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Evaluating methane inventories by isotopic analysis in the London region
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G. Zazzeri1 nAff4,
D. Lowry1,
R. E. Fisher1,
J. L. France2,
M. Lanoisellé1,
C. S. B. Grimmond ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3166-94153 &
E. G. Nisbet1
Scientific Reports volume 7, Article number: 4854 (2017) Cite this article
Atmospheric chemistry
A thorough understanding of methane sources is necessary to accomplish methane reduction targets. Urban environments, where a large variety of methane sources coexist, are one of the most complex areas to investigate. Methane sources are characterised by specific δ13C-CH4 signatures, so high precision stable isotope analysis of atmospheric methane can be used to give a better understanding of urban sources and their partition in a source mix. Diurnal measurements of methane and carbon dioxide mole fraction, and isotopic values at King's College London, enabled assessment of the isotopic signal of the source mix in central London. Surveys with a mobile measurement system in the London region were also carried out for detection of methane plumes at near ground level, in order to evaluate the spatial allocation of sources suggested by the inventories. The measured isotopic signal in central London (−45.7 ±0.5‰) was more than 2‰ higher than the isotopic value calculated using emission inventories and updated δ13C-CH4 signatures. Besides, during the mobile surveys, many gas leaks were identified that are not included in the inventories. This suggests that a revision of the source distribution given by the emission inventories is needed.
Accurate quantification of methane emissions both at global and regional scale and full understanding of methane sources are still unresolved issues. The emission estimates produced by bottom-up and top-down approaches can be highly discordant1. The evaluation of bottom-up estimates, which are based on statistics multiplied by specific emission factors, through atmospheric observations ("top-down" approach) demands enhanced measurement techniques and a well distributed network of measurement stations2. However, while many specific approaches have been developed for the estimate of total methane fluxes (e.g. refs 3,4,5,6,7), there is no established methodology that leads to a comprehensive partitioning of emissions by sources. Tracer methods based on Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) absorption spectroscopy8, flux chambers9 and mobile ground surveys10 are all used for the estimation of total emissions from a specific source area (e.g. landfill sites), but they do not discriminate between different methane production processes. Conversely, the stable isotopic analysis provides insight on the methane origin, enabling distinction between biogenic (13C depleted), thermogenic and pyrogenic methane sources (13C enriched), and their partition in a source mix11,12,13,14,15,16.
Urban environments, where a large variety of methane sources coexist, such as leaks in the natural gas distribution network, landfill sites and sewage works, are undoubtedly the most complex areas to investigate. The Greater London region, which covers ~0.6% of the UK area, produces approximately 3% of the total methane emissions in the UK according to bottom- up inventories17.
A preliminary overview of sources can be achieved thanks to the accessibility of official inventory data, which in the UK is provided by the National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory (NAEI), where datasets with estimates of the distribution of methane emissions at high resolution (1 km2) are available. Nevertheless, the spatial distribution of sources is fairly coarse and estimates are provided without an error assessment. In particular, emissions from source areas such as landfill sites and sewage works can be widely distributed, and their spatial allocation highly uncertain. An independent evaluation through atmospheric observations is therefore critical.
In this study, the isotopic analysis of the methane source mix in central London, coupled with continuous methane and carbon dioxide mole fraction measurements carried out during diurnal studies at King's College London (KCL), has permitted further understanding of the methane source mix in the London basin, integrating the analysis of the source proportion previously suggested by the studies of Lowry et al.13 and Fisher18 at Royal Holloway University of London (RHUL).
The spatial distribution of sources in the inventories has been tested for the London borough of Hounslow and the central district of Camden Town, offering an example of how local sources can be identified and, through their isotopic characterisation, carefully distinguished when they emit concurrently in the same area.
Typical δ13C-CH4 signatures and CH4 emission and isotopic maps
Typical δ13C signatures have been attributed to the major methane sources in SE England in the study of Zazzeri19, through the identification and sampling of methane emission plumes and the calculation of a source isotopic signature by Keeling plot analysis. The revised δ13C-CH4 values reflect the temporal variability of the sources, being the result of extensive measurement campaigns at many sites and at different times of the year. These δ13C-CH4 signatures were assigned to the UNECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe) source sectors used for categorising methane emissions inventories (Table 1).
Table 1 δ13C signatures of UK methane sources, based on measured values13, 18 and literature review.
Methane emissions at 1 × 1 km resolution are available for each UNECE sector (Table 1) in the National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory (NAEI). Using the isotopic values (Table 1), and computing a weighted average of δ13C-CH4 for each km2, emissions data have been converted to isotopic signatures (Fig. 1b) for comparison with the emission map (Fig. 1a). The calculated isotopic signature for each grid square is the expected isotopic signal of the emissions from that grid cell, based on the mix of sources assessed in the emission inventories.
Emission (a) and isotopic (b) map for London based on 2013 NAEI methane inventories. Emissions are provided in tonne/year/km2 (~3.2 · 10−11 kg/s/m2). The star indicates Egham, where the Royal Holloway University of London is located. King's College London (KCL) and the borough of Hounslow are indicated. Most of the hotspots are associated with 13C-depleted areas. The large area affected by high emissions on the east side of the London region includes biogenic methane sources, such as landfill sites and waste-water treatment plants. The map was generated using ArcMap 10.2.
Diurnal Studies in London
Collection of air samples for detailed diurnal studies was carried out through an automatic sampler (see supplementary material) installed on the rooftop at the Strand Campus of KCL (51°30′43″ N, 0°07′00″ W), when a large overnight build-up in mole fraction was expected (i.e. anticyclonic weather conditions over the London basin). The automatic sampler was connected to an air inlet placed at 7 metres above roof height and 48.6 m above ground level on a triangular tower (Aluma T45-H), and allowed up to 20 Tedlar or Flexfoil bags to be filled. The sampling time was arranged to cover a full 24 hours (~1 sample every 72 min), including the late-afternoon rush hour and the early morning mole fractions build-up (see supplementary material for the time interval and filling time setting).
The Strand Campus is located in the borough of Westminster (Fig. 1), characterised by heavy traffic in all directions, and a dense cover of buildings, except to the south where the River Thames is situated20, 21. A Picarro G2301 cavity ringdown spectrometer (CRDS) was connected to the inlet on the tower to measure continuous CH4 and CO2 mole fractions. CH4 and CO2 mole fractions of the samples collected were measured in the RHUL laboratory using a Picarro G1301 CRDS, calibrated against NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) WMO-2004A and WMO-X2007 reference scales respectively. Comparison between the continuous measurements performed by the Picarro G2301 at KCL and the laboratory measurements of the sampled bags confirmed the consistency between the mole fractions measured by the two instruments.
Diurnal studies were conducted in both summer and winter (when the Picarro instrument was available) to identify the isotopic variability of methane emissions. CH4 and CO2 continuous trends measured in central London were compared with those measured in Egham, located 32 km WSW from the centre of London (Fig. 1), and receiving air masses from the London region when easterly winds occur. Wind speed and direction averaged every 30 minutes were measured with a weather station (Vaisala WXT520) fitted to the air-sampling tower.
CH4 isotopic analysis
δ13C isotopic values of samples collected were measured by CF GC-IRMS (Continuous Flow Gas Chromatography Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry) in per mil on the V-PDB scale to high precision (0.05‰)14 in the RHUL greenhouse gas laboratory. The source isotopic signature was calculated by Keeling plot analysis, which given a constant background, assumes that the source isotopic value is defined by the intercept of the regression line that correlates the isotopic measurements (y values) with the associated inverse of mole fractions (x values)22. The error on the intercept was calculated by the BCES (Bivariate Correlated Errors and intrinsic Scatter) estimator23, a statistical procedure that accommodates errors in both variables and accounts for the variability of the error magnitude through the measurements. The intercept of the Keeling plot based on samples collected during the methane build-up observed in diurnal studies represents the δ13C signature of emissions from a methane source or mixture of sources responsible for the high mole fraction levels.
To calculate one source isotopic signature from all diurnal studies a Miller-Tans plot24 was used. This allows for variable background mole fraction using the following:
$$\delta {C}_{a}-{\delta }_{bg}{C}_{bg}={\delta }_{s}({C}_{a}-{C}_{bg})$$
where a represents the atmosphere, bg the background and s the source. C and δ are the mole fraction and isotopic ratio, respectively. The data are plotted so δs is the slope of the regression line representing the flux-weighted average of sources.
Mobile Measurements
Multiple surveys using the Picarro mobile system (described by Zazzeri et al.16) in central London and the London borough of Hounslow were conducted to detect methane plumes at near ground level, evaluate the spatial allocation of sources suggested by the inventories and verify the occurrence of those methane sources identified through diurnal studies in central London. The system has a mobile Picarro G2301 CRDS in a vehicle for continuous CH4 and CO2 measurements, with an air inlet and a GPS receiver on the vehicle roof (1.7 m). Mole fractions are displayed in real time, allowing identification of methane plumes during the survey. Air samples for isotopic analysis are collected whenever a broad and consistent plume is detected, by stopping the vehicle and using a diaphragm pump connected to a second air inlet to fill a 3 L Tedlar bag.
Comparison between the weighted δ13C isotopic value calculated with emission inventories, using the typical isotopic signatures assigned to methane source categories, and the isotopic signal measured in central London by Keeling plot analysis, gives insight into the relative importance of methane sources in that area and on the accuracy of the source distribution provided by inventories. Diurnal studies in central London allowed measurement of the mean atmospheric isotopic signal, and analysis of the wind pattern permits identification of the major emission wind sectors.
The London isotopic source mix: diurnal studies
Continuous CH4 and CO2 mole fractions were measured from the roof of KCL, in central London (Fig. 1), from 10 December 2013 to 31 January 2014 and from 24 July to 11 August 2014. Herein the diurnal study of 20th to 21st January 2014 is presented, when methane emissions were trapped overnight in the lower boundary layer under typical winter high-pressure conditions. Mole fractions peaked at 3.5 ppm during the night, with a second peak of 2.8 ppm at 10 a.m. on the 21st January (Fig. 2a). After 12 p.m. the wind speed increased and the boundary layer grew, dissipating emissions and leading to the drop in CH4 mole fractions close to background value of 2 ppm (Fig. 2c).
Observations at KCL roof on the 20th and 21st January 2014: (a) CH4 and CO2 mole fractions profiles (b) Keeling plots based on the samples collected during the 20th and the early morning of the 21st January 2014 (white markers), during the morning of the 21st January 2014 (black markers), and background (grey marker) with the order of sampling (dotted line). (c) Wind direction (grey line), wind speed (line, inset graph) and CH4 mole fractions (black line). Time interval of those samples that are thought to be associated with a biogenic CH4 source indicated by grey shading.
While the strong correlation between CO2 and CH4 (Fig. 2a) gives evidence that boundary layer dynamics are driving the daily trend in mole fractions, the isotopic analysis of samples collected allowed distinction of the methane sources contributing to the CH4 build-up.
A 13C enriched signature of −40.4 ±1.2‰ for air sampled between 2 p.m. and 7 a.m. suggests a mainly fossil CH4 contribution to CH4 emissions (Figure 2b). Conversely, the Keeling plot based on the 4 samples collected during the morning build-up on the 21st and the background value (i.e. the lowest mole fraction recorded during the diurnal study), gives a source signature of −50.5 ±2.6‰. According to the wind direction, the methane plume detected in the morning (from 9 a.m. to 11 a.m.) arrived from SSE of KCL (see Fig. 2c).
The measurement of a 13C-enriched isotopic signal during the nocturnal build-up and the detection of a biogenic source in the morning before dissipation of the overnight methane build-up following air mixing, was a recurrent pattern (Table 2). The natural gas usage is not constant throughout the day, but peaks in in the early morning (6 to 8 a.m.) and evening (5 to 9 p.m.), when building heating and hot water demands are highest25. Emissions derived from gas usage and traffic during evening rush hours are trapped under the nocturnal inversion, leading to an overall 13C-enriched signature based on samples collected overnight. The morning biogenic source might be related either to methane emissions from the river, or a very local source (e.g. toilet/sewage vent on the roof) that emits in the morning.
Table 2 δ13C source signatures calculated with the Keeling plot analysis for each diurnal study.
Figure 3 highlights how the SE wind sector regularly coincides with biogenic methane emissions. All calculated δ13C-CH4 source signatures for samples collected during these events are divided by wind direction. In this analysis, the source signature is the intercept of a 2-point Keeling plot calculated for samples with and without the source increment. This analysis will not give an accurate calculation of the source signature for the inferred biogenic source, but it indicates the provenance direction of the most 13C-depleted methane plumes. Conversely the NE sector shows the largest proportion of 13C-enriched source signatures.
δ13C source signature rose for the KCL site for all diurnal campaigns between 2nd December 2013 and 8th August 2014, plotted using OpenAir software. The plot includes all episodes with maximum methane mole fractions at least 100 ppb higher than the background, associated with recorded wind directions (wind speed >0 m s−1). Map data: Google, DigitalGlobe.
The source signature calculated using a Miller-Tans plot based on all the isotopic values measured and the background value for each diurnal period (Fig. 4) is −45.7 ±0.5‰. This value, being isotopically heavier than the background (~−47‰), confirms the primacy of fossil methane emissions in the overall methane budget in central London, an outcome shared by several studies carried out in other big conurbations26,27,28.
Miller-Tans plot based on all the isotopic values measured and the background value for each diurnal.
Due to the arrangement of buildings surrounding KCL, some very local emissions may interfere with the measurement of surface sources29 and occasional CH4 mole fraction peaks may occur. Björkegren et al.21 identified rooftop mechanical ventilation vents and gas heating venting. However, single 13C-enriched emission episodes characteristic of combustion (δ13C-CH4 > −36‰) have not been detected. Furthermore, the Keeling plot intercepts in Table 2 are calculated by considering the overall nocturnal build-up and thus are representative of the mixture of emissions accumulated overnight.
Differences in methane emission trends between an urban and peri-urban area can be interpreted using CH4 diurnal profiles that use the median values of mole fractions for each hour of the day (Fig. 5) to minimise the influence of residual local CH4 plumes, as Rigby et al.30 did with CO2 records for Egham and central London. Continuous mole fraction measurements from KCL and Egham during the diurnal study periods were included in the calculation. Median values of mole fractions recorded at KCL are consistently higher and show a stronger over-night build-up. The median mole fraction at 8 a.m. in London during winter represents the morning build-up that was detected during most of the diurnal studies. During winter the morning reduction in mole fractions occurs later than in summer by 2 hours, as the shorter daylength (reducing surface heating) delays the growth of the boundary layer. Summer diurnal cycles, for the two weeks the Picarro instrument was installed in central London, are more pronounced, reflecting a stronger intensity of the atmospheric turbulence due to a higher surface warming20, 29. The difference in CH4 mole fractions between the two measurement stations is narrowed, and the diurnal cycles exhibit similar behaviour. Furthermore, the CH4 mole fractions characterising the nocturnal build-up in Egham (0–4 a.m.) approach the values recorded in London and are higher than in winter, reflecting enhanced methane emissions perhaps from biological activity such as landfill sites in the region of the Egham station.
Median hourly diurnal cycle mole fractions in winter (2nd December 2013 to 31st Jan 2014) and summer (24th July 2014 to 6th August 2014) at KCL and Egham. Shading indicates the interquartile range.
The River Thames: a methane source?
The consistency of the morning biogenic signature suggested potential emissions from a sewer vent located in proximity to the inlet. A survey with the Picarro mobile system16 conducted at low tide in central London on 20th March 2015 between 08:00 and 09:00 UTC (Fig. 6) allowed variations of methane mole fractions along the river banks to be assessed. High methane mole fractions were observed on the eastern ramp of Westminster Bridge, but the Keeling plot intercept of −36.5 ±2.3‰ calculated with the two collected samples and the background, reveals the occurrence of a natural gas leak.
Methane mole fractions (ppm) measured in central London on 20th March 2015 between 8 and 9 a.m. The map was generated using ArcMap 10.2. Base map source: Esri, DigitalGlobe, GeoEye, i-cubed, Earthstar Geographics, CNES/Airbus DS, USDA, USGS, AEX, Getmapping, Aerogrid, IGN, IGP, swisstopo, and the GIS User Community. British National Coordinate System shown.
During the survey in March 2015 no other methane plume was intercepted. The very dry conditions characterising that day and the whole previous week might explain the absence of a biogenic signal.
Evaluation of local inventories: Camden Town and the London Borough of Hounslow
A focus on a restricted area puts emphasis on local emissions and their relative isotopic characterisation. The 4 km2 in the emission map (Fig. 1, north of KCL) with high inventory methane emissions from the waste sector, are in the London Borough of Camden. The area was surveyed using the Picarro mobile system on the nights of 14th and 27th April 2016. Figure 7 shows the methane mole fraction excess over the background measured during both surveys. Surveys were conducted overnight to measure nocturnal methane build-up and avoid daytime traffic. Unfortunately, road works and closures restricted access, preventing the vehicle stopping for samples. The one sample collected was near a canal water source (black arrow in Fig. 7). The isotopic analysis revealed a biogenic source signature of −58.3‰. This proves the stagnant canal, with enhanced biological activity and anaerobic conditions, is one of the methane sources in central London.
CH4 mole fraction excess over the background measured overnight on 14th and 27th April with the Picarro mobile system in the Borough of Camden. The black arrow indicates location of the sample collected. The map was generated using ArcMap 10.2. Base map source: Esri, HERE, DeLorme, Itermap, increment Corp., GEBCO, USGS, FAO, NPS, NRCAN, GeoBase, IGN, Kadaster NL, Ordinance Survey, Esri Japan, METI, Esri China (Hong Kong), swisstopo, MapmyIndia, OpenstreetMap contributors, and the GIS User Community.
Of the methane emissions in the inventory for the surveyed area, 95% are categorised as "waste" and 0.8% as "nature" emissions17. Methane emissions from the canal could be considered in both categories, but a detailed list of methane sources is not provided in the inventories, and the 95% of emissions from the waste sector remains unjustified given the absence of sewage works and landfill sites in that area, and the absence of a wide methane plume typical of a larger source.
Methane spikes over very short time-intervals (10 s) were recorded mainly next to intersections, where main gas pipes are buried and natural gas leaks are most likely to occur.
The spatial allocation of sources given by 2013 emission inventories for the Borough of Hounslow (Fig. 1) was tested through multiple daytime (10:00 to 16:00 local summer time to ensure inversion height does not influence emissions distribution) surveys with the Picarro mobile system in 2014 and 2015. Subsequent isotopic analysis of samples collected downwind of observed methane plumes revealed the methane provenance.
The 2013 inventory emission map for Hounslow (Fig. 8a) has the Mogden sewage works evident (red square). The methane emissions for this have been isotopically characterised by Zazzeri19 to have an average value of −53 ±3‰. The isotopic map, created using the same method as Fig. 1, shows the correlation between methane emission hotspots and 13C depleted areas, as methane is expected to emit from solid waste disposal and water treatment works. The half green square at south of the borough corresponds to Kempton Park water treatment works (Fig. 8b), whereas the one on the west side includes a cemetery, gravel pit and city farm, considered in the inventories as emitting areas within the waste sector.
Map of the London borough of Hounslow (a) 2013 NAEI emission inventories (b) isotopic values calculated from 2013 emission inventories (c) values of mole fraction excess relative to the methane baseline in ppb, using measurements from four mobile surveys. The map was generated using ArcMap 10.2. Base map source: Sources: Esri, HERE, DeLorme, Intermap, increment P Corp., GEBCO, USGS, FAO, NPS, NRCAN, GeoBase, IGN, Kadaster NL, Ordnance Survey, Esri Japan, METI, Esri China (Hon Kong), swisstopo, MapmyIndia, OpenStreetMap contributors, and the GIS User Community.
The four surveys, carried out in 2014 from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m., during well mixed atmosphere conditions and a consistent wind direction and speed, allowed coverage of the entire borough with a high spatial resolution. Differences between methane mole fractions measured and the background value (mean of the lowest 0.01% of CH4 mole fractions) recorded each day of survey were averaged for each km2 (Fig. 8c).
The emission map based on inventories and the one based on excess over background allow comparison of source locations. High mole fraction levels were detected next to Mogden sewage works (coordinate 175000 and 515000 in Fig. 8c), confirming this as significant methane source. However, most methane emissions across the borough were in the form of narrow spikes on main roads, suggesting close proximity to gas leaks, with 11 peaks exceeding the background mole fractions by more than 2.5 ppm detected over 260 km (155 miles) of mostly residential roads, a lower ratio per mile than that observed by Phillips et al.15 in Boston, U.S.A. (3356 leaks in 785 miles).
The hotspot on the east side of the borough (Fig. 8c) is caused by a single gas leak that has been detected during the surveys and does not correspond to a high emission area in the inventory emissions map. Indeed, the localisation of gas leaks is not closely linked to population distribution as in the inventories. In reality their location is difficult to predict, making their emission estimates highly uncertain.
Revised δ13C signatures of methane sources in the London region were used to evaluate the source apportionment and spatial allocation made by inventories. Diurnal measurements of methane mole fraction and 13C isotopic values on the roof of KCL enabled assessment of the isotopic signal of the source mix in central London, particularly during overnight methane build-up episodes.
The winter source signature recorded during the afternoon and the nocturnal build-up ranges from −40.7 ±0.3‰ to −36.8 ±2.2‰, whereas during summer it spans values between −44.2 ±2.0‰ and −39.7 ±1.4‰. The enhanced photoreaction with hydroxyl radicals in summer, which represents the main sink, and exerts a fractionation effect on methane of −3.9 ±0.4‰31, would favour a 13C-enrichment of atmospheric methane. The more 13C-depleted values recorded in summer suggest instead that higher temperatures might trigger the CH4 production from urban biogenic sources (e.g. waste water) and/or the usage of fossil methane is reduced. Indeed, the domestic energy consumption (boilers) in central London varies with time of the year21, 32, 33, reaching maximum levels over the end of the year, and it could partially explain the annual shift in the isotopic signal. For instance, new heaters emit prior to ignition a pulse of methane that significantly contributes to the total methane budget when the heating demand is boosted, and gas leaks may increase due to the overpressure on the natural gas distribution system. Fuller et al.34 showed evidence of wood burning in London as secondary heating during winter, which also would lead to 13C-enriched emissions of uncombusted methane. The seasonality of methane emissions caused by variation of the source strength is supported by the study of methane fluxes in central London by Helfter et al.7.
Diurnal studies at the RHUL Earth Science Department in Egham were performed in the studies of Lowry et al.13 and Fisher18. An isotopic signature of −49.0 to −48.4‰ was recorded for the overall Greater London source mix (area within the orbital motorway), calculated to represent ~20% of methane emissions originating from gas leaks and the rest mainly from waste processing during the 1996–98 period, with δ13C-CH4 calculated as −52‰ for landfills and −34‰ natural gas emissions. This had changed to a mean δ13C source signature of −50.1 ±0.7‰ in 2004 for the London sector (NE to ESE)18, again indicating a large contribution of landfill emissions but with a more 13C-depleted signature as in-cell gas extraction became the norm – the methane produced in the landfill site and escaping from the surface does not undergo the 13C-enrichment associated with partial oxidation through the top-soil. While the overall regional source mix from the London basin was measured during these campaigns in Egham (including many now closed landfill sites in the west London periphery), the main contribution to methane emissions detected at the KCL station might be very local, limited to the London borough of Westminster. Kotthaus and Grimmond35 calculated a footprint of ~300–1000 m radius for the KCL tower, using an analytical footprint model based on eddy covariance measurements of fluxes at 13 m above the roof top (a higher level than the inlet used for our measurements). Detection of local fossil fuel plumes in central London might explain measurement of 13C-enriched values for the source mix, as biogenic methane emissions are probably sourced further afield in the London region (see Fig. 1).
Comparison between measured isotopic signal (−45.7 ±0.5‰) and the weighted isotopic value calculated for a footprint area of 1 km2 using emission inventories and updated δ13C signatures (−48‰), demonstrates how the source apportionment suggested by the inventories (53% of emissions from the waste sector and 29% of natural gas) is inconsistent with the predominance of fossil methane resulting from our measurements. Similarly, in Los Angeles, leakages of fossil fuel (e.g. natural gas pipelines, oil refineries and power plants) are identified as major source of methane, while emissions from landfill sites and wastewater treatments do not largely affect methane mole fractions28. Levin et al.12, by comparing the source apportionment of emission inventories with the source partition derived from a 6-year δ13C-CH4 record, came to the conclusion that CORINAIR90 inventories overestimated emissions from waste management, supported by the fact that the emission factors used for the bottom-up calculation of landfill emissions in Germany were the highest out of all European countries. Therefore, it is commonly stated that inventories might overestimate emissions from the waste sector.
In central London potential biogenic methane emissions cannot be disregarded, but they are most likely coming from the river and canals. A signal from a putative biogenic source has been identified in the KCL record from the SSE direction of the River Thames, related either to a toilet/sewage vent on the roof or the river itself (e.g. a storm relief drain), given that some diurnal studies in winter were carried out after heavy rain periods. Sewage plants in London, which still partly rely on the old collecting system, allow excess flows during heavy rain episodes to be discharged directly into water courses, creating suitable conditions for the anaerobic production of CH4 36. Even though methane sources in river waters are not well established, the presence of elevated dissolved methane in rivers has been proven37, 38, with concentrations one or two orders higher than open ocean. In particular, Middelburg et al.39, in a study of methane distribution in tidal estuaries in Europe, observed that Thames estuary has one of the highest riverine methane concentrations. However, implications for the atmospheric methane budget are not clear, given that air-water exchange coefficients in rivers and the methane flow into the atmosphere are calculated following disparate approaches40, 41. Emissions from the Thames need further investigation, and a continuous high-precision isotopic record in central London would definitely provide insight into the interpretation of the urban source mix.
Mobile surveys did not always confirm the methane source emission distribution suggested by the inventories. Isotopic maps developed by converting 1 km2 emission estimates to isotopic values, show whether emissions hotspots in the inventories are related to biogenic methane (i.e. from agricultural and waste sector) or fossil fuel sources (i.e. gas leaks and combustion sources). While the expected methane emissions from sewage works were identified both by inventory location and isotopes, most methane peaks were associated with gas leaks that are incorrectly spatially disaggregated, and possibly underestimated in the inventories.
By surveying Camden, one of the suggested methane hotspots in central London, methane emissions from the canal were detected, but these are inconsistent with the 95% of waste emissions suggested for that area.
In conclusion, even though only a qualitative evaluation of inventories has been achieved, since a quantitative evaluation of inventories can be obtained only through flux measurements or atmospheric inversion modelling using mole fraction measurements42, this study shows how methane emissions are spatially not well understood and relative proportions by source type not well constrained. The NAEI emission maps are used to support a variety of Government policy works at national scale, in particular as input for air pollution modelling studies. The source distribution is developed using a set of statistics for a specific sector (e.g. energy use, industrial production and employment data, housing and population data) and, as demonstrated in this study, can be highly inaccurate. Therefore, high precision stable isotope analysis of atmospheric methane measurements can be used to give a better understanding of urban and peri-urban sources, necessary for the accomplishment of methane reduction targets.
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Lowry, D., Holmes, C.W., Rata, N.D., O'Brien, P. & Nisbet, E.G. London methane emissions: Use of diurnal changes in concentration and δ13C to identify urban sources and verify inventories. J Geophys Res-Atmos 106, p. 7427–7448 (2001).
Fisher, R., Lowry, D., Wilkin, O., Sriskantharajah, S. & Nisbet, E. G. High-precision, automated stable isotope analysis of atmospheric methane and carbon dioxide using continuous-flow isotope-ratio mass spectrometry. Rapid Commun Mass Sp. 20, 200–208 (2006).
Phillips, N. G. et al. Mapping urban pipeline leaks: Methane leaks across Boston. Environ Pollut. 173, 1–4 (2013).
Zazzeri, G. et al. Plume mapping and isotopic characterisation of anthropogenic methane sources. Atmos Environ. 110, 151–162 (2015).
National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory (NAEI), http://naei.defra.gov.uk/ (date of access 16/08/2016).
Fisher, R. E. Development and applications of continuous-flow gas chromatography isotope ratio mass spectrometry for atmospheric methane and carbon dioxide studies, PhD thesis, Royal Holloway, University of London, p. 369 (2007).
Zazzeri, G. Methane emissions in the UK: deciphering regional sources with mobile measurements and isotopic characterisation, PhD thesis, Royal Holloway, University of London, p. 264 (2016).
Kotthaus, S. & Grimmond, C. S. B. Energy exchange in a dense urban environment–Part I: Temporal variability of long-term observations in central London. Urban Climate 10, 261–280 (2014).
Björkegren, A., Grimmond, C., Kotthaus, S. & Malamud, B. CO2 emission estimation in the urban environment: Measurement of the CO2 storage term. Atmos Environ. 122, 775–790 (2015).
Pataki, D. E., Bowling, D. R. & Ehleringer, J. R. Seasonal cycle of carbon dioxide and its isotopic composition in an urban atmosphere: Anthropogenic and biogenic effects. J Geophys Res-Atmos 108, D23 (2003).
Akritas, M. G. & Bershady, M. A. Linear regression for astronomical data with measurement errors and intrinsic scatter. Astrophysical J 470, 706–714 (1996).
Miller, J. B. & Tans, P. P. Calculating isotopic fractionation from atmospheric measurements at various scales. Tellus B. 55(2), 207–214 (2003).
Sansom, R. Personal communication with Robert Sansom of Imperial College London. from: the impact of future heat demand pathways on the economics of low carbon heating systems. BIEE—9th Academic Conference 2012, Oxford (2013).
Moriizumi, J., Nagamine, K., Iida, T. & Ikebe, Y. Carbon isotopic analysis of atmospheric methane in urban and suburban areas: fossil and non-fossil methane from local sources. Atmos Environ. 32, 2947–2955 (1998).
Vinogradova, A. et al. Temporal variations in carbon dioxide and methane concentrations under urban conditions: Izvestiya. Atmos Ocean Phys. 43, 599–611 (2007).
Townsend‐Small, A., Tyler, S. C., Pataki, D. E., Xu, X. & Christensen, L. E. Isotopic measurements of atmospheric methane in Los Angeles, California, USA: Influence of "fugitive" fossil fuel emissions. J Geophys Res-Atmos. 117(D7) (2012).
Kotthaus, S. & Grimmond, C. S. B. Identification of Micro-scale Anthropogenic CO2, heat and moisture sources–Processing eddy covariance fluxes for a dense urban environment. Atmos Environ. 57, 301–316 (2012).
Rigby, M., Toumi, R., Fisher, R., Lowry, D. & Nisbet, E. G. First continuous measurements of CO 2 mixing ratio in central London using a compact diffusion probe. Atmos Environ. 42(39), 8943–8953 (2008).
Saueressig, G. et al. Carbon 13 and D kinetic isotope effects in the reactions of CH4 with O (1 D) and OH: new laboratory measurements and their implications for the isotopic composition of stratospheric methane. J Geophys Res-Atmos. 106(D19), 23127–23138 (2001).
Department of Energy & Climate Change, Energy Trends March 2016, URN 16D/79A, https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/524695/Energy_Trends_March_2016.pdf (date of access: 9/05/2017).
Ward, H. C. et al. Effects of urban density on carbon dioxide exchanges: Observations of dense urban, suburban and woodland areas of southern England. Environ Pollut. 198, 186–200 (2015).
Fuller, G. W., Tremper, A. H., Baker, T. D., Yttri, K. E. & Butterfield, D. Contribution of wood burning to PM 10 in London. Atmos Environ. 87, 87–94 (2014).
Kotthaus, S. & Grimmond, C. S. B. Energy exchange in a dense urban environment–Part II: Impact of spatial heterogeneity of the surface. Urban Climate 10, 281–307 (2014).
Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs, Review of the Thames Tideway Tunnel, https://www.nao.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Review-of-the-Thames-Tideway-Tunnel.pdf (date of access: 9/05/2017).
Sansone, F. J., Holmes, M. E. & Popp, B. N. Methane stable isotopic ratios and concentrations as indicators of methane dynamics in estuaries. Global Biogeochem Cy. 13, 463–474 (1999).
Middelburg, J. J. et al. Methane distribution in European tidal estuaries. Biogeochemistry. 59, 95–119 (2002).
Scranton, M. I. & McShane, K. Methane fluxes in the southern North Sea: the role of European rivers. Cont Shelf Res. 11, 37–52 (1991).
Marino, R. & Howarth, R. W. Atmospheric oxygen exchange in the Hudson River: Dome measurements and comparison with other natural waters. Estuaries. 16(3), 433–445 (1993).
Frankignoulle, M., Bourge, I. & Wollast, R. Atmospheric CO2 fluxes in a highly polluted estuary (the Scheldt). Limnol Oceanogr. 2, 365–369 (1996).
Bergamaschi, P. et al. Top-down estimates of European CH4 and N2O emissions based on four different inverse models. Atmos Chem Phys. 15(2), 715–736 (2015).
Dr. Giulia Zazzeri's work is part of her doctoral research project that has been funded by a Crossland scholarship and a contribution from the Department of Earth Sciences of Royal Holloway University of London from 2011 to 2014. We thank Dr. Alex Björkegren, Dr Simone Kotthaus, who kindly supported us for the setting of the Picarro G1301 CRDS and KCL Estates for access to the top-roof. Meteorological data were provided by Urban Meteorology Group, Department of Meteorology, University of Reading. The tower is supported by NERC ClearfLo, EU BRIDGE, H2020 UrbanFluxes, EU emBRACE, NERC/Belmont TRUC. The authors gratefully acknowledge Alex Etchells and Dave Blomfield of UEA for the development of the software and electronic controls for the automatic sampler. We acknowledge © Crown 2017 copyright Defra & BEIS via naei.defra.gov.uk, licenced under the Open Government Licence (OGL), for methane emission inventory data.
G. Zazzeri
Present address: Imperial College London, Kensington, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
Royal Holloway University of London, Egham Hill, Egham, UK, TW20 0EX, United Kingdom
G. Zazzeri, D. Lowry, R. E. Fisher, M. Lanoisellé & E. G. Nisbet
University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, Norfolk, NR4 7TJ, UK
J. L. France
University of Reading, Reading, RG6 6BB, UK
D. Lowry
R. E. Fisher
M. Lanoisellé
E. G. Nisbet
G.Z. wrote the main manuscript text, prepared the figures and did the laboratory analyses. She conceived and conducted the experiments together with D.L., R.E.F., J.L.F.; E.G.N. contributed to supervision of the experiments and data analysis; M.L. contributed to the laboratory analyses; C.S.B.G. provided meteorological data and contributed to the interpretation of results. All authors reviewed the manuscript.
Correspondence to G. Zazzeri or E. G. Nisbet.
Supplementary information.
Zazzeri, G., Lowry, D., Fisher, R.E. et al. Evaluating methane inventories by isotopic analysis in the London region. Sci Rep 7, 4854 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-04802-6
Fenjuan Wang
Shamil Maksyutov
Tsuneo Matsunaga
Scientific Reports (2022)


Welcome to Booth 19, we're a boutique photo booth company who have taken the concept of a party booth and restyled it into something a little different. Our carefully curated hire package has been designed for events that care about the finer details, we place huge emphasis on providing a booth setup that earns compliments at every event we attend. If you're looking for a booth that both looks the part and delivers stunning Hi-Res photographs, take a look around our site and see for yourself what makes our service so unique.


On Sunday I had a mini retreat. Members of our church were leading the services and it gave me the opportunity to have some time just with me and Jesus. It was a bit unorthodox. My plan was to drive out of Colchester and find somewhere quiet to sit, read, contemplate and pray. But everywhere I went there were people. It was a lovely sunny day and the roads were full of cyclists, Sunday drivers and people who had blown the cobwebs off their convertible cars. The places where I thought I would stop were already occupied.
So in the end I spent some of the day just driving, appreciating God's countryside, and thinking. Eventually I found myself overseas. Well, on Mersea Island anyway. I found a quietish car park and settled down to read and pray. I started to read some of the sermons that Charles H Spurgeon had preached around the Communion table (the book is called 'Till He Come').
I found myself captivated by that, and Spurgeon's reflections on that one verse were uplifting, inspiring, encouraging and challenging. I won't rehearse them all here because I am still contemplating them for myself, but think for a moment about what the Psalmist wrote.
What does 'the shelter (or secret place) of the Most High' mean?
What does it mean to abide (rest) in the shadow of the Almighty?
There's so much in these words but surely as a minimum they indicate a close proximity to God. You can't be in his shadow if you are a long way away. You can't be sheltered by him if you are distant from him.


