text:
\section{Introduction}
\label{sec:1}
Rugged fitness landscapes have been suggested to put a halt to adaptation~\cite{Gavrilets2004,Whitlock1995}. When there are multiple peaks in the fitness landscape, populations must cross valleys to achieve higher fitness, but because crossing a valley implies that organisms will have lower fitness, they are likely to get stuck on local fitness peaks. Several solutions have been proposed to the problem of valley-crossing, including non-static landscapes~\cite{Mustonen2009,Whitlock1997,Whitlock1995}, subpopulations crossing by drift~\cite{Wright1932}, and circumventing valleys by using neutral ridges~\cite{Gavrilets1997}. Here we will see that populations can indeed cross fitness valleys as long as the mutation-supply rate (product of population size and mutation rate) is not unrealistically low. When the supply of mutations is large enough, some organisms can endure lower fitness and still manage to reproduce, thereby giving them a chance to ascend adjacent fitness peaks. An initially maladapted population will most often climb the nearest peak, and if this peak happens not to be the global peak, it can then achieve higher fitness by relying on the stochastic nature of evolution. The more rugged a landscape is, the harder it becomes to cross valleys, but it turns out that not only can populations overcome relatively high levels of ruggedness, but high ruggedness also implies that the global peak is higher, leading to more efficient adaptation. Epistatic interactions between genes therefore not only constrain adaptation when the population gets stuck on a local peak, they actually boost it. Consequently, deleterious mutations are seen not as a hindrance to adaptation, but as a necessary component without which adaptation would grind to a halt.

The structure of the fitness landscape and the ruggedness that it exhibits are shaped by the interactions between the genotypes and the mutations that take place when a descending organism moves between neighboring genotypes. Epistasis and pleiotropy have distinct but related effects whereby the fitness landscape acquire a structure that either inhibits or enables an evolving population to attain higher fitness. Evolutionary dynamics is thus largely determined by three key parameters: population size, mutation rate, and the fitness landscape. With adequate information about the fitness landscape, and the factors that underlie genetic architecture, the extent to which populations can successfully utilize deleterious mutations and locate the fittest genotype can be assessed. Results from simulations of evolving populations in rugged fitness landscapes are here presented showing that adaptation is not slowed down in moderately rugged landscapes, but rather allows populations to attain higher fitness than in landscapes with no epistasis. Three hypotheses concerning epistasis and pleiotropy springing from the model employed in this work are presented for future investigation.

\section{NK Model}
To investigate the effect of epistatic interactions on the adaptive process, we employ the NK model, which is a simple system previously used to study interactions between loci with different alleles. The NK model consists of $N$ loci in circular, binary sequences~\cite{Kauffman1993,Kauffman1987}. Each of the $N$ loci contributes to the fitness of the organism via an interaction with $K$ adjacent loci. For each locus $i$ a lookup-table consisting of uniform random numbers represents the fitness component   of a binary sequence of length $K+1$. For example, $K=1$ (interaction with one other locus) is modeled by creating random numbers for the four possible binary pairs 00,01,10,11 for each of the $N$ loci, that is, the fitness component at one locus is  conditional on the allele at one other locus. The overall fitness of an organism is usually given by the average of the $N$ fitness components, but here we use the geometric mean (motivated by the fact that one could then introduce lethal mutations by setting one or more elements in the lookup-tables to zero):

\begin{eqnarray}
W=\left( \prod_i^N \omega_i \right)^{1/N}.
\end{eqnarray}

\begin{figure}[htp]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=4.3in,angle=0]{Ostman_Fig1.eps}
\caption{Illustration of epistasis. (A) Two beneficial mutations occurring together in one organism have an expected non-epistatic value equal to the product of individual fitness, $W_A \times W_B = W_{AB}$ (black arrows). Fitness values higher than this correspond to positive epistasis (green arrow), and fitness values lower correspond to negative epistasis (red arrow). (B) Sign epistasis denotes situations where the effect of a mutation chances depending on the genetic background on which it occurs. Here mutation $B$ is beneficial when occurring alone, and the expectation is that the effect of $A$ and $B$ together is dominated by the larger effect size of the deleterious mutation $A$. When the actual combined effect changes from the expected deleterious to beneficial (green arrow), we observe sign epistasis. (C) Two deleterious mutations have the non-epistatic expectation of being deleterious. Reciprocal sign epistasis occurs when the combined action of the two mutations reverses the effect on fitness. Reciprocal sign epistasis occurs when a valley in the fitness landscape is crossed, and it is a necessary condition for multiple peaks to exist. From~\cite{ostman2012}.}
\label{fig_1}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\begin{figure}[htp]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=4.3in,angle=0]{Ostman_Fig2.eps}
\caption{The number of substitutions declines as the ruggedness of the landscapes increases. Red diamonds: $\mu=10^{-4}$ , green squares: $\mu=10^{-3}$, blue circles: $\mu=10^{-2}$. Data are averages over 200 simulation runs. Error bars are s.e.m. From~\cite{ostman2012}.}
\label{fig_2}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

Because the objective is to study the adaptive phase of evolutionary dynamics (as opposed to mutation-selection balance~\cite{Desai2007}), the simulations are started with a population of low fitness, allowing the population to increase in fitness. Every computational update 10\% of 5,000 asexual organisms are removed at random, and the remaining organisms replace them by reproduction. The organisms that get to reproduce are chosen with a probability proportional to fitness. That is, if the fitness of an organism is twice that of another, it has twice the chance to reproduce. Since this process is stochastic, organisms of lower fitness are not doomed to extinction, but with luck can become the ancestors of later generations. Reproduction is simulated by making a copy of the chosen organism and allowing each of the $N$ loci to mutate from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0 at a rate $\mu$. Three different mutation rates are used in order to study the effect of the mutation-supply rate on the ability of the populations to cross valleys in the fitness landscape. Every organism has a genotype that consists of a binary string of length $N=20$ loci, and the effect of varying degrees of ruggedness on adaptation is investigated by running simulations with different values of $K$, which modulates the amount of epistatic interactions. Each simulation is run for 2,000 updates, which is enough in most instances to attain the highest fitness possible given the fitness landscape, population size, and mutation rate. Because there are no features of the dynamics that allow more than transient coexistence of different genotypes, the most recent common ancestor is never far in the past. Consequently, all organisms surviving at the end of a simulation run shares most of their history, and we can therefore reconstruct the line of descent (LOD) that is common to all surviving organisms and still cover most of the 2,000 computational updates. Epistasis is measured between pairs of consecutive mutations, $i$ and $j$, on this shared LOD in the following way:

\begin{eqnarray}
\epsilon_{ij} = \log \left( \frac{W_0W_{AB}}{W_AW_B} \right) ,
\end{eqnarray}

where $W_0$ denotes fitness before either mutation, $W_A$ is fitness with the first mutation, $W_B$ is fitness with the second mutation, and $W_{AB}$ is fitness with both mutations (Fig.~\ref{fig_1}). The genotype with only mutation B does not occur on the LOD, so $W_B$ has to be reconstructed afterwards for epistasis to be calculated. Epistasis on the LOD is calculated as the average of each pair of mutations. Epistasis can readily be calculated both between non-consecutive mutations as well as between more than two mutations, but we are here interested in how epistatic interactions enable populations to cross fitness valleys, and the most recent mutations have the largest effect on the ability to do this.

\begin{figure}[htp]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=4.3in,angle=0]{Ostman_Fig3.eps}
\caption{Mean epistasis of all pairs of substitutions increases with landscape ruggedness. Colors and data as in Fig. 2. From~\cite{ostman2012}.}
\label{fig_3}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\begin{figure}[htp]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=4.3in,angle=0]{Ostman_Fig4.eps}
\caption{Attained fitness increases with landscape ruggedness to a point after which a decline is observed. Colors as in Fig. 2. From~\cite{ostman2012}.}
\label{fig_4}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\begin{figure}[htp]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=4.3in,angle=0]{Ostman_Fig5.eps}
\caption{Selection coefficients increase with landscape ruggedness. Colors as in Fig. 2. Open symbols are beneficial substitutions, and solid symbols are deleterious substitutions. From~\cite{ostman2012}.}
\label{fig_5}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\begin{figure}[htp]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=4.3in,angle=0]{Ostman_Fig6.pdf}
\caption{Examples of smooth and rugged fitness landscapes in one dimension. The smooth landscape has a single peak whereas the rugged landscape has multiple local peaks. The ruggedness is caused by epistatic interactions between genes or mutations, and because epistasis and pleiotropy are coupled in the NK model, increased epistasis also leads to higher levels of pleiotropy. Ruggedness therefore implies not only more peaks but also a greater range in fitness, here represented by the scale of the vertical axes.}
\label{fig_6}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\section{Results}
The NK model was used to investigate the extent to which adapting populations make use of epistatic interactions. Simulations were carried out for three different mutations rates of  $\mu=10^{-4}$,  $\mu=10^{-3}$, and $\mu=10^{-2}$. With a constant population size of 5,000, this gives mutation-supply rates of 0.5, 5, and 50, which spans values on either side of the limit demarcating the strong-selection weak-mutation regime (SSWM) from the regime where multiple mutations go to fixation at the same time. This regime has been investigated analytically under the assumption that the mutations do not interact~\cite{Unckless2009}, but here this assumption is removed allowing for epistasis to affect the adaptive process. Adaptation is observed and the fitness attained at the end of the 2,000 updates is recorded as $\Omega$, and used to compare the efficiency with which different populations adapt.

