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Biotechnologie, Agronomie, Société et Environnement/Biotechnology, Agronomy, Society and Environment
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numéro 3
Role of the western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in seed dispersal in tropical forests and implications of its decline
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Charles-Albert Petre, Nikki Tagg, Barbara Haurez, Roseline Beudels-Jamar, Marie-Claude Huynen & Jean-Louis Doucet
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Received on September 17, 2012; accepted on May 8, 2013
Le rôle du gorille des plaines de l'ouest (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) dans la dissémination des graines en forêts tropicales et les implications de son déclin. La dissémination des graines par les animaux participe significativement à la démographie, la dynamique et la succession des communautés végétales. En forêts tropicales, la majorité des arbres produisent des fruits adaptés à la consommation et à la dissémination de leurs graines par les animaux. Parmi les différents agents disséminateurs, les primates jouent un rôle inégalable, largement reconnu. Alors que leur rôle fondamental dans la régénération forestière et le maintien de la biodiversité tropicale est accepté, la contribution spécifique du gorille des plaines de l'ouest (Gorilla gorilla gorilla Savage and Wyman, 1847), le plus grand des primates des forêts du Bassin du Congo, reste méconnue. Pourtant, cette espèce semble réunir les conditions fondamentales pour qu'une dissémination très efficace se réalise. Il se distingue notamment par une dispersion régulière des graines dans des micro-habitats caractérisés par une forte ouverture de la canopée où la lumière ne sera pas un facteur limitant à la croissance et la survie des jeunes plants. L'influence sur la dynamique forestière que pourrait jouer cet enrichissement en graines dans les ouvertures forestières par le gorille des plaines de l'ouest n'a pas encore été explorée malgré son importance potentielle. Elle pourrait cependant ne plus être active compte tenu des menaces critiques qui pèsent sur la survie des populations de gorilles. La perte des services écologiques rendus par la grande faune disséminatrice de graines pourrait avoir des conséquences considérables sur le futur des forêts. En l'absence de dissémination, la dynamique de population de nombreuses espèces serait impactée. Sur le long terme, cela pourrait conduire à une modification de la structure et composition de la communauté végétale et à un appauvrissement de la diversité. Actuellement, les forêts du bassin du Congo subissent des taux grandissants de déforestation et dégradation qui mettent en péril l'intégrité de l'écosystème. La disparition des frugivores constitue donc une menace additionnelle qui doit être prise en considération dans la gestion des massifs forestiers.
Mots-clés : Afrique, dissémination des graines, dynamique forestière
Patterns of seed dispersal significantly affect plant demography, dynamics and succession. In the tropics, the majority of tree species bear fruits that are adapted to animal-mediated dispersal. Amongst seed dispersers, the contribution of primates is widely recognized by ecologists as incomparable. However, in lowland Afrotropical forests, the specific role of the largest primate species, the western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla Savage and Wyman, 1847), has been overlooked. This is of particular relevance as this species seems to fulfill important criteria for effective dispersal, both quantitatively and qualitatively. One trait makes it potentially unique as seed disperser; the regular deposition of seeds in open canopy environments where light will not be a limiting factor for subsequent seedling growth and survival. The magnitude of which this particular trait contributes to forest dynamics remains unexplored though it could be potentially important. It might no longer be the case, however, as the western lowland gorilla is critically endangered. The loss of the ecological services provided by large-bodied seed dispersers may have considerable impacts on the forests. Through dispersal limitation, population dynamics of plants in forests devoid of large frugivores will be strongly impacted. In the long-term, this may lead to shifts in plant community structure, composition and to reduced tree diversity. Currently, forests of the Congo basin face increasing level of deforestation and degradation, which puts already the ecosystem integrity in jeopardy. The additional threat that represents frugivorous wildlife depletion is therefore of forest management concern.
Keywords : Africa, seed dispersal, primate, primate, forest dynamics
2. Endozoochory: advantages and disadvantages
3. Primates as a keystone taxon for tropical forests
3.1. Importance of primates as a seed disperser group: generalities
3.2. Western lowland gorilla seed dispersal
4. Wildlife depletion and the future of tropical forests
1Plants bearing fleshy fruits are believed to have a mutualistic relationship with their animal consumers: from an evolutionary perspective, plants take advantage of seed dispersal while animals benefit from the nutritive value of the consumed fruit (Kollmann, 2000). Frugivore-mediated seed dispersal (i.e. zoochory) can have significant effects on plant demography, dynamics, succession and spatial distribution at all scale (Kollmann, 2000; Seidler et al., 2006; Blake et al., 2009; Gillespie et al., 2012).
2In the tropics, the majority of tree species bear fruits adapted to animal dispersal. In Neotropical forests, Howe et al. (1982) reported the proportion of animal-dispersed species ranging from 51 to 93% for canopy trees and 77 to 98% for sub-canopy trees. In Paleotropical forests, trees also exhibit adaptations for animal seed dispersal. According to Doucet (2003), about 60% of tree species of Central Gabon are dispersed through endozoochory, and in the Dja region, South-East Cameroon, this value reaches 82% (Letouzey, 1985). Despite the importance of seed dispersal in biodiversity maintenance (Janzen, 1970; Connell, 1971; Harms et al., 2000; Hardesty et al., 2006), mechanisms affecting seed dispersal patterns and recruitment probability of tropical trees remain poorly documented. Furthermore, no generalization intending to predict these parameters for less-known tree species is possible due to the complexity of tropical ecosystems (Müller-Landau et al., 2008).
3Fruits and seeds adapted to zoochory vary widely in their shape, size, color, chemical composition, palatability, digestibility and accessibility; therefore they attract and are dispersed by different sets of animal species (Poulsen et al., 2002; Müller-Landau et al., 2008). Behavioral and physiological patterns of frugivorous dispersers, such as activity budget, displacement velocity and distance, retention time and fruit handling, will have consequences on seed viability and spatial patterns of seed deposition (Howe et al., 1982; Lambert et al., 1998; Traveset, 1998; Nathan et al., 2008); factors which greatly influence recruitment probability. Seed dispersal, population dynamics and community structure at a given site are thus dependent on the frugivorous community and plant attributes that attract them.
4As primates represent a great proportion of the frugivorous biomass in tropical forests (Garber et al., 1998), in general their contribution to seed dispersal has received much attention and they are believed, as a group, to be incomparable dispersers (Poulsen et al., 2001; Lambert, 2011). That said, for some frugivorous primate species, documentation of their role as seed disperser is lacking, despite their potential effectiveness. If such potentially effective dispersers disappear from forests, there could be long-term detrimental consequences for natural forest regeneration and dynamics (Terborgh et al., 2008; Blake et al., 2009; Poulsen, 2009; Vanthomme et al., 2010). The future of tropical forests is already put in jeopardy by human activities imposing immediate effects on its size, structure and composition, and climate change will further contribute to this (Wright, 2010; de Wasseige et al., 2012). Extirpation of effective dispersers constitutes another major threat for the forests that will remain. This may be the case with the "critically endangered" western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla Savage and Wyman, 1847) (IUCN, 2012).
5Here, we investigate the potential importance and effectiveness of western lowland gorillas as seed dispersers and scrutinize the potential consequences of their removal/extinction for the preservation of the ecosystem integrity. Specifically, the objectives of this review are threefold. First, we aim to describe the advantages and underlying mechanisms of animal-mediated seed dispersal for plant fitness in tropical ecosystems. We then explain the important ecological function of primates as a seed dispersal taxon, we summarize what we know about the contribution of the western lowland gorilla and make expectations of its effectiveness. Finally, we discuss the keystone role of large frugivores and the implications of their decline for the future of tropical forests.
6For the purpose of this review of the literature we used the database Scopus provided by Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech. The main keywords entered were "seed dispersal", "western lowland gorilla", "primate", "endozoochory", "tropical forest", "regeneration", "forest degradation" and "Congo Basin". Among relevant references, the most recent were selected, with the exception of publications defining ecological concepts, and illustrations from Central African forests were prioritized.
7Seed dispersal, regardless of the type of vector, is believed to confer an advantage to the plant through different mechanisms, which increase recruitment probability. It reduces the mortality rate caused by sibling competition (Connell, 1971), intense predation by granivores and grazers that concentrate their activities where food is abundant (Janzen, 1970), and attacks by specific pathogens (Augspurger, 1984). Escape from a density- or distance-dependent mortality is described by the "Escape Hypothesis", better known as the Janzen-Connell hypothesis (Howe et al., 1982). Seed dispersal also enables colonization of particular habitats that are unpredictable in when they will be created or in their location, such as treefall gaps (Howe et al., 1982). This advantage is explained by the "Colonizing Hypothesis". In the specific case of endozoochory, the extra costs involved in producing fruits to attract animals is associated with additional evolutionary advantages, known as the "Directed-Dispersal Hypothesis". This hypothesis considers that non-random movement and habitat preference of some frugivores results in a disproportionate deposition of seeds in sites where specific requirements for seed germination and seedling growth and survival are met (Howe et al., 1982; Wenny, 2001). This evolution of plant traits has further consequences that may improve the fate of dispersed seeds; passage through the gut of a frugivore is normally associated with mechanical and chemical abrasion of the seed coat which, in some cases, impacts positively on germination capacity (e.g., Lieberman et al., 1986; Traveset, 1998; Valenta et al., 2009). Furthermore, when excreted, these seeds are surrounded by fecal material that protects them from hydric stress and offers a nutrient-rich environment that encourages seedling growth and increases survival probability (Nchanji et al., 2003). Finally, dung beetles are attracted to volatile organic compounds emitted from feces and initiate secondary dispersal which can have a huge impact on seed survival, seed predation, germination success and seedling establishment (Shepherd et al., 1998; Andresen et al., 2004).
8Despite the numerous potential advantages of endozoochory, attracting frugivores through fruit production is, however, no guarantee for increased plant fitness through higher recruitment success. Some frugivores do not disperse the seeds from some or all species they feed on, they may break the seeds and kill the embryo when mouth-processing or even masticate the seeds on purpose for nutrient intake (Tutin et al., 1993; Lambert et al., 1998). This results in them being seed predators instead. Passage through the gut does not always enhance germination success or rate of all of the fruit items consumed (Traveset, 1998). The level of abrasion of the seed coat and its effect on germination depends on the consumer species and the intrinsic characteristics of seeds, such as thickness and hardness of the seed coat, as well as seed size, which affects the gut transit time; smaller seeds are retained for longer periods than larger ones (Traveset, 1998). A long retention time can enhance germination rate and success through suppressing seed dormancy or by softening the seed coat and increasing its permeability. However, a retention time that is too long can lead in some cases to total seed digestion or germination inhibition (Lieberman et al., 1986; Traveset, 1998). Additionally, the chemical compounds in the feces (e.g. fatty acids and phenols) can sometimes act as germination inhibitors (Valenta et al., 2009) and fecal material can reduce germination success by facilitating fungal and bacterial development (Traveset et al., 2007). Similarly, the fruit pulp may also contain germination inhibitors (Robertson et al., 2006) and the presence of pulp surrounding the seeds also increases the risk of fungal and bacterial development that can be lethal to seeds (Baskin et al., 1998). Therefore, undispersed seeds still surrounded by the fruit pulp, either due to dispersal failure (lack of dispersers' visitation) or as a result of seed processing behavior (spitting of seeds not cleared from pulp), are likely to face a high mortality rate. Furthermore, dung beetle activity can result in seed loss, by excessively deep burial in the soil (Shepherd et al., 1998). Finally, the seed deposition pattern exhibited by large frugivores results in a high density of seeds per fecal clump which, to a certain extent, cancels out the advantage of escaping from density-dependent mortality underneath the crown of the parent (Poulsen et al., 2001; Traveset et al., 2007).
9Production of fruit attributes that attract animals represents an energy investment by the plant, which would not be cost effective in case of dispersal failure in habitats where animal dispersers are reduced to very low densities or are locally extinct. In general, fruit-bearing plants would have multiple animal dispersers, especially in tropical forests where the frugivore community is highly diverse (Müller-Landau et al., 2008). However, some plants rely on a limited set of dispersers or even a single species and therefore have restricted or no dispersal substitution capacity (Lieberman et al., 1986; Tutin et al., 1991a; Babweteera et al., 2007; Blake et al., 2009). Local extinction of dispersers could therefore lead to important plant population decline through recruitment limitation (Terborgh et al., 2008).
10In the tropics, strict one-to-one plant-animal mutualisms occur mainly due to size restriction: big seeds can only be dispersed by large-bodied frugivores with a correspondingly large gut size (Babweteera et al., 2007). The African forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis Matschie, 1900) is the largest forest dwelling animal on Earth and it has been reported to be the exclusive disperser of at least 13 tree species at Ndoki Forest, Republic of Congo (Blake et al., 2009). Similarly, the western lowland gorilla is the only regular disperser of seeds of Cola lizae N.Hallé (Sterculiaceae), endemic to central Gabon, despite the fact that sympatric chimpanzees occasionally swallow and disperse their seeds (Tutin et al., 1991a). Crucially, both species, western lowland gorillas and African forest elephants, are currently facing considerable population decline throughout their range (IUCN, 2012).
11Among animal seed dispersers in tropical ecosystems, the contribution of primates is thought to be of paramount importance (Poulsen et al., 2001; Lambert, 2011). Primates are usually abundant and have a relatively large body size. As most primate species have a high frugivorous diet, they represent a large proportion of the frugivores biomass and are consequently responsible for the removal of a large proportion of the fruit and seed crop (Chapman, 1989; Chapman et al., 1998; Garber et al., 1998; Poulsen et al., 2002; Lambert, 2011). In such cases, diet overlap is common (e.g. Chapman, 1989; Tutin et al., 1993; Tutin et al., 1994; Poulsen et al., 2001; Poulsen et al., 2002; Lambert, 2011), resulting in some degree of redundancy among primates in the seed dispersal service for various plant species. Multi-species dispersal of seeds has a great influence on the seed shadow of the plants concerned (i.e., the spatial distribution of seeds around the parental source; Willson, 1993) and subsequently on recruitment probability. Indeed, primates within a community exhibit a variety of feeding strategies, differences in fruit and seed processing, home range size, habitat preference, daily travel distance, gut capacity and retention time of the digesta (Poulsen et al., 2001). As a result, distinct primate species will disperse seeds into different habitat types, at varying distances from the parent plant, and according to a scattered or rather clumped distribution pattern. The probability of encountering suitable conditions for recruitment is therefore higher in case of multi-species seed dispersal (Poulsen et al., 2001).
12Contrary to this, some sympatric primate species exhibit diet specialization for certain fruit species, which increases the proportion of seed species in a plant community that is dispersed. For instance, the number of seed species dispersed by each frugivorous primate species in a study site in the Dja Biosphere Reserve, Cameroon, was found to range from 5 to 61, whereas as a whole the primate community dispersed at least 125 seed species through fecal clumps; 77 of them being tree species, which represented 34% of the studied tree flora of the reserve (Poulsen et al., 2001).
13These varying dietary, behavioral and ecological characteristics result in a primate community that is diverse yet effective at seed dispersal and therefore able to significantly structure the habitats in which they are found (Poulsen et al., 2001; Lambert, 2011).
14Primates are thus essential agents of forest dynamics and regeneration, contributing to the maintenance of high biodiversity of tropical ecosystems. As a consequence, their extirpation could significantly impact on recruitment patterns of many plant species (Lambert, 2011), which would lead to population collapse and in the long term to a shift in the plant community (Terborgh et al., 2008; Babweteera et al., 2009; Poulsen, 2009). It has been argued that large gut-sized birds, such as hornbills, must have a high substitution capacity for primate seed dispersal, by dispersing the same set of seed species. However, hornbills tend to use higher strata of the canopy forest and are attracted by fruits of different colors, feeding more often on reddish fruit species, whereas primates prefer brown and green fruits (Poulsen et al., 2002). Thus, dispersal redundancy between these two taxa is debatable although it seems clear that no one taxon could completely replace the other (Poulsen et al., 2002; Lambert, 2011). Moreover, redundancy among species belonging to closely-related taxa is not always high. In the Dja Biosphere Reserve, apes and Cercopithecines (Cercopithecus, Lophocebus and Colobus) exhibit a small overlap in the seed species they disperse, leading to the conclusion that the loss of seed dispersal services by apes could not be completely fulfilled by Cercopithecines (Poulsen et al., 2001).
15To highlight the importance of primates for seed dispersal, Lambert (2011) used a powerful approach to demonstrate the ecological necessity of conserving primates for forest dynamics and biodiversity maintenance. She applied the multi-species umbrella concept for ecosystem conservation. An umbrella species is by definition "a species for which its conservation confers protection to a large number of naturally co-occurring species" (Roberge et al., 2004, page 77). The originality of her study was to work at higher taxonomic ranks than the species and to implement in her definition the important mutualism existing among plants and animals. In that way, the conservation of an umbrella taxon will benefit many species, both floral and faunal. Based on species richness within taxa, abundance, sensitivity to human disturbance and visitation rate of fruiting trees, primates proved to be the most fitting "umbrella taxon" compared to birds and squirrels. In terms of seed dispersal and its role in the maintenance of the high biodiversity of tropical forests, conservation efforts targeted towards primates therefore represent an adequate management shortcut in situations where conserving all animal and plant species is economically impossible. Currently, almost half of the world's primate species face conservation challenges (IUCN, 2012). The application of the above management strategy would be therefore highly relevant for the future of many primate species, including the critically endangered western lowland gorilla.
16To our knowledge, the first documentation of western lowland gorilla seed dispersal activity was published two decades ago (Tutin et al., 1991a). Since then, only a handful of studies have provided further information on this topic, and most of them were conducted at the same study site as the initial study in Lopé National Park, Gabon. Nonetheless, improved knowledge of gorilla ecology contributes to the appreciation of its potential quantitative and qualitative effectiveness in seed dispersal, as discussed below.
17Quantitative dispersal. In terms of quantitative seed dispersal, the western lowland gorilla is likely to play an important role for the following reasons:
18– They are regular fruit-eaters, feeding on a diverse set of species. In periods of fruit abundance, fruit consumption accounts for up to 70% of feeding time (Doran-Sheehy et al., 2009). Feeding ecology studies conducted across its range (Ndoki, Congo; Lopé, Gabon; Mondika, Congo and Central African Republic; Bai Hokou, C.A.R.) have identified 70 to 115 fruit species in the gorilla diet at each study site (Doran et al., 2002). Fruit remains were found in almost every feces collected over a 7-year period in Lopé (96%, N = 4,301 feces; Tutin et al., 1993). On average, one fecal clump was found to contain remains of three different fruit species;
19– With an average body weight reaching 90 and 180 kg for adult females and males respectively (Caldecott et al., 2009), the western lowland gorilla has the largest body size of all primates of the Congo basin. Daily food intake required for metabolism is therefore high and by extension they are responsible for the removal of a large proportion of the fruit/seed crop. In the Dja Biosphere Reserve, Cameroon, despite the low density of western lowland gorillas compared to the six sympatric primate species (the moustached monkey Cercopithecus cephus cephus, the white-nosed guenon Cercopithecus nictitans nictitans, the crowned guenon Cercopithecus mona pogonias, the black-and-white colobus Colobus guereza occidentalis, the grey-cheeked mangabey Lophocebus albigena albigena and the central chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes), they are assumed to disperse alone almost as many seeds as the rest of the primate community as a whole (Poulsen et al., 2001). With an average of 40.8 intact seeds per fecal unit (SD, ± 262.6), a density of 1.7 weaned individuals·km-2 [95% IC, 1.0 –2.9] and 6.7 defecations per day, western lowland gorillas could be dispersing 464.7 seeds per day per km2 [range, 273.4 – 792.7] compared to 664.2 [422.4 – 955.9] for the remaining primate community.
20Qualitative dispersal. From a qualitative perspective, western lowland gorillas may also be effective seed dispersers because:
21– They usually process fruits in the mouth and gut without causing damage to seeds; fruit remains in feces consist mainly of intact and still viable seeds (Tutin et al., 1993; Poulsen et al., 2001; Doran et al., 2002). Many seed species have a high concentration of secondary compounds and gorillas lack the specialization of the digestive tract required to metabolize them (Rogers et al., 1990), resulting in the passing of most seeds through the gut undigested (Williamson et al., 1990). Additionally, the gut size of the gorilla is large enough to allow them to swallow the seeds of most fruit species they feed on. The longest-running study investigating western lowland gorilla seed dispersal identified 70 seed species present in feces samples over a 6-year period, encompassing 76.9% of the fruit species known to feature in its diet at this site (N = 91; Lopé National Park, Gabon: Tutin et al., 1991a; Tutin et al., 1991b). While chimpanzees, the second largest primate of Congo Basin forests, systematically expulse seeds exceeding 4.2 cm3, seeds up to 7 cm3 can be found in gorilla feces (Tutin et al., 1994). Seeds that pass through western lowland gorilla's digestive tract intact conserve their germination capacity. Poulsen et al. (2001) observed a positive effect on germination success of Uapaca seeds from passage through the western lowland gorilla gut. Germination success reached 62% after passage through the gut compared to a 26% germination success for seeds manually extracted from fruit pulp. Among the six primate species tested (five Cercopithecines and the central chimpanzee), the western lowland gorilla conferred the highest germination enhancement for Uapaca seeds;
22– Seeds are retained for a long period in the western lowland gorilla digestive tract. In addition to the relationship between digestive tract length and body size, the type of food consumed along with the seeds influences seed transit time. For instance, an increase in the amount of fruit consumed results in shorter retention time of the digesta (Traveset, 1998). The diet of the western lowland gorilla, though highly frugivorous, includes non-fruit items such as leaves, pith, shoots, barks and insects year round (Tutin et al., 1993) and in inverse proportion to fruit consumption (Doran-Sheehy et al., 2009). This mixed diet influenced by seasonality and the large body size of gorillas are responsible for relatively long though variable retention times of seeds in the digestive tract regardless of seed size, ranging from a few hours (< 10 h) to 136 h, with a mean of 47.1 h (Remis, 2000). By comparison, central chimpanzees have a mean retention time of 23.6 h (Idani, 1986) and the one of Cercopithecine species ranges from 21.2 h to 25.4 h (Poulsen et al., 2001). The relatively long retention time of the western lowland gorilla may enhances germination, as demonstrated for Uapaca seeds (Poulsen et al., 2001), or may conversely inhibit it (Traveset, 1998). Finally, as a consequence of long and variable retention times coupled with long daily path lengths (from < 1 km to 5.3 km; Remis, 1997), western lowland gorillas likely provide a complex heterogeneous seed shadow with an extended tail of long distance dispersal. While such an extended seed shadow increases the probability of encountering suitable conditions for seedling recruitment, long distance dispersal also favors maintenance of genetic diversity and rate of range expansion of the plant populations concerned (Kollmann, 2000; Hardesty et al., 2006). The dispersal and mating system of individual gorillas further contributes to this; when a male leaves the natal group in search of founding a breeding group, this blackback male may travel very long distances (Douadi et al., 2007);
23– Seeds dispersed by the western lowland gorilla encounter particular environmental conditions. Western lowland gorillas have a bimodal defecation pattern with half of their feces produced at nest sites and the other half during daily displacement (Todd et al., 2008). Nest sites are not selected randomly and canopy openness seems to be a major determinant. Preference for open canopy areas for nesting, such as tree fall gaps, is a constant feature across the range of the western lowland gorilla (e.g., Tutin et al., 1995; Mehlman et al., 2002; Arnhem, 2008; Willie et al., 2012). Seeds dispersed at nest sites are thus likely to encounter microsites with higher light regimes than seeds dispersed during daily displacement. This seems to be particularly profitable for post-dispersal seed fate as pointed out by Tutin et al. (1991a) in Lopé, Gabon. Seeds of Cola lizae dispersed at nest sites had higher germination success, seedling establishment and survival rate than seeds dispersed elsewhere; 71.6% of seedlings survived at nest sites after two months compared to 13.2% elsewhere. Although not systematically monitored, Cola lizae seeds deposited directly beneath parent trees, either through oral expulsion by primates or from fallen fruits, seemed to face a much higher mortality rate than dispersed seeds. The suitability of gorilla nest sites for post-dispersal seed fate was confirmed for two additional species at the same study site (Ganophyllum giganteum [A.Chev.] Hauman [Sapindaceae] and Uapaca guineensis Müll.Arg. [Euphorbiaceae]: Voysey et al., 1999). Seedling survival and growth of these species were always higher at nest sites after two years than beneath the crown of parent trees or for those scatter-dispersed by other primate species at short distances from the parental source. It seems, therefore, that the western lowland gorilla may be a unique disperser in terms of its "directed dispersal" (i.e. dispersal of seeds in microsites presenting environmental conditions particularly suitable for recruitment: Howe et al., 1982). Although directed-dispersal is thought to be a rare phenomenon, it leads to a much higher probability of survival to adulthood on a per-seed basis than the other kinds of seed dispersal advantages (Wenny, 2001). In this particular situation, the animal species performing directed-dispersal may contribute significantly more to the plant population concerned than all other dispersers. The most explicit example in the tropics comes from male bellbirds perching preferentially in open canopy environment, which improves seedling survival of the tree, Ocotea endresiana Mez [Lauraceae] (Wenny, 2001). Regular dispersal of seeds by the western lowland gorilla in open canopy sites is also likely to improve recruitment success of tree species as most of them require at least small canopy gaps to reach adulthood. Interestingly, species requiring a high light regime at seedling stage are most commonly found among timber species (Doucet, 2003).
24The western lowland gorilla possesses biological and ecological traits required to perform effective seed dispersal. Transportation of many seeds away from the parent plant in open canopy habitats may greatly improve seed and seedling fate of many tropical species, and dispersal of large-seeded species contribute to their spatial distribution. In regards of that, the western lowland gorilla is a good candidate of being a keystone element of the ecosystem, like elephant are considered to be (Blake et al., 2009).
25It is worth noting, however, that the western lowland gorilla may also influence its environment by causing damages to recruits of woody species. Although terrestrial herbaceous vegetation composes the majority of gorilla nests, in almost every study site saplings, either bended or broken, are also common nest building material (Tutin et al., 1995; Mehlman et al., 2002; Willie et al., 2012). The western lowland gorilla is also responsible for damages by breaking the shoots for consumption of the soft inner part, young leaves and the apical bud. For example, Kouadio (2009) observed important seedling and sapling destruction in timber plantations. In order to debate on the real contribution of one animal species on the ecosystem dynamics it is important to consider both the positive and negative effects that the animal species exerts. In the present case, lack of empirical information and quantitative data impede balancing both contributions. However, the loss of the seed dispersal service of the western lowland gorilla is believed to have much more negative impact on the forest than do occasional recruit destruction as discussed in the next section.
26In the tropics, the high occurrence of zoochory leads to interdependent dynamics between plants and animals, where disturbance affecting one taxon will have an impact on the other (Sodhi et al., 2009); habitat disturbance may result in a decrease in wildlife density (e.g. Poulsen, 2009), and depletion of wildlife may alter regeneration patterns of plant communities (e.g. Terborgh et al., 2008).
27Presently, forests of the Congo basin face increasing rates of degradation through increased anthropogenic pressure on natural resources (forest conversion for farming and agriculture, extractive industries, illegal logging, fuel-wood provisioning; de Wasseige et al., 2012). In addition to this, the bushmeat crisis reached a peak due to an increasing human population, together with the improved road network and the easier access to fire-arms (Wright, 2010). In summary, forests are declining in size and wildlife is declining in abundance. As frugivores represent most of the tropical wildlife biomass it is not surprising that they are the most harvested taxon, encompassing 82% of the carcasses found on western and central African markets (Fa et al., 2005). The same tendency is observed in the Neotropics, where frugivores of the Amazonian basin, regardless of their size, decline faster in abundance with increasing level of hunting pressure than the other dietary specialization groups (Peres et al., 2007). Only rodents seem to increase in abundance with habitat degradation and large vertebrates' depletion (Malcolm et al., 2000; Poulsen, 2009).
28Degradation and hunting can lead to local extinctions of frugivores with large-bodied species facing higher risk (Pimm et al., 1988) as 1) they naturally occur at lower densities than smaller species, 2) they often rely on large continuous habitat tracts, 3) they have slow reproductive rates, 4) they give birth to fewer offspring, 5) they are more valuable to hunters and 6) they cannot adjust to persistent hunting pressure by becoming more behaviorally inconspicuous (Babweteera et al., 2007; Babweteera et al., 2009; Poulsen, 2009; Wilkie et al., 2011). Local extirpation of large-bodied frugivores will result in dispersal limitation of large-seeded trees given that remaining smaller-bodied frugivores will not be able to swallow and disperse them (Wang et al., 2007; Blake et al., 2009; Vanthomme et al., 2010). Seeds will then simply fall beneath the crown of the parent plant and risk high density- or distance-dependent mortality (Janzen, 1970; Connell, 1971; Harms et al., 2000; Seidler et al., 2006; Blake et al., 2009; Poulsen, 2009). Without transportation of seeds through the gut of a frugivore, the probability of encountering a favorable site for recruitment is reduced, thus resulting in recruitment limitation (Babweteera et al., 2007). Such altered patterns of tree recruitment could lead in the long-term to shifts in community structure (Seidler et al., 2006; Wright, 2010; Wilkie et al., 2011), composition (Poulsen, 2009; Wright, 2010) and to reduced adult tree diversity (Blake et al., 2009).
29Recruitment limitation of large-seeded species will have another disruptive effect on the ecological function of tropical forests. Large seed size is generally associated with shade-tolerant long-lived species because seedlings will rely on seed resources for establishment in a shaded environment, while small seeds are associated with light-demanding, fast-growing and short-lived species (Queenborough et al., 2009). Moreover, seed size is correlated to wood density (Queenborough et al., 2009), which is a good predictor of carbon storage capacity (Ruiz-Jaen et al., 2011). Therefore, recruitment limitation of large-seeded long-lived tree species may result in a plant community shift towards a higher density of small-seeded short-lived tree species (Terborgh et al., 2008; Vanthomme et al., 2010), resulting in turn in a lower rate of carbon sequestration (Kirby et al., 2007).
30Like the other two charismatic largest frugivores of Central Africa (elephants and chimpanzees), the western lowland gorilla is at risk of extinction, with hunting pressure and habitat loss/degradation being the most widespread threats (IUCN, 2012); a risk which could render the preceding possibilities a reality. Not only large-seeded tree species will be affected by the loss of the service provided by these threatened large frugivores but also zoochorous species, which recruit disproportionately, better in open canopy sites where gorillas produce most of their feces. If the strong declining trend of these keystone dispersers continues, the effects on the Congo basin ecosystem presented above will be inevitable (Blake et al., 2009). Obviously, survival of tropical forests is compromised first and foremost by much more direct threats imposing immediate effects on them. Satellite image comparisons over time report a net annual deforestation rate in Central Africa of 0.17% per year and an additional 0.09% of dense forest is degraded annually (de Wasseige et al., 2012). Considering all the services provided by forests to humans, such as provisioning of food, timber and non-timber forest products, and carbon sequestration, the loss and degradation of tropical forests is of great concern. In contrast to the external threats, wildlife depletion impacts on the forest from the inside. Although the degradation through dispersal limitation is subtler with effects that require years before being manifests, consequences on ecosystem goods and services are real. Tree cover alone is therefore not a satisfying measure of the ecosystem health. Instead, equilibrium of the dynamics existing between plants and animals should also be taken into account (Terborgh et al., 2008).
31The effectiveness of primates as seed dispersal agents is widely recognized and the western lowland gorilla should not be excluded. Although poorly documented, an initial review of the physiology and ecology of this African great ape shows that this species fulfills the main requirements for effective seed dispersal, both from the quantitative as well as the qualitative point of view.
32A distinctive trait of the western lowland gorilla, which highlights its value as seed disperser, is its specific dispersal-related relationship with at least one tree species, Cola lizae, an extremely rare phenomenon, which might be prejudicial in case of disperser loss. At present, it is unknown how many such relationships might exist between the western lowland gorilla and other plant species in tropical forests.
33By dispersing seeds regularly in treefall gaps, the western lowland gorilla might be an active vector of seed dispersal in light of the directed-dispersal hypotheses (Wenny, 2001). Empirical demonstration of this particular advantage on the fitness of species dispersed by the western lowland gorilla would make it a strong candidate for being a keystone species for its ecosystem.
34The limited yet revealing information available on western lowland gorilla seed dispersal, considered alongside the inherent biological and ecological traits of the gorilla, clearly lead to the suggestion that this ape plays a substantial role in Afrotropical forest dynamics, population structure, and maintenance of biodiversity and ecosystem function. As the western lowland gorilla is critically endangered and needs immediate action to be taken to prevent its extinction, the emphasis on its ecological role within its ecosystem may be used in addition to its flagship status for fund raising and public awareness.
35Acknowledgements
36The authors thank each institution that provided financial support to Charles-Albert Petre for his ongoing PhD research: the Belgian Science Policy Office, Antwerp Zoo ("Dehousse" scholarship), and the Fondation Gouverneur René Close.
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To cite this article
Charles-Albert Petre, Nikki Tagg, Barbara Haurez, Roseline Beudels-Jamar, Marie-Claude Huynen & Jean-Louis Doucet, «Role of the western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in seed dispersal in tropical forests and implications of its decline», BASE [En ligne], Volume 17 (2013), numéro 3, 517-526 URL : https://popups.ulg.ac.be/1780-4507/index.php?id=10293.
About: Charles-Albert Petre
Univ. Liege - Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech. Laboratory of Tropical and Subtropical Forestry. Unit of Forest and Nature Management. Passage des Déportés, 2. B-5030 Gembloux (Belgium). E-mail: capetre@doct.ulg.ac.be – Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences. Conservation Biology Unit. Rue Vautier, 29. B-1000 Brussels (Belgium) – Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp. Centre for Research and Conservation. Projet Grands Singes Cameroon. Koningin Astridplein, 20-26. B-2018 Antwerpen (Belgium).
About: Nikki Tagg
Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp. Centre for Research and Conservation. Projet Grands Singes Cameroon. Koningin Astridplein, 20-26. B-2018 Antwerpen (Belgium).
About: Barbara Haurez
Univ. Liege - Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech. Laboratory of Tropical and Subtropical Forestry. Unit of Forest and Nature Management. Passage des Déportés, 2. B-5030 Gembloux (Belgium).
About: Roseline Beudels-Jamar
Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences. Conservation Biology Unit. Rue Vautier, 29. B-1000 Brussels (Belgium).
About: Marie-Claude Huynen
Univ. Liege. Departement of Biology, Ecology and Evolution / Behavioral Biology - Ethology and Animal Psychology. Quai Van Beneden, 22. B-4020 Liege (Belgium).
About: Jean-Louis Doucet
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College of The Rockies Avalanche
Cranbrook Visitor's Guide
White Island tour operators rescue people after a deadly volcanic eruption off the coast of New Zealand Monday, Dec. 9, 2019. Michael Schade took these photos, tweeting that he and his family got off the island only 20 minutes before the eruption. (Michael Schade/Twitter photo)
No reports yet of Canadians affected by New Zealand volcano eruption, feds say
Missing and injured included tourists from the U.S., China, Australia, Britain and Malaysia
Karissa Gall
Global Affairs Canada has not yet received any reports of Canadian citizens being affected by the volcanic eruption off the New Zealand coast, a spokesperson has confirmed.
The White Island volcano erupted on Monday at about 2 p.m. as dozens of tourists were exploring its moon-like surface — some walking along the rim of the crater just before the eruption — killing five people and leaving eight others missing and feared dead, authorities said.
Hours after the disaster, the site was still too dangerous for rescuers to search for the missing. But aircraft flew over the island repeatedly, and "no signs of life have been seen at any point," New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern said.
Ardern said the missing and injured included New Zealanders and tourists from the U.S., China, Australia, Britain, and Malaysia. Some of those who were exploring the volcano were passengers from the Royal Caribbean cruise ship Ovation of the Seas, docked on neighbouring North Island.
Global Affairs Canada Spokesperson Guillaume Bérubé told Black Press Media the Government of Canada is closely monitoring the situation.
"At this time, there are no reports of any Canadian citizens being affected," Bérubé said in an email. "Consular officials are in contact with local authorities to gather more information."
Canadians in need of emergency consular assistance can contact the High Commission of Canada in New Zealand at +64 4 473-9577, he added. They can also call the Emergency Watch and Response Centre 24/7 at +1 613-996-8885 or email sos@international.gc.ca.
"We offer sincere condolences to the families and loved ones of the victims, and wish those injured a speedy recovery."
READ MORE: 5 dead, many more missing in eruption of New Zealand volcano
According to authorities, 47 people were on the island at the time of the eruption. In addition to the dead and missing, 31 survivors were hospitalized and three others were released. Some of the victims were reported severely burned.
The eruption consisted of two explosions in quick succession, the prime minister said. It sent a plume of steam and ash an estimated 3,660 metres into the air. One of the boats that returned from the island was covered with ash half a meter thick, Ardern said.
The GeoNet agency, which monitors volcanoes and earthquakes in New Zealand, had raised the alert level on White Island on Nov. 18 from 1 to 2 on a scale where 5 represents a major eruption, noting an increase in sulfur dioxide gas, which originates from magma deep in the volcano. It also said that volcanic tremors had increased from weak to moderate strength.
Ardern said White Island is a "very unpredictable volcano," and questions about whether tourists should be visiting will have to be addressed, "but for now, we're focused on those who are caught up in this horrific event."
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Not necessarily: there are various graphical tools that come with Git, including git-citool, gitk and git-gui, all of which are based on Tk -- which turns out to make them both very light-weight and portable. Almost anything you might want to do in a daily basis can be done with these tools. Aside from that, for our Windows-using friends, there is [Tortoise Git](https://code.google.com/p/tortoisegit/), which integrates Git right into Explorer. A quick search on Google reveals a number of other graphical user interfaces for Git so no, you can do without the command-line if you feel more comfortable with a mouse.
This is technically true, as Git is a distributed version control system so the repository you're using is on your hard disk. That doesn't mean, however, that you _cannot_ have a central repository: I would recommend having a "canonical" central repository with code that has been properly curated and into which only certain people can push, and one or more "experimental" repositories, which you might see as you'd see branches in a central repository. Still, if you want a central repository into which everyone can push, that is fairly simple to set up with Git. It's not what Git was designed to do, but because it's so flexible, there's no reason why it wouldn't work.
No, you don't. You can push and pull over a Windows share (Samba) if you want to. SSH happens to be a great way of connecting to a server securely, using a pre-shared public key for authentication, and Git happens to come with something that pretends to be a shell but really isn't -- so users don't get shell access to your server, but you don't _have to_ use any of that. You can push/pull over https & webdav if you feel more comfortable with that and, due to the modular nature of Git and its extensibility, it's actually fairly easy to create a Git-over-potato-launcher extension (except for building a potato launcher that can effectively and efficiently talk to a server). Check the documentation for git-remote-helpers if you want more information about that.
Under the hood, Git is a content-addressable filesystem. If that doesn't tell you anything, then understand that Git is optimized for the general use-case (checkout, modify, stage, commit). The staging step puts your changes in an index, which means you get to prepare exactly what goes into your commit, and you even get to edit it if you want to, before you commit it (using the interactive git-add). Basically, when you commit something to the repository, you're adding a single object to it that says "I started with this version and now I have this". It does not say "this is what I changed". Staging lets you prepare that commit object. That means that if you have two modifications in a single file but only want to commit one of them, you can. Now, it's true that some things in Git can be a bit hard to catch if you're used to systems like CVS, SVN or TFS, but as soon as you start wrapping your head around the idea that Git history is basically a linked list of commits, each of which provides a complete description of the then-current version and its complete history (through the link with the previous commit), it becomes clearer.
I've been using Git pretty much since its inception and I have only rebased a branch three or four times so no, you don't have to do that. Git is really good at merging -- it's why it's such a good versioning system (creating branches is easy, merging them is a much bigger challenge). I know some workflows prefer rebasing over merging, but I frankly think those are misguided. Rebasing doesn't lose history, though: it re-writes it on top of a different version of the parent branch.
No, it doesn't. While you certainly _can_ work in isolation, continuous integration is not a question of everybody hacking on the master/current/root/main branch and inflicting their code on everyone else: it's a question of integrating changes continuously, which pulling and good support for merging makes fairly easy.
Just give it a try, eh?


text:
Q: How do I convert an Adobe Illustrator Path to a Google Maps Polygon? (v3 API) I have an illustrator file and I want to convert the numerous illustrator paths to Google maps polygons. I have done a number of searches through Google and this site, and there doesn't appear to be anything up-to-date on this topic.
I currently have a the illustrator file cut up with map-tiler and the zoom in and zoom out is working fine. I also center the map at coordinates (0.0,0.0). I know this coordinate is in the middle of the ocean, but I am not using the Google Maps library to give people directions. I just want to use it as a tool to display a custom map that is generated in Adobe Illustrator.
Any information would be much appreciated. Thanks!

A: Avenza MAPublisher is built for this task.
http://www.avenza.com/mapublisher
With MAPublisher you can export Illustrator polygons to KML which should be directly importable into Google maps.
(Disclosure, I work for Avenza)

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


I attended a very useful workshop* at the weekend, looking at working with shame. It was interesting to reflect on the profound effects shame can have on our relationships, both with ourselves, and with other people.
Carl Jung once described shame as a 'soul-eating' emotion. He was not wrong. Shame is an emotion that can be very deeply held. If repeated experiences of being shamed occur, shame can be held as an identity - in effect we believe that we are wrong for existing, as if we are somehow a mistake.
When shame impacts us this deeply, we begin to have distorted beliefs about ourselves. We may believe ourselves to be defective, unworthy, inadequte or undeserving. We question our right to have good things, or even to be here at all. Shame can cause us to lose who we are, and to become a chameleon, continually attempting to adapt ourselves to be what we believe others want us to be. Without a core sense of who we are and what we want, life can become very difficult.
Shame can underpin and contribute to other mental health conditions, fuelling depression, addictions, self-harm including eating problems and anger and violence. As shame causes us to lose our centre and our balance, it puts us at risk of disconnection and isolation. We do not dare show our true self even within our mind, let alone to be seen by others.
So where does shame come from? Often, it is what is called an attachment difficulty. If we consistently did not have our needs met as a baby, we do not have the opportunity for trust to develop, or to learn to regulate our emotions through our carers regulating us initially. At its extreme this may lead to a belief that we are unloveable, and that the world and other people are not safe. This may be compounded as we grow if we do not have clear boundaries that are consistently enforced, at the same time as our carers making sure we are emotionally OK after we make a mistake. We may then begin to believe that we are no good, in fact that we ourselves at the mistake.
It is the early roots of shame that make it a challenge to address. The experiences that set us up to be shamed may have been pre-verbal, and before our conscious memory has kicked in. This makes them harder to access in talking therapy. Fortunately, approaches working with the unconscious, including attachment focused eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing (EMDR), and self-relations therapy, give us therapeutic ways of supporting healing of these early attachment difficulties and letting go of the shame that was never really ours to hold.
If you would like to explore your experience of shame and move towards feeling whole, then get in touch.


text:
import LRUCache from 'lru-cache'

class _LRUCache {
    constructor(opts) {
        const options = Object.assign(
            {
                max: 500,
                length: function(n, key) {
                    return 1
                },
                dispose: function(key, n) {},
            },
            opts || {},
        )

        if (options.maxAge) {
            console.error(
                "[kayn] Do not use options.maxAge. It will not do anything. Rely on ttl's instead.",
            )
        }

        this.cache = new LRUCache(options)
    }

    get(args, cb) {
        const blob = this.cache.get(args.key)
        return blob ? cb(null, blob) : cb("cache key doesn't exist", null)
    }

    set(args, value) {
        this.cache.set(args.key, value, args.ttl ? args.ttl : null)
    }

    flushCache(cb) {
        this.cache.reset()
        if (typeof cb === 'function') {
            cb(null, 'OK')
        }
    }
}

export default _LRUCache

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


Please join us, as part of Architecture Festival 2011, for a drink to celebrate the launch of the modernist, a new quarterly magazine about 20th century architecture and design, from The Manchester Modernist Society.
The first edition, 'Bold', includes contributions from Jonathan Meades, Aidan Turner-Bishop, Dr Matthew Whitfield and Dr Steve Millington and covers 20th century modernist design and architecture in the North West of England, from Manchester's lost tripe restaurants, the great cooling towers of Fiddlers Ferry, to the fab 60's plans for Liverpool city centre. Copies of the modernist will be available to purchase on the night.
You will also have to opportunity to see the Manchester Modernist Society's new multimedia mapping project in action. In association with the University of Salford, the MMS have devised an on line map/archive of 20th century buildings for Greater Manchester, with the opportunity to explore and maybe add some of your own.
Image: Liverpool's Lost Future, Issue 1.