A newcomer to CS5, Flash Catalyst promises to make interactive designers out of all of us. An excited Paul Wyatt takes it for a quick spin.
There's been a lot of huff and puff about Adobe Catalyst across the web. It's a big boast from Adobe which says this new bit of kit can empower graphic designers with the power to create an interactive project without having to write a single line of code.
Having been a Flash user for the last ten years, my first half hour in Catalyst had me gaping at the screen like a 12 year old who'd just been given a red bike for Christmas. Apart from the promotional blurbs for the product I'd read no tutorials or guides and just dived in. My expectations were quite high. What I wanted to do was take a visual scamp of a project - which I'd made in Photoshop - bring it into Catalyst and make an interactive prototype out of it. I then wanted to send the client this instead of just a flat jpeg visual. Now that's a big ask. However within 30 minutes I'm well on my way to doing just that.
The real power behind Catalyst is in components and the intuitive menus for making content interactive. The interface is simple to use without feeling as if it's been dumbed down like a Fisher Price version of Flash Professional. This is a powerful bit of kit but without the slog of a steep learning curve.
Within minutes I've got my Photoshop artwork into catalyst. Once it's imported I can use the layers panel and selection tool to work on the layers. When my artwork is selected a dark grey box appears. This is called the "Head-up Display" (HUD). This is context sensitive and throws me different options based on my selection. It's automatically thinking I want to change my artwork to a component - which fortunately I do!
I'm soon using components to make my artworked buttons come alive and I've added a rather nifty scrollbar to my design, and I have full control over the way it looks and functions. If I need to tweak my artwork I can select it and edit it back in Photoshop at any time. While I'm adding all this interactivity, code is being written in the background. Blimey, I feel like a coding genius. This helps me focus on the job at hand, using Catalyst and my own creativity to bring my static design to vibrant interactive life.


