 43-50

sap green ,

viridian ,

Grenfell, Francis ,

grey , , ,

hairs , , ,

hanging ,

highlights , ,

Hooker, William

Impressionists

IUCN ,

laid lines

Lancaster, Roy

leaf joins ,

Leonardo da Vinci , ,

light , ,

Lindley, John

Linnaeus, Carolus 100-102

magnification ,

aids ,

glasses ,

Mandelbrot, Benoit

Mee, Margaret

microscopes , ,

North, Marianne

opposite decussate

overlapping ,

paint 15-17

paper

acid free ,

bristol board

cockle

cold press

'not'

hot press

stretching , ,

Pascal, Blaise 64-65

pencil 16-18, , ,

watersoluble pencils ,

perspective , ,

_Philosophica Botanica_

photographs , , ,

photosynthesis , , ,

phyllotaxis

Pliny the Elder

printing

four colour plate

giclee ,

stipple engraving ,

woodcut ,

line engraving,

private view ,

publicity , ,

pulp

red list

Redoute ,

scale bars ,

self similarity , ,

shadow colours , ,

sheen , , ,

Siegesbeck, Johann

signs ,

Singapore Botanical Gardens

size ,

sketches , , , , ,

slurry

spiral , , ,

stems ,

_Systema Naturae_

Theophrastus

tonal space 46-47

ultramarine ,

umbels 71-73

vasculum , ,

venue , , ,

violet

viridian ,

watermark

white flowers

yellow , , , ,

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaBook