Fort Hall- Today, the Idaho Federal District Court ruled that the Shoshone-Bannock Tribes have the jurisdiction to enforce a Tribal Court Judgment against FMC Corporation for unpaid fees for FMC's storage of hazardous waste on the Fort Hall Reservation. The Tribes are pleased with the Federal Court's well-reasoned decision recognizing the inherent sovereignty and jurisdiction of the Shoshone-Bannock Tribal government over the FMC Corporation at its Eastern Michaud Flats Superfund site within the Reservation boundaries.
According to Nathan Small, Chairman of the Shoshone-Bannock Tribes, "The Tribes are committed to continuing their effort to protect and preserve the environment for the health and welfare of inhabitants. The Tribes believe in protecting mother earth for all future generations." This litigation has been ongoing since 2005 and has been fought hard by both sides. FMC agreed in 1997 and again in 1998 that they would pay the Tribal hazardous waste storage fee as long as FMC stored hazardous waste within the Fort Hall Reservation. FMC paid the storage fee until the Pocatello plant closed in 2002. Even though FMC continued to store the waste within the Reservation, after it closed down it reneged on its agreement to pay the storage fee. Today's court ruling recognizes and enforces FMC's promise to continue to pay the fee as long as FMC continues to store the hazardous waste within the Fort Hall Reservation.
The Court ruled some of the deadly hazardous wastes FMC is storing at the Superfund site include but are not limited to arsenic, reactive elemental phosphorous, chemical byproducts of elemental phosphorous, heavy metals, and many more hazardous wastes that are toxic, carcinogenic, and currently flowing into or towards the Portneuf River. Studies reveal the FMC Superfund site also emits gamma radiation above background levels. In addition to the groundwater contamination and other toxins, the capped ponds also leak deadly gases such as phosphine, hydrogen sulfide, and hydrogen cyanide. Lastly, the Court recognized that EPA acknowledges there are also significant unknown dangers to human health and the environment at the FMC Superfund site.
FMC may appeal this decision to the 9th Circuit, but the Tribes are confident today's decision will be upheld. The Fort Hall Business Council thanks the previous Business Council, Tribal Attorneys and staff that have diligently worked on this case.


Murcia is one of the hottest regions in Spain and has seen a boom in development, meaning many parts are still traditionally Spanish. Our property is situated on the gorgeous Condado de Alhama resort, with the world-renowned Nicklaus Golf Trail making it perfect for golf trips and the safe friendly environments meaning families can also have a perfect holiday. The property is spacious, clean and well equipped. A large quiet communal pool is available in the community garden and the town center is only a 20 minute walk away. A 25-minute drive to the local port town of Mazarron offers many restaurants and miles of beach. Property contains English TV and free wifi, a fully equipped kitchen, the bed setup is master with double 2nd double in rear room and bunk beds in the front plenty of storage space and Golf clubs are available on request.
Gone are the days when a car is a necessity when visiting Condado De Alhama.


text: Q: Возможно ли как-то объединить мощности двух ноутбуков под Windows В данный момент времени обучаюсь программированию под андроид и столкнулся с проблемой сильного зависания android studio, при запуске эмулятора устройства (android смартфон подключить нет возможности, т.к. он отсутствует). В ноутбуке нет дискретной видеокарты, исключительно процессор intel и 4 ГБ оперативной памяти. Также нашёл ноутбук с такими же характеристиками. Возможно ли как-то объединить мощности этих двух ноутбуков через ethernet сеть к примеру и как? (оба на Windows)

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Sheesh! There's just no pleasing some people! LOL I'll think about it - I can always edit one in later. These "multiple special days" like today are a huge challenge, because setting up for photos takes up a lot of time and I'd like to get some real work done too.
Good thing I didn't mention that it's also "National Popcorn Lover's Day" today. There's always another March 14th next year.
now there's the challenge. Put all the themes in ONE photo.
That's a great idea, and I'd prefer to do that and have done so on several occasions, but I just took a look at some of the upcoming "multiples" and I don't see any way to incorporate all the themes into one photo every time - some are just too unrelated.
Martha, I am in awe of your talents and spectacular photos. Do you actually make miniatures of things for the props in your pics or do you do some wizardry with software?
Thank you so much for sharing your patterns and inspiring me to make things for my girl.
Thanks! I only have minimal PhotoShop skills. Those are actual tiny bags, which I made from parts of the few real chip bags I had in the house. The trick was finding a part of the bag that had some text on it that would be in scale, and look believable.
So clever, they look really real. I love looking at your photos!!!


Impact of the Quality of University Education on Labour Market in Sri Lanka.
Various approaches have been used to investigate how properties of farm contact networks impact on the transmission of infectious diseases. The potential for transmission of an infection through a contact network can be evaluated in terms of the basic reproduction number, R0. The magnitude of R0 is related to the mean contact rate of a host, in this case a farm, and is further influenced by heterogeneities in contact rates of individual hosts. The latter can be evaluated as the second order moments of the contact matrix (variances in contact rates, and co-variance between contacts to and from individual hosts). Here we calculate these quantities for the farms in a country-wide livestock network: >15,000 Scottish sheep farms in each of 4 years from July 2003 to June 2007. The analysis is relevant to endemic and chronic infections with prolonged periods of infectivity of affected animals, and uses different weightings of contacts to address disease scenarios of low, intermediate and high animal-level prevalence.
Population Health and Infectious Disease Control (EPIC) funded by the Scottish Government. But the records of movements of British livestock between farms also provide a rare example of large and fully documented contact networks. Galvani. Woolhouse MEJ (2010) Sheep Movement Networks and the Transmission of Infectious Diseases. Accepted: May 24. 2010 Copyright: © 2010 Volkova et al. . These have taken two approaches to characterising the movement networks. The movement-record data have been used in studies of the epidemiology of a variety of diseases.Volkova@ed. RH and MEJW acknowledge additional support from the BBSRC and the Wellcome Trust.Principal Findings and Conclusions Analysis of networks of Scottish farms via sheep movements from July 2003 to June 2007 suggests that heterogeneities in movement patterns (variances and covariances of rates of movement on and off the farms) make a substantial contribution to the potential for the transmission of infectious diseases.ac. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. decision to publish. In parallel with the disease-specific studies there have been a number of studies of the generic properties of livestock movement networks relating to the spread of infectious disease. Savill NJ. foot-and-mouth disease in cattle and sheep . computerized movement-record keeping systems have been in place for cattle since 1998 and for sheep since 2002. Citation: Volkova VV. or preparation of the manuscript. Funding: This work was undertaken through the Centre of Excellence in Epidemiology. for example. Published: June 17. PLoS ONE 5(6): e11185. United States of America Received: August 10. within the farm population. provided the original author and source are credited.pone. distribution. Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. Howey R. comprehensive. * E-mail: Victoriya. 2009. and scrapie in sheep . doi:10. The funders had no role in study design. 2010. which permits unrestricted use. . and reproduction in any medium.1371/journal. quantified as R0. Yale University. bovine tuberculosis in cattle . One important route of transmission of infectious diseases of farm animals is the movement of livestock between farms . data collection and analysis. . In Britain.uk Introduction Top Understanding the structure of contact networks is important for predicting and controlling the spread of infectious diseases –. A small percentage of farms (<20%) contribute the bulk of the transmission potential (>80%) and these farms could be efficiently targeted by interventions aimed at reducing spread of diseases via animal movement.0011185 Editor: Alison P.
. and the relative magnitude of the basic reproduction number. Given knowledge of the complete network for each year. respectively.  concluded that the cattle network was consistent with the '20–80' rule. which states that 20% of the population contribute at least 80% of the magnitude of R0 . with prolonged periods of infectivity of affected animals. A second approach is based on evaluating the potential for transmission for an infection that may spread through the contact network in terms of the basic reproduction number. Earlier work on livestock movements and other networks (e. each pair of members in the GSCC is connected in both directions . . our results are most directly relevant to endemic and chronic infections. GSCC and the giant out-component. human sexual contacts) has focused on the contribution of the variance in contact rates and. we address diseases with three distinct scenarios of animal-level prevalence (high prevalence. By weighting differently the contacts between farms. Using these measures and a sample of the cattle movement network in Scotland. . for networks with bi-directional links. Therefore the GSCC and GWCC provide lower and upper bounds. These calculations allow us to identify which features of the farm network structure. therefore the GOC includes the GSCC itself and all the farms which can be reached directly from the GSCC. because we consider a one-year time span and do not attempt to capture the early dynamics of disease outbreaks. We do not focus here on specific infections. For any contact network. Interventions targeted at these farms could therefore be particularly effective in reducing the size of epidemics or the level of endemic infection. is based on assessing the connectedness of a farm network through calculating the size of its giant connected component –. low prevalence. We partition the latter in terms of the contributions of the first and second order moments of the network.g. In this context R0 is a measure of the expected average number of secondary cases generated from a single primary case introduced into a naïve population . to maximum epidemic size. This result implies that the potential scale of infectious disease epidemics in British cattle may have subsequently increased rather than decreased. For a directed network (where the link between two nodes may be in one direction or the other or both) the giant strongly connected component (GSCC) is the largest subset of members of the network mutually reachable through a direct path. and which individual farms contribute the most to the potential for spread of infections through the network. R0. The relationship between R0 and the giant connected components of the network were discussed by Kao et al. contributions to R0 can be partitioned into a first order moment (relating to the mean contact rate of a member) and second order moments (relating to the variances and covariances in contact rates of individual members) . An increase in the size of the GSCC of British cattle farm network was reported after new regulations governing the movement of cattle in the UK were introduced between 2001 and 2003 . An important distinction is that R0 is a function of the rates of contact of members of the network whereas the giant components are static measures of the network's connectedness . Woolhouse et al. adopted from generic network methodologies. the covariance between contact rates in either direction . we analyse the entire contact network of Scottish farms via movements of sheep during 4 years from July 2003 to June 2007. Here. . The giant weakly connected component (GWCC) is the largest subset of the network linked by any contact .The first approach. . and how these have changed from 2003 to 2007. However. and intermediate prevalence). we calculate the sizes of GWCC. The giant out-component (GOC) is the subset of the network approachable from the GSCC by a direct path .
11. the size of the giant out-component showed that a longlasting infection introduced into this farm population within a year could directly reach nearly 70% of the farms via the movements of sheep.1371/journal. and over 98% were part of the GWCC of the year's network (Table 1). . Properties of contact matrices for Scottish farms via sheep movements.0011185. The linear correlations between the numbers of annual in-contacts and out-contacts of the farms.t001 The mean number of farm contacts per year was within the range 4.07 to +0.000 uni-directional connections between the farms. doi:10. each year the number of farms in the network. doi:10.0011185.000 sheep.000 sheep batches were moved within the network per year. rβinβout. doi:10. totalling more than 2. The variances in the numbers of in-contacts were much greater than that of out-contacts (Table 2A). two-thirds were part of the giant-out component. were positive but weak over the 4 years studied (Pearson correlation coefficient +0. Approximately half of the farms that recorded moving sheep within Scotland each year were part of the GSCC. was greater than 15.0011185.pone. Summary statistics for the network of Scottish farms via sheep movements. In summary. N.pone. The size of the GWCC confirmed that the farm network was highly inter-connected. 2006 to 30 Co-distribution of sheep movements on and off Scottish farms 1 July June 2007.1371/journal. The distributions of numbers of in-contacts (farms sheep were brought from) and outcontacts (farms sheep were sent to) made by individual farms in one year were highly overdispersed (Figure 1A).1371/journal.000. with approximately 70.g001 Figure 2. with only a small fraction of the farms making large numbers of contacts.3 to 4.g002 Table 2.pone.000. Over 100. Distribution of contacts of Scottish farms via sheep movements 1 July 2006 to 30 June 2007.7 for the 4 years studied (Table 2A). Table 1. all p<0.Results Top Descriptive network statistics and network's connectedness Descriptive statistics for the Scottish sheep farm network for the 4 years from July 2003 to June 2007 are given in Table 1.001) (Table 2A and Figure 2A). Figure 1.
8 over the 4 years (Table 2B).001) (Table 2C and Figure 2C) than the correlations between the numbers of batches moved on and off or between the numbers of annual in-contacts and out-contacts. Using unweighted aij values (Model 1) the net contribution of second order moments of the contact network was to increase (from that contributed by the first order moment alone) the magnitude of R0 by up to a factor of 2 (Table 2A. For all three models. Column 7). to R0 was quantified as the ratio of the quantity calculated in Expression  in Methods to the mean farm contact rate. Using aij values weighted by numbers of batches moved between farms (Model 2) the net contribution of the second order moments of the contact network was to increase the value of R0 by a factor of more than 3 in year 1 but was lower. This contribution varied only slightly throughout the years of the study.001) (Table 2B and Figure 2B) than the correlations between the numbers of annual in-contacts and out-contacts.7 to 7. Column 7).48. The linear correlations between the numbers of sheep moved on and off the farms in a year were higher (Pearson correlation coefficient +0. for which the probability of transmission could be considered to depend linearly on the number of sheep moved farm j to farm i.0011185. Using aij values weighted by numbers of sheep moved between farms (Model 3) the net contribution of the second order moments was to increase the value of R0 by a factor of more than 6 in year 1 but was also lower.36. The linear correlations between the numbers of batches moved on and off the farms in a year were slightly lower (Pearson correlation coefficient +0. 2. Model 3 is most appropriate for a rare infection with low animal-level prevalence.04 to +0.pone. which would be likely to be transmitted via any sheep movement from farm j to farm i. all p<0. 2) weighted by the number of batches of sheep moved (batchweighted). The mean numbers of sheep received by (or sent from) a farm in a year was in the range 137 to 144 per year (Table 2C).1371/journal. Impact of network's moments on the magnitude of R0 To make the analyses relevant to diseases with different animal-level prevalence on affected farms the directed contact rate from farm j to farm i in a particular year. Effectiveness of interventions targeted at the top-contributors to the magnitude of R0 . and 3) weighted by the total number of sheep moved (animal-weighted).doi:10. here represented by the farm contact weighted by the numbers of batches of sheep moved. 4. was defined in three ways: 1) present or absent (unweighted). The variances in the numbers of sheep received by a farm were much greater than that in the numbers of sheep moved off (Table 2C and Figure 1C).36.89 to 5. in the years 2 to 4 (Table 2B.t002 The mean numbers of batches of sheep received by (or sent from) a farm in a year was in the range 6. aij. in years 2 to 4 (Table 2B. The variances in the numbers of batches received by a farm were much greater than that in the numbers of batches moved off (Table 2B and Figure 1B).20 to 2.07. second order moments of the farm contact matrix. Model 1 is most appropriate for a highly transmissible infection with high animal-level prevalence. Model 2 is an intermediate scenario. the contribution of heterogeneities in contact rates of the farms. all p<0.18 to +0. Column 7).
0011185.0011185. This fraction was similar for batch-weighted contacts. Another feature of the majority of studies of contact networks is that they consider bi-directional contacts. very few of these investigate complete networks.3% of farms. Figure 3. for batch-weighted contacts were from 2. Columns 3 and 4 versus Column 2).t003 The magnitude of R0 was reduced by at least 80% in a given year for animal-weighted contacts if the contributions of 6. In practice. from 1. here.1% of farms. the potential for transmission of infection can be reduced by at least 80% by targeting just 20% of the members of population . compared with targeting the current year's top-contributors (Table 3.The '20–80' rule reflects that. doi:10. and. in many situations.1% to 2. Again. . and those that do have generally dealt with small populations . farm contact information from the preceding year may be more readily available than real-time data.pone. Livestock movement databases allow analyses of large and complete networks.1% of farms were removed. Contribution to R0 of top 20% of farms identified from current year versus preceding year farm contact information. covering the entire population of Scottish sheep farms. the resulting reductions in the value of R0 were consistently smaller. Discussion Top Although there have been numerous studies of contact networks as they relate to transmission of infectious diseases. removing the contribution of top 20% of farms most contributing resulted in at least 90% reduction in the magnitude of R0 in any of the 4 years studied regardless of how contacts were weighted (Figure 3 and Table 3.g003 Table 3. livestock movement databases are unusual due to explicit designation of uni-directional contacts where movement of livestock from farm j to farm i is associated with risk of disease transmission only in that direction . In the Scottish sheep network the identities of the top 20% of farms contributing the most to the magnitude of R0 changed from year to year.1371/journal. For animal-weighted contacts approximately 70% of farms in the top 20% contributors to the transmission potential in a given year also appeared in this fraction the following year. but was 65% or less for unweighted contacts. When the contacts of 20% of farms most contributing to the magnitude of R0 in the preceding year were removed in the current year.1371/journal. This paper therefore provides information on the structure of contact networks and its relationship to the potential for spread of infectious diseases not readily available from studies of other populations.pone. In the Scottish sheep farm network. Column 2). doi:10. and also more variable. Contribution of individual farms to the magnitude of R0 1 July 2006 to 30 June 2007.2% to 4. These fractions were smaller for unweighted contacts.8% to 8.
However. Previous studies of contact networks have reported increases in the value of R0 associated with heterogeneities in contact rates between individuals . The explanation is that there is only a weak correlation between the movements on and movements off individual farms (Table 2). This does not account for temporal heterogeneities within the year. . as discussed above). the sizes of its giant weakly and strongly connected components. e. insect vectors . Nonetheless. R0. although movement of livestock is an important route for the spread of many endemic livestock infections. in particular marked seasonality in Scottish sheep movements. in contrast. Notably. and the mean contact rates of a farm were broadly consistent across the 4 years (Table 1). to the commercial pig industries where animal movements are largely constrained within sub-networks .The size of the giant weakly connected component of the network and relatively small number of movements from farms outside Scotland confirm that Scottish sheep farms can be regarded as a single population connected by sheep movements for the purposes of these analyses. for some diseases. Secondly. pre-movement testing or. the effect would be to reduce R0. it is apparent that targeting interventions at farms contributing the most to R0 is likely to be efficient. Here we find that the size of such effects vary according to how the contacts are weighted. The size of this giant component relative to the size of the network confirms that the Scottish sheep industry is inter-connected.g. these can significantly affect R0  and could influence the results reported here if temporal variations in contact rates were poorly correlated across the farms. The size of the Scottish sheep farm network.03% non-zero entries in a year) reflecting that. it is typically not the only route. because these correlations are positive (if negative. other routes of transmission of infections between farms may be relevant for specific applications. as a method to characterise the properties of the network of contacts between Scottish farms via movements of sheep and how these properties relate to the spread of infectious diseases within that population of farms. not absolute. on average. measures of the magnitude of R0. see Expression ) and the variances of contact rates are so high. this large connected component emerges even though the contract matrix itself is very sparse (with approximately 0. as indicated in Expressions – in Methods. fomites and visitors or over-the-fence contact . However. wildlife –. there were differences in the contributions of the network's second order moments to the relative magnitude of R0 throughout the years using animalweighted or batch-weighted contacts. preventive vaccination) may reduce or eliminate the risk of disease transmission via livestock movement to or from . batch-weighted and individual animal-weighted farm contact) directly comparable amongst themselves (each being most relevant to certain disease scenarios. we aggregate all movements over a one-year interval to provide a measure of relative contact rates for the farms. We can then use calculation of the basic reproduction number. Given the importance of heterogeneities in farm contact rates in determining the magnitude of R0. Finally. the impact of second order moments on the magnitude of R0 is far less than might be anticipated from the very high variances in farm contact rates . of its giant out-component. . Nor are the different contact formulations (unweighted. for example. Interventions (e. the net effects are still substantial for all of the disease scenarios considered. First. we generate relative. each farm moves sheep to or receives sheep from less than five other Scottish farms in a given year. For a number of reasons however these calculations do not represent formal estimates of R0 for any specific infectious disease.g.
second order properties of a contact matrix (i. The SAMS records were processed using the Python programming language and then in SAS® 9. perhaps less so for other kinds of 'contact' between individuals in a population. abattoirs and other industry units registered in Scotland were collated with help from Livestock Traceability Policy Branch.individual farms. Third. Second. Animal Health and Welfare Division. contact matrices may vary through time not only in terms of contact rates of individual members of the population but also in terms of higher order properties.1. operated by the Scottish Government. USA). the vast majority (>99%) of the SAMS entries for sheep 2003 to 2007 . We note that the contact patterns of farms can also be altered by changes to the legal restrictions on livestock movements. In practice. Here we quantify the impact that heterogeneities in contacts rates of farms have on the potential for transmission of infections of livestock in a farm population. see also Anderson and May . those not quantifiable from knowledge of the mean contact rates alone) can have a substantial impact on the magnitude of R0. as has been reported previously for the UK cattle movement network  and observed here for the Scottish sheep movement network. This result presumably reflected some year-to-year variation in individual farms' contact patterns (Table 2). As to the processes underlying such variation. The aim was to consider a recent period of several years not interrupted by major restrictions of livestock movements.3 software for Windows (SAS Institute Inc. The data were processed. Woolhouse et al. the Scottish Government and from Animal Health agency in Scotland. as previously described . show-grounds. information on contacts of farms in the preceding year was consistently slightly less valuable for identifying the 20% of farms to target in the current year (Table 3). characterising the farms repeatedly or intermittently appearing in the 20% contributing the most to the potential for transmission of infections each year may provide further insights. In short. The wider applicability of these conclusions depends on how representative the livestock farm networks are of contact networks in general. Up-to-date lists of sheep markets. Therefore the period of 4 consecutive years from 1 July 2003 to 30 June 2007 was chosen for the analysis. the way in which contacts are weighted or defined makes a very substantial difference to quantification of R0 and its components. An outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in Surrey. Methods Top Sheep movement data Records of sheep movements among Scottish holdings from 2003 to 2007 were obtained from the Scottish Animal Movement System (SAMS). The SAMS system was launched during 2002. Cary.  and others. Notably. England led to restrictions of livestock movements in Scotland from 3 August 2007 to 31 December 2007. When and how contacts should be weighted is relatively straightforward for livestock movements. and pertinent to these analyses.e. including definitions of types of holdings and movements. First. the 100% reduction in the susceptibility or infectiousness of individual farms is unlikely to be feasible.. The key conclusions arising from this work are as follows. but we conjecture that similar issues will arise in many other contexts. NC.
1 July 2005 to 30 June 2006. although certain categories of movements were exempt from the standstill. we assumed the potential for disease transmission during brief stays at markets to be negligible compared to that on the farms (noting that this assumption would not hold for acute infections which are transmitted over short time scales). 1 July 2006 to 30 June 2007. i. and the number of sheep movements not reported to SAMS during this period was believed to be low. Therefore the length of stay of an individual sheep on a given farm could not be determined. the majority of sheep movements between the farms (>80% in each of the 4 years analysed) occurred via Scottish livestock markets. did occur. Seasonality in sheep movement patterns is not considered further in these analyses. The legally required standstill period was 13 days. the sheep identification and traceability regulations in Scotland did not require specification of individual animals in the movement documents (the Sheep and Goats Movement Interim Measures Scotland Order 2002 and Amendments. pigs (20 days) or goats (13 days). Therefore. and Year 4. For this purpose the network was treated as closed and movements outside Scotland were ignored. no sheep should have been moved off the farm earlier than 13 days after a sheep on-movement unless to slaughter. cross-border movements onto Scottish farms. Movements off Scottish farms to locations outside Scotland were much more frequent. the Sheep and Goat Identification and Traceability Scotland Regulations 2006 and Amendments). Year 2.e. Sheep housed on mixed livestock farms were also subject to standstill after an on-movement of cattle (13 days). the GOC encompassed the GSCC plus all . the GSCC encompassed all farms linked by bi-directional contacts. Year 3. 1 July 2003 to 30 June 2004. this was implemented in C++. The GSCC and GWCC were calculated with Tarjan's algorithm  implemented in C++. 1 July 2004 to 30 June 2005. Four one-year intervals were analyzed: Year 1. Since we considered a relatively long time period (full year) and diseases with prolonged periods of infectivity of affected animals. The focus of these analyses was the network of Scottish farms via movements of sheep. primarily from England and Wales. Giant network components Connectedness of the farm network in each of the 4 years was evaluated by calculating the giant strongly connected component (GSCC). Within Scotland. but are not relevant here. For a given year. The GOC was calculated by choosing a farm from the GSCC and performing a depth-first search excluding cycles to identify every farm reachable from the chosen farm by a direct path. The June/July dividing date precedes the major annual movement of sheep in the autumn.were logical movement records. but at low rates (<2% of movements onto Scottish farms during the study period). A farm was included in a year's analysis if it either sent or received sheep from another Scottish farm directly or via a Scottish livestock market during that year (movements to and from designated show-grounds and to slaughter were excluded). we treated any indirect movement from farm j to farm i via a market as equivalent to a direct movement from farm j to farm i. In practice. During the period of study. the giant weakly connected component (GWCC) and the giant out-component (GOC) of the network.
Definitions of contact between farms Let aij be the directed contact rate from farm j to farm i in a particular year.e. and the out-contact rate is βiout = Σjaji. the standard deviation of out-contact rates as σ(βout). likely to be transmitted via any movement of sheep between farms). R0 (ignoring higher order properties of the network) is a function of these terms as follows: (2) Therefore. and the GWCC encompassed the GSCC plus all farms connected to the farms in the GSCC by any uni-directional contact (both 'sources' and 'sinks').and out-contact rate. Calculating contributions of network's first and second order moments to the magnitude of R0 For all three disease models discussed above.farms reachable from the farms in GSCC by a direct path ('sinks'). respectively. As previously shown . this is: (3) where βin(i) and βout(i) refer to in. We denote the standard deviation of in-contact rates as σ(βin). and 3) as (1) but weighted by the number of sheep moved from farm j to farm i. if we were to assume that there was no variation in individual contact rates then: (1) More generally. Model 2 is intermediate between 1 and 3. 1) contact scored as 0 (no movement of sheep from farm j to farm i) or 1 (any movement of sheep from farm j to farm i). 2) as (1) but weighted by the number of batches of sheep moved from farm j to farm i (noting that this is equivalent to the frequency of contact from j to i). non-zero variances of βin and βout can increase R0 if βin and βout are positively correlated. R0 is further influenced by the second order moments of the contact matrix. the in-contact rate for farm i is βiin = Σjaij. Model 1 is most appropriate for an infection with high animal-level prevalence on affected farms (i. R0 is related to the mean contact rate. denoting the number of farms in the network as N. Expression  can be written in terms of the product of βin and βout. and the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient between in-contact rates and out-contact rates as rβinβout. In a closed network Σiβiin = Σiβiout and. We assign values to aij in one of three ways. Model 3 is most appropriate for a rare infection with low animal-level prevalence (so the probability of transmission can be considered to depend linearly on the number of sheep moved between farms). for farm i. . The contribution of second order moments of the farm contact matrix to R0 was evaluated as the ratio of the quantity calculated in Expression  to the quantity calculated in Expression .
Clifton-Hadley R. 3. Guitian FJ (2006) Use of social network analysis to characterize the pattern of animal movements in the initial phases of the 2001 foot and mouth disease (FMD) epidemic in the UK. References Top 1. 4. Find this article online Fèvre EM. Wrote the paper: VVV NJS MEJW. Soares-Magalhaes RJ. Hamilton KA. Find this article online Gilbert M. Kopp PE. Bourn D. Pfeiffer DU. Nature 438: 2. et al. et al. Infectious diseases of humans: dynamics and control: Oxford Scientific Press. 6. Mitchell A. Trends Microbiol 14: 125–131. Find this article online . Etard JF. (2005) Cattle movements and bovine tuberculosis in Great Britain. 5. Designed research: VVV MEJW. 293–295. we assumed that contacts of a farm were noninfectious or absent (setting βinβout = 0 for the farm) and re-calculated the contribution of the first and second order moments of the network to the magnitude of R0. Processed the data: NJS. We thank Martin Miller (University of Edinburgh) for comments on the manuscript. Author Contributions Top Analyzed the data: VVV RH. (1997) Heterogeneities in the transmission of infectious agents: implications for the design of control programs. Lloyd-Smith JO. We are thankful to Derek Wilson (Scottish Government) and Paul Honeyman (Animal Health) for the information on livestock industries in Scotland.Quantities  and  were calculated for the contact matrices where contacts between farms were weighted according to each of the three scenarios of the animal-level prevalence of the disease. Find this article online Anderson RM. Bronsvoort BM. 7. Acknowledgments Top We thank Gary Ferguson. Cleaveland S (2006) Animal movements and the spread of infectious diseases. Mawdsley J. Getz WM (2005) Superspreading and the effect of individual variation on disease emergence. Find this article online Woolhouse MEJ. Charlwood JD. Calculating contributions of individual farms to the magnitude of R0 For each of the 4 years and three disease scenarios. May RM (2005) Epidemiology: dimensions of superspreading. Nature 435: 491–496. The resultant quantity evaluated individual contribution of the farm to the magnitude of R0 and allowed ranking the farms in the order of their contribution. We appreciate the support of Nick Ambrose and Mike Lamont (Scottish Government). Dye C. May RM (1991) 757 p. Nature 438: 355–359. PNAS 94: 338–342. Galvani AP. Prev Vet Med 76: 40–55. Smith T. Find this article online Ortiz-Pelaez A. Schreiber SJ. Kevin Duffy and other personnel of the Scottish Government for work on the SAMS extracts.
Find this article online 23. Find this article online 9. Prev Vet Med 95: 23–31. Hutchings MR. Daniels MJ. From biological nets to the Internet and WWW: Oxford University Press. Robinson SE. Matthews L. Kao RR (2008) Estimates for local and movement-based transmission of bovine tuberculosis in British cattle. Proc R Soc B 245: 109–114. 12. New York. Green DM. Robins JM (2007) Network-based analysis of stochastic SIR epidemic models with random and proportionate mixing. Mendes JFF (2003) Evolution of networks. J R Soc Interface 6: 1121–1134. Find this article online 22. J R Soc Interface 4: 907–916. Woolhouse MEJ. et al. Everett MG. Green DM. 264 p. Kiss IZ (2007) Disease dynamics over very different timescales: foot-and-mouth disease and scrapie on the network of livestock movements in the UK. Find this article online 13. Proc R Soc B 275: 1001–1005. Mitchell AP. (2007) Demographic risk factors for classical and atypical scrapie in Great Britain. Woolhouse MEJ. Kao RR. Med Vet Entomol 10: 19–28. et al. Lindstrom T. et al. Green DM. Vernon MC. Liu WC. Green DM. Heesterbeek JAP. Lewerin SS. Proc R Soc B 273: 1999–2007. Kenah E. Biol Lett 1: 350–352. Johnson J. J R Soc Interface 3: 669–677. Mellor PS (1996) Vector-borne diseases and the basic reproduction number: a case study of African horse sickness. J Theor Biol 249: 706–722. Diekmann O. Find this article online 24. Danon L. Keeling MJ (2009) Representing the UK's cattle herd as static and dynamic networks. Kao RR (2006) The network of sheep movements within Great Britain: Network properties and their implications for infectious disease spread. Find this article online 10. Find this article online 15. Johnson J. Find this article online 11. J Math Biol 28: 365–382. (2009) Type and frequency of contacts between Belgian pig herds. Find this article online 19. Kiss IZ. Vilas VJD. Miller JC (2009) Spread of infectious disease through clustered populations. Find this article online 21. de Kruif A. Mintiens K. Ribbens S. Henderson D. Kao RR. Find this article online 20. Proc R Soc B 276: 469–476. Find this article online 14. Mellor DJ. Greig A. Koenen F. J R Soc Interface 4: 669–674. Kiss IZ (2006) Demographic structure and pathogen dynamics on the network of livestock movements in Great Britain. Prev Vet Med 88: 57–66. Watts CH. Woolhouse MEJ. Find this article online 17. Dewulf J. Find this article online 16. Green DM. Lord CC. Kiss IZ. Shaw DJ. J Gen Virol 88: 3486–3492. (2005) Epidemiological implications of the contact network structure for cattle farms and the 20–80 rule. Metz JAJ (1990) On the definition and the computation of the basic reproduction ratio R0 in models for infectious-diseases in heterogeneous populations. Birch CPD. Find this article online . Chandiwana SK (1991) Heterogeneities in transmission rates and the epidemiology of schistosome infection. (2003) Do nonruminant wildlife pose a risk of paratuberculosis to domestic livestock and vice versa in Scotland? J Wildlife Dis 39: 10–15. Sisson SA. et al. Dorogovtsev SN. Find this article online 18. Heesterbeek JAP. Kiss IZ. Wennergren U (2010) Estimating animal movement contacts between holdings of different production types. Beard PM.8. Christley RM (2007) Recent network evolution increases the potential for large epidemics in the British cattle population.
Baylis M (2000) Culicoides biting midges: their role as arbovirus vectors. cattle and pigs in Scotland. J Clin Microbiol 39: 1517–1521. Woolhouse MEJ (2008) Report on seasonality of movements and spatial distribution of sheep. Humblet MF. Mellor PS. Delahay RJ. Find this article online . 32. ISBN 978 970 7559 1718 7551. Nielen M. Find this article online 26. (2007) Bovine tuberculosis infection in wild mammals in the South-West region of England: a survey of prevalence and a semi-quantitative assessment of the relative risks to cattle. Bessell PR. Annu Rev Entomol 45: 307–340. van Schaik G. Rudge K. Boorman J. Harris A. Find this article online 28. Find this article online 31. Find this article online 30. Dijkhuizen AA. (2001) Paratuberculosis infection of nonruminant wildlife in Scotland. et al.25. Dijkhuizen AA. Prev Vet Med 34: 125–136. Walker N. Report to Animal Health and Welfare Division of the Scottish Government's Rural and Environment Research and Analysis Directorate. Henderson D. Find this article online 29. Tarjan R (1972) Depth-first search and linear graph algorithms. Saegerman C (2009) Classification of worldwide bovine tuberculosis risk factors in cattle: a stratified approach. Smith GC. Find this article online 27. et al. Huirne RB. Nielen M. SIAM J Comput 1: 142– 160. Barkema HW. Schukken YH. Savill NJ. Beard PM. Volkova V. Prev Vet Med 54: 279–289. (2002) Probability of and risk factors for introduction of infectious diseases into Dutch SPF dairy farms: a cohort study. Vet Res 40: 50. Daniels MJ. (1998) Risk factors for existence of Bovine Herpes Virus 1 antibodies on nonvaccinating Dutch dairy farms. et al. Schukken YH. van Schaik G. et al. Boschiroli ML. Pirie A. Vet J 173: 287–301. Barlow AM.


text:
Le Sacq és un municipi francès situat al departament de l'Eure i a la regió de Normandia. L'any 2007 tenia 293 habitants.

Demografia

Població
El 2007 la població de fet de Le Sacq era de 293 persones. Hi havia 106 famílies de les quals 16 eren unipersonals (4 homes vivint sols i 12 dones vivint soles), 47 parelles sense fills i 43 parelles amb fills.

La població ha evolucionat segons el següent gràfic:

Habitants censats

Habitatges
El 2007 hi havia 131 habitatges, 105 eren l'habitatge principal de la família, 22 eren segones residències i 4 estaven desocupats. Tots els 130 habitatges eren cases. Dels 105 habitatges principals, 96 estaven ocupats pels seus propietaris i 9 estaven llogats i ocupats pels llogaters; 2 tenien una cambra, 3 en tenien dues, 11 en tenien tres, 21 en tenien quatre i 68 en tenien cinc o més. 76 habitatges disposaven pel capbaix d'una plaça de pàrquing. A 34 habitatges hi havia un automòbil i a 68 n'hi havia dos o més.

Piràmide de població
La piràmide de població per edats i sexe el 2009 era:

Economia
El 2007 la població en edat de treballar era de 193 persones, 156 eren actives i 37 eren inactives. De les 156 persones actives 148 estaven ocupades (76 homes i 72 dones) i 8 estaven aturades (3 homes i 5 dones). De les 37 persones inactives 19 estaven jubilades, 13 estaven estudiant i 5 estaven classificades com a «altres inactius».

Ingressos
El 2009 a Le Sacq hi havia 106 unitats fiscals que integraven 285 persones, la mediana anual d'ingressos fiscals per persona era de 21.507 €.

Activitats econòmiques
Dels 11 establiments que hi havia el 2007, 6 eren d'empreses de construcció, 1 d'una empresa de comerç i reparació d'automòbils, 1 d'una empresa d'hostatgeria i restauració, 1 d'una empresa d'informació i comunicació, 1 d'una empresa financera i 1 d'una empresa immobiliària.

Dels 5 establiments de servei als particulars que hi havia el 2009, 2 eren paletes, 2 lampisteries i 1 electricista.

Poblacions més properes
El següent diagrama mostra les poblacions més properes.

Referències

 Résumé statistique Fitxa resum de dades estadístiques de Le Sacq a l'INSEE.
 Évolution et structure de la population Fitxa amb el detall de dades de Le Sacq a l'INSEE
 France par commune Dades detallades de tots els municipis de França accessibles a partir del mapa.

Municipis de l'Eure

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Ross A. Riskin, CPA/PFS, CCFC is an Assistant Professor of Taxation and the CFP Program Director at the American College of Financial Services. In addition to teaching courses in taxation and designing engaging online educational experiences, Professor Riskin's research and professional expertise focuses on tax planning with respect to college and student loan advising. He also serves as the Vice President of Riskin & Riskin, PC.
Professor Riskin is recognized as a leading expert in the areas of college planning and student loan advising and he is the author of The Adviser's Guide to Education Planning: 1st Edition, which is published by the AICPA. Professor Riskin has presented to over 10,000 individuals through webinars, conferences, and in the classroom, and has been quoted in media outlets such as the Wall Street Journal, Forbes, US News, WalletHub, and CPA Practice Advisor, and his work has been published in the Journal of Financial Planning and the Journal of Accountancy.


text:
Good Question: Who Will Replace Andy Rooney?
Jason Derusha of WCCO the CBS affiliate in Minneapolis is my bet to replace Andy Rooney on "60 Minutes."
If you live in Minneapolis, you know him as the "Good Question" guy. People ask questions like, "How Do Pills Know Where to Target?" and "Where Are the Most Germy Places?" and "Are Athletes Arrested More than Others?"
In other words, the questions that everyone asks and never really expects to find an answer.
Except Jason finds experts who know the answers.
It's a good gimmick and it has a wide following.
Why do I think he'll get the job?
Several reasons:
1.	He has a quirky look and voice. He's not Hollywood handsome in the cookie cutter style. He looks like a real person, like Andy Rooney did. But with less bushy eyebrows.
2.	He has a clever angle with the Good Question. It isn't exactly like Rooney, but it matches Rooney's angle that life has quirks and he can riff on them. In other words, it isn't a duplication of Andy. It's a clever variation.
3.	He interviews people. That would be another deviation from Andy Rooney.
4.	He isn't a Rooney clone of a curmudgeon. There are a million guys that can do that, starting with Jerry Seinfeld. Have you ever wondered why a paper clip has two bends? Why not 1? Why not 3. Been there. Done that.
After all, you don't want to mimic Andy. You'd suffer by comparison. You have to be unique. Similar but different. That's why I'm betting on Jason.
See for yourself. Here are links to clips:
http://minnesota.cbslocal.com/category/watch-listen/wcco-tv-shows/good-question/
Remember you read it here first.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
News Up To Four Times Faster Internet Coming In 2019
SKT is phasing out its traditional cable TV system at the end of February, and replacing it with SKT TV, a full-featured TV streaming app available to all SKT Internet customers. We're phasing out traditional cable TV for a few key reasons:
Our current system is old and near end-of-life. The equipment is outdated and no longer manufactured.
The current system cannot offer the same features as the SKT TV streaming app, such as HD, Cloud DVR, an interactive guide, parental controls, and more, all included.
High-Speed Internet is vital for both families and businesses in rural communities. Your Internet needs are changing quickly and will continue to increase. Due to system limitations, we can't continue to offer cable TV and increase speeds for Cable Modem Internet customers at the same time. As streaming TV grows in popularity, interest in cable TV has had a sharp decline. It was a difficult decision, but it was clear that providing High-Speed Internet had to be a priority over traditional cable TV.
By mid-2019, we will be able to offer up to four times faster Internet in most Cable Modem and DSL Internet service areas. With faster speeds, you can experience HD streaming, lag-free gaming, video calling, fast web browsing, and more.
Contact Us to get more info about new Internet bandwidth options, coming soon, and we will contact you when they're available.
Changes Coming to Cable Modem Communities: Atlanta, Burden, Cedar Vale, Dexter, Grenola, Howard, Leon, Longton, Moline, and Severy
Following the transition from cable TV to the streaming app, by mid-2019, we'll be able to offer Internet subscribers up to 100 Mbps in most Cable Modem service areas. Currently, we can offer up to 25 Mbps with Cable Modem. For other communities not listed but served by Cable Modem, additional upgrades are planned for 2020.
Changes Coming to DSL Communities: Beaumont, Cambridge, Elk Falls, Latham, Piedmont, Reece, and Rosalia
In addition, we will be making upgrades in most DSL service areas to offer up to 75 Mbps. Currently, we can offer up to 20 Mbps. This applies to those within the city limits of the listed communities, and upgrades are scheduled to begin as early as February 2019.


text:
Cecropia är ett släkte av nässelväxter. Cecropia ingår i familjen nässelväxter.

Dottertaxa till Cecropia, i alfabetisk ordning

 Cecropia albicans
 Cecropia andina
 Cecropia angulata
 Cecropia angustifolia
 Cecropia annulata
 Cecropia bullata
 Cecropia chlorostachya
 Cecropia concolor
 Cecropia dealbata
 Cecropia distachya
 Cecropia elongata
 Cecropia engleriana
 Cecropia ficifolia
 Cecropia gabrielis
 Cecropia garciae
 Cecropia glaziovii
 Cecropia goudotiana
 Cecropia granvilleana
 Cecropia herthae
 Cecropia heterochroma
 Cecropia hispidissima
 Cecropia hololeuca
 Cecropia idroboi
 Cecropia insignis
 Cecropia kavanayensis
 Cecropia latiloba
 Cecropia litoralis
 Cecropia longipes
 Cecropia marginalis
 Cecropia maxima
 Cecropia megastachya
 Cecropia membranacea
 Cecropia metensis
 Cecropia montana
 Cecropia multisecta
 Cecropia mutisiana
 Cecropia obtusa
 Cecropia obtusifolia
 Cecropia pachystachya
 Cecropia palmata
 Cecropia pastasana
 Cecropia peltata
 Cecropia pittieri
 Cecropia plicata
 Cecropia polystachya
 Cecropia puberula
 Cecropia purpurascens
 Cecropia putumayonis
 Cecropia radlkoferana
 Cecropia reticulata
 Cecropia sararensis
 Cecropia saxatilis
 Cecropia schreberiana
 Cecropia sciadophylla
 Cecropia silvae
 Cecropia strigosa
 Cecropia subintegra
 Cecropia tacuna
 Cecropia telealba
 Cecropia telenitida
 Cecropia ulei
 Cecropia utcubambana
 Cecropia velutinella
 Cecropia virgusa

Bildgalleri

Källor

Externa länkar

Nässelväxter
Cecropia


Since our beginning in 1964, we've focused on these three actions to point the way. Our design focus is one of innovation, pursued with a pervasive collaborative spirit in everything we do. At OZ, we value the diversity of every individual and seek to harness their unique skills in the pursuit of design excellence. We constantly cross-pollinate ideas, experience, and technology to create the best design solutions for our clients.
Our work reflects a passion for the spirit of our age. Engaged in an iterative process of interaction, investigation, critique and evolution, we create elegant, timeless solutions that mature gracefully. In partnership with our clients, we design award-winning projects that make a lasting contribution to our communities.
Our first 50 years has been a great start. We can't wait to see what our next half century brings.


The 10 best Beach Hotels in Versilia. Expert selection 2019.
Named after the Versilia river and well-known for its fashionable Riviera resorts and clubs, Versilia is one of the most beautiful parts of Tuscany. A beach hotel in this region invites you to not only take a swim and sunbathe on idyllic beaches, but to explore the arts and culture, as well as indulge in luxury shopping and gourmet cuisine as well. Beach hotels here offer views over the ocean with access to gorgeous Italian cities packed with trendy bars, seafood restaurants and nightlife.
Tuscany usually conjures up images of Renaissance cities, swathes of vineyards and mouth-watering cuisine complemented by Chianti wine. But Tuscany also boasts more than 400km of coast from Versilia to the Argentario, providing ample enjoyment for sea lovers. The soft, golden stretches of sand along the coastline of Versilia in particular are a highlight that should not be overlooked. Located in the types of landscapes that dreams are made of, beach hotels in Versilia are some of Tuscany's best.
At the foot of the Apuan Alps dipping into the Ligurian Sea, Pietrasanta is one of the most famous and populated parts of the Versilian Coast. Prized for its marble, Pietrasana has been an artist's hub and creative epicentre for centuries making this fascinating city is the prefect destination for both classic and contemporary art enthusiasts. The city has served as a sanctuary for international sculptures and artists for over six epochs. In fact, Michelangelo created many of his sculptures using marble from Pietrasanta. Visitors can admire the abundance of art galleries, public piazzas as well as continually renewed expositions of contemporary art and sculpture. The city also boasts sandy beaches, stylish boutiques and restaurants. Talking a cultural walk through the elegant historic centre of town, visitors will notice something unusual for a Tuscan village - the city's straight and narrow streets follow a Roman grid layout. Located five minutes away, the resort town of Forte dei Marmi is a popular travel destination for the jet set because of its clean, sandy beaches. The main attraction in Forte dei Marmi, literally meaning 'Fort of the marbles' in Italian, is its marble fortress, built in 1788, which is now a museum of satirical art. A market is held each Wednesday, where you can pick up designer clothes, leather goods, cashmere and other luxury goods at discounted rates. Another highlight is undoubtedly the views of the majestic mountains and marble quarries while taking a dip on the Apuan coast.
The beach resort of Viareggio boasts sandy beaches, luxurious resorts, amazing nightlife and high-end shopping opportunities. It is most famous for its Carnevale, dating back to 1873, held each February when the quiet beach-side promenade bursts to life with party spirit and huge floats made out of paper mâché. A handful of beautiful art nouveau façades in Viareggio recall the city's heyday in the 1920s. A beach hotel in Viareggio is a great base from which to explore Pisa, Lucca, Livorno and Florence, all of which are no more than an hour away and accessible via public transport. Another draw card that will make for a memorable visit is nearby Torre del Lao where Giacomo Puccini lived and wrote his famous operas. Every summer, the Fondazione Festival Pucciniano is held in his honor. There's also an open-air theatre by the lake where opera lovers can enjoy Puccini's music under a canopy of stars. Neighboring Lucca, an ancient city just 30 minutes away from Forte dei Marni, is not to be missed. With a long history dating back to Etruscan times, Lucca's draw cards are its marvellous Gothic architecture and ancient city walls. Visitors can grab a bite to eat and enjoy some Lucchesi wine at a historic café in the beautiful piazza and shady promenades sheltered behind the Renaissance walls.


text:
Дофами́н (допами́н, DA) — гормон и нейромедиатор. Дофамин синтезируется из L-ДОФА. В дальнейшем из дофамина может синтезироваться норадреналин.

Нейромедиатор

Чувство удовлетворения
Считается, что дофамин является одним из химических факторов внутреннего подкрепления (ФВП) и служит важной частью «системы вознаграждения» мозга, поскольку вызывает чувство удовольствия (или удовлетворения), чем влияет на процессы мотивации и обучения. Однако, это мнение, продвигаемое популярной культурой и средствами массовой информации, ошибочно. Последние исследования показывают, что дофамин не вызывает чувства удовольствия или удовлетворения, а создаёт сильное ощущение предвкушения от получения результата или нежелания его получения, подобное тому, которое испытывают люди перед оргазмом или при сильном отвращении. Дофамин естественным образом вырабатывается в больших количествах во время положительного, по субъективному представлению человека, опыта — к примеру: секса, приёма вкусной пищи, приятных телесных ощущений, таким образом, придавая этим событиям мотивационную важность. Нейробиологические эксперименты показали, что даже воспоминания о  поощрении могут увеличить уровень дофамина, поэтому данный нейромедиатор используется мозгом для оценки и мотивации, закрепляя важные для выживания и продолжения рода действия.

Чувство любви и привязанности
Дофамин (а также окситоцин) имеет важное значение и для формирования чувства любви, в том числе материнской. В экспериментах на серых полёвках вида Microtus ochrogaster, для которого характерны моногамные семьи, было показано, что дофамин (в частности, D2-рецепторы) лежит в основе чувства привязанности к партнёру и супружеской верности у этих грызунов. По-видимому, сходную роль дофамин играет и у человека.

Когнитивные функции
Дофамин играет немаловажную роль в обеспечении когнитивной деятельности. Активация дофаминергической передачи необходима при процессах переключения внимания человека с одного этапа когнитивной деятельности на другой. Таким образом, недостаточность дофаминергической передачи приводит к повышенной инертности больного, которая клинически проявляется замедленностью когнитивных процессов (брадифрения) и персеверациями. Данные нарушения являются наиболее типичными когнитивными симптомами болезней с дофаминергической недостаточностью — например, болезни Паркинсона. Дофамин участвует в процессах обучения; как показали германские нейробиологи (Klein и др., 2007) в эксперименте на людях, дофамин обеспечивает возможность эффективно учиться на своих ошибках, и нехватка дофамина может приводить к игнорированию негативного опыта.

Синтетические аналоги. Влияние наркотиков на уровень дофамина
Как и у большинства нейромедиаторов, у дофамина существуют синтетические аналоги, а также стимуляторы его выделения в мозге. В частности, многие наркотики увеличивают выработку и высвобождение дофамина в мозге в 5—10 раз, что позволяет людям, которые их употребляют, получать чувство удовольствия искусственным образом. Так, амфетамин напрямую стимулирует выброс дофамина, воздействуя на механизм его транспортировки. Другие наркотики, например кокаин и некоторые иные психостимуляторы, блокируют естественные механизмы обратного захвата дофамина, увеличивая его концентрацию в синаптическом пространстве. Морфий и никотин имитируют действие натуральных нейромедиаторов. Введение антагонистов опиоидных рецепторов предотвращает вызванное этанолом увеличение дофамина в отделах мозга крыс, тем самым означая, что алкоголь увеличивает дофамин в мозге посредством опиоидной системы. Если пациент продолжает чрезмерно стимулировать свою «систему поощрения», постепенно мозг адаптируется к искусственно повышаемому уровню дофамина, производя меньше гормона и снижая количество рецепторов в «системе поощрения». Это один из факторов, побуждающих человека, принимающего наркотики, увеличивать дозу для получения прежнего эффекта. Дальнейшее развитие химической толерантности может постепенно привести к метаболическим нарушениям в головном мозге, а в долговременной перспективе потенциально нанести серьёзный ущерб здоровью мозга.

Биосинтез
Предшественником дофамина является L-тирозин (он синтезируется из фенилаланина), который гидроксилируется ферментом тирозингидроксилазой с образованием L-ДОФА, которая, в свою очередь, декарбоксилируется с помощью фермента L-ДОФА-декарбоксилазы и превращается в дофамин. Этот процесс происходит в цитоплазме нейрона.

Рецепторы

Постсинаптические дофаминовые рецепторы относятся к семейству GPCR. Существует по меньшей мере пять различных подтипов дофаминовых рецепторов — D1—5. Рецепторы D1 и D5 обладают довольно значительной гомологией и сопряжены с белком GS, который стимулирует аденилатциклазу, вследствие чего их обычно рассматривают совместно как D1-подобные рецепторы. Остальные рецепторы подсемейства подобны D2 и сопряжены с Gi-белком, который ингибирует аденилатциклазу, вследствие чего их объединяют под общим названием D-2-подобные рецепторы. Таким образом, дофаминовые рецепторы играют роль модуляторов долговременной потенциации.

Участие во «внутреннем подкреплении» принимают D2 и D4 рецепторы.

В больших концентрациях дофамин также стимулирует α- и β-адренорецепторы. Влияние на адренорецепторы связано не столько с прямой стимуляцией адренорецепторов, сколько со способностью дофамина высвобождать норадреналин из гранулярных пресинаптических депо, то есть оказывать непрямое адреномиметическое действие.

«Круговорот» дофамина

Синтезированный нейроном дофамин накапливается в дофаминовых везикулах (т. н. «синаптическом пузырьке»). Этот процесс является протон-сопряжённым транспортом. В везикулу с помощью протон-зависимой АТФ-азы закачиваются ионы H+. При выходе протонов по градиенту концентрации, в везикулу поступают молекулы дофамина.

Далее дофамин выводится в синаптическую щель. Часть его участвует в передаче нервного импульса, воздействуя на клеточные D-рецепторы постсинаптической мембраны, а часть возвращается в пресинаптический нейрон с помощью обратного захвата. Ауторегуляция выхода дофамина обеспечивается D2 и D3 рецепторами на мембране пресинаптического нейрона. Обратный захват производится транспортёром дофамина. Вернувшийся в клетку медиатор расщепляется с помощью моноаминооксидазы (МАО) и, далее, альдегиддегидрогеназы и катехол-О-метил-трансферазы до гомованилиновой кислоты.

Участие в системе поощрения

Исследование Олдса и Милнера на крысах
В фундаментальном исследовании 1954 года канадские учёные Джеймс Олдс и его коллега Питер Милнер обнаружили, что если имплантировать электроды в определённые участки мозга, особенно в средний узел переднего мозга, то крысу можно приучить нажимать рычаг в клетке, включающий стимуляцию низковольтными разрядами электричества. Когда крысы научились стимулировать этот участок, они нажимали рычаг до тысячи раз в час. Это дало основание предположить, что стимулируется центр наслаждения. Один из главных путей передачи нервных импульсов в этом участке мозга — дофаминовый, поэтому исследователи выдвинули версию, что главное химическое вещество, связанное с удовольствием, — это дофамин. В дальнейшем это предположение было подтверждено радионуклидными томографическими сканерами и открытием антипсихотиков (лекарственных средств, подавляющих продуктивные симптомы шизофрении).

Эксперимент Шульца на обезьяне
Однако в 1997 году было показано, что дофамин играет более тонкую роль. В эксперименте Шульца у обезьяны создавали условный рефлекс по классической схеме Павлова: после светового сигнала в рот обезьяне впрыскивали сок. Было установлено, что:
 Когда сок впрыскивали неожиданно (не предваряя его сигналом), активность дофаминовых нейронов увеличивалась.
 На этапе обучения активность дофаминовых нейронов увеличивалась по-прежнему в ответ на впрыскивание сока.
 Когда условный рефлекс был сформирован, активность дофаминовых нейронов увеличивалась после подачи сигнала (до впрыскивания сока). Само впрыскивание сока на активности этих нейронов больше не отражалось (что противоречит гипотезе, согласно которой дофамин связан просто с получением удовольствия).
 Если в момент, когда ожидалось получение сока, сок не впрыскивали, активность дофаминовых нейронов снижалась.
Это позволило предположить, что дофамин участвует в формировании и закреплении условных рефлексов при положительном подкреплении и в гашении их, если подкрепление прекращается. Другими словами, если наше ожидание награды оправдывается, мозг сообщает нам об этом выработкой дофамина. Если же награда не последовала, снижение уровня дофамина сигнализирует, что модель разошлась с реальностью. В дальнейших работах показано, что активность дофаминовых нейронов хорошо описывается известной моделью обучения автоматов: действиям, быстрее приводящим к получению награды, приписывается большая ценность. Таким образом происходит обучение методом проб и ошибок.

Дофаминергическая система
Известно несколько дофаминовых ядер, расположенных в мозге. Это дугообразное ядро (), дающее свои отростки в срединное возвышение гипоталамуса. Дофаминовые нейроны чёрной субстанции посылают аксоны в стриатум (хвостатое и чечевицеобразное ядро). Нейроны, находящиеся в области вентральной покрышки, дают проекции к лимбическим структурам и коре.

Основными дофаминовыми путями являются:
 мезокортикальный путь (процессы мотивации и эмоциональные реакции)
 мезолимбический путь (продуцирование чувств удовольствия, ощущения награды и желания)
 нигростриарный путь (двигательная активность, экстрапирамидная система)

Тела нейронов нигростриарного, мезокортикального и мезолимбического трактов образуют комплекс нейронов чёрной субстанции и вентрального поля покрышки. Аксоны этих нейронов идут вначале в составе одного крупного тракта (медиального пучка переднего мозга), а далее расходятся в различные мозговые структуры. Некоторые авторы объединяют мезокортикальную и мезолимбическую подсистемы в единую систему, однако более обоснованно выделение мезокортикальной и мезолимбической подсистем соответственно проекциям в лобную кору и лимбические структуры мозга.

В экстрапирамидной системе дофамин играет роль стимулирующего нейромедиатора, способствующего повышению двигательной активности, уменьшению двигательной заторможенности и скованности, снижению гипертонуса мышц. Физиологическими антагонистами дофамина в экстрапирамидной системе являются ацетилхолин и ГАМК.

Отдел мозга, называемый чёрной субстанцией (чёрным веществом), является важнейшей составной частью дофаминергической системы награды. Кроме того, он имеет ключевое значение для мотивации и эмоциональной регуляции материнского поведения. Вентральная часть покрышки среднего мозга, вентромедиальная часть префронтальной коры и миндалина, также относящиеся к дофаминергическим областям мозга, тоже играют очень важную роль в системе вознаграждения.

Другие подсистемы
Выделяют также тубероинфундибулярный путь (лимбическая система — гипоталамус — гипофиз), инцертогипоталамический, диенцефалоспинальный и ретинальный (иногда, вдобавок к этому, перивентрикулярную и ольфакторную системы). Данная дифференциация не является абсолютной, поскольку проекции дофаминергических нейронов разных трактов «перекрываются»; кроме того, в мозге отмечается и диффузное распределение дофаминергических элементов (отдельных клеток с отростками).

В гипоталамусе и гипофизе дофамин играет роль естественного тормозного нейромедиатора, угнетающего секрецию ряда гормонов. При этом угнетающее действие на секрецию разных гормонов реализуется при разных концентрациях дофамина, что обеспечивает высокую специфичность регуляции. Наиболее чувствительна к тормозящему действию дофаминергических сигналов секреция пролактина, в меньшей степени — секреция соматолиберина и соматотропина, в ещё меньшей — секреция кортиколиберина и кортикотропина и в совсем малой степени — секреция тиролиберина и тиротропина. Секреция гонадотропинов и гонадолиберина не угнетается дофаминергическими сигналами.

Ввиду чувствительности некоторых гормональных подсистем к уровню дофамина препараты-дофаминомиметики, усиливающие его синтез, могут применяться в качестве терапии при гормональных заболеваниях. Например, дофаминомиметики назначают при гиперпролактинемии и при болезни Паркинсона.

Дофамин и другие нейромедиаторы
Дофаминергические подсистемы находятся под контролем или сами контролируют норадренергические, серотонинергические, ГАМК-ергические, холинергические, мелатонинергические, глутаматергические, пептидергические системы. ГАМК-ергические и серотонинергические системы находятся в антагонистических отношениях с дофаминергической системой, а норадренергическая и дофаминергическая системы в различных функциональных состояниях функционируют однонаправленно: как в период бодрствования, так и в период сна. Взаимодействия дофаминергической и холинергической систем сложны, в условиях патологических процессов активность этих систем неоднозначна.

Гормон
Дофамин обладает рядом физиологических свойств, характерных для адренергических веществ.

Влияние на сердце, сосуды
Дофамин вызывает повышение сопротивления периферических сосудов (менее сильное, чем под влиянием норадреналина). Он повышает систолическое артериальное давление в результате стимуляции α-адренорецепторов. Также дофамин увеличивает силу сердечных сокращений в результате стимуляции β-адренорецепторов. Увеличивается сердечный выброс. Частота сердечных сокращений увеличивается, но не так сильно, как под влиянием адреналина.

Потребность миокарда в кислороде под влиянием дофамина повышается, однако в результате увеличения коронарного кровотока обеспечивается повышенная доставка кислорода.

Влияние на почки
В результате специфического связывания с дофаминовыми рецепторами почек дофамин уменьшает сопротивление почечных сосудов, увеличивает в них кровоток и почечную фильтрацию. Наряду с этим повышается натрийурез. Происходит также расширение мезентериальных сосудов. Этим действием на почечные и мезентериальные сосуды дофамин отличается от других катехоламинов (норадреналина, адреналина и др.). Однако в больших концентрациях дофамин может вызывать сужение почечных сосудов.

Дофамин ингибирует также синтез альдостерона в коре надпочечников, понижает секрецию ренина почками, повышает секрецию простагландинов тканью почек.

Влияние на пищеварение
Дофамин тормозит перистальтику желудка и кишечника, вызывает расслабление нижнего пищеводного сфинктера и усиливает желудочно-пищеводный и дуодено-желудочный рефлюкс. В ЦНС дофамин стимулирует хеморецепторы триггерной зоны и рвотного центра и тем самым принимает участие в осуществлении акта рвоты.

Влияние на нервную систему
Через гематоэнцефалический барьер дофамин мало проникает, и повышение уровня дофамина в плазме крови оказывает малое влияние на функции ЦНС, за исключением действия на находящиеся вне гематоэнцефалического барьера участки, такие как триггерная зона.

Повышение уровня дофамина
Повышение уровня дофамина в плазме крови происходит при шоке, травмах, ожогах, кровопотере, стрессовых состояниях, при различных болевых синдромах, тревоге, страхе. Дофамин играет роль в адаптации организма к стрессовым ситуациям, травмам, кровопотере и др.

Также уровень дофамина в крови повышается при ухудшении кровоснабжения почек или при повышенном содержании ионов натрия, а также ангиотензина или альдостерона в плазме крови. По-видимому, это происходит вследствие повышения синтеза дофамина из ДОФА в ткани почек при их ишемии или при воздействии ангиотензина и альдостерона. Вероятно, этот физиологический механизм служит для коррекции ишемии почек и для противодействия гиперальдостеронемии и гипернатриемии.

Патологии
Наиболее известными патологиями, связанными с дофамином, являются шизофрения и паркинсонизм, а также обсессивно-компульсивное расстройство. Различные независимые исследования показали, что многие лица, страдающие шизофренией, имеют повышенную дофаминергическую активность в некоторых структурах мозга, пониженную дофаминергическую активность в мезокортикальном пути и префронтальной коре. Для лечения шизофрении применяются антипсихотики — препараты, которые блокируют рецепторы дофамина преимущественно D2-типа и варьируются в степени аффинности к другим значимым нейромедиаторным рецепторам. Типичные высокопотентные антипсихотики (такие, как галоперидол, трифтазин) в основном подавляют рецепторы D2, а большинство атипичных антипсихотиков (например, клозапин, оланзапин) и типичные низкопотентные (такие, как аминазин) воздействуют одновременно на целый ряд нейромедиаторных рецепторов: дофамина, серотонина, гистамина, ацетилхолина и других.

Предполагается, что снижение уровня дофамина в мезокортикальном пути связано с негативными симптомами шизофрении (сглаживание аффекта, апатия, бедность речи, ангедония, уход из общества), а также с когнитивными расстройствами (дефициты внимания, рабочей памяти, исполнительных функций). Антипсихотическое действие нейролептиков, то есть их способность редуцировать продуктивные нарушения — бред, галлюцинации, психомоторное возбуждение — связывают с угнетением дофаминергической передачи в мезолимбическом пути. Нейролептики также угнетают дофаминергическую передачу и в мезокортикальном пути, что при длительной терапии часто приводит к усилению негативных нарушений (см. Нейролептический дефицитарный синдром).

Длительная блокада нейролептиками дофаминовых рецепторов приводит к компенсаторным процессам; в связи с этим дофаминовая гипотеза шизофрении подвергается критике: утверждается, что чрезмерная активность в дофаминовой системе (увеличение концентрации дофамина, повышение чувствительности дофаминовых рецепторов или увеличение их плотности) может быть обусловлена не самой болезнью, а длительным применением нейролептиков.

Паркинсонизм связан с пониженным содержанием дофамина в нигростриарном пути. Наблюдается при разрушении чёрной субстанции, патологии D1-подобных рецепторов. С угнетением дофаминергической передачи в нигростриарной системе связывают и развитие экстрапирамидных побочных эффектов при приёме антипсихотиков: лекарственного паркинсонизма, дистонии, акатизии, поздней дискинезии и др. Для лечения болезни Паркинсона часто используют агонисты дофаминовых рецепторов (то есть аналоги дофамина: прамипексол, бромокриптин, перголид и др.): на сегодняшний день это самая многочисленная группа противопаркинсонических средств. Некоторые из антидепрессантов также обладают дофаминергической активностью.

С нарушением дофаминергической системы связывают и такие расстройства, как ангедония, депрессия, деменция, патологическая агрессивность, фиксация патологических влечений, синдром персистирующей лактореи-аменореи, импотенция, акромегалия, синдром беспокойных ног и периодических движений в конечностях.

Снижение в результате мутаций количества дофаминовых рецепторов второго типа (D2) в некоторых участках мозга повышает риск импульсивного поведения, алкогольной и наркотической зависимостей. Для людей с пониженным количеством D2-рецепторов характерен также повышенный риск ожирения (поскольку эти люди нередко склонны к обжорству), других вредных привычек — в частности, страсти к азартным играм. Причиной того, что люди с пониженным количеством D2-рецепторов склонны к поиску экстремальных способов получения удовольствия от жизни, является, по всей видимости, нехватка положительных эмоций у этих людей; кроме того, причиной может являться сниженная способность этих людей учиться на собственных ошибках, делать правильные выводы из отрицательного опыта.

Процесс старения
Со снижением уровня дофамина в подкорковых образованиях и передних отделах головного мозга связывают также процесс нормального старения.
По данным исследований, процесс старения проявляется уменьшением объёма и массы головного мозга и уменьшением числа синаптических связей; кроме уменьшения числа церебральных рецепторов, имеет место и медиаторная церебральная недостаточность. С возрастом уменьшается количество и плотность дофаминовых D2-рецепторов стриатума, снижается концентрация дофамина в подкорковых образованиях головного мозга. Клиническими проявлениями этих изменений являются обеднение мимики, некоторая общая замедленность, сгорбленная, старческая поза, укорочение длины шага.

«Дофамин-чувствительные» изменения отмечаются также в когнитивной сфере: с возрастом снижается быстрота реакции, становится труднее усваивать и реализовывать новую программу действия, снижается уровень внимания, объём оперативной памяти. При отсутствии органической патологии возрастные когнитивные изменения не приводят к дезадаптации пожилых людей и позволяют поддерживать привычный ритм социальной активности.

См. также
 Психиатрия
 Амфетамин
 Болезнь Паркинсона
 Леводопа
 Кокаин
 Чёрная субстанция
 Шизофрения
 Нейролептики
 Нейролептические экстрапирамидные расстройства

Примечания

Литература

Ссылки
 Schizophrenia Research Forum
 Methylphenidate facilitates learning-induced amygdala plasticity — результаты исследования, связанного с механизмами D1 и D2 — рецепторов дофамина (англ. яз.).
 Окислительный стресс — на стыке NMDA- и ГАМК-гипотез шизофрении?

Гормоны мозгового вещества надпочечников
Нейромедиаторы
Катехоламины
Соединения азота по алфавиту


Vetiveria zizanioides is a densely tufted perennial grass growing to a height of up to 3 meters belongs to the Gramineae family, is a densely tufted perennial grass growing to a height of up to 3 meters belongs to the Gramineae family. It is native to India and is a grass of the wet tropics. In India it usually grows below 300 meters but altitude appears to be less important than climate as it is also planted up to 700 meters in other countries, which include Java and Reunion. The main rootstock is a stout, branching rhizome developing an extensive but not deeply penetrating fibrous mat of aromatic roots. The plant and rhizome have been prized in India for their aromatic properties and are mentioned in the Hindu Atharvaveda. In India it is known as 'khas-khas' or 'khus-khus', it is also known in India and Sri Lanka as the 'oil of tranquility'. The grass has to be at least two years old before the roots can be dried in the hot sun, then they are cut up very finely and steam distilled. In India and other Asian countries aromatic fans, mats and screens are made out of the plants and rhizome. Rhizomes are used a lot to scent the air in rooms and house, the Rhizomes can be hung up in the house, sometimes bags of wet rhizomes are placed in front of electric fans to cool and scent rooms, or they can be added to sachets to perfume clothes.
The essential oil is found in the rhizomes and the oil content can vary quite considerably depending on where the plant is grown and how old the roots are. Roots less than 15 months old generally have low oil content and the oil has a harsher, grassy or earthy odor. Roots over 24 months old have a high oil content, a lower proportion of fibrous material, yield high quality oil, but distilling time is prolonged. The average oil content of Indian material seldom exceeds 2% and the oil content collected from wild plants is below 1% averaging around 0.15%. According to E. A. Weiss it is only the very low cost of collection and distilling that allows this system to continue. Oils collected from the wild (mainly in the north) is differentiated from oils collected from the cultivated vetiver (mainly in the south) by calling the oil from wild plants khus oil and the oil from cultivated plants vetiver. The essential oil is a dark amber viscous liquid with a strong, sweet, woody, earth odor. Its odor is very tenacious. Over-distilled oils have a poor, less persistent odor. The main component is vetiverol, a sesquiterpenol, normally less than 75% and often around 50%. This oil has a very complex chemical structure. The highest quality oil is often believed to come from Reunion, while Indian oil is of good quality it is seldom available owing to the strong domestic demand. Vetiver blends well with clary sage, cedarwood, citrus, jasmine, lavender, patchouli, petitgrain, neroli, oakmoss, rose, sandalwood and ylang ylang.
Psychologically, vetiver has calming, sedative and tonic properties. It can help be helpful for depression, insomnia, nervous tension, stress related disorders, mental and physical exhaustion. It is very grounding. Useful with feelings of lightheadedness as it is very grounding and grounds one back to the earth.
On the physiological level it can be used for acne, cuts, oily skin, irritated wounds, infections & inflammations as well as arthritis, muscle aches, pains, sprains & stiffness, rheumatism. It is thought to aid impotence & frigidity.
Contraindications: Generally considered Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing and non-phototoxic.


text:
This tiny device will bring action sports to the next level
WHO KNOWS. Maybe if I had one of these back in 1990 counting how many backside 360s off a launch ramp I was landing I'd still be skating today. Instead, I quit the sport and now relegate myself to longingly watching the youngsters at the skateparks, trying to build up the courage to once again step on a skateboard at the age of 37.
It's mind-boggling how far extreme sports have come in such a relatively small amount of time; the tricks — and the speed at which they're done — would have been unimaginable just years ago. I'm sure the internet has much to do with the advance. Now you can find out what other surfers and skateboarders are doing just by jumping on YouTube. No need to wait for the VHS (or Betamax) to come to your local skate or surf shop.
Athletes are pushing each other to go higher, faster, longer, harder. What effect would a device like TRACE — which utilizes technology like Bluetooth and GPS — have on the scene? To instantaneously update your friends and peers as to what you're landing, how fast you're going, and how you're perfecting your tricks. For the driven this will create more motivation, not just for going bigger, but for innovating their sports.
The Kickstarter campaign has a goal to raise $150,000. They're almost there; at the time of writing they had raised over $118,000 with 10 days to go on the campaign, closing on September 14. To learn more about the project and to pledge a contribution, visit the campaign here.
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Copyright © jorgemolder.com | This tiny device will bring action sports to the next level...


text:
This list of paintings by the Bengali painter Zainul Abedin is incomplete.

Notes and references

Notes

References

Abedin, Zainul
Zainul Abedin


There has been much talk over the last two weeks about location tracking and location services, and lost in the debate about privacy is the value that location services provides. Local search, mapping, and navigation apps come quickly to mind, but many apps exist that use location awareness to provide value. For example, there is Remember It, which provides a location based alarm.
Imagine that you are at a restaurant and you took a coat that you don't what to leave without. You configure Remember It to sound an alarm when you move more than 50, 200, or 500 feet from your present location. Get up to leave with your phone, and Remember It sounds the alarm to remind you take your coat. The developer says he wrote the app after discovering that he left his credit card at a bar.
Remember It is a relatively simple application in comparison to check-in apps like Foursquare, but I think it illustrates the value that location services provides. The reason why Apple has that file on the iPhone that has cell tower and WiFi hotspot locations is to make apps like Remember It and Foursquare work better by speeding up the process of determining your location, when you the user want the phone to find yor location. If you have ever waited to use a navigation app while the phone or GPS locates satellites, you know how long it can take and how much of an inconvenience waiting can be.


This is a look at our kiteboarding over the last 18months, basically since I became a dad we've still been filming but not really had the time to put as much out, so you'll be seeing more PUSH Kiting extreme(ly silly) videos coming soon, This one features a whole bunch of our friends including the Super Kite Day founder Abe, it was great to see him at our kiteboarding home spot in Essex with some of the Kite Freak guys down at the same time!
Abe learnt to kiteloop on an LEI aj's going big on his handle passes and loops, I throw in a board mosis right at the start of this one, a front roll with a board throw and catch behind the back with the same hand. This is just us having fun playing with kites and I hope it inspires you to get your kite out and go have some fun too, or even come ride with us!
We run kiteboarding lessons in Essex as well as Kitesurfing, Kite buggy lessons and tuition at any level you need, so if this is the first you've seen of these type of sports be sure to get in contact with us or your local BKSA approved school and get some lessons, Kiting can be dangerous and painful without knowledge!