text:
HollywoodNews.com > *NEWS > Women are making progress in the film world
Mon, Sep 20 2010 | Published in *NEWS, AWARDS, COMMUNITY
Women are making progress in the film world
By Marilyn Beck and Stacy Jenel Smith
HollywoodNews.com: Earlier this year, "Hurt Locker" filmmaker Kathryn Bigelow made history as the first female to win an Oscar as Best Director — in addition to being the first so honored by the Directors Guild of America, and winning numerous other accolades.
Now, there are at least three woman-directed movies bound to be in the mix through this coming awards season: Sofia Coppola's "Somewhere" that just won top honors at the Venice Film Festival, Lisa Cholodenko's "The Kids Are All Right," and Julie Taymor's "The Tempest" starring Helen Mirren in the now-female lead role of Prospera. The latter, unveiled as the closing film (not in competition) in Venice drew a huge ovation and reviews at polar extremes — not unusal for the visionary Taymor.
So, women are making progress in the filmmaking world, right?
To read more go to BeckSmithHollywood.com.
Tags: America, American film directors, Awards Movies News Award, breaking news, directors guild of america, Entertainment, Entertainment news, Entertainment/Culture, film, helen mirren, Hollywood, hollywood news, Human Interest, Julie Taymor, kathryn bigelow, lisa cholodenko, Mass media, News Hollywood Awards, oscar, Sofia Coppola, the hurt locker, the kids are all right, The Tempest, the Venice Film Festival, Twitter Inc, Venice


text:
Friends of Magnuson Park
Sand Point Naval Air Station Historic District
Sand Point Remembered
Preservation/Buildings/Maps
Donate/ Contact/ Volunteer
Magnuson Park Exhibit Marks 96th Anniversary
of the First World Flight
ON SEPTEMBER 28, 1924 three Army Air Service pilots landed at Magnuson Park (then the Sand Point Air Field), completing a 175 day journey around the world. Called the second most important event in aviation history behind the Wright Brothers' first heavier than air flight in 1903, the First World Flight of 1924 captured the imagination of the world. The American Fliers, in planes made by Douglas Aircraft Company equipped with Boeing-made pontoons, were the first to cross the Pacific and the Atlantic by air, several years before Charles Lindbergh.
"It's an exciting adventure story! These men were flying planes made of wood and cloth and wire through uncharted air and extreme weather conditions, without parachutes or radios. They landed in 22 countries, places that had never seen an airplane before, and it was truly a global effort to keep the Fliers going. Newspapers around the world reported on every landing, every broken bone and bout of dysentery, every near miss of Arctic glacier and crocodile" says Elisa Law, Executive Director of Friends of Magnuson Park.
"People pass by the First World Flight monument outside of Magnuson Park every time they enter, most unaware of the story behind it"
As we near the centennial of this important global event in aviation, Friends of Magnuson Park wants to change that.
See the virtual exhibition in person at Mercy Magnuson Place 7101 62nd Avenue Northeast, Seattle, WA (Installation Date TBD).
Monday September 28th from 6pm-7pm we held a sneak peak on Zoom of The First World Flight exhibition.
If you missed it, check it out in the video below!
Zoom Sneak Peak First Flight Recording
Friends of Magnuson Park Historic District welcomes new Executive Director
Elisa Law holds a B.A. in Anthropology and an M.A. in Museum Studies from the
University of Washington and has been working in the arts and heritage sector of the
Puget Sound region for nearly a decade.
Prior to coming on board as the Executive Director of Friends of Magnuson Park
Historic District, Elisa served as Women's Suffrage Centennial Coordinator for the
Washington State Historical Society, managed the national photography initiative
Project 562: Changing the Way We See Native America, researched and wrote the
Unsettled~Resettled: Seattle's Hunt Hotel traveling exhibit and publication with the
Northwest Nikkei Museum, and served in Peace Corps Samoa as an educator
and village-based development worker.
WWll Plane Artifact Found
Sand Point Plane artifact identified as Lockheed PV-2 Harpoon –
Last summer when a young sailing instructor pulled up his anchor in Pontiac Bay he had a small piece of history attached. He knew he had something special and took it home where it stayed over the summer in his garage. His mother realized it might be part of NAS Seattle's history and called Sail Sandpoint on the former base who called Friends as keepers of the site history. We called City and State historic preservationists and the Navy even at the National level got involved in trying to solve the puzzle. Local divers helped too.
Diagram of Plane Part found in Lake Washington
Mess Hall Large Mural
We wanted to share this mural with you courtesy of the PBY Museum. The mural was given to the museum by the children of the artist. When Sand Point Naval Air Station was decommissioned, the mural was cut down from a wall in the mess hall. It's detail and time frame make it unique to the base history. Building 27, the Seaplane Hangar, in the mural is now Arena Sports. The ramp the PBY planes were hauled up out of Pontiac Bay is still visible near the NOAA fence and is a contributing structure in the historic district as is the Seaplane Hangar. At some point in the future it may be possible to have the mural at Sand Point. Unfortunately is in need of repair and the estimates we have are close to $75,000. Friends is committed to helping raise funds for the renovation. It is an amazing depiction of the base during WWII. If you have questions contact:
Accessions Lead
PBY Naval Air Museum
www.pbymf.org and on Facebook.
https://www.friendsofmagnusonpark.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Mural_x264.mp4
Two Artists Celebrate Sand Point Aviation History
Friends has been saddened these last 20 years that there is still so little visual recognition of the important aviation and military history of Sand Point. This year we will have two artists working to celebrate this aviation history
Elisa M. Law
Sandy Bricel Miller
Model Airplane Exhibit
This summer, one of our board members, Bob Lucas, will donate to Friends part of his large lifetime collection of model airplanes. Bob has researched and will have on display every plane that flew in or out of Sand Point. The display will be in a corner of the newly remodeled Brig and join our current displays honoring a member of the Seabees who served at Sand Point in the 1960's and a PBY pilot who was stationed at Sand Point in WWll.
Visitors Interpretive Center, Old Gas Station
Friends has been hoping to have Parks designate a building for a Visitor's Interpretative Center for 20 years. It has always been a recognized need since being turned over by the Navy in 1998. The original document identified the Old Gas Station, Building 41, as an ideal central location across from the Park office. We agree. It would be open on weekends when park staff are mostly gone and buildings with public restrooms closed. A visitor could stop to get a map, information, a cup of coffee, see a video about the park, take a nature, art or history walk or just relax. The recent increase in park use and special events on the weekends adds to the need. Friends would partner with Parks and any group within the park that would like to help raise funds for the renovation. We are currently watching while the Parks and the Tennis Center who currently hold the building in their lease, negotiate its release for public use. We plan to help with its security this summer with an art project celebrating the history of aviation on wood panels and securing the windows.
Supported by Seattle Department of Neighborhoods and
Grants from 4Culture King County
© 2020 Friends of Magnuson Park | info@friendsofmagnusonpark.org
Friends of Magnuson Park Member's Portal
Friends of Friends Contacts


See Banker for CD and IRA Rates.
These rates are subject to change at any time. The interest rate and annual percentage yield may change after account opening. A penalty may be imposed for early withdrawal. The annual percentage yield assumes interest and principal will remain on deposit until maturity. Fees could reduce the earnings on the account. For current interest rates and annual percentage yields, please contact us at 402-423-2111. The APY listed is an estimate. Actual APY will be based on specific account terms and will be disclosed at account opening. Member FDIC.


text:
Piazza del Duomo a Milano è un dipinto di Alfredo Di Romagna. Eseguito nel 1944, appartiene alle collezioni d'arte della Fondazione Cariplo.