As $K$ is increased from 0 (smooth landscape with no epistasis) to 10 (highly rugged landscape), the number of substitutions, i.e., mutations on the LOD, drops significantly (Fig.~\ref{fig_2}). The fraction of substitutions that are beneficial stays approximately constant across this range of $K$, while the amount of epistasis on the LOD increases (Fig.~\ref{fig_3}). The attained fitness increases up to $K \approx 5$ (depending on the mutation rate), after which a decline is observed (Fig.~\ref{fig_4}). So despite there are fewer beneficial substitutions for higher $K$, the population is still able to attain a higher fitness. This seems contradictory, for surely more beneficial substitutions would result in higher fitness. The answer is that the structure of the fitness landscape is the main determinant of the extent to which an evolving population can adapt. In the NK model epistasis causes changes in fitness that deviate from the non-epistatic expectation. The effect of each mutation is modulated, and the selection coefficients increase with $K$ (Fig.~\ref{fig_5}). This increase in selection coefficients is an effect of both epistasis and pleiotropy. Epistasis causes the fitness landscape to be more rugged and therefore to contain more peaks, which will then have steeper slopes. Pleiotropy increases the effect a mutation can have on fitness by affecting more than one trait at a time. Both of these cause the distribution of selection coefficients to be broader, opening up more opportunities for mutations of large effect.

\section{Discussion}
\subsection{Epistasis Causes Landscape Ruggedness}

Fitness landscapes that contain only a single peak are often called smooth, whereas landscapes with multiple peaks are denoted as rugged (Fig.~\ref{fig_6}). Rugged landscapes can vary both in the number of peaks and in the range of fitness values between the least fit genotypes and the fitness of the global peak. This ruggedness of the fitness landscape is caused entirely by epistasis, with selection determining the fitness of individual genotypes. When there is no epistasis, the landscape is smooth. In this case, adaptation is straightforward, as an evolving population will eventually reach the top of the peak. When more than one peak is present, there is always epistasis present as well~\cite{Poelwijk2011}. Take for example a fitness landscape in one dimension where fitness is a function of body-size. If small and large bodies are favored by selection but intermediate sizes have lower fitness, then there are two peaks. Moving from one peak to the other necessarily results in epistasis between at least one pair of mutations: at the bottom of the valley, one mutation causes an increase in fitness only on the background of another, without which there would be a decrease in fitness.

While fitness landscape ruggedness is caused by epistasis by increasing the number of peaks, it is pleiotropy that is responsible for the increased range in fitness values. If we imagine the fitness landscape as a one-dimensional string, then the smooth landscape is simply a string with a single peak (Fig.~\ref{fig_6}). It has a range from one of the ends of the string to the height of the global peak. If we increase the number of epistatic interactions between genes and mutations, then the string becomes wrinkled, resulting in multiple local peaks. However, if we were to do this without affecting pleiotropy, then the fitness range would be unaffected. On the other hand, if we only increase the average level of pleiotropy while keeping the number of epistatic interactions constant, then the fitness range would expand without affecting ruggedness. This happens because pleiotropy results in mutations affecting more than one trait at a time, thereby broadening the distribution of the fitness effect of mutations, whether deleterious or beneficial. We can express this as epistasis modulates the frequency of the landscape, while pleiotropy modulates the amplitude. In the NK model epistasis and pleiotropy are coupled, and K directly affects both at the same time. In natural systems this is generally not the case. Rather, genes group into modules that affect individual phenotypic traits, and through their joint action on this trait the genes (an mutations affecting them) interact epistatically. In contrast, while genes generally interact with many other genes, the level is pleiotropy is neither tied to epistasis nor is it as prevalent. The emerging picture from natural systems (e.g., yeast) is that there are relatively few pleiotropic links between modules, resulting in well-defined modules of genes affecting single traits~\cite{Costanzo2010}. Consequently, the effects of epistasis and pleiotropy are not coupled in natural systems, and decoupling them in the NK model could therefore increase the realism of the model. If the level of pleiotropy is lower in natural systems, then the range in fitness will also be affected, and the linear relationship found between selection coefficients and K will probably be less steep.

\subsection{Future directions}
It is generally assumed that the fitness effects of mutations in pleiotropic genes are uncorrelated (e.g.,~\cite{Orr1998}). Because most mutations are either neutral or deleterious, a mutation that is beneficial in one trait is considered most likely to be neutral or deleterious in the other traits that the pleiotropic gene affects. However, considering that the gene encodes a protein that is likely to have the same function in several or all the traits, it seems more likely that if the mutation is beneficial for one trait, then it would also likely be beneficial in the linked traits. For example, if the protein has the same function in the linked traits, then mutations that improve thermal stability or affinity of the active site are likely to be beneficial in all the traits. If the function of the protein is different in the linked traits, then there may be no correlation between the fitness effects, but for proteins whose biochemical function is similar in the linked traits, a correlation in fitness is likely. Such pleiotropically correlated fitness effects could have consequences for adaptation, causing beneficial mutations in pleiotropic genes to have larger effect, thereby increasing both the speed and probability of fixation.

In the weak mutation regime, early adaptation in NK is dominated by non-interacting beneficial mutations with some negative epistasis. Later in the adaptive process and nearer the peak epistasis shifts to become predominantly positive and to include some sign epistasis~\cite{Draghi2012}. The diminishing returns observed among beneficial mutations in adapting microbial populations~\cite{Chou2011,Khan2011} thus appears to be due to regression to the mean. Experimental populations are generally not seen crossing valleys in the fitness landscape, so the positive and reciprocal sign epistasis that would then be observed have rarely been reported in the literature (but see~\cite{Dawid2010,Kvitek2011}). Valleys can be crossed when the mutation-supply rate is large enough, and the waiting time to new mutations is short and deleterious mutations can be tolerated. Reciprocal sign epistasis is a necessary condition for multi-peaked fitness landscapes~\cite{Poelwijk2011}, so empirical observations would therefore shed light on this important aspect of fitness landscape structure.

In the NK model, global peak height increases with landscape ruggedness~\cite{ostman2012}. However, this may not be an artifact of the NK model alone. Rather, because the synergy between genes in modules is dependent on the number of genes, modules of genes encoding traits will have a larger effect on fitness the more genes are available. In other words, larger modules confer higher fitness. A comparison between different species that share traits (e.g. vision) should reveal a correlation between the fitness conferred by the module and the number of genes in the module. This could be measured by counting the number of genes that contribute to, say, vision among similar organisms and scoring the trait on a scale of how well it functions. Most likely the increase in fitness as a function of the number of genes is less than linear, because the function cannot be improved indefinitely.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