text:
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Wednesday Night
A Family Tree To Remember
October 28, 2018 Speaker: Eric Naus Series: Slaves to Sons
Passage: Exodus 6:14–27
Community Group Questions: Exodus 6:13-27 - "A Family Tree to Remember"
Printing Instructions: To print these discussion questions for use in your Community Group or other study, first highlight the text, then right click and select "print" from the dropdown menu that appears.
Read Exodus 6:13-27 aloud as a group and work through the following questions together:
Background: The Bible contains several "family trees," that is, genealogies that list the family connections between various people in the biblical storyline. Exodus contains just one important family tree that emphasizes the importance of Aaron's priestly line in Israel. Turn to the attached chart, which highlights the genealogy's emphasis on the priesthood. Note the focus on Levi (priests were to come exclusively through the tribe of Levi). Notice also that though Moses had sons, only Aaron's four sons are listed (they would become the first four priests in Israel, together with their father). Notice as well that the furthest generation down lists one man, Phinehas, through whom the "high priestly line" would come.
This genealogy is meant to validate Aaron's priestly line. The future priests would serve in the Tabernacle of God, the tent where God would dwell among the people in the camp. The priests would assist the people in offering animal sacrifices to God, they would perform the required rituals inside the tabernacle, and once a year the high priest would sprinkle sacrificial blood inside the holy of holies to atone for the people's sin. In short, the priests were intermediaries between a holy God, and a sinful people. They were a "go-between" to make a way for a harmonious relationship to exist between God and his people. In your opinion, what lessons about God and man were the people of Israel supposed to be learning year after year as they watched the work of the priesthood? Which of these lessons are applicable to us today? How so?
The genealogy also shows us some examples of extreme priestly failure. Notice that Aaron's sons Nadab and Abihu had no sons. Read their story in Leviticus 10:1-3. What sober lesson was God illustrating through their failure? Korah is another name that the genealogy draws attention to. Notice that he was a "cousin" of Aaron, and his sons were "on the same level" as the sons of Aaron. At some point, Korah became jealous of Aaron's priestly role, and challenged his authority. Read his story in Numbers 16:1-35. What lesson was God illustrating in punishing Korah and those who rebelled with him? What do we learn about the nature of human priesthood through these stories of failure?
Next, we see some tremendous pictures of God's ultimate goal of sending Jesus as the Greatest High Priest. Notice that Aaron's wife Elisheba has a brother named Nahshon and a father named Amminadab. These men are from the tribe of Judah, and they are both mentioned in the genealogies of Jesus in Matthew 1 and Luke 3! Turn to those passages and see if you can locate these men's names. Now, take a look at the second attachment which shows the connection visually. This is one of those cases where, in the providence of God, we see the "kingly line" of Judah touching briefly with the "priestly line" of Levi. How does this connection point us to Jesus?
Notice, finally, the name Phinehas. Read his story in Numbers 25:1-13. How does Phinehas in his passion for God, his sacrificial act, and his establishment of a "covenant of peace" foreshadow Jesus? In what ways is Jesus even greater than Phinehas?
Human priests, in both their successes and failures, point us to the Great High Priest, Jesus Christ, whom God intended ultimately to send for us. Read two famous passages in the book of Hebrews that speak of Jesus' High Priestly role: Hebrews 4:14-16 and Hebrews 10:19-25. As a group, make a list of the things that Jesus provides us as believers in his role as our Great High Priest. What things keep us from taking full advantage of the access Jesus gives, the forgiveness he provides, and the help that he offers? What specific things can we do this week to more consistently and boldly draw near to God through Christ?
Prayer suggestion: Spend time thanking Jesus for all that he does for us in his role as our Great High Priest.
More in Slaves to Sons
A Song From The Sea to the Sanctuary
The Gospel According To Exodus
Remember To Remember
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Situated in the heart of Oxford, the historic Town Hall is a stunning and memorable venue for your wedding ceremony and reception.
History is made at Oxford's Town Hall every day – from people getting married and adding a new chapter to their lives, to decisions being made which affect daily life around the city of Oxford. The Rolling Stones and Nelson Mandela, are just some of the prestigious guests that have played a part in the building's history, but couples whose life story starts here at the Town Hall experience a landmark in their own personal history.
There is no parking at the venue. Please check https://www.oxford.gov.uk/homepage/41/car_parks_in_oxford to find the most convenient for you.
Nelson Mandela, David Bowie, The Rolling Stones and HRH The Princess Royal among others have visited the town hall.