Descrizione
Con un tocco immediato e impressionista, Di Romagna organizza questo scorcio della piazza del Duomo giocando sulla contrapposizione fra le linee di sviluppo verticali, presenti nella fascia superiore della composizione, e quelle orizzontali, presenti in quella inferiore. Notevole è la scelta di escludere dalla composizione la parte più monumentale dell'ambiente per concentrare l'attenzione sul viavai di persone e vetture di vario tipo, a dispetto del momento di massima asprezza del conflitto bellico.

Collegamenti esterni

Dipinti di autori del XX secolo
Vedute di Milano
Dipinti nelle collezioni d'arte della Fondazione Cariplo

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Situation in South Sudan's Capital Normalizes After Call for Ceasefire
© REUTERS / Stringer
Presidential spokesman Ateny Wek Ateny said that situation in South Sudan's capital Juba normalized after President Salva Kiir called for the immediate ceasefire.
© AP Photo / Mackenzie Knowles-Coursin
'Dire and Deteriorating': Fighting Threatens Full-Scale War in South Sudan
KHARTOUM (Sputnik) – The situation in South Sudan's capital Juba normalized after President Salva Kiir called for the immediate ceasefire, presidential spokesman Ateny Wek Ateny told Sputnik on Tuesday.
"The situation in the capital Juba has become stable and peaceful, all troops returned to their barracks," Ateny said.
An armed ethnic conflict erupted in South Sudan in December 2013, 1.5 years after the nation gained independence from Sudan, when Kiir accused First Vice President Riek Machar of preparing a military coup. Over a million people have fled their home amid the conflict.
In August 2015, Kiir and Machar signed a peace deal that envisaged the formation of the Transitional Government of National Unity.
Renewed fighting broke out last week and over 300 people have already lost their lives in the clashes, according to media reports. On Monday, both Kiir and Machar ordered their forces to cease fire.
Eight Civilians Killed in UN Camp in South Sudan Amid Violence Escalation
Oxfam Calls on Parties to Conflict in S Sudan to End Violence in Country
No Russian Casualties in South Sudan Clashes - Embassy in Uganda
ceasefire, Salva Kiir, South Sudan


Andy Ritchie joined his hometown club of Manchester United from school - and was to score a hat-trick against Leeds before being released from Old Trafford. He built himself a good reputation in two and a half years at Brighton before a swap deal brought him to Elland Road with Terry Connor heading in the other direction. He was always a combative player and he scored his fair share of goals, and it was a shame to see him move to Oldham in 1987. He stayed at Oldham as a player for 8 years, spent 18 months with Scarborough and then returned to Boundary Park where he became the manager.
Although he was nominally only the manager, he still found himself on the pitch in the LDV Final in 2001, coming on to the park 42 days beyond his 40th birthday after the squad had been decimated by illness. After being booted out of Oldham, Andy returned to Leeds where he is a key man in the Academy setup.
Andy Koziol says: Andy thanks for the fantastic memories at OAFC all the very very very best at Leeds Utd.
Dave Buckley (ex OAFC) says: I thought Andy was treated abysmally by Oldham Athletic whom he served so well as both a player and a manager. I have not been near Boundary Park since this ludicrous ruthless sacking. All the best at Leeds Andy - I believe the Leeds youth set up is excellent.
Nick says: Ritchie you are the king!!
Martin Beanlands says: Shared a four pack of John Smith's with Andy, on the Kings Cross to Leeds train on a Friday afternoon back in the Mid Eighties (Feb or March 1986 I think?) Andy was on his way back after failing a medical at Portsmouth, (dodgy knee) I was one of the first to find out which was exciting when I read it in the papers over the following weekend. The failing of Portsmouth to sign Andy came back to haunt Pompy very soon after our meeting, as if I remember correctly Andy scored twice down at Fratton Park as Leeds won 3 - 2. Super Leeds!


Luckily for the Raiders, it was on the same night that they chose to score a team post-season single-game high of seven goals themselves, and thus claimed Game 2 of the best-of-seven Clarence Schmalz Cup semifinal, 7-4.
It was Napanee's 14th consecutive post-season victory and gave them a 2-0 lead in the series, which resumes Sunday afternoon in Napanee at 4:30 p.m.
Ryan Casselman and Evan Foley gave Napanee a 2-0 lead before the game was a dozen minutes old, while Alliston's Ryan Sallows made it a 2-1 game later in the first period.
Following Harris's go-ahead goal 11 seconds after Brown's marker, Austin Labelle, Foley and Hinds boosted the Raiders into a 6-3 advantage by the 7:14 mark of the third. Ryan McReynolds completed the scoring for the Hornets at 16:08.
Sunday, April 7: Alliston at Napanee, 4:30 p.m.


text:
(AP) Defending champions Gebre Gebremariam of Ethiopia and Edna Kiplagat of Kenya will compete in the New York City Marathon in autumn.
The New York Road Runners announced Wednesday that Meb Keflezighi, who in 2009 became the first American to win the race since 1982, will also compete on Nov. 6.
It will be the 35-year-old Keflezighi's seventh NYC Marathon. He hopes to qualify for the marathon at the 2012 London Olympics and use the race as training ahead of the games.
Olympic speedskating gold medalist Apolo Anton Ohno will take part in his first marathon.
A record 140,000 runners applied for the NYC Marathon. The Road Runners say the 2010 event had an economic impact of $340 million.
Haile Retires, Gebre Finishes First at the ING New York City Marathon
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Arthritis is a disease characterised by the inflammation of the cartilage and lining of the body's joints. Inflammation causes redness, warmth, pain and swelling.
It is estimated that around 9 million people will seek help from their family doctor each year for arthritis related conditions. (ARC: Introduction to Arthritis November 2008). Arthritis is a major cause of foot pain because each foot has 33 joints that can become affected by the disease. The primary targets for arthritis are people over the age of 50.


While the fair has many things for the public including entertainment, vendors, food trucks, and an art center for kids, our ultimate goal of the fair is to bring resources and education to area pet owners and make an impact on pets lives. Here are the results from the previous years.
Each year we include educational components to the fair. In 2016 we had talks on dog bite prevention, pet CPR & first aid, TNR, as well as a demonstration by a dog trainer. In 2017 our talks included disaster preparation and a talk by an area groomer. In addition to our educational talks on stage we had a scavenger hunt for attendees to do. The scavenger hunt involved attendees visiting several booths where vendors would share about important pet care tips. The last piece of our educational components for 2017 was in the addition of our Montebello Pet Fair EncycloPawdia. This booklet includes pet related resources in our area as well as areas for owners to keep records of their pets information like vaccines, vet visits, and more.