text:
Celebrity Kid
Annaliza Seagal
Updated On August 3, 2021
Most Popular#590
Celebrity Kid #590
Capricorn #76
FIRST NAME Annaliza #1
Born in United States #72
Weight 63 KG #9
More Facts of Annaliza Seagal
$100,000 million
Kelly LeBrock
Two (Dominic Seagal and Arissa LeBrock)
View more / View less Facts of Annaliza Seagal
Annaliza Seagal is one of the celebrity kids who rose to fame just because of their popular parents. Her father, Steven Seagal is a famous scrip writer, martial artist, producer, and actor.
2 Career and Professional Life
4 Body Measurement and Social Media
The celebrity kid was born in 1987, in the United States. She is an American native. Likewise, her age is 34 years. She was born to her parents, father, Steven Seagal, and mother, Kelly LeBrock. She has two siblings, Dominic Seagal (brother), and Arissa LeBrock (sister). They grew up together. Moreover, she also has 4 step-siblings, which adds 2 brothers, Kentaro Seagal, and Kunzang Seagal, and 2 sisters, Savannah Seagal, and Ayako Fujitani. Also, since she is born into a wealthy family, it is for sure that she was doing her schooling as well.
Caption: Annaliza Seagal with her parents when she was a kid (Source: Thecelebscloset)
Career and Professional Life
Life for Annaliza Seagal was quite easy. Her father's married life was a very handful as he was engaged with a lot of women immediately after their divorce and separation. Steven Seagal has altogether 7 children in total from his ex-wives as well as from his current. And one of their daughter, Annaliza Seagal, who has less presence and popularity in the public and media than the rest of Steven's kids. Talking about her preference for private lifestyles she likes to stay away from the limelight. However, some common information about her is obviously not a secret. As a child of celebrities even though she has not done anything, but also she is surrounded by a lot of cameramen like every day.
Since she was born, Annaliza has managed well to keep her personal life out of the media's attention. But her siblings are not like Annaliza, one of her siblings, Arissa is more popular with the public. The reason behind it is her profession as a model and reality star. Now coming to her father, Steven Frederic Seagal was born on April 10, 1952, in Lansing, Michigan. He is a successful American actor, screenwriter, producer, martial artist, and musician. Also, he holds Serbian and Russian nationality. A seventh-dan black belt in aikido, he started his adult life as a martial arts trainer in Japan, becoming the 1st foreigner to utilize an aikido dojo in the country. He later went to Los Angeles, California, where he had the same job.
Her father's career
In the year 1988, Seagal made his presence in "Above the Law". He was present in 4 successful films by the year 1991. Additionally, in 1992, he acted as Navy SEAL counter-terrorist expert Casey Ryback in "Under Siege". At the time of the latter half of the 1990s, he was present in 3 more feature movies and the direct-to-video movie "The Patriot". Eventually, his career turned to mostly direct-to-video productions. Since then, he has been present in various movies and reality shows. This also includes "Steven Seagal: Lawman", which portrayed Seagal presenting his duties as a secure deputy sheriff. Apart from Seagal's acting career, he is also a guitarist.
From there, he has produced 2 studio albums, "Songs from the Crystal Cave" and "Mojo Priest". Also, he has presented on the scores of various of his movies. Seagal has collaborated together with Stevie Wonder and Tony Rebel, who both were present on his premiere album. He has even been into a line of "therapeutic oil" products and energy drinks. In addition, Seagal is a popular environmentalist, animal rights activist, and advocate of the fourteenth Dalai Lama Tenzin Gyatso. He is famous for his honest political opinions and promoter of Vladimir Putin, whom he once mentioned as "one of the great living world leaders". Moreover, he got both Russian and Serbian citizenship in the year 2016.
In the year 2018, he was Russia's special representative to the U.S. Many women accused Seagal of sexual harassment or assault from 1996 to 2018. Now, talking about her mother, Kelly LeBrock started her career by modeling at first when she was just sixteen years old in New York City. Her huge achievement came at the age of nineteen when she was featured in a twenty-four-page layout in Vogue magazine. Soon after that, she made a deal into a contract with Christian Dior to get a job for that fashion label for thirty days one year. She then was present on various magazine covers and in fashion layouts. Then, Kelly became one of Eileen Ford's most in-demand models.
Some more about her mother's career
She became especially popular as the Pantene shampoo commercial spokeswoman whose line, "Don't hate me because I'm beautiful", turned into a pop-culture catchphrase. LeBrock was then present as the "perfect" or "fantasy" woman in the movies "The Woman in Red" in 1984 and "Weird Science" in 1985. At last, everyone was considering her as one of the sexiest women in Hollywood in the 1980s, however, she took a break from acting until 1990, when she collaborated with her then-husband, Steven Seagal, in "Hard to Kill". LeBrock also was present in "Betrayal of the Dove" in 1993, "Tracks of a Killer" in 1995, and "Hard Bounty" in 1995.
In addition, some of her more movies are "Wrongfully Accused (1998)", "The Sorcerer's Apprentice (2002)", "Zerophilia (2005)", and "Gamers: The Movie (2006)". After that, she was in a thriller movie "Hidden Affairs" which was out in the year 2013, and in 2015. She was present in "A Prince for Christmas" as Queen Ariana. LeBrock then became the captain of the squad "Kelly's Bellies" on VH1's "Celebrity Fit Club" reality show in 2005. LeBrock also was present on the 3rd UK series of "Hell's Kitchen". Likewise, LeBrock and her daughter, Arissa were present on the Lifetime docuseries "Growing Up Supermodel" which began in August 2017.
The celebrity kid already rose to fame right after her birth. As of now, she has quite a good net worth of about $100,000. Having celebrity parents and also getting support from them, it was quite easy for Annaliza to pursue and have her career. She must have had a good and fulfilled childhood previously. On the other hand, her father, Steven Seagal has a stunning net worth of $16 million. As for her mother, Kelly LeBrock, she also has an estimated net worth of around $2 million. And their primary source of income is from the profession they have in the entertainment industry.
There is literally no information regarding Annaliza's love life. She has maintained a very good space from the media and public. She keeps all her personal information secret. However, Annaliza is suspected to already have been married and is also shares kids with her secretive husband. As of now, it is obvious that she is living a good and happy life. Annaliza is very secretive about her life which is why she has never been present in any kind of rumors and scandals.
Body Measurement and Social Media
The celebrity kid has a height of 172 cm or 5 feet 8 inches and a bodyweight of around 63 kg. Moreover, she has very beautiful blonde hair with attractive blue eyes. There is no further information regarding Annaliza's body measurements, shoe size, and dress size because of her secretiveness. But it is for sure that she has a fair complexion with a slim body type.
Since the celebrity kid is very secretive, so there is also no presence on her on the social media platform. However, we can find her few photographs on the internet. But it is also very few in numbers. It is not the same case with her parents and siblings. Almost all of them are quite active on social media platforms and quite often post any updates.
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Read more about our curriculum – our intentions and how we implement it.
For example, our topic 'Life' covers lots of Science in the National Curriculum and provides opportunities for our pupils to develop skills in other subjects. In PE, for example, children might think about the effects of exercise on the body and be encouraged to maintain healthy lifestyles, whilst in Art, observational drawing of living things, from plants to people, might be included. Another example is when children told us they would love a topic on theme parks – there's so much great learning that can take place within such a topic, it would be a shame to miss out on this idea, so we incorporated the idea of theme parks into our 'Holidays' topic.
Moortown Primary is a happy and healthy place to learn. View our whole school aims and ethos and our Visual Mission Statement.
We want to promote our pupils' sense of identity.
Moortown Primary is very much a community: everyone knows everyone else. This lends itself to supporting and sharing in so many ways, from playing to learning. To build on this, we've planned some topics under the same heading for everyone, from Year 1 to Year 6. This doesn't mean children will learn the same skills or content regardless of their age, but does mean that children can support each other and share what they've learnt with each other more easily. The whole-school topic 'Life' has lots of biology learning pitched at the appropriate year groups (as set out by the National Curriculum), whilst 'Holidays' focuses on learning about a non-European country in Years 1 and 2, a European country in Years 3 and 4, and a region within North or South America in Years 5 and 6 (again, this follows National Curriculum guidelines).
Occasionally children learn with children from other classes or different members of staff. For example, older children might support younger children (under supervision) in reading or PE games. Not only does this help younger children to acquire new skills, but older children's social skills and self-esteem can improve, too. We also make use of many visitors to school who have particular skills or interests, especially in drama and PE. Children (and teachers!) enjoy drama within many topics, typically delivered by specialists in drama for education. It acts as a powerful, motivating vehicle for all learning and has a positive impact on standards in reading and writing as well as topic work. Our Health Leader, Mrs Taylor, works hard to use PE money to invite lots of specialist coaches and teachers to enhance PE activities which can sometimes link with topics – yoga activities, even, happen quite regularly to link with class topics!
Communication is a two-way process. We communicate 'outwards' by speaking and writing, and we receive communication by listening and reading. In all our teaching and learning, we aim for our pupils to communicate orally to a high level, and so we place a lot of emphasis on all forms of speaking and listening, as well as reading and writing. In this increasingly information-based world, we also want our learners to evaluate information critically rather than believe everything they come across without questioning. For example, children at Moortown frequently compare different websites or books and decide which are better, and why.
At Moortown, we recognise that our children must be able to initiate, engage, persevere and reflect in all their learning. We want our pupils to be able to work independently without close supervision. We often, for example, incorporate independent research on a subject that they want to find out more about. Children then might present their findings to others.


text:
Det finns flera biografiska artiklar om personer med namnet Aumann eller Auman:

 Raimond Aumann
 Robert Aumann

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Don Giovanni is het achttiende album in de Sophie-reeks. Het album is verschenen in Robbedoes nummer 2687 tot 2695 in 1989. Het album werd door Dupuis uitgegeven in 1990.

Personages
 Sophie
 Mijnheer Karapolie
 Serafijn Schaap
 Jozef
 Pieters
 Zoef
 Ben Gladech (Gladde Sidi)
 Juul Vermeulen (Jo de Kruiper)
 Jules Van Doem
 Clotilde
 Charles Van Dijk (flash-backs)
 Commissaris Arnold Argwaan