text:
Q: upstream timed out (110: Connection timed out) while proxying connection - Nginx/Raspberry Pi/Ubuntu 20.04 I cannot find any help with UDP, so I have come here to ask.
I have a DNS cluster set up on Raspberry Pis running Ubuntu 20.04 and Nginx. The proxy is used for UDP on port 53. I am needing to put this into production, however, I'm weary because I see this consistently in the error log:
upstream timed out (110: Connection timed out) while proxying connection, udp client: 192.168.1.172, server: 0.0.0.0:53, upstream: "192.168.70.80:53", bytes fro
m/to client:72/52, bytes from/to upstream:52/72

Here is a portion of the Nginx access log (notice the 502 errors):
192.168.1.136 | [29/Dec/2020:09:35:08 -0600] | UDP | 200 | 147 | 54 | 0.032 | "192.168.70.80:53"
192.168.1.172 | [29/Dec/2020:09:35:12 -0600] | UDP | 200 | 126 | 30 | 0.020 | "192.168.70.82:53"
192.168.1.172 | [29/Dec/2020:09:35:17 -0600] | UDP | 502 | 150 | 88 | 599.998 | "192.168.70.82:53"
192.168.1.172 | [29/Dec/2020:09:35:17 -0600] | UDP | 502 | 73 | 72 | 599.999 | "192.168.70.82:53"
192.168.1.172 | [29/Dec/2020:09:35:17 -0600] | UDP | 502 | 154 | 56 | 600.000 | "192.168.70.84:53" <--- HERE
192.168.2.47 | [29/Dec/2020:09:35:22 -0600] | UDP | 200 | 66 | 50 | 0.040 | "192.168.70.80:53"
192.168.1.172 | [29/Dec/2020:09:35:24 -0600] | UDP | 200 | 142 | 37 | 0.001 | "192.168.70.80:53"
192.168.1.172 | [29/Dec/2020:09:35:41 -0600] | UDP | 200 | 165 | 40 | 0.017 | "192.168.70.82:53"
192.168.1.172 | [29/Dec/2020:09:35:48 -0600] | UDP | 502 | 61 | 90 | 600.005 | "192.168.70.83:53" <--- HERE
192.168.1.172 | [29/Dec/2020:09:35:48 -0600] | UDP | 502 | 47 | 62 | 599.998 | "192.168.70.83:53" <--- HERE
192.168.1.172 | [29/Dec/2020:09:35:57 -0600] | UDP | 200 | 61 | 45 | 0.001 | "192.168.70.82:53"
192.168.1.136 | [29/Dec/2020:09:35:59 -0600] | UDP | 200 | 44 | 28 | 0.028 | "192.168.70.82:53"
192.168.1.172 | [29/Dec/2020:09:36:02 -0600] | UDP | 200 | 47 | 31 | 0.017 | "192.168.70.82:53"
192.168.1.172 | [29/Dec/2020:09:36:02 -0600] | UDP | 200 | 58 | 42 | 0.019 | "192.168.70.82:53"
192.168.1.172 | [29/Dec/2020:09:36:13 -0600] | UDP | 200 | 126 | 30 | 0.017 | "192.168.70.82:53"
192.168.1.136 | [29/Dec/2020:09:36:16 -0600] | UDP | 200 | 77 | 37 | 0.029 | "192.168.70.82:53"
192.168.2.47 | [29/Dec/2020:09:36:16 -0600] | UDP | 200 | 147 | 54 | 0.033 | "192.168.70.82:53"

The backends are running dnsmasq. I have a handful of clients using this dns proxy, and no one reports any problems despite seeing this in the log all day long.
This Nginx tutorial assisted me in setting up the UDP proxy.
Here is my /etc/nginx/nginx.conf (http block is default and not used):
load_module /usr/lib/nginx/modules/ngx_stream_module.so;

user www-data;
worker_processes auto;
pid /run/nginx.pid;
include /etc/nginx/modules-enabled/*.conf;

events {
        worker_connections 1024;
        #multi_accept on;
}
stream {

    log_format dns '$remote_addr | [$time_local] | $protocol | $status | $bytes_sent | $bytes_received | $session_time | "$upstream_addr"';

    access_log /var/log/nginx/access.log dns;
    error_log /var/log/nginx/error.log;

  upstream dns_servers {
    least_conn;
    server 192.168.70.80:53 fail_timeout=20s;
    server 192.168.70.82:53 fail_timeout=20s;
    server 192.168.70.83:53 fail_timeout=20s;
    server 192.168.70.84:53 fail_timeout=20s;
  }
  server {
    listen 53 udp;
    proxy_pass dns_servers;
    proxy_timeout 10m;
    proxy_responses 1;
  }
}
http {

        ##
        # Basic Settings
        ##

        sendfile on;
        tcp_nopush on;
        tcp_nodelay on;
        keepalive_timeout 65;
        types_hash_max_size 2048;
        server_tokens off;

        server_names_hash_bucket_size 64;
        server_name_in_redirect off;

        include /etc/nginx/mime.types;
        default_type application/octet-stream;

        ##
        # SSL Settings
        ##

        ssl_protocols TLSv1 TLSv1.1 TLSv1.2; # Dropping SSLv3, ref: POODLE
        ssl_prefer_server_ciphers on;

        ##
        # Logging Settings
        ##
        log_format dns '[$time_local] | $remote_addr | $remote_user | $server_name $host to: $upstream_addr | '
                           '"$request" | $status | upstream_response_time $upstream_response_time msec '
                           '$msec | request_time $request_time';

        access_log /var/log/nginx/access.log dns;
        error_log /var/log/nginx/error.log;

        ##
        # Gzip Settings
        ##

        gzip on;

        # gzip_vary on;
        # gzip_proxied any;
        # gzip_comp_level 6;
        # gzip_buffers 16 8k;
        # gzip_http_version 1.1;
        ##
        # Virtual Host Configs
        ##

        include /etc/nginx/conf.d/*.conf;
        include /etc/nginx/sites-enabled/*;
}

This is the first time I've ever used Nginx, and I cannot figure out why this keeps showing up in my logs. Is there a directive I am missing that would fix this, or is one of my current directives misconfigured?

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the Ballistics 13 CREDITS....Thanx for stoppen by!!!!
This is the Ballistics 13 "credits page".
with contact info, credits and whatnot.
� This site was designed by Jason A. Quayle.� Some of it was borrowed.� We'll give it back when were done with it.� If you have a problem with anything here E-mail me at theballistics13@hotmail.com and I'll try my best to accommodate your request.� If you want to steal anything off of this page, have at it.� Your more desperate than I was.� I wrote this page with the assistance of "Front Page" by Microsoft and "Instant HTML a Programmer's Reference, HTML 4.0 Edition" by Alex Homer, Chris Ullman and Steve Wright.
��� Heather Quayle:� background images, and various stage pictures throughout.
� And alot of other people.� If I don't have you mentioned here I'm sorry, I just can't remember who you are or what you did.
� Below is some other stuff that I have to put here.� If I didn't I'd feel a bit guilty.� Ads and stuff like that.� I'm putting it all down here 'cause I just don't want it to clutter up the rest of our pages.� Sometimes I just don't believe in advertising.


text:
EquityNet Featured in The New York Times
Below is an article by The New York Times entitled "A Bet on the Environment"
A Bet on the Environment
By: Diane Cardwell, The New York Times
Just after his sophomore year at Yale in 2002, Billy Parish stood before a rapidly retreating glacier in India that feeds the Ganges River, convinced that he had come face to face with climate change and that he had to do something about it.
It did not take long. Back in the United States, he started a youth coalition that, within a few years, had mobilized thousands of people with similar environmental concerns. He never made it to his junior year at Yale.
In the years since, Mr. Parish has come to another conclusion: that capitalism is a powerful force that can be harnessed to combat global warming. Now 31, he is well into making that his next mission, building an online solar energy investment platform that could turn ordinary Americans into mini-financiers.
Called Mosaic, the company functions like a virtual renewable energy bank, soliciting investments for solar projects and making loans to be paid back, typically, over about 10 years. Mosaic collects a fee on every loan. It is similar to the crowdfunding platform Kickstarter, a Web site that matches creative ventures with financial supporters. In the case of Mosaic, with a minimum of $25, investors can earn a return.
"Our goal is to build the No. 1 investment platform for clean energy," Mr. Parish said. Mosaic, he added, allows investors "to not just be passive consumers but to be creators, to be owners, to collaborate to make things happen."
The company is still in its infancy. About 2,000 clients in 44 states have put in more than $4 million in project financing since it began soliciting money in January, and it is open nationwide to accredited investors — a category that includes certain institutions and high-net-worth individuals — and, so far, to the general public in New York and California.
Whether Mosaic can execute its vision is an open question. But it is poised to grow, with deals in the works that would allow investors to use money from retirement accounts like 401(k)'s and I.R.A.'s.
That, along with new financial regulations that permit broader marketing of investment projects, promises to vastly expand the potential sources of money for solar projects as well as other types of renewable energy the company plans to develop.
Although it is among the first crowdfunding platforms to focus on energy, Mosaic borrowed inspiration from earlier online ventures that gave consumers more direct access to products and services. Financing clean-tech projects and start-up companies is ripe for such an approach, adherents say, because only a small coterie of investors has been able to participate, making financing harder to obtain and more expensive.
"All these platforms are called marketplaces because they bring populations together, whether it be males and females on Match.com or banks and borrowers on Lending Tree," said Judd Hollas, the founder of EquityNet, which allows direct investment in start-up companies as a sort of venture capital platform for the masses. "It was logical to assume that the same thing could happen and should happen in private equity."


text:
Lohud | The Journal News
Bitcoin mining is a threat to New York's climate. Here's why | Opinion
Yvonne Taylor
Proof-of-Work cryptocurrency mining —commonly known as Bitcoin mining — is a growing industry in New York and poses a massive threat to our climate. Speculators are invading upstate in order to make a fake buck, bringing little economic benefit to the communities they are based in, while hampering the progress New York is making to move away from burning dirty fossil fuels.
Gov. Kathy Hochul needs to declare a moratorium on proof-of-work bitcoin mining in New York State. Now. Here's why.
Greenidge Generation LLC operates a power plant on the shores of Seneca Lake. Once a coal-burning plant, it closed its doors and reopened years later as a natural gas peaker plant. But that wasn't profitable enough for its owners at Atlas Holdings, so they filled the plant with 15,300 proof- of- work bitcoin mining machines, using massive amounts of energy to run 24/7 in order to produce a few bitcoins. Their goal is to eventually fill the facility with 30,000 machines, which would consume enough energy to power 93,000 homes. Greenidge is doing all this under the same Title V air permits it was granted to run as a peaker plant, to only be used when excess energy was needed by the public. That air permit is currently up for renewal, and the Department of Environmental Conservation's decision could come any day.
Greenidge is the test case for the encroaching wave of cryptocurrency mining that could result in the conversion of nearly 30 shuttered upstate power plants. These power plants closed as New York led the country in moving away from burning dirty fossil fuels, and they could reopen not to produce energy for New Yorkers or support our economy, but to make rich private equity guys richer. There is currently no state or federal oversight of cryptocurrency mining operations. The longer Hochul waits to act, the longer she is putting our climate at stake. Repowering or expanding coal and gas plants to make fake money in the middle of a climate crisis is literally insane.
Proof-of-work cryptocurrency mining is so energy intensive because it requires multiple machines running at once, trying to solve the same complex equation. The more machines that are running, the better the chances are of earning a bitcoin. Each one of these machines requires energy to run, plus more energy to run cooling technology. Globally, proof-of-work Bitcoin mining uses the same amount of energy each day as the entire country of Argentina.
Proof-of-work is not the only way to mine crypto — proof-of-stake, another popular method, uses far less energy. But proof-of-work's energy use across the country has risen 320% in just the past five years, and New York hosts nearly 20% of that.
Thanks to the Climate Leadership and Community Protection Act, New York is supposed to reduce statewide greenhouse gas emissions by 40% by 2030. Crypto mining jeopardizes achieving this goal. Some of these plants, including Greenidge, produce dirty energy for their own bitcoin-mining use and not public consumption, meaning they can sidestep many of the CLCPA's requirements. And if they don't produce their own energy, they guzzle up the public's, driving up the price of everyday New Yorkers' energy bills and depleting whatever renewable energy we have. It's a catch-22.
It's not just the climate that's at stake — crypto mining facilities are threats to local economies. For one, they are extremely noisy, driving down property values. And power plants use more water than any other industry. Greenidge Generation is located on the shores of Seneca Lake, where it extracts 139 million gallons of water every day and then dumps it back in at temperatures that are allowed to reach up to 108 degrees. This is called "once-through cooling," and it can kill billions of fish annually. This is a huge threat to the farms, wineries, and other occupations that make up the $3 billion agri-tourism industry in the Finger Lakes, and none of those jobs will be replaced by the automated machines that run the crypto mines.
Bitcoin mining requires a significant amount of energy.
Proof-of-work bitcoin mining causes so much harm, with no good. That's why parts of China and India have already banned it. The Department of Environmental Conservation must deny Greenidge Generation's permit renewal, and Hochul must follow with a moratorium until a full environmental review is conducted to understand the full impact of proof of work crypto mining. If she doesn't, we face a dangerous wave of a growing industry that will suck up our resources and destroy our climate. It's not just New York's future as a leader in fighting climate change that's at stake — it's New York's future, period.
Yvonne Taylor is co-founder and vice president of Seneca Lake Guardian, an advocacy organization dedicated to protecting the Finger Lakes from pollution.
This article originally appeared on Rockland/Westchester Journal News: Bitcoin mining is a threat to New York's climate. Here's why
Civil rights lawsuit against Kyle Rittenhouse, Kenosha can proceed, federal judge rules
The parents of Anthony Huber hold Kyle Rittenhouse and the city and county of Kenosha responsible for his death in August 2020.
Her son left for a show in Detroit. He and two other rappers haven't been heard from since.
Armani Kelly, Montoya Givens and Dante Wicker were supposed to perform in a Jan. 21 hip-hop show that was canceled. They haven't been seen since.
Watch Alex Murdaugh trial livestream: Live coverage from today; get the latest news, updates
Richard "Alex" Murdaugh faces a jury in Colleton County, South Carolina charged with killing his wife and son Maggie and Paul Murdaugh.