Uitvindingen van Karapolie
 het ei
 anti-diefstal tas

Verhaal

Sophie en haar vader komen uit de bioscoop. Ze hadden vrijkaarten voor de film "De nacht der tijden" omdat Sophies vader de monsters voor deze film had gebouwd. Dit was te lezen in het derde deel van Sophie en inspecteur Ceris. Tijdens het stappen naar de wagen, worden ze verrast door hevige regenval. Omdat het nog een eindje lopen is, zoeken ze een plaats om te schuilen. Het blijkt een veilinggebouw te zijn. Sophie leest op een plakkaat dat er een veiling aan de gang is van de spullen van Charles Van Dijk. Sophies vader vertelt dat deze man een theaterspeler was die onlangs overleden is. Hij is op het toneel gestorven net als Molière. Na wat oude spullen te hebben bekeken, komen vader en dochter in de veilingzaal. Op dat moment wordt er een koffer met toneelkostuums geveild. Het bieden gaat tussen een oude heer en een kale man met bril en zwarte baard. Ze bieden tegen elkaar op totdat een ongure kerel de kale man iets toefluistert waardoor deze stopt met bieden. De oude heer wint het object en is hier duidelijk erg blij mee. Sophie vindt het een vreemde zaak, haar lijken die twee andere kerels onbetrouwbaar. Vader en dochter gaan naar buiten omdat het is gestopt met regenen. Ze passeren langs de achterkant van het veilinggebouw waar de goedereningang is. Op de binnenplaats zien ze de oude heer staan, rustig een sigaretje rokend met op de grond de kist die hij met het bieden gewonnen heeft.
Nauwelijks zijn Sophie en haar vader gepasseerd of ze horen geschreeuw. Als ze zich omdraaien zien ze de twee verdachte kerels van de binnenplaats komen die de kist dragen. Sophie gaat op hen af en springt op de kist, zodat de mannen ten val worden gebracht. Voordat ze kunnen terugvechten stopt er een kleine oranje wagentje de bestuurder claxonneert en de twee mannen genaamd Ben (de kale) en Jo beveelt om in te stappen. Dit doen de kerels en het drietal rijdt er haastig vandoor. De bestuurder blijkt een vrouw te zijn die de boeven aanspreken met bazin. Sophie en haar vader gaan de oude heer helpen. Gelukkig is hij niet gewond, vooral in school. Sophie vraagt aan haar vader of ze de oude heer naar huis kunnen brengen. Dit vindt haar vader een goede idee. De oude heer is hen heel dankbaar en tijdens de rit stellen ze zich aan elkaar voor. De heer heet Serafijn Schaap, een gepensioneerd leraar. Ze merken niet dat ze worden gevolgd door de oranje Fiat. Als Sophie en haar vader de kist binnen hebben gebracht, toont Serafijn hen zijn woonkamer. Vader en dochter zijn overdonderd. De kamer is helemaal ingericht als een prachtig toneeldecor. Serafijn legt uit dat het altijd zijn droom is geweest om toneelspeler of operazanger te worden. Als hij de kist opent kan hij zijn gasten vertellen van elk kostuum welke rol en in welk stuk de overleden acteur ermee optrad. Zo vindt hij een kostuum waarin Charles de rol van Almavita speelde in De Barbier van Sevilla. Als Serafijn het tourneeboek van Charles vindt, kan zijn blijdschap niet op. Bij het openen van het boek valt er een foto uit. Sophie raapt de foto op. Serafijn herkent Charles op de foto een schitterend kostuum dragend in zijn rol als Don Giovanni, zijn glansrol. Als kers op de taart toont Serafijn zijn gasten nog een hele garderobe aan theaterkostuums die hij op veilingen of bij theaters zelf heeft gekocht. Al die kostuums zijn allemaal ooit gedragen door bekende toneelspelers. Om Serafijn een plezier te doen trekt Sophies vader een van de kostuums aan. Sophie vindt het een kostelijk zicht haar vader van kop tot teen uitgedost als musketier inclusief hoed en degen. Als ze thuiskomen, vertellen ze het hele verhaal aan Jozef. Sophie merkt dat ze per ongeluk de foto van Serafijn heeft meegenomen. Ze besluit hem morgen te gaan opzoeken om hem de foto terug te geven. De volgende dag horen vader en dochter tijdens het ontbijt op de radio dat er afgelopen nacht een inbraak is geweest in de nationale schouwburg. De bandieten hebben een aantal kostuums vernield allemaal gedragen door Charles Van Dijk. Sophie en haar vader lijken het geen toeval te vinden hierbij denkend aan de overval de dag ervoor. Als ze vervolgens bezoek krijgen van Pieters die met Zoef komt aangereden, is Sophie erg blij. Ze begroet hen allebei hartelijk. Pieters vertelt dat hij even langs kwam omdat hij in de buurt was en een boodschap in de stad wil gaan doen. Sophie vraagt of ze met hem mee mag rijden om naar Serafijn te kunnen gaan en ook omdat ze nog eens graag met Zoef mee wil rijden. Pieters gaat akkoord. Tijdens de rit vertelt Sophie alles wat zij en haar vader de dag ervoor hebben meegemaakt. Op een bepaald ogenblik rijdt een oranje auto bijna op hen in. Sophie herkent de inzittenden als de twee mannen die de kist van Serafijn hadden geprobeerd te stelen. Ze vraagt aan Pieters om Zoef achter hen aan te laten gaan. Zoef doet dit, maar heeft moeite om de snellere wagen van de boeven bij te houden. Ze ontsnappen maar ternauwernood aan een bekeuring van de politie. Als Zoef dan ook nog agent Dorus (hier Theofiel genoemd) is het plan om zeep. Sophie beseft dat ze de boeven niet kunnen vatten en beter naar Serafijns woning rijden, want ze bedenkt dat de boeven vlak bij diens huis waren toen ze hen kruisten. Als Sophie en Pieters bij het huis van Serafijn aankomen, zien ze dat de deur open staat. Ze lopen meteen naar binnen en vinden Serafijn in zijn woonkamer gebonden en gekneveld op een stoel. De hele kamer is overhoop gehaald. Serafijn vertelt dat het dezelfde twee kerels waren die hem de dag voordien hadden overvallen. Ze bonden hem vast op de stoel, haalden de kamer overhoop en namen ten slotte het tourneeboekje van Charles Van Dijk mee. S Ze krijgen bezoek van de politie die de zaak van de vernielingen aan de kostuums van Charles Van Dijk onderzoekt. De leiding van dit onderzoek is in handen van commissaris Arnold Argwaan, die Sophie al eerder tegenkwam in haar avontuur met het pratende blok. De commissaris gebruikt nog steeds zijn onorthodoxe manier om te achterhalen of iemand een misdadige aanslag heeft door het bevoelen van de schedel van de persoon om te zoeken naar die zogenaamde misdaadknobbel. Na alle aanwezigen te hebben verhoord, gaat de politie weer weg. Sophie belooft aan Serafijn dat ze de volgende dag weer komt om hem te helpen met het weer in orde brengen van de overhoop gehaalde kamer. Pieters brengt Sophie weer naar huis. Op de terugweg merkt Sophie dat ze vergeten is om de foto terug te geven aan Serafijn. Pieters stelt voor om terug te rijden, maar Sophie zegt dat het niet nodig is omdat ze de volgende dag toch weer naar Serafijn gaat. Thuis aangekomen vertelt Sophie het hele verhaal aan haar vader. Sophies vader vertelt dat hij een interessant artikel in de krant heeft gelezen dat hij zijn dochter ook laat lezen. Het gaat over Jules Van Doem, een oude studiegenoot van Sophies vader. Jules Van Doem is aangewezen als opvolger van Charles Van Dijk en zal volgende week de rol spelen van Don Giovanni. Sophie vraagt haar vader of ze erheen kunnen gaan en stelt voor om Serafijn mee te vragen. Haar vader gaat hiermee akkoord. Wat ze niet weten is dat Ben en Jo Sophie en Pieters tot bij Sophies woning hebben gevolgd en hen hebben afgeluisterd. Hierdoor zijn ze op de hoogte van het feit dat Sophie de volgende dag naar Serafijn gaat.
De volgende dag wil Jozef Sophie met de wagen brengen, maat deze weigert te starten. Sophie spreekt even met haar vader en weet deze te overhalen om met het ei naar Serafijn te gaan. Nauwelijks op weg komen Sophie en Jozef de oranje Fiat van de boeven tegen. Sophie slaagt er echter in om met enkele handige manoeuvres de boeven van zich af te slaan en zelfs in de rivier te doen belanden. Enkele dagen later vinden we Sophie samen met haar vader en Serafijn terug in de schouwburg. Ze zijn allen mooi uitgedost voor de voorstelling. Sophie draagt een bloemenkleedje en heeft ook een handtas bij zich. Jo en Ben zijn er ook maar hebben zich vermomd met valse baard en een pruik. Ze houden via een walkietalkie contact met hun bazin, die eveneens in de zaal aanwezig is. Het is een mooie donkerharige vrouw die een zwart kleedje draagt. Na de voorstelling neemt Sophies vader zijn dochter en Serafijn mee naar de kleedkamer van Jules Van Doem. Net als Sophies vader op de deur wil kloppen, klopt een heertje met hoed en paraplu en aktetas aan. De heer verontschuldigt zich en zegt tegen het drietal dat ze mogen voorgaan en hij geen haast heeft. Jules Van Doem is blij verrast om zijn oude studiemakker weer te zien. Sophies vader stelt Jules voor aan zijn dochter en Serafijn. Serafijn is helemaal in de war als hij oog in oog staat met een van zijn idolen. Na te hebben bijgepraat, vertelt Sophies vader de hele geschiedenis van de foto van Charles Van Dijk die de boeven met alle geweld wilden bemachtigen. Jules is zelf een goede vriend geweest van Charles. Hij vraagt of hij de foto mag zien. Sophie haalt deze uit haar tasje. Ze had hem dan toch maar zelf bewaard omwille van de boeven. Jules herkent de foto meteen. Aan de achterkant ziet hij dat er iets op is geschreven, maar de tekst is nog nauwelijks leesbaar. Jules neemt een aansteker en zet een vlam onder de foto waardoor de tekst weer zichtbaar wordt. Jules kende dit trucje (onzichtbare inkt van citroensap) nog van Charles, een grapje dat hij wel vaker met vrienden uithaalde. Net op het moment dat ze de tekst willen lezen, valt het boeventrio binnen met getrokken pistool. Jules herkent de bazin meteen als Clotilde, die tien jaar lang de huishoudster was van Charles. Ze is erg boos omdat ze zich zo heeft uitgesloofd voor Charles en helemaal niets van zijn erfenis had gekregen. Ze was ervan overtuigd dat hij veel geld had en geen erfgenamen. Ze wil nu graag alles hebben. Ze eist de foto, maar Sophie steekt deze in haar tasje. Clotilde gebiedt Ben om haar de tas af te pakken. Ben doet dit en gebiedt Sophie om mee te komen als gijzelaar. Sophie gaat gewillig mee met de boeven doe proberen om het gebouw ongezien te verlaten via de kelders. Het handvat van het tasje klemt zich op een moment om de pols van Ben en de tas begint zichzelf op te pompen. Ben komt nog nauwelijks vooruit en krijgt de tas niet door de deuropening van de uitgang. Buiten staat de politie met commissaris Argwaan. Het boeventrio wordt gearresteerd. Jules vraagt aan Clotilde waarom een aardige vrouw als zij dit heeft gedaan. Clotilde vertelt dat ze enkele dagen voor zijn dood Charles iets had zien schrijven op zijn favoriete foto. Charles stopte de foto snel weg, maar Clotilde had nog iets kunnen lezen van "dit is mijn testament". Omdat ze graag haar deel wilde van de erfenis omdat ze zo lang voor Charles had gezorgd, wilde ze de foto graag om te achterhalen waar Charles zijn fortuin had verborgen. Als Clotilde samen met haar handlangers door de politie wordt weggevoerd, heeft Jules medelijden met haar. Hij verklaart dat ze Charles altijd heeft vertroeteld. Als Sophie samen met haar vader, Jules en Serafijn terugkeren naar de kleedkamer van Jules om het mysterie van het fortuin van Charles te onthullen, vinden ze het vreemde heertje met de hoed en paraplu die nog steeds aan het wachten is bij de deur. Hij vertelt dat hij een huisvriend is van Charles en diamantair op rust. Hij vertelt hen dat Charles hem had benaderd voor een laatste gunst. De diamantair vervulde deze wens, met name om het fortuin van Charles te investeren in diamanten waarvan de diamantair knopen heeft gemaakt. Als ze de tekst op de foto nogmaals bekijken lezen ze dat diegene die met alle warmte van de kunst de rol van Don Giovanni kan vervullen , de erfgenaam van Charles zou worden. Hij zal voortaan dat stralende kostuum mogen dragen, hetgeen hem rijkdom zal brengen. Niemand behalve Sophie snapt dit raadsel. Ze vraagt aan Jules of hij misschien nog het Don Giovanni kostuum heeft dat Charles altijd droeg tijdens zijn optredens in deze rol. Jules opent zijn kleerkast en toont dit kostuum. Hij zegt dat hij dit inderdaad van Charles heeft gekregen, maar treedt er zelf niet mee op. Hij heeft immers zijn eigen garderobe zoals iedere acteur en verkiest een sober zwart Don Juanpak terwijl Charles uitbundiger was. Sophie maant Jules aan om het pak beter te bekijken. Jules kan zijn ogen niet geloven als hij merkt dat de knopen op het pak stuk voor stuk diamanten zijn. Een paar dagen later ontvangt Clotilde in de gevangenis een kistje met daarin een diamant. Het komt van Jules die hoopt dat ze hiermee een goede advocaat kan betalen.

Trivia
Dit is het laatste Sophie-album waarin Pieters en Zoef optreden.

Stripverhaal van Sophie


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Home/Tennis Equipment/Tennis Court Surfaces and Court Speeds
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Tennis Court Surfaces and Court Speeds
What Court Surfaces and Tennis Balls Do Grand Slams and ATP Tournaments Use? What Speed Are They?
Jonathan Follow on Twitter March 25, 2020
Earlier this week the US Open announced that they were changing the brand of court surface used at the tournament for the first time in more than 40 years.
The switch sees Flushing Meadows use Laykold hard courts made by Advanced Polymer Technology, replacing the DecoTurf that had been in use since 1978.
This change in New York follows on from Melbourne's change earlier in the year. The Australian Open moved surface supplier to GreenSet Worldwide for 2020 away from California Sports, who they had used since 2008.
We've also seen several ball changes in recent years with Dunlop striking a massive deal to supply the Australian Open Ball and Wilson replacing Babolat as the French Open Ball.
With that in mind, what other court surfaces and tennis balls are currently in use on the ATP tour? Are we moving even further towards surface homogenisation and just one or two suppliers dominating? Let's take a look.
1 Grand Slam Court Surfaces, Court Speed and Tennis Balls
2 ATP Masters 1000 Court Surfaces, Court Speed and Tennis Balls
3 ATP 500 Court Surfaces, Court Speed and Tennis Balls
4 What Other Types of Court Surfaces are Used Across the World?
5 How is the Speed of a Tennis Court Surface Measured?
6 What is Court Pace Index?
6.1 Examples of Court Pace Index
7 How to Solve the Court Speed Problem
8.1 What is the ITF Court Pace Rating?
8.2 How Do Tournaments Determine Court Speed?
8.3 Are All Clay Courts The Same?
8.4 Why Do Tournaments Use Different Tennis Balls?
8.5 How Often Do Tournaments Change Surfaces and Balls?
Grand Slam Court Surfaces, Court Speed and Tennis Balls
ITF Court Pace Rating
Ball Used
Australian Open Greenset Worldwide Australian Open GreenSet Category 4 – Medium-Fast Dunlop Australian Open
French Open Supersol Red Clay Category 1 – Slow Wilson French Open
Wimbledon Mother Nature 100% Perennial Ryegrass N/A Slazenger Wimbledon
US Open Advanced Polymer Technology Laykold Cushion Plus System Category 2 – Medium-Slow Wilson US Open
ATP Masters 1000 Court Surfaces, Court Speed and Tennis Balls
Indian Wells California Sports Surfaces Plexipave IW Category 2 – Medium-Slow HEAD Penn
Miami Masters Advanced Polymer Technology Laykold Cushion Plus Category 2 – Medium-Slow HEAD Penn
Monte Carlo Terre Davis S.a.s. Red Clay Category 1 – Slow Dunlop Fort Clay Court
Madrid Open Celabasa Sport Red Clay Category 1 – Slow Dunlop Fort Clay Court
Rome Masters Terre Davis S.a.s. Red Clay Category 1 – Slow Dunlop Fort Clay Court
Rogers Cup California Sports Surfaces DecoTurf II Category 3 – Medium HEAD Penn
Cincinnati Masters California Sports Surfaces DecoTurf II Category 3 – Medium HEAD Penn
Shanghai Masters California Sports Surfaces DecoTurf II Category 3 – Medium Dunlop
Paris Masters Greenset Worldwide Greenset Grand Prix Category 3 – Medium HEAD Penn
ATP Finals Greenset Worldwide Greenset Grand Prix Category 3 – Medium Dunlop
ATP 500 Court Surfaces, Court Speed and Tennis Balls
Rotterdam Greenset Worldwide Greenset Grand Prix Category 3 – Medium Technifibre X One
Rio Open Clay Category 1 – Slow HEAD Penn
Dubai California Sports Surfaces DecoTurf II Category 3 – Medium Dunlop Australian Open
Acapulco California Sports Surfaces Plexipave Category 1 – Slow Wilson US Open
Barcelona Celabasa Sport Clay Category 1 – Slow Dunlop Fort Clay Court
Halle Mother Nature Grass Unknown Slazenger Wimbledon
Queens Mother Nature Grass Unknown Slazenger Wimbledon
Hamburg Clay Category 1 – Slow Tretorn
Washington California Sports Surfaces DecoColor Category 4: Medium-fast HEAD Penn
Beijing California Sports Surfaces DecoTurf Category 3 – Medium HEAD Penn
Tokyo California Sports Surfaces DecoTurf Category 3 – Medium Dunlop
Basel Greenset Worldwide Greenset Grand Prix Category 3 – Medium Dunlop
Vienna California Sports Surfaces Rebound Ace Synpave Category 2 – Medium-Slow Dunlop
What Other Types of Court Surfaces are Used Across the World?
Tennis is probably one of the few games in the world that is played on a variety of surfaces be it grass, clay or hard courts each of those surfaces has smaller subsets made up from different materials like concrete, artificial grass and acrylic.
All court surfaces go through a rigorous testing procedure before they can be approved as an official surface by the ITF, the tests take into consideration friction, energy restitution, topography and consistency.
The types of Tennis Court officially in use across the world are:
Acrylic / Polyurethane
Artificial Clay
Hybrid Clay
Other, e.g. tiles, wood, canvas and modular systems.
How is the Speed of a Tennis Court Surface Measured?
The ITF measure the speed of a surface using a system called Court Pace Rating or CPR for short. Any court that is used for a tournament has it's own unique Court Pace Rating.
The Court Pace Rating System measures the effect the surface has on the tennis ball which again takes into account friction, which looks at how much the balls velocity changes after it has hit the surface and also vertical restitution which factors in the time between successive bounces.
The CPR test needs various apparatus to be carried out including something to fire out a tennis ball at a set speed such as an air cannon and then a piece of equipment known as a Sestée, pictured above.
I won't go into the complexities of how it works, but basically, the Sestée uses laser technology in its two boxes that can reconstruct the trajectory of the ball and calculate pace. The ball is released from the cannon at 30m/s and at a 16° angle with no spin being imparted on it.
The Sestée can measure the following:
Vix = horizontal inbound velocity (m/s)
Viy = vertical inbound velocity (m/s)
Vfx = horizontal outbound velocity (m/s)
Vfy = vertical outbound velocity (m/s)
e = coefficient of restitution (COR)
μ = coefficient of friction (COF)
T = mean ball temperature for test location/sample (°C)
c = temperature coefficient (0.003)
eT= adjusted COR for temperature T
a = pace perception constant (150)
b = mean coefficient of restitution for all surface types (0.81)
CPR = Court Pace Rating
Once the pace of the courts has been measured, they are placed into categories:
Court Pace Rating
Category 1: Slow ≤ 29
Category 2: Medium-slow 30-34
Category 3: Medium 35-39
Category 4: Medium-fast 40-44
Category 5: Fast ≥ 45
What is Court Pace Index?
Court Pace Index is a completely independent method of measuring court speed and comes directly from Hawkeye.
Using their triangulation camera system, they can calculate the speed from in tournament play.
CPI shows the actual speed of the courts as it's measured during real matches on the main show courts throughout the tournament to produce an average over seven days.
CPI is calculated from the following:
CPI=100(1-μ)+150(0.81-e)
Where μ is the coefficient of friction
e is the coefficient of restitution
Again please remember here CPR = an ITF speed rating given to surfaces in a lab. CPI = court speed calculated from Hawkeye data from the main show courts during a tournament.
Examples of Court Pace Index
Speeds in 2016
The Australian Open is not listed here, but it was rated at 40.
Masters 1000 Court Speed in 2018
The Speed of the Courts in 2017
The Racquet Court Speed Data
How to Solve the Court Speed Problem
Most players and fans are acutely aware that the surfaces have slowed down over the years. This done for a variety of reasons but the main one is to do with the length of matches and TV money.
The video below from 2013 talks about this at the fifty-second mark:
My opinion is that there needs to be more variety, so players have to adapt. One solution would be that an outside body predetermines the speed of the court at any given tournament and it can't change year on year or at the discretion of the tournament organisers.
So as an example, the US Open has to play at a set speed every year, and it can't drop below or exceed an agreed threshold.
There'd be no more putting more sand into the Laykold mixture to make the surface rougher; it'd be made the same each year for all of the courts at Flushing Meadows. And it'd be a fast hard court, as it should be.
By using that approach, you'd be able to have a wide variety of court speeds on tour. With the right rules in place and planning, it'd be possible to have courts ranging from one end of the spectrum to the other throughout the year.
This allows players to be tested on a variety of surfaces of which some play super quick, some play in-between, some bounce high, some bounce low and some play slowly. The key is variety, and I think you will only get that with some kind of regulation in place.
Some common question I've received after writing several posts about court speed and surfaces over the years.
What is the ITF Court Pace Rating?
The ITF classifies surfaces into one of five categories according to its Court Pace Rating: 1 – Slow, 2 – Medium-slow, 3 – Medium, 4 – Medium-fast, 5 – Fast.
This is not a measure of the speed of the court at the tournament it is used; it is purely the speed of the surface when it goes through classification.
For example, if I create a surface called peRFect Speed Plus and I want to be classified by the ITF, I'll submit details of the surface and supply a sample of it to be tested to receive its court pace rating.
A surface type can have multiple classifications to provide a more extensive offering for buyers. Laykold, for example, has the Cushion Plus surface available in Category 2, Category 3 and Category 4.
You can see an example of a surface classification certificate here.
How Do Tournaments Determine Court Speed?
Tournaments will first seek a court supplier to lay the courts for their tournament. For example, the US Open has chosen a company called Advanced Polymer Technology for 2020.
The choice is usually determined by the surfaces the supplier produces or has access to. In the case of the US Open, Laykold is the surface of choice.
From there it's a case of the tournament and the supplier liaising to produce a surface that plays at the speed a tournament wants.
A good example here is Miami, which like the US Open is played on the Laykold Cushion Plus System. They wanted a surface that had a similar speed to other ITF 3 Medium Pace-Rating tournaments.
The supplier then customises its product mixture and installation to tweak the ball speed to get the desired result. This is done by changing the underlying layers of court and the topcoat, which has sand particles in which impact ball speed.
The key takeaway here is that surfaces can be altered significantly in speed and they do not just come as an out of the box solution that plays according to their ITF rating.
Are All Clay Courts The Same?
All clay courts at tour-level are mostly the same as they're produced from red brick dust. However the way they're laid, the substrate and the underlying surface can differ.
For example, the French Open has the following composition:
Redbrick dust: 1 – 2 mm
Crushed white limestone: 6 – 7 cm
Clinker (coal residue): 7 – 8 cm
Crushed gravel: at least 30 cm
Not every surface uses this ballast, and not every court is laid in the same area. Some areas have better natural drainage, different soil, no need for textile sheets to prevent weed growth etc. which all affect how a court plays.
At the recreational level, clay courts are laid in a variety of ways, usually to reduce maintenance costs. For example, in Europe, the Red Plus system is prevalent, which uses multiple layers of filled carpet offering the same playing properties as a traditional clay court.
Why Do Tournaments Use Different Tennis Balls?
The reason tournaments use different balls is purely down to sponsorship reasons. Tournaments are free to strike deals with whichever suppliers they wish.
The Australian Open signed a deal with Dunlop in 2018 for them to be the supplier of the Australian Open Ball, cutting ties with Wilson who had supplied the ball for several years.
Although all balls used on tour have to have a level of uniformity, and consistency in performance. They do play differently; some are lighter, some have different felt, some fluff up more.
This changes their speed through the air, how much moisture they absorb, their durability, and how they react with the strings. Several players believe changing balls between tournaments can lead to injury.
How Often Do Tournaments Change Surfaces and Balls?
Most contracts for surfaces tend to run at around the four or 5-year mark and are renewed in most cases. Decoturf, for example, was used at the US Open for 41 years before they switched.
Balls do change slightly more frequently, and this is usually because of player feedback and tournaments often change when the minimum contract term is over.
Take the French Open ball which was supplied by Dunlop until 2011, it then changed to Babolat which wasn't too well received from the players but they stuck with it. However, Wilson is the new provider of Roland Garros tennis balls from 2020 onwards.
On the flip side, Slazenger has been the supplier of the Wimbledon ball since 1902, probably the longest partnership deal in the history of any sport.
Got any questions or points of view about court surfaces, the speed of the courts or the balls in use? Let me know in the comments.
The ATP Tour Is Back!
1? 🙁
birdy says:
wow i never know this
CPI=100(1-μ)+150(0.81-e) ??? Omg…this is racket science 😆
4th, damn
Eh, so…does it mean USO could be even slower?
Not really, it could be slower, but that's for the tournament to decide when they instruct APT to lay them.
#GoRoger
Good article, Jonathan. The sad part is, as we've all discussed, the courts are way slower and our man's success on tour suffered because of it.
Having different court speeds throughout the year makes things way more interesting. Too bad that doesn't happen.
At this point in time, the courts could all be deserted and wild animals have taken over.
One question I do have, only 1-2 mm for red brick dust? Seems not enough? Wasn't the original clay from flower pots?
I believe that they originally covered the courts (grass at the time) in terracotta dust so that they wouldn't wilt in the sun, and it changed the court speed and bounce. They figured it out and changed it to all clay as a new surface.
I don't remember where I read this, and it could be a figment of my imagination and or a fake story I read somewhere. Don't know how true this is but still a cool story
Makes sense so it will be true. I didn't know it was done to cover the grass initially ( I thought they had just put a whole new surface down as a test rather than adapted grass.) but I know they discovered it because the grass was impossible to maintain in the South of France.
Yeah, I've seen that too
The courts are definitely slower. In some ways, Fed has profited from it though as well, so it's not totally bad for him. I just think there should be a mixture irrespective of who it benefits just to keep it interesting.
Yes, I think they were made from terra cotta pots by the Renshaw brothers then they changed to crushed brick.
And ye there is only 1-2mm of brick dust, the underneath is limestone, but it takes on the colour the dust which is why you think there is much more of it. If there was more of it, I think the court would be completely unstable and slippery with even more bad bounces.
I have one problem. On the article about dampeners, I don't like the photo…it's a real dampener.
Is it that picture of the best player of the last decade?
Rui says:
I also thought that the brick dust layer was thicker. After a heavy shower the white limestone can show especially if the court maintenance is poor.
About tennis balls, I'm very curious about the outcome of the following, since I never got to talk to the customer: every year my company produces and sells several tens of tonnes of yellow acrylic fiber (whose colour was matched by yours truly) for Penn USA. I have no idea whether the balls made it to the professional tour or if they are only for recreational use. But the samples we got feel nicer that the standard polyester felt. Needless to say, most of them have vanished from the show room…
I guess on some courts there will be way more brick dust, I have certainly played on some. But the ones at the top of the game aim for that very thin coating.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0LH3rocRd1w
Thanks Jonathan.
First, I don't know why this year's AO is considered Medium-fast, it was slower than ever. Also, the Court Pace Index says that in 2016 the surface in London was measured 40.6 in one image and 42.1 in the other one, what the hell.
I agree with you, diversity is the key and it was like that in the 2000s. Or at least we need seasons with a specific set of court speed (Medium for Australian Tour, Slow for IW-Miami, Fast for US Open tour, Medium-fast for Finals, etc).
In my club we used pure brick dust.
André Lemos says:
Could anyone help me.
Where can I find these numbers… for instance, is there an official information at the ITF website that shows me the speed of US Open surface?
André Lemos
Typing from Brazil
The speed ratings are in my table above.
Only CPI from Hawkeye will tell you how fast a court is, and seen as though the courts have yet to be laid or played on in NYC, nobody can say how fast they are.
It's also tricky to discern anything from the CPI because there is no baseline measurement to judge it against or any real idea of how much 1 point in speed makes. So how much quicker is a 35 CPI vs a 36 CPI? It's a pity there is no historical data to compare against.
Alfonso Martinisi says:
Wonderful article, Jonathan. As Fed Fans I think that the news of a new surface in US, let alone one which has already seen the Maestro winning in similar conditions (newly introduced in Miami, tournament dominated after the Albot scare), would be optimal for us in a normal world. Sadly, I think the chances of seeing US Open starting this year are getting lower by the day, due to the extreme Coronavirus situation in the US (not only there, of course, but damn were they hit hard by it…)
Thanks. Miami was always played on Laykold at Crandon Park too, so not really a new surface for Fed. Just different colours and will play differently of course. But as I say in the post, these surfaces can be tweaked so easily that their playing characteristics change greatly.
The USA hasn't actually been that hit that hard. Unfortunately, the reporting around it has become so political that you cannot take anything seriously. I mean when their tv channels are using footage of Italy and trying to pass it off as the USA, something is very wrong.
If you look at the data: https://twitter.com/FScholkmann/status/1245742543121387520
Then it is not the number of infections that are rising. It is the number of tests that are increasing, and the infection rate is staying at a very constant rate. A sign that this not some out of control viral epidemic.
But no outlets will report it that way. They will report cases and death count with absolutely zero context to spread fear.
Many thanks for this. Yes, I know it wouldn't be new for Roger, but I am confident about the fact that he's usually the best in adaptability.
For US I didn't know, I am following very closely the situation in Italy and now numbers are constant but tests are greatly increasing. But it's more rare to know that also here, so I thank you for this. BTW did you build an opinion on if and when the other two GS (aside from Wimby) will be played?
I think the US Open might be played on schedule assuming they don't make an early decision. My own opinion is that this thing will die down relatively quickly if the data shows its not the pandemic of the century and fear stops making decisions. I could be wrong and it is a real problem for a long time but what I am able to piece together tells me it's not.
Are you from Northern Italy? They have had a very bad time of it. It is like that Swiss cheese model where so many things came together and caused so many problems. Not just the virus itself but number of beds, admitting people too readily that created an environment where it spread like wildfire including to health workers. And they were also a bit slow to act. Instead of laying out a plan they were telling people to hug a Chinese person.
One thing I have heard that seems to go unreported is that there was a mass exodus of health workers from Romania etc that just left the country immediately to go back home when the virus landed. Is that something you have heard in local media?
It's not all bad news though, although Italy is shown as the example of how bad things are, it's not the whole of Italy, just a certain part. So it could be much much worse. I saw today Treviso showed that the number of deaths in their area was no greater than previous years. Despite having 100 Covid 19 related deaths. That is a good sign and shows it is manageable and excess mortality is not rising.
Thanks for the very detailed reply. I live in Ticino, at the boarder between Switzerland and Italy. so I am superclose to Northern Italy, particularly the region of Milan. And I agree with you (I followed very closely the pandemic here because I am a soon-to-be Ph.D in Neurobiology, and I have some plans to continue my activity with relationships between pathogenic infections and neurodegenerative diseases), the problem was more logistic than related to letality. From a molecular and biological point of view the virus is not the end of the world, the big problem is the transmissibility, but it enhances, as you correctly stated, the logistic problems (beds for ICU, as an example). And I fear it could be the same for US, as I don't know how much they are covered, particularly having a very different model of Assurance compared to us here.
I heard of that exodus, there was also a massive one from the North of Italy to the Southern part. Luckily the governors in the South were very extreme in the containment measures so the problem was more or less contained.
And so I get it is the same problem in US, some parts are really affected, some are not, right?
Let's really hope this nightmare gets solved soon. I'd say that, today, I would think that US Open won't be played in September, but I like your optimism and I do hope my feelings are wrong!
Ah cool, there seems to be an increasing number of scientists that are questioning some of the decision making now.
I am not a scientist but I can always look at the bigger picture & think logically. So many of these numbers and extrapolations are ridiculous but they are getting shared so readily.
It surprises me that so many people in positions of authority are happy to spread misinformation and cause alarmist responses. When you see Dr Fauci saying that corona is 10 times more deadly than the flu. That is complete speculation, it could be 50 times more deadly, or it could be half as deadly. Nobody has any credible data to make that determination.
I also do not like Doctor's or Nurses sharing individual stories and the media highlighting single cases. It leads to panic every time.
The US has around 36 ICU beds per capita. It is said Italy has 12.5 but I am not sure if the Lombardy region had that, even if they did, they are usually at 90% capacity at this time of year so it was easy to see how they got overwhelmed when things happened fast.
I think many parts of the USA are fine. New York is said to be the epicentre, but some citizen journalists have been visiting hospitals in NYC to see how overrun they are, and finding they are not struggling at all.
I mean look at this, this was portrayed by the mainstream media to be a hotbed for corona patients https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cNVTNNmurgA but clearly it's not out of control with people flooding the hospital to get tested. I assume that channel is probably tilting towards conspiracy theories but I like the fact people are actually going out and seeing for themselves if these places are dealing with patients on the street.
CBS News got caught using footage of an Italian hospital and trying to pass it off as NYC. That is so poor. Spreading fear can also lead to lives lost.
Just one thing. Fauci is probably right in saying that it's deadlier than flu, as in the Diamond Princess the mortality was indeed around 1 % and it was a close, randomized environment where you coul really control who had the virus and who hadn't. It is a perfect epidemiologic situation for the researchers. So it's likely he's right (and btw as a scientist I followed him, he tends to be really good). But the main problem is indeed the transmissibility rather than the mortality rate, as it can load the ICUs with the heavier manifestations, even though they are a small percentage.
For the rest, "good" to know that media spread panic all around the world … Thanks for your witness
"10 times more deadly" is not a good statement to be making when the data is not there or backing it up.
This wasn't the perfect situation for epidemiology. The average age of passengers on the Diamond Princess was around 65 years old. A small sample size, just a couple of deaths, and they were all above a certain age. It is a huge bias.
If you adjust for the age difference etc to try fit the Diamond Princess to the general population. then the mortality would be way under 1%.
But it was closed, hence the good thing for epidemiology. I heard about the average age but I didn't know the exact age, I'll check, thanks again. Then again, you shouldn't say that 700 people is a small sample, in my opinion. Being in the field, I would say is good enough.
I think he didn't overexagerate it much
https://www.forbes.com/sites/victoriaforster/2020/03/22/what-have-scientists-learned-from-using-cruise-ship-data-to-learn-about-covid-19/
I checked. According to the article the average age is 62, with people ranging from 25 to 93, and they saw that 3 people out of 4 didn't show symptoms in the pool they tested more specifically. So the mortality, was also taking into the account that proportion of asymptomatic people, and this means that the registered mortality in the world (around 5 %) would probably go down a lot, but going down around 1 %.
I swear I have nothing to do with Fauci but I sincerely think he's right
I honestly think corona could be the reason that science loses respect globally.
If the average age is 62 and the mortality rate was 8 from 712 patients, the mortality rate was around 1%. But it's not a representative sample due to the age bias.
Surely you can't think that discounting asymptomatic people from mortality rate statistics is a good idea?? I can't believe I am reading that to be honest. Where in the world is that standard practice?
You certainly need to distinguish between asymptomatic infections vs those that require treatment for assessing demand on health care systems. Which again, nobody seems to have done. But excluding them from mortality? 😆 wow.
No my friend, you completely misunderstood my post. Actually I was COUNTING asymptomatic people into the mortality, assuming they are 4 times more than what we detect normally. Which is of course an estimation. But hence the numbers given by Fauci. And the sample is indeed representative, despite the average, because you can nonetheless have a number that represents all the classes of age that we need, and normalize the data of deaths. People would die to have such a sample, even though it is not normally distributed. I hope it is clearer know, I understand it is not so easy to understand but I hope you got it now (or that I was clearer)
BTW I am not explaining my POV, Just why you can't seem Fauci's observations as thoughtless. In my opinion you are not that far from the truth, but surely (at least IMHO) he's closer than you.
Just to be even clearer, the mortality now is 5 % but it is VERY likely (as you also assumed) that many people were escaping detection. As usually the tests are not run on asymptomatic (at least here in Italy and in Switzerland, but I fear it's the same everywhere for the cost of the test) and they seem to be 75 % of the infected people in reality, you could assume that the mortality becomes 1/4 of what is actually registered (so I was indeed counting all the infected people). And that is what led to the (shared) observation that the mortality is around 1 % indeed.
I hope now is clearer Jonathan! 😀
https://www.thelancet.com/journals/laninf/article/PIIS1473-3099(20)30243-7/fulltext
This is the latest study on a Lancet sister journal, which also accounted for slightly less than 1 % but not by much, taking into the account also an estimation of how many asymptomatic people really are out there (which was the complete opposite of what you understood, and I apologize for that if I wasn't clear enough) and more importantly, all the classes of age like I explained (which was also done before, even with not normally distributed samples)
Anyway if we are too much off topic we can obviously continue this discussion privately, as you wish. And I apologize again for making you misunderstand my post.
Ah ok. yes I misread, I read it as though you wanted to exclude people with no symptoms. I thought you were saying the death rate on the diamond princess was 5% if you excluded asymptomatic cases. Which it would work out to. But you meant worldwide deaths are at 5%.
If you use the 1% death rate on the Diamond Princess and try to project it across an entire population of the USA accounting for age for example, then it is way under 1%.
I am not saying Fauci is wrong and I like him too, but to say 10 times more deadly is surely misleading? He could just say, we are dealing with something that looks like it is more deadly than influenza so we need to be careful.
With the 5% global stat, you start delving into died with and died from. The reporting is all over the place unfortunately. Why has nobody done the study below:
10k people who had another respiratory / covid disease and no underlying conditions. And 10k people who had SARS COV 2 and no other conditions. Then you can judge the true mortality rate and it's comparison to similar illnesses.
I get your point of "no numbers until they are sure" as you also were coherent on your statement on media possibly spreading fear.
And I share your view, as I said "probably" he's right, but also I have my fair amount of doubts. Mainly because of the asymptomatic, which could be 3-4 times more than the detected ones (as it seems) or even muuuuuch more (as the Imperial college, as an example, thinks).