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Home News News and announcements Q6 Boiler passes Steam Test
Q6 Boiler passes Steam Test
Wednesday, 14 May 2014 21:13	Chris Lawson
The Q6 underwent a successful out of frames steam test with the insurance inspector on 13 May at LNWR Crewe. He was very happy with what he saw, with only one or two wisps of steam from a couple of stays that will need caulking. Safety valves were lifting and shutting off exactly as they should. Everyone was very pleased at passing this important next step in getting the Q6 back in traffic. The boiler inspector will want a confirmatory in frames steam test however, before finally signing it off. This could be done at Crewe, or on the NYMR on its return - the latter would have the advantage of being done with the tender attached which greatly simplifies the operation, and would also mean that it could also then be run up and down the yard if successful. The boiler inspector is going to consider and come back with a decision on which it is to be.
Apart from these minor jobs, the next stage is re-assembly. This is likely to take three to four weeks. Return to the NYMR is therefore unlikely before mid June at the earliest , but we continue to press for the remaining work to be completed as quickly as possible (without compromising its quality of course).
No work has been done on the J27 boiler in the last few weeks as efforts have concentrated on preparing the Q6 for its hydraulic and steam test, the latter requiring the construction of a temporary grate out of old boiler tubes, as can be seen in one of the photographs taken on the day.
Stay removal will begin again shortly however, although these are proving very hard and more difficult than expected to remove. Samples will be sent for analysis to check their composition.
Those of you with (not so) long memories will recall the activities of 1st October 2006 when, after a long overhaul, the Q6 boiler had its previous out of frames steam test outside the Grosmont boiler shop.
Last Updated on Wednesday, 02 July 2014 21:19


When you hear someone say "Dancing" what do you think of? Some of you may think of it as something you would like to learn to do, others may think that it would be too much work to learn, and others, who already love to dance, will start telling you how much fun they're having.
Well, it's been proven that dancing is a good form of exercise for several reasons. One of them is the obvious, you're getting to move around which is equivalent to walking or swimming or going to the gym, but it's also good for your brain cells, because you have to think. Yes, you have to lead and follow so therefore you are exercising your brains also.
Now that I've said that… there are many ways to dance. I love aerobics, but I'm not always in the mood to jump around, and I love to dance Swing and Waltz and such, and that's where my true passion lies. But I also love to Belly Dance and do so once a week, because I don't need a partner and I can get a real serious workout without jumping around or hurting knees or joints or doing any kind of floor work.
Remember, people have been dancing for thousands and thousands of years, so there must be something to it. Give it a shot, you have nothing to lose and so much to gain… and if you're partner dancing it's a fun activity to do together…. and it's indoors, so you don't have to wait for good weather. Happy Dancing!
Veronica Landolfi has written 1 posts in this blog.
Love to dance, started decades ago and continued into adulthood where I l fell in love with ballroom dancing. I now teach Ballroom, Social, Latin, Swing/Hustle Dancing and Belly Dancing.


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Q: Display a Two-Level Unordered List Rows I'd like to use a two-level unordered list to create rows of inline options.
Here is my code:

CHOICE ONE

option a

option b

option c

CHOICE TWO

option d

option e

CHOICE THREE

I'd like it to display like this:

CHOICE ONE option a option b option c
  CHOICE TWO option d option e
  CHOICE THREE

How can I do this in CSS?  I do not have the ability to add custom IDs or Classes to the UL or LI tags.
Thank you!

A: ul, li {list-style:none; margin:0; padding:0;}
ul ul, ul ul li {display:inline;}

http://jsfiddle.net/e7hAF/

A: ul {
    list-style-type: none;
    margin: 0;
    padding: 0;
}
ul li ul, ul ul li {
    display: inline-block;
}

See JsFiddle

A:

CHOICE ONE

option a

option b

option c

CHOICE TWO

option d

option e

CHOICE THREE


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Upcoming Intel Core i5-10400 Matches i7-9700F in Leaked Gaming Benchmarks
By Niels Broekhuijsen
Bulking up Core i5
(Image credit: Bilibili)
Intel announced the Comet Lake-S desktop processors last week but hasn't lifted the embargo on performance figures yet. That hasn't stopped some from revealing figures though, as one channel on the Chinese video website Bilibili got the scoop on the Intel Core i5-10400, as spotted by @Momomo_us. The channel compared the i5-10400 to the i5-9400F and the i7-9700F while using a hilarious method of maintaining anonymity.
The channel ran a multitude of tests including Grand Theft Auto 5, Assassin's Creed Odyssey, 3DMark Time Spy, PCMark 10, wPrime 2.1, CineBench R15, and more.
Surprisingly, although the i7-9700F (obviously) outpaces the new Intel Core i5-10400 in heavily-threaded applications, the i5-10400 almost matches the i7-9700F in gaming. Naturally, this isn't all too surprising given that most games typically aren't heavily threaded and rely more on strong performance from individual cores, but the i5-10400 doesn't have more cores than the 9th-Gen i5-9400F.
i5-9400F
Cores / Threads 6 / 6 6 / 12 8 / 8
Base Clock 2.9 GHz 2.9 GHz 3.0 GHz
Max Turbo Clock 4.1 GHz 4.3 GHz 4.7 GHz
Cache 9 MB 12 MB 12 MB
iGPU No Intel UHD Graphics 630 No
TDP 65 W 65 W 65 W
Of course, where the difference comes into play is that the new i5 chip comes with a 200 MHz max turbo clock boost, a bump in Cache from 9MB to 12MB, and the addition of hyperthreading so that it can handle 12 threads simultaneously.
Either way, as unverified data from a channel we're not familiar with outed before the embargo lifts, we do have to take this information with a small pinch of salt. However, if the data is true, it looks like the Comet Lake-S Intel Core i5-10400 might become a very interesting chip for gamers looking for a mid-tier CPU.
Niels Broekhuijsen
Niels Broekhuijsen is a Contributing Writer for Tom's Hardware US. He reviews cases, water cooling and pc builds.
Rdslw
Quite expected for the gains that this cpu is supposed to bring. Intel keeps the guard up, while AMD attacks. It's not as one sided fight as some news suggest, but intel did its getting slapped mercilessly for few rounds now.....
Deicidium369
Rdslw said:
And maybe someday this "getting slapped mercilessly" will translate into sales rather than just a bunch of bluster from it's Fan boys.
cryoburner
Deicidium369 said:
AMD's processors are selling quite well, especially among those who are building their own computers, and are not tied to things like pre-existing supply contracts and uncertainty over brand recognition. Just look at Amazon's best-selling CPU list...
https://www.amazon.com/Best-Sellers-Computers-Accessories-Computer-CPU-Processors/zgbs/pc/229189
The top 6 best-selling processors there are currently all AMD parts, with only 2 of the top 10 being Intel processors. Granted, I'm sure there are many builders holding off on buying Intel until their next CPUs come out, but AMD is certainly on an upward trend in terms of CPU sales, and seems to be doing quite well financially. Of course, they don't have the same production capacity of Intel, and TSMC can't just build new fabs overnight, so it's unreasonable to expect AMD to match Intel in terms of overall CPU sales, at least in the short-term.
mdd1963
I'm eager to see if the 9700KF and 9900KF performance can be matched at lower price points by their successors, and, naturally, am eager to see what the 10700K and 10900K are capable of, especially once a new batch of more capable GPUs are out....
As mentioned below its physical thing, they cannot suddenly ramp 500%. I am looking at benchmarks, and they are very heavy on winning AMD right now. Not just productivity like ryzen1 but across the board.
Even so, dell and guys won't scrape their 100k cpu's because they are crap compared to new one, they have to sell them out. What important is the trend, and its moving "fast" to AMD, probably as fast as corpo giant can make it, also not taking risks and diverging.
cryoburner said:
And I Don't think AMD will match intel. It would take easly 5 more years, Intel would have to keep releasing 14 nm refreshes, for next few years so this would happen. This situation forced them to do a lot of small changes, so once they will go to lower node AND use those small changes all around, it will be ~20% ipc jump.
Game will level out the second feveros will hit mainstream.
Joseph_138
Games have been optimized for 4C/8T for so long now, thanks to Intel being stuck in that rut for years with the i7, that higher clocks tend to matter more than more cores and threads. That will change going forward as 4C/8T processors are pushed down to the bottom of the product stack and eventually phased out.


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CHICO — Encouraging residents to plant street trees in their front yards, the city is offering a free workshop on tree care and a free tree to graduates.
The next workshop will be at 9 a.m. Saturday at the Municipal Services Center, 901 Fir St.
To reserve a spot, call 896-7800 or email urban forest manager Denice Britton at dbritton@chi.chico.ca.us.
Another workshop is planned April 14.
Residents must participate in a workshop in order to receive a tree, as well as obtain a tree planting permit. That information will be included in the workshop.
The trees must go in a location approved by the city, and will be close to the street.
The tree remains city owned, but residents are asked to provide care for three years.
As well as adding trees to the city's urban forest, the program lightens the load for street tree crews, according to the city.


The Basic collection uses simplistic design features but makes maximum impact. This look is a fresh take on the classic backpack style. The main compartment features a padded 15" laptop & media pocket, ergonomic adjustable padded shoulder straps and a twin plastic buckle fastening to keep all your essentials safe.


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