And the study you describe could be useful, but the fact is that people rarely die from Co-Vid19 alone. It is the same for the flu but with (probably) even a lower death rate, but the mortality of flu also takes into account cases in which you didn't have just flu (sadly I know it for experience, my granddad died a few months ago like this). So the "true" mortality would go down for both of them as they are both usually not so strong to kill by themselves (but not always). Hence the confusion, as you also reported, of people dying due to Coronavirus or with the Coronavirus.
Very nice discussing with you by the way, I am truly enjoying it 😀
(If there are some typos I am writing from my phone)
I have seen the Lancet report, so they estimate 0.66% mortality rate.
Iceland has a very nicely displayed dashboard: https://www.covid.is/data
And they rolled out voluntary testing. They have a rate of 0.4% so far.
I guess I should stress, I am not trying to say this thing is harmless or doesn't exist. It is out there and can kill people.
But are the lockdown measures commensurate with the risk of COVID 19 to most people?
It seems that there are quite a few other diseases out there, that based on this response, we should also lock down for.
Part of me thinks, if this disease had not been identified, it would be largely unreported in the media and the only people talking about it would be scientists and doctors who believed 2020 was a pretty bad year for flu but not something completely different to what they have seen before.
I think real science loses out with a lot of the way these things are reported. Politics and science have collided too much.
Yes, I heard about Iceland. And yes the report are below 1 %. Though for example the New England Journal of medicine stated again 1 % more or less
So the fact that probably brings governments to decide for "extreme measures" is that most likely many reports estimate that:
1) the mortality rate is "so high" that it can't be just a bad flu.
2) (and probably even more important) the load on ICU is simply too much.
And I think, particularly the second, COULD be something unprecedented.
So if you ask me "Is it measured to what truly the disease is?" I wouldn't know with certainty. But I would understand why people want to take stronger measures, even though I get your points as well
The ICU thing is looking to be false though, as the load on them is not high at all. Northern Italy had so many factors that caused it, but other areas of Italy have ample ICU capacity. In Switzerland, certain Cantons have no patients to deal with https://www.engadinerpost.ch/2020/4/04/Engadiner-Spitaeler-haben-freie-Kapazitaeten Germany is the same.
That is one area where asymptomatic cases should be excluded. These models are assuming 5% of all cases will need an ICU bed, but that total cases number includes the people who will not show symptoms (and will not need medical care)
https://twitter.com/NikolovScience/status/1246823479820693505
The numbers so far look to have been grossly overestimated. It all points to poor decision making from bad data and a fear of being negligent when one country moves first. Plus a failure to look at the costs elsewhere, all the patients who have had operations cancelled, others who are scared to go to the hospital that should go. Plus the economic impact of it all.
I do believe it could be a case study of how not to handle a disease of this nature.
I don't know Jonathan. In Italy and Spain the situation is critical, I know that for sure. You are saying me that in New York is not the same as they describe, and I trust you, but the real thing is…. Would the absence of any measure make the situation even more critical? It's very difficult to say no.
BTW you reported the situation in Engadina which is just a part of Grindelwald, not that big. In Ticino the situation, as an example, is worse. But you pointed out something interesting about Germany, which was having a lot of ICUs from the start. I think that this should be a lesson for everyone NEVER to spare on health expenses. Regardless of what anyone thinks about the pandemic, I think this situation speaks volumes of how badly you'd face a situation like this in countries where health expenses were cut (like Italy, I know that all too well)
Katyani says:
Hey all, what's up?? Long time no hear and no see. How are you all?? Safe and missing Roger?? I know I am… well atleast the second part. For me, Tennis stopped at the SF AO 2020 when Roger was in the 1st set 5-2 up against Satan 🙂 That was where it ALL ended. Ofcourse in February there was still one day of tennis with that exho where I for the first time saw Rafa… tired. Who knew that that could happen. My apologies to the Rafa fans here, but I HAD to go there 🙂 Oh and yes… I saw my Berdy there 🙂 After that…literally NO ROGER NO TENNIS 🙂
Yesterday Eurosport 1 showed Roger's match against Tennys Sandgren. I watched from the 4th set TB and still to date.. I still don't know HOW Roger saved the 5th MP, the one that got him to 6-6 all in the TB. If you guys have the opportunity to watch it again, just hear the roar of the crowd after it. Even Roger looked up at all the noise 🙂
Speaking about Roger… winning Olympic Gold at age 39 is doable… so lets all relax… The Goat got it 🙂 Love unshaved Roger 🙂 I think more of us do 🙂
On a serious note I hope you all and your loved ones are safe during Corona times. Me, this is the third week that I am working from home. Very doable, but I miss the interactions with my collegues. I think you all do too. Please stay safe, we all have a lot of ROGER-WINS to look forward too and to discuss and we have a lot of shaved/unshaved handsome Roger to look at in the future… even if his beard is beginning to look grey 🙂
Ps: Jon, good article… wayyyy above my head 🙂
Great to have some Katyani Wisdom at this tough period in time 🙂
Nice post, do you think the US Open will be slower or faster?
Drew Pagliari says:
There are a ton of errors in this article. CPI and CPR also has a lot of inherent error and assumption in the perception that a sufficient number of variables are covered adequately by these man made procedures. "Feel" still plays a very important part. And some simple knowledge of chemical + mechanical structures in courts and balls goes a long way. Always climate is involved. Lastly, there are many differences in clay courts and grass courts as well. A lot of variables that you have overlooked. *ps- Laykold was originally a leading asphalt company. Lay Cold refers to laying cold asphalt as opposed to the dangerous laying of hot asphalt which was originally used long ago. Laykold acrylic is more flexible pliable and durable than decoturf. More conducive for rubber granules providing cushion. But decoturf was the leading edge of professional hard courts. The first Variable Hard Court. In 2011. Due to its unique sanding. A unique arrangement of acrylic layers with Angular SubAngular and Rounded silica which provided the most variety ever seen on Hardcourts. You could play it like a clay-court or a grass court or anything in between. It was also very suitable for the Wilson US open tennis ball and the New York climate. Laykold does not do well with the larger angular silica and is limited in its variety of sanding. It is generally a lower but less explosive bounce. Slow or fast depending on the amount of sand used but tending toward more offense without the higher bounces. Though it's more receptive nature can also help a defensive player. If the sand stays. But again. This product doesn't hold the sanding as well as Decoturf. Thus some slippage as well near the end of the event and possible quicker speeds
Interesting about the Laykold vs Decoturf. I assume you work in the court surface industry.
Can you point out the errors so I can amend them?
Let's talk through email
Measuring 2019 CPI, speed court increased in all Master 1000 tournaments, so this excellent article is a little outdated. An extreme example of this is Montecarlo CPI: from 23.7 in 2016 (slow court) to 30.3 in 2019 (medium-slow) and maybe higher right now when tennis players are in Montecarlo 2021.
Greetings from Basque Country.
Thanks, yes this is due an update. I will try to do it soon.
Has the National Bank Open and Western and Southern Open changed their court surface this year from DecoTurf to Laykold in alignment with the US Open?
Cincy switched to Laykold. I am not sure about Toronto…
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The U.S. Pharmacopeial Convention (USP) GHMS Technical Writer in Rockville, Maryland
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The Technical Writer will support the Promoting the Quality of Medicines Plus (PQM+) program, a cooperative agreement between the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the United States Pharmacopeial Convention (USP), which aims to strengthen medical product quality assurance systems and improve the supply of quality-assured medical products in low- and middle-income countries. This position will coordinate with technical and field teams to develop high-quality written deliverables under the leadership of the PQM+ Sr. Technical Director.
This nonsupervisory position is responsible for ensuring that PQM+'s written products (i.e., gap assessments, lab SOPs, WHO PQ dossiers, regulatory guidelines) are technically sound, clearly written, and logically presented using text, tables and graphics. This position works closely with PQM+ headquarters technical staff and PQM+ field-based staff to produce products that comply with USAID, USP, and host-country branding requirements. This position will mentor technical staff on good writing practices and revise/edit text as needed to produce clear, clean deliverables. The successful candidate will bring deep expertise in technical writing and regulatory and manufacturing best practices to support this rapidly expanding global health program.
Manages the PQM+ technical document preparation and review process
Working closely with team members (subject matter experts) to revise and author clear, concise, consistent, and technically accurate documents, including, but not limited to: SOPs, gap assessments, national guidelines, and training materials.
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